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[ "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#0", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#1", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#2", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#3", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#4", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#5", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#6", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#7", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#8", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#9", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#10", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_0_q#11" ]

[ "Which single went #1?", "Why did someone leave the band?", "What was the band's debut album?", "When was it released?", "What were some of the songs on the album?", "What was the sleeve cover picture?", "Why did they choose that?", "How did they get the title name?", "Who wrote the songs?", "Did critics like the album?", "Did any members leave?", "who were the replacements?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 95 ], [ 504 ], [ 659 ], [ 723 ], [ 188 ], [ 841 ], [ 988 ], [ 1126 ], [ 1234 ], [ 1862 ], [ 2367 ], [ 2708 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\"Geno\" -" ], [ "Leek, who said he didn't want to be famous." ], [ "Searching for the Young Soul Rebels," ], [ "released in July 1980." ], [ "\"Late Night Feelings\"" ], [ "sleeve featured a photograph of a Belfast Catholic boy carrying his belongings after moving from his home during the Troubles;" ], [ "Rowland explained that \"I wanted a picture of unrest." ], [ "Of the album's title, Rowland said \"I don't know ... I just liked the sound of it, really.\"" ], [ "the album, only two (\"Geno\" and \"There, There, My Dear\") were written by Rowland (lyrics" ], [ "the NME's Mark Cordery accused the band of \"emotional fascism\" and described their music as a perversion of soul music with \"no tenderness, no sex, no wit, no laughter\"." ], [ "The single, called \"Keep It Part Two (Inferiority Part One)\", was a failure, and five of the band members then quit, angered over continual personality problems with Rowland," ], [ "reduced Dexys to just Rowland and Paterson, whom Rowland referred to as \"the Celtic soul brothers\" (in reference to Paterson's Scottish background and Rowland's Irish background)." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 95, 504, 659, 723, 188, 841, 988, 1126, 1234, 1862, 2367, 2708 ], "texts": [ "\"Geno\" -", "Leek, who said he didn't want to be famous.", "Searching for the Young Soul Rebels,", "released in July 1980.", "\"Late Night Feelings\"", "sleeve featured a photograph of a Belfast Catholic boy carrying his belongings after moving from his home during the Troubles;", "Rowland explained that \"I wanted a picture of unrest.", "Of the album's title, Rowland said \"I don't know ... I just liked the sound of it, really.\"", "the album, only two (\"Geno\" and \"There, There, My Dear\") were written by Rowland (lyrics", "the NME's Mark Cordery accused the band of \"emotional fascism\" and described their music as a perversion of soul music with \"no tenderness, no sex, no wit, no laughter\".", "The single, called \"Keep It Part Two (Inferiority Part One)\", was a failure, and five of the band members then quit, angered over continual personality problems with Rowland,", "reduced Dexys to just Rowland and Paterson, whom Rowland referred to as \"the Celtic soul brothers\" (in reference to Paterson's Scottish background and Rowland's Irish background)." ] }

[]

[ "The single \"Geno\" went Number One in Britain in 1980.", "Leek left the band because he said he didn't want to be famous. Later, five other band members also left, citing continual personality problems with Rowland and Rowland's policy of not speaking to the music press.", "The band's debut album was \"Searching for the Young Soul Rebels.\"", "The debut album \"Searching for the Young Soul Rebels\" was released in July 1980.", "Some of the songs on the album \"Searching for the Young Soul Rebels\" were \"Geno\", \"There, There, My Dear\", \"Keep It\", and \"Love Part One\".", "The album's sleeve featured a photograph of a Belfast Catholic boy carrying his belongings after moving from his home during the Troubles.", "Rowland chose that image because he wanted a picture of unrest. He said he could have chosen an image from anywhere but he was secretly glad it was from Ireland, referencing his own Irish descent.", "Rowland said he chose the title of the album, \"Searching for the Young Soul Rebels,\" because he just liked the sound of it. There is no further information given on how they got the title name.", "Most of the songs on the album were written by Rowland and Archer. Specifically, \"Geno\" and \"There, There, My Dear\" were written by Rowland (lyrics) and Archer (music) together. However, the third song they co-composed (\"Keep It\") was altered by the producer Pete Wingfield because he didn't like Rowland's lyrics. Those lyrics became a separate song (\"Love Part One\"), and Blythe wrote new lyrics for the version of \"Keep It\" that featured on the album.", "The text does not provide specific information on how critics reacted to the album. The band did face criticism from some music press writers. For example, Mark Cordery from the NME accused the band of \"emotional fascism\" and described their music as having \"no tenderness, no sex, no wit, no laughter\". It's not specified whether these comments were directed at the album or the band's music in general.", "Yes, several members left the band. Initially, Leek left because he didn't want to be famous. Later, five more band members quit due to personality problems with Rowland and his decision not to speak to the music press. These members were likely Blythe, Spooner, Williams, \"Stoker\", and Talbot. After these departures, Archer also left, leaving only Rowland and Paterson in the band.", "Pete Saunders returned to the band temporarily to replace Leek and record their debut album. After the album, Mick Talbot, ex-member of The Merton Parkas, replaced Saunders on keyboards." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#0", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#1", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#2", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#3", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#4", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#5", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#6", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#7", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#8", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#9", "C_e11e4a081767437ebf69f8e393b0c923_1_q#10" ]

[ "When was Dexys founded?", "who founded Dexy?", "How did they know each other?", "what was their first single?", "when was Dance Stance released?", "did they recruit others?", "Did any of the band members ever leave?", "Where did the band get it's name from?", "what is Dexedrine?", "who else left the band?", "when did they first play live?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 39 ], [ 70 ], [ 186 ], [ 1305 ], [ 2289 ], [ 781 ], [ 1086 ], [ 402 ], [ 446 ], [ 2673 ], [ 2904 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1978" ], [ "Kevin Rowland (vocals, guitar, at the time using the pseudonym Carlo Rolan) and Kevin \"Al\" Archer (vocals, guitar)." ], [ "Both had been in the short-lived punk band the Killjoys." ], [ "Dance Stance" ], [ "was released on the independent Oddball Records," ], [ "\" \"Big\" Jim Paterson (trombone), Geoff \"JB\" Blythe (saxophone, previously of Geno Washington's Ram Jam Band)," ], [ "By the middle of 1979, Bobby \"Jnr\" Ward had replaced Jay on drums." ], [ "The band's name was derived from Dexedrine," ], [ "a brand of dextroamphetamine used as a recreational drug among Northern soul fans to give them energy" ], [ "Dexys fired Rhodes" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 39, 70, 186, 1305, 2289, 781, 1086, 402, 446, 2673, 2904 ], "texts": [ "1978", "Kevin Rowland (vocals, guitar, at the time using the pseudonym Carlo Rolan) and Kevin \"Al\" Archer (vocals, guitar).", "Both had been in the short-lived punk band the Killjoys.", "Dance Stance", "was released on the independent Oddball Records,", "\" \"Big\" Jim Paterson (trombone), Geoff \"JB\" Blythe (saxophone, previously of Geno Washington's Ram Jam Band),", "By the middle of 1979, Bobby \"Jnr\" Ward had replaced Jay on drums.", "The band's name was derived from Dexedrine,", "a brand of dextroamphetamine used as a recreational drug among Northern soul fans to give them energy", "Dexys fired Rhodes", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Dexys Midnight Runners were founded in 1978.", "Dexys Midnight Runners were founded by Kevin Rowland and Kevin \"Al\" Archer.", "Kevin Rowland and Kevin \"Al\" Archer knew each other because both had been in the short-lived punk band the Killjoys.", "Their first single was \"Burn It Down\", which was later renamed to \"Dance Stance\".", "The text does not provide specific information on when \"Dance Stance\" was released.", "Yes, they did recruit others for the band. The first line-up of the band included \"Big\" Jim Paterson (trombone), Geoff \"JB\" Blythe (saxophone), Steve \"Babyface\" Spooner (alto saxophone), Pete Saunders (keyboard), Pete Williams (bass), and John Jay (drums). Later, Andy Leek (keyboards) and Andy \"Stoker\" Growcott (drums) joined the group.", "Yes, some band members did leave. Pete Saunders and Bobby \"Jnr\" Ward left the band at some point. They were replaced by Andy Leek and Andy \"Stoker\" Growcott respectively. Additionally, John Jay was originally the drummer but was replaced by Bobby \"Jnr\" Ward.", "The band's name, Dexys Midnight Runners, was derived from Dexedrine, a brand of dextroamphetamine used as a recreational drug among Northern soul fans to give them energy to dance all night.", "Dexedrine is a brand of dextroamphetamine, which is a type of stimulant medication. It was used as a recreational drug among Northern soul fans to give them energy to dance all night.", "The text only mentions Pete Saunders and Bobby \"Jnr\" Ward as members who left the band.", "The first line-up of the band Dexys Midnight Runners began playing live at the end of 1978." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_5b7f06fab13b44e4bddeaecc5221d865_0_q#0", "C_5b7f06fab13b44e4bddeaecc5221d865_0_q#1", "C_5b7f06fab13b44e4bddeaecc5221d865_0_q#2", "C_5b7f06fab13b44e4bddeaecc5221d865_0_q#3", "C_5b7f06fab13b44e4bddeaecc5221d865_0_q#4" ]

[ "What happened with Burt after 1990?", "What are some song of the album?", "Was this song a hit?", "Who else did Burt Bacharach work with?", "Was Here I Am a successful venture?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 85 ], [ 2154 ], [ 179 ], [ 263 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1998, Bacharach co-wrote and recorded a Grammy-winning album with Elvis Costello," ], [ "Painted from Memory," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2003, he teamed with singer Ronald Isley to release the album Here I Am," ], [ "revisited a number of his 1960s compositions in Isley's signature R&B style. Bacharach's 2005 solo album" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 85, 2154, 179, 263 ], "texts": [ "In 1998, Bacharach co-wrote and recorded a Grammy-winning album with Elvis Costello,", "Painted from Memory,", "CANNOTANSWER", " In 2003, he teamed with singer Ronald Isley to release the album Here I Am,", "revisited a number of his 1960s compositions in Isley's signature R&B style. Bacharach's 2005 solo album" ] }

[]

[ "In 1998, Burt Bacharach co-wrote and recorded an album with Elvis Costello called Painted from Memory which began to take on the sound of his earlier work. In 2003, he collaborated with singer Ronald Isley to release the album Here I Am which revisited a number of his 1960s compositions in Isley's R&B style. In 2005, Bacharach released a solo album At This Time, he penned his own lyrics with the album featuring guest stars like Elvis Costello, Rufus Wainwright, and Dr. Dre. He opened the BBC Electric Proms at The Roundhouse in London in 2008. In 2009, he collaborated with Italian soul singer Karima Ammar on her debut single Come In Ogni Ora. In 2015, he performed at the Glastonbury Festival in the UK and appeared on stage at the Menier Chocolate Factory. In 2016, Bacharach composed and arranged his first original score in 16 years for the film A Boy Called Po, with the score released on September 1, 2017. He also composed the film's theme song Dancing With Your Shadow, which was performed by Sheryl Crow.", "The context does not provide information on the specific songs included in the albums mentioned.", "The context does not provide specific information on whether the song \"Dancing With Your Shadow\" from the film A Boy Called Po was a hit.", "Burt Bacharach worked with various artists including Elvis Costello, with whom he co-wrote and recorded an album in 1998. He also collaborated with singer Ronald Isley for the album Here I Am. Bacharach's 2005 solo album At This Time featured guest stars such as Elvis Costello, Rufus Wainwright, and hip-hop producer Dr. Dre. In 2009, he collaborated with Italian soul singer Karima Ammar on her debut single. He also worked with director John Asher on the film A Boy Called Po, for which he composed and arranged its original score.", "The context does not provide information on the success of the album Here I Am by Burt Bacharach and Ronald Isley." ]

[ "Yes", "neutral", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#0", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#1", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#2", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#3", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#4", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_1_q#5" ]

[ "What is England calls?", "What did he play?", "How did the team do?", "Did they make the finals?", "Was there anything else interesting in the article?", "How many years did he play?" ]

[ 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1910 ], [ 1947 ], [ 2119 ], [ 682 ], [ 2119 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Despite playing at a lower level, he impressed England manager Alf Ramsey sufficiently to give him his debut against East Germany" ], [ "Shilton unable to stop both goals" ], [ "a 2-0 defeat and therefore making victory in the final qualifier, against the same opposition at Wembley four months later, a necessity if England were to make the finals." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Shilton could begin to regard himself as his country's number two goalkeeper at the age of 22." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1910, 1947, 2119, 682, 2119 ], "texts": [ "Despite playing at a lower level, he impressed England manager Alf Ramsey sufficiently to give him his debut against East Germany", "Shilton unable to stop both goals", "a 2-0 defeat and therefore making victory in the final qualifier, against the same opposition at Wembley four months later, a necessity if England were to make the finals.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Shilton could begin to regard himself as his country's number two goalkeeper at the age of 22.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "He played as a goalkeeper for the England national football team and Leicester City.", "The England team won the game against East Germany with a score of 3-1 and later had a goalless draw against Wales. They drew 1-1 with Switzerland in a qualifying game for the 1972 European Championships. However, they failed to qualify for the European Championship competition in 1972. In the summer of 1973, the England team defeated Northern Ireland, Wales and Scotland. They also had a draw with Czechoslovakia. However, in the World Cup qualifier against Poland in Chorzow, England suffered a 2-0 defeat.", "The text does not provide information on whether England made it to the finals in the competition mentioned.", "Yes, the article mentions that Peter Shilton made a significant save in a match against Scotland where he made a right handed save diving to his left from Kenny Dalglish's shot. He considered this among his best saves. Furthermore, tragedy struck when Gordon Banks, England's first choice goalkeeper at the time, was involved in a car crash in October 1972, which resulted in the loss of sight in one eye and ended his career. Following this, Peter Shilton was propelled into the limelight as England's number one goalkeeper.", "CANNOTANSWER" ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#0", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#1", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#2", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#3", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#4", "C_f4de28b654724a7e95cf557cf92604db_0_q#5" ]

[ "What was the mistake against poland?", "What was the outcome of the match?", "Did England lose the match?", "Did the poland mistake affect Shilton's career?", "What else came out of the mistake?", "Did anything else come from the mistake?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 770 ], [ 867 ], [ 1403 ], [ 1534 ], [ 1603 ], [ 1706 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Shilton needed to deal with the shot but dived late, leaving the shot too close to his body, and Poland scored." ], [ "Poland scored." ], [ "England failed to qualify for the World Cup. Poland would go on to finish third in the competition." ], [ "Leicester reached the FA Cup semi-finals where Shilton was beaten --" ], [ "in a replay after the initial game ended goalless -- by a lobbed volley from Liverpool's Kevin Keegan." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 770, 867, 1403, 1534, 1603, 1706 ], "texts": [ "Shilton needed to deal with the shot but dived late, leaving the shot too close to his body, and Poland scored.", "Poland scored.", "England failed to qualify for the World Cup. Poland would go on to finish third in the competition.", "Leicester reached the FA Cup semi-finals where Shilton was beaten --", "in a replay after the initial game ended goalless -- by a lobbed volley from Liverpool's Kevin Keegan.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The mistake against Poland was that Shilton dived late to block a shot from Jan Domarski, leaving the shot too close to his body, and Poland was able to score. Shilton later said he was trying to make \"the perfect save\" and forgot that his first priority was to keep the ball out of the net rather than make sure he held on to it.", "The match ended in a draw with England failing to qualify for the World Cup. England equalised swiftly after Poland's score through a penalty from Allan Clarke, but Jan Tomaszewski, the opposing goalkeeper, continued to keep England from scoring through to the final whistle.", "The text does not specify whether England lost the match, only that they failed to qualify for the World Cup after the match.", "The text does not provide information on how the mistake against Poland affected Shilton's career.", "After the mistake, Shilton admitted in his autobiography that this was the only mistake he made in his 125 caps for England. The mistake also resulted in Poland scoring a goal. England later equalized, but ultimately failed to qualify for the World Cup. Poland finished third in that competition.", "The text does not provide any more information on what else came from Shilton's mistake in the match against Poland." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#0", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#1", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#2", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#3", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#4", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#5", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_1_q#6" ]

[ "What is Morrison hotel?", "what is a song from this album?", "Did the song perform well?", "Did the Doors write any songs?", "What song did he write?", "What other single did they release?", "Was that song a success?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 69 ], [ 151 ], [ 170 ], [ 746 ], [ 979 ], [ 1051 ], [ 1589 ] ], "texts": [ [ "their fifth album." ], [ "\"Roadhouse Blues\"." ], [ "The record reached No. 4 in the United States" ], [ "The album also saw Jim Morrison returning as main songwriter, writing or co-writing all of the album's tracks." ], [ "The Spy\" and \"Roadhouse Blues\" (" ], [ "Lovin' Spoonful's John Sebastian" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 69, 151, 170, 746, 979, 1051, 1589 ], "texts": [ "their fifth album.", "\"Roadhouse Blues\".", "The record reached No. 4 in the United States", "The album also saw Jim Morrison returning as main songwriter, writing or co-writing all of the album's tracks.", "The Spy\" and \"Roadhouse Blues\" (", "Lovin' Spoonful's John Sebastian", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#0", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#1", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#2", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#3", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#4", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#5", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#6", "C_4f629e20ef864be0bd2f0d9e56f1ff3e_0_q#7" ]

[ "What is L.A. Woman?", "What songs are part of this album?", "Did the album had any hit songs?", "What are the names of these songs?", "Who else contributed to the making of this album?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Why did Morrison took a leave of absence from the group?", "Did Morrison later return to the group?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 172 ], [ 687 ], [ 389 ], [ 831 ], [ 187 ], [ 1370 ], [ 1422 ], [ 1566 ] ], "texts": [ [ "album" ], [ "\"Love Her Madly\"" ], [ "L.A. Woman contained two Top 20 hits" ], [ "(\"Love Her Madly\" and \"Riders on the Storm\")" ], [ "rhythm guitarist Marc Benno" ], [ "Morrison took a leave of absence from the Doors" ], [ "moved to Paris" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 172, 687, 389, 831, 187, 1370, 1422, 1566 ], "texts": [ "album", "\"Love Her Madly\"", "L.A. Woman contained two Top 20 hits", "(\"Love Her Madly\" and \"Riders on the Storm\")", "rhythm guitarist Marc Benno", "Morrison took a leave of absence from the Doors", "moved to Paris", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "L.A. Woman is an album by The Doors that was released in 1971. It contains two Top 20 hits and is their second best-selling studio album, only surpassed in sales by their debut album. The album explored the band's R&B roots.", "The context mentions that the songs \"L.A. Woman\", \"Love Her Madly\", and \"Riders on the Storm\" are part of the album L.A. Woman by The Doors. It also mentions a performance of \"Crawling King Snake\" during the album sessions.", "Yes, the album L.A. Woman had two Top 20 hits, \"Love Her Madly\" and \"Riders on the Storm.\"", "The names of the hit songs from the album L.A. Woman are \"Love Her Madly\" and \"Riders on the Storm.\"", "Marc Benno, a rhythm guitarist, contributed to several tracks on the album L.A. Woman. The album also prominently featured bassist Jerry Scheff, best known for his work in Elvis Presley's TCB Band. Additionally, Bruce Botnick and the Doors themselves took over production after a falling-out with Paul Rothchild.", "In the title track \"L.A. Woman\", lead singer Jim Morrison scrambles the letters of his name to chant \"Mr. Mojo Risin\". Also, the song \"Riders on the Storm\" from L.A. Woman was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for its special significance to recorded music. Furthermore, a short clip was filmed during the album's sessions of the band performing \"Crawling King Snake\", which is believed to be the last clip of The Doors performing with Morrison. After the recording of L.A. Woman, Morrison moved to Paris, aiming to become a writer in exile.", "Following the recording of L.A. Woman, Morrison took a leave of absence from the Doors to move to Paris with Pamela Courson. The context suggests he was interested in moving there to become a writer in exile, having visited the city the previous summer.", "The context does not provide information on whether Jim Morrison returned to The Doors after his leave of absence." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#0", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#1", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#2", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#3", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#4", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_1_q#5" ]

[ "was he married?", "what year was that?", "did they have children?", "did they stay together?", "when did they separate?", "Did he remarry?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 1, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1052 ], [ 1589 ], [ 1122 ], [ 1179 ], [ 1589 ], [ 1589 ] ], "texts": [ [ "While in his teens, Assange married a woman named Teresa," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "they had a son, Daniel Assange, now a software designer." ], [ "The couple separated" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1052, 1589, 1122, 1179, 1589, 1589 ], "texts": [ "While in his teens, Assange married a woman named Teresa,", "CANNOTANSWER", "they had a son, Daniel Assange, now a software designer.", "The couple separated", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Assange was married to a woman named Teresa.", "The text does not provide information on what year Assange got married.", "Yes, they had a son named Daniel Assange in 1989.", "No, Assange and Teresa separated.", "The text does not provide information on when Assange and Teresa separated.", "The text does not provide information on whether Assange remarried." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_0_q#0", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_0_q#1", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_0_q#2", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_0_q#3", "C_64d98f3da46040bd8ec1317d5f9caf0a_0_q#4" ]

[ "What was he alleged of doing?", "Who was one of the woman?", "Was there formal charges made?", "What country was this in?", "Was the case ever opened back up?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 57 ], [ 1774 ], [ 146 ], [ 0 ], [ 240 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he became the subject of sexual assault allegations from two women with whom he had sex." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He was questioned, the case was initially closed, and he was told he could leave the country." ], [ "Assange visited Sweden in August 2010." ], [ "In November 2010, however, the case was re-opened by a special prosecutor who said that she wanted to question Assange" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 57, 1774, 146, 0, 240 ], "texts": [ "he became the subject of sexual assault allegations from two women with whom he had sex.", "CANNOTANSWER", "He was questioned, the case was initially closed, and he was told he could leave the country.", "Assange visited Sweden in August 2010.", "In November 2010, however, the case was re-opened by a special prosecutor who said that she wanted to question Assange" ] }

[]

[ "Assange was alleged of two counts of sexual molestation, one count of unlawful coercion, and one count of \"lesser-degree rape\".", "The context does not provide the names or identities of the women who accused Assange.", "The context does not specify if formal charges were made against Assange, only that he was the subject of sexual assault allegations and was wanted for questioning by a special prosecutor in Sweden.", "The allegations against Assange were made in Sweden.", "Yes, the case was re-opened in November 2010 by a special prosecutor who wanted to question Assange over several allegations." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#0", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#1", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#2", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#3", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#4", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#5", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#6", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#7", "C_37ea2fbbfe9d4f828eb8cb88372e4a3a_1_q#8" ]

[ "What is this about", "What do the others say", "What could be be said", "Who was this about", "What where the ancetors about", "What was the marriage about", "What did this cause", "What did this change", "What did this mean" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 81 ], [ 225 ], [ 370 ], [ 478 ], [ 561 ], [ 652 ], [ 845 ], [ 1095 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The ancestry and identity of Melungeons has been a highly controversial subject." ], [ "Secondary sources disagree as to their ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and geographic origins and identity, as they are of mixed racial ancestry." ], [ "They might accurately be described as a loose collection of families of diverse origins who migrated, settled near each other, and intermarried," ], [ "mostly in Hancock and Hawkins counties in Tennessee, nearby areas of Kentucky, and in Lee County, Virginia." ], [ "Their ancestors can usually be traced back to colonial Virginia and the Carolinas." ], [ "They were largely endogamous, marrying primarily within their community until about 1900." ], [ "Melungeons have been defined as having multiracial ancestry. They did not exhibit characteristics that could be classified as those of a single racial phenotype." ], [ "Appalachian families traditionally regarded as Melungeon are generally European American in appearance, often (though not always) with dark hair and eyes, and a swarthy or olive complexion." ], [ "the 19th and early 20th century, they were sometimes identified as \"Portuguese,\" \"Native American,\" or \"light-skinned African American" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 81, 225, 370, 478, 561, 652, 845, 1095 ], "texts": [ "The ancestry and identity of Melungeons has been a highly controversial subject.", "Secondary sources disagree as to their ethnic, linguistic, cultural, and geographic origins and identity, as they are of mixed racial ancestry.", "They might accurately be described as a loose collection of families of diverse origins who migrated, settled near each other, and intermarried,", "mostly in Hancock and Hawkins counties in Tennessee, nearby areas of Kentucky, and in Lee County, Virginia.", "Their ancestors can usually be traced back to colonial Virginia and the Carolinas.", "They were largely endogamous, marrying primarily within their community until about 1900.", "Melungeons have been defined as having multiracial ancestry. They did not exhibit characteristics that could be classified as those of a single racial phenotype.", "Appalachian families traditionally regarded as Melungeon are generally European American in appearance, often (though not always) with dark hair and eyes, and a swarthy or olive complexion.", "the 19th and early 20th century, they were sometimes identified as \"Portuguese,\" \"Native American,\" or \"light-skinned African American" ] }

[]

[ "C_141606f7f59e43c8bf8c3c925e47be41_1_q#0", "C_141606f7f59e43c8bf8c3c925e47be41_1_q#1", "C_141606f7f59e43c8bf8c3c925e47be41_1_q#2", "C_141606f7f59e43c8bf8c3c925e47be41_1_q#3" ]

[ "when did he start singing?", "what was he like as a singer?", "did he ever win an award?", "what else was said about his singing?" ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1953 ], [ 670 ], [ 1953 ], [ 1953 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His technique was astonishing. No problem of tempo, he sang with an incisive sense of rhythm," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1953, 670, 1953, 1953 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "His technique was astonishing. No problem of tempo, he sang with an incisive sense of rhythm,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on when Freddie Mercury started singing.", "Freddie Mercury was known for his extensive vocal range, from bass low F (F2) to soprano high F (F6). He had a natural baritone voice, but most of his songs were delivered in the tenor range. His singing technique was described as astonishing, with no problem handling tempo, a great sense of rhythm and excellent vocal placement. He could glide effortlessly from one register to another and had a great musicality. His phrasing was subtle, delicate, sweet or energetic. He could find the right colouring or expressive nuance for each word. Researchers in a 2016 study pointed out unique characteristics of Mercury's voice, such as his notably faster vibrato and use of subharmonics. The Who lead singer Roger Daltrey described Mercury as \"the best virtuoso rock 'n' roll singer of all time,\" who could sing anything in any style.", "The text does not provide information on whether Freddie Mercury won any awards.", "Freddie Mercury's singing was celebrated for his versatility. His voice could escalate from a deep, throaty rock-growl to a tender, vibrant tenor, then to a high-pitched, perfect coloratura that was pure and crystalline in the upper reaches. He was known to change his style from line to line, a skill that The Who lead singer Roger Daltrey described as \"an art\". Spanish soprano Montserrat Caballe noted that Mercury was different from most other rock stars in that he \"sold the voice\". Furthermore, a 2016 research study distinguished Mercury's use of a notably faster vibrato and subharmonics as unique facets of his voice, in comparison to opera singers." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#0", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#1", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#2", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#3", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#4", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#5", "C_65e2384bb8fd4688b8f3df244d24cc65_0_q#6" ]

[ "what did he do medically?", "what were some of his patents?", "what was jarvik?", "did he have other patents?", "what were his projects?", "were any of his patents successful?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

[ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 159 ], [ 773 ], [ 788 ], [ 1201 ], [ 1421 ], [ 1506 ], [ 845 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He also worked as a medical hypnotist at the Gibbs Institute in Hollywood. He developed over 30 patents in his lifetime." ], [ "Jarvik" ], [ "creating Jarvik's artificial heart." ], [ "more medical patents while working on projects for the Leukemia Society (now known as the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society) and the American Red Cross." ], [ "a blood plasma defroster," ], [ "a fountain pen with a retractable tip, and battery-heated gloves." ], [ "\"I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchell's heart and Jarvik's heart is exactly the same." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 159, 773, 788, 1201, 1421, 1506, 845 ], "texts": [ "He also worked as a medical hypnotist at the Gibbs Institute in Hollywood. He developed over 30 patents in his lifetime.", "Jarvik", "creating Jarvik's artificial heart.", "more medical patents while working on projects for the Leukemia Society (now known as the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society) and the American Red Cross.", "a blood plasma defroster,", "a fountain pen with a retractable tip, and battery-heated gloves.", "\"I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchell's heart and Jarvik's heart is exactly the same." ] }

[]

[ "Winchell was a pre-med student, an acupuncturist, a medical hypnotist and an inventor of a disposable razor, a blood plasma defroster, a flameless cigarette lighter, a fountain pen with a retractable tip, as well as battery-heated gloves. Additionally, he invented an artificial heart with assistance from Dr. Henry Heimlich. He also worked on projects for the Leukemia Society and the American Red Cross.", "Some of Winchell's patents included an artificial heart, a disposable razor, a blood plasma defroster, a flameless cigarette lighter, an \"invisible\" garter belt, a fountain pen with a retractable tip, and battery-heated gloves.", "Jarvik was a doctor who created an artificial heart, known as the Jarvik-7. There is debate over whether or not he used any of Winchell's design elements in creating this device.", "Yes, apart from the artificial heart, Winchell developed over 30 patents in his lifetime. These included a disposable razor, a blood plasma defroster, a flameless cigarette lighter, an \"invisible\" garter belt, a fountain pen with a retractable tip, and battery-heated gloves.", "Winchell worked on projects for the Leukemia Society (now known as the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society) and the American Red Cross. These projects are not given further detail in the context provided.", "The context does not provide information on whether any of Winchell's patents were successful.", "Yes, it can be considered interesting that Winchell was not only a pre-med student, acupuncturist, and medical hypnotist, but also a prolific inventor with over 30 patents to his name. He collaborated with Dr. Henry Heimlich to invent an artificial heart, and his design was advanced enough to be considered \"prior art\" when the University of Utah developed a similar device. Despite this, there is debate over how much Dr. Robert Jarvik used of Winchell's design in creating his artificial heart. Winchell's diverse patent portfolio, ranging from medical devices to a retractable-tip fountain pen and \"invisible\" garter belt, is another unique aspect highlighted in this article.\n" ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "no", "Yes" ]

[ "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#0", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#1", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#2", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#3", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#4", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#5", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#6", "C_97da489f2e8e45a497b9ee95a25a0fa4_0_q#7" ]

[ "Who was Fischer's father?", "Did Paul Nemenyl have any great achievements?", "What roles, besides father, does Paul play as Fischers father?", "Who is Bobby's mother?", "Did Bobby Fischer have any notable achievements?", "Is there any other interesting information about Paul Nemenyi?", "What concerns did he have about Regina raising Bobby?", "Why was a doctor or medicine out of the question?" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 1, 1, 0, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 2127 ], [ 730 ], [ 315 ], [ 2127 ], [ 844 ], [ 1351 ], [ 2127 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Sources implying that Paul Nemenyi, a Hungarian-Jewish mathematician and physicist and an expert in fluid and applied mechanics, was Fischer's biological father" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby's schooling until his own death in 1952." ], [ "Regina" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Nemenyi had lodged complaints with social workers, saying he was concerned about the way that Regina was raising Bobby," ], [ "Bobby was sick 2 days with fever and sore throat and of course a doctor or medicine was out of the question." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 2127, 730, 315, 2127, 844, 1351, 2127 ], "texts": [ "Sources implying that Paul Nemenyi, a Hungarian-Jewish mathematician and physicist and an expert in fluid and applied mechanics, was Fischer's biological father", "CANNOTANSWER", "Nemenyi made monthly child support payments to Regina and paid for Bobby's schooling until his own death in 1952.", "Regina", "CANNOTANSWER", "Nemenyi had lodged complaints with social workers, saying he was concerned about the way that Regina was raising Bobby,", "Bobby was sick 2 days with fever and sore throat and of course a doctor or medicine was out of the question.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "What was maeda's solo career like?", "When did Maeda get his big break?", "How did fans react?", "Did she do any live performances", "What other appearances did she make?", "What are some other interesting aspects of this article?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 123 ], [ 0 ], [ 180 ], [ 546 ], [ 880 ], [ 1313 ] ], "texts": [ [ "It was met with commercial success in Japan," ], [ "On April 23, 2011, Maeda announced that she would make her solo debut" ], [ "number 1 on the Oricon Charts with first week sales of 176,967 copies." ], [ "AKB48 announced that Maeda would appear as a special guest at the group's summer concert series" ], [ "the live-action adaptation of Yamada-kun to 7-nin no Majo" ], [ "\"Seventh Code\" was released on March 5, 2014. It was used as the theme song of the movie \"Seventh Code\" in which Maeda herself starred in." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 123, 0, 180, 546, 880, 1313 ], "texts": [ "It was met with commercial success in Japan,", "On April 23, 2011, Maeda announced that she would make her solo debut", "number 1 on the Oricon Charts with first week sales of 176,967 copies.", "AKB48 announced that Maeda would appear as a special guest at the group's summer concert series", "the live-action adaptation of Yamada-kun to 7-nin no Majo", "\"Seventh Code\" was released on March 5, 2014. It was used as the theme song of the movie \"Seventh Code\" in which Maeda herself starred in." ] }

[]

[ "Maeda's solo career was successful. Her debut single \"Flower\", released on June 22, 2011, debuted at number 1 on the Oricon charts with first-week sales of 176,967 copies in Japan. The follow-up single \"Kimi wa Boku Da\", released in June 2012, debuted at number two on the Oricon charts and reached number one on the Billboard Japan Hot 100. Her third single, \"Time Machine Nante Iranai\", peaked at number one on the Oricon Daily charts, and number two on the Oricon Weekly chart. It also debuted at number one on Billboard's Japan Hot 100. Her 4th single \"Seventh Code\", released on March 5, 2014, debuted at number 4 on the Oricon charts and reached number three on the Billboard Japan Hot 100.", "Maeda got her big break on April 23, 2011, when she announced her solo debut with the single \"Flower\", which was released on June 22. The single achieved commercial success in Japan, debuting at number 1 on the Oricon Charts.", "The context does not provide information on how fans reacted to Maeda's solo debut.", "Yes, Maeda did live performances. On June 15, 2013, at AKB48's handshake event held at Makuhari Messe, AKB48 announced that Maeda would appear as a special guest at the group's summer concert series at the Sapporo Dome on July 31.", "Apart from her music performances, Maeda also appeared in a movie. Her 4th single, \"Seventh Code,\" was used as the theme song for the movie \"Seventh Code\" in which Maeda herself starred.", "Some interesting aspects of the article include Maeda's active involvement in her career, with her songs often being chosen as theme songs for different media like the live-action adaptation of \"Yamada-kun to 7-nin no Majo\" and the movie \"Seventh Code\". Additionally, Maeda not only performs these songs but also takes acting roles, enriching her portfolio as an entertainer. Also noteworthy is how her songs have consistently charted well, reflecting her commercial success." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What is AKB48?", "How many teams are in AKB48?", "Did others in the group embark on solo careers?", "Was AKB48 very successful?", "How many elections did she end up winning?", "Were there any jealous reactions from other members?", "Why did she leave the group?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1612 ], [ 1612 ], [ 126 ], [ 605 ], [ 1341 ], [ 1612 ] ], "texts": [ [ "At age 14, Maeda became a member of AKB48's first group, Team A, which composed of 24 girls and debuted on December 8, 2005." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2009, Maeda won the first edition of AKB48's annual general elections, which are described as a popularity contest." ], [ "\". Maeda placed 15th, which secured her a spot on title track. Maeda would also win the group's third general election held in 2011." ], [ "AKB48 later announced that Maeda would leave after the Tokyo Dome concerts; For her final performance, there were 229,096 requests filed for seat tickets." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1612, 1612, 126, 605, 1341, 1612 ], "texts": [ "At age 14, Maeda became a member of AKB48's first group, Team A, which composed of 24 girls and debuted on December 8, 2005.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2009, Maeda won the first edition of AKB48's annual general elections, which are described as a popularity contest.", "\". Maeda placed 15th, which secured her a spot on title track. Maeda would also win the group's third general election held in 2011.", "AKB48 later announced that Maeda would leave after the Tokyo Dome concerts; For her final performance, there were 229,096 requests filed for seat tickets.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on what AKB48 is.", "The context does not provide information on how many teams are in AKB48.", "The context does not provide information on whether others in the group AKB48 embarked on solo careers.", "The context does not provide information on the success of AKB48.", "Maeda won two of the AKB48's annual general elections, the first edition in 2009 and the third one in 2011.", "The context does not provide information on whether there were any jealous reactions from other members of AKB48.", "The context does not provide a specific reason why Maeda left the group AKB48." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#0", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#1", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#2", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#3", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#4", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#5", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#6", "C_1206eee0b7c140e3b921a87ccf9a0018_1_q#7" ]

[ "What roles did Carroll play to make her a sex symbol?", "What was The Carpetbaggers about?", "In what year was The Carpetbaggers filmed?", "Were there other films that considered her a sex symbol?", "What happened in Sylvia?", "What happened to Carroll in 1964?", "Was 1964 the only time she was in Playboy?", "Did she do anything else important in the article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 240 ], [ 568 ], [ 3289 ], [ 1018 ], [ 1026 ], [ 879 ], [ 3289 ], [ 1252 ] ], "texts": [ [ "portrayed a cynical, alcoholic movie star in The Carpetbaggers (" ], [ "sex-loaded widow." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Sylvia," ], [ "as an ex-prostitute and con artist," ], [ "she appeared posing in the December 1964 issue of Playboy." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "she became an official celebrity spokesperson for Foster Grant sunglasses and appeared in advertisements for the company." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 240, 568, 3289, 1018, 1026, 879, 3289, 1252 ], "texts": [ "portrayed a cynical, alcoholic movie star in The Carpetbaggers (", "sex-loaded widow.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Sylvia,", "as an ex-prostitute and con artist,", "she appeared posing in the December 1964 issue of Playboy.", "CANNOTANSWER", "she became an official celebrity spokesperson for Foster Grant sunglasses and appeared in advertisements for the company." ] }

[]

[ "Baker was developed as a movie sex symbol through her roles in The Carpetbaggers, where she portrayed a cynical, alcoholic movie star, and in two 1965 potboilers: Sylvia, where she played an ex-prostitute and con artist, and her title role as Jean Harlow in Harlow.\n", "The context does not provide information on what The Carpetbaggers was about.", "The Carpetbaggers was filmed in 1964.", "Based on the context provided, specifically, Baker was developed as a movie sex symbol through her roles in The Carpetbaggers and in two 1965 films: Sylvia and Harlow. No other films were mentioned in the context in this regard.", "The context does not provide information on what happened in the film Sylvia.", "In 1964, Carroll Baker portrayed a pacifist Quaker schoolteacher in John Ford's Cheyenne Autumn and portrayed a cynical, alcoholic movie star in The Carpetbaggers, with the latter performance earning her a second wave of notoriety. Moreover, The Carpetbaggers, despite its lackluster reviews, was the top moneymaker of that year, and marked the beginning of a tumultuous relationship with the film's producer, Joseph E. Levine. Additionally, Baker appeared posing in the December 1964 issue of Playboy, as producer Levine began to develop her as a movie sex symbol.", "Based on the context given, it is only mentioned that Carroll Baker posed for the December 1964 issue of Playboy. It doesn't provide information about any other appearances in Playboy.", "Besides her acting roles, another important event mentioned in the article is that Carroll Baker sued her producer, Joseph E. Levine, over her contract with Paramount Pictures in 1966. Although she was initially fired by Paramount and had her Harlow paychecks frozen amid the legal dispute, she was eventually awarded $1 million in compensation. She also returned to theater in 1966, performing in a production of Anna Christie at the Huntington Hartford Theater in Los Angeles. Additionally, in 1965, she became an official celebrity spokesperson for Foster Grant sunglasses." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What are some of the European films?", "What can you tell me about the European films?", "What did she do after she settled in Rome?", "Did she have any success?", "Did she win any awards for that?", "Did she do anything else after that one?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2816 ], [ 68 ], [ 211 ], [ 2262 ], [ 2429 ], [ 2542 ], [ 0 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "moved to Europe with her two children to pursue a career there after struggling to find work in Hollywood. Eventually settling in Rome, Italy," ], [ "Baker became fluent in Italian and spent the next several years starring in hard-edged Italian thrillers," ], [ "She followed her roles in Lenzi's films with a leading role in Corrado Farina's Baba Yaga (1973)" ], [ "TV Guide referred to the film as an \"exceptionally handsome example of 1970s Italian pop-exploitation" ], [ "sweetened by Piero Umilani's lounge-jazz score,\" and praised Baker's performance," ], [ "Baker separated from her second husband, Jack Garfein, in 1967, and moved to Europe with her two children to pursue a career" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2816, 68, 211, 2262, 2429, 2542, 0 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "moved to Europe with her two children to pursue a career there after struggling to find work in Hollywood. Eventually settling in Rome, Italy,", "Baker became fluent in Italian and spent the next several years starring in hard-edged Italian thrillers,", "She followed her roles in Lenzi's films with a leading role in Corrado Farina's Baba Yaga (1973)", "TV Guide referred to the film as an \"exceptionally handsome example of 1970s Italian pop-exploitation", "sweetened by Piero Umilani's lounge-jazz score,\" and praised Baker's performance,", "Baker separated from her second husband, Jack Garfein, in 1967, and moved to Europe with her two children to pursue a career" ] }

[]

[ "Some of the European films that Carroll Baker starred in are Her Harem (1967), The Sweet Body of Deborah (1968), The Devil Has Seven Faces (1971), So Sweet... So Perverse (1969), Paranoia (1969), A Quiet Place to Kill (1970), Il coltello di ghiaccio (Knife of Ice) (1972), and Baba Yaga (1973).", "The European films that Carroll Baker starred in, as per the text, are primarily Italian thrillers, horror, and exploitation films. Many feature Baker in distressed roles and include nude scenes. Some films Baker is known for include Her Harem (1967), where she played the lead role, and The Sweet Body of Deborah (1968), The Devil Has Seven Faces (1971), So Sweet... So Perverse (1969), Paranoia (1969), A Quiet Place to Kill (1970), and Il coltello di ghiaccio (Knife of Ice) (1972). The last four films were directed by Italian filmmaker Umberto Lenzi, who often cast Baker in his films. In Paranoia, one of her most known roles, she portrayed a wealthy widow tormented by sadistic siblings. Another notable film was Baba Yaga (1973), where she starred as a witch. These films were generally not well-received in the United States but allowed Baker to earn an income and gain fame abroad, while also enabling her to support her two children.", "After settling in Rome, Italy, Carroll Baker became fluent in Italian and spent several years starring in hard-edged Italian thrillers, exploitation, and horror films. She worked with director Marco Ferreri and was featured in films like Her Harem, The Sweet Body of Deborah, The Devil Has Seven Faces, and others. She also frequently collaborated with filmmaker Umberto Lenzi, starring in several of his films like Paranoia, A Quiet Place to Kill, and Il coltello di ghiaccio (Knife of Ice). Later, she played the leading role in Corrado Farina's Baba Yaga.", "Yes, despite poor critical reception in the United States, Carroll Baker achieved success and fame abroad, particularly in Italy. The films she made in Italy provided her with an income and a revived career after facing challenges in Hollywood. They also allowed her to support her two children. Some of her most known roles include the lead in Her Harem and a wealthy widow in Paranoia. In Baba Yaga, even though she was deemed physically wrong for the role, the film was referred to as an \"exceptionally handsome example of 1970s Italian pop-exploitation filmmaking.\" So while her success was mixed and not always conventional, she was still viewed favorably and earned a living in Italy.", "The text does not provide information on whether Carroll Baker won any awards for her work in Italian films.", "The text does not provide information about Carroll Baker's career after her role in the film Baba Yaga in 1973.", "One interesting aspect from the article is Carroll Baker's career transition from Hollywood to Italian cinema. After struggling to find work in Hollywood and experiencing personal issues, she moved to Europe and reinvented her career by starring in Italian thrillers, exploitation, and horror films, becoming a favourite of Italian filmmaker Umberto Lenzi. Despite her films receiving poor critical reception in the United States, they provided her with income and fame abroad. Baker's willingness to perform nude, which was rare for major Hollywood actors at the time, and her roles as distressed women added an edge to her performances. Another notable point is that despite the challenging roles and the switch of industries, Baker found her experience in Italy to be revitalizing and said it \"brought me back to life.\"" ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "no", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "When was the pinnacle of Willies career?", "What happened in 1951?", "Was he successful in his new positions?", "Did he win any awards for his work?", "Was his album a success?", "What types of music did he perform?", "Did he sing or play an instrument?", "What other major accomplishment happened in this time period?", "What other bands covered his songs?", "Did any of the albums he produced go Gold?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 146 ], [ 513 ], [ 754 ], [ 960 ], [ 1039 ], [ 199 ], [ 1325 ], [ 1186 ], [ 1452 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Dixon signed with Chess Records as a recording artist, but he began performing less, being more involved with administrative tasks for the label. By 1951, he was" ], [ "By 1951, he was a full-time employee at Chess, where he acted as producer, talent scout, session musician and staff songwriter." ], [ "From late 1956 to early 1959, he worked in a similar capacity for Cobra Records, for which he produced early singles for Otis Rush, Magic Sam," ], [ "Dixon ran his own record label, Yambo Records, and two subsidiary labels, Supreme and Spoonful. He released his 1971 album, Peace?," ], [ "Dixon is considered one of the key figures in the creation of Chicago blues." ], [ "He worked with Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, Howlin' Wolf, Otis Rush, Bo Diddley, Joe Louis Walker, Little Walter, Sonny Boy Williamson, Koko Taylor," ], [ "he acted as producer, talent scout, session musician and staff songwriter." ], [ "In December 1964, the Rolling Stones reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with their cover of Dixon's \"Little Red Rooster\"." ], [ "Little Milton, Eddie Boyd, Jimmy Witherspoon, Lowell Fulson, Willie Mabon, Memphis Slim, Washboard Sam, Jimmy Rogers, Sam Lay and others." ], [ "\". In the same year, the group also covered \"I Just Want To Make Love To You\" on their debut album, The Rolling Stones." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 146, 513, 754, 960, 1039, 199, 1325, 1186, 1452 ], "texts": [ "Dixon signed with Chess Records as a recording artist, but he began performing less, being more involved with administrative tasks for the label. By 1951, he was", "By 1951, he was a full-time employee at Chess, where he acted as producer, talent scout, session musician and staff songwriter.", "From late 1956 to early 1959, he worked in a similar capacity for Cobra Records, for which he produced early singles for Otis Rush, Magic Sam,", "Dixon ran his own record label, Yambo Records, and two subsidiary labels, Supreme and Spoonful. He released his 1971 album, Peace?,", " Dixon is considered one of the key figures in the creation of Chicago blues.", "He worked with Chuck Berry, Muddy Waters, Howlin' Wolf, Otis Rush, Bo Diddley, Joe Louis Walker, Little Walter, Sonny Boy Williamson, Koko Taylor,", "he acted as producer, talent scout, session musician and staff songwriter.", "In December 1964, the Rolling Stones reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with their cover of Dixon's \"Little Red Rooster\".", "Little Milton, Eddie Boyd, Jimmy Witherspoon, Lowell Fulson, Willie Mabon, Memphis Slim, Washboard Sam, Jimmy Rogers, Sam Lay and others.", "\". In the same year, the group also covered \"I Just Want To Make Love To You\" on their debut album, The Rolling Stones." ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on when the pinnacle of Willie Dixon's career was.", "In 1951, Willie Dixon became a full-time employee at Chess Records, where he acted as a producer, talent scout, session musician and staff songwriter.", "The text does not provide specific information on Willie Dixon's level of success in his new positions at Chess Records. However, it does mention that his \"output and influence were prodigious\" during this period, suggesting that he was indeed successful.", "The text does not provide information on whether Willie Dixon won any awards for his work.", "The text does not provide information on whether Willie Dixon's album, Peace?, was a success.", "The text mentions that Willie Dixon is considered one of the key figures in the creation of Chicago blues, suggesting that he performed blues music.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Willie Dixon sang or played an instrument.", "One major accomplishment mentioned in the text from this time period is that in December 1964, the Rolling Stones reached number one on the UK Singles Chart with their cover of Dixon's \"Little Red Rooster\". Additionally, the Rolling Stones covered another of Dixon's songs, \"I Just Want To Make Love To You,\" on their debut album in the same year.", "The text mentions that the Rolling Stones covered Willie Dixon's songs \"Little Red Rooster\" and \"I Just Want To Make Love To You.\"", "The text does not provide information on whether any of the albums Willie Dixon produced went Gold." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#0", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#1", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#2", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#3", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#4", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#5", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#6", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#7", "C_e6eec2223f804211b0c23b4b5a9200f6_1_q#8" ]

[ "What did he accomplish", "Where was he from", "What did he do", "What happened to the two", "What was the explanation of this", "Why did he say this", "What did he say", "What was said about his idea", "What did he say" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 176 ], [ 306 ], [ 448 ], [ 504 ], [ 834 ], [ 972 ], [ 1455 ], [ 1633 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Though Bomis had struggled to make money, it provided Wales" ], [ "devoted to the philosophy of Objectivism in the early 1990s, Wales had encountered Larry Sanger, a skeptic of the philosophy. The" ], [ "two had engaged in detailed debate on the subject on Wales's list and then on Sanger's, eventually meeting offline to continue the debate" ], [ "becoming friends. Years later," ], [ "his encyclopedia project and seeking a credentialed academic to lead it, Wales hired Sanger--who at that time was a doctoral student in philosophy at Ohio State University" ], [ "Nupedia was to have expert-written entries on a variety of topics, and to sell advertising alongside the entries in order to make profit." ], [ "The project was characterized by an extensive peer-review process designed to make its articles of a quality comparable to that of professional encyclopedias." ], [ "criticize articles and give feedback. It was like handing in an essay at grad school, and basically intimidating to participate in." ], [ "attempting to write a Nupedia article on Nobel Prize-winning economist Robert C. Merton, but being too intimidated to submit his first draft to the prestigious finance" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 176, 306, 448, 504, 834, 972, 1455, 1633 ], "texts": [ "Though Bomis had struggled to make money, it provided Wales", "devoted to the philosophy of Objectivism in the early 1990s, Wales had encountered Larry Sanger, a skeptic of the philosophy. The", "two had engaged in detailed debate on the subject on Wales's list and then on Sanger's, eventually meeting offline to continue the debate", "becoming friends. Years later,", "his encyclopedia project and seeking a credentialed academic to lead it, Wales hired Sanger--who at that time was a doctoral student in philosophy at Ohio State University", "Nupedia was to have expert-written entries on a variety of topics, and to sell advertising alongside the entries in order to make profit.", "The project was characterized by an extensive peer-review process designed to make its articles of a quality comparable to that of professional encyclopedias.", "criticize articles and give feedback. It was like handing in an essay at grad school, and basically intimidating to participate in.", "attempting to write a Nupedia article on Nobel Prize-winning economist Robert C. Merton, but being too intimidated to submit his first draft to the prestigious finance" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The context details that he, presumably referring to Wales, accomplished several things. He created the initial online encyclopedia known as Nupedia, funded by his company Bomis. Along with Sanger, Wales also pioneered the concept of using a wiki model for collaborative online work, leading to the creation of Wikipedia. This was a major accomplishment as Wikipedia has since become one of the top online sources for information globally.", "The context does not provide information on where Wales is from.", "Based on the context, Jimmy Wales, funded the creation of an online encyclopedia called Nupedia through his company Bomis. He hired Larry Sanger as the editor-in-chief for this project. However, realizing the limitations of the Nupedia model, Wales, influenced by the concept of a wiki, proceeded to create Wikipedia, another online encyclopedia but with a collaborative approach where the public could write articles. This was also reviewed by Nupedia's expert volunteers initially, but later became a separate and massively successful project.\n", "Based on the context, the two, referring to Wales and Sanger, developed and launched the online encyclopedia, Nupedia, which later evolved into Wikipedia after they decided to adopt the collaborative \"wiki\" model for content creation. While Nupedia was not successful due to its onerous submission and peer review process, the newly created Wikipedia, became a major accomplishment. However, the context does not detail what happened to Wales and Sanger afterwards.", "Based on the context, the initial project, Nupedia, didn't succeed mainly due to its rigorous peer review and submission process, that was intimidating and less engaging for volunteer writers. This realization led Wales to consider a more open, community-based approach after he was introduced to the concept of a wiki where multiple editors could contribute simultaneously and incrementally. This resulted in the creation of Wikipedia which was intended as a collaborative project allowing the public to write articles. While some professionals feared that mixing amateur content with expertly researched material could compromise the credibility of the encyclopedia, Wikipedia gained popularity due to the collaborative and inclusive model for content creation, distinguishing it from Nupedia.", "The context does not provide specific information about what exactly \"he\" said, so an answer cannot be provided.", "The context does not provide any direct quotations or specific statements made by the individual referred to as \"he.\" In the context, there are descriptions of events and actions taken by Wales, but no specific words or statements uttered by him are provided.", "There's no direct mention in the text about someone's opinion on Wales's idea. However, it is mentioned that the original Nupedia model did not work and was intimidating for volunteers, leading to the adoption of the wiki model, which became wildly successful as Wikipedia. It is also mentioned that majority of Nupedia's experts did not want to partake in the Wikipedia project, fearing that it would compromise the credibility of the encyclopedia.", "In the provided context, there is no direct quotation from \"he,\" presumably Jimmy Wales. However, it is noted that Wales voiced his concerns about submitting his first draft to the prestigious finance professors during his time working on Nupedia, and he characterized this experience as the moment he realized the model of Nupedia would not work. Please note that these are not direct quotes, but what has been interpreted from the context given." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "When did he leave", "Why did he say this", "What did this cause", "What was googles response", "Why did this happen", "What caused this action", "What was the best remark", "What did this hinder", "What did he say" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 81 ], [ 184 ], [ 632 ], [ 796 ], [ 1016 ], [ 1239 ], [ 1451 ], [ 1535 ], [ 1984 ] ], "texts": [ [ "ruling on the right of individuals to request the removal of information from Google's search results." ], [ "He stated to the BBC that the ruling was \"one of the most wide-sweeping internet censorship rulings that I've ever seen" ], [ "Google to implement a process that allowed people to directly contact the corporation about the removal of information" ], [ "Google's Larry Page revealed that 30 percent of requests received by Google since the ruling was made were categorized as \"other" ], [ "The remit of the committee is to hold public hearings and issue recommendations--not just to Google but to legislators and the public." ], [ "I think the decision will have no impact on people's right to privacy, because I don't regard truthful information in court records published by court order" ], [ "the decision is likely to simply muddle the interesting philosophical questions and make it more difficult to make real progress" ], [ "make it more difficult to make real progress on privacy issues." ], [ "You do not have a right to use the law to prevent Wikipedia editors from writing truthful information, nor do you have a right to use the law to prevent" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 81, 184, 632, 796, 1016, 1239, 1451, 1535, 1984 ], "texts": [ "ruling on the right of individuals to request the removal of information from Google's search results.", "He stated to the BBC that the ruling was \"one of the most wide-sweeping internet censorship rulings that I've ever seen", "Google to implement a process that allowed people to directly contact the corporation about the removal of information", "Google's Larry Page revealed that 30 percent of requests received by Google since the ruling was made were categorized as \"other", "The remit of the committee is to hold public hearings and issue recommendations--not just to Google but to legislators and the public.", "I think the decision will have no impact on people's right to privacy, because I don't regard truthful information in court records published by court order", "the decision is likely to simply muddle the interesting philosophical questions and make it more difficult to make real progress", "make it more difficult to make real progress on privacy issues.", "You do not have a right to use the law to prevent Wikipedia editors from writing truthful information, nor do you have a right to use the law to prevent" ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The text does not provide information on when or if he left.", "The context does not clarify exactly why Wales reacted to the ECJ ruling as he did. However, it suggests he has grave concerns about internet censorship and the implication of the ruling on free speech. He appears to regard the ruling as an unnecessary suppression of knowledge and a potential impediment to progress on privacy issues. He disagrees with the idea of a \"right to be forgotten\" and believes in the necessity for the strong implementation of free speech.", "The context does not provide specific outcomes or effects caused by Wales' statements on the European Court of Justice (ECJ)'s ruling. Wales was invited by Google to join an advisory committee to manage the requests for information removal. His views might have influenced discussions within this committee, but the text does not provide concrete details on this.", "Google's response, according to the text, was to invite Wales to join an advisory committee tasked with managing the requests for information removal. Google's Larry Page also revealed statistics showing that 30 percent of requests received by Google since the ruling were categorized as \"other\". However, specific responses to Wales' comments or views are not mentioned in the context.", "This happened as a result of the European Court of Justice (ECJ)'s ruling on the right of individuals to request the removal of information from Google's search results. As a response to the ruling, Google formed an advisory committee to manage such requests. Wales, having expressed strong opinions about this ruling, was invited by Google to join the committee.", "The action of forming an advisory committee and inviting Wales to join it was caused by the European Court of Justice (ECJ)'s ruling on the right of individuals to request the removal of information from Google's search results. The ruling required Google to implement a process for managing such requests, leading to the formation of this committee.", "The text does not provide any information about which remark was considered the best.", "Wales expressed concern that the European Court of Justice (ECJ)'s \"right to be forgotten\" ruling could hinder progress on privacy issues and complicate the philosophical discussion around the issue. He also suggested it may suppress the dissemination of knowledge and limit free speech.", "Wales commented on the European Court of Justice (ECJ)'s ruling on the right of individuals to request the removal of information from Google's search results, calling it \"one of the most wide-sweeping internet censorship rulings that I've ever seen\". He also spoke out against the idea of a \"right to be forgotten\", stating that truthful information in court records or published by court order in a newspaper is not private information. He suggested that the ruling could complicate philosophical questions and hinder progress on privacy issues. He also expressed his belief in the importance of free speech, equating the suppression of knowledge to censorship." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was Dixon like in adulthood?", "What was his profession?", "Was he good at boxing?", "What happened with his boxing career?", "What did he do next in his life?", "Was he a musician?", "Did he play any musical instruments?", "Was he a solo artist or ever part of a group?", "What kind of music did they make?", "What happened with the group?", "Did the group split up?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 44 ], [ 137 ], [ 156 ], [ 277 ], [ 440 ], [ 571 ], [ 635 ], [ 801 ], [ 917 ], [ 999 ], [ 1092 ] ], "texts": [ [ "A man of considerable stature, standing 6 and a half feet tall and weighing over 250 pounds," ], [ "he took up boxing," ], [ "at which he was successful, winning the Illinois State Golden Gloves Heavyweight Championship (Novice Division) in 1937." ], [ "He became a professional boxer and worked briefly as Joe Louis's sparring partner, but after four fights he left boxing in a dispute with his manager over money." ], [ "Dixon met Leonard Caston at a boxing gym, where they would harmonize at times. Dixon performed in several vocal groups in Chicago, but" ], [ "but it was Caston that persuaded him to pursue music seriously. Caston built him his first bass, made of a tin can and one string." ], [ "Caston built him his first bass, made of a tin can and one string. Dixon's experience singing bass made the instrument familiar. He also learned to play the guitar." ], [ "In 1939, Dixon was a founding member of the Five Breezes, with Caston, Joe Bell, Gene Gilmore and Willie Hawthorne." ], [ "The group blended blues, jazz, and vocal harmonies, in the mode of the Ink Spots." ], [ "Dixon's progress on the upright bass came to an abrupt halt with the advent of World War II, when" ], [ "when he refused induction into military service as a conscientious objector and was imprisoned for ten months." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 44, 137, 156, 277, 440, 571, 635, 801, 917, 999, 1092 ], "texts": [ "A man of considerable stature, standing 6 and a half feet tall and weighing over 250 pounds,", "he took up boxing,", "at which he was successful, winning the Illinois State Golden Gloves Heavyweight Championship (Novice Division) in 1937.", "He became a professional boxer and worked briefly as Joe Louis's sparring partner, but after four fights he left boxing in a dispute with his manager over money.", "Dixon met Leonard Caston at a boxing gym, where they would harmonize at times. Dixon performed in several vocal groups in Chicago, but", "but it was Caston that persuaded him to pursue music seriously. Caston built him his first bass, made of a tin can and one string.", "Caston built him his first bass, made of a tin can and one string. Dixon's experience singing bass made the instrument familiar. He also learned to play the guitar.", "In 1939, Dixon was a founding member of the Five Breezes, with Caston, Joe Bell, Gene Gilmore and Willie Hawthorne.", "The group blended blues, jazz, and vocal harmonies, in the mode of the Ink Spots.", "Dixon's progress on the upright bass came to an abrupt halt with the advent of World War II, when", "when he refused induction into military service as a conscientious objector and was imprisoned for ten months." ] }

[]

[ "Dixon was a man of considerable stature in adulthood, standing 6 and a half feet tall and weighing over 250 pounds. He pursued various interests such as boxing - where he won a championship and even worked as sparring partner to Joe Louis, and music, particularly singing and playing instruments such as the bass and the guitar. He was part of several music groups and was a founding member of the Five Breezes. However, his musical progress was interrupted by World War II, during which he was imprisoned for ten months for refusing induction into military service due to his views on the prevalent institutionalized racism. After the war, he continued his music career, forming other groups and recording.", "Dixon was a professional boxer and a musician.", "Yes, Dixon was successful at boxing. He won the Illinois State Golden Gloves Heavyweight Championship (Novice Division) in 1937 and even worked as Joe Louis's sparring partner. However, he left boxing after only four fights due to a dispute with his manager over money.", "Dixon's boxing career was relatively short-lived. After achieving success in boxing, including winning the Illinois State Golden Gloves Heavyweight Championship (Novice Division) in 1937 and working as Joe Louis's sparring partner, he left the profession after only four fights. His departure was caused by a dispute with his manager over money.", "After Dixon left boxing he met Leonard Caston at a boxing gym, where they would sing together. Dixon performed in several vocal groups in Chicago, until Caston persuaded him to pursue music seriously. Caston built Dixon's first bass from a tin can and one string. Dixon learned not only the bass, but also the guitar. In 1939 he became a founding member of a group named the Five Breezes. The outbreak of World War II caused Dixon to be imprisoned for ten months due to his refusal to serve in the military. After the war, Dixon formed a group named the Four Jumps of Jive. He later reunited with Caston to form the Big Three Trio, which went on to record for Columbia Records.", "Yes, Dixon was a musician. He played both the bass and the guitar and was a member of several music groups, including the Five Breezes and the Big Three Trio. He pursued his music career seriously after being persuaded by Leonard Caston.", "Yes, Dixon played the bass and the guitar. He learned to play the bass with a makeshift instrument that Caston built for him from a tin can and one string. His experience singing bass made the instrument familiar to him.", "Dixon performed as part of several groups, but there is no mention in the text of him being a solo artist. He was a founding member of the Five Breezes and later formed the Four Jumps of Jive. After World War II, he reunited with Leonard Caston to form the Big Three Trio.", "The Five Breezes, one of the groups Dixon was part of, blended blues, jazz, and vocal harmonies, in the mode of the Ink Spots. The type of music the Big Three Trio or the Four Jumps of Jive made isn't mentioned in the given context.", "The text mentions that Dixon was a founding member of the Five Breezes, and that the group created music that was a blend of blues, jazz, and vocal harmonies. However, Dixon's progress with the group came to an abrupt halt with the advent of World War II, when he was imprisoned for ten months for refusing to participate in military service. After the war, he formed a group named the Four Jumps of Jive and later reunited with Leonard Caston to form the Big Three Trio, which went on to record for Columbia Records. The text does not provide details on what specifically transpired with each group.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether any of the groups Dixon was a part of — the Five Breezes, the Four Jumps of Jive, or the Big Three Trio — split up." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "what did Epstein do for the Cubs?", "when did Theo join the Cubs?", "what did Theo do for the cubs? (positively)", "did the cubs ever win the championship under THeo?", "in what year did the cubs beat the Giants?", "is Epstein still with the Cubs?", "what else can you tell me about Epstein and the Cubs?", "anything else i should know?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 711 ], [ 430 ], [ 915 ], [ 1363 ], [ 1267 ], [ 1128 ], [ 1432 ], [ 1584 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The Cubs finished in last place in the National League Central for the first three years of Epstein's presidency," ], [ "Two days later, the Cubs officially introduced Epstein as president of baseball operations." ], [ "After a three-year, top-to-bottom rebuild, the Cubs clinched a playoff berth in 2015;" ], [ "In the playoffs, they defeated the San Francisco Giants in the NLDS." ], [ "the 2016 season" ], [ "Epstein re-signed with the club on September 28, 2016, with a five-year contract estimated to be worth up to $25million." ], [ "The Cubs proceeded to beat the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS, winning their first pennant since the 1945 season and sending them to the World Series." ], [ "The Cubs then won their first World Series championship since 1908," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 711, 430, 915, 1363, 1267, 1128, 1432, 1584 ], "texts": [ "The Cubs finished in last place in the National League Central for the first three years of Epstein's presidency,", "Two days later, the Cubs officially introduced Epstein as president of baseball operations.", "After a three-year, top-to-bottom rebuild, the Cubs clinched a playoff berth in 2015;", "In the playoffs, they defeated the San Francisco Giants in the NLDS.", "the 2016 season", "Epstein re-signed with the club on September 28, 2016, with a five-year contract estimated to be worth up to $25million.", "The Cubs proceeded to beat the Los Angeles Dodgers in the NLCS, winning their first pennant since the 1945 season and sending them to the World Series.", "The Cubs then won their first World Series championship since 1908," ] }

[]

[ "Epstein served as the President of Baseball Operations for the Chicago Cubs. He took charge of the team, which was in poor shape at the time of his takeover, and opted for a top-to-bottom rebuild. His focus was on acquiring young talent rather than immediate competitiveness, which led to the Cubs having poor performance in the first three years of his leadership. However, his efforts resulted in the Cubs reaching the playoffs in 2015, the first time since 2008. Under his supervision, the Cubs won the World Series in 2016, their first since 1908.", "Theo Epstein joined the Chicago Cubs on October 12, 2011.", "Epstein, as the President of Baseball Operations for the Cubs, primarily focused on a rebuild of the team by acquiring young talent. Despite a rough start with poor performance in the first three years, his leadership led to the Cubs making it to the playoffs in 2015 for the first time since 2008. His strategy culminated in the Cubs winning the World Series Championship in 2016, their first since 1908, effectively breaking the \"Curse of the Billy Goat\".", "Yes, under Theo Epstein's leadership, the Cubs won the World Series Championship in 2016, their first since 1908.", "The Cubs beat the San Francisco Giants in the NLDS in the year 2016.", "The text does not provide information on whether Epstein is still with the Cubs.", "In Epstein's early years as the President of Baseball Operations with the Cubs, the team finished in last place in the National League Central for the first three years. This period was focused on acquiring young talent to rebuild the team. Eventually, this strategy paid dividends when, after a three-year, top-to-bottom rebuild, the Cubs clinched a playoff berth in 2015 for the first time since 2008. They gradually progressed and achieved the ultimate victory of a World Series Championship in 2016. Epstein re-signed with the club for another five years on September 28, 2016, in a contract estimated to be worth up to $25 million. Epstein's vision and strategy played a crucial role in breaking the so-called \"Curse of the Billy Goat\" and securing the Cubs' first World Series championship since 1908. However, the text does not provide any information beyond October 2016.", "The text provided covers all known details about Theo Epstein's time with the Chicago Cubs until 2016. It mentions his strategy of focusing on young talent, the team's initial struggles, their subsequent improvements leading to a playoff berth in 2015, and climaxing with the World Series Championship in 2016. Also notable is Epstein's re-signing with the club for a contract estimated to be worth up to $25 million in late September 2016. There isn't any additional information provided in the text." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#0", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#1", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#2", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#3", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#4", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#5", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#6", "C_8f756b4b72b24b0ab280f6337008235f_1_q#7" ]

[ "Did Theo Epstein ever join the Red Sox?", "What was his job with the Red Sox?", "How did the Red Sox do while Epstein was there?", "How did Epstein improve the team?", "Is Epstein still with the Red Sox?", "What else can you tell me about Epstein and the Red Sox?", "What trades has Epstein done recently?", "What else can you tell me about Theo Epstein?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1673 ], [ 1803 ], [ 2685 ], [ 660 ], [ 2822 ], [ 1953 ], [ 2822 ], [ 1517 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Epstein remained in contact with the team's front office and on January 12, 2006, he and Red Sox management announced his return." ], [ "Six days later, the team announced that he would resume the title of general manager and add the title of executive vice president." ], [ "Epstein traded Kason Gabbard and minor league outfielders David Murphy and Engel Beltre to the Texas Rangers for Gagne on July 31, 2007." ], [ "It was the Red Sox' first World Series championship since 1918," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Epstein announced, at the annual general manager meeting, that he had signed a new contract with the Red Sox but declined to disclose the terms of the deal." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The suit was loaned to him and was later auctioned for $11,000. The money raised was given to The Jimmy Fund and the Foundation to be Named Later (FTBNL)." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1673, 1803, 2685, 660, 2822, 1953, 2822, 1517 ], "texts": [ "Epstein remained in contact with the team's front office and on January 12, 2006, he and Red Sox management announced his return.", "Six days later, the team announced that he would resume the title of general manager and add the title of executive vice president.", "Epstein traded Kason Gabbard and minor league outfielders David Murphy and Engel Beltre to the Texas Rangers for Gagne on July 31, 2007.", "It was the Red Sox' first World Series championship since 1918,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Epstein announced, at the annual general manager meeting, that he had signed a new contract with the Red Sox but declined to disclose the terms of the deal.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The suit was loaned to him and was later auctioned for $11,000. The money raised was given to The Jimmy Fund and the Foundation to be Named Later (FTBNL)." ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Theo Epstein joined the Red Sox as general manager in 2002.", "Theo Epstein was the general manager of the Red Sox. Later, he also took on the title of executive vice president.", "While Theo Epstein was with the Red Sox, the team won the 2004 World Series, which was their first World Series championship since 1918. This victory broke what is known as the \"Curse of the Bambino\", which was one of the longest-running championship droughts in Major League history. Epstein was credited with making key player acquisitions that led to this victory.", "Epstein is credited with initiating the trade of Nomar Garciaparra and making key contract acquisitions including those of Kevin Millar and Curt Schilling during his first tenure as Red Sox GM. These new players were regarded as instrumental in helping the Red Sox break the so-called \"Curse of the Bambino\" and win the 2004 World Series.", "The text does not provide information on whether Theo Epstein is currently with the Red Sox.", "Theo Epstein started working with the Red Sox after being hired by the team's president and CEO, Lucchino, in 2002. He became known for making strategic player acquisitions which were key in breaking a long-standing championship drought and leading the Red Sox to win the 2004 World Series. Epstein resigned from the Red Sox in October 2005 for personal reasons, but remained in contact with the team's front office. In January 2006, it was announced that Epstein would return to the Red Sox and would resume the title of general manager, as well as assuming the role of executive vice president. In November 2007, Epstein confirmed that he had signed a new contract with the Red Sox. Despite reservations about a player's potential steroid use, Epstein made the decision to trade for Eric Gagne in 2007.", "The text does not provide information on any recent trades made by Theo Epstein.", "Theo Epstein started his career in baseball management as the president of the San Diego Padres. After leaving that position, he became president and CEO of the Boston Red Sox in 2001. During his tenure, he was instrumental in breaking the infamous \"Curse of the Bambino\" and leading the team to a World Series win in 2004. Epstein resigned from the Red Sox in late 2005, though he later returned and assumed the title of executive vice president in addition to his general manager role. He also attracted some attention by leaving the park in a gorilla suit on the night of his resignation to avoid reporters. Despite scandal around player Eric Gagne's potential steroid use, Epstein continued to make key decisions for the team. The text does not provide information on his current position." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#0", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#1", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#2", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#3", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#4", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#5", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#6", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#7", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_1_q#8" ]

[ "who did the lineup instability start with?", "where was John Wetton from?", "did they release any songs sung by John?", "was the song on an album or was it a solo song?", "how did he react to the just one song idea?", "who replaced him?", "did anybody else leave?", "who replaced Bolder?", "did they release an album after bolder left?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 44 ], [ 170 ], [ 122 ], [ 381 ], [ 469 ], [ 878 ], [ 948 ], [ 993 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Turner was replaced by bassist and vocalist John Wetton," ], [ "John Wetton, formerly of Family, King Crimson, Roxy Music, Uriah Heep and UK." ], [ "featured Wetton's lead vocals on just one song," ], [ "Number the Brave was released in April 1981 and featured Wetton's lead vocals on just one song," ], [ "Wetton did not continue with Wishbone Ash beyond the album sessions and rejoined Asia." ], [ "Wetton was replaced on the Number the Brave tour by the former Uriah Heep bassist Trevor Bolder." ], [ "Bolder left the group to rejoin Uriah Heep in 1983," ], [ "bassist/vocalist Mervyn Spence (ex-Trapeze)." ], [ "The group continued with a heavy metal side on 1985's Raw to the Bone," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 44, 170, 122, 381, 469, 878, 948, 993 ], "texts": [ "Turner was replaced by bassist and vocalist John Wetton,", "John Wetton, formerly of Family, King Crimson, Roxy Music, Uriah Heep and UK.", "featured Wetton's lead vocals on just one song,", "Number the Brave was released in April 1981 and featured Wetton's lead vocals on just one song,", "Wetton did not continue with Wishbone Ash beyond the album sessions and rejoined Asia.", "Wetton was replaced on the Number the Brave tour by the former Uriah Heep bassist Trevor Bolder.", "Bolder left the group to rejoin Uriah Heep in 1983,", "bassist/vocalist Mervyn Spence (ex-Trapeze).", "The group continued with a heavy metal side on 1985's Raw to the Bone," ] }

[]

[ "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#0", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#1", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#2", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#3", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#4", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#5", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#6", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#7", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#8", "C_fe1460a2b98e490eb5c14e10722b3dc5_0_q#9" ]

[ "What happened in 1987?", "What was special about the series of albums?", "Who did Copeland sign for his label?", "Did they agree?", "Did the album do well?", "What countries did they visit?", "Did they do another album together after that?", "Did that album do well?", "Did they do another tour then?", "How did the live album do?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 140 ], [ 273 ], [ 403 ], [ 579 ], [ 1688 ], [ 708 ], [ 1688 ], [ 1481 ], [ 1688 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1987, I.R.S. Records founder and original Wishbone manager Miles Copeland III began a series of albums entitled No Speak, which featured all" ], [ "all instrumental music. To launch the label successfully, Copeland needed a big name band that would bring publicity to the project. Copeland approached" ], [ "Copeland approached the four founding members of Wishbone Ash about having the original line-up record an all-instrumental album." ], [ "For the first time in fourteen years, Andy Powell and Steve Upton joined forces with Martin Turner and Ted Turner to record the album Nouveau Calls, released in February 1988." ], [ "The original line-up's tour of 1988 was a huge success, as the band played large venues for the first time since the late 1970s." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In August 1989, the band released a reunion album with vocals entitled Here to Hear, featuring mainly songs written by Ted and Martin Turner." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The band toured throughout 1992/93, releasing the live album The Ash Live in Chicago." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 140, 273, 403, 579, 1688, 708, 1688, 1481, 1688 ], "texts": [ "In 1987, I.R.S. Records founder and original Wishbone manager Miles Copeland III began a series of albums entitled No Speak, which featured all", "all instrumental music. To launch the label successfully, Copeland needed a big name band that would bring publicity to the project. Copeland approached", "Copeland approached the four founding members of Wishbone Ash about having the original line-up record an all-instrumental album.", "For the first time in fourteen years, Andy Powell and Steve Upton joined forces with Martin Turner and Ted Turner to record the album Nouveau Calls, released in February 1988.", "The original line-up's tour of 1988 was a huge success, as the band played large venues for the first time since the late 1970s.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In August 1989, the band released a reunion album with vocals entitled Here to Hear, featuring mainly songs written by Ted and Martin Turner.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The band toured throughout 1992/93, releasing the live album The Ash Live in Chicago.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "In 1987, I.R.S. Records founder and original Wishbone manager Miles Copeland III launched a series of albums named No Speak, which featured all instrumental music. He pitched the idea to the original members of Wishbone Ash to record an all-instrumental album which led to their first reunion in fourteen years.", "The series of albums, entitled No Speak, was special because it featured all instrumental music.", "Copeland signed the original line-up of Wishbone Ash for his label. The band includes Andy Powell, Steve Upton, Martin Turner, and Ted Turner.", "Yes, the original members of Wishbone Ash agreed to Copeland's proposal and recorded an all-instrumental album for him.", "The context does not provide information on whether the album did well in terms of sales or critical reception.", "The context does not provide information on which countries Wishbone Ash visited during their tours.", "Yes, after the all-instrumental album Nouveau Calls, the original members of Wishbone Ash recorded another album together. This album was a reunion album with vocals entitled Here to Hear released in August 1989, and was followed by another album in 1990, the title of which is not mentioned in the context. A third album with the lineup, Strange Affair, was released in May 1991.", "The context does not provide information on how well the reunion album Here to Hear or the 1990 follow-up album did in terms of sales or critical reception.", "Yes, the band toured after releasing the vocal album 'Here to Hear' and continued to tour into 1992/93, even releasing a live album titled 'The Ash Live in Chicago.'", "The context does not provide information on how well the live album 'The Ash Live in Chicago' did in terms of sales or critical reception." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#0", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#1", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#2", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#3", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#4", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#5", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#6", "C_02dfdcf97e7946dc886f580b22b8d7f7_1_q#7" ]

[ "What is the history of The Darkness band?", "How successful was this band?", "How did the gig end up?", "What are some other important aspects to the history of The Darkness?", "Who is Sue Whitehouse?", "DId she help them become successful?", "Is there anything else that's interesting about the article regarding their history?", "What happened after that?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 220 ], [ 1505 ], [ 369 ], [ 0 ], [ 902 ], [ 550 ], [ 706 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The Darkness were directed by manager Sue Whitehouse, who had managed them since Justin Hawkins' time as a creator of music jingles and their original band days as Empire." ], [ "and such was the popularity of the band, they had a Carling Homecoming gig booked for the London Astoria before they had even signed a record deal." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The band already had music industry interest from their days as Empire through connections with Sue Whitehouse," ], [ "The Darkness were directed by manager Sue Whitehouse," ], [ "According to A&R Nick Raphael in an interview with HitQuarters, there was no initial clamour to sign the band," ], [ "Paul Scaife at The Tip Sheet first heard about the band through a post on The Tip Sheet message board, and featured Love Is Only A Feeling in January 2002." ], [ "They started Record of the Day, and featured the song again around the time of SXSW in March 2003." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 220, 1505, 369, 0, 902, 550, 706 ], "texts": [ "The Darkness were directed by manager Sue Whitehouse, who had managed them since Justin Hawkins' time as a creator of music jingles and their original band days as Empire.", "and such was the popularity of the band, they had a Carling Homecoming gig booked for the London Astoria before they had even signed a record deal.", "CANNOTANSWER", "The band already had music industry interest from their days as Empire through connections with Sue Whitehouse,", "The Darkness were directed by manager Sue Whitehouse,", "According to A&R Nick Raphael in an interview with HitQuarters, there was no initial clamour to sign the band,", "Paul Scaife at The Tip Sheet first heard about the band through a post on The Tip Sheet message board, and featured Love Is Only A Feeling in January 2002.", "They started Record of the Day, and featured the song again around the time of SXSW in March 2003." ] }

[]

[ "The Darkness band was managed by Sue Whitehouse from the time Justin Hawkins was a music jingles creator and when they were originally known as Empire. They gained fame for their live shows and were booked for a gig at the London Astoria even before they signed a record deal. The band already had connections in the music industry during their time as Empire, through Sue Whitehouse, who was with Savage & Best in Camden. They gained further attention when their song \"Love Is Only A Feeling\" was featured in January 2002 by Joe Taylor, Aled Jones, and Paul Scaife at The Tip Sheet. This song was featured again in March 2003 around the time of SXSW. Despite this, according to A&R Nick Raphael, there wasn't much initial interest in signing the band as the industry considered them \"uncool\" and some even labeled them as a \"joke band\". Raphael attempted to sign them to Sony Music UK, but the band chose Atlantic Records.", "The text does not provide specific information on the success of The Darkness band.", "The text does not provide information on how the gig at the London Astoria ended up for The Darkness band.", "Some other important aspects of The Darkness' history include their reputation for an impressive live show, and their early popularity that led to them booking a Carling Homecoming gig at the London Astoria before they had signed a record deal. Given their history as Empire and connections through manager Sue Whitehouse, they had sparked some interest in the music industry. They gained more attention when their song \"Love Is Only A Feeling\" was featured on The Tip Sheet. Despite these achievements, there was not a significant initial clamour to sign the band, and they were often labelled as a \"joke band\" by critics. They eventually signed with Atlantic Records, having turned down an offer from Sony Music UK.", "Sue Whitehouse is the manager of The Darkness band. She had managed the band since Justin Hawkins' time as a creator of music jingles and their original band days as Empire. She also had connections with Savage & Best in Camden.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Sue Whitehouse directly contributed to the success of The Darkness band. However, it is mentioned that she managed them from Justin Hawkins' time as a music jingles creator and their original band days as Empire, indicating her long-time association with the band.", "The article mentions that despite having a popular live show and industry connections through their manager Sue Whitehouse, The Darkness faced initial disinterest from record labels. According to Nick Raphael from A&R, the music industry considered the band \"uncool\" and thought of them as a \"joke\" effort. This perception followed the band throughout their career, with critics often labeling them as a \"joke band\". Despite this, the band signed with Atlantic Records after turning down an offer from Sony Music UK.", "The text does not provide information on what happened after The Darkness signed with Atlantic Records." ]

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[ "Was One Way Ticket to Hell the name of an album?", "How did \"One Way Ticket\" do on the charts?", "Did the band tour for this album?", "How did the tour do?", "What record label were they signed with at the time?", "When did their decline start?", "What is another single from One Way Ticket to Hell?", "How did the single do on the charts?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 359 ], [ 418 ], [ 1264 ], [ 1383 ], [ 1693 ], [ 1693 ], [ 977 ], [ 1079 ] ], "texts": [ [ "One Way Ticket\", the first single from their second album, was released on 14 November 2005," ], [ "was released on 14 November 2005, debuting and peaking at number 8 on the UK Singles chart." ], [ "The band followed up their second album with a tour of the UK and Ireland," ], [ "The tour opened in Dublin's Point Depot on 4 February and closed in the Nottingham Arena on 20 February. Few of the venues sold out," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The second single taken from their second album was \"Is It Just Me?\", released on 20 February 2006." ], [ "The single gained a preliminary position of No. 6 all that week, but finally charted at number 8." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 359, 418, 1264, 1383, 1693, 1693, 977, 1079 ], "texts": [ "One Way Ticket\", the first single from their second album, was released on 14 November 2005,", "was released on 14 November 2005, debuting and peaking at number 8 on the UK Singles chart.", "The band followed up their second album with a tour of the UK and Ireland,", "The tour opened in Dublin's Point Depot on 4 February and closed in the Nottingham Arena on 20 February. Few of the venues sold out,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", " The second single taken from their second album was \"Is It Just Me?\", released on 20 February 2006.", "The single gained a preliminary position of No. 6 all that week, but finally charted at number 8." ] }

[]

[ "Yes, One Way Ticket to Hell ...and Back is the name of an album.", "\"One Way Ticket\", the first single from the album, debuted and peaked at number 8 on the UK Singles chart.", "Yes, the band followed up their second album with a tour of the UK and Ireland, and their world tour arrived in Australia and Japan after touring Scandinavia and Continental Europe in March.", "Few of the venues on the band's tour sold out, indicating that their appeal had possibly become more selective after this album's release.", "The context does not provide information on which record label they were signed with at the time.", "The context does not provide specific information on when their decline started. However, it mentions that early sales figures of the album \"One Way Ticket to Hell ...and Back\" did not sell as well as its predecessor, and that few of the venues sold out during their subsequent tour, implying a possible decline in popularity.", "Another single from the album \"One Way Ticket to Hell ...and Back\" is \"Is It Just Me?\".", "The single \"Is It Just Me?\" gained a preliminary position of No. 6 during the week, but finally charted at number 8." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "When did his racing career begin?", "did he perform well?", "what type of car did he drive in the Argentina race?", "was he a champion driver?", "did he travel?", "did he have sponsors?", "did he drive with any others?", "what race was this?", "Were AMerican cars used?", "How did they fair?", "what is a notable win?", "was there any crashes?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 94 ], [ 701 ], [ 345 ], [ 1955 ], [ 1636 ], [ 2561 ], [ 899 ], [ 1039 ], [ 1266 ], [ 1123 ], [ 1860 ], [ 2561 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He began his racing career in Argentina in 1934, driving a 1929 Ford Model A, which he had rebuilt." ], [ "Following many successes driving mainly modified American stock cars;" ], [ "During his time racing in Argentina, he drove Chevrolet cars and was Argentine National Champion in 1940 and 1941." ], [ "Fangio was crowned champion of Argentine TC." ], [ "In October, after 9500 km of competition in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru, he won his first race in Turismo Carretera, the Grand Prix International North." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In the Tourism Highway category, Fangio participated in his first race between 18 and 30 October 1938 as the co-pilot of Luis Finocchietti." ], [ "Despite not winning the Argentine Road Grand Prix, Fangio drove most of the way and qualified in seventh place." ], [ "In 1939, the circuit was in Forest, which conformed well with his last involvement with a Ford V8." ], [ "qualified in seventh place." ], [ "In 1941, he beat Oscar Galvez in the Grand Prix Getulio Vargas in Brazil. For the second time, Fangio was crowned champion of Argentine TC." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 94, 701, 345, 1955, 1636, 2561, 899, 1039, 1266, 1123, 1860, 2561 ], "texts": [ "He began his racing career in Argentina in 1934, driving a 1929 Ford Model A, which he had rebuilt.", "Following many successes driving mainly modified American stock cars;", "During his time racing in Argentina, he drove Chevrolet cars and was Argentine National Champion in 1940 and 1941.", "Fangio was crowned champion of Argentine TC.", "In October, after 9500 km of competition in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru, he won his first race in Turismo Carretera, the Grand Prix International North.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In the Tourism Highway category, Fangio participated in his first race between 18 and 30 October 1938 as the co-pilot of Luis Finocchietti.", "Despite not winning the Argentine Road Grand Prix, Fangio drove most of the way and qualified in seventh place.", "In 1939, the circuit was in Forest, which conformed well with his last involvement with a Ford V8.", "qualified in seventh place.", "In 1941, he beat Oscar Galvez in the Grand Prix Getulio Vargas in Brazil. For the second time, Fangio was crowned champion of Argentine TC.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "how did they come up with the composition?", "Who composed the music?", "did it take a long time to compose?", "what are the major instruments in the composition?", "what genre of music is this song?", "how many people were involved all together with composing this song?", "what is the most interesting thing regarding the composition of this song?", "which came first, lyrics or composition?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 712 ], [ 475 ], [ 785 ], [ 960 ], [ 1 ], [ 1321 ], [ 1178 ], [ 1533 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he would come up with the riffs, but I would be the finish guy for that. I sat down and came up with the chorus, the bridges, and so forth." ], [ "\"'Man on the Moon' was something that Bill [Berry] had, this one chord change that he came in with," ], [ "I sat down and came up with the chorus, the bridges, and so forth. I remember we showed it to Mike and Michael when they came in later;" ], [ "think Bill played bass and I played guitar; we kept going around with it." ], [ "Man on the Moon\" is a mid-tempo country-rock song following a verse-chorus structure" ], [ "Stipe recounted that the rest of the members of R.E.M. had written and performed the music of the song and recorded it" ], [ "the lyrics were written independently of the music, which had no prior association with the song's eventual lyrical content regarding Kaufman." ], [ "As of the final week of the recording sessions, Stipe was still struggling to write lyrics for the song," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 712, 475, 785, 960, 1, 1321, 1178, 1533 ], "texts": [ "he would come up with the riffs, but I would be the finish guy for that. I sat down and came up with the chorus, the bridges, and so forth.", "\"'Man on the Moon' was something that Bill [Berry] had, this one chord change that he came in with,", "I sat down and came up with the chorus, the bridges, and so forth. I remember we showed it to Mike and Michael when they came in later;", "think Bill played bass and I played guitar; we kept going around with it.", "Man on the Moon\" is a mid-tempo country-rock song following a verse-chorus structure", "Stipe recounted that the rest of the members of R.E.M. had written and performed the music of the song and recorded it", "the lyrics were written independently of the music, which had no prior association with the song's eventual lyrical content regarding Kaufman.", "As of the final week of the recording sessions, Stipe was still struggling to write lyrics for the song," ] }

[]

[ "The composition for \"Man on the Moon\" started with a one chord change from band member Bill Berry, which was C to D like the verse of the song. Guitarist Peter Buck then finished the song by coming up with the chorus, bridges, and other parts. The initial composition was then presented to Mike and Michael who came in later. The band went around with the song, with Bill possibly playing bass and Peter playing guitar, and possibly adding some mandolin in the rehearsal studio.", "The music for \"Man on the Moon\" was collectively composed by Bill Berry and Peter Buck from the band. Bill Berry came up with the initial chord change (C to D like the verse of the song) and Peter Buck finished it by developing the chorus, bridges and other parts.", "The context does not provide specific information on the duration it took to compose the music for \"Man on the Moon\".", "The major instruments mentioned in the composition of \"Man on the Moon\" are guitar and bass, which were played by Peter Buck and Bill Berry respectively. The band may have also used a mandolin in the rehearsal studio.", "\"Man on the Moon\" is a mid-tempo country-rock song.", "The context mentions four people involved with composing the song \"Man on the Moon\": Bill Berry and Peter Buck, who created the initial music, and Mike and Michael who were presented with the song later. Michael Stipe also contributed by writing the lyrics. Therefore, a total of four band members were involved in the composition.", "One of the most interesting aspects about the composition of \"Man on the Moon\" is that the music and lyrics were created independently. The band had already written and performed the music of the song with no prior association with its eventual lyrical content. The lyrics, which were about the performances of entertainer Andy Kaufman, were written by Michael Stipe after he listened to the already-recorded music on a walk around Seattle.", "The composition of \"Man on the Moon\" came first. The lyrics were written later by Michael Stipe after he listened to the already composed and recorded music." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "how did the lyrics get written", "who wrote the lyrics", "what are the lyrics about", "what references are there", "what else is in the song", "are there any other interesting references", "What other things are mentioned in the song", "Is there anything else I should know about the lyrics" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 1208 ], [ 0 ], [ 136 ], [ 1060 ], [ 1170 ], [ 1737 ], [ 1879 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The song's lyrics do not tell a conventional story, and may instead been seen as a collection of cultural references, images and ideas." ], [ "Stipe" ], [ "The song's lyrics do not tell a conventional story, and may instead been seen as a collection of cultural references, images and ideas." ], [ "There are repeated mentions of Andy Kaufman, including references to his Elvis impersonation and work with wrestlers Fred Blassie and Jerry Lawler." ], [ "Other lyrical references include persons from the history of science and religion, as well as board-games" ], [ "the rock band Mott the Hoople of whom Stipe had been a fan in his youth, and whose music he associated with the years of Kaufman's original television broadcasts." ], [ "The lyrics to Man on the Moon also feature a prominent repeated refrain of \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\"." ], [ "Cobain was in the habit of placing \"yeah\" in the lyrics to the songs of his band, Nirvana, and that Stipe intended to outdo him," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 1208, 0, 136, 1060, 1170, 1737, 1879 ], "texts": [ "The song's lyrics do not tell a conventional story, and may instead been seen as a collection of cultural references, images and ideas.", "Stipe", "The song's lyrics do not tell a conventional story, and may instead been seen as a collection of cultural references, images and ideas.", "There are repeated mentions of Andy Kaufman, including references to his Elvis impersonation and work with wrestlers Fred Blassie and Jerry Lawler.", "Other lyrical references include persons from the history of science and religion, as well as board-games", "the rock band Mott the Hoople of whom Stipe had been a fan in his youth, and whose music he associated with the years of Kaufman's original television broadcasts.", "The lyrics to Man on the Moon also feature a prominent repeated refrain of \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\".", "Cobain was in the habit of placing \"yeah\" in the lyrics to the songs of his band, Nirvana, and that Stipe intended to outdo him," ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on how the lyrics of the song \"Man on the Moon\" were written.", "The text does not provide information on who wrote the lyrics to \"Man on the Moon\".", "The lyrics to \"Man on the Moon\" are largely a collection of cultural references, ideas, and images. The song frequently mentions Andy Kaufman and his Elvis impersonation and work with wrestlers, suggesting a discussion around his ambiguous legacy and associated conspiracy theories. Other lyrical references include persons from the history of science and religion, board-games, and the rock band Mott the Hoople. The lyrics also feature a repeated refrain of \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\". Overall, it presents a surreal vision of heaven and a commentary on human endeavor.", "The song's lyrics include references to Andy Kaufman, his Elvis impersonation, and his work with wrestlers Fred Blassie and Jerry Lawler. It also alludes to conspiracy theories about the moon landing and Elvis Presley's death. Other references include significant figures from scientific and religious history, an unnamed board game, and the rock band Mott the Hoople. The song also includes a repeated refrain \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah,\" a nod to Kurt Cobain of Nirvana who frequently included \"yeah\" in his lyrics.", "Apart from the cultural references and ideas, the song also includes a repeated refrain of \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\". According to Stipe, this was intended to outdo his friend Kurt Cobain who frequently included \"yeah\" in his lyrics. The song has been described as presenting a \"surreal vision of heaven,\" and critics note that it makes a game of human endeavor, ending in a suggestion that all ends in dust. It also invokes a series of questions about life.", "Yes, there are some interesting references. Specifically, the song includes mentions from the history of science and religion, although the specific figures are not stated in the text. There are also references to board-games and a line, \"Let's play Twister, let's play Risk\". Another unique reference is to the rock band Mott the Hoople, which Stipe was a fan of in his youth and associated with the years of Kaufman's original television broadcasts.", "The song \"Man on the Moon\" additionally references the board games Twister and Risk, indirectly invoking a playful or game-like outlook towards life and human endeavor. The singer, Stipe, jokingly tells the individuals he's invoked throughout the song - including figures from science, religion, and of course, Andy Kaufman, that he'll meet them in heaven if they make 'the list' suggesting a sort of celestial judgement. Lastly, the rock band Mott the Hoople is mentioned as a nod to Stipe's youth and the era of Kaufman's television broadcasts that he associates with their music. The song also repeatedly uses the refrain \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\".", "The song's lyrics do not directly tell a conventional story but they invoke the conspiracy theories surrounding the moon landing and Elvis Presley, as an indirect nod to the persistent rumors that Andy Kaufman faked his own death. The lyrics are open to interpretation and critics suggest they present a surreal vision of heaven, make a game of human endeavor, and question perceptions of reality. According to critic Ann Powers, the lyrics suggest that all of human endeavor ends in dust, backed up by the line \"I'll see you in heaven if you make the list\". Also, the repeated refrain \"Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah\" is a tribute to Kurt Cobain's habit of placing \"yeah\" in Nirvana's lyrics." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_76819ce61a6149caa272232fa5508646_0_q#0", "C_76819ce61a6149caa272232fa5508646_0_q#1", "C_76819ce61a6149caa272232fa5508646_0_q#2", "C_76819ce61a6149caa272232fa5508646_0_q#3" ]

[ "Who was in the group Bananarama?", "In what year was the band founded?", "What were their top 10 hits?", "Who eventually signed them?" ]

[ 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1936 ], [ 0 ], [ 182 ], [ 1840 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Bananarama experienced their greatest success during the period 1982 to 1989," ], [ "Deep Sea Skiving (UK #7, US #63) (1983) contained several hit singles -- \"Really Saying Something\" (UK #5) and \"Shy Boy\" (UK #4) -- and" ], [ "London Records" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1936, 0, 182, 1840 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Bananarama experienced their greatest success during the period 1982 to 1989,", "Deep Sea Skiving (UK #7, US #63) (1983) contained several hit singles -- \"Really Saying Something\" (UK #5) and \"Shy Boy\" (UK #4) -- and", "London Records" ] }

[ { "text": "A girl group is a music act featuring several female singers who generally harmonize together. The term \"girl group\" is also used in a narrower sense in the United States to denote the wave of American female pop music singing groups, many of whom were influenced by doo-wop and which flourished in the late 1950s and early 1960s between the decline of early rock and roll and start of the British Invasion. All-female bands, in which members also play instruments, are usually considered a separate phenomenon. These groups are sometimes called \"girl bands\" to differentiate, although this terminology is not universally followed.\n\nWith the advent of the music industry and radio broadcasting, a number of girl groups emerged, such as the Andrews Sisters. The late 1950s saw the emergence of all-female singing groups as a major force, with 750 distinct girl groups releasing songs that reached US and UK music charts from 1960 to 1966. The Supremes alone held 12 number-one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 during the height of the wave and throughout most of the British Invasion rivaled the Beatles in popularity.\n\nIn later eras, the girl group template would be applied to disco, contemporary R&B, and country-based formats, as well as pop. A more globalized music industry gave rise to the popularity of dance-oriented pop music led by major record labels. This emergence, led by the US, UK, South Korea and Japan, produced popular acts, with eight groups debuting after 1990 having sold more than 15 million physical copies of their albums. With the Spice Girls, the 1990s also saw the target market for girl groups shift from a male audience to an increasingly female one. In the 2010s, the K-pop phenomenon led to the rise of successful girl groups including Girls' Generation, Twice, and Blackpink.\n\nHistory\n\nVaudeville and close harmonies\nOne of the first major all-female groups was the Hamilton Sisters and Fordyce, an American trio who successfully toured England and parts of Europe in 1927, recorded and appeared on BBC radio they toured the US variety and big-time theaters extensively, and later changed their stage name to the Three X Sisters. The band was together from 1923 until the early 1940s, and known for their close harmonies, as well as barbershop style or novelty tunes, and utilized their 1930s radio success. The Three X Sisters were also especially a notable addition to the music scene, and predicted later girl group success by maintaining their popularity throughout the Great Depression. The Boswell Sisters, who became one of the most popular singing groups from 1930 to 1936, had over twenty hits. The Andrews Sisters started in 1937 as a Boswell tribute band and continued recording and performing through the 1940s into the late-1960s, achieving more record sales, more Billboard hits, more million-sellers, and more movie appearances than any other girl group to date. The Andrews Sisters had musical hits across multiple genres, which contributed to the prevalence and popularity of the girl group form.\n\n1955–1970: The golden age of girl groups\nAs the rock era began, close harmony acts like the Chordettes, the Fontane Sisters, the McGuire Sisters and the DeCastro Sisters remained popular, with the first three acts topping the pop charts and the last reaching number two, at the end of 1954 to the beginning of 1955. Also, the Lennon Sisters were a mainstay on the Lawrence Welk Show from 1955 on. In early 1956, doo-wop one-hit wonder acts like the Bonnie Sisters with \"Cry Baby\" and the Teen Queens with \"Eddie My Love\" showed early promise for a departure from traditional pop harmonies. With \"Mr. Lee\", the Bobbettes lasted for months on the charts in 1957, building momentum and gaining further acceptance of all-female, all-black vocal groups.\n\nHowever, it was the Chantels' 1958 song \"Maybe\" that became \"arguably, the first true glimmering of the girl group sound\". The \"mixture of black doo-wop, rock and roll, and white pop\" was appealing to a teenage audience and grew from scandals involving payola and the perceived social effects of rock music. However, early groups such as the Chantels started developing their groups' musical capacities traditionally, through mediums like Latin and choir music. The success of the Chantels and others was followed by an enormous rise in girl groups with varying skills and experience, with the music industry's typical racially segregated genre labels of R&B and pop slowly breaking apart. This rise also allowed a semblance of class mobility to groups of people who often could not otherwise gain such success, and \"forming vocal groups together and cutting records gave them access to other opportunities toward professional advancement and personal growth, expanding the idea of girlhood as an identity across race and class lines.\" The group often considered to have achieved the first sustained success in girl group genre is the Shirelles, who first reached the Top 40 with \"Tonight's the Night\", and in 1961, became the first girl group to reach number one on the Hot 100 with \"Will You Love Me Tomorrow\", written by songwriters Gerry Goffin and Carole King at 1650 Broadway. The Shirelles solidified their success with five more top 10 hits, most particularly 1962's number one hit \"Soldier Boy\", over the next two and a half years. \"Please Mr. Postman\" by the Marvelettes became a major indication of the racial integration of popular music, as it was the first number one song in the US for African-American owned label, Motown Records. Motown would mastermind several major girl groups, including Martha and the Vandellas, the Velvelettes, and the Supremes.\n\nOther songwriters and producers in the US and UK quickly recognized the potential of this new approach and recruited existing acts (or, in some cases, created new ones) to record their songs in a girl group style. Phil Spector recruited the Crystals, the Blossoms, and the Ronettes, while Goffin and King penned two hit songs for the Cookies. Phil Spector made a huge impact on the ubiquity of the girl group, as well as bringing fame and notoriety to new heights for many girl groups. Phil Spector's so-called Wall of Sound, which used layers of instruments to create a more potent sound allowed girl groups to sing powerfully and in different styles than earlier generations. Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller would likewise foster the Exciters, the Dixie Cups, and the Shangri-Las. The Shangri-Las' hit single, \"Leader of the Pack\", exemplified the \"'death disc' genre\" adopted by some girl groups. These songs usually told the story of teenage love cut short by the death of one of the young lovers.\n\nThe Paris Sisters had success from 1961 to 1964, especially with \"I Love How You Love Me\". The Chiffons, the Angels, and the Orlons were also prominent in the early 1960s. In early fall 1963 one-hit wonder the Jaynetts' \"Sally Go 'Round the Roses\" achieved a mysterious sound quite unlike that of any other girl group. In 1964, the one-hit wonder group the Murmaids took David Gates' \"Popsicles and Icicles\" to the top 3 in January, the Carefrees' \"We Love You Beatles\" scraped the top 40 in April, and the Jewels' \"Opportunity\" was a small hit in December.\n\nOver 750 girl groups were able to chart a song between 1960 and 1966 in the US and UK, although the genre's reach was not as strongly felt in the music industries of other regions. As the youth culture of western Continental Europe was deeply immersed in Yé-yé, recording artists of East Asia mostly varied from traditional singers, government-sponsored chorus, or multi-cultural soloists and bands, while bossa nova was trendy in Latin America. Beat music's global influence eventually pushed out girl groups as a genre and, except for a small number of the foregoing groups and possibly the Toys and the Sweet Inspirations, the only girl groups with any significant chart presence from the beginning of the British Invasion through 1970 were Motown girl groups with the Supremes being the only girl group to score number one hits. The distinct girl group sound would not re-emerge until the 21st century, where it would influence modern-day English-speaking pop-soul soloists who have been met with international success, such as Amy Winehouse, Adele, Duffy and Melanie Fiona among others. In addition to influencing individual singers, this generation of girl groups cemented the girl group form and sentiment and provided inspiration for many future groups.\n\n1966–1989: Changes in formats and genres\n\nEntering the 1970s, the Supremes had continued success with top 10 hits \"Up the Ladder to the Roof\" and \"Stoned Love\" along with six other singles charting on Billboard's top 40. Only two other girl groups made top 10 chartings through 1974 with \"Want Ads\" by Honey Cone and \"When Will I See You Again\" by the Three Degrees (which had roots in the 1960s and in 1970, like the Chantels in 1958, began their top 40 pop career with \"Maybe\"). Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles was a US 1960s girl group whose image Vicki Wickham, their manager, helped remake in the early 1970s, renaming the group Labelle and pushing them in the direction of glam rock. Labelle were the first girl group to eschew matching outfits and identical choreography, instead wearing extravagant spacesuits and feathered headdresses. During the disco craze and beyond, female acts included First Choice, Silver Convention, Hot, the Emotions, High Inergy, Odyssey, Sister Sledge, Mary Jane Girls, Belle Epoque, Frantique, Luv', and Baccara. Groups of the 1980s like the Pointer Sisters, Exposé, and Bananarama updated the concept.\n\nIn Latin America, there were a number of dance-oriented popular girl groups during the era, including the Flans, Pandora and Fandango.\n\nIn Japan, all-female idol groups Candies and Pink Lady made a series of hits during the 1970s and 1980s as well. The Japanese music program Music Station listed Candies and Pink Lady in their Top 50 Idols of All Time (compiled in 2011), placing them at number 32 and number 15, with sales exceeding 5 and 13 million in Japan, respectively. With the single \"Kiss in the Dark\", Pink Lady was also one of only two Japanese artists to have reached the Billboard Top 40.\n\n1990–present: Dance pop girl group era\n\nAmerican R&B and hip hop\nWith the rise of new jack swing, contemporary R&B and hip hop, American girl groups such as En Vogue, Exposé and Sweet Sensation all had singles which hit number one on the charts. Groups in these genres, such as SWV, Xscape, 702, Total, Zhane, Blaque, and 3LW, managed to have songs chart on both the U.S. Hot 100 and the U.S. R&B charts. However, TLC achieved the most success for a girl group in an era where contemporary R&B would become global mainstream acceptance. TLC remains the best-selling American girl group with 65 million records sold, and their second studio album, CrazySexyCool (1994), remains the best-selling album by a girl group in the United States (Diamond certification), while selling over 14 million copies worldwide. Destiny's Child emerged in the late 1990s and sold more than 60 million records.\n\nDespite the dying popularity of girl groups in the US in the mid-2000s, American girl group and dance ensemble the Pussycat Dolls achieved worldwide success with their singles. Girl group Danity Kane also became the first girl group in Billboard history to have two consecutive number-one albums, as their self-titled debut album (2006) and their second album Welcome to the Dollhouse (2008) both topped the U.S. Billboard 200. Following the disbandment of both groups, the format became a very minor format with a small number of groups achieving any level of notoriety.\n\nOne such exception is Miami-based girl group Fifth Harmony, who were formed in 2012 on The X Factor USA. They reached international success with their debut album Reflection, which featured the hit \"Worth It\".\n\nThe Second British Invasion and Europe\n\nIn the early 1990s, the British music scene was dominated by boy bands. The only girl group making an impact on the UK charts at the time was Eternal, but even they \"remained largely faceless\". Amidst the American domination of the girl group format, the Second British Invasion saw the UK's Spice Girls turn the tide in the mid-1990s, achieving ten number 1 singles in the UK and US. With sold-out concerts, advertisements, merchandise, 86 million worldwide record sales, the best-selling album of all time by a female group, and a film, the Spice Girls became the most commercially successful British group since the Beatles. Unlike their predecessors who were marketed at male record buyers, the Spice Girls redefined the girl group concept by going after a young female fanbase instead.\n\nThe cultural movement started by the Spice Girls produced a glut of other similar acts, which include the British-Canadian outfit All Saints, Irish girl group B*Witched, Atomic Kitten and the Honeyz, who all achieved varying levels of success during the decade. Throughout the 2000s, girl groups from the UK remained popular, with Girls Aloud's \"Sound of the Underground\" and Sugababes' \"Round Round\" having been called \"two huge groundbreaking hits\" credited with reshaping British pop music for the 2000s. Despite her being a solo artist, Amy Winehouse's 2006 album Back to Black contained heavy influence from 1960s girl groups and garnered Winehouse comparisons to the Ronettes. UK girl group continued to have success in the 2000s and 2010s, with acts such as Mis-Teeq, the Saturdays, StooShe and Little Mix, who were the first band ever to win the UK version of The X Factor.\n\nEmergence of Asian dance-pop girl groups\nAlthough the emergence of dance-pop focused acts in Asia paralleled their British counterparts in the 1990s, girl groups in Asia sustained as a successful format through the 2010s.\nJapan has the music industry's second largest market overall and the largest physical music market in the world, with the physical sales Oricon Singles Chart being dominated by J-pop idol girl groups. In the late 1990s, vocal/dance girl bands Speed and Max gained prominence in Asia, and paved the way for succeeding Japanese girl groups, such as Morning Musume, AKB48, Perfume, and Momoiro Clover Z. Speed sold a total of 20 million copies in Japan within three years, with Variety calling them \"Japan's top girl group\", while Max still hold the record for girl group with the second most consecutive top 10 singles in Japan. Throughout the 2010s, AKB48 sister groups have been launched or will be launched in Indonesia, China, Thailand, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Vietnam. Several new Japanese idol groups appeared in the 2010s and created a fiercely competitive situation in the music industry, which has been referred to as the \"Idol sengoku jidai\" (アイドル戦国時代; lit. Age of the Idol Warring States).\n\nSince 2009, Hallyu (Korean wave) and K-pop became increasingly significant in the entertainment industry. Its influence spread across Asia and began to reach the Middle East, North Africa, Europe and the Americas. At the beginning, girl groups such as Girls' Generation, 2NE1 and Wonder Girls were among the leaders of this \"Hallyu\" wave. The influence of the original girl groups of the United States was not lost on this era of artists, as many adopted visual influences through their \"retro\" concepts, such as the international 2008 hit \"Nobody\" by Wonder Girls.\n\nFrom the second half of the 2020s, new generations of Korean girl groups emerged and enjoyed great success as the Korean wave's globalization accelerated. These newer girl groups gradually shifted towards more \"girl crush\" concepts and it became more common for members to be involved in writing or production. Popular South Korean girl groups include Blackpink, Twice, Mamamoo, and Red Velvet amongst others.\n\nThemes\n\nGirl groups have a wide array of subject matter in their songs, depending on time and place and who was producing. Songs also had a penchant for reflecting the political and cultural climate around them. For instance, songs with abusive undertones were somewhat common during the 1950s–1970s. One notable example was the song \"He Hit Me (And It Felt Like a Kiss)\" by the Crystals. During the \"golden age of girl groups\", lyrics were disparate, ranging from songs about mean dogs to underage pregnancy. However, common sentiments were also found in ideas like new love, pining after a crush or lover, and heartache. Some songs sounded upbeat or cheerful and sang about falling in love, whereas others took a decidedly more melancholic turn. Groups like the Shangri-Las, with the song \"I Can Never Go Home Anymore\" sang about the darker side of being in love.\n\nAdolescence\nAn especially prevalent theme was adolescence. Since most of the girl groups were composed of young singers, often still in high school, songs mentioned parents in many cases. Adolescence was also a popular subject because of an emerging audience of young girls listening to and buying records. Adolescence was also reinforced by girl groups in cultivation of a youthful image, since \"an unprecedented instance of teenage girls occupying center stage of mainstream commercial culture\". An example of this youth branding might be Baby Spice from the Spice Girls. This was shown through flourishes like typically matching outfits for mid-century girl groups and youthful content in songs. Girl groups of the 1950s era would also give advice to other girls, or sing about the advice their mothers gave to them, which was a similarity to some male musical groups of the time (for example, the Miracles' \"Shop Around\").\n\nAdolescence was also important (especially starting in the 1950s) from the other end: the consumers were \"teenagers [with] disposable income, ready access to automobiles, and consolidated high schools that exposed them to large numbers of other teens. Mass teen culture was born.\"\n\nFeminism\nAs the girl group structure persisted through further generations, popular cultural sentiments were incorporated into the music. The appearance of \"girl power\" and feminism was also added, even though beginning groups were very structured in their femininity. It would be simplistic to imply that girl groups only sang about being in love; on the contrary, many groups expressed complex sentiments in their songs. There were songs of support, songs that were gossipy, etc.; like any other musical movement, there was much variation in what was being sung. A prominent theme was often teaching \"what it meant to be a woman\". Girl groups would exhibit what womanhood looked like from the clothes they were wearing to the actual lyrics in their songs. Of course this changed over the years (what the Supremes were wearing was different from the Spice Girls), but girl groups still served as beacons and examples of certain types of identities to their audiences through the years.\n\nIn the 1990s through the present, with the prevalence of such groups as the Spice Girls, there has been a strong emphasis on women's independence and a sort of feminism. At the very least, the music is more assertive lyrically and relies less on innuendo. This more recent wave of girl groups is more sexually provocative as well, which makes sense within pop music within this time frame as well.\n\nSee also\n List of girl groups\n List of best-selling girl groups\n All-female band\n Women in music\n Boy band\n Dreamgirls, a 1981 musical and 2006 movie that covers the experience of girl groups in the Motown area\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n 2007 Smithsonian piece of historical influence of American Girl Groups\n Fan-made site devoted to the breadth of mid-century American Girl Groups\n\nCategory:Types of musical groups", "title": "Girl group" }, { "text": "A girl group is a popular music act featuring several female singers who generally harmonize together. Girl groups have been popular at least since the heyday of the Boswell Sisters beginning in the 1930s, but the term \"girl group\" also denotes the wave of American female pop singing groups who flourished in the late 1950s and early 1960s between the decline of early rock and roll and the British Invasion, many of whom were influenced by doo-wop style. This article covers only girl groups from that era and later.\n\nSales figures records in most countries are not available before the 1990s, so it is difficult to accurately determine best-selling records, either by country or worldwide. Certification levels have been used for most countries, but certification was not common until the 1970s in the US and UK, and later in other countries. In addition, in many countries certification is for shipments of a record to retailers, rather than actual sales. Complicating matters further, the changes from 2010 onwards as certifications have become based on combined sales figures and streaming instead of sales alone.\n\nAs a result, these tables should not be considered finalized of the best-selling records by girl groups in each country.\n\nBest-selling girl groups worldwide\n\nGroups with claimed total record sales of more than 20 million:\n\nBest-selling girl group singles\n\nWorldwide \nIt is extremely difficult to assess worldwide sales of singles, due to the lack of auditing in many countries, and that no country officially tracked sales before the 1990s. In the second edition of The Book of Golden Discs, author Joseph Murrell calculated a worldwide sales figure of 18 million singles for Baccara's \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\", but this figure is disputed and has never been officially confirmed. Other claimed worldwide sales figures for singles by girl groups are shown in the table below:\n\nNotes:\n\nAustralia \nSingles certified platinum or more by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). Only includes certifications since 1989, when ARIA took over compiling the Australian charts. From November 2014 onwards paid-for audio streams were included in the Australian singles chart and counted towards sales and certifications.\n\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nCanada\nSingles certified gold or more by the Music Canada.\n\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nFrance\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nGermany\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nNote: Certification levels in Germany have changed several times over the years – the certification level for a gold single was 250,000 until the end of 2002, 150,000 between 2003 and mid-2014, and 200,000 from mid-2014 onwards. These different levels are reflected in the table above.\nFrom January 2014 onwards, paid-for audio streams were included in the German singles chart and counted towards sales and certifications.\n\nJapan \nThe ten biggest-selling girl group singles in Japan based on total sales (May 2020):\n\nFrom January 2014, RIAJ changed calculation method for Detailed Sales and the Gold Record.\n\nNew Zealand\nSingles certified platinum or more by Recorded Music NZ. Since November 2014 certifications for singles have included streaming, and therefore cannot be compared to certifications from before this date.\n\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nSouth Korea \nThe Circle Digital Chart, a component of the Circle Chart, released download sales from its launch in 2010 until 2017, and began a certification scheme in 2018. Prior to the establishment of the Circle Music Chart, the country's music charts were supplied by the Music Industry Association of Korea (MIAK), which did not track digital single downloads.\n\nPrior to certification (2010–2017) \nSouth Korea experienced a decline in digital music sales volume which began in late 2012. The price of digital downloads was greatly inflated, and as a result, no girl group songs released since 2013 have surpassed the three million sales mark.\n\nAfter certification (2018–present) \nThe Circle Chart stopped releasing download sales in December 2017. However, the chart began implementing record certifications in April 2018, at a level of 2,500,000 sales per Platinum level. Every song released since 1 January 2018 is eligible for a certification.\n\nSweden \nThere were few certifications awarded in Sweden before 1996, so singles before this date are not represented in this list. There have been three different certification levels since 1996: from 1996 to June 2003 the gold/platinum levels for singles were 15,000/30,000, from July 2003 to September 2010 the levels were 10,000/20,000, and from October 2010 onwards, when streaming was included in the certification levels, the levels have been 20,000/40,000. The tables below reflect these changes in certification levels.\n\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nSwitzerland\n\nUnited Kingdom \nSince July 2014, certifications have included audio streams so they cannot be compared to sales-only certifications before this date. The ten biggest-selling girl group singles in the United Kingdom:\n\nPhysical and digital sales only (before July 2014)\n\nPhysical and digital sales + on-demand digital streaming (after July 2014)\n\nUnited States \n\nSales figures of records in the US were not tracked accurately until May 1991, when Nielsen SoundScan started recording sales of singles and albums electronically at point of sale, rather than relying on figures provided to them by record store staff. As a result, there are no reliable sales figures available before this date, and therefore it is not possible to rank the best-selling singles by girl groups in the US in sales order.\n\nSince 2013 certifications have included legal on-demand digital streams – separate figures for the pure sales component of singles released after 2013 are not available so they cannot be compared to sales-only certifications before this date.\n\nCertifications based on sales only\n\nRIAA sales certifications began in the US in 1958 – there are very few records with certifications before this date. Until 1988 a million-seller received a gold certification (and a two million-seller received a platinum certification). From 1989 onwards the levels were revised so that a million-seller received a platinum certification instead, with multi-platinum awards for multiple million sales. However, these pre- and post-1989 certification levels are not currently reflected in the RIAA database.\n\nThe following singles have been certified by RIAA as selling one million copies or more in the US.\n\nIn addition, the following singles have been stated as selling one million copies or more in the US – however, they have not been certified by the RIAA.\n\nCertifications based on sales + on-demand digital streaming\n\nBest-selling girl group albums\n\nWorldwide\n\nAustralia \nAlbums certified platinum or more by ARIA. Only includes certifications since 1990.\n\nBrazil \nBased on certifications awarded by Pro-Música Brasil. Certifications have only been awarded since 1990, so there is no sales information before this date. Some of the certification thresholds have changed over time.\n\nCanada \nCertifications according to Music Canada.\n\nEurope \nAlbums certified platinum or more for more than one million sales in Europe, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry.\n\nNote: the IFPI Europe Platinum Award was only created in 1996, therefore there are few albums on this list from before that date. No awards are publicly available after 2014.\n\nFrance\nCertifications according to SNEP.\n\nGermany \nCertifications according to the BVMI.\n\nJapan \nSales according to Oricon and Platinum certifications according to the RIAJ. The ten biggest-selling girl group albums in Japan:\n\nNetherlands \nCertifications according to the NVPI.\n\nNew Zealand\n\nSouth Korea \nSales of albums released after 2010 are according to the Circle Album Chart published monthly and yearly with detailed album sales by the Korea Music Content Association (KMCA). Sales of albums released before 2010 are based on data collected by Music Industry Association of Korea (from 1999 to 2007) or claimed sales based on reliable sources. The 15 biggest-selling girl group albums in South Korea:\n\nSwitzerland \nCertifications according to the IFPI.\n\nTaiwan\n\nUnited Kingdom \nAlbums certified triple platinum or more by the BPI.\n\nUnited States \nAlbums certified platinum or more by the RIAA. The sales figures shown for the quadruple and triple platinum albums are sales recorded by Nielsen SoundScan plus known sales from BMG's Music Club. These do not represent the total sales of the album in the US as they exclude unknown sales figures from Columbia House and other music clubs.\n\nSee also \n List of best-selling boy bands\n List of best-selling music artists\n List of best-selling singles\n List of best-selling albums\n List of girl groups\n\nNotes\n\nReferences \n\nGirl groups\n*\nCategory:Lists of musicians\nCategory:Lists of women in music", "title": "List of best-selling girl groups" } ]

[ "The context does not provide information on who was in the group Bananarama.", "The context does not provide information on what year the band Bananarama was founded.", "The top 10 hits of Bananarama mentioned in the context are \"Really Saying Something\" (UK #5), \"Shy Boy\" (UK #4), \"Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye\" (UK #5), \"Robert De Niro's Waiting...,\" (UK#3), and \"Cruel Summer\" (UK#8, US#9).", "The context does not provide information on who eventually signed the band Bananarama." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#0", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#1", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#2", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#3", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#4", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#5", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#6", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#7", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_1_q#8" ]

[ "What is the history of women in Syria?", "Did anybody join the organisation later on?", "What challenge did the organisation face?", "Did the organisation stop or get stopped?", "Which other notable names were mentioned int he history?", "What was his role in the history?", "Was the conflict stopped?", "What ended the story of the conflict?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 121 ], [ 837 ], [ 1304 ], [ 2201 ], [ 1196 ], [ 1213 ], [ 1389 ], [ 1835 ], [ 376 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1919, Naziq al-Abid founded Noor al-Fayha (Light of Damascus), the city's first women's organization, alongside an affiliated publication of the same name." ], [ "In 1967 Syrian women formed a quasi-governmental organization called the General Union of Syrian Women (GUSW)," ], [ "Throughout the 40 year reign, outbreaks of both nonviolent and violent acts emerged." ], [ "Syrian officials and they knew in order to get the women and children to leave would need to fulfill their demands." ], [ "Bashar Al-Assad." ], [ "In 2011, conflict was emerging throughout Syria due to the long reign of the Assad family." ], [ "Assad reacted to these actions by increasing arrests and the killings of Syrian men and women." ], [ "The military came in with tanks and were making various threats" ], [ "in 1922 she founded the Syrian Red Crescent. In 1928 Lebanese-Syrian feminist Nazira Zain al-Din, one of the first people to critically reinterpret the Quran" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 121, 837, 1304, 2201, 1196, 1213, 1389, 1835, 376 ], "texts": [ "1919, Naziq al-Abid founded Noor al-Fayha (Light of Damascus), the city's first women's organization, alongside an affiliated publication of the same name.", "In 1967 Syrian women formed a quasi-governmental organization called the General Union of Syrian Women (GUSW),", "Throughout the 40 year reign, outbreaks of both nonviolent and violent acts emerged.", "Syrian officials and they knew in order to get the women and children to leave would need to fulfill their demands.", "Bashar Al-Assad.", "In 2011, conflict was emerging throughout Syria due to the long reign of the Assad family.", "Assad reacted to these actions by increasing arrests and the killings of Syrian men and women.", "The military came in with tanks and were making various threats", "in 1922 she founded the Syrian Red Crescent. In 1928 Lebanese-Syrian feminist Nazira Zain al-Din, one of the first people to critically reinterpret the Quran" ] }

[]

[ "In the 20th century, a movement for women's rights developed in Syria, largely made up of upper-class, educated women. In 1919, Naziq al-Abid established the city's first women's organization, Noor al-Fayha, and a publication of the same name. She also founded the Syrian Red Crescent in 1922. In 1928 Nazira Zain al-Din, a Lebanese-Syrian feminist, published a book decrying the practice of veiling, arguing for the religious basis for gender equality. In 1963, the Ba'th Party promised full gender equality and women's participation in the workforce upon coming to power in Syria. In 1967, the General Union of Syrian Women (GUSW), a quasi-governmental organization aimed at achieving equal opportunity for women, was formed. In response to the violent reign of Bashar Al-Assad, Syrian women also played a significant role in acts of nonviolence. For example, in 2011, women and children blocked the main highway in a peaceful protest, leading to the liberation of over a hundred prisoners.", "The context does not provide information on whether anyone joined the organization later on.", "The context does not provide specific information on the challenges that the women's rights organizations in Syria faced.", "The context does not provide information on whether the women's organizations in Syria stopped or were stopped.", "Two notable names mentioned in the history of Syrian women's rights are Naziq al-Abid, who founded Noor al-Fayha, the city's first women's organization, and the Syrian Red Crescent. Another notable name is Nazira Zain al-Din, a Lebanese-Syrian feminist who was one of the first people to critically reinterpret the Quran from a feminist perspective.", "The context does not provide information on the role of any specific male individual in the history of women's rights in Syria. The two individuals specifically mentioned, Naziq al-Abid and Nazira Zain al-Din, are both women.", "The context does not provide specific information on whether the conflict in Syria was stopped.", "The context does not provide information on what ended the story of the conflict in Syria.", "The context discusses some interesting aspects of women's rights in Syria, including the formation of the first women's organization in Damascus, the critical reinterpretation of the Quran from a feminist perspective by Nazira Zain al-Din, and the key role women played in nonviolent discord against Bashar Al-Assad's reign. A particularly notable moment was the successful peaceful protest by women and children in 2011, which led to the release of over a hundred prisoners." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#0", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#1", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#2", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#3", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#4", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#5", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#6", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#7", "C_86032edaa18549ff92e85a8f4e7eefe4_0_q#8" ]

[ "What is the federation of Norther Syria?", "What is Rojava?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Is Rojava separate from Syria?", "What is different about norther Syria?", "How powerful is the PYD?", "Has the PYD been successful?", "What else does the PYD do?", "Is there conflict in the north?" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 104 ], [ 704 ], [ 108 ], [ 139 ], [ 232 ], [ 2481 ], [ 2481 ], [ 704 ] ], "texts": [ [ "With the Syrian Civil War, the Kurdish populated area in Northern Syria has gained de facto autonomy as the Federation of Northern Syria" ], [ "the Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava," ], [ "The civil laws of Syria are valid in Rojava, as far as they do not conflict with the Constitution of Rojava." ], [ "Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava," ], [ "Rojava, with the leading political actor being the progressive Democratic Union Party (PYD)." ], [ "Kurdish women have several armed and non-armed organizations in Rojava, and enhancing women's rights is a major focus of the political and societal agenda." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The civil laws of Syria are valid in Rojava, as far as they do not conflict with the Constitution of Rojava." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 104, 704, 108, 139, 232, 2481, 2481, 704 ], "texts": [ "With the Syrian Civil War, the Kurdish populated area in Northern Syria has gained de facto autonomy as the Federation of Northern Syria", "the Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava,", "The civil laws of Syria are valid in Rojava, as far as they do not conflict with the Constitution of Rojava.", "Federation of Northern Syria - Rojava,", "Rojava, with the leading political actor being the progressive Democratic Union Party (PYD).", "Kurdish women have several armed and non-armed organizations in Rojava, and enhancing women's rights is a major focus of the political and societal agenda.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "The civil laws of Syria are valid in Rojava, as far as they do not conflict with the Constitution of Rojava." ] }

[]

[ "The Federation of Northern Syria, also known as Rojava, is a region in Northern Syria that has gained de facto autonomy amid the Syrian Civil War. The leading political actor in this area is the progressive Democratic Union Party (PYD). The region is also known for its focus on enhancing women's rights, through both armed and non-armed women's organizations. These efforts include the introduction of civil laws proclaiming absolute equality of women under the law, a ban on forced and underage marriage, and promotion of civil marriage. Rojava also supports women in several societal ways, including required gender balance in governing bodies and support for survivors of violence.", "Rojava, also known as the Federation of Northern Syria, is a region in Northern Syria that has gained de facto autonomy during the Syrian Civil War. Its leading political actor is the progressive Democratic Union Party (PYD). Rojava is known for its considerable emphasis on women's rights, with numerous organizations dedicated to this purpose. It has civil laws that proclaim equality of women under the law, a ban on forced and underage marriage, and promotion of civil marriage. Additionally, Rojava provides gender-balanced governing bodies and support centers for victims of violence.", "Yes, one interesting aspect is the emphasis on women's rights in Rojava, which is in stark contrast to the wider region where women are often heavily repressed. Women have been actively involved in armed conflicts through the Women's Protection Units (YPJ), gaining international appreciation. Rojava has also introduced significant legal changes to protect women’s rights, like banning forced/underage marriage and polygamy, and promoting civil marriages. Additionally, it has established community centers called 'women’s house' in every town and village to aid victims of domestic violence and sexual assault. Moreover, an estimated 25 percent of the police force consists of women, while all governing bodies are required to have gender balance in their administrative positions. The progressive efforts in Rojava aim to dismantle traditional, religious, and tribal rules imposing limitations on women; although, these reforms have stirred controversy in conservative societal sectors.", "While Rojava, or the Federation of Northern Syria, has gained de facto autonomy during the Syrian Civil War, it is not formally separate from Syria. The civil laws of Syria are still valid in Rojava as long as they don't conflict with the Constitution of Rojava. Hence, it is more of a semi-autonomous region within Syria rather than a completely separate entity.", "Northern Syria, known as the Federation of Northern Syria or Rojava, is distinctive in its de facto autonomy, gained amidst the Syrian Civil War. It's largely led by the progressive Democratic Union Party (PYD). It particularly stands out for its significant emphasis on women's rights, which is unique in a region known for the repression of women. Rojava has brought about noteworthy legal changes like banning forced/underage marriage and polygamy and promoting civil marriage. It has established support centers, known as 'women's houses,' in all towns and villages for victims of violence. Furthermore, all administrative bodies in Rojava are required to maintain gender balance and a notable portion of the police force consists of women. These strides in empowering women and breaking traditional, religious, and tribal restrictions on women serve as a distinguishing characteristic of Northern Syria.\n", "The context provided does not offer specific details about the extent of the Democratic Union Party (PYD)'s power. However, it does highlight that the PYD is the leading political actor in Rojava, or the Federation of Northern Syria indicating that the party has significant political influence in this semi-autonomous region. It also suggests that the PYD has played a crucial role in the legal changes and societal reforms in the region, particularly concerning women's rights, which implies the party has considerable capabilities to drive policy change.", "The context doesn't provide specific information on the overall success or failure of the Democratic Union Party (PYD) in a quantitative sense. However, it does mention several successful initiatives driven by PYD in Rojava, Northern Syria. These include the proliferation of women's rights, the introduction of civil laws, a ban on forced and underage marriages, the promotion of civil marriage, and the establishment of community centers for women. These successes suggest the PYD has been effective in implementing its progressive agenda in the region, specifically concerning women's rights and gender equality.", "The text doesn't provide exhaustive details about all the actions or roles of the Democratic Union Party (PYD) beyond its leadership in Rojava, Northern Syria. The PYD is depicted as a progressive political actor focusing on enhancing women's rights, introducing significant legal changes, and implementing societal initiatives. These efforts include instituting absolute legal equality of women, the ban on forced and underage marriage, the promotion of civil marriage, the establishment of women's community centers, and the requirement of gender balance in all governing bodies. However, the whole scope of the PYD's activities is not detailed in the text.", "The context provided does not specifically mention active conflicts in Northern Syria or Rojava at the time the article was written. However, it does mention that Rojava gained de facto autonomy during the Syrian Civil War and that female Kurdish fighters played a key role in significant events such as the Siege of Kobani and in rescue efforts on Mount Sinjar. However, the state of conflict or peace in Northern Syria in a current or broader context is not provided." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_1_q#0", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_1_q#1", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_1_q#2", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_1_q#3", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_1_q#4" ]

[ "What was Ira role in the World War II?", "How long was he in the reserve?", "did this training helped him in the war?", "What happened after he graduated training school?", "What did he do after he was Private First class?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 197 ], [ 394 ], [ 496 ], [ 696 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hayes enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve on August 26, 1942." ], [ "and in October volunteered for Marine paratrooper (Paramarine) training at the Marine Parachute School at Camp Gillespie located east of San Diego." ], [ "On November 30, he graduated from the Parachute Training School and received his silver \"jump wings\"." ], [ "On December 1, he was promoted to Private First Class." ], [ "On March 14, 1943, Hayes sailed for New Caledonia with the 3rd Parachute Battalion," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 197, 394, 496, 696 ], "texts": [ "Hayes enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve on August 26, 1942.", "and in October volunteered for Marine paratrooper (Paramarine) training at the Marine Parachute School at Camp Gillespie located east of San Diego.", "On November 30, he graduated from the Parachute Training School and received his silver \"jump wings\".", "On December 1, he was promoted to Private First Class.", "On March 14, 1943, Hayes sailed for New Caledonia with the 3rd Parachute Battalion," ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "Ira Hayes served as a platoon automatic rifleman (BAR man) with Company K during the Bougainville Campaign against the Japanese in World War II.", "The text does not provide information on how long Ira Hayes was in the Marine Corps Reserve.", "The text does not provide specific information on how the training Ira Hayes received helped him in the war.", "After Ira Hayes graduated from the Parachute Training School, he received his silver \"jump wings\" and was promoted to Private First Class. The next day, he joined Company B, 3rd Parachute Battalion, Divisional Special Troops, 3rd Marine Division, at Camp Elliott, California.", "After Ira Hayes was promoted to Private First Class, he joined Company B, 3rd Parachute Battalion, Divisional Special Troops, 3rd Marine Division, at Camp Elliott, California. He then sailed for New Caledonia with the 3rd Parachute Battalion. The battalion was eventually shipped to Guadalcanal, sent to Vella Lavella for occupational duty, and landed on Bougainville, where Hayes fought against the Japanese as a platoon automatic rifleman with Company K during the Bougainville Campaign." ]

[ "No", "No", "no", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_0_q#0", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_0_q#1", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_0_q#2", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_0_q#3", "C_9e1c9d0d15f8487eb801ff4614059eb0_0_q#4" ]

[ "Was he one of the people who raised the flag on Iwo Jima?", "How many people were involved with that?", "How were the three Marines chosen for this duty?", "Were these three specific people chosen for any particular reason?", "Why was a replacement flag needed?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1749 ], [ 428 ], [ 639 ], [ 739 ], [ 1033 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The raising of the second American flag on Mount Suribachi on February 23, 1945" ], [ "Hayes's squad leader, Sergeant Michael Strank, was ordered to take three Marines from his rifle squad in Second Platoon," ], [ "Strank chose Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Franklin Sousley, and Hayes for the patrol." ], [ "Marine Private First Class Rene Gagnon, a battalion runner for Easy Company, was ordered up the mountain with the replacement flag." ], [ "raised the second flag attached onto another steel pipe found by Hayes and Sousley, while at the same time the smaller flag came down." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1749, 428, 639, 739, 1033 ], "texts": [ "The raising of the second American flag on Mount Suribachi on February 23, 1945", "Hayes's squad leader, Sergeant Michael Strank, was ordered to take three Marines from his rifle squad in Second Platoon,", "Strank chose Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Franklin Sousley, and Hayes for the patrol.", "Marine Private First Class Rene Gagnon, a battalion runner for Easy Company, was ordered up the mountain with the replacement flag.", "raised the second flag attached onto another steel pipe found by Hayes and Sousley, while at the same time the smaller flag came down." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "Yes, Hayes was one of the people who raised the flag on Iwo Jima.", "Six people were involved in raising the second flag on Iwo Jima. These were Sergeant Michael Strank, Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Franklin Sousley, Hayes, Marine Private First Class Rene Gagnon, and Private First Class Harold Schultz.", "Sergeant Michael Strank, the squad leader of Hayes's Second Platoon, Easy Company, was ordered to take three Marines to bring supplies up Mount Suribachi and raise a larger flag. Strank chose Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Franklin Sousley, and Hayes for the patrol.", "The context does not provide specific reasons why Corporal Harlon Block, Private First Class Franklin Sousley, and Hayes were specifically chosen for the patrol to raise a larger flag on Mount Suribachi.", "The context does not provide a specific reason why a replacement flag was needed on Mount Suribachi. However, it does mention that they were ordered to raise a larger flag, suggesting that the replacement was likely larger than the original." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#0", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#1", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#2", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#3", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#4", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#5", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#6", "C_8ef2560653f7429ca180e0c24afa5b16_0_q#7" ]

[ "What was he mot known for?", "What was his legacy?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was the movie about?", "Did he appear in any other movies?", "How did these movies fair?", "Can you tell me more about the teams he coached?", "Who are the junction boys?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 0 ], [ 1375 ], [ 1750 ], [ 1437 ], [ 1750 ], [ 1577 ], [ 1120 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Many of Bryant's former players and assistant coaches went on to become head coaches at the collegiate level and in the National Football League." ], [ "Many of Bryant's former players and assistant coaches went on to become head coaches at the collegiate level and in the National Football League." ], [ "Bryant was portrayed by Gary Busey in the 1984 film The Bear," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "by Sonny Shroyer in the 1994 film Forrest Gump, Tom Berenger in the 2002 film The Junction Boys, and Jon Voight in the 2015 film Woodlawn." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In a 1980 interview with Time magazine, Bryant admitted that he had been too hard on the Junction Boys" ], [ "Jack Pardee, one of the Junction Boys, played linebacker in the NFL" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 0, 1375, 1750, 1437, 1750, 1577, 1120 ], "texts": [ "Many of Bryant's former players and assistant coaches went on to become head coaches at the collegiate level and in the National Football League.", "Many of Bryant's former players and assistant coaches went on to become head coaches at the collegiate level and in the National Football League.", "Bryant was portrayed by Gary Busey in the 1984 film The Bear,", "CANNOTANSWER", "by Sonny Shroyer in the 1994 film Forrest Gump, Tom Berenger in the 2002 film The Junction Boys, and Jon Voight in the 2015 film Woodlawn.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In a 1980 interview with Time magazine, Bryant admitted that he had been too hard on the Junction Boys", "Jack Pardee, one of the Junction Boys, played linebacker in the NFL" ] }

[ { "text": "The Bear Bryant Show was a weekly coaches' show that served as a weekly recap of the Alabama Crimson Tide football team's previous day's game. The show ran during the tenure of head coach Paul \"Bear\" Bryant from the 1958 through the 1982 seasons. Co-hosted by John Forney (1961–1965), Bill Austin (1966), Charley Thornton (1967–1981) and Steadman Shealy (1982), The Bear Bryant Show was a cultural phenomenon within the state of Alabama that contributed to the rise in popularity and awareness of the university's football program during the 1960s and 1970s. The show ran for an hour during its entire run.\n\nHistory\n\nAs part of Bryant's contract with the University, he retained all of the rights to Alabama football game films. As such, he became one of the first collegiate football head coaches to have his own television program with the start of The Bear Bryant Show in 1958. Bryant was paid $3,000 per show and insisted on it being an hour long in order to cover the game in its entirety and for its perceived recruiting benefits. In 1966, the show became one of the first television shows produced in the state of Alabama to be broadcast in color.\n\nDuring the 25-year run of the program, several persons served as its co-host alongside Bryant. From the 1961 through 1965 seasons, the show was co-hosted by former Alabama broadcaster John Forney. Bill Austin, Sports Director of WCFT-TV Tuscaloosa co-hosted the 1966 season, Charley Thornton was later brought on as co-host and served alongside coach Bryant through the 1981 season. At the conclusion of that season, Thornton left Alabama to become an executive athletics director at Texas A&M University. In September 1982, former Crimson Tide quarterback Steadman Shealy was selected to serve as the co-host for the show. The announcement was made by the producer of the program, Sloan-Major Advertising. The show ended at the conclusion of the 1982 season with the retirement of Bryant as head coach of the Crimson Tide. During its run, over 250 episodes were produced and for several years the show was one of the highest-rated syndicated television shows in the country.\n\nAlthough over 250 episodes were produced, only 77 episodes survive on tape. So few recordings of the show remain as a result of both the show being aired live, and many of the videotapes used to record the show in the 1970s being reused week-to-week. Many of the tapes that date back to the 1970s were recorded at the request of the father of former Alabama halfback Mike Stock, so he could watch highlights of his son with the Crimson Tide. In 1992, Golden Flake and Coke donated the 77 surviving episodes to the Paul W. Bryant Museum, and in 2001 an exhibition that featured the show called \"Sundays at Four\" opened at the Bryant Museum. Efforts to re-release the show on DVD have been discussed at various times, but have yet to yield fruit.\n\nSponsors\nThe title sponsors of the show were the Birmingham Coca-Cola Bottling Company and Golden Flake Snack Foods. Their slogan was \"a great pair, says the Bear,\" and each episode opened with Bryant and his co-host opening a bag of Golden Flake potato chips and bottles of Coca-Cola.\n\nLegacy\nCulturally, the show reflected many of the values of the state not only in the way Bryant spoke about the game, but also in how he spoke about God, family and country. The ability of Bryant to connect with the fan base through the show helped to both \"create and sustain the legend of Bear Bryant\" as observed by Keith Dunnavant. During the 1960s and 1970s, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) rules prohibited teams from appearing in more than two televised games on ABC per season. As such, The Bear Bryant Show became the primary way that fans of the Crimson Tide from across the state were able to see the games. For years, the show aired on Sundays at 4:00 p.m., and its popularity regularly caused many of the stations that carried it to preempt live coverage of National Football League games during the same timeslot. In addition to providing the fans a way to see highlights from the weekly games, the show was also watched by Crimson Tide players to see what coach Bryant had to say about their individual performances.\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:1958 American television series debuts\nCategory:1982 American television series endings\nCategory:1950s American television series\nCategory:1960s American television series\nCategory:1970s American television series\nCategory:1980s American television series\nCategory:English-language television shows\nCategory:College football studio shows\nCategory:Alabama Crimson Tide football", "title": "The Bear Bryant Show" }, { "text": "Presidents of the American Football Coaches Association are:\n\nAccording to AFCA tradition officers move up one office each year until becoming president.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n*", "title": "List of presidents of the American Football Coaches Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of college football coaches with 200 career wins. \"College level\" is defined as a four-year college or university program in either the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). If a team competed at a time before the official organization of either of the two groups but is generally accepted as a \"college football program\", it is included.\n\nHistorical overview\nAs of the end of the 2022 season, a total of 98 head football coaches have reached the milestone of 200 career coaching wins.\n\nIn the 100 years after the first college football game in 1869, only eight coaches reached the 200-win milestone. The only two who reached the mark before 1950 were Pop Warner, with 319 wins from 1895 to 1938 (mostly at Carlisle, Pittsburgh and Stanford), and Amos Alonzo Stagg, with 314 wins from 1890 to 1946 (mostly at Chicago).\n\nBy 1970, another six coaches had reached the milestone: Ace Mumford, with 233 wins from 1924 to 1961 (mostly at Southern); Fred T. Long, with 227 wins from 1921 to 1965 (mostly at Wiley); Jess Neely, with 207 wins from 1924 to 1966 (mostly at Clemson and Rice); Cleveland Abbott, with 203 wins at Tuskegee between 1923 and 1954; Jake Gaither, with 204 wins at Florida A&M from 1945 to 1969; and Eddie Anderson, with 201 wins from 1922 to 1964 (mostly at Holy Cross).\n\nThough only eight coaches reached the milestone from 1869 to 1970, 90 coaches have reached the mark since then.\n\nLeaders by category\nIn overall career wins, the all-time leader is John Gagliardi with 489 wins, mostly at the NCAA Division III level. Gagliardi began his head coaching career at Carroll in Helena, Montana in 1949 and moved in 1953 to Saint John's in Collegeville, Minnesota, where he served until retiring after the 2012 season. Joe Paterno, the head coach at Penn State from 1966 until his 2011 firing in the wake of the Jerry Sandusky child molestation scandal, is second with 409 wins. NCAA sanctions following the scandal had stripped him of all 111 Penn State wins between 1998 and 2011, but the NCAA restored those wins on January 16, 2015 as part of a settlement of a lawsuit by the state of Pennsylvania against the NCAA. Eddie Robinson, head coach at Grambling State from 1941 to 1997 with a two-season hiatus during World War II in which Grambling did not field a team, is third with 408. Bobby Bowden is fourth with 377 wins.\n\nAmong the coaches with 200 career wins, Larry Kehres has the highest winning percentage with in 27 seasons (1986–2012) as the head football coach at Mount Union in Alliance, Ohio. Six others finished their careers with 200 wins and a winning percentage of .800 or greater: Pete Fredenburg (.856) Jake Gaither (.844), Tom Osborne (.836), Mike Kelly (.819), Joe Fincham (.815), and Ron Schipper (.808). Two active coaches have 200 wins and a winning percentage of .800 or greater: Steve Ryan (.835) and Nick Saban (.800).\n\nAmong coaches with at least 10 seasons in NCAA Division I and its predecessors, the all-time leaders in wins are Paterno (409), Robinson (408), Bowden (377), Bear Bryant (323), and Pop Warner (319).\n\nConsidering wins in Division I FBS only—including wins with \"major\" programs before the 1978 split of Division I football, and wins in Division I-A/FBS after the split—the all-time leaders are Paterno (409), Bowden (377), Bryant (323), Warner (319), and Amos Alonzo Stagg (314).\n\nThe only coaches with 200 Division I FCS wins after the Division I split are Jimmye Laycock (242), Roy Kidd (223), Andy Talley (217), and Jerry Moore (215).\n\nThe all-time win leaders in NCAA Division II are Danny Hale (Bloomsburg and West Chester), Gaither and Chuck Broyles, and the all-time win leaders in NCAA Division III are Gagliardi and Kehres.\n\nAmong coaches expected to be active in 2022, the career win leaders are Kevin Donley (338), Saban (269), and Mack Brown (265).\n\nThe coaches with the most wins at one college are Gagliardi (465 at Saint John's), Paterno (409 at Penn State), Robinson (408 at Grambling), Kehres (332 at Mount Union), Ken Sparks (327 at Carson–Newman), Kidd (314 at Eastern Kentucky), Bowden (304 at Florida State) and Tubby Raymond (300 at Delaware).\n\nKey\n\nCoaches with 200 career wins\n\nUpdated through end of 2022 season\n\nActive coaches nearing 200 career wins\n''This list identifies active coaches with at least 175 career wins; updated through 2022 season.\n\nSee also\n List of college football coaches with 100 losses\n List of college football coaches with 20 ties\n List of college football coaches with 0 career wins\n List of college football coaches with 30 seasons\n List of college football coaches with a .750 winning percentage\n List of college football coaches with 150 NCAA Division I FCS wins, a list restricted to wins while serving as a head coach at the FCS level\n List of National Football League head coaches\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n200 career wins", "title": "List of college football coaches with 200 wins" }, { "text": "The Paul W. Bryant Museum is located on the campus of the University of Alabama, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Founded in 1985, the museum was opened in 1988 to \"house the history of Alabama football, with special emphasis on the legendary coach\" Bear Bryant.\n\nHistory\nOn the suggestion of former head football coach Paul \"Bear\" Bryant, a planning committee was created in 1981 to establish a museum that would honor former coaches and players who helped Bryant set the intercollegiate coaching record for the most victories. The committee considered Bryant's suggestion and established that the museum would take on two missions: \"inclusion of the entire football history from the first team in 1892 and creating a collections component establishing the foundation of our current institution\". About a third of the collection is about coach Bryant.\n\nSince its inception in 1985, the museum has grown in staff, services, and exhibits. It has become a central source of information for both journalists and writers interested in the history of university athletics. In addition to building its collection, the museum has begun focusing on public programming such as informational and education services and tours for school groups. The University of Alabama campus and the local communities' support have helped to establish the museum as one of the attractions to the region.\n\nOriginally organized under the supervision of the University of Alabama Museums system, the Bryant Museum has become a freestanding unit reporting directly to the vice president/provost of the university in response to the growth in mission and function of the museum.\n\nOn April 21, 2007, the museum posted its largest ever attendance at 4,367. This was in connection with the school's annual A-Day football game which also saw a record 92,138 fans in the seats.\n\nThe museum is part of the University of Alabama Museums, which also include the University of Alabama Arboretum, Alabama Museum of Natural History, Discovering Alabama, Gorgas House, Moundville Archaeological Museum and Office of Archaeological Research.\n\nExhibits\nAmong the exhibits at the museum are a Waterford Crystal houndstooth hat which commemorates the Coach's headwear and the Daniel Moore painting used to create the 32-cent U.S. postage stamp which celebrated the life of Bryant.\n\nThe traveling Associated Press Trophy awarded from 1957 to 1965 is on display at the museum. Alabama gained permanent possession of this national championship trophy upon winning it for the 3rd time in 1965.\n\nThe museum also houses a research room where all of Alabama's games, both victories, defeats and even embarrassments can be viewed and studied. Officials claim over 1,000 such videos.\n\nThe museum also maintains a listing of people who were named for Bryant. Bryant's former players and fans have named their children Bryant, Paul, Bear and even Paula after Coach Bryant. Every September, the Paul W. Bryant Museum hosts a namesake reunion and there are over 600 namesakes that have attended this annual event. The oldest namesake (besides Coach Bryant's son Paul Bryant, Jr.) is Bryant Darrell Brown, son of Junction Survivor Darrell Brown who, due to being academically ineligible to play in 1956, surprised even Coach Bryant when he came back to play his last year of eligibility on Texas A&M's 1957 team which was ranked #1 at the time Coach Bryant accepted Alabama's offer. Darrell was the only Junction Boy to also play in Coach Bryant's last season at Texas A&M. Darrell Brown's grandson, Bryant Andrew Brown, is a second generation Bryant namesake. At over 600 names it is not definitive, but the list supports the idea that many Alabamians were enamored enough of the coach to name their children in his honor.\n\nSee also\nWalk of Champions (University of Alabama)\nAlabama Sports Hall of Fame\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Museums established in 1985\nCategory:1985 establishments in Alabama\nBryant, Paul W.\nCategory:American football museums and halls of fame\nCategory:Sports museums in Alabama\nCategory:University museums in Alabama\nCategory:Museums in Tuscaloosa, Alabama\nCategory:Sports in Tuscaloosa, Alabama\nCategory:International Sports Heritage Association\nCategory:University of Alabama\nCategory:Alabama Crimson Tide football", "title": "Paul W. Bryant Museum" } ]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "Bryant's legacy includes having many of his former players and assistant coaches go on to become successful head coaches at the collegiate level and in the National Football League. A few won national championships as head coaches for NCAA programs. Some became notable NCAA head coaches, while others became active head coaches in the NCAA or worked with NFL teams. His influence also extended to the film industry, in which he was portrayed by several actors in different films.", "Some interesting aspects include the mention of Bruce Arians, who was a running backs coach under Bryant and later became the head coach for the Arizona Cardinals. Ozzie Newsome, who is active as the general manager of the Baltimore Ravens, was also mentioned. He was a Professional Football Hall of Fame tight end and stuck with the team even after its move to Baltimore, becoming the GM of their championship teams. Bryant was also portrayed by various actors in films, including Gary Busey, Sonny Shroyer, Tom Berenger, and Jon Voight. Lastly, Bryant admitted in an interview that he had been too hard on his Junction Boys team.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Bryant was not stated to have personally appeared in any movies. However, he was portrayed by actors in several films, including \"The Bear,\" \"Forrest Gump,\" \"The Junction Boys,\" and \"Woodlawn.\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

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[ "What year did Bryant die?", "How long was he in the hospital?", "What year did he retire?", "Where did he retire from?", "Are there any other interesting facts in the article?", "What else did they talk about?", "Who did he leave behind when he passed away?", "What awards did Bryant win?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 1, 0, 2, 0, 2 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1528 ], [ 1631 ], [ 768 ], [ 2524 ], [ 403 ], [ 560 ], [ 2271 ], [ 2332 ] ], "texts": [ [ "January 25, 1983, Bryant checked into Druid City Hospital in Tuscaloosa after experiencing chest pain." ], [ "A day later, when being prepared for an electrocardiogram, he died after suffering a massive heart attack." ], [ "1982" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Shortly before his death, Bryant met with evangelist Robert Schuller on a plane flight and the two talked extensively about religion," ], [ "considerable impression on the coach, who felt considerable guilt over his mistreatment of the Junction Boys and hiding his smoking and drinking habits from his mother." ], [ "A month after his death, Bryant was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom," ], [ "Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1528, 1631, 768, 2524, 403, 560, 2271, 2332 ], "texts": [ "January 25, 1983, Bryant checked into Druid City Hospital in Tuscaloosa after experiencing chest pain.", "A day later, when being prepared for an electrocardiogram, he died after suffering a massive heart attack.", "1982", "CANNOTANSWER", "Shortly before his death, Bryant met with evangelist Robert Schuller on a plane flight and the two talked extensively about religion,", "considerable impression on the coach, who felt considerable guilt over his mistreatment of the Junction Boys and hiding his smoking and drinking habits from his mother.", "A month after his death, Bryant was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom,", "Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award," ] }

[ { "text": "The Bear Bryant Show was a weekly coaches' show that served as a weekly recap of the Alabama Crimson Tide football team's previous day's game. The show ran during the tenure of head coach Paul \"Bear\" Bryant from the 1958 through the 1982 seasons. Co-hosted by John Forney (1961–1965), Bill Austin (1966), Charley Thornton (1967–1981) and Steadman Shealy (1982), The Bear Bryant Show was a cultural phenomenon within the state of Alabama that contributed to the rise in popularity and awareness of the university's football program during the 1960s and 1970s. The show ran for an hour during its entire run.\n\nHistory\n\nAs part of Bryant's contract with the University, he retained all of the rights to Alabama football game films. As such, he became one of the first collegiate football head coaches to have his own television program with the start of The Bear Bryant Show in 1958. Bryant was paid $3,000 per show and insisted on it being an hour long in order to cover the game in its entirety and for its perceived recruiting benefits. In 1966, the show became one of the first television shows produced in the state of Alabama to be broadcast in color.\n\nDuring the 25-year run of the program, several persons served as its co-host alongside Bryant. From the 1961 through 1965 seasons, the show was co-hosted by former Alabama broadcaster John Forney. Bill Austin, Sports Director of WCFT-TV Tuscaloosa co-hosted the 1966 season, Charley Thornton was later brought on as co-host and served alongside coach Bryant through the 1981 season. At the conclusion of that season, Thornton left Alabama to become an executive athletics director at Texas A&M University. In September 1982, former Crimson Tide quarterback Steadman Shealy was selected to serve as the co-host for the show. The announcement was made by the producer of the program, Sloan-Major Advertising. The show ended at the conclusion of the 1982 season with the retirement of Bryant as head coach of the Crimson Tide. During its run, over 250 episodes were produced and for several years the show was one of the highest-rated syndicated television shows in the country.\n\nAlthough over 250 episodes were produced, only 77 episodes survive on tape. So few recordings of the show remain as a result of both the show being aired live, and many of the videotapes used to record the show in the 1970s being reused week-to-week. Many of the tapes that date back to the 1970s were recorded at the request of the father of former Alabama halfback Mike Stock, so he could watch highlights of his son with the Crimson Tide. In 1992, Golden Flake and Coke donated the 77 surviving episodes to the Paul W. Bryant Museum, and in 2001 an exhibition that featured the show called \"Sundays at Four\" opened at the Bryant Museum. Efforts to re-release the show on DVD have been discussed at various times, but have yet to yield fruit.\n\nSponsors\nThe title sponsors of the show were the Birmingham Coca-Cola Bottling Company and Golden Flake Snack Foods. Their slogan was \"a great pair, says the Bear,\" and each episode opened with Bryant and his co-host opening a bag of Golden Flake potato chips and bottles of Coca-Cola.\n\nLegacy\nCulturally, the show reflected many of the values of the state not only in the way Bryant spoke about the game, but also in how he spoke about God, family and country. The ability of Bryant to connect with the fan base through the show helped to both \"create and sustain the legend of Bear Bryant\" as observed by Keith Dunnavant. During the 1960s and 1970s, National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) rules prohibited teams from appearing in more than two televised games on ABC per season. As such, The Bear Bryant Show became the primary way that fans of the Crimson Tide from across the state were able to see the games. For years, the show aired on Sundays at 4:00 p.m., and its popularity regularly caused many of the stations that carried it to preempt live coverage of National Football League games during the same timeslot. In addition to providing the fans a way to see highlights from the weekly games, the show was also watched by Crimson Tide players to see what coach Bryant had to say about their individual performances.\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:1958 American television series debuts\nCategory:1982 American television series endings\nCategory:1950s American television series\nCategory:1960s American television series\nCategory:1970s American television series\nCategory:1980s American television series\nCategory:English-language television shows\nCategory:College football studio shows\nCategory:Alabama Crimson Tide football", "title": "The Bear Bryant Show" }, { "text": "Presidents of the American Football Coaches Association are:\n\nAccording to AFCA tradition officers move up one office each year until becoming president.\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n*", "title": "List of presidents of the American Football Coaches Association" }, { "text": "This is a list of college football coaches with 200 career wins. \"College level\" is defined as a four-year college or university program in either the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). If a team competed at a time before the official organization of either of the two groups but is generally accepted as a \"college football program\", it is included.\n\nHistorical overview\nAs of the end of the 2022 season, a total of 98 head football coaches have reached the milestone of 200 career coaching wins.\n\nIn the 100 years after the first college football game in 1869, only eight coaches reached the 200-win milestone. The only two who reached the mark before 1950 were Pop Warner, with 319 wins from 1895 to 1938 (mostly at Carlisle, Pittsburgh and Stanford), and Amos Alonzo Stagg, with 314 wins from 1890 to 1946 (mostly at Chicago).\n\nBy 1970, another six coaches had reached the milestone: Ace Mumford, with 233 wins from 1924 to 1961 (mostly at Southern); Fred T. Long, with 227 wins from 1921 to 1965 (mostly at Wiley); Jess Neely, with 207 wins from 1924 to 1966 (mostly at Clemson and Rice); Cleveland Abbott, with 203 wins at Tuskegee between 1923 and 1954; Jake Gaither, with 204 wins at Florida A&M from 1945 to 1969; and Eddie Anderson, with 201 wins from 1922 to 1964 (mostly at Holy Cross).\n\nThough only eight coaches reached the milestone from 1869 to 1970, 90 coaches have reached the mark since then.\n\nLeaders by category\nIn overall career wins, the all-time leader is John Gagliardi with 489 wins, mostly at the NCAA Division III level. Gagliardi began his head coaching career at Carroll in Helena, Montana in 1949 and moved in 1953 to Saint John's in Collegeville, Minnesota, where he served until retiring after the 2012 season. Joe Paterno, the head coach at Penn State from 1966 until his 2011 firing in the wake of the Jerry Sandusky child molestation scandal, is second with 409 wins. NCAA sanctions following the scandal had stripped him of all 111 Penn State wins between 1998 and 2011, but the NCAA restored those wins on January 16, 2015 as part of a settlement of a lawsuit by the state of Pennsylvania against the NCAA. Eddie Robinson, head coach at Grambling State from 1941 to 1997 with a two-season hiatus during World War II in which Grambling did not field a team, is third with 408. Bobby Bowden is fourth with 377 wins.\n\nAmong the coaches with 200 career wins, Larry Kehres has the highest winning percentage with in 27 seasons (1986–2012) as the head football coach at Mount Union in Alliance, Ohio. Six others finished their careers with 200 wins and a winning percentage of .800 or greater: Pete Fredenburg (.856) Jake Gaither (.844), Tom Osborne (.836), Mike Kelly (.819), Joe Fincham (.815), and Ron Schipper (.808). Two active coaches have 200 wins and a winning percentage of .800 or greater: Steve Ryan (.835) and Nick Saban (.800).\n\nAmong coaches with at least 10 seasons in NCAA Division I and its predecessors, the all-time leaders in wins are Paterno (409), Robinson (408), Bowden (377), Bear Bryant (323), and Pop Warner (319).\n\nConsidering wins in Division I FBS only—including wins with \"major\" programs before the 1978 split of Division I football, and wins in Division I-A/FBS after the split—the all-time leaders are Paterno (409), Bowden (377), Bryant (323), Warner (319), and Amos Alonzo Stagg (314).\n\nThe only coaches with 200 Division I FCS wins after the Division I split are Jimmye Laycock (242), Roy Kidd (223), Andy Talley (217), and Jerry Moore (215).\n\nThe all-time win leaders in NCAA Division II are Danny Hale (Bloomsburg and West Chester), Gaither and Chuck Broyles, and the all-time win leaders in NCAA Division III are Gagliardi and Kehres.\n\nAmong coaches expected to be active in 2022, the career win leaders are Kevin Donley (338), Saban (269), and Mack Brown (265).\n\nThe coaches with the most wins at one college are Gagliardi (465 at Saint John's), Paterno (409 at Penn State), Robinson (408 at Grambling), Kehres (332 at Mount Union), Ken Sparks (327 at Carson–Newman), Kidd (314 at Eastern Kentucky), Bowden (304 at Florida State) and Tubby Raymond (300 at Delaware).\n\nKey\n\nCoaches with 200 career wins\n\nUpdated through end of 2022 season\n\nActive coaches nearing 200 career wins\n''This list identifies active coaches with at least 175 career wins; updated through 2022 season.\n\nSee also\n List of college football coaches with 100 losses\n List of college football coaches with 20 ties\n List of college football coaches with 0 career wins\n List of college football coaches with 30 seasons\n List of college football coaches with a .750 winning percentage\n List of college football coaches with 150 NCAA Division I FCS wins, a list restricted to wins while serving as a head coach at the FCS level\n List of National Football League head coaches\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\n200 career wins", "title": "List of college football coaches with 200 wins" }, { "text": "The Paul W. Bryant Museum is located on the campus of the University of Alabama, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Founded in 1985, the museum was opened in 1988 to \"house the history of Alabama football, with special emphasis on the legendary coach\" Bear Bryant.\n\nHistory\nOn the suggestion of former head football coach Paul \"Bear\" Bryant, a planning committee was created in 1981 to establish a museum that would honor former coaches and players who helped Bryant set the intercollegiate coaching record for the most victories. The committee considered Bryant's suggestion and established that the museum would take on two missions: \"inclusion of the entire football history from the first team in 1892 and creating a collections component establishing the foundation of our current institution\". About a third of the collection is about coach Bryant.\n\nSince its inception in 1985, the museum has grown in staff, services, and exhibits. It has become a central source of information for both journalists and writers interested in the history of university athletics. In addition to building its collection, the museum has begun focusing on public programming such as informational and education services and tours for school groups. The University of Alabama campus and the local communities' support have helped to establish the museum as one of the attractions to the region.\n\nOriginally organized under the supervision of the University of Alabama Museums system, the Bryant Museum has become a freestanding unit reporting directly to the vice president/provost of the university in response to the growth in mission and function of the museum.\n\nOn April 21, 2007, the museum posted its largest ever attendance at 4,367. This was in connection with the school's annual A-Day football game which also saw a record 92,138 fans in the seats.\n\nThe museum is part of the University of Alabama Museums, which also include the University of Alabama Arboretum, Alabama Museum of Natural History, Discovering Alabama, Gorgas House, Moundville Archaeological Museum and Office of Archaeological Research.\n\nExhibits\nAmong the exhibits at the museum are a Waterford Crystal houndstooth hat which commemorates the Coach's headwear and the Daniel Moore painting used to create the 32-cent U.S. postage stamp which celebrated the life of Bryant.\n\nThe traveling Associated Press Trophy awarded from 1957 to 1965 is on display at the museum. Alabama gained permanent possession of this national championship trophy upon winning it for the 3rd time in 1965.\n\nThe museum also houses a research room where all of Alabama's games, both victories, defeats and even embarrassments can be viewed and studied. Officials claim over 1,000 such videos.\n\nThe museum also maintains a listing of people who were named for Bryant. Bryant's former players and fans have named their children Bryant, Paul, Bear and even Paula after Coach Bryant. Every September, the Paul W. Bryant Museum hosts a namesake reunion and there are over 600 namesakes that have attended this annual event. The oldest namesake (besides Coach Bryant's son Paul Bryant, Jr.) is Bryant Darrell Brown, son of Junction Survivor Darrell Brown who, due to being academically ineligible to play in 1956, surprised even Coach Bryant when he came back to play his last year of eligibility on Texas A&M's 1957 team which was ranked #1 at the time Coach Bryant accepted Alabama's offer. Darrell was the only Junction Boy to also play in Coach Bryant's last season at Texas A&M. Darrell Brown's grandson, Bryant Andrew Brown, is a second generation Bryant namesake. At over 600 names it is not definitive, but the list supports the idea that many Alabamians were enamored enough of the coach to name their children in his honor.\n\nSee also\nWalk of Champions (University of Alabama)\nAlabama Sports Hall of Fame\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\nCategory:Museums established in 1985\nCategory:1985 establishments in Alabama\nBryant, Paul W.\nCategory:American football museums and halls of fame\nCategory:Sports museums in Alabama\nCategory:University museums in Alabama\nCategory:Museums in Tuscaloosa, Alabama\nCategory:Sports in Tuscaloosa, Alabama\nCategory:International Sports Heritage Association\nCategory:University of Alabama\nCategory:Alabama Crimson Tide football", "title": "Paul W. Bryant Museum" } ]

[ "Bryant died in the year 1983.", "Bryant was in the hospital for two days before he died.", "Bryant retired in the year 1982.", "Bryant retired from coaching at the University of Alabama.", "Yes, a few other interesting facts include that Bryant had a conversation about religion with evangelist Robert Schuller shortly before his death that had a considerable impression on him. He also expressed guilt over his mistreatment of the Junction Boys and hiding his smoking and drinking habits from his mother. He won two national championships during the last five years of his life despite his health issues. At the time of his death, he was wearing a gold ring inscribed \"Junction Boys\", the only piece of jewelry he ever wore. A month after his death, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award, by President Ronald Reagan.", "The context does not provide any other topics that Bryant and Robert Schuller discussed in their conversation.", "The context does not provide information on who Bryant left behind when he passed away.", "In the last five years of his life, Bryant coached Alabama to two national championships. Additionally, a month after his death, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the nation's highest civilian award, by President Ronald Reagan." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#0", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#1", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#2", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#3", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#4", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#5", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#6", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_1_q#7" ]

[ "Who was he married to?", "Did they have any kids?", "When did they get married?", "Where did he work?", "When did he start struggling with alcoholism?", "How did alcohol impact his life?", "Did alcohol affect his marriage?", "Where did he work in business?" ]

[ 0, 2, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 20 ], [ 0 ], [ 40 ], [ 592 ], [ 489 ], [ 1783 ], [ 1578 ], [ 1541 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Lois Burnham" ], [ "Wilson met his wife Lois Burnham during the summer of 1913," ], [ "the summer of 1913," ], [ "Vermont National Guard" ], [ "1916" ], [ "Wilson's constant drinking made business impossible and ruined his reputation." ], [ "had success traveling the country with his wife, evaluating companies for potential investors." ], [ "Wilson became a stock speculator" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 20, 0, 40, 592, 489, 1783, 1578, 1541 ], "texts": [ "Lois Burnham", "Wilson met his wife Lois Burnham during the summer of 1913,", "the summer of 1913,", "Vermont National Guard", "1916", "Wilson's constant drinking made business impossible and ruined his reputation.", "had success traveling the country with his wife, evaluating companies for potential investors.", "Wilson became a stock speculator" ] }

[]

[ "He was married to Lois Burnham.", "The text does not provide information on whether Wilson and Lois Burnham had any kids.", "Wilson and Lois got married on January 24, 1918.", "Wilson worked as a stock speculator, traveling the country with his wife and evaluating companies for potential investors.", "The text does not specify when Wilson started struggling with alcoholism. However, it mentions that he had his first drink during military training and that his drinking became a problem over time, causing him to fail law school and ruining his business and reputation.", "Alcohol significantly impacted Wilson's life. It caused him to fail law school because he was too drunk to pick up his diploma. His constant drinking also made conducting business impossible and it ruined his reputation. In 1933, because of his drinking, Wilson had to be committed to the Charles B. Towns Hospital for Drug and Alcohol Addictions in New York City four times. He was eventually told that he would either die from his alcoholism or have to be locked up permanently due to Wernicke encephalopathy, commonly referred to as \"wet brain\".", "The text does not provide specific information on how Wilson's alcoholism affected his marriage. However, it is mentioned that his wife Lois hoped that travelling together for Wilson's work as a stock speculator would keep him from drinking.", "Wilson worked as a stock speculator. He would travel the country with his wife, evaluating companies for potential investors. The text does not provide specific information on where exactly he worked during this time." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#0", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#1", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#2", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#3", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#4", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#5", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#6", "C_bb095ec35b1f41d3af5640fe3d2ea59a_0_q#7" ]

[ "how did the program help Bll W.", "how long ws he in the program?", "what did Bill accomplish while in the spirtual program?", "how did he help others with alcohol??", "what was the name of the book?", "did Bill W. invent alcoholic anonymos meetings?", "Any other interesting facts?", "how long was he sober?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 944 ], [ 3092 ], [ 2241 ], [ 2528 ], [ 2610 ], [ 2754 ], [ 1747 ], [ 1031 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He then had the sensation of a bright light, a feeling of ecstasy, and a new serenity. He never drank again for the remainder of his life." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Wilson returned to New York where he began having success helping alcoholics in what they called \"a nameless squad of drunks\" in an Oxford Group there." ], [ "through the publication of a book, for which Wilson was chosen as primary author." ], [ "The book was given the title Alcoholics Anonymous" ], [ "The movement itself took on the name of the book." ], [ "Wilson shared that the only way he was able to stay sober was through having had a spiritual experience." ], [ "He never drank again for the remainder of his life." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 944, 3092, 2241, 2528, 2610, 2754, 1747, 1031 ], "texts": [ "He then had the sensation of a bright light, a feeling of ecstasy, and a new serenity. He never drank again for the remainder of his life.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Wilson returned to New York where he began having success helping alcoholics in what they called \"a nameless squad of drunks\" in an Oxford Group there.", "through the publication of a book, for which Wilson was chosen as primary author.", "The book was given the title Alcoholics Anonymous", "The movement itself took on the name of the book.", "Wilson shared that the only way he was able to stay sober was through having had a spiritual experience.", "He never drank again for the remainder of his life." ] }

[]

[ "C_5179aa5bd65c47c3b879d7b789f45b4d_1_q#0", "C_5179aa5bd65c47c3b879d7b789f45b4d_1_q#1", "C_5179aa5bd65c47c3b879d7b789f45b4d_1_q#2", "C_5179aa5bd65c47c3b879d7b789f45b4d_1_q#3" ]

[ "What were some of the ranks?", "How do you get a rank?", "Are titles different from ranks?", "Are there other titles or ranks?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 60 ], [ 230 ], [ 1049 ], [ 131 ] ], "texts": [ [ "in descending order of rank, duke, marquess, earl, viscount and baron;" ], [ "In the Scottish peerage, the lowest rank is lordship of Parliament, the male holder thereof being known as a lord of Parliament." ], [ "Many peers hold more than one hereditary title; for example, the same individual may be a duke, an earl, a viscount and a baron by virtue of different peerages." ], [ "the female equivalents are duchess, marchioness, countess, viscountess and baroness respectively." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 60, 230, 1049, 131 ], "texts": [ "in descending order of rank, duke, marquess, earl, viscount and baron;", "In the Scottish peerage, the lowest rank is lordship of Parliament, the male holder thereof being known as a lord of Parliament.", "Many peers hold more than one hereditary title; for example, the same individual may be a duke, an earl, a viscount and a baron by virtue of different peerages.", "the female equivalents are duchess, marchioness, countess, viscountess and baroness respectively." ] }

[ { "text": "This page, one list of hereditary baronies, lists all baronies, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.\n\n__TOC__\n\nGeorge III (1801–1811)\n\nRegency (1811–1820)\n\nGeorge IV (1820–1830)\n\nWilliam IV (1830–1837)\n\nVictoria (1837–1901)\n\nEdward VII (1901–1910)\n\nGeorge V (1910–1936)\n\nEdward VIII (1936)\n\nGeorge VI (1936–1952)\n\nElizabeth II (1952–2022)\n\nSee also\nList of Baronies in the Peerage of England\nList of Lordships of Parliament\nList of Baronies in the Peerage of Great Britain\nList of Baronies in the Peerage of Ireland\nList of Life Peerages\nList of Law Life Peerages\nPre-1876 Life Peerages\n\nReferences\n\nUnited Kingdom\nBarons\nCategory:Baronies", "title": "List of hereditary baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom" }, { "text": "This is a list of hereditary peers elected to serve in the House of Lords under the provisions of the House of Lords Act 1999 and the Standing Orders of the House of Lords. The Act excluded all hereditary peers who were not also life peers except for two holders of royal offices plus ninety other peers, to be chosen by the House.\n\nBefore the enactment of the Act, the House approved a Standing Order stating that the remaining hereditary peers shall consist of:\n\n 2 peers to be elected by the Labour hereditary peers\n 42 peers to be elected by the Conservative hereditary peers\n 3 peers to be elected by the Liberal Democrat hereditary peers\n 28 peers to be elected by the Crossbencher hereditary peers\n 15 peers to be elected by the whole House\n The holders of the offices of Earl Marshal (the Duke of Norfolk) and Lord Great Chamberlain (currently the Baron Carrington, who was already elected as a Crossbench peer) to be ex officio members\n\nThe total number and sub-composition set out above reflects a compromise to ensure passage of the Act through the House reached between then-Prime Minister Tony Blair and the leader of the opposition Conservatives in the Lords, Viscount Cranborne (known since his father's death in 2003 as the Marquess of Salisbury), a descendant of the last Prime Minister to sit in the Lords throughout the entirety of their premiership. The number elected by each group reflected the relative strengths of the parties among hereditary peers at that time. Historically, the Conservatives had predominated in the House since 1890; it was this entrenched position which led to the removal of the absolute power of veto from the House of Lords by the Parliament Act 1911 and was the chief catalyst for the removal of most peers in 1999. The House of Lords Act 1999 reduced the proportion of Conservative peers in the House from 41% (in April 1999) to 33% (in June 2000), and the proportion of hereditary peers in the House from 59% to 13%.\n\nThe fifteen peers elected by the whole house were intended to provide a group of experienced members ready to serve as Deputy Speakers or other officers.\n\nThe initial elections took place before the House of Lords Act took effect; therefore all hereditary peers could vote in those elections. From the end of the 1998–1999 session of parliament until the following session, vacancies (usually triggered by death) were to be filled by runners up in the initial elections. Two Crossbench peers, Lord Cobbold and Lord Chorley, returned to the House this way, having sat before 1999. Since then, vacancies among the group of 15 peers have been filled through by-elections, with all members of the House entitled to vote. The Procedure Committee has recommended that any peer elected at a by-election in this category should not be expected to serve as a Deputy Speaker. In by-elections to fill vacancies in the political groups, only hereditary peers of that group sitting in the House may vote.\n\nAs of November 2022, there are 4 dukes, 25 earls, 15 viscounts, 45 barons and 2 Lords of Parliament among the 91 hereditary peers entitled to sit in the House of Lords.\n\nOnly those with titles in the Peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom are currently eligible for a seat. Peers in the Peerage of Ireland are only eligible if they hold a title in one of the other peerages, but if elected, they may use their Irish peerage whilst in the Lords; for instance, the present Earl of Arran, whose highest title is an Irish one, is entitled to a seat as Lord Sudley, his subsidiary title in the UK peerage, but sits using his highest, Irish, title.\n\nElected by the whole House\n\nSitting\n\nDeceased\n\nResigned\n\nElected by the Conservative hereditary peers\n\nSitting\n\nDeceased\n\nResigned\n\nRemoved for non-attendance\nPursuant to section 2 of House of Lords Reform Act 2014\n\nElected by the Crossbencher hereditary peers\n\nSitting\n\nDeceased\n\nResigned\n\nRemoved for non-attendance\n\nPursuant to section 2 of House of Lords Reform Act 2014\n\nElected by the Liberal Democrats hereditary peers\n\nSitting\n\nDeceased\n\nElected by the Labour hereditary peers\n\nSitting\n\nDeceased\n\nNotes\n\nSee also\n1999 hereditary peers' elections\nBy-elections to the House of Lords\nList of hereditary peers in the House of Lords by virtue of a life peerage\nList of hereditary peers removed under the House of Lords Act 1999\nPeerage of the United Kingdom\nHereditary peerage\n\nReferences\n\nExcepted hereditary peers\nHereditary peers\nElected hereditary peers", "title": "List of hereditary peers elected under the House of Lords Act 1999" }, { "text": "Following the enactment of the House of Lords Act 1999, the number of hereditary peers entitled to sit in the House of Lords was reduced to ninety-two. The Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain were entitled to set ex officio; the remaining ninety were elected by all the hereditary peers before the passing of the reform. Since November 2002, by-elections have been held to fill vacancies left by deaths, resignations or disqualifications of those peers. Since the passing of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, by-elections have also been held to fill vacancies left by the retirements of those peers.\n\nBefore the passing of the 1999 Act, the Lords approved a Standing Order stating that the remaining hereditary peers shall consist of:\n\n 2 peers to be elected by the Labour hereditary peers\n 42 peers to be elected by the Conservative hereditary peers\n 3 peers to be elected by the Liberal Democrat hereditary peers\n 28 peers to be elected by the Crossbench hereditary peers\n 15 peers to be elected by the whole House\n The holders of the offices of Earl Marshal and Lord Great Chamberlain to be ex officio members. The current holder of the office of Lord Great Chamberlain was previously elected to the House of Lords in a by-election. As a result, there are currently 91 seats for excepted hereditary peers in the House of Lords.\n\nElections must be held within three months of a vacancy occurring, and they take place under the Alternative Vote system. All those on the Register of Hereditary Peers are eligible to stand, but only sitting (the \"excepted\") hereditary peers may vote for the 75 seats reserved for a single parliamentary group (which can result in very small electorates, such as three voters in the 2003 election of Lord Grantchester); for the 15 peers elected by the whole house, life peers may also vote.\n\nAs of March 2023, there have been 18 by-elections among Conservative peers; 18 by-elections among Crossbench peers; 2 among Liberal Democrat peers; and 2 among Labour peers. In addition, there have been 13 by-elections by the whole House.\n\nCurrent composition\n\n, the party affiliations of the elected hereditary peers are as follows:One additional hereditary peer is an ex officio member of the Lords: Duke of Norfolk (Earl Marshal).By-election results\n\n2003\nAfter the death of the Viscount of Oxfuird\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 37 others \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| - \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-\n\nAfter the death of Lord Milner of Leeds\n\n2004\nAfter the death of Lord Vivian:\n\n2005\nAfter the death of the Earl Russell:\n\nAfter the death of Lord Burnham:\n\nAfter the death of Lord Aberdare:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 10 others \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| - \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-\n\nAfter the death of Baroness Strange:\n\n2007\nAfter the death of Lord Mowbray and Stourton:\n\n2008\nAfter the death of the Baroness Darcy de Knayth:\n\n2009\nAfter the death of the Viscount Bledisloe:\n\n2010\nAfter the death of the Viscount Colville of Culross:\n\nAfter the death of the Earl of Northesk:\n\n2011\nAfter the death of the Lord Strabolgi:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 4 others| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n|-\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Monson:\n\nAfter the death of the Earl of Onslow:\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Ampthill:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 2 others| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| - \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-\n\n2013\nAfter the death of Earl Ferrers:\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Reay:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 4 others| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| - \n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-\n\n2014\nAfter the death of the Lord Moran:\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Methuen:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 3 others| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n|-\n\nAfter the death of the Viscount Allenby of Megiddo:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Cobbold:\n\n2015\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Chorley:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lady Saltoun of Abernethy:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Viscount Tenby:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Luke:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Viscount Montgomery of Alamein:\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Montagu of Beaulieu:\n\n2016\nAfter the death of the Lord Avebury:\n\nAfter the removal for non-attendance of the Lord Bridges:\n\n2017\nAfter the death of the Lord Lyell:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Walpole:\n\n Viscount Hill originally announced his candidacy but later withdrew.\n\n2018\nAfter the retirement of the Earl Baldwin of Bewdley:\n\n David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon originally announced his candidacy but later withdrew.\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Glentoran:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Northbourne:\n\n2019\nAfter the death of the Lord Skelmersdale:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 3 others| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-\n\nAfter the death of the Viscount Slim:\n\n2021\nNormally, by-elections must be held within three months of a vacancy occurring, but on 23 March 2020 a motion was passed by the House to suspend any by-elections until 8 September 2020, as part of revised working arrangements in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. On 7 September, a further motion was passed by the House to continue the suspension of by-elections until 31 December 2020. On 14 December, a further motion was passed by the House to suspend by-elections pending a report from the Procedure and Privileges Committee. On 22 February 2021, a motion was passed by the House to continue the suspension pending a further review by the Committee after any adjournment of the House for Easter. On 26 April, a report of the Committee was published. The Committee announced that by-elections will resume and anticipated that pending by-elections would be held before the summer recess of the House.\n\nAfter the retirements of the Earl of Selborne and the Lord Denham, and the removal for non-attendance of the Lord Selsdon:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Countess of Mar:\n\nAfter the death of the Lord Rea:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Elton:\n\nAfter the death of the Viscount Simon:\n\n2022\nAfter the retirement of the Viscount Ridley:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Rotherwick:\n\nAfter the retirement of the Lord Brabazon of Tara, and the death of the Lord Swinfen:\n\nAfter the retirements of the Viscount Ullswater, and the Lord Colwyn:\n\n|- \n|! style=\"background:white;\"| \n| Others \n| 2 others''\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| 0\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n| style=\"text-align:right;\"| -\n|-After the retirement of the Earl of Listowel:After the retirement of the Lord Astor of Hever, and the death of the Earl of Home:'''\n\n The Earl of Minto and Lord Roborough initially announced their candidacies, but subsequently were elected at a by-election earlier the same week.\n\nForthcoming by-elections\nThe Viscount Falkland, one of the 15 hereditary peers elected by the whole House, retired from the House on 21 March 2023. He sat as a Liberal Democrat from 1984 to 2011 and as a Crossbencher from 2011 to 2023. A by-election to replace him will be held from 12 June to 13 June 2023, with the result announced on 14 June 2023.\n\nThree candidates declared their candidacy. They are:\n Lord Belhaven and Stenton (Liberal Democrat)\n Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (Liberal Democrat)\n Earl Russell (Liberal Democrat)\n\nHistorical by-elections\nFrom the 1707 Act of Union to the passing of the Peerage Act 1963, peers in the Peerage of Scotland elected sixteen representative peers to sit in the House of Lords. Unlike Irish peers, however, Scottish representative peers only sat for the duration of one parliament before facing re-election. By-elections were held in the Palace of Holyroodhouse to replace deceased peers. After the passing of the Peerage Act 1963, all Scottish peers were entitled to sit in the House of Lords and the election procedure was abolished.\n\nAlso, from the 1801 Act of Union to Irish independence, 28 representative peers were elected from and by the Peerage of Ireland to sit in the British House of Lords. Like current hereditary peers, these representative peers sat for life terms and deceased peers were replaced in by-elections. Unlike modern hereditary peer by-elections, all peers in the Peerage of Ireland, even those who did not sit in the House of Lords, were entitled to vote. Upon the creation of the Irish Free State, the officers required to officiate these by-elections were abolished and thus no more were held, but those peers already elected kept their seats for the remainder of their lives. The last to sit in the Lords was Francis Needham, 4th Earl of Kilmorey, who died in 1961.\n\nSee also \n1999 hereditary peers' elections\nList of hereditary peers elected under the House of Lords Act 1999\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:House of Lords\nCategory:By-elections in the United Kingdom\nCategory:Parliament of the United Kingdom\nCategory:Lists of by-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom", "title": "By-elections to the House of Lords" }, { "text": "This article is a list of hereditary peers who are or have been members of the House of Lords by virtue of a life peerage under the Life Peerages Act 1958.\n\nList of hereditary peers with life peerages\n\nList of life peers who have disclaimed hereditary peerage\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations \n\nHereditary", "title": "List of hereditary peers in the House of Lords by virtue of a life peerage" }, { "text": "Certain governments in the United Kingdom have, for more than a century, attempted to find a way to reform the House of Lords, the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. This process was started by the Parliament Act 1911 introduced by the then Liberal Government which stated:\n\n...whereas it is intended to substitute for the House of Lords as it at present exists a Second Chamber constituted on a popular instead of hereditary basis, but such substitution cannot be immediately brought into operation\n\nWhen the Labour Party came to power in the 1997 general election, it had in its manifesto the promise to reform the House of Lords:\nThe House of Lords must be reformed. As an initial, self-contained reform, not dependent on further reform in the future, the right of hereditary Peers to sit and vote in the House of Lords will be ended by statute...\nThe Blair government subsequently passed the House of Lords Act 1999. On 7 November 2001 the government undertook a public consultation. This helped to create a public debate on the issue of Lords reform, with 1,101 consultation responses and numerous debates in Parliament and the media. However, no consensus on the future of the upper chamber emerged.\n\nAll three of the main parties promised to take action on Lords reform in the 2010 general election, and following it the Coalition Agreement included a promise to \"establish a committee to bring forward proposals for a wholly or mainly elected upper chamber on the basis of proportional representation\". Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg introduced the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 on 27 June 2012 which built on proposals published on 17 May 2011. However, this Bill was abandoned by the Government on 6 August 2012 following opposition from within the Conservative Party. A successful attempt to pursue minor reform of the House was made on 14 May 2014 when the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 gained Royal Assent.\n\nHistory of reform\n\nReform and reform attempts before 1997\n\nThe Parliament Act 1911 removed the ability of the House of Lords to veto money bills; with any other bills, the House of Commons was given powers to overrule the Lords' veto after three parliamentary sessions. In 1917 the Bryce Commission was set up to consider House of Lords reform proposals. The commission's recommendations were rejected by a vote in the House of Lords. The Parliament Act 1949, however, amended the 1911 act reducing the time the Lords could delay a bill from two sessions to one.\n\nThe Salisbury Convention is an unwritten constitutional convention that the Commons, as the elected chamber, has a mandate to pass anything in manifesto without Lords veto. This was necessary as the Conservative Party had an absolute majority in the House of Lords, and it was seen as inappropriate for them to use this to block the Labour government's policies following their landslide victory in 1945. The Life Peerages Act 1958 enabled the appointment of a new class of peers, who could sit and vote in the House of Lords, but the honour and rights would not be hereditary. These were intended to be merit-based, letting in 'the great and the good' from various backgrounds of expertise and experience and ending the exclusively hereditary (and male dominated) composition. Since 1965, almost all peerages appointed have been life peerages. However, the system has come under criticism in 'cash for honours' scandals in which those who donate significant sums to political parties may be able to gain membership of the House of Lords, undermining its credibility as a revising chamber. The Peerage Act 1963 allowed hereditary peers to disclaim their peerage, allowing them to vote and stand for elections to the House of Commons. It also permitted hereditary peers in the Peerage of Scotland and female hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords without the election of representative peers as had been the procedure in Scotland prior to the Act.\n\nParliament (No. 2) Bill 1968–69\nIn 1968, Harold Wilson's Labour Government published a white paper on reform of the House of Lords. Main proposals made in the white paper were:\nLife peers, created hereditary peers and 16 bishops would have been able to be voting members of the House, if they attended at least one third of the sittings and were under 72 years old at the start of a new parliament. Number of bishops would have been decreased from 26 to 16 through retirements.\nHereditary peers by succession sitting at the time would have remained as non-voting members with all other rights of a member. Their heirs would have been excluded from future membership.\nSitting government would have got a right to a majority of voting members of the House.\nThe right of the House to delay a bill would have been reduced from one year to six months.\nThe Parliament (No. 2) Bill, which embodied proposals of the white paper, was introduced in December 1968. Prime Minister announced in April 1969 that the Government would not proceed with the bill.\n\nPowers as of 1997 Election\nOriginally, the two Houses of Parliament had equal legislative powers. The agreement of both was necessary before a bill could be submitted to the Monarch for royal assent, which if granted made the bill an Act of Parliament. After the English Restoration, a constitutional convention arose that the House of Lords would defer to the House of Commons on measures to raise and spend money.\nThe Parliament Act 1911 divided Bills into three classes.\n Money bills which, failing consent from the Lords within one month, could receive royal assent without it.\nOther bills on which the House of Lords could exercise a suspensory veto.\nOn any bill extending the maximum term of the House of Commons beyond five years, the House of Lords retained equal legislative powers.\n\nTogether with the Parliament Act 1949, these two acts enable the Commons (in exceptional circumstance) to pass legislation without approval from the Lords but subject to certain time delays. In effect, they give the House of Lords the power to delay legislation but not to prevent it.\nSince 1911 there have been various attempts to reform the Lords, but none tackled the powers of the House except the Parliament Act 1949 which reduced the suspensory veto to two sessions and one year. By the time of the 1997 general election there was still no consensus on comprehensive reform of the upper chamber of Parliaments.\n\nThe Blair Labour government\n\nIn 1999, the Government completed a deal with the Lords to remove most of the hereditary Peers and passed the House of Lords Act 1999 leaving amongst the majority of appointed Peers a rump of 92 Hereditary Peers until the second phase of reform was complete. These 92 were elected from within those who had a right to be members of the House of Lords as a result of their hereditary status. This arrangement was stated to be purely temporary until the second stage of reform was completed. This led to some claims (perhaps not all serious) that the elected Hereditary Lords were the only democratic members of the House.\n\nRoyal Commission\nIn 1999 a Royal Commission was appointed, under Lord Wakeham, to examine proposals for Lords Reform and make recommendations. It published its report in 2000 with 132 recommendations of which the main were:\n It should have around 550 members of which 65, 87 or 195 should be elected.\n There should be an independent Appointments Commission responsible for all appointments.\n The new second chamber should have the capacity to offer counsel from a range of sources. It should be broadly representative of society in the United Kingdom at the beginning of the 21st century. It should work with the House of Commons to provide an effective check upon the Government. It should give the United Kingdom's constituent nations and regions, for the first time, a formally constituted voice in the Westminster Parliament.\n The Commons should be the principal political forum, should have the final say in respect of all major public policy issues, including those expressed in the form of proposed legislation. The second chamber should have sufficient power, and the associated authority, to require the Government and the House of Commons to reconsider proposed legislation and take account of any cogent objections to it.\n The House of Lords should contain a substantial proportion of people who are not professional politicians, who have continuing experience in a range of different walks of life and who can bring a broad range of expertise to bear on issues of public concern. Representation of the reformed second chamber should match that of the country as expressed in votes cast at the most recent general election but it should not be capable of being dominated by any one political party and continue to include people who can help it to maintain a philosophical, moral or spiritual perspective on public policy issues.\n Possession of a peerage should no longer be a necessary qualification for membership\n Provisions should be in place to permit ministers to be drawn from the Upper House\n The upper House should ensure that changes to the constitution are not made without full and open debate and that there is increased scrutiny of secondary legislation\n The commission could not recommend: a wholly or largely directly elected second chamber; indirect election from the devolved institutions (or local government electoral colleges) or from among British MEPs; random selection, or co-option.\n\nIn a debate in the House of Lords on 7 March 2000, Baroness Jay expressed the government's broad acceptance of the commission's report:\nThe Government accept the principles underlying the main elements of the Royal Commission's proposals on the future role and structure of this House, and will act on them. That is, we agree that the Second Chamber should clearly be subordinate, largely nominated but with a minority elected element and with a particular responsibility to represent the regions. We agree there should be a statutory appointments commission ...\n\nOn 4 May 2000 the Prime Minister announced the membership of a non-statutory Appointments Commission. In the debate in the Commons on 19 June 2000 the Government announced the establishment of a Joint Committee of both houses to consider the Royal Commission's work. But in a written reply on 6 March 2001 the Government stated there was little prospect of a Joint Committee being established in the present Parliament due to a failure of cross-party discussions. On 26 April 2001 the Queen confirmed her intention to create 15 new non-party-political members of the House of Lords termed \"People's Peers\". In the May 2001 general election, all three main parties included statements on House of Lords reform in their manifestos.\n\nWhite paper and first consultation\nOn 7 November 2001, the government launched a white paper and consultation stating:\nA credible and effective second chamber is vital to the health of Britain's democracy ... The Government is determined to proceed with this wider reform of the House of Lords. The Royal Commission offered an excellent way forward and the Government has a clear electoral mandate to undertake it. Our mission is to equip the British people with a Parliament and a constitution fit for the 21st century. A reformed second chamber has an indispensable role to play, and this White Paper prepares the way for its introduction.\n\nIn the white paper, although the government said it \"strongly endorsed\" the Royal Commission's views, it listed its own proposals:\nThe remaining 92 hereditary peers were to be removed, the number of peers to be capped after 10 years at 600 and 120 members to be elected to represent the nations and the regions.\nIt was to include a significant minority of independent members. Its political membership should be broadly representative of the main parties' relative voting strengths as reflected in the previous general election. Membership was to be separated from the peerage which would continue as an honour. There should be increased representation of women and those from ethnic minority backgrounds. No group in society should in future have privileged hereditary access to the House.\nThe House of Lords would remain subject to the pre-eminence of the House of Commons in discharging its functions; its principal function should continue to be to consider and revise legislation, to scrutinise the executive, and to debate and report on public issues.\nThe statutory Appointments Commission would manage the balance and size of the House, appoint the independent members, and to assure the integrity of those nominated by political parties.\n\nFirst public consultation \nThe white paper invited comments from interested parties stating the government intended to introduce legislation \"incorporating decisions on the issues raised in the consultation\" and listed the following as the main points of consultation:\n The overall balance between elected, nominated and ex officio members, and the balance between political and independent members;\n Whether elections to the Lords should be linked to general elections, those for the European Parliament, or over time linked to those from devolved and regional bodies within the UK;\n The length of term for elected members;\n The term of appointment;\n What grounds should lead to statutory expulsion from the House;\n Whether there should be a change from an expenses-based system of remuneration.\n\nThe result was that an unprecedented 1101 submissions were made to the consultation and both the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties published their own proposals during the consultation in January 2002. In May 2002, the Government published a statistical analysis. The Government proposed to establish a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform to try to take matters forward and achieve a consensus.\n\nVotes of February 2003\nOn 11 December 2002, the Joint Committee published its first report, which set out \"an inclusive range of seven options for the composition of a reformed House of Lords\". In January 2003, the House of Lords and Commons debated the report. The debate in the Lords was dominated by contributors arguing for a fully appointed House, so much so that Lord Irvine stated:\nPlainly, the dominant view of this House expressed over the past two days is in favour of an all-appointed House.\n\nOn 29 January 2003, then Prime Minister Tony Blair added his own support to a fully appointed House by arguing against the creation of a hybrid House. On 4 February 2003, the Commons and House of Lords voted on the seven options proposed by the joint committee and the Commons also voted on an amendment to abolish the upper house completely:\n\nAfter this series of votes, where the Commons failed to back a single option and the Lords only a fully appointed House, Robin Cook the leader of the Commons said:\nWe should go home and sleep on this interesting position. That is the most sensible thing that anyone can say in the circumstances. As the right honourable Gentleman knows, the next stage in the process is for the Joint Committee to consider the votes in both Houses. Heaven help the members of the Committee, because they will need it.\n\nWith widely differing views in the Joint Committee, its report on 9 May 2003 effectively passed the initiative back to the Government. But nine members of the Joint Committee issued a statement coinciding with the publication which stated:\nSince the House of Commons rejected the option of a fully appointed Second Chamber by a large majority on 4th February it would be absurd and unacceptable to introduce legislation which would have that effect. Simply evicting the hereditary peers, and placing the appointments process on a statutory basis, would result in that soundly rejected option. Those who argue that the Commons must remain predominant – including Ministers – should surely respect the outcome of that vote by MPs.\n\nCreation of Department for Constitutional Affairs In June 2003, Tony Blair announced the creation of a new department to oversee constitutional change with Lord Falconer as its first Secretary of State. The department was tasked with:\n Establishment of an independent Judicial Appointments Commission.\n Creation of a new Supreme Court to replace the existing system of Law Lords operating as a committee of the House of Lords.\n Reform of the Speakership of the House of Lords.\n New arrangements for the conduct of Scottish and Welsh business.\n\nWhen in 2003 Lord Falconer signalled the government's preference for an all appointed House of Lords, three members of the Liberal Democrats issued a statement:\n\nWe, together with other members of the committee, issued a statement at the same time stating our belief that the committee could not continue to act in the absence of an indication of the government's preferred route to achieve its manifesto commitment to a more representative and democratic House of Lords.\n\nMinisters responded, saying:\nWe cannot accept the removal of the remaining hereditary peers on its own, but only as part of much wider measures of reform to create a democratic and accountable second chamber. ... We therefore see no role which the joint committee can usefully play in achieving the reformed House of Lords which we seek.\n\nSecond public consultation\nIn September 2003, the Department for Constitutional Affairs issued Constitutional Reform: Next Steps for the House of Lords, which gave as its main proposals:\nA fully appointed House of Lords\nRemoval of the remaining 92 hereditary peers\nEstablishment of a statutory independent Appointments Commission accountable to Parliament which would determine numbers and timings of appointments, select independent members of the House to oversee party nominations\n\nThe paper also started a second consultation, on the Appointments Commission for the House of Lords requesting submissions on how the Appointments Commission itself would be appointed, even though no other alternatives to an appointed Commission had been considered. Reaction to the paper was hostile: for example, Lord Goodhart, the Liberal Democrat spokesperson on Constitutional Affairs, said \"the overwhelming reaction I have is a feeling of contempt and betrayal\".\nOn 18 March 2004 (before the statistical analysis had been published), the BBC reported that the government would not proceed with legislation to enact the proposals in the consultation. Although this suggested a lack of support for their proposals from the consultation, when the statistical analysis was published on 22 April 2004 the report stated that on the main issue (2a):\n87 percent of respondents dealing with issue 2 (a) were in favour of a Commission composed of representatives of the three main political parties and the cross-benchers and a number of independently appointed members.\n\nWith such an apparently high level of support, it is unclear why the government chose not to proceed. The only insight available is unofficial reports putting the actual level of support at closer to third.\n\nMoreover, as the government published most of the responses to both consultations, it is possible to see that many of these responses were highly critical of both the Government's proposal and the consultation process; some even went on to complain that the UK government breached its own code of conduct for consultations by failing to mention many of the new ideas arising from both consultations.\n\nIn the 2005 general election, all three parties included statements on reform of the House of Lords in their manifestos with the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats promising \"substantially\"/\"predominantly\" elected Chambers. In December 2005, the Constitution Unit, part of the University College of London's School of Public Policy, released research findings showing \"surprising levels of support from MPs and the public for the Lords to vote down government proposals\":\nDespite the unelected basis of the Lords these results make clear that it enjoys support from MPs and the general public to block policies that are perceived as unpopular. Far from clashing with the Commons it may even inflict government defeats with the silent approval of Labour MPs. Whilst government may wish to tame the powers of the Lords, these results suggest that voters are really quite happy with things as they are.\n\nSupreme Court \nOn 24 March 2005, the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 received Royal Assent. It provides for replacement of the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords with a Supreme Court. It came into force on 1 October 2009, when the new court started work. Most of the Law Lords became its first justices, but retained their peerages. A peerage is no longer required to sit in the UK's court of last resort.\n\n2006 discussions \nIn March 2006, the House of Lords reform was again under discussion. This new interest resulted from the Cash for Peerages affair together with recent attempts by the Lords to block, water down, or add safeguards to (according to viewpoint) recent controversial legislation such as the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, Hunting Act 2004, Terrorism Act 2006, the Identity Cards Act 2006, and the Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006.\nFollowing the failure of the previous public consultations, to endorse the Government's proposals for reform, in April 2006, Baroness Amos announced the government would now \"consult privately\" with the other main political parties on the membership of the House.\n\nIn the Cabinet reshuffle on 5 May 2006, governmental responsibility for this topic was transferred from Lord Falconer, both Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs and Lord Chancellor), to the Leader of the House of Commons, Jack Straw.\n\nJack Straw now faced an enormous challenge. Although seen as very modest reforms, the removal of most Hereditary Peers and rebalancing of the political make up of the House (Labour Peers now formed the largest political party) were making the House increasingly confident of its own legitimacy. Paradoxically, far from making the Lords more submissive, more and more the House of Lords was willing to be assertive in its actions and confront the government.\n\nOn 22 January 2007 the Power Inquiry launched a campaign for greater citizen involvement and provided statistics showing that 68% of the public felt a jury of the general public should decide \"the future of the House of Lords\", 17% thought elected politicians should decide and 9% appointed civil servants.\n\n2007 white paper \nOn 8 February 2007, the Government published a new white paper following discussions of a cross-party working group convened by Jack Straw, Leader of the House of Commons. The consensus position adopted by the paper called for a House composed of elected members and members appointed by a new Statutory Appointments Commission. The new commission would select non-party-political appointees; party-political appointees would be nominated by party leaders in the House of Commons and vetted by the commission.\n\nAny elected element would be elected under a regional list system. All elections and appointments would take place on a five-year cycle, with one third of the House admitted at each intake to a fixed fifteen-year term; this term would be non-renewable, to ensure members' independence. A further measure would prohibit former members of the reformed House from seeking election to the House of Commons before a minimum amount of time had elapsed after the expiry of their term in the reformed House – the Government suggested five years. The aim of this measure was to prevent aspiring politicians from using the reformed House as a base to launch a Parliamentary career. The Government proposed that elections and appointments should be held on the same day as elections for Britain's Members of the European Parliament – which also take place on a fixed five-year cycle.\n\nWhilst the white paper made recommendations for a half-elected, half-appointed House, it proposed a free vote of MPs among seven options as to composition (see below). The white paper also recommended that at least 20% of members be non-party-political appointees: for example, under the white paper's proposal of a 50–50 split between elected and appointed members, the remaining 30% appointed members would be party political; under the 80%–20% elected/appointed option, there would be no party-political appointees. The 20% non-party-political element would include a reduced number of Church of England bishops, whose appointment would not go through the Statutory Appointments Commission. The total size of the House was proposed to be 540 members – with 180 introduced at each intake.\n\nThe paper provided for a gradual transition, with no life peers forced to retire before death, but with the possibility of a redundancy package should they choose to do so. The remaining hereditary peers would be removed, but the white paper left open whether they would be removed at one stroke or allowed a gradual removal by \"natural wastage\". The link between the peerage and membership of the House would be broken: peerages could still potentially be awarded as an honour, but would neither entail nor follow automatically from a seat in the House. The question of a possible new name for the reformed House was left open.\n\nThe white paper also proposed avoiding the risk of all options being rejected, as had occurred in the 2003 debate, by using the alternative vote system (also known as instant-runoff voting). Using the alternative vote for legislative proposals would have been a new precedent for the UK Parliament. Resistance by Members on all sides of the House of Commons caused Leader of the House of Commons Jack Straw to drop this proposal on 19 February. The free vote was therefore held under traditional Parliamentary procedures.\n\nVotes of March 2007\n\nIn March 2007 the Houses of Commons and Lords debated the proposals in the 2007 white paper and voted on a similar series of motions to those voted on in 2003. Unexpectedly, the House of Commons voted by a large majority for an all-elected Upper House. One week later, the House of Lords retorted by voting for an all-appointed House by a larger majority.\n\nAfter the Commons vote, it was speculated by political commentators that some MPs supporting a fully appointed House had voted tactically for a fully elected House as the option likely to be least acceptable to the House of Lords. This called into question the significance of the larger majority achieved for 100% elected than that achieved for 80% elected. However, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division in the Commons shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this shows a clear preference in the Commons for a fully elected Upper House over the only other option that passed, since any MP who favoured 80% over 100% would have voted against the latter motion, having already secured their preferred outcome (76 MPs – including Jack Straw, his shadow Theresa May and Opposition Leader David Cameron – did exactly that). Had all the votes been held in the contrary order, those 211 would have voted against the 80% motion, which would consequently have fallen.\n\nThere was strong opinion about the votes. Lord McNally, the Liberal Democrat leader in the Lords said the Lords' decision\nflies in the face of public opinion and of the commitment made by all three major parties at the last general election. ... A veto on constitutional reform by the House of Lords is not acceptable. It is now up to the House of Commons to assert its primacy. The Liberal Democrats' 100-year-old commitment to an elected House of Lords remains intact.\n\nPrior to the debate Lord Lipsey, former Economics Editor of the Sunday Times, estimated the cost of the plans in the white paper at £1.092 billion over a 15-year term. The government dismissed this as \"back-of-an-envelope calculations\" and Jack Straw told the House of Commons that\n\nMay I say that Lord Lipsey's estimate is absolute utter balderdash and nonsense? It cannot be the case that a partly elected other place would cost £1 billion when the total cost of this place, according to the most extravagant analysis, is £300 million.\n\n(\"Other place\" is Commons jargon for the House of Lords.) In response Lord Lipsey accused Jack Straw of misleading the House of Commons:\n\nHe said that the figure was £300 million; in fact, for the latest year it is £468.8 million. For that, see the Written Answer from the noble Lord, Lord McKenzie of Luton, ... that is only the minor error. The major error is that he compared my costing for a full 15-year period with the annual cost of the House of Commons.\n\nOn 15 March Lord Steel published a proposed bill approved by a large meeting of peers and MPs of all parties who had been working on these proposals for some time with proposals for four reforms:\nEnd the by-elections for hereditary peers and turn the remaining ones into de facto life peers and finally end hereditary entry into our Upper House.\nCreate a Statutory Appointments Commission to replace Prime Ministerial patronage for new peers.\nAuthorise the government to proceed with a retirement package which should reduce the average age and decrease the present House of 740 by possibly 200.\nEnable peerages to be removed from those guilty of serious offences on the same basis as the Commons.\n\nThe Brown Labour government\nOn 19 July 2007 Jack Straw stated that the powers of the chamber, the method of election, financial packages and the number of members would yet again be discussed by a cross-party working group. The opposition's response was to suggest that \"the real message in your statement today [is] that Lords reform is on ice until after the next election\".\n\nOn 14 May 2008 Gordon Brown announced that the government intended to publish a new white paper on lords reform. This was issued by the Secretary of State for Justice Jack Straw in July 2008, containing proposals to create a wholly elected second chamber. The proposals didn't move forward to become legislation. While a renewed white paper was pointed to in 2009, none was published before the general election in 2010. The Labour Party's manifesto at that election proposed a referendum on an elected House of Lords by October 2011.\n\nThe Conservative–Liberal Democrat Coalition government\nThe Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement agreed following the 2010 general election clearly outlined a provision for a wholly or mainly elected second chamber, elected by a proportional representation system. These proposals sparked a debate on 29 June 2010. As an interim measure, it was agreed that the appointment of new peers will reflect shares of the vote secured by the political parties in the last general election.\n\nMay 2011 proposals and draft bill\n\nDetailed proposals for Lords reform including a draft House of Lords Reform Bill were published on 17 May 2011. These include a 300-member hybrid house, of which 80% are elected. A further 20% would be appointed, and reserve space would be included for some Church of England bishops. Under the proposals, members would also serve single non-renewable terms of 15 years. Former MPs would be allowed to stand for election to the Upper House, but members of the Upper House would not be immediately allowed to become MPs.\n\nMany of the details of the proposal were incorporated into the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 introduced to the Commons in June 2012.\n\nThe proposals were considered by a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform made up of both MPs and Peers.\n\nThe Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform published its final report on 23 April 2012 and made the following suggestions:\n\n The reformed House of Lords should have 450 members.\n Peers with the least attendance should be the first to be removed from a mainly elected House.\n Up to 12 Lords Spiritual should be retained in a reformed House of Lords.\n\nHouse of Lords Reform Bill 2012\n\nThe bill, introduced by Nick Clegg, was given its first reading on 27 June 2012. On 9 July 2012, the bill began to be debated. The Government also tried to introduce a programme motion, which would have limited the amount of time available to debate the bill. Labour called for more scrutiny of the bill and said it would vote against the programme motion, along with several Conservative MPs. On 10 July 2012, it became clear that the Government was going to lose the vote on the programme motion and it was withdrawn. At the vote that evening on whether to give the bill a second reading, 91 Conservative MPs voted against the three line whip, while 19 more abstained. On 6 August 2012, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg announced that the Government was abandoning the bill due to the opposition from Conservative backbench MPs, claiming that the Conservatives had \"broken the coalition contract\". However, David Cameron disputed this view, saying that the agreement contained no specific promise to enact reform of the House of Lords.\n\nHouse of Lords Reform Act 2014\n\nThe House of Lords Reform Act 2014 allowed members to resign from the House; previously there was no mechanism for this. It also allowed for the (non-retrospective) exclusion of any peer convicted of a criminal offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment of one year or more.\n\nLords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015\n\nThe Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 regulates the procedure for women bishops to enter the House of Lords as Lords Spiritual. It stipulates that if a vacancy arises among the Lords Spiritual during the decade after the passing of the act, this vacancy is to be filled by a female bishop (if there are any eligible). This followed the Bishops and Priests (Consecration and Ordination of Women) Measure 2014, whereby the Church of England first recognised female bishops.\n\nHouse of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015\n\nThe House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 authorised the House to expel or suspend members.\n\nSecond May government\n\nBurns report\nIn January 2017, Lord Fowler (the Lord Speaker), launched the inquiry of his new committee on the House's size. The committee, chaired by Lord Burns, reported on 31 October 2017, chiefly recommending a reduction to 600 members. To that end, the report recommended: members be appointed to 15 year terms; at least 20% would be independents/crossbenchers and no party would have a majority; party appointments would be tied to General Election results; a \"two-out, one-in\" programme of departures to make reductions towards the target size.\n\nOpinion polling \nVarious questions have been asked about House of Lords reform by opinion polling companies. The following table includes a selection of polls of the general public summarised by whether respondents support the abolition of the House of Lords, a partially or fully elected second chamber or the House of Lords remaining as an appointed chamber.\n\nA number of other opinion polls on House of Lords reform have been reported between 2007 and 2012.\n\nReasons for reform\nThere are several criticisms of the House of Lords, including:\n\n The appointments process, which has often been described as undemocratic. The current process means the House of Lords remains fully unelected and allows peers to hold their seats until death.\n The makeup of the Lords does not reflect the social and demographic diversity of the UK, with under-representation of ethnic minorities and women when compared with the House of Commons, and relative over-representation of people from South East England and people over 50.\n The House of Lords is often criticised for being too large, and thus too expensive. With almost 800 members it is the second-largest legislative house in the world, second only to the National People's Congress of China, and is much larger than Upper Houses in comparable countries.\n\nThese criticisms have led some to question whether there is a need for a second house at all, and whether the bicameral system in British politics is still useful.\n\nThe range of options\n\"Central to the future House of Lords is its composition. For the Lords to act with legitimacy as an effective and balanced second chamber, it must have the right form to deliver the range of roles and functions it needs\". With 1101 submissions to the first consultation, several hundred to the second and many articles in the newspapers and various discussions, there were many different views on reform of the House of Lords. It is only possible to give a broad outline of the many different proposals and even then only those where the proposals were mentioned by a number of respondents.\n\nProposals are listed alphabetically\n\nAbolition\nMany legislatures, such as the parliaments of Norway, Portugal, Denmark, Israel and New Zealand (and within the UK, the Scottish Parliament, the Senedd and the Northern Ireland Assembly) are unicameral and thus do not have an upper house. Instead, scrutiny is carried out by parliamentary committees. A minority of MPs voted for the outright abolition of the upper house in 2003, and it was Labour party policy until the late 1980s. One of the most well known MPs to advocate the abolition of the House of Lords was Tony Benn. In January 2020, during the 2020 Labour Party leadership election, candidate Rebecca Long-Bailey announced her support for abolishing the House of Lords. The Scottish National Party (SNP) favours abolition, and as such has no members of the House of Lords. In November 2022, Sir Keir Starmer stated that if elected, the Labour Party would abolish the House of Lords and replace it with an elected house.\n\nAllotment (sortition)\nThere was a considerable number of proposals in the consultation for an Upper House chosen by allotment (random selection). Proposals varied from a House chosen completely at random from the whole electorate to those where allotment was applied to smaller groups such as those volunteering or those selected in another way. Most proposals referred to the allotment of the governing juries in the democracy of Ancient Greece, where selection by lot was considered to be more democratic than election:\n\nResearch has suggested that parliaments including randomly selected members are likely to be more efficient and to result in greater benefits to society.\n\nHowever, at present within the UK this form of selection is mainly restricted to the allotment of jurors. Opposition is based either on the practical need for some expertise amongst members of the upper chamber or on a belief that \"democracy means an elected second chamber\".\n\nAppointment \nThe reason that the UK almost uniquely (except for Canada) still retained an appointed second chamber in 1997 was that it was widely accepted that it worked effectively. In particular the large number of cross bench peers would be impossible to achieve in most electoral systems.\n\nThe great strength of the Lords is that it contains not just a bunch of experienced retired MPs but a whole raft of individuals with specialist knowledge and experience from the worlds of commerce, medicine, the services, the civil service, academia, the unions – the list is endless – none of whom would be likely to be available to stand for election. (Lord Steel, former Alliance leader, in 2007)\n\nThose supporting a fully appointed House reject the idea of a composite partly elected, party appointed House:\n\nI can think of nothing more destructive of the present harmonious atmosphere in the Lords. Elected members would be justifiably incensed if the votes of appointed members happened to determine any issue before the house.\nThe main issues are:\n achieving a range of representation, bringing in those with skills and experience, allowing ex officio members and ensuring a continuity of membership;\n maintaining the status and independence of the Lords without endangering the supremacy of the Commons;\n maintaining the low cost of the present House; and\n preventing the possibility of a constitutional clash between appointed and elected members.\n\nCombination\nBy far the most commonly suggested proposal for reform amongst politicians is a combination of an elected and appointed House and this was the original proposal recommended by the Wakeham Report. Proponents suggest the combination would allow an appointed element to retain the skills and experience of the present House and elections would make it democratic without the problems of being fully elected which would allow the Upper House to challenge the primacy of the Commons. Opponents say that the two types of members will inevitably conflict, voting for part of the House will have little support amongst an already sceptical electorate, and the lack of synergy will make it worse than either a fully elected or fully appointed house. Various proposals on the exact percentage of those elected and appointed have been produced:\n In January 2002, the Conservatives unveiled plans for a 300-member \"Senate\", with 240 members elected by first past the post for 15 years.\n The Elect the Lords campaign set up by New Politics Network and Charter88 supports a predominantly elected second chamber.\n In 2005, a cross party group of MPs chaired by Paul Tyler consisting of Kenneth Clarke, Robin Cook, Dr Tony Wright and Sir George Young proposed a 70% elected second chamber, elected in thirds at each general election using the single transferable vote. This proposal was largely adopted by the Power Commission.\n\nAppointment by jury\nUnder this proposal, a jury would appoint some or all members of the chamber so retaining the skills and experience of the present House and also making its selection more democratic; the jury being considered to give democratic legitimacy to the appointments without the problems of mandating the House through elections which might lead to a potential conflict with the Commons. It was a minority \"grass roots option\" not seen before the second consultation where it was supported by around 10% of submissions.\n\nElection\nMany countries have directly elected Upper Chambers but they try to make their electoral systems for the second chamber as distinct as possible from the first chamber by holding elections on a different cycle or electing only a proportion of members on each occasion. Politicians such as Tony Benn maintained that elections are necessary to be democratic, stating, \"Democracy means an elected second chamber\", however Tony Benn later advocated for the abolition of the House of Lords.\n\nAccording to the Government report, the advantages of an elected Upper House are:\nLegitimacy: There can be no doubt about the democratic mandate of a freely elected body.\nStatus of members: Membership of the second chamber would be seen as a job with specific and important duties attached.\nRepresentation: All parts of the country and all shades of political opinion could be represented.\nAge: An elected House is likely to have more younger people in it than a nominated one and therefore be more reflective of society. \nEntrenched bicameralism: It is an unequivocal sign the Government was committed to a bicameral legislature.\n\nThe main disadvantages are:\nConflict with the House of Commons: It may challenge the supremacy of the Commons on the strength of its own electoral mandate – a conflict that may be difficult to resolve given the largely unwritten constitution of the UK.\nLoss of independents and ex officio membership: It would be virtually impossible to retain any independent, non-party element in the House.\nAge: An elected House would have more younger people than a nominated one which would have less experience. \nComposed of simply politicians: Politicians who would be whipped by the Government of the day, removing independence.\nTransitional difficulties: The transition to a fully elected House would be most disruptive.\nHigher costs: Elections, proper salaries and research facilities would considerably increase the costs.\nLoss of diversity: the current membership of the House of Lords has a higher proportion of women, disabled and black and minority ethnic people when compared the House of Commons and other elected bodies in the UK. A move to an elected chamber would be likely to diminish this diversity.\n\nMany submissions from the public rejected the notion that an elected Upper House would be democratic, basing their assertion on the model of the Athenian democracy which did not elect either the Upper House or assembly. (The Athenian Upper House was a court allotted from all citizens, and any citizen was able to attend the assembly.)\n\nThe main variation between proposals for an elected Upper House is the form of election:\n Most proponents support a system of Proportional Representation\n The Conservatives have called for the second chamber to be elected by First Past the Post.\n\nHereditary \nIt has been suggested by some that the hereditary peerage ought to be restored to the House of Lords. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 are particularly cited by proponents of this idea in that the House of Lords no longer has power of veto, merely a power of delay, making the assertion of democratic accountability being required for legislators redundant, in their eyes, as the Lords has no power to force its will upon the House of Commons.\n\nMany hereditary members of the Lords were suggested to have voted on legislation through matters of conviction as their chances of achieving high office was extremely unlikely therefore they were not compelled to vote on party lines under the threat of being deprived of ministerial promotion. The high portion of hereditary peers that sat as crossbenchers relative to the amount of independents in the House of Commons is also cited as verification of this fact and that hereditary peers generally take a more long-term perspective on legislative matters, unlike Members of Parliament who are statistically more likely to vote in favour of populist policies for electoral purposes.\n\nHowever, a hereditary right passing down the generations was argued as promoting a divided society between the upper classes and the lower classes. Moreover, in practice, the hereditary peers had a natural bias on certain issues, such as a socially conservative outlook and unwillingness to support liberal and socialist legislation. (In the events which led to the original legislation to reduce their power, the House of Lords were opposed to the People's Budget, which did not serve their interests, as it was built to help the middle and lower classes, while taxing land owners and the \"idle rich\", promising wealth redistribution.)\n\nIndirect election/appointment \nAbout 30% of overseas second chambers are elected by indirect methods, including the upper houses of France, the Republic of Ireland, the Netherlands, South Africa and the pre-1913 United States. The electoral college often consists of members of local authorities or regional assemblies, and may include members of the primary chamber. There are various proposals:\n Elections by Regional Development Agencies and voluntary regional chambers, the London Assembly \"would demonstrate a direct connection between these other bodies and the central institutions at Westminster\" and because \"many of these bodies had themselves been elected ... it could therefore reinforce the democratic nature of an otherwise nominated House\".\n\nLord Steel's reform proposals\nLiberal Democrat peer Lord Steel has proposed a solution to avoid four identified pitfalls of reform, namely:\n Conflict between two elected houses\n Territorial peers threatening the role of constituency MPs\n The huge expense of (i) further national elections and of (ii) full-time salaried peers\n The loss of experience and expertise among independent peers.\n\nLord Steel's proposal would have an upper house, \"The Senate\", comprising 450 members, to be known as \"senators\". Immediately after the 5-yearly general elections, 150 senators would be elected for 15 years. Voting would not be by universal suffrage: this electorate would be the newly elected MPs, MEPs, and Members of the three devolved legislatures: the National Assembly for Wales, Scottish Parliament and Parliament of Northern Ireland.\n\nLord Steel suggests this would be \"simple, inexpensive and likely to produce a less London-centric chamber than at present\", adding \"such a fundamental, democratically reformed upper chamber would maintain the existing revising role, be part-time and unpaid, though needing tougher declaration of interest rules than at present\". The Senate would retain existing powers and conventions. It follows that, after each General Election, the new cohort of 150 senators would have a similar party make-up to the Commons, whilst the other 300 senators would continue in post, unaffected by contemporary electoral swings.\n\nSteel suggested the \"Senate\" nomenclature \"so that so-called Lords are spared the embarrassment of the title\". Whether his ideas might lead to changing the name of the House of Commons remains to be seen, as presumably any adoption of Steel's Senate proposals might consequently permit the aristocracy to stand for parliament. Also, transitional arrangements would have to be made to decide which existing members of the House of Lords would stay on, for five or ten years respectively, as the \"sitting 300\".\n\nSteel's outline proposals do not specifically mention the Lords Spiritual, but, just like hereditary peers, presumably bishops would no longer have any reserved seats in the Senate.\n\nSecondary mandate \n\nA system proposed by musician and activist Billy Bragg (and endorsed by the Economist magazine) whereby the share of each party's votes at each general election is aggregated and each party is allocated a number of places proportionately using a closed list system. Each elector would have one vote which would both determine their local MP and the composition of the Upper House.\n\nThe advantages of this system are claimed to be that: there would be only one election campaign to fund, it does not waste votes because votes for minority parties will count in the Upper House and so it should improve voter turnout, and as the upper house has no direct vote it has no separate mandate and so the Commons will remain supreme. Critics however see a single vote as a choice between voting for an MP or voting for the upper house; if large numbers choose to vote for the upper house instead of their MP it would undermine the mandate of the Commons and create a confused election (for example MPs might be ousted by a poor performance of their party in the Upper House and vice versa).\n\nOther issues\n At present, the Scottish Parliament and Senedd have devolved powers over areas like Health and Education. The Scottish Parliament and Senedd do not have upper chambers but instead MSPs and MSs scrutinise legislation in committee systems. This means that, for example, legislation on English health and education is subject to the House of Lords, whilst Scottish and possibly Welsh legislation are not.\n There are some concerns that a reformed upper house may be \"a feeder body\" into the lower house (Charlotte Atkins MP) as has occurred in other countries with bicameral parliaments. Various proposals have been put forward to prevent this happening, including a five-year ban on former members of the Lords seeking election to the Commons. Others are concerned that the upper house may be filled by MPs who lose their seats. Proposals to deal with this problem include lifetime disqualification for membership of the House of Commons as a condition of a place in a reformed upper house.\n The future of peerages. One proposal is that peerages should remain, as part of the honours system, but that they should no longer be linked to membership of the upper house.\n The name. Were the link between peerages and membership of the upper house to end, the name of the upper house might also change as a consequence. The Liberal Democrats, and more recently the Conservatives, have proposed that the upper house converts to the senatorial system, as is constituted in several other English-speaking countries. The Labour government has not put forward any proposed names, instead referring to the \"reformed chamber\" although the Leader of the House of Commons committee has promised to consult on a final name.\n\nSee also\n Constitutional Reform Act 2005\n Constitutional reform in the United Kingdom\n Democratisation\n Election\n Gunpowder Plot\n List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted without the House of Lords' consent\n Canadian Senate Reform\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n\n \n with the 2003 White Paper at:\n\nExternal links\nHouse of Lords reform – House of Lords\nJoint Select Committee on the Draft House of Lords Reform Bill (23 Apr 2012)\nLords reform left in disarray. BBC News. Published 5 February 2003.\nAustralian Government information bulletin\nProfessor Dawn Oliver: What is to be done about the House of Lords?\n\nCategory:House of Lords\nHouse of Lords", "title": "Reform of the House of Lords" }, { "text": "The Roll of the Peerage is a public record registering peers in the peerages of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. It was created by Royal Warrant of Queen Elizabeth II dated 1 June 2004, is maintained by the Crown Office within the United Kingdom's Ministry of Justice, and is published by the College of Arms.\n\nBackground \n\nOn 11 November 1999, the House of Lords Act 1999 received royal assent and took effect, removing the automatic right of hereditary peers to a seat in the House of Lords. Until that date anyone succeeding to a title in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain or the United Kingdom and proving succession received a writ of summons to Parliament. All peers receiving such writs were enrolled in the Register of Lords Spiritual and Temporal, a document maintained by the Clerk of the Parliaments.\n\nThe Register of Lords Spiritual and Temporal was not a complete roll of the peerage. Succession to a title in the Peerage of Ireland had never conferred an automatic right to a writ of summons in the United Kingdom Parliament, although from 1801 to 1922 elected representative peers from the Irish peerage did receive writs. A similar system of representation operated for peers of Scotland from 1707 to 1963, when the right to a writ of summons was extended to all peers of Scotland. However, the Register was an officially compiled roll recording a large proportion of the hereditary peerages of the United Kingdom and its constituent kingdoms.\n\nUnder the House of Lords Act 1999, the only peers receiving writs of summons to Parliament are life peers and 92 representatives of the hereditary peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Seventy-five of these representatives are elected by and among the hereditary peers themselves, and fifteen are elected by the whole House from those ready to serve as Deputy Speakers or in any office that the House may require; the remaining two, the Duke of Norfolk and the Marquess of Cholmondeley, have automatic seats in virtue of their offices of state as Earl Marshal and Lord Great Chamberlain respectively. These 92 and any other hereditary peers who may wish to stand in by-elections for the 90 elected representative seats are the only hereditary peers currently recorded for parliamentary purposes. This falls considerably short of the coverage achieved by the old Register of Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and shorter still of being a full register of hereditary peers.\n\nRoyal warrant of 2004 \n\nThe royal warrant of 1 June 2004 had the express aim of remedying this situation as far as possible, stating in the preamble the desirability of a full record of the peerage. It cited as its model the creation of the Official Roll of the Baronetage, achieved by royal warrant of Edward VII on 8 February 1910, and established an analogous roll for recording peers of all five peerages recognized in the United Kingdom. The warrant was published in the London Gazette on 11 June 2004.\n\nMaintenance and publication of the roll \nThe warrant imposed the duty of creating and maintaining the Roll on the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, acting in consultation with Garter Principal King of Arms and Lord Lyon King of Arms. On the closure of the Department for Constitutional Affairs in 2007 the duty was transferred, along with the other functions of that department, to the Secretary of State for Justice. Maintenance of the roll is carried out by an official in the Crown Office known as the Registrar of the Peerage and assisted by an Assistant Registrar.\n\nFrom November 2010 the most recent version of the roll has been published in pdf on the website of the College of Arms together with the text of the royal warrant, information on the creation and maintenance of the roll, and copies of guidance notes and forms for those wishing to apply to be entered on it.\n\nMethod of enrollment \n\nEnrollment is automatically consequent upon creation as a peer and can be applied for by way of proving succession to a peerage to the satisfaction of the Lord Chancellor and the Secretary of State for Justice. Essential items in proving succession are a formal petition and a statutory declaration made by a person other than the applicant. Guidance notes are produced by the Crown Office to assist with simple proof, as where for instance the applicant is closely related to his or her predecessor. More complex succession, where the relationship is distant, may require specific professional assistance from an officer of arms, a genealogist, a legal practitioner or the Registrar of the Peerage.\n\nEffect of enrollment \n\nAccording to the royal warrant any person not entered on the roll shall not be entitled to the precedence of a peer or addressed or referred to as a peer in any official document. However a peer who is enrolled in a junior title (not having proved a senior title) is nonetheless noted in the roll as 'customarily styled' by the superior title in question, which is then named—even though succession to this title has not been proved. One example of many is Viscount Midleton, who appears as Lord Brodrick on the roll, the title to which he has proved succession, with the statement that he is customarily known as Viscount Midleton and a cross-reference from 'Midleton'.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n The Roll of the Peerage as currently published with ancillary material on the website of the College of Arms\n The text of the Royal Warrant of 1 June 2004 as published in the London Gazette\n List of peers present and absent, 25 January 1689 - Lords Journal\n List of the Peers, 1727 (before the death of George I)\n List of the Lords Temporal, 1825\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1829\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1830\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1832\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1835\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1837-8\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 5th edition, 1838, P 36\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 6th edition, 1839, P 1184 - Hathitrust\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 6th edition, 1839, P 1184 - Archive.org\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Lodge's Peerage, 14th edition, 1845, P xlvii\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1847\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Lodge's Peerage, 17th edition, 1848, P xlvii\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1849\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1850\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1851\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1852\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1854\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Sessional Papers, 1856\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Sessional Papers, 1857\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1859\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 23rd edition, 1861, P xxxv\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1862\n Newspaper clipping about Roll of the Lords for 1864\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 27th edition, 1865, P xxxv\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 30th edition, 1868, P xxxv\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Burke's Peerage, 31st edition, 1869, P xxxv\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1873\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1892\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1893\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1899\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1900\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 1922\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Sessional Papers, 1933\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Sessional Papers, 1953\n Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal - Parliamentary Debates, 5th Series, Volume CCLXXIV, 1966-7, page xxix\n\nCategory:British honours system\nCategory:Peerages in the United Kingdom", "title": "Roll of the Peerage" }, { "text": "A substantive title is a title of nobility or royalty acquired either by individual grant or by inheritance. It is to be distinguished from a title shared among cadets, borne as a courtesy title by a peer's relatives, or acquired through marriage.\n\nCharacteristics \n The title is officially borne by only one person at a time:\n e.g. British peerages or \"William, Prince of Wales\" vs. \"Princes George and Louis of Wales\".\n The title may continue to be borne by the grantee with authorization of the head of the house, whether the country is a monarchy or a republic.\n The title may be drawn from any rank, but a royal titleholder's precedence derives independently from kinship to the sovereign (such as royal duke); \"duke\" is frequent, but lower titles have often been borne by dynasts and pretenders.\n The title may or may not belong to the noble hierarchy of the country if borne by a member of its ruling dynasty; for example, the Prince of Orange, modern title of the heir to the Dutch throne although Orange has never been part of the Netherlands. \n The title may or may not belong to the hereditary nobility of the recipient's country (such as Duke of York, Prince of Wales), may or may not be heritable (such as Duke of Aosta, Duke of Bergamo) and is often conferred in conjunction with a special occasion.\n\nCurrent monarchies \nThe main titles of heirs apparent to a monarchy are treated as substantive titles.\n – Duke of Brabant\n – Marquis of Baux (must be conferred and may be conferred on a male heir presumptive)\n – Prince of Orange\n – Prince of Asturias (used by the heir apparent or heir presumptive)\n – Prince of Girona (used by the heir apparent or heir presumptive)\n – Prince of Viana (used by the heir apparent or heir presumptive)\n – Prince of Wales (must be conferred by monarch)\n – Duke of Cornwall (restricted to eldest son of monarch)\n – Duke of Rothesay (restricted to eldest son of monarch)\n\nOf European dynasties, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, and Norway do not grant substantive titles to family members.\n\nGranted titles \nIn countries where titles have been inherited by primogeniture, these are substantive titles (e.g. France, Portugal, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the titles of sovereigns in Europe post-1800). These may be contrasted with titles inherited by all sons or male-line descendants of the original grantee (Austria, Bohemia, Germany except Prussia, Hungary, Poland, Russia and some titles in Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands and Scandinavia). \n\nAlthough official, titles shared by members of a dynasty are non-substantive, the Almanach de Gotha historically recording them as prefixes to the given name, whereas substantive titles usually followed the titleholder's given name. Substantive titles are often granted to royalty in honour of an important dynastic occasion: with the baptism of a new dynast, coming of age, or an approved wedding. A recent example is Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex. The Almanach de Gotha treated similarly titles used by dynasties of abolished monarchies: the head of the house bearing a traditional title of the dynasty in lieu of or after the given name (e.g. Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza), while cadets shared a princely title as prefix in addition to any suffixed substantive title accorded them as individuals by the head of the house (e.g. Infante Miguel, Duke of Viseu and Prince Aimone, Duke of Apulia).\n\nTitles of former ruling houses\n\nIn accordance with a tradition dating back to the reign of Napoleon I, titles in pretence were treated by the Almanach de Gotha as if still borne by members of reigning dynasties, with the exception that titles exclusively borne by monarchs (e.g. Emperor, King, Queen, Grand Duke (Grossherzog)), their consorts, and heirs (Crown Prince, Hereditary Prince) were restricted to the last dynast who held the title during the monarchy and borne for the duration of their lifetimes.\n \nThe spouse of a monarch, heir apparent or titleholder may or may not share usage of the substantive title, but when this is the case the spouse holds the title derivatively (e.g., Carlos Zurita, Duke of Soria). In European monarchies, the dynastic wife of a male monarch shares her husband's rank and bears the female equivalent of his title (i.e., Empress, Queen, Grand Duchess, Duchess or Princess). The husband of a female monarch, however, does not acquire the crown matrimonial automatically. Only in Monaco has the male equivalent (Prince) of the dynast's title been conferred upon the husband of an heiress presumptive since the nineteenth century. In the medieval era, the husband of a female sovereign in Europe usually took the title, rank and authority of his wife jure uxoris. Later, the husbands of queens regnant were usually, but not automatically, elevated to the wife's ruling status, sometimes as co-King and sometimes as King consort (e.g. John III of Navarre, Philip II of Spain, Francis II of France, Henry, Lord Darnley (later Duke of Rothesay, etc.), William III, Pedro III of Portugal, Ferdinand II of Portugal, Francis II of Spain), etc.\n\nSee also\n Cadet (genealogy)\n Ennoblement\n Hereditary peer\n Imperial, royal and noble ranks\n Jure uxoris\n Peerages in the United Kingdom\n Subsidiary title\n Territorial designation\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Titles\nCategory:European royalty", "title": "Substantive title" }, { "text": "A writ in acceleration, commonly called a writ of acceleration, is a type of writ of summons that enabled the eldest son and heir apparent of a peer with more than one peerage to attend the British or Irish House of Lords, using one of his father's subsidiary titles, during his father's lifetime. This procedure could be used to bring younger men into the Lords and increase the number of capable members in a house that drew on a very small pool of talent (a few dozen families in its early centuries, a few hundred in its later centuries).\n\nThe procedure of writs of acceleration was introduced by King Edward IV in the mid-15th century. It was a fairly rare occurrence, and in over 400 years only 98 writs of acceleration were issued. The last such writ of acceleration was issued in 1992 to the Conservative politician and close political associate of John Major, Viscount Cranborne, the eldest son and heir apparent of the 6th Marquess of Salisbury. He was summoned as Baron Cecil, and not as Viscount Cranborne, the title he used by courtesy. The procedure of writs of acceleration has not been used in practice since the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the House of Lords.\n\nProcedure\n\nA writ of acceleration was granted only if the peerage being accelerated was a subsidiary one, and not the father's highest, and if the beneficiary of the writ was the heir apparent of the actual holder of the peerages. The heir apparent was not always summoned in his courtesy title; rather, almost every person summoned to Parliament by virtue of a writ of acceleration was summoned in one of his father's baronies. For example, William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington, heir apparent of William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, was summoned as Baron Cavendish of Hardwick. It was not possible for heirs apparent of peers in the Peerage of Scotland and Peerage of Ireland to be given writs of acceleration after 1707 and 1801, respectively, as holders of titles in these peerages were not automatically guaranteed a seat in the Westminster House of Lords.\n\nAn heir apparent receiving such a writ took precedence within the House of Lords according to the peerage accelerated. For example, when Viscount Cranborne was accelerated to the barony of Cecil (created in 1603), he took precedence ahead of all barons in Parliament created after that date.\n\nIf an accelerated baron died before his father, the barony passed to his heirs, if any, according to the remainder governing the creation of the barony, or else to his father. For example, Charles Boyle, Viscount Dungarvan, the eldest son of the 1st Earl of Burlington, was summoned to Parliament in 1689 in his father's barony of Clifford of Lanesborough. He predeceased his father, and his son, the Earl's grandson, was granted a writ of attendance to the Lords in the barony.\n\nAcceleration could affect the numbering of holders of peerages. In the example above, the 1st Earl of Burlington was also the 1st Baron Clifford of Lanesborough. His son Charles was, by virtue of the writ of acceleration, summoned to Parliament as Baron Clifford of Lanesborough, but predeceased his father. On the death of the 1st Earl of Burlington, Charles's son thus became the 2nd Earl of Burlington, but the 3rd Baron Clifford of Lanesborough (the accelerated barony had indeed passed to him on his father's death).\n\nNotable examples\nSeveral issues of writs of acceleration may be especially noted.\n\nIn 1628 James Stanley, Lord Strange, heir apparent of William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby, was summoned to the House of Lords in the ancient Barony of Strange (created in 1299), a title assumed by his father. However, the House of Lords later decided that the sixth Earl's assumption of the Barony of Strange had been erroneous. Consequently, it was deemed that there were now two Baronies of Strange, the original one created in 1299 and the new one, created \"accidentally\" in 1628 (see Baron Strange for more information).\n\nAnother noteworthy writ of acceleration was issued in 1717 to Charles Paulet, Marquess of Winchester, heir apparent of Charles Paulet, 2nd Duke of Bolton. He was meant to be summoned in his father's junior title of Baron St John of Basing, but was mistakenly summoned as Baron Pawlett of Basing. This inadvertently created a new peerage. However, the Barony of Pawlett of Basing became extinct on his death, while the Dukedom was inherited by his younger brother, the fourth Duke.\n\nThe summons of Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, to the English House of Lords in 1666, as Baron Butler, of Moore Park, may also represent an error for a writ of acceleration in his father's peerage of Baron Butler, of Lanthony (cr. 1660).\n\nAlternatives\nWhen it had been decided that the eldest son of a peer should become a member of the House of Lords, the alternative to a writ of acceleration was to create a completely new peerage. For example, in 1832 Edward Smith-Stanley, Lord Stanley, son and heir apparent of Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby, was given a new peerage as Baron Stanley, of Bickerstaffe. Two years later he succeeded his father in the Earldom. This was in contrast to his son, Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, who in 1844 was summoned to the House of Lords through a writ of acceleration in the aforementioned title of Baron Stanley, of Bickerstaffe.\n\nOther examples of new peerages being created for heirs apparent include the barony of Butler in the peerage of England, 1666, for Thomas Butler, 6th Earl of Ossory, eldest son of James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde, who sat in the English House of Lords by virtue of this title, although he had been accelerated to the Irish House of Lords as Earl of Ossory.\n\nSimilarly, after his career in the House of Commons was ended by a defeat in the October 1974 general election, Lord Balniel was given a life peerage as Baron Balniel, of Pitcorthie in the County of Fife, enabling him to sit in the House of Lords before succeeding his father, David Lindsay, 28th Earl of Crawford in 1975.\n\nBy contrast, after retiring from the House of Commons in 1992, George Younger, 4th Viscount Younger of Leckie was conferred a life peerage as Baron Younger of Prestwick, of Ayr in the District of Kyle and Carrick, there being no peerage held by his father other than the viscountcy. For reason both that his father was a baron and that he had no other peerages, John Wyndham, 1st Baron Egremont could not be sent to House of Lords by writ of acceleration, but was created Baron Egremont in 1964, by which title he continued to be known after succeeding as 6th Baron Leconfield in 1967.\n\nEldest sons of peers who had not received a writ of acceleration or a new peerage were eligible to stand for election to the House of Commons. It was far more common for eldest sons of peers to sit in the House of Commons than to receive a writ of acceleration or a new peerage. Before the 20th century, it was generally very easy for such men to find a constituency willing to elect them if they had any inclination for politics.\n\nFrench peerage\n\nIn the peerage of the Ancien Régime of France, a similar procedure was possible: the resignation of peerage. Any lay peer—all of them dukes—could resign his peerage to his heir, thus allowing the heir to enjoy all privileges of peerage, such as presence in Parliament. The eldest peer was almost always granted a brevet allowing him to keep the honors and precedence of the resigned peerage. In many cases, the procedure of resignation was only used to grant heirs, often around the time of their wedding, new titles: as both men had now the honors of a duke but only one similarly named dukedom could exist at any time, one of the two took a new title (such as duc de Chaulnes and duc de Picquigny, or duc de Saint-Simon and duc de Ruffec). This procedure was different from the use of a courtesy title by the eldest son of a peer holding multiple dukedoms (such as the duc de Luynes, also duc de Chevreuse). From 1755, the royal authorization for these resignations was no longer granted; the king chose instead to grant brevets of precedence to the heirs rather than to their fathers after resignation. The first one of these brevet dukes was Louis-Léon de Brancas, eldest son of the Duke of Villars, brevetted Duke of Lauragais in 1755.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\nFormat for Writs in Acceleration and of Summons\n\nCategory:Peerages in the United Kingdom", "title": "Writ of acceleration" } ]

[ "Some of the ranks of the Peerage in most of the United Kingdom, in descending order, are duke, marquess, earl, viscount, and baron. The female equivalents are duchess, marchioness, countess, viscountess, and baroness. In the Scottish peerage, the lowest rank is lordship of Parliament.", "Peerage dignities are created by the Sovereign by either writs of summons or letters patent. Under modern constitutional conventions, no peerage dignity would be created except upon the advice of the Prime Minister.", "The text does not explicitly clarify the difference between titles and ranks. However, it mentions that many peers hold more than one hereditary title, and they could be a duke, an earl, a viscount, and a baron by virtue of different peerages. This suggests that titles may refer to the specific designations within the ranking system of the peerage.", "Based on the given context, only the ranks and titles of duke, marquess, earl, viscount, baron, and their female equivalents, as well as the lordship of Parliament in the Scottish peerage, are mentioned. It does not provide information about the existence of other titles or ranks." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "Is Hamid Karzai married?", "When were they married?", "What did his wife do?", "Did they have any children?", "Any other children?", "Does he have any siblings?", "Any sisters?", "Was anyone else in his family involved in politics?", "How was Ahmed Wali related to Hamid?", "What is Karzai's tribal lineage?", "Why was there confusion?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 9 ], [ 0 ], [ 30 ], [ 146 ], [ 303 ], [ 605 ], [ 839 ], [ 684 ], [ 620 ], [ 1040 ], [ 1160 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Hamid Karzai married Zeenat Quraishi," ], [ "In 1999," ], [ "Zeenat Quraishi, a gynaecologist by profession who was working as a doctor with Afghan refugees living in Pakistan." ], [ "They have a son, Mirwais, who was born in January 2007, a daughter, Malalai, born in 2012 and another daughter, Howsi, born in March 2014" ], [ "He became father once again at the age of 58 when another daughter was born in September 2016 in Apollo Hospital, New Delhi." ], [ "Karzai has six brothers," ], [ "Karzai has one sister, Fauzia Karzai." ], [ "Ahmed Wali Karzai, deceased, who was the representative for the southern Afghanistan region." ], [ "brothers," ], [ "there was confusion regarding his clan lineage; it was written that his paternal lineage derived from the Sadozai clan." ], [ "This confusion might have arisen from sources stating he was chosen as the tribal chief, or Khan, of the Popalzai." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 9, 0, 30, 146, 303, 605, 839, 684, 620, 1040, 1160 ], "texts": [ "Hamid Karzai married Zeenat Quraishi,", "In 1999,", "Zeenat Quraishi, a gynaecologist by profession who was working as a doctor with Afghan refugees living in Pakistan.", "They have a son, Mirwais, who was born in January 2007, a daughter, Malalai, born in 2012 and another daughter, Howsi, born in March 2014", "He became father once again at the age of 58 when another daughter was born in September 2016 in Apollo Hospital, New Delhi.", "Karzai has six brothers,", "Karzai has one sister, Fauzia Karzai.", "Ahmed Wali Karzai, deceased, who was the representative for the southern Afghanistan region.", "brothers,", "there was confusion regarding his clan lineage; it was written that his paternal lineage derived from the Sadozai clan.", "This confusion might have arisen from sources stating he was chosen as the tribal chief, or Khan, of the Popalzai." ] }

[ { "text": "Hamid refers to two different but related Arabic given names, both of which come from the Arabic triconsonantal root of Ḥ-M-D (ِِح-م-د):\n\n (Arabic: حَامِد ḥāmid) also spelled Haamed, Hamid or Hamed, and in Turkish Hamit; it means \"lauder\" or \"one who praises\".\n (Arabic: حَمِيد ḥamīd) also spelled Hamid, or Hameed, in Turkish is Hamit, and in Azeri is Həmid or Һәмид; it means \"lauded\" or \"praiseworthy\".\n\nGiven name\n\nHamid\n Hamid Ahmadi (historian) (b. 1945), Iranian historian\n Hamid Ahmadi (futsal) (b. 1988), Iranian futsal player\n Hamid Ahmadieh, Iranian ophthalmologist and medical scientist\nHamid Al Shaeri, Egyptian-Libyan singer, songwriter, and musician \nHamid Arasly, Azeri and Soviet scientist\nHamid Arzulu, Azerbaijani poet and writer\nHamid Berhili (born 1964), Moroccan boxer\nHamid Mahmood Butt, Pakistani ophthalmologist\nHamid Chitchian (born c. 1957), Iranian politician\nHamid Drake, American musician\nHamid Etemad, Iranian professor\nHamid Frangieh (1907–1981), Lebanese politician\nHamid Gabbay, Iranian-born American architect\nHamid Ghandehari, Iranian-American drug chemist \nHamid Gul, Pakistani politician\nHamid Guska, head coach of Bosnian national boxing team\nHamid Hassani (born 1968), Iranian lexicographer\nHamid Ismailov, Uzbek journalist\nHamid Karzai, President of Afghanistan from 2002 to 2014\nHamid Hussain Musavi, Indian scholar\nHamid Notghi, Iranian Azeri poet, writer, author, university professor\nHamid Olimjon (1909–1944), Uzbek poet and scholar\nHamid Ekrem Šahinović, Bosnian writer and dramatist\nHamid Naderi Yeganeh, Iranian mathematical artist\n\nHamed / Hameed\nHamed Gohar, Egyptian oceanographer\nHamed Haddadi, Iranian basketball player\nHameed Haroon, Pakistani economist\nHamed Namouchi, Tunisian footballer\nHameed Nizami, Pakistani journalist\nHamed Rasouli, Iranian footballer\nHamed Sohrabnejad, Iranian basketball player\nHamed Traorè, Ivorian footballer\n\nMiddle name\nAbed Hamed Mowhoush, Iraqi general\nAwad Hamed al-Bandar, Iraqi chief judge\nMohammad Hamid Ansari (born 1937), vice-president of India\n\nSurname\n\nAlejandro Hamed, Paraguayan diplomat and Arabist\nAmir Hamed, Uruguayan writer and translator\nAmr Hamed, Canadian terrorist\nEzzedin Yacoub Hamed, Egyptian Long Jumper\nHaseeb Hameed, English cricketer\nIbrahim Hamed, Hamas military commander\nMohsin Hamid (born 1971), Pakistani British author\nJasmin Hamid, Finnish actress\nMohamed Naguib Hamed, Egyptian athlete\nNaseem Hamed, British boxer\nNima Arkani-Hamed, Canadian-American theoretical physicist\nRani Hamid (born 1944), Bangladeshi chess player\nSanaa Ismail Hamed, Egyptian model\nTaha Bidaywi Hamed, Iraqi politician\n Yasmeen Hameed, Pakistani Urdu poet\nZid Abou Hamed, Australian athlete\n\nSee also\nAbu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali Persian theologian, philosopher, jurist\nAl Hamed, town in Egypt near Rosetta\n Hameed a village in Hazro Tehsil, Punjab, Pakistan\nAbdul Hamid\nHamid al-Din (disambiguation)\nHamidids, 14th century Turkic dynasty\nHamit\nHamidah (disambiguation)\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Arabic-language surnames\nCategory:Arabic masculine given names\nCategory:Bosniak masculine given names\nCategory:Bosnian masculine given names\nCategory:Iranian masculine given names\nCategory:Pakistani masculine given names\nCategory:Names of God in Islam", "title": "Hamid" } ]

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[ "Was Karzai democratically elected?", "What happened after he was elected in 2004?", "Why was he expected not to be cautious?", "What were some highlights from his first term?", "Which countries did they receive aid from?", "How did the public feel about his first term?", "Did anything come from the discontent?", "When did the riot take place?", "Why were they discontent?", "What was the result of the riot?", "What was the governments response to the riot?", "How many casualties were there?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 150 ], [ 57 ], [ 338 ], [ 2335 ], [ 488 ], [ 585 ], [ 575 ], [ 517 ], [ 654 ], [ 773 ], [ 697 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After winning a democratic mandate in the 2004 election," ], [ "Karzai has proved to be more cautious than was expected." ], [ "it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005." ], [ "Government revenue began increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001-14." ], [ "an anti-American and anti-Karzai riot took place in Kabul" ], [ "May 2006," ], [ "corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001-14." ], [ "at least seven people dead and 40 injured." ], [ "Karzai asserted that his government \"can no longer accept\" casualties caused by U.S. and NATO operations." ], [ "In May 2007, after as many as 51 Afghan civilians were killed in a bombing," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 150, 57, 338, 2335, 488, 585, 575, 517, 654, 773, 697 ], "texts": [ "After winning a democratic mandate in the 2004 election,", "Karzai has proved to be more cautious than was expected.", "it was thought that Karzai would pursue a more aggressively reformist path in 2005.", "Government revenue began increasing every year, although it is still heavily dependent on foreign aid.", "CANNOTANSWER", "public discontent grew about corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001-14.", "an anti-American and anti-Karzai riot took place in Kabul", "May 2006,", "corruption and the civilian casualties in the 2001-14.", "at least seven people dead and 40 injured.", "Karzai asserted that his government \"can no longer accept\" casualties caused by U.S. and NATO operations.", "In May 2007, after as many as 51 Afghan civilians were killed in a bombing," ] }

[ { "text": "Hamid refers to two different but related Arabic given names, both of which come from the Arabic triconsonantal root of Ḥ-M-D (ِِح-م-د):\n\n (Arabic: حَامِد ḥāmid) also spelled Haamed, Hamid or Hamed, and in Turkish Hamit; it means \"lauder\" or \"one who praises\".\n (Arabic: حَمِيد ḥamīd) also spelled Hamid, or Hameed, in Turkish is Hamit, and in Azeri is Həmid or Һәмид; it means \"lauded\" or \"praiseworthy\".\n\nGiven name\n\nHamid\n Hamid Ahmadi (historian) (b. 1945), Iranian historian\n Hamid Ahmadi (futsal) (b. 1988), Iranian futsal player\n Hamid Ahmadieh, Iranian ophthalmologist and medical scientist\nHamid Al Shaeri, Egyptian-Libyan singer, songwriter, and musician \nHamid Arasly, Azeri and Soviet scientist\nHamid Arzulu, Azerbaijani poet and writer\nHamid Berhili (born 1964), Moroccan boxer\nHamid Mahmood Butt, Pakistani ophthalmologist\nHamid Chitchian (born c. 1957), Iranian politician\nHamid Drake, American musician\nHamid Etemad, Iranian professor\nHamid Frangieh (1907–1981), Lebanese politician\nHamid Gabbay, Iranian-born American architect\nHamid Ghandehari, Iranian-American drug chemist \nHamid Gul, Pakistani politician\nHamid Guska, head coach of Bosnian national boxing team\nHamid Hassani (born 1968), Iranian lexicographer\nHamid Ismailov, Uzbek journalist\nHamid Karzai, President of Afghanistan from 2002 to 2014\nHamid Hussain Musavi, Indian scholar\nHamid Notghi, Iranian Azeri poet, writer, author, university professor\nHamid Olimjon (1909–1944), Uzbek poet and scholar\nHamid Ekrem Šahinović, Bosnian writer and dramatist\nHamid Naderi Yeganeh, Iranian mathematical artist\n\nHamed / Hameed\nHamed Gohar, Egyptian oceanographer\nHamed Haddadi, Iranian basketball player\nHameed Haroon, Pakistani economist\nHamed Namouchi, Tunisian footballer\nHameed Nizami, Pakistani journalist\nHamed Rasouli, Iranian footballer\nHamed Sohrabnejad, Iranian basketball player\nHamed Traorè, Ivorian footballer\n\nMiddle name\nAbed Hamed Mowhoush, Iraqi general\nAwad Hamed al-Bandar, Iraqi chief judge\nMohammad Hamid Ansari (born 1937), vice-president of India\n\nSurname\n\nAlejandro Hamed, Paraguayan diplomat and Arabist\nAmir Hamed, Uruguayan writer and translator\nAmr Hamed, Canadian terrorist\nEzzedin Yacoub Hamed, Egyptian Long Jumper\nHaseeb Hameed, English cricketer\nIbrahim Hamed, Hamas military commander\nMohsin Hamid (born 1971), Pakistani British author\nJasmin Hamid, Finnish actress\nMohamed Naguib Hamed, Egyptian athlete\nNaseem Hamed, British boxer\nNima Arkani-Hamed, Canadian-American theoretical physicist\nRani Hamid (born 1944), Bangladeshi chess player\nSanaa Ismail Hamed, Egyptian model\nTaha Bidaywi Hamed, Iraqi politician\n Yasmeen Hameed, Pakistani Urdu poet\nZid Abou Hamed, Australian athlete\n\nSee also\nAbu Hamid Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Al-Ghazali Persian theologian, philosopher, jurist\nAl Hamed, town in Egypt near Rosetta\n Hameed a village in Hazro Tehsil, Punjab, Pakistan\nAbdul Hamid\nHamid al-Din (disambiguation)\nHamidids, 14th century Turkic dynasty\nHamit\nHamidah (disambiguation)\n\nReferences\n\nCategory:Arabic-language surnames\nCategory:Arabic masculine given names\nCategory:Bosniak masculine given names\nCategory:Bosnian masculine given names\nCategory:Iranian masculine given names\nCategory:Pakistani masculine given names\nCategory:Names of God in Islam", "title": "Hamid" } ]

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[ "What was his first film?", "What was his most popular film?", "What film was that from?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he receive any criticism for that?", "What documentaries does he like?", "Has that show been successful?", "What other ventures has he been involved in?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 29 ], [ 142 ], [ 266 ], [ 1404 ], [ 1708 ], [ 1831 ], [ 2012 ], [ 1960 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest," ], [ "He gained fame in 1978 playing Louie De Palma," ], [ "on the hit TV show Taxi." ], [ "Although generally a comic actor, DeVito expanded into dramatic roles" ], [ "DeVito has an interest in documentaries:" ], [ "he hosts a documentary channel called Jersey Docs. He" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "his interest in and ownership of electric vehicles." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 29, 142, 266, 1404, 1708, 1831, 2012, 1960 ], "texts": [ "1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest,", "He gained fame in 1978 playing Louie De Palma,", "on the hit TV show Taxi.", "Although generally a comic actor, DeVito expanded into dramatic roles", "DeVito has an interest in documentaries:", "he hosts a documentary channel called Jersey Docs. He", "CANNOTANSWER", "his interest in and ownership of electric vehicles." ] }

[]

[ "DeVito's first film was the 1975 film One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, in which he played Martini.", "The text does not provide information on what DeVito's most popular film was.", "I'm sorry, I can't provide the answer as the question is unclear. Could you please provide more context or clarify the question?", "This article also mentions that Danny DeVito expanded into dramatic roles with films like The Rainmaker, Hoffa, Jack the Bear, L.A. Confidential, The Big Kahuna, and Heist. Also, DeVito has an interest in documentaries and in 2006, he started a partnership with Morgan Freeman's company ClickStar, where he hosts a documentary channel called Jersey Docs. He was also involved in the documentary Revenge of the Electric Car, due to his interest in and ownership of electric vehicles.", "The text does not provide information on whether DeVito received any criticism for his work in films or his interest in documentaries.", "The text mentions that DeVito has an interest in documentaries and it specifically mentions his involvement in the documentary Revenge of the Electric Car. He also hosts a documentary channel called Jersey Docs. However, the text does not provide any specific documentaries that DeVito likes.", "The text does not provide information on whether the documentary channel called Jersey Docs, which DeVito hosts, has been successful.", "In addition to his acting and directing career in films, Danny DeVito has been involved in the documentary world. In 2006, he began a partnership with Morgan Freeman's company ClickStar, on which he hosts a documentary channel called Jersey Docs. He was also interviewed in the documentary Revenge of the Electric Car, due to his interest in and ownership of electric vehicles." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What shows did he do?", "Was he in any other shows?", "What other shows was he in?", "Did he win any awards?", "Was there any other awards?", "Did he win any other awards?", "How many awards did he win?", "Did he do anything else interesting?", "How long was he on the show?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 517 ], [ 914 ], [ 1127 ], [ 1430 ], [ 1241 ], [ 2191 ], [ 1341 ], [ 2191 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1977, DeVito played the role of John 'John John the Apple' DeAppoliso in the Starsky and Hutch episode titled \"The Collector\"." ], [ "In 1986, DeVito voiced the Grundle King in My Little Pony: The Movie while his wife, Rhea Perlman, voiced Reeka the witch." ], [ "In 1996, he provided the voice of Mr. Swackhammer in Space Jam. In 1997, he was the voice of Philoctetes in the film Hercules." ], [ "earned a 2004 Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for an episode of Friends," ], [ "In 2011, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in television." ], [ "four Emmy nominations (including a 1981 win) for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy for Taxi." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In 2006, DeVito joined the cast of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia as Frank Reynolds." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 517, 914, 1127, 1430, 1241, 2191, 1341, 2191 ], "texts": [ "In 1977, DeVito played the role of John 'John John the Apple' DeAppoliso in the Starsky and Hutch episode titled \"The Collector\".", "In 1986, DeVito voiced the Grundle King in My Little Pony: The Movie while his wife, Rhea Perlman, voiced Reeka the witch.", "In 1996, he provided the voice of Mr. Swackhammer in Space Jam. In 1997, he was the voice of Philoctetes in the film Hercules.", "earned a 2004 Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for an episode of Friends,", "In 2011, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his work in television.", "four Emmy nominations (including a 1981 win) for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy for Taxi.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In 2006, DeVito joined the cast of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia as Frank Reynolds.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "What is H2O?", "Were there any hit singles?", "What else was significant?", "What else happened with this album?", "Did this album win any awards?", "What recognition did it receive", "Did it have any other success?", "Are there any other songs mentioned?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 235 ], [ 265 ], [ 382 ], [ 40 ], [ 158 ], [ 721 ], [ 1592 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Their next album," ], [ "spawned three Top 10 singles." ], [ "\"Maneater\", the biggest hit of their career, reached Number 1 on December 18, 1982 and stayed there for four weeks." ], [ "The soulful ballad \"One on One\" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's \"Family Man\" reached Number 7 and Number 6 in March and June 1983, respectively." ], [ "synth-heavy effort, became the duo's most successful album," ], [ "H2O reached #3 on the Billboard album chart (where it held for 15 weeks) and spawned three Top 10 singles." ], [ "One On One,\" with its clever mixed-metaphorical references to romance and basketball, was used in NBA commercials" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 235, 265, 382, 40, 158, 721, 1592 ], "texts": [ "Their next album,", "spawned three Top 10 singles.", "\"Maneater\", the biggest hit of their career, reached Number 1 on December 18, 1982 and stayed there for four weeks.", "The soulful ballad \"One on One\" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's \"Family Man\" reached Number 7 and Number 6 in March and June 1983, respectively.", "synth-heavy effort, became the duo's most successful album,", "H2O reached #3 on the Billboard album chart (where it held for 15 weeks) and spawned three Top 10 singles.", "One On One,\" with its clever mixed-metaphorical references to romance and basketball, was used in NBA commercials", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "H2O is an album by the duo Hall and Oates. It is their most successful album, with sales approaching four million copies in the U.S. It reached #3 on the Billboard album chart.", "Yes, the H2O album spawned three Top 10 singles: \"Maneater\", which reached Number 1, \"One on One\", and a cover of Mike Oldfield's \"Family Man\".", "For the H2O album, Hall and Oates made some permanent changes to their current band. Drummer Mickey Curry and Bassist Tom \"T-Bone\" Wolk joined the band full-time, replacing Jerry Marotta and John Siegler respectively. One of the album's singles, \"One On One,\" was used in NBA commercials of the period.", "The H2O album was a great success for Hall and Oates, reaching #3 on the Billboard album chart and holding that position for 15 weeks. Their single \"Maneater\" from this album, became the biggest hit of their career, reaching Number 1 and staying there for four weeks. Two other singles, \"One on One\" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's \"Family Man\" also had significant success. Furthermore, some permanent changes were made to the band's lineup during the production of H2O - Mickey Curry replaced Jerry Marotta as the drummer and Tom \"T-Bone\" Wolk replaced John Siegler as the bassist. One of the album's songs, \"One On One,\" was used in NBA commercials.", "The context does not provide any information about the H2O album winning any awards.", "The H2O album reached #3 on the Billboard album chart (where it held for 15 weeks) and the single \"Maneater\" became the biggest hit of their career, reaching Number 1 and staying there for four weeks. However, the text does not mention any specific awards or recognitions the album received.", "H2O was a very successful album for Hall and Oates with sales in the U.S. approaching four million copies. It spawned three top 10 singles, including \"Maneater\", which reached Number 1 and stayed there for four weeks. The song \"One On One\" was also used in NBA commercials of the period. However, the text does not mention any other specific successes related to H2O.", "Yes, in addition to \"Maneater\", two other songs from the H2O album are mentioned. They are the soulful ballad \"One on One\" and a cover of Mike Oldfield's \"Family Man\". These songs reached Number 7 and Number 6, respectively, in the charts in 1983." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "Which album release was Voices?", "Was the album ever on the billboard charts?", "Did the album win any awards?", "What other singles were on the album?", "Did they talk about any influences to make the album?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he write any of the other songs?", "Was there conflict in the group during this time", "Did they tour the album" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 908 ], [ 1089 ], [ 1474 ], [ 1594 ], [ 2153 ], [ 1654 ], [ 1370 ], [ 2153 ], [ 2153 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The resulting album, Voices, was written, produced and arranged by Daryl Hall & John Oates in one month," ], [ "The first two singles from the album charted fairly well, with \"How Does It Feel to Be Back\" charting at Number 30." ], [ "The third single \"Kiss on My List\" hit Number 1 in April 1981 and remained there for three weeks." ], [ "You Make My Dreams\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The other well-known song from Voices is the emotive ballad \"Everytime You Go Away\", with powerful lead vocals by Hall, who wrote it." ], [ "After the release of that song, Oates' contribution as the lead vocalist diminished on future releases." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 908, 1089, 1474, 1594, 2153, 1654, 1370, 2153, 2153 ], "texts": [ "The resulting album, Voices, was written, produced and arranged by Daryl Hall & John Oates in one month,", "The first two singles from the album charted fairly well, with \"How Does It Feel to Be Back\" charting at Number 30.", "The third single \"Kiss on My List\" hit Number 1 in April 1981 and remained there for three weeks.", "You Make My Dreams\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "The other well-known song from Voices is the emotive ballad \"Everytime You Go Away\", with powerful lead vocals by Hall, who wrote it.", "After the release of that song, Oates' contribution as the lead vocalist diminished on future releases.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "Who was Helen Duncan?", "How was Harry Price connected to Helen Duncan?", "Did he invesitgate other things related to Helen?", "What other involvement did he have with Helen?", "Did Price write anything else?", "Did he work closely with anyone else?", "What places did he travel to?", "What else is interesting about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 3856 ], [ 4103 ], [ 4215 ], [ 5137 ], [ 1120 ], [ 5911 ], [ 6111 ], [ 5807 ] ], "texts": [ [ "the medium Helen Duncan" ], [ "Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth." ], [ "Duncan reacted violently at attempts to X-ray her, running from the laboratory and making a scene in the street," ], [ "Price wrote up the case in Leaves from a Psychist's Case Book (1933) in a chapter called \"The Cheese-Cloth Worshippers\"." ], [ "Price later re-published the Society's experiment in a pamphlet of his own called Cold Light on Spiritualistic \"Phenomena\" - An Experiment with the Crewe Circle." ], [ "Duncan and her travelling companions, Frances Brown, Ernest and Elizabeth Homer" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During Duncan's famous trial in 1944, Price gave his results as evidence for the prosecution." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 3856, 4103, 4215, 5137, 1120, 5911, 6111, 5807 ], "texts": [ "the medium Helen Duncan", "Price had proven through analysis of a sample of ectoplasm produced by Duncan, that it was made of cheesecloth.", "Duncan reacted violently at attempts to X-ray her, running from the laboratory and making a scene in the street,", "Price wrote up the case in Leaves from a Psychist's Case Book (1933) in a chapter called \"The Cheese-Cloth Worshippers\".", "Price later re-published the Society's experiment in a pamphlet of his own called Cold Light on Spiritualistic \"Phenomena\" - An Experiment with the Crewe Circle.", "Duncan and her travelling companions, Frances Brown, Ernest and Elizabeth Homer", "CANNOTANSWER", "During Duncan's famous trial in 1944, Price gave his results as evidence for the prosecution." ] }

[ { "text": "James Randi (born Randall James Hamilton Zwinge; August 7, 1928 – October 20, 2020) was a Canadian-American stage magician, author and scientific skeptic who extensively challenged paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. He was the co-founder of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF). Randi began his career as a magician under the stage name The Amazing Randi and later chose to devote most of his time to investigating paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims, which he collectively called \"woo-woo\". Randi retired from practicing magic at age 60, and from his foundation at 87.\n\nAlthough often referred to as a \"debunker\", Randi said he disliked the term's connotations and preferred to describe himself as an \"investigator\". He wrote about paranormal phenomena, skepticism, and the history of magic. He was a frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, famously exposing fraudulent faith healer Peter Popoff, and was occasionally featured on the television program Penn & Teller: Bullshit!\n\nBefore Randi's retirement, JREF sponsored the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge, which offered a prize of one million US dollars to eligible applicants who could demonstrate evidence of any paranormal, supernatural, or occult power or event under test conditions agreed to by both parties. In 2015, the James Randi Educational Foundation said they will no longer accept applications directly from people claiming to have a paranormal power, but will offer the challenge to anyone who has passed a preliminary test that meets with their approval.\n\nEarly life\nRandi was born on August 7, 1928, in Toronto, Canada. He was the son of Marie Alice (née Paradis; 1906–1987) and George Randall Zwinge (1903–1967), an executive at Bell Telephone Company. He was of French, Danish and Austrian descent. He had a younger brother and sister. He took up magic after seeing Harry Blackstone Sr. and reading conjuring books while spending 13 months in a body cast following a bicycle accident. He confounded doctors, who expected he would never walk again. Randi scored 168 on an IQ test. He often skipped classes, and at 17, dropped out of high school to perform as a conjurer in a carnival roadshow. He practiced as a mentalist in local nightclubs and at Toronto's Canadian National Exhibition and wrote for Montreal's tabloid press. As a teenager, he stumbled upon a church where the pastor claimed to read minds. After he re-enacted the trick before the parishioners, the pastor's wife called the police and he spent four hours in a jail cell. This inspired his career as a scientific skeptic.\n\nIn his 20s, Randi posed as an astrologer, and to establish that they merely were doing simple tricks, he briefly wrote an astrological column in the Canadian tabloid Midnight under the name \"Zo-ran\" by simply shuffling up items from newspaper astrology columns and pasting them randomly into a column. In his 30s, Randi worked in the UK, Europe, Philippine nightclubs, and Japan. He witnessed many tricks that were presented as being supernatural. One of his earliest reported experiences was that of seeing an evangelist using a version of the \"one-ahead\" technique to convince churchgoers of his divine powers.\n\nCareer\n\nMagician\n\nAlthough defining himself as a conjuror, Randi began a career as a professional stage magician and escapologist in 1946. He initially presented himself under his real name, Randall Zwinge, which he later dropped in favor of \"The Amazing Randi\". Early in his career, he performed numerous escape acts from jail cells and safes around the world. On February 7, 1956, he appeared live on NBC's Today show, where he remained for 104 minutes in a sealed metal coffin that had been submerged in a hotel swimming pool, breaking what was said to be Harry Houdini's record of 93 minutes, though Randi called attention to the fact that he was much younger than Houdini had been when he established the original record in 1926.\n\nRandi was a frequent guest on the Long John Nebel program on New York City radio station WOR, and did character voices for commercials. After Nebel moved to WNBC in 1962, Randi was given Nebel's time slot on WOR, where he hosted The Amazing Randi Show from 1967 to 1968. The show often had guests who defended paranormal claims, among them Randi's then-friend James W. Moseley. Randi stated that he quit WOR over complaints from the archbishop of New York that Randi had said on-air that \"Jesus Christ was a religious nut,\" a claim that Randi disputed.\n\nRandi also hosted numerous television specials and went on several world tours. As \"The Amazing Randi\" he appeared regularly on the New York-based children's television series Wonderama from 1959 to 1967. In 1970, he auditioned for a revival of the 1950s children's show The Magic Clown, which showed briefly in Detroit and in Kenya, but was never picked up. In the February 2, 1974, issue of the British conjuring magazine Abracadabra, Randi, in defining the community of magicians, stated: \"I know of no calling which depends so much upon mutual trust and faith as does ours.\" In the December 2003 issue of The Linking Ring, the monthly publication of the International Brotherhood of Magicians, it is stated: \"Perhaps Randi's ethics are what make him Amazing\" and \"The Amazing Randi not only talks the talk, he walks the walk.\"\n\nDuring Alice Cooper's 1973–1974 Billion Dollar Babies tour, Randi performed on stage both as a mad dentist and as Cooper's executioner. He also built several of the stage props, including the guillotine. In a 1976 performance for the Canadian TV special World of Wizards, Randi escaped from a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over Niagara Falls.\n\nRandi has been accused of actually using \"psychic powers\" to perform acts such as spoon bending. According to James Alcock, at a meeting where Randi was duplicating the performances of Uri Geller, a professor from the University at Buffalo shouted out that Randi was a fraud. Randi said: \"Yes, indeed, I'm a trickster, I'm a cheat, I'm a charlatan, that's what I do for a living. Everything I've done here was by trickery.\" The professor shouted back: \"That's not what I mean. You're a fraud because you're pretending to do these things through trickery, but you're actually using psychic powers and misleading us by not admitting it.\" A similar event involved Senator Claiborne Pell, a confirmed believer in psychic phenomena. When Randi personally demonstrated to Pell that he could reveal—by simple trickery—a concealed drawing that had been secretly made by the senator, Pell refused to believe that it was a trick, saying: \"I think Randi may be a psychic and doesn't realize it.\" Randi consistently denied having any paranormal powers or abilities.\n\nRandi was a member of the Society of American Magicians (SAM), the International Brotherhood of Magicians (IBM), and The Magic Circle in the UK, holding the rank of \"Member of the Inner Magic Circle with Gold Star.\"\n\nAuthor\nRandi wrote ten books, among them Conjuring (1992), a biographical history of prominent magicians. The book is subtitled Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC! The book's cover indicates it is by \"James Randi, Esq., A Contrite Rascal Once Dedicated to these Wicked Practices but Now Almost Totally Reformed\". The book features the most influential magicians and tells some of their history, often in the context of strange deaths and careers on the road. This work expanded on Randi's second book, Houdini, His Life and Art. This illustrated work was published in 1976 and was co-authored with Bert Sugar. It focuses on the professional and private life of Houdini.\n\nRandi's book, The Magic World of the Amazing Randi (1989), was intended as a children's introduction to magic tricks. In addition to his magic books, he wrote several educational works about paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. These include biographies of Uri Geller and Nostradamus, as well as reference material on other major paranormal figures. In 2011, he was working on A Magician in the Laboratory, which recounted his application of skepticism to science. He was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his friend Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers.\n\nOther books by Randi include Flim-Flam! (1982), The Faith Healers (1987), James Randi, Psychic Investigator (1991), Test Your ESP Potential (1982) and An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995).\n\nRandi was a regular contributor to Skeptic magazine, penning the \"'Twas Brillig ...\" column, and also served on its editorial board. He was a frequent contributor to Skeptical Inquirer magazine, published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, of which he was also a fellow.\n\nSkeptic\n\nRandi gained the international spotlight in 1972 when he publicly challenged the claims of Uri Geller. He accused Geller of being nothing more than a charlatan and a fraud who used standard magic tricks to accomplish his allegedly paranormal feats, and he presented his claims in the book The Truth About Uri Geller (1982).\n\nBelieving that it was important to get columnists and TV personalities to challenge Geller and others like him, Randi and CSICOP reached out in an attempt to educate them. Randi said that CSICOP had a \"very substantial influence on the printed media ... in those days.\" During this effort, Randi made contact with Johnny Carson and discovered that he was \"very much on our side. He wasn't only a comedian ... he was a great thinker.\" According to Randi, when he was on The Tonight Show, Carson broke his usual protocol of not talking with guests before their entrance on stage, but instead would ask what Randi wanted to be emphasized in the interview. \"He wanted to be aware of how he could help me.\"\n\nIn 1973, Geller appeared on The Tonight Show, and this appearance is recounted in the Nova documentary \"Secrets of the Psychics\".\n\nIn the documentary, Randi says that Carson \"had been a magician himself and was skeptical\" of Geller's claimed paranormal powers, so before the date of taping, Randi was asked \"to help prevent any trickery\". Per Randi's advice, the show prepared its own props without informing Geller, and did not let Geller or his staff \"anywhere near them\". When Geller joined Carson on stage, he appeared surprised that he was not going to be interviewed, but instead was expected to display his abilities using the provided articles. Geller said \"This scares me\" and \"I'm surprised because before this program your producer came and he read me at least 40 questions you were going to ask me.\" Geller was unable to display any paranormal abilities, saying \"I don't feel strong\" and expressing his displeasure at feeling like he was being \"pressed\" to perform by Carson. According to Adam Higginbotham's November 7, 2014 article in The New York Times:\n\nHowever, this appearance on The Tonight Show, which Carson and Randi had orchestrated to debunk Geller's claimed abilities, backfired. According to Higginbotham:\n\nAccording to Higginbotham, this result caused Randi to realize that much more must be done to stop Geller and those like him. So in 1976, Randi approached Ray Hyman, a psychologist who had observed the tests of Geller's ability at Stanford and thought them slipshod, and suggested they create an organization dedicated to combating pseudoscience. Later that same year, together with Martin Gardner, a Scientific American columnist whose writing had helped hone Hyman's and Randi's skepticism, they formed the Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).\n\nUsing donations and sales of their magazine, Skeptical Inquirer, they and secular humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz took seats on the executive board, with Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan joining as founding members. Randi travelled the world on behalf of CSICOP, becoming its public face, and according to Hyman, the face of the skeptical movement.\n\nAndrás G. Pintér, producer and co-host of the European Skeptics Podcast, called Randi the grandfather of European skepticism by virtue of Randi \"playing a role in kickstarting several European organizations.\"\n\nGeller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million in 1991 and lost. Geller's suit against CSICOP was thrown out in 1995, and he was ordered to pay $120,000 for filing a frivolous lawsuit. The legal costs Randi incurred used almost all of a $272,000 MacArthur Foundation grant awarded to Randi in 1986 for his work. Randi also dismissed Geller's claims that he was capable of the kind of psychic photography associated with the case of Ted Serios. It is a matter, Randi argued, of trick photography using a simple hand-held optical device. During the period of Geller's legal dispute, CSICOP's leadership, wanting to avoid becoming a target of Geller's litigation, demanded that Randi refrain from commenting on Geller. Randi refused and resigned, though he maintained a respectful relationship with the group, which in 2006 changed its name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). In 2010, Randi was one of 16 new CSI fellows elected by its board.\n\nRandi went on to write many articles criticizing beliefs and claims regarding the paranormal. He also demonstrated flaws in studies suggesting the existence of paranormal phenomena; in his Project Alpha hoax, Randi successfully planted two fake psychics in a privately funded psychic research experiment.\n\nRandi appeared on numerous TV shows, sometimes to directly debunk the claimed abilities of fellow guests. In a 1981 appearance on That's My Line, Randi appeared opposite claimed psychic James Hydrick, who said that he could move objects with his mind and appeared to demonstrate this claim on live television by turning a page in a telephone book without touching it. Randi, having determined that Hydrick was surreptitiously blowing on the book, arranged foam packaging peanuts on the table in front of the telephone book for the demonstration. This prevented Hydrick from demonstrating his abilities, which would have been exposed when the blowing moved the packaging. Randi writes that, eventually, Hydrick \"confessed everything\".\n\nRandi was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1986. The fellowship's five-year $272,000 grant helped support Randi's investigations of faith healers, including W. V. Grant, Ernest Angley, and Peter Popoff, whom Randi first exposed on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in February 1986. Hearing about his investigation of Popoff, Carson invited Randi onto his show without seeing the evidence he was going to reveal. Carson appeared stunned after Randi showed a brief video segment from one of Popoff's broadcasts showing him calling out a woman in the audience, revealed personal information about her that he claimed came from God, and then performed a laying-on-of-hands healing to drive the devil from her body. Randi then replayed the video, but with some of the sound dubbed in that he and his investigating team captured during the event using a radio scanner and recorder. Their scanner had detected the radio frequency Popoff's wife Elizabeth was using backstage to broadcast directions and information to a miniature radio receiver hidden in Popoff's left ear. That information had been gathered by Popoff's assistants, who had handed out \"prayer cards\" to the audience before the show, instructing them to write down all the information Popoff would need to pray for them.\n\nThe news coverage generated by Randi's exposé on The Tonight Show led to many TV stations dropping Popoff's show, eventually forcing him into bankruptcy in September 1987. However, the televangelist returned soon after with faith-healing infomercials that reportedly attracted more than $23 million in 2005 from viewers sending in money for promised healing and prosperity. The Canadian Centre for Inquiry's Think Again! TV documented one of Popoff's more recent performances before a large audience who gathered in Toronto on May 26, 2011, hoping to be saved from illness and poverty.\n\nIn February 1988, Randi tested the gullibility of the media by perpetrating a hoax of his own. By teaming up with Australia's 60 Minutes program and by releasing a fake press package, he built up publicity for a \"spirit channeler\" named Carlos, who was actually artist José Alvarez, Randi's partner. While performing as Carlos, Alvarez was prompted by Randi using sophisticated radio equipment. According to the 60 Minutes program on the Carlos hoax, \"it was claimed that Alvarez would not have had the audience he did at the Opera House (and the resulting potential sales therefrom) had the media coverage been more aggressive (and factual)\", though an analysis by The Skeptics Tim Mendham concluded that, while the media coverage of Alvarez's appearances was not credulous, the hoax \"at least showed that they could benefit by being a touch more sceptical\". The hoax was exposed on 60 Minutes Australia; \"Carlos\" and Randi explained how they had pulled it off.\n\nIn his book The Faith Healers, Randi wrote that his anger and relentlessness arose from compassion for the victims of fraud. Randi was also critical of João de Deus, a.k.a. \"John of God\", a self-proclaimed psychic surgeon who had received international attention. Randi observed, referring to psychic surgery, \"To any experienced conjurer, the methods by which these seeming miracles are produced are very obvious.\"\n\nIn 1982, Randi verified the abilities of Arthur Lintgen, a Philadelphia doctor, who was able to identify the classical music recorded on a vinyl LP solely by examining the grooves on the record. However, Lintgen did not claim to have any paranormal ability, merely knowledge of the way that the groove forms patterns on particular recordings.\n\nIn 1988, John Maddox, editor of the prominent science journal Nature, asked Randi to join the supervision and observation of the homeopathy experiments conducted by Jacques Benveniste's team. Once Randi's stricter protocol for the experiment was in place, the positive results could not be reproduced.\n\nRandi stated that Daniel Dunglas Home, who could allegedly play an accordion that was locked in a cage without touching it, was caught cheating on a few occasions, but the incidents were never made public. He also stated that the actual instrument in use was a one-octave mouth organ concealed under Home's large mustache and that other one-octave mouth organs were found in Home's belongings after his death. According to Randi, author William Lindsay Gresham told Randi \"around 1960\" that he had seen these mouth organs in the Home collection at the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). Eric J. Dingwall, who catalogued Home's collection on its arrival at the SPR does not record the presence of the mouth organs. According to Peter Lamont, the author of an extensive Home biography, \"It is unlikely Dingwall would have missed these or did not make them public.\" The fraudulent medium Henry Slade also played an accordion while held with one hand under a table. Slade and Home played the same pieces. They had at one time lived near each other in the U.S. The magician Chung Ling Soo exposed how Slade had performed the trick.\n\nRandi distinguished between pseudoscience and \"crackpot science\". He regarded most of parapsychology as pseudoscience because of the way in which it is approached and conducted, but nonetheless saw it as a legitimate subject that \"should be pursued\", and from which real scientific discoveries may develop. Randi regarded crackpot science as \"equally wrong\" as pseudoscience, but with no scientific pretensions.\n\nDespite multiple debunkings, Randi did not like to be called a \"debunker\", preferring to call himself a \"skeptic\" or an \"investigator\":\n\nSkeptics and magicians Penn & Teller credit Randi and his career as a skeptic for their own careers. During an interview at TAM! 2012, Penn stated that Flim-Flam! was an early influence on him, and said \"If not for Randi there would not be Penn & Teller as we are today.\" He went on to say \"Outside of my family ... no one is more important in my life. Randi is everything to me.\"\n\nAt the NECSS skeptic conference in 2017, Randi was asked by George Hrab what a \"'skeptic coming of age ceremony' would look like\" and Randi talked about what it was like as a child to learn about the speed of light and how that felt like he was looking into the past. Randi stated \"More kids need to be stunned\".\n\nAt The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2011 (TAM 9) the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) organized a tribute to Randi. The group gathered together with other attendees, put on fake white beards, and posed for a large group photo with Randi. At the CSICon in 2017, in absence of Randi, the IIG organized another group photo with leftover beards from the 2011 photo. After Randi was sent the photo, he replied, \"I'm always very touched by any such expression. This is certainly no exception. You have my sincere gratitude. I suspect, however that a couple of those beards were fake. But I'm in a forgiving mood at the moment. I'm frankly very touched. I'll see you at the next CSICon. Thank you all.\"\n\nIn a 2019 Skeptical Inquirer magazine article, Harriet Hall, a friend of Randi, compares him to the fictional Albus Dumbledore. Hall describes their long white beards, flamboyant clothing, associated with a bird (Dumbledore with a phoenix and Randi with Pegasus). They both are caring and have \"immense brainpower\" and both \"can perform impressive feats of magic\". She states that Randi is one of \"major inspirations for the skeptical work I do ... He's way better than Dumbledore!\".\n\nExploring Psychic Powers ... Live television show\nExploring Psychic Powers ... Live was a two-hour television special aired live on June 7, 1989, wherein Randi examined several people claiming psychic powers. Hosted by actor Bill Bixby, the program offered $100,000 (Randi's $10,000 prize plus $90,000 put up by the show's syndicator, LBS Communications, Inc.) to anyone who could demonstrate genuine psychic powers.\n An astrologer, Joseph Meriwether, claimed that he was able to ascertain a person's astrological sign after talking with them for a few minutes. He was presented with twelve people, one at a time, each with a different astrological sign. They could not tell Meriwether their astrological sign or birth date, nor could they wear anything that would indicate it. After Meriwether talked to them, he had them go and sit in front of the astrological sign that he thought was theirs. By agreement, Meriwether needed to get ten of the 12 correct, to win. He got none correct.\n The next psychic, Barbara Martin, claimed to be able to read auras around people, claiming that auras were visible at least five inches above each person. She selected ten people from a group of volunteers whom she said had clearly visible auras. On stage were erected ten screens, numbered 1 through 10, just tall enough to hide the volunteer while not hiding their aura. Unseen by Martin, some of the volunteers positioned themselves behind different screens, then she was invited to predict which screens hid volunteers by seeing their aura above. She stated that she saw an aura over all ten screens, but people were behind only four of the screens.\n A dowser, Forrest Bayes, claimed that he could detect water in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box. He was shown twenty boxes and asked to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle. He selected eight of the boxes, which he said contained water, but it turned out that only five of the twenty contained water. Of the eight selected boxes, only one was revealed to contain water and one contained sand. It was not revealed whether any of the remaining six boxes contained water.\n A psychometric psychic, Sharon McLaren-Straz, claimed to be able to receive personal information about the owner of an object by handling the object itself. In order to avoid ambiguous statements, the psychic agreed to be presented with both a watch and a key from each of twelve different people. She was to match keys and watches to their owners. According to the prior agreement, she had to match at least nine out of the twelve sets, but she succeeded in only two.\n Professional crystal healer Valerie Swan attempted to use ESP to identify 250 Zener cards, guessing which of the five symbols was on each one. Random guessing should have resulted in about fifty correct guesses, so it was agreed in advance that Swan had to be right on at least eighty-two cards in order to demonstrate an ability greater than chance. However, she was able to get only fifty predictions correct, which is no better than random guessing.\n\nJames Randi Educational Foundation (JREF)\n\nIn 1996, Randi established the James Randi Educational Foundation. Randi and his colleagues publish in JREF's blog, Swift. Topics have included the interesting mathematics of the one-seventh area triangle, a classic geometric puzzle. In his weekly commentary, Randi often gave examples of what he considered the nonsense that he dealt with every day.\n\nBeginning in 2003, the JREF annually hosted The Amaz!ng Meeting, a gathering of scientists, skeptics, and atheists. The last meeting was in 2015, coinciding with Randi's retirement from the JREF.\n\n2010s\n\nRandi began a series of conferences known as \"The Amazing Meeting\" (TAM) which quickly became the largest gathering of skeptics in the world, drawing audiences from Asia, Europe, South America, and the UK. It also attracted a large percentage of younger attendees. Randi was regularly featured on many podcasts, including The Skeptics Society's official podcast Skepticality and the Center for Inquiry's official podcast Point of Inquiry. From September 2006 onwards, he occasionally contributed to The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast with a column called \"Randi Speaks\". In addition, The Amazing Show was a podcast in which Randi shared various anecdotes in an interview format.\n\nIn 2014, Part2Filmworks released An Honest Liar, a feature film documentary, written by Tyler Measom and Greg O'Toole, and directed and produced by Measom and Justin Weinstein. The film, which was funded through Kickstarter, focuses on Randi's life, his investigations, and his relationship with longtime partner José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga), to whom he was married in 2013. The film was screened at the Tribeca Film Festival, at Toronto's Hot Docs film festival, and at the June 2014 AFI Docs Festival in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., where it won the Audience Award for Best Feature. It also received positive reviews from critics. The film was featured on the PBS Independent Lens series, shown in the U.S. and Canada, on March 28, 2016.\n\nIn December 2014, Randi flew to Australia to take part in \"An Evening with James Randi\" tour, organized by Think Inc. This tour included a screening of An Honest Liar followed by a \"fireside chat\" with Randi on stage. Cities visited were Adelaide, Perth, Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. MC in Adelaide was Dr. Paul Willis with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC in Perth was Jake Farr-Wharton with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC for Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney was Richard Saunders with Lawrence Leung interviewing Randi.\n\nIn 2017, Randi appeared in animated form on the website Holy Koolaid, in which he discussed the challenge of finding the balance between connecting sincerely with his audience and at the same time tricking/fooling them with an artful ruse, and indicated that this is a balance with which many magicians struggle.\n\nOne Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge\n\nThe James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) offered a prize of US$1,000,000 to anyone able to demonstrate a supernatural ability under scientific testing criteria agreed to by both sides. Based on the paranormal challenges of John Nevil Maskelyne and Houdini, the foundation began in 1996, when Randi put up $1,000 of his own money payable to anyone who could provide objective proof of the paranormal. The prize money grew to $1,000,000, and had formal published rules. No one progressed past the preliminary test, which was set up with parameters agreed to by both Randi and the applicant. He refused to accept any challengers who might suffer serious injury or death as a result of the testing.\n\nOn April 1, 2007, it was ruled that only persons with an established, nationally recognized media profile and the backing of a reputable academic were allowed to apply for the challenge, in order to avoid wasting JREF resources on frivolous claimants.\n\nOn Larry King Live, March 6, 2001, Larry King asked claimed medium Sylvia Browne if she would take the challenge and she agreed. Randi appeared with Browne on Larry King Live six months later, and she again appeared to accept his challenge. However, according to Randi, she ultimately refused to be tested, and the Randi Foundation kept a clock on its website recording the number of weeks since Browne allegedly accepted the challenge without following through, until Browne's death in November 2013.\n\nDuring a subsequent appearance on Larry King Live on June 5, 2001, Randi challenged Rosemary Altea, another claimed medium, to undergo testing for the million dollars, but Altea refused to address the question. Instead Altea replied only, \"I agree with what he says, that there are many, many people who claim to be spiritual mediums, they claim to talk to the dead. There are many people, we all know this. There are cheats and charlatans everywhere.\" On January 26, 2007, Altea and Randi again appeared on the show, and Altea again refused to answer whether or not she would take the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge.\n\nIn October 2007, claimed psychic John Edward appeared on Headline Prime, hosted by Glenn Beck. When asked if he would take \"the Amazing Randi's\" challenge, Edward responded, \"It's funny. I was on Larry King Live once, and they asked me the same question. And I made a joke [then], and I'll say the same thing here: why would I allow myself to be tested by somebody who's got an adjective as a first name?\" Beck simply allowed Edward to continue, ignoring the challenge.\n\nRandi asked British businessman Jim McCormick, the inventor of the bogus ADE 651 bomb detector, to take the challenge in October 2008. Randi called the ADE 651 \"a useless quack device which cannot perform any other function than separating naive persons from their money. It's a fake, a scam, a swindle, and a blatant fraud. Prove me wrong and take the million dollars.\" There was no response from McCormick. According to Iraqi investigators, the ADE 651, which was corruptly sold to the Baghdad bomb squad, was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of civilians who died as a result of terrorist bombs which were not detected at checkpoints. On April 23, 2013, McCormick was convicted of three counts of fraud at the Old Bailey in London; he was subsequently sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for his part in the ADE 651 scandal, which Randi was the first to expose.\n\nA public log of past participants in the Million Dollar Challenge exists.\nIn 2015, the James Randi paranormal challenge was officially terminated due to Randi's retirement from, and thus lack of direct involvement with, the foundation.\n\nLegal disputes\nRandi was involved in a variety of legal disputes, but said that he had \"never paid even one dollar or even one cent to anyone who ever sued me.\" However, he said, he had paid out large sums to defend himself in these suits.\n\nUri Geller\nRandi met magician Uri Geller in the early 1970s, and found Geller to be \"Very charming. Likable, beautiful, affectionate, genuine, forward-going, handsome—everything!\" But Randi viewed Geller as a con-man, and began a long effort to expose him as a fraud. According to Randi, Geller tried to sue him several times, accusing him of libel. Geller never won, save for a ruling in a Japanese court that ordered Randi to pay Geller one-third of one per cent of what Geller had requested. This ruling was cancelled, and the matter dropped, when Geller decided to concentrate on another legal matter.\n\nIn May 1991, Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million on a charge of slander, after Randi told the International Herald Tribune that Geller had \"tricked even reputable scientists\" with stunts that \"are the kind that used to be on the back of cereal boxes\", referring to the old spoon-bending trick. The court dismissed the case and Geller had to settle at a cost to him of $120,000, after Randi produced a cereal box which bore instructions on how to do the spoon-bending trick. Geller's lawyer Don Katz was disbarred mid-way into this action and Geller ended up suing him. After failing to pay by the deadline imposed by the court, Geller was sanctioned an additional $20,000.\nGeller sued both Randi and CSICOP in the 1980s. CSICOP argued that the organization was not responsible for Randi's statements. The court agreed that including CSICOP was frivolous and dropped them from the action, leaving Randi to face the action alone, along with the legal costs. Geller was ordered to pay substantial damages, but only to CSICOP.\n\nOther cases\nIn 1993, a jury in the U.S. District Court in Baltimore found Randi liable for defaming Eldon Byrd for calling him a child molester in a magazine story and a \"shopping market molester\" in a 1988 speech. However, the jury found that Byrd was not entitled to any monetary damages after hearing testimony that he had sexually molested and later married his sister-in-law. The jury also cleared the other defendant in the case, CSICOP.\n\nLate in 1996, Randi launched a libel suit against a Toronto-area psychic named Earl Gordon Curley. Curley had made multiple objectionable comments about Randi on Usenet. Despite suggesting to Randi on Usenet that Randi should sue—Curley's comments implying that if Randi did not sue, then his allegations must be true—Curley seemed entirely surprised when Randi actually retained Toronto's largest law firm and initiated legal proceedings. The suit was eventually dropped in 1998 when Earl Curley died at the age of 51 of \"alcohol toxicity\".\n\nAllison DuBois, on whose life the television series Medium was based, threatened Randi with legal action for using a photo of her from her website in his December 17, 2004, commentary without her permission. Randi removed the photo and subsequently used a caricature of DuBois when mentioning her on his site, beginning with his December 23, 2005, commentary.\n\nSniffex, producer of a dowsing bomb detection device, sued Randi and the JREF in 2007 and lost. Sniffex sued Randi for his comments regarding a government test in which the Sniffex device failed. The company was later investigated and charged with fraud.\n\nViews\n\nPolitical views \nRandi was a registered Democrat. In April 2009, he released a statement endorsing the legalization of most illegal drugs.\n\nRandi had been reported as a believer in Social Darwinist theories, although he would denounce the ideologies and movements that formed around the theories in 2013.\n\nViews on religion\nRandi's parents were members of the Anglican Church but rarely attended services. He attended Sunday school at St. Cuthbert's Church in Toronto a few times as a child, but he independently decided to stop going after receiving no answer to his request for proof of the teachings of the Church.\n\nIn his essay \"Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous Bright\", Randi, who identified himself as an atheist, opined that many accounts in religious texts, including the virgin birth, the miracles of Jesus Christ, and the parting of the Red Sea by Moses, are not believable. Randi refers to the Virgin Mary as being \"impregnated by a ghost of some sort, and as a result produced a son who could walk on water, raise the dead, turn water into wine, and multiply loaves of bread and fishes\" and questions how Adam and Eve's family \"managed to populate the Earth without committing incest\". He wrote that, compared to the Bible, \"The Wizard of Oz is more believable. And much more fun.\"\n\nClarifying his view of atheism, Randi wrote \"I've said it before: there are two sorts of atheists. One sort claims that there is no deity, the other claims that there is no evidence that proves the existence of a deity; I belong to the latter group, because if I were to claim that no god exists, I would have to produce evidence to establish that claim, and I cannot. Religious persons have by far the easier position; they say they believe in a deity because that's their preference, and they've read it in a book. That's their right.\"\n\nIn An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995), he examines various spiritual practices skeptically. Of the meditation techniques of Guru Maharaj Ji, he writes \"Only the very naive were convinced that they had been let in on some sort of celestial secret.\" In 2003, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.\n\nIn a discussion with Kendrick Frazier at CSICon 2016, Randi stated \"I think that a belief in a deity is ... an unprovable claim ... and a rather ridiculous claim. It is an easy way out to explain things to which we have no answer.\" He then summarized his current concern with religious belief as follows: \"A belief in a god is one of the most damaging things that infests humanity at this particular moment in history. It may improve, and I see signs that it may be improving, and I'll leave it at that.\"\n\nPersonal life\nWhen Randi hosted his own radio show in the 1960s, he lived in a small house in Rumson, New Jersey, that featured a sign on the premises that read: \"Randi—Charlatan\".\n\nIn the 1970s and 80s, Randi supported seven foster children.\n\nIn 1987, Randi became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Randi said that one reason he became an American citizen was an incident while he was on tour with Alice Cooper, during which the Royal Canadian Mounted Police searched the band's lockers during a performance, completely ransacking the room, but finding nothing illegal.\n\nIn February 2006, Randi underwent coronary artery bypass surgery. The weekly commentary updates to his Web site were made by guests while he was hospitalized. Randi recovered after his surgery and was able to help organize and attend The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2007 in Las Vegas, Nevada, his annual convention of scientists, magicians, skeptics, atheists and freethinkers.\n\nRandi was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in June 2009. He had a series of small tumors removed from his intestines during laparoscopic surgery. He announced the diagnosis a week later at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7, as well as the fact that he was scheduled to begin chemotherapy in the following weeks. He also said at the conference: \"One day, I'm gonna die. That's all there is to it. Hey, it's too bad, but I've got to make room. I'm using a lot of oxygen and such—I think it's good use of oxygen myself, but of course, I'm a little prejudiced on the matter.\"\n\nRandi underwent his final chemotherapy session in December 2009, later saying that his chemotherapy experience was not so unpleasant as he had imagined it might be. In a video posted in April 2010, Randi stated that he had been given a clean bill of health.\n\nIn a 2010 blog entry, Randi came out as gay, a move he said was inspired by seeing the 2008 biographical drama film Milk.\n\nRandi married Venezuelan artist José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga) on July 2, 2013, in Washington, D.C. Randi, who had recently moved to Florida, met Alvarez in 1986, in a Fort Lauderdale public library. Arteaga had left his native country for fear of his life, as he was threatened for being gay. The pseudonym Arteaga had taken, Jose Alvarez, was an actual person in the United States. The identity confusion caused the real Alvarez some legal and financial difficulties. Arteaga was arrested for identity theft and faced deportation. They resided in Plantation, Florida.\n\nIn the 1993 documentary Secrets of the Psychics, Randi stated, \"I've never involved myself in narcotics of any kind; I don't smoke; I don't drink, because that can easily just fuzz the edges of my rationality, fuzz the edges of my reasoning powers, and I want to be as aware as I possibly can. That means giving up a lot of fantasies that might be comforting in some ways, but I'm willing to give that up in order to live in an actually real world, as close as I can get to it\".\n\nIn a video released in October 2017, Randi revealed that he had recently suffered a minor stroke, and that he was under medical advice not to travel during his recovery, so would be unable to attend CSICon 2017 in Las Vegas later that month.\n\nRandi died at his home on October 20, 2020, at the age of 92. The James Randi Educational Foundation attributed his death to \"age-related causes\". The Center for Inquiry said that Randi \"was the public face of skeptical inquiry, bringing a sense of fun and mischievousness to a serious mission.\" Kendrick Frazier said, as part of the statement, \"Despite his ferocity in challenging all forms of nonsense, in person he was a kind and gentle man.\"\n\nAwards and honors\n\nWorld records\nThe following are Guinness World Records:\n Randi was in a sealed casket underwater for one hour and 44 minutes, breaking the previous record of one hour and 33 minutes set by Harry Houdini on August 5, 1926.\n Randi was encased in a block of ice for 55 minutes.\n\nBibliography\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Companion book to the Open Media/Granada Television series.\n \n (Online version)\n\nTelevision and film appearances\n\nAs an actor\n Good to See You Again, Alice Cooper (1974) as the Dentist/Executioner\n Ragtime (1981) (stunt coordinator: Houdini)\n Penn & Teller's Invisible Thread (1987) (TV)\n Penn & Teller Get Killed (1989) as the 3rd Rope Holder\n Beyond Desire (1994) as the Coroner\n\nAppearing as himself\n Wonderama (1959–1967) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n I've Got a Secret (1965) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n Sesame Street Test Show 1 (1969) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n Happy Days – \"The Magic Show\" (1978) as the Amazing Randi\n Zembla, 'De trucs van Char' (The tricks Char uses). (March 2008)\n ZDF German TV (2007)\n Wild Wild Web (1999)\n West 57th (1980s)\n Welt der Wunder – Kraft der Gedanken (January 2008)\n Today (many appearances)\n The Don Lane Show (Australia)\n That's My Line (1981) (Appeared with James Hydrick)\n The View (ABC) multiple appearances 1997 onwards\n The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (32 appearances between 1973 and 1993 plus repeats)\n The Secret Cabaret (produced by Open Media for Channel 4 in the UK)\n The Power of Belief (October 6, 1998) (ABC News Special) (TV)\n People are Talking (1980s)\n The Patterson Show (1970s)\n Superpowers? (an Equinox documentary made by Open Media for Channel 4 in 1990)\n After Dark (September 3, 1988 and September 9, 1989)\n Weird Thoughts, Open Media discussion hosted by Tony Wilson for BBC TV, with Mary Beard and others, 1994\n The Art of Magic (1998) (TV)\n The Ultimate Psychic Challenge (Discovery Channel/Channel 4) (2003)\n Spotlight on James Randi (2002) (TV)\n Secrets of the Super Psychics (Channel 4/The Learning Channel), produced by Open Media, 1997/8\n Scams, Schemes, and Scoundrels (A&E Special) (March 30, 1997)\n RAI TV Italy (1991)\n Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher\n Penn & Teller: Bullshit! several appearances\n \"End of the World\" (2003) TV Episode\n \"ESP\" (2003) TV Episode\n \"Signs from Heaven\" (2005) TV Episode\n The Oprah Winfrey Show 2 episodes\n Lawrence Leung's Unbelievable (Australia) TV Episode\n Nova: \"Secrets of the Psychics\" (1993)\n Mitä ihmettä? (Finland) (2003) TV Series\n Midday (Australia) (1990s)\n Magic or Miracle? (1983) TV special\n Magic (2004) (mini) TV Series\n Larry King Live (CNN) (June 5, 2001, September 3, 2001, January 26, 2007, several more)\n James Randi: Psychic Investigator (1991) (Open Media series for the ITV network)\n James Randi Budapesten – Hungarian documentary\n Inside Edition – (1991, 2006, and 2007) TV\n Horizon – \"Homeopathy: The Test\" (2002) BBC/UK TV Episode\n Dead Men Talking (The Biography Channel) (2007)\n Fornemmelse for snyd (2003) TV Series (also archive footage) Denmark\n Extraordinary People – \"The Million Dollar Mind Reader\" (September 2008).\n Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live (June 7, 1989; hosted by Bill Bixby)\n CBS This Morning (1990s)\n Anderson Cooper 360°, CNN (January 19, 2007, and January 30, 2007)\n A Question of Miracles (HBO) (1999)\n 20/20 (ABC) (May 11, 2007)\n An Honest Liar (2014, aired as Exposed: Magicians, Psychics and Frauds on BBC Storyville)\n\nAppearances in other media \n Dynamite magazine: Randi was featured as the cover story for the November 1981 issue.\n In 2007, Randi delivered a talk at TED in which he discussed psychic fraud, homeopathy, and his foundation's Million Dollar Challenge.\n Randi is featured in Tommy Finke's song \"Poet der Affen/Poet of the Apes\" released on the album of the same name in 2010.\n\nSee also\n List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n Pigasus Award\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Wakelet Randi collection\n\nListings\n James Randi in The Skeptic's Dictionary\n\nMedia\n James Randi interview (May 2009) from the podcast of MagicNewswire.com in which Randi discusses his career in magic, his feud with Uri Geller and more.\n James Randi interview (November 2007) from the BSAlert.com radio show where Randi discusses NBC's Phenomenon TV show, the current status of Uri Geller and his thoughts about whether society is becoming more or less superstitious.\n \n \"20 Major Aspects of Liars, Cheats, and Frauds\" by James Randi\n\nCategory:1928 births\nCategory:2020 deaths\nCategory:20th-century American writers\nCategory:20th-century atheists\nCategory:20th-century Canadian writers\nCategory:20th-century Canadian male writers\nCategory:21st-century atheists\nCategory:American humanists\nCategory:American magicians\nCategory:American skeptics\nCategory:American atheism activists\nCategory:Articles containing video clips\nCategory:Canadian atheists\nCategory:Canadian emigrants to the United States\nCategory:Canadian humanists\nCategory:Canadian magicians\nCategory:Canadian skeptics\nCategory:Critics of alternative medicine\nCategory:Critics of parapsychology\nCategory:Escapologists\nCategory:Florida Democrats\nCategory:Canadian gay writers\nCategory:Historians of magic\nCategory:LGBT magicians\nCategory:MacArthur Fellows\nCategory:Naturalized citizens of the United States\nCategory:Paranormal investigators\nCategory:People from Plantation, Florida\nCategory:People from Rumson, New Jersey\nCategory:Writers from Toronto\nCategory:Academy of Magical Arts Special Fellowship winners\nCategory:American gay writers\nCategory:20th-century Canadian LGBT people", "title": "James Randi" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "Who/what is Gef?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was the case the Gef?", "What did they conclude?", "Were there any other cases he worked on?", "Was there something in the walls?", "Were there any other cases?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 13 ], [ 541 ], [ 89 ], [ 714 ], [ 913 ], [ 1046 ], [ 1362 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Price and his friend Richard Lambert went to the Isle of Man to investigate the alleged case of Gef the talking mongoose" ], [ "Price asked Reginald Pocock of the Natural History Museum to evaluate pawprints allegedly made by Gef" ], [ "the alleged case of Gef the talking mongoose" ], [ "Pocock could not match them to any known animal, though he conceded that one of them might have been \"conceivably made by a dog\"." ], [ "Price visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse" ], [ "featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that \"makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like soundingboards." ], [ "\"Price and Lambert were less than enthusiastic about the case, concluding that only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef.\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 13, 541, 89, 714, 913, 1046, 1362 ], "texts": [ "Price and his friend Richard Lambert went to the Isle of Man to investigate the alleged case of Gef the talking mongoose", "Price asked Reginald Pocock of the Natural History Museum to evaluate pawprints allegedly made by Gef", "the alleged case of Gef the talking mongoose", "Pocock could not match them to any known animal, though he conceded that one of them might have been \"conceivably made by a dog\".", "Price visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse", "featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that \"makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like soundingboards.", "\"Price and Lambert were less than enthusiastic about the case, concluding that only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef.\"" ] }

[ { "text": "James Randi (born Randall James Hamilton Zwinge; August 7, 1928 – October 20, 2020) was a Canadian-American stage magician, author and scientific skeptic who extensively challenged paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. He was the co-founder of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF). Randi began his career as a magician under the stage name The Amazing Randi and later chose to devote most of his time to investigating paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims, which he collectively called \"woo-woo\". Randi retired from practicing magic at age 60, and from his foundation at 87.\n\nAlthough often referred to as a \"debunker\", Randi said he disliked the term's connotations and preferred to describe himself as an \"investigator\". He wrote about paranormal phenomena, skepticism, and the history of magic. He was a frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, famously exposing fraudulent faith healer Peter Popoff, and was occasionally featured on the television program Penn & Teller: Bullshit!\n\nBefore Randi's retirement, JREF sponsored the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge, which offered a prize of one million US dollars to eligible applicants who could demonstrate evidence of any paranormal, supernatural, or occult power or event under test conditions agreed to by both parties. In 2015, the James Randi Educational Foundation said they will no longer accept applications directly from people claiming to have a paranormal power, but will offer the challenge to anyone who has passed a preliminary test that meets with their approval.\n\nEarly life\nRandi was born on August 7, 1928, in Toronto, Canada. He was the son of Marie Alice (née Paradis; 1906–1987) and George Randall Zwinge (1903–1967), an executive at Bell Telephone Company. He was of French, Danish and Austrian descent. He had a younger brother and sister. He took up magic after seeing Harry Blackstone Sr. and reading conjuring books while spending 13 months in a body cast following a bicycle accident. He confounded doctors, who expected he would never walk again. Randi scored 168 on an IQ test. He often skipped classes, and at 17, dropped out of high school to perform as a conjurer in a carnival roadshow. He practiced as a mentalist in local nightclubs and at Toronto's Canadian National Exhibition and wrote for Montreal's tabloid press. As a teenager, he stumbled upon a church where the pastor claimed to read minds. After he re-enacted the trick before the parishioners, the pastor's wife called the police and he spent four hours in a jail cell. This inspired his career as a scientific skeptic.\n\nIn his 20s, Randi posed as an astrologer, and to establish that they merely were doing simple tricks, he briefly wrote an astrological column in the Canadian tabloid Midnight under the name \"Zo-ran\" by simply shuffling up items from newspaper astrology columns and pasting them randomly into a column. In his 30s, Randi worked in the UK, Europe, Philippine nightclubs, and Japan. He witnessed many tricks that were presented as being supernatural. One of his earliest reported experiences was that of seeing an evangelist using a version of the \"one-ahead\" technique to convince churchgoers of his divine powers.\n\nCareer\n\nMagician\n\nAlthough defining himself as a conjuror, Randi began a career as a professional stage magician and escapologist in 1946. He initially presented himself under his real name, Randall Zwinge, which he later dropped in favor of \"The Amazing Randi\". Early in his career, he performed numerous escape acts from jail cells and safes around the world. On February 7, 1956, he appeared live on NBC's Today show, where he remained for 104 minutes in a sealed metal coffin that had been submerged in a hotel swimming pool, breaking what was said to be Harry Houdini's record of 93 minutes, though Randi called attention to the fact that he was much younger than Houdini had been when he established the original record in 1926.\n\nRandi was a frequent guest on the Long John Nebel program on New York City radio station WOR, and did character voices for commercials. After Nebel moved to WNBC in 1962, Randi was given Nebel's time slot on WOR, where he hosted The Amazing Randi Show from 1967 to 1968. The show often had guests who defended paranormal claims, among them Randi's then-friend James W. Moseley. Randi stated that he quit WOR over complaints from the archbishop of New York that Randi had said on-air that \"Jesus Christ was a religious nut,\" a claim that Randi disputed.\n\nRandi also hosted numerous television specials and went on several world tours. As \"The Amazing Randi\" he appeared regularly on the New York-based children's television series Wonderama from 1959 to 1967. In 1970, he auditioned for a revival of the 1950s children's show The Magic Clown, which showed briefly in Detroit and in Kenya, but was never picked up. In the February 2, 1974, issue of the British conjuring magazine Abracadabra, Randi, in defining the community of magicians, stated: \"I know of no calling which depends so much upon mutual trust and faith as does ours.\" In the December 2003 issue of The Linking Ring, the monthly publication of the International Brotherhood of Magicians, it is stated: \"Perhaps Randi's ethics are what make him Amazing\" and \"The Amazing Randi not only talks the talk, he walks the walk.\"\n\nDuring Alice Cooper's 1973–1974 Billion Dollar Babies tour, Randi performed on stage both as a mad dentist and as Cooper's executioner. He also built several of the stage props, including the guillotine. In a 1976 performance for the Canadian TV special World of Wizards, Randi escaped from a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over Niagara Falls.\n\nRandi has been accused of actually using \"psychic powers\" to perform acts such as spoon bending. According to James Alcock, at a meeting where Randi was duplicating the performances of Uri Geller, a professor from the University at Buffalo shouted out that Randi was a fraud. Randi said: \"Yes, indeed, I'm a trickster, I'm a cheat, I'm a charlatan, that's what I do for a living. Everything I've done here was by trickery.\" The professor shouted back: \"That's not what I mean. You're a fraud because you're pretending to do these things through trickery, but you're actually using psychic powers and misleading us by not admitting it.\" A similar event involved Senator Claiborne Pell, a confirmed believer in psychic phenomena. When Randi personally demonstrated to Pell that he could reveal—by simple trickery—a concealed drawing that had been secretly made by the senator, Pell refused to believe that it was a trick, saying: \"I think Randi may be a psychic and doesn't realize it.\" Randi consistently denied having any paranormal powers or abilities.\n\nRandi was a member of the Society of American Magicians (SAM), the International Brotherhood of Magicians (IBM), and The Magic Circle in the UK, holding the rank of \"Member of the Inner Magic Circle with Gold Star.\"\n\nAuthor\nRandi wrote ten books, among them Conjuring (1992), a biographical history of prominent magicians. The book is subtitled Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC! The book's cover indicates it is by \"James Randi, Esq., A Contrite Rascal Once Dedicated to these Wicked Practices but Now Almost Totally Reformed\". The book features the most influential magicians and tells some of their history, often in the context of strange deaths and careers on the road. This work expanded on Randi's second book, Houdini, His Life and Art. This illustrated work was published in 1976 and was co-authored with Bert Sugar. It focuses on the professional and private life of Houdini.\n\nRandi's book, The Magic World of the Amazing Randi (1989), was intended as a children's introduction to magic tricks. In addition to his magic books, he wrote several educational works about paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. These include biographies of Uri Geller and Nostradamus, as well as reference material on other major paranormal figures. In 2011, he was working on A Magician in the Laboratory, which recounted his application of skepticism to science. He was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his friend Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers.\n\nOther books by Randi include Flim-Flam! (1982), The Faith Healers (1987), James Randi, Psychic Investigator (1991), Test Your ESP Potential (1982) and An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995).\n\nRandi was a regular contributor to Skeptic magazine, penning the \"'Twas Brillig ...\" column, and also served on its editorial board. He was a frequent contributor to Skeptical Inquirer magazine, published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, of which he was also a fellow.\n\nSkeptic\n\nRandi gained the international spotlight in 1972 when he publicly challenged the claims of Uri Geller. He accused Geller of being nothing more than a charlatan and a fraud who used standard magic tricks to accomplish his allegedly paranormal feats, and he presented his claims in the book The Truth About Uri Geller (1982).\n\nBelieving that it was important to get columnists and TV personalities to challenge Geller and others like him, Randi and CSICOP reached out in an attempt to educate them. Randi said that CSICOP had a \"very substantial influence on the printed media ... in those days.\" During this effort, Randi made contact with Johnny Carson and discovered that he was \"very much on our side. He wasn't only a comedian ... he was a great thinker.\" According to Randi, when he was on The Tonight Show, Carson broke his usual protocol of not talking with guests before their entrance on stage, but instead would ask what Randi wanted to be emphasized in the interview. \"He wanted to be aware of how he could help me.\"\n\nIn 1973, Geller appeared on The Tonight Show, and this appearance is recounted in the Nova documentary \"Secrets of the Psychics\".\n\nIn the documentary, Randi says that Carson \"had been a magician himself and was skeptical\" of Geller's claimed paranormal powers, so before the date of taping, Randi was asked \"to help prevent any trickery\". Per Randi's advice, the show prepared its own props without informing Geller, and did not let Geller or his staff \"anywhere near them\". When Geller joined Carson on stage, he appeared surprised that he was not going to be interviewed, but instead was expected to display his abilities using the provided articles. Geller said \"This scares me\" and \"I'm surprised because before this program your producer came and he read me at least 40 questions you were going to ask me.\" Geller was unable to display any paranormal abilities, saying \"I don't feel strong\" and expressing his displeasure at feeling like he was being \"pressed\" to perform by Carson. According to Adam Higginbotham's November 7, 2014 article in The New York Times:\n\nHowever, this appearance on The Tonight Show, which Carson and Randi had orchestrated to debunk Geller's claimed abilities, backfired. According to Higginbotham:\n\nAccording to Higginbotham, this result caused Randi to realize that much more must be done to stop Geller and those like him. So in 1976, Randi approached Ray Hyman, a psychologist who had observed the tests of Geller's ability at Stanford and thought them slipshod, and suggested they create an organization dedicated to combating pseudoscience. Later that same year, together with Martin Gardner, a Scientific American columnist whose writing had helped hone Hyman's and Randi's skepticism, they formed the Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).\n\nUsing donations and sales of their magazine, Skeptical Inquirer, they and secular humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz took seats on the executive board, with Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan joining as founding members. Randi travelled the world on behalf of CSICOP, becoming its public face, and according to Hyman, the face of the skeptical movement.\n\nAndrás G. Pintér, producer and co-host of the European Skeptics Podcast, called Randi the grandfather of European skepticism by virtue of Randi \"playing a role in kickstarting several European organizations.\"\n\nGeller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million in 1991 and lost. Geller's suit against CSICOP was thrown out in 1995, and he was ordered to pay $120,000 for filing a frivolous lawsuit. The legal costs Randi incurred used almost all of a $272,000 MacArthur Foundation grant awarded to Randi in 1986 for his work. Randi also dismissed Geller's claims that he was capable of the kind of psychic photography associated with the case of Ted Serios. It is a matter, Randi argued, of trick photography using a simple hand-held optical device. During the period of Geller's legal dispute, CSICOP's leadership, wanting to avoid becoming a target of Geller's litigation, demanded that Randi refrain from commenting on Geller. Randi refused and resigned, though he maintained a respectful relationship with the group, which in 2006 changed its name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). In 2010, Randi was one of 16 new CSI fellows elected by its board.\n\nRandi went on to write many articles criticizing beliefs and claims regarding the paranormal. He also demonstrated flaws in studies suggesting the existence of paranormal phenomena; in his Project Alpha hoax, Randi successfully planted two fake psychics in a privately funded psychic research experiment.\n\nRandi appeared on numerous TV shows, sometimes to directly debunk the claimed abilities of fellow guests. In a 1981 appearance on That's My Line, Randi appeared opposite claimed psychic James Hydrick, who said that he could move objects with his mind and appeared to demonstrate this claim on live television by turning a page in a telephone book without touching it. Randi, having determined that Hydrick was surreptitiously blowing on the book, arranged foam packaging peanuts on the table in front of the telephone book for the demonstration. This prevented Hydrick from demonstrating his abilities, which would have been exposed when the blowing moved the packaging. Randi writes that, eventually, Hydrick \"confessed everything\".\n\nRandi was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1986. The fellowship's five-year $272,000 grant helped support Randi's investigations of faith healers, including W. V. Grant, Ernest Angley, and Peter Popoff, whom Randi first exposed on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in February 1986. Hearing about his investigation of Popoff, Carson invited Randi onto his show without seeing the evidence he was going to reveal. Carson appeared stunned after Randi showed a brief video segment from one of Popoff's broadcasts showing him calling out a woman in the audience, revealed personal information about her that he claimed came from God, and then performed a laying-on-of-hands healing to drive the devil from her body. Randi then replayed the video, but with some of the sound dubbed in that he and his investigating team captured during the event using a radio scanner and recorder. Their scanner had detected the radio frequency Popoff's wife Elizabeth was using backstage to broadcast directions and information to a miniature radio receiver hidden in Popoff's left ear. That information had been gathered by Popoff's assistants, who had handed out \"prayer cards\" to the audience before the show, instructing them to write down all the information Popoff would need to pray for them.\n\nThe news coverage generated by Randi's exposé on The Tonight Show led to many TV stations dropping Popoff's show, eventually forcing him into bankruptcy in September 1987. However, the televangelist returned soon after with faith-healing infomercials that reportedly attracted more than $23 million in 2005 from viewers sending in money for promised healing and prosperity. The Canadian Centre for Inquiry's Think Again! TV documented one of Popoff's more recent performances before a large audience who gathered in Toronto on May 26, 2011, hoping to be saved from illness and poverty.\n\nIn February 1988, Randi tested the gullibility of the media by perpetrating a hoax of his own. By teaming up with Australia's 60 Minutes program and by releasing a fake press package, he built up publicity for a \"spirit channeler\" named Carlos, who was actually artist José Alvarez, Randi's partner. While performing as Carlos, Alvarez was prompted by Randi using sophisticated radio equipment. According to the 60 Minutes program on the Carlos hoax, \"it was claimed that Alvarez would not have had the audience he did at the Opera House (and the resulting potential sales therefrom) had the media coverage been more aggressive (and factual)\", though an analysis by The Skeptics Tim Mendham concluded that, while the media coverage of Alvarez's appearances was not credulous, the hoax \"at least showed that they could benefit by being a touch more sceptical\". The hoax was exposed on 60 Minutes Australia; \"Carlos\" and Randi explained how they had pulled it off.\n\nIn his book The Faith Healers, Randi wrote that his anger and relentlessness arose from compassion for the victims of fraud. Randi was also critical of João de Deus, a.k.a. \"John of God\", a self-proclaimed psychic surgeon who had received international attention. Randi observed, referring to psychic surgery, \"To any experienced conjurer, the methods by which these seeming miracles are produced are very obvious.\"\n\nIn 1982, Randi verified the abilities of Arthur Lintgen, a Philadelphia doctor, who was able to identify the classical music recorded on a vinyl LP solely by examining the grooves on the record. However, Lintgen did not claim to have any paranormal ability, merely knowledge of the way that the groove forms patterns on particular recordings.\n\nIn 1988, John Maddox, editor of the prominent science journal Nature, asked Randi to join the supervision and observation of the homeopathy experiments conducted by Jacques Benveniste's team. Once Randi's stricter protocol for the experiment was in place, the positive results could not be reproduced.\n\nRandi stated that Daniel Dunglas Home, who could allegedly play an accordion that was locked in a cage without touching it, was caught cheating on a few occasions, but the incidents were never made public. He also stated that the actual instrument in use was a one-octave mouth organ concealed under Home's large mustache and that other one-octave mouth organs were found in Home's belongings after his death. According to Randi, author William Lindsay Gresham told Randi \"around 1960\" that he had seen these mouth organs in the Home collection at the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). Eric J. Dingwall, who catalogued Home's collection on its arrival at the SPR does not record the presence of the mouth organs. According to Peter Lamont, the author of an extensive Home biography, \"It is unlikely Dingwall would have missed these or did not make them public.\" The fraudulent medium Henry Slade also played an accordion while held with one hand under a table. Slade and Home played the same pieces. They had at one time lived near each other in the U.S. The magician Chung Ling Soo exposed how Slade had performed the trick.\n\nRandi distinguished between pseudoscience and \"crackpot science\". He regarded most of parapsychology as pseudoscience because of the way in which it is approached and conducted, but nonetheless saw it as a legitimate subject that \"should be pursued\", and from which real scientific discoveries may develop. Randi regarded crackpot science as \"equally wrong\" as pseudoscience, but with no scientific pretensions.\n\nDespite multiple debunkings, Randi did not like to be called a \"debunker\", preferring to call himself a \"skeptic\" or an \"investigator\":\n\nSkeptics and magicians Penn & Teller credit Randi and his career as a skeptic for their own careers. During an interview at TAM! 2012, Penn stated that Flim-Flam! was an early influence on him, and said \"If not for Randi there would not be Penn & Teller as we are today.\" He went on to say \"Outside of my family ... no one is more important in my life. Randi is everything to me.\"\n\nAt the NECSS skeptic conference in 2017, Randi was asked by George Hrab what a \"'skeptic coming of age ceremony' would look like\" and Randi talked about what it was like as a child to learn about the speed of light and how that felt like he was looking into the past. Randi stated \"More kids need to be stunned\".\n\nAt The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2011 (TAM 9) the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) organized a tribute to Randi. The group gathered together with other attendees, put on fake white beards, and posed for a large group photo with Randi. At the CSICon in 2017, in absence of Randi, the IIG organized another group photo with leftover beards from the 2011 photo. After Randi was sent the photo, he replied, \"I'm always very touched by any such expression. This is certainly no exception. You have my sincere gratitude. I suspect, however that a couple of those beards were fake. But I'm in a forgiving mood at the moment. I'm frankly very touched. I'll see you at the next CSICon. Thank you all.\"\n\nIn a 2019 Skeptical Inquirer magazine article, Harriet Hall, a friend of Randi, compares him to the fictional Albus Dumbledore. Hall describes their long white beards, flamboyant clothing, associated with a bird (Dumbledore with a phoenix and Randi with Pegasus). They both are caring and have \"immense brainpower\" and both \"can perform impressive feats of magic\". She states that Randi is one of \"major inspirations for the skeptical work I do ... He's way better than Dumbledore!\".\n\nExploring Psychic Powers ... Live television show\nExploring Psychic Powers ... Live was a two-hour television special aired live on June 7, 1989, wherein Randi examined several people claiming psychic powers. Hosted by actor Bill Bixby, the program offered $100,000 (Randi's $10,000 prize plus $90,000 put up by the show's syndicator, LBS Communications, Inc.) to anyone who could demonstrate genuine psychic powers.\n An astrologer, Joseph Meriwether, claimed that he was able to ascertain a person's astrological sign after talking with them for a few minutes. He was presented with twelve people, one at a time, each with a different astrological sign. They could not tell Meriwether their astrological sign or birth date, nor could they wear anything that would indicate it. After Meriwether talked to them, he had them go and sit in front of the astrological sign that he thought was theirs. By agreement, Meriwether needed to get ten of the 12 correct, to win. He got none correct.\n The next psychic, Barbara Martin, claimed to be able to read auras around people, claiming that auras were visible at least five inches above each person. She selected ten people from a group of volunteers whom she said had clearly visible auras. On stage were erected ten screens, numbered 1 through 10, just tall enough to hide the volunteer while not hiding their aura. Unseen by Martin, some of the volunteers positioned themselves behind different screens, then she was invited to predict which screens hid volunteers by seeing their aura above. She stated that she saw an aura over all ten screens, but people were behind only four of the screens.\n A dowser, Forrest Bayes, claimed that he could detect water in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box. He was shown twenty boxes and asked to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle. He selected eight of the boxes, which he said contained water, but it turned out that only five of the twenty contained water. Of the eight selected boxes, only one was revealed to contain water and one contained sand. It was not revealed whether any of the remaining six boxes contained water.\n A psychometric psychic, Sharon McLaren-Straz, claimed to be able to receive personal information about the owner of an object by handling the object itself. In order to avoid ambiguous statements, the psychic agreed to be presented with both a watch and a key from each of twelve different people. She was to match keys and watches to their owners. According to the prior agreement, she had to match at least nine out of the twelve sets, but she succeeded in only two.\n Professional crystal healer Valerie Swan attempted to use ESP to identify 250 Zener cards, guessing which of the five symbols was on each one. Random guessing should have resulted in about fifty correct guesses, so it was agreed in advance that Swan had to be right on at least eighty-two cards in order to demonstrate an ability greater than chance. However, she was able to get only fifty predictions correct, which is no better than random guessing.\n\nJames Randi Educational Foundation (JREF)\n\nIn 1996, Randi established the James Randi Educational Foundation. Randi and his colleagues publish in JREF's blog, Swift. Topics have included the interesting mathematics of the one-seventh area triangle, a classic geometric puzzle. In his weekly commentary, Randi often gave examples of what he considered the nonsense that he dealt with every day.\n\nBeginning in 2003, the JREF annually hosted The Amaz!ng Meeting, a gathering of scientists, skeptics, and atheists. The last meeting was in 2015, coinciding with Randi's retirement from the JREF.\n\n2010s\n\nRandi began a series of conferences known as \"The Amazing Meeting\" (TAM) which quickly became the largest gathering of skeptics in the world, drawing audiences from Asia, Europe, South America, and the UK. It also attracted a large percentage of younger attendees. Randi was regularly featured on many podcasts, including The Skeptics Society's official podcast Skepticality and the Center for Inquiry's official podcast Point of Inquiry. From September 2006 onwards, he occasionally contributed to The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast with a column called \"Randi Speaks\". In addition, The Amazing Show was a podcast in which Randi shared various anecdotes in an interview format.\n\nIn 2014, Part2Filmworks released An Honest Liar, a feature film documentary, written by Tyler Measom and Greg O'Toole, and directed and produced by Measom and Justin Weinstein. The film, which was funded through Kickstarter, focuses on Randi's life, his investigations, and his relationship with longtime partner José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga), to whom he was married in 2013. The film was screened at the Tribeca Film Festival, at Toronto's Hot Docs film festival, and at the June 2014 AFI Docs Festival in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., where it won the Audience Award for Best Feature. It also received positive reviews from critics. The film was featured on the PBS Independent Lens series, shown in the U.S. and Canada, on March 28, 2016.\n\nIn December 2014, Randi flew to Australia to take part in \"An Evening with James Randi\" tour, organized by Think Inc. This tour included a screening of An Honest Liar followed by a \"fireside chat\" with Randi on stage. Cities visited were Adelaide, Perth, Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney. MC in Adelaide was Dr. Paul Willis with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC in Perth was Jake Farr-Wharton with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC for Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney was Richard Saunders with Lawrence Leung interviewing Randi.\n\nIn 2017, Randi appeared in animated form on the website Holy Koolaid, in which he discussed the challenge of finding the balance between connecting sincerely with his audience and at the same time tricking/fooling them with an artful ruse, and indicated that this is a balance with which many magicians struggle.\n\nOne Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge\n\nThe James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) offered a prize of US$1,000,000 to anyone able to demonstrate a supernatural ability under scientific testing criteria agreed to by both sides. Based on the paranormal challenges of John Nevil Maskelyne and Houdini, the foundation began in 1996, when Randi put up $1,000 of his own money payable to anyone who could provide objective proof of the paranormal. The prize money grew to $1,000,000, and had formal published rules. No one progressed past the preliminary test, which was set up with parameters agreed to by both Randi and the applicant. He refused to accept any challengers who might suffer serious injury or death as a result of the testing.\n\nOn April 1, 2007, it was ruled that only persons with an established, nationally recognized media profile and the backing of a reputable academic were allowed to apply for the challenge, in order to avoid wasting JREF resources on frivolous claimants.\n\nOn Larry King Live, March 6, 2001, Larry King asked claimed medium Sylvia Browne if she would take the challenge and she agreed. Randi appeared with Browne on Larry King Live six months later, and she again appeared to accept his challenge. However, according to Randi, she ultimately refused to be tested, and the Randi Foundation kept a clock on its website recording the number of weeks since Browne allegedly accepted the challenge without following through, until Browne's death in November 2013.\n\nDuring a subsequent appearance on Larry King Live on June 5, 2001, Randi challenged Rosemary Altea, another claimed medium, to undergo testing for the million dollars, but Altea refused to address the question. Instead Altea replied only, \"I agree with what he says, that there are many, many people who claim to be spiritual mediums, they claim to talk to the dead. There are many people, we all know this. There are cheats and charlatans everywhere.\" On January 26, 2007, Altea and Randi again appeared on the show, and Altea again refused to answer whether or not she would take the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge.\n\nIn October 2007, claimed psychic John Edward appeared on Headline Prime, hosted by Glenn Beck. When asked if he would take \"the Amazing Randi's\" challenge, Edward responded, \"It's funny. I was on Larry King Live once, and they asked me the same question. And I made a joke [then], and I'll say the same thing here: why would I allow myself to be tested by somebody who's got an adjective as a first name?\" Beck simply allowed Edward to continue, ignoring the challenge.\n\nRandi asked British businessman Jim McCormick, the inventor of the bogus ADE 651 bomb detector, to take the challenge in October 2008. Randi called the ADE 651 \"a useless quack device which cannot perform any other function than separating naive persons from their money. It's a fake, a scam, a swindle, and a blatant fraud. Prove me wrong and take the million dollars.\" There was no response from McCormick. According to Iraqi investigators, the ADE 651, which was corruptly sold to the Baghdad bomb squad, was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of civilians who died as a result of terrorist bombs which were not detected at checkpoints. On April 23, 2013, McCormick was convicted of three counts of fraud at the Old Bailey in London; he was subsequently sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for his part in the ADE 651 scandal, which Randi was the first to expose.\n\nA public log of past participants in the Million Dollar Challenge exists.\nIn 2015, the James Randi paranormal challenge was officially terminated due to Randi's retirement from, and thus lack of direct involvement with, the foundation.\n\nLegal disputes\nRandi was involved in a variety of legal disputes, but said that he had \"never paid even one dollar or even one cent to anyone who ever sued me.\" However, he said, he had paid out large sums to defend himself in these suits.\n\nUri Geller\nRandi met magician Uri Geller in the early 1970s, and found Geller to be \"Very charming. Likable, beautiful, affectionate, genuine, forward-going, handsome—everything!\" But Randi viewed Geller as a con-man, and began a long effort to expose him as a fraud. According to Randi, Geller tried to sue him several times, accusing him of libel. Geller never won, save for a ruling in a Japanese court that ordered Randi to pay Geller one-third of one per cent of what Geller had requested. This ruling was cancelled, and the matter dropped, when Geller decided to concentrate on another legal matter.\n\nIn May 1991, Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million on a charge of slander, after Randi told the International Herald Tribune that Geller had \"tricked even reputable scientists\" with stunts that \"are the kind that used to be on the back of cereal boxes\", referring to the old spoon-bending trick. The court dismissed the case and Geller had to settle at a cost to him of $120,000, after Randi produced a cereal box which bore instructions on how to do the spoon-bending trick. Geller's lawyer Don Katz was disbarred mid-way into this action and Geller ended up suing him. After failing to pay by the deadline imposed by the court, Geller was sanctioned an additional $20,000.\nGeller sued both Randi and CSICOP in the 1980s. CSICOP argued that the organization was not responsible for Randi's statements. The court agreed that including CSICOP was frivolous and dropped them from the action, leaving Randi to face the action alone, along with the legal costs. Geller was ordered to pay substantial damages, but only to CSICOP.\n\nOther cases\nIn 1993, a jury in the U.S. District Court in Baltimore found Randi liable for defaming Eldon Byrd for calling him a child molester in a magazine story and a \"shopping market molester\" in a 1988 speech. However, the jury found that Byrd was not entitled to any monetary damages after hearing testimony that he had sexually molested and later married his sister-in-law. The jury also cleared the other defendant in the case, CSICOP.\n\nLate in 1996, Randi launched a libel suit against a Toronto-area psychic named Earl Gordon Curley. Curley had made multiple objectionable comments about Randi on Usenet. Despite suggesting to Randi on Usenet that Randi should sue—Curley's comments implying that if Randi did not sue, then his allegations must be true—Curley seemed entirely surprised when Randi actually retained Toronto's largest law firm and initiated legal proceedings. The suit was eventually dropped in 1998 when Earl Curley died at the age of 51 of \"alcohol toxicity\".\n\nAllison DuBois, on whose life the television series Medium was based, threatened Randi with legal action for using a photo of her from her website in his December 17, 2004, commentary without her permission. Randi removed the photo and subsequently used a caricature of DuBois when mentioning her on his site, beginning with his December 23, 2005, commentary.\n\nSniffex, producer of a dowsing bomb detection device, sued Randi and the JREF in 2007 and lost. Sniffex sued Randi for his comments regarding a government test in which the Sniffex device failed. The company was later investigated and charged with fraud.\n\nViews\n\nPolitical views \nRandi was a registered Democrat. In April 2009, he released a statement endorsing the legalization of most illegal drugs.\n\nRandi had been reported as a believer in Social Darwinist theories, although he would denounce the ideologies and movements that formed around the theories in 2013.\n\nViews on religion\nRandi's parents were members of the Anglican Church but rarely attended services. He attended Sunday school at St. Cuthbert's Church in Toronto a few times as a child, but he independently decided to stop going after receiving no answer to his request for proof of the teachings of the Church.\n\nIn his essay \"Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous Bright\", Randi, who identified himself as an atheist, opined that many accounts in religious texts, including the virgin birth, the miracles of Jesus Christ, and the parting of the Red Sea by Moses, are not believable. Randi refers to the Virgin Mary as being \"impregnated by a ghost of some sort, and as a result produced a son who could walk on water, raise the dead, turn water into wine, and multiply loaves of bread and fishes\" and questions how Adam and Eve's family \"managed to populate the Earth without committing incest\". He wrote that, compared to the Bible, \"The Wizard of Oz is more believable. And much more fun.\"\n\nClarifying his view of atheism, Randi wrote \"I've said it before: there are two sorts of atheists. One sort claims that there is no deity, the other claims that there is no evidence that proves the existence of a deity; I belong to the latter group, because if I were to claim that no god exists, I would have to produce evidence to establish that claim, and I cannot. Religious persons have by far the easier position; they say they believe in a deity because that's their preference, and they've read it in a book. That's their right.\"\n\nIn An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995), he examines various spiritual practices skeptically. Of the meditation techniques of Guru Maharaj Ji, he writes \"Only the very naive were convinced that they had been let in on some sort of celestial secret.\" In 2003, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.\n\nIn a discussion with Kendrick Frazier at CSICon 2016, Randi stated \"I think that a belief in a deity is ... an unprovable claim ... and a rather ridiculous claim. It is an easy way out to explain things to which we have no answer.\" He then summarized his current concern with religious belief as follows: \"A belief in a god is one of the most damaging things that infests humanity at this particular moment in history. It may improve, and I see signs that it may be improving, and I'll leave it at that.\"\n\nPersonal life\nWhen Randi hosted his own radio show in the 1960s, he lived in a small house in Rumson, New Jersey, that featured a sign on the premises that read: \"Randi—Charlatan\".\n\nIn the 1970s and 80s, Randi supported seven foster children.\n\nIn 1987, Randi became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Randi said that one reason he became an American citizen was an incident while he was on tour with Alice Cooper, during which the Royal Canadian Mounted Police searched the band's lockers during a performance, completely ransacking the room, but finding nothing illegal.\n\nIn February 2006, Randi underwent coronary artery bypass surgery. The weekly commentary updates to his Web site were made by guests while he was hospitalized. Randi recovered after his surgery and was able to help organize and attend The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2007 in Las Vegas, Nevada, his annual convention of scientists, magicians, skeptics, atheists and freethinkers.\n\nRandi was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in June 2009. He had a series of small tumors removed from his intestines during laparoscopic surgery. He announced the diagnosis a week later at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7, as well as the fact that he was scheduled to begin chemotherapy in the following weeks. He also said at the conference: \"One day, I'm gonna die. That's all there is to it. Hey, it's too bad, but I've got to make room. I'm using a lot of oxygen and such—I think it's good use of oxygen myself, but of course, I'm a little prejudiced on the matter.\"\n\nRandi underwent his final chemotherapy session in December 2009, later saying that his chemotherapy experience was not so unpleasant as he had imagined it might be. In a video posted in April 2010, Randi stated that he had been given a clean bill of health.\n\nIn a 2010 blog entry, Randi came out as gay, a move he said was inspired by seeing the 2008 biographical drama film Milk.\n\nRandi married Venezuelan artist José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga) on July 2, 2013, in Washington, D.C. Randi, who had recently moved to Florida, met Alvarez in 1986, in a Fort Lauderdale public library. Arteaga had left his native country for fear of his life, as he was threatened for being gay. The pseudonym Arteaga had taken, Jose Alvarez, was an actual person in the United States. The identity confusion caused the real Alvarez some legal and financial difficulties. Arteaga was arrested for identity theft and faced deportation. They resided in Plantation, Florida.\n\nIn the 1993 documentary Secrets of the Psychics, Randi stated, \"I've never involved myself in narcotics of any kind; I don't smoke; I don't drink, because that can easily just fuzz the edges of my rationality, fuzz the edges of my reasoning powers, and I want to be as aware as I possibly can. That means giving up a lot of fantasies that might be comforting in some ways, but I'm willing to give that up in order to live in an actually real world, as close as I can get to it\".\n\nIn a video released in October 2017, Randi revealed that he had recently suffered a minor stroke, and that he was under medical advice not to travel during his recovery, so would be unable to attend CSICon 2017 in Las Vegas later that month.\n\nRandi died at his home on October 20, 2020, at the age of 92. The James Randi Educational Foundation attributed his death to \"age-related causes\". The Center for Inquiry said that Randi \"was the public face of skeptical inquiry, bringing a sense of fun and mischievousness to a serious mission.\" Kendrick Frazier said, as part of the statement, \"Despite his ferocity in challenging all forms of nonsense, in person he was a kind and gentle man.\"\n\nAwards and honors\n\nWorld records\nThe following are Guinness World Records:\n Randi was in a sealed casket underwater for one hour and 44 minutes, breaking the previous record of one hour and 33 minutes set by Harry Houdini on August 5, 1926.\n Randi was encased in a block of ice for 55 minutes.\n\nBibliography\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Companion book to the Open Media/Granada Television series.\n \n (Online version)\n\nTelevision and film appearances\n\nAs an actor\n Good to See You Again, Alice Cooper (1974) as the Dentist/Executioner\n Ragtime (1981) (stunt coordinator: Houdini)\n Penn & Teller's Invisible Thread (1987) (TV)\n Penn & Teller Get Killed (1989) as the 3rd Rope Holder\n Beyond Desire (1994) as the Coroner\n\nAppearing as himself\n Wonderama (1959–1967) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n I've Got a Secret (1965) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n Sesame Street Test Show 1 (1969) (TV) as The Amazing Randi\n Happy Days – \"The Magic Show\" (1978) as the Amazing Randi\n Zembla, 'De trucs van Char' (The tricks Char uses). (March 2008)\n ZDF German TV (2007)\n Wild Wild Web (1999)\n West 57th (1980s)\n Welt der Wunder – Kraft der Gedanken (January 2008)\n Today (many appearances)\n The Don Lane Show (Australia)\n That's My Line (1981) (Appeared with James Hydrick)\n The View (ABC) multiple appearances 1997 onwards\n The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (32 appearances between 1973 and 1993 plus repeats)\n The Secret Cabaret (produced by Open Media for Channel 4 in the UK)\n The Power of Belief (October 6, 1998) (ABC News Special) (TV)\n People are Talking (1980s)\n The Patterson Show (1970s)\n Superpowers? (an Equinox documentary made by Open Media for Channel 4 in 1990)\n After Dark (September 3, 1988 and September 9, 1989)\n Weird Thoughts, Open Media discussion hosted by Tony Wilson for BBC TV, with Mary Beard and others, 1994\n The Art of Magic (1998) (TV)\n The Ultimate Psychic Challenge (Discovery Channel/Channel 4) (2003)\n Spotlight on James Randi (2002) (TV)\n Secrets of the Super Psychics (Channel 4/The Learning Channel), produced by Open Media, 1997/8\n Scams, Schemes, and Scoundrels (A&E Special) (March 30, 1997)\n RAI TV Italy (1991)\n Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher\n Penn & Teller: Bullshit! several appearances\n \"End of the World\" (2003) TV Episode\n \"ESP\" (2003) TV Episode\n \"Signs from Heaven\" (2005) TV Episode\n The Oprah Winfrey Show 2 episodes\n Lawrence Leung's Unbelievable (Australia) TV Episode\n Nova: \"Secrets of the Psychics\" (1993)\n Mitä ihmettä? (Finland) (2003) TV Series\n Midday (Australia) (1990s)\n Magic or Miracle? (1983) TV special\n Magic (2004) (mini) TV Series\n Larry King Live (CNN) (June 5, 2001, September 3, 2001, January 26, 2007, several more)\n James Randi: Psychic Investigator (1991) (Open Media series for the ITV network)\n James Randi Budapesten – Hungarian documentary\n Inside Edition – (1991, 2006, and 2007) TV\n Horizon – \"Homeopathy: The Test\" (2002) BBC/UK TV Episode\n Dead Men Talking (The Biography Channel) (2007)\n Fornemmelse for snyd (2003) TV Series (also archive footage) Denmark\n Extraordinary People – \"The Million Dollar Mind Reader\" (September 2008).\n Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live (June 7, 1989; hosted by Bill Bixby)\n CBS This Morning (1990s)\n Anderson Cooper 360°, CNN (January 19, 2007, and January 30, 2007)\n A Question of Miracles (HBO) (1999)\n 20/20 (ABC) (May 11, 2007)\n An Honest Liar (2014, aired as Exposed: Magicians, Psychics and Frauds on BBC Storyville)\n\nAppearances in other media \n Dynamite magazine: Randi was featured as the cover story for the November 1981 issue.\n In 2007, Randi delivered a talk at TED in which he discussed psychic fraud, homeopathy, and his foundation's Million Dollar Challenge.\n Randi is featured in Tommy Finke's song \"Poet der Affen/Poet of the Apes\" released on the album of the same name in 2010.\n\nSee also\n List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n Pigasus Award\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Wakelet Randi collection\n\nListings\n James Randi in The Skeptic's Dictionary\n\nMedia\n James Randi interview (May 2009) from the podcast of MagicNewswire.com in which Randi discusses his career in magic, his feud with Uri Geller and more.\n James Randi interview (November 2007) from the BSAlert.com radio show where Randi discusses NBC's Phenomenon TV show, the current status of Uri Geller and his thoughts about whether society is becoming more or less superstitious.\n \n \"20 Major Aspects of Liars, Cheats, and Frauds\" by James Randi\n\nCategory:1928 births\nCategory:2020 deaths\nCategory:20th-century American writers\nCategory:20th-century atheists\nCategory:20th-century Canadian writers\nCategory:20th-century Canadian male writers\nCategory:21st-century atheists\nCategory:American humanists\nCategory:American magicians\nCategory:American skeptics\nCategory:American atheism activists\nCategory:Articles containing video clips\nCategory:Canadian atheists\nCategory:Canadian emigrants to the United States\nCategory:Canadian humanists\nCategory:Canadian magicians\nCategory:Canadian skeptics\nCategory:Critics of alternative medicine\nCategory:Critics of parapsychology\nCategory:Escapologists\nCategory:Florida Democrats\nCategory:Canadian gay writers\nCategory:Historians of magic\nCategory:LGBT magicians\nCategory:MacArthur Fellows\nCategory:Naturalized citizens of the United States\nCategory:Paranormal investigators\nCategory:People from Plantation, Florida\nCategory:People from Rumson, New Jersey\nCategory:Writers from Toronto\nCategory:Academy of Magical Arts Special Fellowship winners\nCategory:American gay writers\nCategory:20th-century Canadian LGBT people", "title": "James Randi" }, { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

[ "The context does not provide specific information on who or what Gef is.", "In the article, there are several interesting aspects. It discusses an investigation into the alleged case of Gef the talking mongoose by Price and his friend Richard Lambert. They wrote a book about it. Moreover, they analyzed various physical evidences allegedly associated with Gef, such as a hair and pawprints. The house where the events allegedly took place was also thoroughly described, particularly noting the structure of the walls that could possibly allow voices to be carried throughout the house.", "Within the context provided, the specifics of \"the case of Gef\" are not detailed. However, it is noted that alleged evidence included a hair believed to come from Gef that a naturalist identified as dog hair, and pawprints and tooth marks that could not be matched to any known animal. The case also involved the Irvings, and Price visited their home to inspect its structure. The case was notable enough for a book, The Haunting of Cashen's Gap, to be written about it.", "Price and Lambert concluded that the supposed evidence for Gef was not credible. According to Richard Wiseman, they thought \"only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef.\"", "The context does not provide information on any other cases that Price worked on.", "The context mentions that Price observed double walls of wooden panelling in the Irvings' house, which had considerable interior air space. He noted that the structure allowed the whole house to function like a \"speaking-tube,\" with the walls acting like sounding boards. This could make it possible to convey voices to various parts of the house. However, the context does not mention finding anything physical within the walls.", "The context does not provide information on any other cases." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "no", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#0", "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#1", "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#2", "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#3", "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#4", "C_70925537f6c84a13b2e5974c08c3470f_1_q#5" ]

[ "What was significant about his early life?", "Was he musical as a child?", "Does he credit any early influences?", "When did he start his musical career?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did he receive any notable recognition for his music?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 62 ], [ 239 ], [ 1731 ], [ 891 ], [ 1037 ], [ 2242 ] ], "texts": [ [ "his father, James Aaron Jordan, was a music teacher and bandleader for the Brinkley Brass Band and for the Rabbit Foot Minstrels." ], [ "Jordan studied music under his father, starting out on the clarinet." ], [ "Ella Fitzgerald" ], [ "In 1932, Jordan began performing with the Clarence Williams band," ], [ "In late 1936 he was invited to join the influential Savoy Ballroom orchestra, led by the drummer Chick Webb." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 62, 239, 1731, 891, 1037, 2242 ], "texts": [ "his father, James Aaron Jordan, was a music teacher and bandleader for the Brinkley Brass Band and for the Rabbit Foot Minstrels.", "Jordan studied music under his father, starting out on the clarinet.", "Ella Fitzgerald", "In 1932, Jordan began performing with the Clarence Williams band,", "In late 1936 he was invited to join the influential Savoy Ballroom orchestra, led by the drummer Chick Webb.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "In his early life, Louis Jordan was born in Brinkley, Arkansas where his father was a music teacher and led both the Brinkley Brass Band and the Rabbit Foot Minstrels. His mother, Adell, passed away when he was young. Jordan learned music under his father's guidance, starting with the clarinet. Instead of doing farm work when school was out, he played in his father's bands. Early on in his career, he played the piano professionally, though the alto saxophone became his primary instrument later on. Nevertheless, he gained significant recognition as a songwriter, entertainer and vocalist. He attended Arkansas Baptist College for a brief period, majoring in music.", "Yes, Louis Jordan was musical as a child. He learnt music under his father, who was a music teacher, starting out on the clarinet. He also played in his father's bands when he was not in school. Later, he professionally played the piano early in his career.", "The text does not provide any information about Louis Jordan crediting any specific early influences.", "Louis Jordan started his musical career in his youth, performing in his father's bands when school was not in session. He played the piano professionally early in his career and later took up the alto saxophone as his main instrument. However, it's in 1932 when Jordan began performing with the Clarence Williams band showing a more formal start to his professional career.", "One interesting aspect of the article is his relationship with the Savoy Ballroom orchestra and its leader, drummer Chick Webb. Jordan was invited to join the orchestra in late 1936, and he remained with them until 1938. Webb, who was physically disabled, was an excellent musician but was not a great showman. As a result, Jordan often introduced songs and sang lead, leading many in the audience to think he was the band leader. This experience significantly boosted Jordan's confidence and was a critical stepping-stone in his career. Also of note is the partnership between Jordan and a young Ella Fitzgerald, who was coming into prominence as the Webb band's lead female vocalist. They often performed duets on stage and later made records together when they had both become major stars. Another interesting point is that Webb fired Jordan in 1938 for trying to persuade Fitzgerald and others to join his new band. Soon after, Webb died at age 34 due to tuberculosis of the spine, and Fitzgerald took over the band.", "The text does not provide information about Louis Jordan receiving any notable recognition for his music." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#0", "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#1", "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#2", "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#3", "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#4", "C_07b75bf747f14969bd3b73fb1e58e27a_1_q#5" ]

[ "What is Money Making Mitch?", "Was the single well received?", "Was this single attached to an album?", "Did this receive any recognition?", "What can you tell me about No Way Out 2?", "Did this album win any awards?" ]

[ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 91 ], [ 1958 ], [ 634 ], [ 1958 ], [ 785 ], [ 1958 ] ], "texts": [ [ "as the first single from his mixtape MMM (Money Making Mitch)," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "A new single called \"Finna Get Loose\" featuring Combs and Pharrell Williams was released on June 29, 2015." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Gizzle told the press that she is collaborating with Combs on what she describes as his last album, titled No Way Out 2, a sequel to his 1997 debut." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 91, 1958, 634, 1958, 785, 1958 ], "texts": [ "as the first single from his mixtape MMM (Money Making Mitch),", "CANNOTANSWER", "A new single called \"Finna Get Loose\" featuring Combs and Pharrell Williams was released on June 29, 2015.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Gizzle told the press that she is collaborating with Combs on what she describes as his last album, titled No Way Out 2, a sequel to his 1997 debut.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "Money Making Mitch (MMM) is a mixtape by Combs.", "The context does not provide information on how the single \"Big Homie\" was received.", "Yes, the single \"Big Homie\" is part of the mixtape album Money Making Mitch (MMM) by Combs.", "The context does not provide information on any recognition that the single \"Big Homie\" or the mixtape \"Money Making Mitch (MMM)\" received.", "\"No Way Out 2\" is described by Bad Boy Entertainment artist Gizzle as Combs' last album. It is also mentioned as a sequel to his 1997 debut. However, no further details about this album are mentioned in the context.", "The context does not provide information on any awards that the album \"No Way Out 2\" may have won." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#0", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#1", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#2", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#3", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#4", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#5", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#6", "C_6c6eab3270324df39b00556c549930bb_0_q#7" ]

[ "When did she start her career in politics?", "What did she do after working in the Department of Veterans Affairs?", "When did she transition into other roles outside of the Department of Veterans Affairs?", "Why did she resign?", "How did her campaigning go?", "What were some of her accomplishments as the Director of Veteran Affairs?", "Who helped her launch her campaign?", "Did she run into any trouble while being involved in politics?" ]

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[ { "text": "Ladda Tammy Duckworth (born March 12, 1968) is an American politician and retired Army National Guard lieutenant colonel serving as the junior United States senator from Illinois since 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, she represented Illinois's 8th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 2013 to 2017.\n\nBorn in Bangkok, Thailand, and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii, Duckworth was educated at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and George Washington University in Washington, D.C. A combat veteran of the Iraq War, she served as a U.S. Army helicopter pilot. In 2004, when her Black Hawk helicopter was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents, she lost both legs and some mobility in her right arm. She was the first female double amputee from the war. Despite her injuries, she was awarded a medical waiver to continue serving in the Illinois Army National Guard for another ten years until she retired as a lieutenant colonel in 2014.\n\nDuckworth ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2006, then served as director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs from 2006 to 2009 and as assistant secretary for public and intergovernmental affairs at the United States Department of Veterans Affairs from 2009 to 2011. In 2012, Duckworth was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where she served two terms. She was elected to the U.S. Senate in 2016, defeating Republican incumbent Mark Kirk.\n\nDuckworth is the first Thai American woman elected to Congress, the first person born in Thailand elected to Congress, the first woman with a disability elected to Congress, the first female double amputee in the Senate, and the first senator to give birth while in office. Duckworth is the second of three Asian American women to serve in the U.S. Senate, after Mazie Hirono, and before Kamala Harris.\n\nEarly life and education\nDuckworth was born in Bangkok, Thailand, the daughter of Franklin Duckworth and Lamai Sompornpairin. Although born outside the United States, Duckworth is a natural-born citizen through her father's status as an American citizen. Her father, who died in 2005, was a veteran of the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps who traced his family's American roots to the American Revolutionary War. Her mother is Thai Chinese and originally from Chiang Mai. Her father was a Baptist who worked with the United Nations and international companies in refugee, housing, and development programs, and the family moved around Southeast Asia. Duckworth became fluent in Thai and Indonesian, in addition to English.\n\nDuckworth attended Singapore American School, the International School Bangkok, and the Jakarta International School. The family moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, when Duckworth was 16, and she attended Honolulu's McKinley High School, where she participated in track and field and graduated in 1985. Because of a difference in the grade levels between the school systems she attended, Duckworth skipped half of her ninth grade year and half of her tenth. She was a Girl Scout, and earned her First Class, now called the Gold Award. Her father was unemployed for a time, and the family relied on public assistance. She graduated from the University of Hawaii at Manoa in 1989 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. In 1992, she received a Master of Arts in international affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs.\n\nLater, Duckworth began a PhD program at Northern Illinois University, which was interrupted by her war service. She completed a PhD in human services at Capella University School of Public Service Leadership in March 2015. Her dissertion was titled Exploring Illinois physicians' experience using electronic medical records (EMR) via the UTAUT model. Julia Moore was her faculty mentor.\n\nMilitary service\n\nFollowing in the footsteps of her father, who served in World War II and the Vietnam War, and ancestors who served in every major conflict since the Revolutionary War, Duckworth joined the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps in 1990 as a graduate student at George Washington University. She became a commissioned officer in the United States Army Reserve in 1992 and chose to fly helicopters because it was one of the few combat jobs open to women at that time. As a member of the Army Reserve, she went to flight school, later transferring to the Army National Guard and in 1996 entering the Illinois Army National Guard. Duckworth also worked as a staff supervisor at Rotary International headquarters in Evanston, Illinois, and was the coordinator of the Center for Nursing Research at Northern Illinois University.\n\nDuckworth was working toward a Ph.D. in political science at Northern Illinois University, with research interests in the political economy and public health of southeast Asia, when she was deployed to Iraq in 2004. She lost her right leg near the hip and her left leg below the knee from injuries sustained on November 12, 2004, when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents. She was the first American female double amputee from the Iraq War. The explosion severely broke her right arm and tore tissue from it, necessitating major surgery to repair it. Duckworth received a Purple Heart on December 3 and was promoted to the rank of major on December 21 at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where she was presented with an Air Medal and Army Commendation Medal. She retired from the Illinois Army National Guard in October 2014 as a lieutenant colonel.\n\nIn 2011 the Daughters of the American Revolution erected a statue with Duckworth's likeness and that of Molly Pitcher in Mount Vernon, Illinois. The statue was dedicated to female veterans.\n\nIn 2019, Duckworth participated in the National Air and Space Museum's \"The Military Women Aviators Oral History Initiative (MWAOHI)\" project alongside fourteen other veteran women aviators, including Olga Custodio, Sarah Deal, Stayce Harris, Jeannie Leavitt, Nicole Malachowski, Sally Murply, Tammie Shults, Jacqueline Van Ovost, Lucy Young, and Kim \"K. C.\" Campbell.\n\nGovernment service\n\nOn November 21, 2006, several weeks after losing her first congressional campaign, Duckworth was appointed director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs by Governor Rod Blagojevich. She served in that position until February 8, 2009. While director, she was credited with starting a program to help veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and veterans with brain injuries.\n\nOn September 17, 2008, Duckworth attended a campaign event for Dan Seals, the Democratic candidate for Illinois's 10th congressional district. She used vacation time, but violated Illinois law by going to the event in a state-owned van that was equipped for a person with physical disabilities. She acknowledged the mistake and repaid the state for the use of the van.\n\nIn 2009, two Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs employees at the Anna Veterans' Home in Union County filed a lawsuit against Duckworth. The lawsuit alleged that she wrongfully terminated one employee and threatened and intimidated another for bringing reports of abuse and misconduct of veterans when she was head of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs. Duckworth was represented in the suit by the Illinois Attorney General's office. The case was dismissed twice but refilings were allowed. The case settled in June 2016 for $26,000 with no admission of wrongdoing. The plaintiffs later indicated they no longer wanted to settle, but the judge gave them 21 days to sign the settlement and canceled the trial.\n\nOn February 3, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Duckworth to be the Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). and the United States Senate confirmed her for the position on April 22. As Assistant Secretary, she coordinated a joint initiative with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to help end Veteran homelessness, worked to address the unique challenges faced by female as well as Native American Veterans, and created the Office of Online Communications to improve the VA's accessibility, especially among young Veterans. Duckworth resigned her position in June 2011 in order to launch her campaign for the U.S. House of Representatives in Illinois's 8th congressional district.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives\n\nElections\n\n2006\n\nAfter longtime incumbent Republican Henry Hyde announced his retirement from Congress, several candidates began campaigning for the open seat. Duckworth won the Democratic primary with a plurality of 44%, defeating 2004 nominee Christine Cegelis with 40%, and Wheaton College professor Lindy Scott with 16%. State Senator Peter Roskam was unopposed in the Republican primary. For the general election, Duckworth was endorsed by EMILY's List, a political action committee that supports female Democratic candidates who back abortion rights. Duckworth was also endorsed by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and the Fraternal Order of Police. While she raised $4.5 million to Roskam's $3.44 million, Duckworth lost by 4,810 votes, receiving 49% to Roskam's 51%.\n\n2012\n\nIn July 2011, Duckworth launched her campaign to run in 2012 for Illinois's 8th congressional district. She defeated former Deputy Treasurer of Illinois Raja Krishnamoorthi for the Democratic nomination on March 20, 2012, then faced incumbent Republican Joe Walsh in the general election. Duckworth received the endorsement of both the Chicago Tribune and the Daily Herald. Walsh generated controversy when in July 2012, at a campaign event, he accused Duckworth of politicizing her military service and injuries, saying \"my God, that's all she talks about. Our true heroes, the men and women who served us, it's the last thing in the world they talk about.\" Walsh called the controversy over his comments \"a political ploy to distort my words and distract voters\" and said that \"Of course Tammy Duckworth is a hero ... I have called her a hero hundreds of times.\"\n\nOn November 6, 2012, Duckworth defeated Walsh 55%–45%, making her the first Asian-American from Illinois in Congress, the first woman with a disability elected to Congress, and the first member of Congress born in Thailand.\n\n2014\n\nIn the 2014 general election, Duckworth faced Republican Larry Kaifesh, a United States Marine Corps officer who had recently left active duty as a colonel. Duckworth defeated Kaifesh with 56% of the vote.\n\nTenure \nDuckworth was sworn into office on January 3, 2013.\n\nOn April 3, 2013, Duckworth publicly returned 8.4% ($1,218) of her congressional salary for that month to the United States Department of Treasury in solidarity with furloughed government workers.\n\nOn June 26, 2013, during a hearing of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee, Duckworth received national media attention after questioning Strong Castle CEO Braulio Castillo on a $500 million government contract the company had been awarded based on Castillo's disabled veteran status. Castillo had injured his ankle at the US Military Academy's prep school, USMAPS, in 1984.\n\nCommittee assignments\n Committee on Armed Services\n Subcommittee on Tactical Air and Land Forces (2013–2017)\n Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Readiness (2015–2017)\n Committee on Oversight and Government Reform\n Subcommittee on Energy Policy, Health Care and Entitlements (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Economic Growth, Job Creation and Regulatory Affairs (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Transportation and Public Assets, Ranking Member (2015–2017)\n Subcommittee on Information Technology (2015–2017)\n United States House Select Committee on Benghazi (May 2014–July 2016)\n\nU.S. Senate\n\nElections\n\n2016 \n\nOn March 30, 2015, Duckworth announced that she would challenge incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Mark Kirk for his seat in the 2016 Senate election in Illinois. Duckworth defeated fellow Democrats Andrea Zopp and Napoleon Harris in the primary election on March 15, 2016.\n\nDuring a televised debate on October 27, 2016, Duckworth talked about her ancestors' past service in the United States military. Kirk responded, \"I'd forgotten that your parents came all the way from Thailand to serve George Washington.\" The comment led to the Human Rights Campaign withdrawing their endorsement of Kirk and switching it to Duckworth, stating his comments were \"deeply offensive and racist.\"\n\nDuckworth was endorsed by Barack Obama, who actively campaigned for her.\n\nOn November 8, Duckworth defeated Kirk 55 percent to 40 percent to win the Senate seat. Duckworth and Kamala Harris, who was also elected in 2016, are the second and third female Asian American senators, after Mazie Hirono who was elected in 2012.\n\n2022 \n\nIn March 2021, Duckworth announced her candidacy for reelection in the 2022 election. On November 8, 2022, Duckworth won her reelection to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican challenger Kathy Salvi. Duckworth's win makes her the first woman reelected to a senate seat in Illinois.\n\nTenure\n\nFirst term (2017–2023)\nAccording to The Center for Effective Lawmaking (CEL), a joint partnership between the University of Virginia's Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy and Vanderbilt University, Duckworth's \"Legislative Effectiveness Score\" (LES) is \"Exceeds Expectations\" as a freshman senator in the 115th Congress (2017–2018), the 11th highest out of 48 Democratic senators.\n\nGovTrack's Report Card on Duckworth for the 115th Congress found that among Senate freshmen, she ranked first in favorably reporting bills out of committee and \"Got influential cosponsors the most often compared to Senate freshmen.\" GovTrack also found that in the first session of the 116th Congress, Duckworth ranked first in favorably reporting bills out of committee and \"Got influential cosponsors the most often compared to Senate sophomores.\"\n\nDuring the 115th Congress, Duckworth was credited with saving the Americans with Disabilities Act. Specifically, she led public opposition to a controversial bill, H.R. 620, and led 42 senators in pledging to oppose any effort to pass H.R. 620 through the Senate. The Veterans Service Organization and Paralyzed Veterans of America recognized Duckworth's leadership in defending the Americans with Disabilities Act.\n\nIn January 2018, when the federal government shut down after the Senate could not agree on a funding bill, Duckworth responded to President Trump's accusations that the Democrats were putting \"unlawful immigrants\" ahead of the military: \n\nIn 2018, Duckworth became the first U.S. senator to give birth while in office. Shortly afterward, the Senate passed Senate Resolution 463, which Duckworth introduced on April 12, 2018, by unanimous consent. The resolution changed Senate rules so that a senator may bring a child under one year old to the Senate floor during votes. The day after the rules were changed, Duckworth's daughter became the first baby on the Senate floor.\n\nOn April 15, 2020, the Trump administration invited Duckworth to join a bipartisan task force on the reopening of the economy amid the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nDuckworth was publicly critical of Trump's decision to nominate Amy Coney Barrett to the Supreme Court in September 2020. Barrett, a devout Catholic, is a member of a group that considers in vitro fertilization morally illicit. Duckworth said that Barrett's membership in such an organization was \"disqualifying and, frankly, insulting to every parent\". Both of Duckworth's children were conceived by IVF.\n\nThe Center for Effective Lawmaking, a joint initiative of the University of Virginia and Vanderbilt University, ranked Duckworth the fifth most effective Democratic senator in the 116th Congress and the most effective Democratic senator on transportation policy. Professors Craig Volden and Alan Wiseman, co-directors of the Center for Effective Lawmaking, stated, \"While still in her first term, Senator Tammy Duckworth has risen to the top five among effective Democratic lawmakers in the Senate. She sponsored 77 bills in the 116th Congress, with four of them passing the Republican-controlled Senate and two becoming law.\"\n\nOn January 3, 2021, Duckworth received one vote for Speaker of the House of Representatives from Jared Golden () despite not being a member of that legislative body and therefore not a serious candidate.\n\nDuckworth was participating in the certification of the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when Trump supporters stormed the U.S. Capitol. In the wake of the attack, Duckworth called Trump \"a threat to our nation\" and called for his immediate removal from office through the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment. Two days later, on January 8, she also called for the resignation of Representative Mary Miller, who had quoted Adolf Hitler during a speech on January 5.\n\nIn June 2022, President Biden sent Duckworth to Taiwan, where she held a press conference with Tsai Ing-wen to announce the U.S.-Taiwan Initiative on 21st-Century Trade in the wake of fears of angering China by the other partners to the May 2022 Indo-Pacific trade agreement. Duckworth's mission was planned in conjunction with the U.S. Trade Representative's office, which leads the Initiative for Washington.\n\nDuckworth is the sponsor of S. 3635, the Public Safety Officer Support Act of 2022, which would provide line of duty death designation to law enforcement and other public safety officers who die as a result of traumatic brain injury, PTSD, and other \"silent\" injuries. The bill is based on the death of Washington, D.C. police officer Jeffrey Smith in the aftermath of the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack. Smith died of post-concussive syndrome after suffering repeated attacks at the Capitol.\n\nSecond term (2023–present)\nIn February 2023, Duckworth was named chair of the Subcommittee on Aviation Safety, Operations and Innovation of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Along with Deb Fischer, Duckworth sponsored a bill to improve reporting on complaints from disabled airline passengers.\n\nCommittee assignments\n\nCurrent\n Committee on Armed Services (2019–present)\n Subcommittee on Airland\n Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support\n Subcommittee on Strategic Forces\n Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation\n Subcommittee on Aviation Operations, Safety, and Security (chair)\n Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet\n Subcommittee on Consumer Protection, Product Safety, Insurance and Data Security\n Subcommittee on Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine Infrastructure, Safety, and Security\n Committee on Foreign Relations (2023–present)\n Subcommittee on Multilateral International Development, Multilateral Institutions, and International Economic, Energy and Environmental Policy (chair)\n Subcommittee on Europe and Regional Security Cooperation\n Subcommittee on East Asia, The Pacific, and International Cybersecurity Policy\n Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship\n\nPrevious\n Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2017–2019)\n Committee on Environment and Public Works (2017-2023)\n\nCaucus memberships\n Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus\n Expand Social Security Caucus\n Senate Whistleblower Protection Caucus\n\nNational politics\nDuckworth has spoken at the 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020 Democratic National Conventions. She was the permanent co-chair of the 2020 Democratic National Convention. At the 2020 convention she called Trump \"coward-in-chief\" for not supporting the American military.\n\nDuckworth was vetted as a possible running mate during Joe Biden's vice presidential candidate selection. Fellow U.S. Senator Kamala Harris was instead selected. Biden nominated Duckworth to serve as Vice Chair of the Democratic National Committee, along with Gretchen Whitmer, Keisha Lance Bottoms and Filemon Vela Jr.\n\nPolitical positions\n\nEnvironment \nIn April 2019, Duckworth was one of 12 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to top senators on the Appropriations Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development advocating that the Energy Department be granted maximum funding for carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), arguing that American job growth could be stimulated by investment in viable options to capture carbon emissions and expressing disagreement with Trump's 2020 budget request to combine the two federal programs that include carbon capture research.\n\nForeign policy\n\nDuring her unsuccessful congressional campaign in 2006, Duckworth called on Congress to audit the estimated $437 billion spent on overseas military and foreign aid since September 11, 2001.\n\nOn September 30, 2006, Duckworth gave the Democratic Party's response to President George W. Bush's weekly radio address. In it, she was critical of Bush's strategy for the Iraq War.\n\nIn October 2006, The Sunday Times reported that Duckworth agreed with General Sir Richard Dannatt, the British Army chief, that the presence of coalition troops was exacerbating the conflict in Iraq.\n\nDuckworth supports continued U.S. military aid to Israel and opposes the movement for Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) against Israel. She voiced her opposition to Israel's plan to annex parts of the occupied West Bank.\n\nIn May 2019, Duckworth was a cosponsor of the South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act, a bipartisan bill reintroduced by Marco Rubio and Ben Cardin that was intended to disrupt China's consolidation or expansion of its claims of jurisdiction over both the sea and air space in disputed zones in the South China Sea.\n\nOn June 6, 2021, Duckworth and Senators Dan Sullivan and Christopher Coons visited Taipei in an U.S. Air Force C-17 Globemaster III transport to meet President Tsai Ing-wen and Minister Joseph Wu during the pandemic outbreak of Taiwan to announce President Joe Biden's donation plan of 750,000 COVID-19 vaccines included in the global COVAX program.\n\nGun control\nDuckworth was rated by the National Rifle Association as having a pro-gun control congressional voting record. Duckworth, a gun owner herself, cites violence in Chicago as a major influence for her support of gun control. She supports universal background checks, the halting of state-to-state gun trafficking, and a national assault weapons ban.\n\nDuckworth participated in the 2016 Chris Murphy gun control filibuster. During the 2016 United States House of Representatives sit-in, Duckworth hid her mobile phone in her prosthetic leg to avoid it being taken away from her since taking pictures and recording on the House floor is against policy.\n\nIn a 2016 interview with GQ magazine, Duckworth stated that gaining control of the Senate and \"closing the gap\" in the House would be necessary in order to pass firearm restrictions. She also stated that she believed moderate Republicans, who support gun control, would have more power to influence gun control if they were not \"pushed aside by those folks who are absolutely beholden to the NRA. And so we never get the vote.\"\n\nHealth policy\nDuckworth supports abortion rights. After Roe v. Wade was overturned in 2022, Duckworth said she was \"outraged and horrified.\" She called the decision a \"nightmare\", robbing women of their right to make health care decisions.\n\nDuckworth supported the Affordable Care Act.\n\nImmigration\nDuckworth supports comprehensive immigration reform with a pathway to citizenship for those in the country illegally. She would admit 100,000 Syrian refugees into the United States.\n\nIn August 2018, Duckworth was one of seventeen senators to sign a letter spearheaded by Kamala Harris to United States Secretary of Homeland Security Kirstjen Nielsen demanding that the Trump administration take immediate action in attempting to reunite 539 migrant children with their families, citing each passing day of inaction as intensifying \"trauma that this administration has needlessly caused for children and their families seeking humanitarian protection.\"\n\nAwards and accolades\nIn May 2010, Duckworth was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) by Northern Illinois University. In 2011, Chicago's Access Living honored Duckworth for her work on behalf of veterans with disabilities, bestowing her with the Gordon H. Mansfield Congressional Leadership Award.\n\nDuckworth is heavily decorated for her service in Iraq, with over 10 distinct military honors, most notably the Purple Heart, an award her Marine father had also received.\n\nFormer Republican presidential candidate and Senator from Kansas Bob Dole dedicated his autobiography One Soldier's Story in part to Duckworth. Duckworth credits Dole for inspiring her to pursue public service, while she recuperated at Walter Reed Army Medical Center; although, in 2006, Dole endorsed Duckworth's Republican opponent, Peter Roskam.\n\nPersonal life\nDuckworth has been married to Bryan Bowlsbey since 1993. They met during Duckworth's participation in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and later served together in the Illinois Army National Guard. Bowlsbey, a Signal Corps officer, is also a veteran of the Iraq War. Both have since retired from the armed forces.\n\nDuckworth and Bowlsbey have two daughters: Abigail, who was born in 2014, and Maile, born in 2018. Maile's birth made Duckworth the first U.S. senator to give birth while in office. Former senator Daniel Akaka helped the couple with the naming of both daughters; Akaka died April 6, 2018, three days before Maile was born. Shortly after Maile's birth, a Senate rule change permitted senators to bring children under one year old on the Senate floor to breastfeed. This was a symbolic moment for Duckworth, as she had previously introduced the bipartisan Friendly Airports for Mothers (FAM) Act to ensure new mothers access to safe, clean and accessible lactation rooms in airports. The day after the rule change, Duckworth brought Maile with her during the casting of a Senate vote, making Duckworth the first senator to cast a vote while holding a baby.\n\nDuckworth helped establish the Intrepid Foundation to help injured veterans.\n\nElectoral history\n\nBibliography\n \n Every Day is a Gift: A Memoir, Little, Brown & Company, 2021.\n\nSee also\n List of Asian Americans and Pacific Islands Americans in the United States Congress\n List of United States senators born outside the United States\n Women in the United States House of Representatives\n Women in the United States Senate\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Senator Tammy Duckworth official U.S. Senate website\n Tammy Duckworth for Senate campaign website\n \n \n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\nCategory:1968 births\nCategory:21st-century American politicians\nCategory:21st-century American women politicians\nCategory:American amputees\nCategory:United States Army personnel of the Iraq War\nCategory:Members of the United States Congress of Chinese descent\nCategory:American people of Thai descent\nCategory:American politicians with disabilities\nCategory:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois\nCategory:Democratic Party United States senators from Illinois\nCategory:Asian-American members of the United States House of Representatives\nCategory:Asian-American United States senators\nCategory:Women military aviators\nCategory:Female members of the United States House of Representatives\nCategory:Female United States senators\nCategory:Elliott School of International Affairs alumni\nCategory:American Senior Army Aviators\nCategory:Illinois National Guard personnel\nCategory:Living people\nCategory:National Guard (United States) officers\nCategory:Obama administration personnel\nTammy Duckworth\nCategory:Politicians from Honolulu\nCategory:People from Hoffman Estates, Illinois\nCategory:Recipients of the Air Medal\nCategory:Shot-down aviators\nCategory:State cabinet secretaries of Illinois\nCategory:Thai emigrants to the United States\nCategory:United States Department of Veterans Affairs officials\nCategory:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa alumni\nCategory:Women in Illinois politics\nCategory:Women in the Iraq War\nCategory:Female United States Army officers\nCategory:Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)\nCategory:Daughters of the American Revolution people\nCategory:American women of Chinese descent in politics\nCategory:Asian-American people in Illinois politics\nCategory:Capella University alumni", "title": "Tammy Duckworth" } ]

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[ "What branch of the Military was Duckworth in?", "When was she first deployed?", "Where in Iraq was she based?", "Was she injured while in the military?", "What happened to cause these injuries?", "Did she receive any medals?", "When was she promoted to Lt Colonel?", "When did she return from Iraq?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 405 ], [ 849 ], [ 2010 ], [ 888 ], [ 1002 ], [ 1423 ], [ 1604 ], [ 2010 ] ], "texts": [ [ "As a member of the Army Reserve, she went to flight school, later transferring to the Army National Guard and entering the Illinois Army National Guard in 1996." ], [ "when she was deployed to Iraq in 2004." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "She lost her right leg near the hip and her left leg below the knee from injuries sustained on November 12, 2004," ], [ "when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents." ], [ "a Purple Heart on December 3 and was promoted to Major on December 21" ], [ "She retired from the Illinois Army National Guard in October 2014 as a lieutenant colonel." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 405, 849, 2010, 888, 1002, 1423, 1604, 2010 ], "texts": [ "As a member of the Army Reserve, she went to flight school, later transferring to the Army National Guard and entering the Illinois Army National Guard in 1996.", "when she was deployed to Iraq in 2004.", "CANNOTANSWER", "She lost her right leg near the hip and her left leg below the knee from injuries sustained on November 12, 2004,", "when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents.", "a Purple Heart on December 3 and was promoted to Major on December 21", "She retired from the Illinois Army National Guard in October 2014 as a lieutenant colonel.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Ladda Tammy Duckworth (born March 12, 1968) is an American politician and retired Army National Guard lieutenant colonel serving as the junior United States senator from Illinois since 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, she represented Illinois's 8th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 2013 to 2017.\n\nBorn in Bangkok, Thailand, and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii, Duckworth was educated at the University of Hawaii at Manoa and George Washington University in Washington, D.C. A combat veteran of the Iraq War, she served as a U.S. Army helicopter pilot. In 2004, when her Black Hawk helicopter was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents, she lost both legs and some mobility in her right arm. She was the first female double amputee from the war. Despite her injuries, she was awarded a medical waiver to continue serving in the Illinois Army National Guard for another ten years until she retired as a lieutenant colonel in 2014.\n\nDuckworth ran unsuccessfully for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2006, then served as director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs from 2006 to 2009 and as assistant secretary for public and intergovernmental affairs at the United States Department of Veterans Affairs from 2009 to 2011. In 2012, Duckworth was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where she served two terms. She was elected to the U.S. Senate in 2016, defeating Republican incumbent Mark Kirk.\n\nDuckworth is the first Thai American woman elected to Congress, the first person born in Thailand elected to Congress, the first woman with a disability elected to Congress, the first female double amputee in the Senate, and the first senator to give birth while in office. Duckworth is the second of three Asian American women to serve in the U.S. Senate, after Mazie Hirono, and before Kamala Harris.\n\nEarly life and education\nDuckworth was born in Bangkok, Thailand, the daughter of Franklin Duckworth and Lamai Sompornpairin. Although born outside the United States, Duckworth is a natural-born citizen through her father's status as an American citizen. Her father, who died in 2005, was a veteran of the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps who traced his family's American roots to the American Revolutionary War. Her mother is Thai Chinese and originally from Chiang Mai. Her father was a Baptist who worked with the United Nations and international companies in refugee, housing, and development programs, and the family moved around Southeast Asia. Duckworth became fluent in Thai and Indonesian, in addition to English.\n\nDuckworth attended Singapore American School, the International School Bangkok, and the Jakarta International School. The family moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, when Duckworth was 16, and she attended Honolulu's McKinley High School, where she participated in track and field and graduated in 1985. Because of a difference in the grade levels between the school systems she attended, Duckworth skipped half of her ninth grade year and half of her tenth. She was a Girl Scout, and earned her First Class, now called the Gold Award. Her father was unemployed for a time, and the family relied on public assistance. She graduated from the University of Hawaii at Manoa in 1989 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. In 1992, she received a Master of Arts in international affairs from George Washington University's Elliott School of International Affairs.\n\nLater, Duckworth began a PhD program at Northern Illinois University, which was interrupted by her war service. She completed a PhD in human services at Capella University School of Public Service Leadership in March 2015. Her dissertion was titled Exploring Illinois physicians' experience using electronic medical records (EMR) via the UTAUT model. Julia Moore was her faculty mentor.\n\nMilitary service\n\nFollowing in the footsteps of her father, who served in World War II and the Vietnam War, and ancestors who served in every major conflict since the Revolutionary War, Duckworth joined the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps in 1990 as a graduate student at George Washington University. She became a commissioned officer in the United States Army Reserve in 1992 and chose to fly helicopters because it was one of the few combat jobs open to women at that time. As a member of the Army Reserve, she went to flight school, later transferring to the Army National Guard and in 1996 entering the Illinois Army National Guard. Duckworth also worked as a staff supervisor at Rotary International headquarters in Evanston, Illinois, and was the coordinator of the Center for Nursing Research at Northern Illinois University.\n\nDuckworth was working toward a Ph.D. in political science at Northern Illinois University, with research interests in the political economy and public health of southeast Asia, when she was deployed to Iraq in 2004. She lost her right leg near the hip and her left leg below the knee from injuries sustained on November 12, 2004, when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents. She was the first American female double amputee from the Iraq War. The explosion severely broke her right arm and tore tissue from it, necessitating major surgery to repair it. Duckworth received a Purple Heart on December 3 and was promoted to the rank of major on December 21 at Walter Reed Army Medical Center, where she was presented with an Air Medal and Army Commendation Medal. She retired from the Illinois Army National Guard in October 2014 as a lieutenant colonel.\n\nIn 2011 the Daughters of the American Revolution erected a statue with Duckworth's likeness and that of Molly Pitcher in Mount Vernon, Illinois. The statue was dedicated to female veterans.\n\nIn 2019, Duckworth participated in the National Air and Space Museum's \"The Military Women Aviators Oral History Initiative (MWAOHI)\" project alongside fourteen other veteran women aviators, including Olga Custodio, Sarah Deal, Stayce Harris, Jeannie Leavitt, Nicole Malachowski, Sally Murply, Tammie Shults, Jacqueline Van Ovost, Lucy Young, and Kim \"K. C.\" Campbell.\n\nGovernment service\n\nOn November 21, 2006, several weeks after losing her first congressional campaign, Duckworth was appointed director of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs by Governor Rod Blagojevich. She served in that position until February 8, 2009. While director, she was credited with starting a program to help veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and veterans with brain injuries.\n\nOn September 17, 2008, Duckworth attended a campaign event for Dan Seals, the Democratic candidate for Illinois's 10th congressional district. She used vacation time, but violated Illinois law by going to the event in a state-owned van that was equipped for a person with physical disabilities. She acknowledged the mistake and repaid the state for the use of the van.\n\nIn 2009, two Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs employees at the Anna Veterans' Home in Union County filed a lawsuit against Duckworth. The lawsuit alleged that she wrongfully terminated one employee and threatened and intimidated another for bringing reports of abuse and misconduct of veterans when she was head of the Illinois Department of Veterans Affairs. Duckworth was represented in the suit by the Illinois Attorney General's office. The case was dismissed twice but refilings were allowed. The case settled in June 2016 for $26,000 with no admission of wrongdoing. The plaintiffs later indicated they no longer wanted to settle, but the judge gave them 21 days to sign the settlement and canceled the trial.\n\nOn February 3, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Duckworth to be the Assistant Secretary of Public and Intergovernmental Affairs for the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). and the United States Senate confirmed her for the position on April 22. As Assistant Secretary, she coordinated a joint initiative with the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to help end Veteran homelessness, worked to address the unique challenges faced by female as well as Native American Veterans, and created the Office of Online Communications to improve the VA's accessibility, especially among young Veterans. Duckworth resigned her position in June 2011 in order to launch her campaign for the U.S. House of Representatives in Illinois's 8th congressional district.\n\nU.S. House of Representatives\n\nElections\n\n2006\n\nAfter longtime incumbent Republican Henry Hyde announced his retirement from Congress, several candidates began campaigning for the open seat. Duckworth won the Democratic primary with a plurality of 44%, defeating 2004 nominee Christine Cegelis with 40%, and Wheaton College professor Lindy Scott with 16%. State Senator Peter Roskam was unopposed in the Republican primary. For the general election, Duckworth was endorsed by EMILY's List, a political action committee that supports female Democratic candidates who back abortion rights. Duckworth was also endorsed by the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence and the Fraternal Order of Police. While she raised $4.5 million to Roskam's $3.44 million, Duckworth lost by 4,810 votes, receiving 49% to Roskam's 51%.\n\n2012\n\nIn July 2011, Duckworth launched her campaign to run in 2012 for Illinois's 8th congressional district. She defeated former Deputy Treasurer of Illinois Raja Krishnamoorthi for the Democratic nomination on March 20, 2012, then faced incumbent Republican Joe Walsh in the general election. Duckworth received the endorsement of both the Chicago Tribune and the Daily Herald. Walsh generated controversy when in July 2012, at a campaign event, he accused Duckworth of politicizing her military service and injuries, saying \"my God, that's all she talks about. Our true heroes, the men and women who served us, it's the last thing in the world they talk about.\" Walsh called the controversy over his comments \"a political ploy to distort my words and distract voters\" and said that \"Of course Tammy Duckworth is a hero ... I have called her a hero hundreds of times.\"\n\nOn November 6, 2012, Duckworth defeated Walsh 55%–45%, making her the first Asian-American from Illinois in Congress, the first woman with a disability elected to Congress, and the first member of Congress born in Thailand.\n\n2014\n\nIn the 2014 general election, Duckworth faced Republican Larry Kaifesh, a United States Marine Corps officer who had recently left active duty as a colonel. Duckworth defeated Kaifesh with 56% of the vote.\n\nTenure \nDuckworth was sworn into office on January 3, 2013.\n\nOn April 3, 2013, Duckworth publicly returned 8.4% ($1,218) of her congressional salary for that month to the United States Department of Treasury in solidarity with furloughed government workers.\n\nOn June 26, 2013, during a hearing of the House Oversight and Government Reform Committee, Duckworth received national media attention after questioning Strong Castle CEO Braulio Castillo on a $500 million government contract the company had been awarded based on Castillo's disabled veteran status. Castillo had injured his ankle at the US Military Academy's prep school, USMAPS, in 1984.\n\nCommittee assignments\n Committee on Armed Services\n Subcommittee on Tactical Air and Land Forces (2013–2017)\n Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Readiness (2015–2017)\n Committee on Oversight and Government Reform\n Subcommittee on Energy Policy, Health Care and Entitlements (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Economic Growth, Job Creation and Regulatory Affairs (2013–2015)\n Subcommittee on Transportation and Public Assets, Ranking Member (2015–2017)\n Subcommittee on Information Technology (2015–2017)\n United States House Select Committee on Benghazi (May 2014–July 2016)\n\nU.S. Senate\n\nElections\n\n2016 \n\nOn March 30, 2015, Duckworth announced that she would challenge incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Mark Kirk for his seat in the 2016 Senate election in Illinois. Duckworth defeated fellow Democrats Andrea Zopp and Napoleon Harris in the primary election on March 15, 2016.\n\nDuring a televised debate on October 27, 2016, Duckworth talked about her ancestors' past service in the United States military. Kirk responded, \"I'd forgotten that your parents came all the way from Thailand to serve George Washington.\" The comment led to the Human Rights Campaign withdrawing their endorsement of Kirk and switching it to Duckworth, stating his comments were \"deeply offensive and racist.\"\n\nDuckworth was endorsed by Barack Obama, who actively campaigned for her.\n\nOn November 8, Duckworth defeated Kirk 55 percent to 40 percent to win the Senate seat. Duckworth and Kamala Harris, who was also elected in 2016, are the second and third female Asian American senators, after Mazie Hirono who was elected in 2012.\n\n2022 \n\nIn March 2021, Duckworth announced her candidacy for reelection in the 2022 election. On November 8, 2022, Duckworth won her reelection to the U.S. Senate, defeating Republican challenger Kathy Salvi. Duckworth's win makes her the first woman reelected to a senate seat in Illinois.\n\nTenure\n\nFirst term (2017–2023)\nAccording to The Center for Effective Lawmaking (CEL), a joint partnership between the University of Virginia's Frank Batten School of Leadership and Public Policy and Vanderbilt University, Duckworth's \"Legislative Effectiveness Score\" (LES) is \"Exceeds Expectations\" as a freshman senator in the 115th Congress (2017–2018), the 11th highest out of 48 Democratic senators.\n\nGovTrack's Report Card on Duckworth for the 115th Congress found that among Senate freshmen, she ranked first in favorably reporting bills out of committee and \"Got influential cosponsors the most often compared to Senate freshmen.\" GovTrack also found that in the first session of the 116th Congress, Duckworth ranked first in favorably reporting bills out of committee and \"Got influential cosponsors the most often compared to Senate sophomores.\"\n\nDuring the 115th Congress, Duckworth was credited with saving the Americans with Disabilities Act. Specifically, she led public opposition to a controversial bill, H.R. 620, and led 42 senators in pledging to oppose any effort to pass H.R. 620 through the Senate. The Veterans Service Organization and Paralyzed Veterans of America recognized Duckworth's leadership in defending the Americans with Disabilities Act.\n\nIn January 2018, when the federal government shut down after the Senate could not agree on a funding bill, Duckworth responded to President Trump's accusations that the Democrats were putting \"unlawful immigrants\" ahead of the military: \n\nIn 2018, Duckworth became the first U.S. senator to give birth while in office. Shortly afterward, the Senate passed Senate Resolution 463, which Duckworth introduced on April 12, 2018, by unanimous consent. The resolution changed Senate rules so that a senator may bring a child under one year old to the Senate floor during votes. The day after the rules were changed, Duckworth's daughter became the first baby on the Senate floor.\n\nOn April 15, 2020, the Trump administration invited Duckworth to join a bipartisan task force on the reopening of the economy amid the COVID-19 pandemic.\n\nDuckworth was publicly critical of Trump's decision to nominate Amy Coney Barrett to the Supreme Court in September 2020. Barrett, a devout Catholic, is a member of a group that considers in vitro fertilization morally illicit. Duckworth said that Barrett's membership in such an organization was \"disqualifying and, frankly, insulting to every parent\". Both of Duckworth's children were conceived by IVF.\n\nThe Center for Effective Lawmaking, a joint initiative of the University of Virginia and Vanderbilt University, ranked Duckworth the fifth most effective Democratic senator in the 116th Congress and the most effective Democratic senator on transportation policy. Professors Craig Volden and Alan Wiseman, co-directors of the Center for Effective Lawmaking, stated, \"While still in her first term, Senator Tammy Duckworth has risen to the top five among effective Democratic lawmakers in the Senate. She sponsored 77 bills in the 116th Congress, with four of them passing the Republican-controlled Senate and two becoming law.\"\n\nOn January 3, 2021, Duckworth received one vote for Speaker of the House of Representatives from Jared Golden () despite not being a member of that legislative body and therefore not a serious candidate.\n\nDuckworth was participating in the certification of the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when Trump supporters stormed the U.S. Capitol. In the wake of the attack, Duckworth called Trump \"a threat to our nation\" and called for his immediate removal from office through the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment. Two days later, on January 8, she also called for the resignation of Representative Mary Miller, who had quoted Adolf Hitler during a speech on January 5.\n\nIn June 2022, President Biden sent Duckworth to Taiwan, where she held a press conference with Tsai Ing-wen to announce the U.S.-Taiwan Initiative on 21st-Century Trade in the wake of fears of angering China by the other partners to the May 2022 Indo-Pacific trade agreement. Duckworth's mission was planned in conjunction with the U.S. Trade Representative's office, which leads the Initiative for Washington.\n\nDuckworth is the sponsor of S. 3635, the Public Safety Officer Support Act of 2022, which would provide line of duty death designation to law enforcement and other public safety officers who die as a result of traumatic brain injury, PTSD, and other \"silent\" injuries. The bill is based on the death of Washington, D.C. police officer Jeffrey Smith in the aftermath of the January 6, 2021, Capitol attack. Smith died of post-concussive syndrome after suffering repeated attacks at the Capitol.\n\nSecond term (2023–present)\nIn February 2023, Duckworth was named chair of the Subcommittee on Aviation Safety, Operations and Innovation of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Along with Deb Fischer, Duckworth sponsored a bill to improve reporting on complaints from disabled airline passengers.\n\nCommittee assignments\n\nCurrent\n Committee on Armed Services (2019–present)\n Subcommittee on Airland\n Subcommittee on Readiness and Management Support\n Subcommittee on Strategic Forces\n Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation\n Subcommittee on Aviation Operations, Safety, and Security (chair)\n Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet\n Subcommittee on Consumer Protection, Product Safety, Insurance and Data Security\n Subcommittee on Surface Transportation and Merchant Marine Infrastructure, Safety, and Security\n Committee on Foreign Relations (2023–present)\n Subcommittee on Multilateral International Development, Multilateral Institutions, and International Economic, Energy and Environmental Policy (chair)\n Subcommittee on Europe and Regional Security Cooperation\n Subcommittee on East Asia, The Pacific, and International Cybersecurity Policy\n Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship\n\nPrevious\n Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (2017–2019)\n Committee on Environment and Public Works (2017-2023)\n\nCaucus memberships\n Congressional Asian Pacific American Caucus\n Expand Social Security Caucus\n Senate Whistleblower Protection Caucus\n\nNational politics\nDuckworth has spoken at the 2008, 2012, 2016, and 2020 Democratic National Conventions. She was the permanent co-chair of the 2020 Democratic National Convention. At the 2020 convention she called Trump \"coward-in-chief\" for not supporting the American military.\n\nDuckworth was vetted as a possible running mate during Joe Biden's vice presidential candidate selection. Fellow U.S. Senator Kamala Harris was instead selected. Biden nominated Duckworth to serve as Vice Chair of the Democratic National Committee, along with Gretchen Whitmer, Keisha Lance Bottoms and Filemon Vela Jr.\n\nPolitical positions\n\nEnvironment \nIn April 2019, Duckworth was one of 12 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to top senators on the Appropriations Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development advocating that the Energy Department be granted maximum funding for carbon capture, utilization and storage (CCUS), arguing that American job growth could be stimulated by investment in viable options to capture carbon emissions and expressing disagreement with Trump's 2020 budget request to combine the two federal programs that include carbon capture research.\n\nForeign policy\n\nDuring her unsuccessful congressional campaign in 2006, Duckworth called on Congress to audit the estimated $437 billion spent on overseas military and foreign aid since September 11, 2001.\n\nOn September 30, 2006, Duckworth gave the Democratic Party's response to President George W. Bush's weekly radio address. In it, she was critical of Bush's strategy for the Iraq War.\n\nIn October 2006, The Sunday Times reported that Duckworth agreed with General Sir Richard Dannatt, the British Army chief, that the presence of coalition troops was exacerbating the conflict in Iraq.\n\nDuckworth supports continued U.S. military aid to Israel and opposes the movement for Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) against Israel. She voiced her opposition to Israel's plan to annex parts of the occupied West Bank.\n\nIn May 2019, Duckworth was a cosponsor of the South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act, a bipartisan bill reintroduced by Marco Rubio and Ben Cardin that was intended to disrupt China's consolidation or expansion of its claims of jurisdiction over both the sea and air space in disputed zones in the South China Sea.\n\nOn June 6, 2021, Duckworth and Senators Dan Sullivan and Christopher Coons visited Taipei in an U.S. Air Force C-17 Globemaster III transport to meet President Tsai Ing-wen and Minister Joseph Wu during the pandemic outbreak of Taiwan to announce President Joe Biden's donation plan of 750,000 COVID-19 vaccines included in the global COVAX program.\n\nGun control\nDuckworth was rated by the National Rifle Association as having a pro-gun control congressional voting record. Duckworth, a gun owner herself, cites violence in Chicago as a major influence for her support of gun control. She supports universal background checks, the halting of state-to-state gun trafficking, and a national assault weapons ban.\n\nDuckworth participated in the 2016 Chris Murphy gun control filibuster. During the 2016 United States House of Representatives sit-in, Duckworth hid her mobile phone in her prosthetic leg to avoid it being taken away from her since taking pictures and recording on the House floor is against policy.\n\nIn a 2016 interview with GQ magazine, Duckworth stated that gaining control of the Senate and \"closing the gap\" in the House would be necessary in order to pass firearm restrictions. She also stated that she believed moderate Republicans, who support gun control, would have more power to influence gun control if they were not \"pushed aside by those folks who are absolutely beholden to the NRA. And so we never get the vote.\"\n\nHealth policy\nDuckworth supports abortion rights. After Roe v. Wade was overturned in 2022, Duckworth said she was \"outraged and horrified.\" She called the decision a \"nightmare\", robbing women of their right to make health care decisions.\n\nDuckworth supported the Affordable Care Act.\n\nImmigration\nDuckworth supports comprehensive immigration reform with a pathway to citizenship for those in the country illegally. She would admit 100,000 Syrian refugees into the United States.\n\nIn August 2018, Duckworth was one of seventeen senators to sign a letter spearheaded by Kamala Harris to United States Secretary of Homeland Security Kirstjen Nielsen demanding that the Trump administration take immediate action in attempting to reunite 539 migrant children with their families, citing each passing day of inaction as intensifying \"trauma that this administration has needlessly caused for children and their families seeking humanitarian protection.\"\n\nAwards and accolades\nIn May 2010, Duckworth was awarded the Honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters (DHL) by Northern Illinois University. In 2011, Chicago's Access Living honored Duckworth for her work on behalf of veterans with disabilities, bestowing her with the Gordon H. Mansfield Congressional Leadership Award.\n\nDuckworth is heavily decorated for her service in Iraq, with over 10 distinct military honors, most notably the Purple Heart, an award her Marine father had also received.\n\nFormer Republican presidential candidate and Senator from Kansas Bob Dole dedicated his autobiography One Soldier's Story in part to Duckworth. Duckworth credits Dole for inspiring her to pursue public service, while she recuperated at Walter Reed Army Medical Center; although, in 2006, Dole endorsed Duckworth's Republican opponent, Peter Roskam.\n\nPersonal life\nDuckworth has been married to Bryan Bowlsbey since 1993. They met during Duckworth's participation in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and later served together in the Illinois Army National Guard. Bowlsbey, a Signal Corps officer, is also a veteran of the Iraq War. Both have since retired from the armed forces.\n\nDuckworth and Bowlsbey have two daughters: Abigail, who was born in 2014, and Maile, born in 2018. Maile's birth made Duckworth the first U.S. senator to give birth while in office. Former senator Daniel Akaka helped the couple with the naming of both daughters; Akaka died April 6, 2018, three days before Maile was born. Shortly after Maile's birth, a Senate rule change permitted senators to bring children under one year old on the Senate floor to breastfeed. This was a symbolic moment for Duckworth, as she had previously introduced the bipartisan Friendly Airports for Mothers (FAM) Act to ensure new mothers access to safe, clean and accessible lactation rooms in airports. The day after the rule change, Duckworth brought Maile with her during the casting of a Senate vote, making Duckworth the first senator to cast a vote while holding a baby.\n\nDuckworth helped establish the Intrepid Foundation to help injured veterans.\n\nElectoral history\n\nBibliography\n \n Every Day is a Gift: A Memoir, Little, Brown & Company, 2021.\n\nSee also\n List of Asian Americans and Pacific Islands Americans in the United States Congress\n List of United States senators born outside the United States\n Women in the United States House of Representatives\n Women in the United States Senate\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n Senator Tammy Duckworth official U.S. Senate website\n Tammy Duckworth for Senate campaign website\n \n \n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\n|-\n\nCategory:1968 births\nCategory:21st-century American politicians\nCategory:21st-century American women politicians\nCategory:American amputees\nCategory:United States Army personnel of the Iraq War\nCategory:Members of the United States Congress of Chinese descent\nCategory:American people of Thai descent\nCategory:American politicians with disabilities\nCategory:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois\nCategory:Democratic Party United States senators from Illinois\nCategory:Asian-American members of the United States House of Representatives\nCategory:Asian-American United States senators\nCategory:Women military aviators\nCategory:Female members of the United States House of Representatives\nCategory:Female United States senators\nCategory:Elliott School of International Affairs alumni\nCategory:American Senior Army Aviators\nCategory:Illinois National Guard personnel\nCategory:Living people\nCategory:National Guard (United States) officers\nCategory:Obama administration personnel\nTammy Duckworth\nCategory:Politicians from Honolulu\nCategory:People from Hoffman Estates, Illinois\nCategory:Recipients of the Air Medal\nCategory:Shot-down aviators\nCategory:State cabinet secretaries of Illinois\nCategory:Thai emigrants to the United States\nCategory:United States Department of Veterans Affairs officials\nCategory:University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa alumni\nCategory:Women in Illinois politics\nCategory:Women in the Iraq War\nCategory:Female United States Army officers\nCategory:Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)\nCategory:Daughters of the American Revolution people\nCategory:American women of Chinese descent in politics\nCategory:Asian-American people in Illinois politics\nCategory:Capella University alumni", "title": "Tammy Duckworth" } ]

[ "Duckworth was in the United States Army Reserve and later transferred to the Army National Guard, entering the Illinois Army National Guard specifically.", "She was first deployed to Iraq in 2004.", "The text does not provide information on where in Iraq Duckworth was based.", "Yes, Duckworth was injured while in the military. She lost her right leg near the hip and her left leg below the knee from injuries sustained when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents. The explosion also almost completely destroyed her right arm.", "Duckworth's injuries were caused when the UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter she was co-piloting was hit by a rocket-propelled grenade fired by Iraqi insurgents. This resulted in the loss of both her legs and severe damage to her right arm.", "Yes, Duckworth received a Purple Heart, an Air Medal and an Army Commendation Medal.", "The text does not provide the specific date when Duckworth was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. However, she retired from the Illinois Army National Guard as a lieutenant colonel in October 2014.", "The text does not provide information on when Duckworth returned from Iraq." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was the background of the Indigenous languages of the Americas?", "Which language was typically spoken?", "What were the cultures like?", "What year was this developed?", "Did Greenland speak a certain language?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Do they practice some languages more than others?", "Did other backgrounds pick to use the Navajo language or just the United States?" ]

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[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 38 ], [ 1495 ], [ 355 ], [ 126 ], [ 2705 ], [ 2070 ], [ 2774 ], [ 3069 ] ], "texts": [ [ "various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans. These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century" ], [ "The Europeans also suppressed use of indigenous American languages," ], [ "Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems, the best known being the Maya script." ], [ "These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century" ], [ "Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut as its sole official language." ], [ "Many indigenous languages have become critically endangered," ], [ "In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language," ], [ "Neither the Germans nor Japanese ever deciphered the Navajo code, which was a code using the Navajo language." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 38, 1495, 355, 126, 2705, 2070, 2774, 3069 ], "texts": [ "various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans. These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century", "The Europeans also suppressed use of indigenous American languages,", "Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems, the best known being the Maya script.", "These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century", "Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut as its sole official language.", "Many indigenous languages have become critically endangered,", "In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language,", "Neither the Germans nor Japanese ever deciphered the Navajo code, which was a code using the Navajo language." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" }, { "text": "North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as a part of North America geographically.\n\nNorth America covers an area of about , about 16.5% of Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface area. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. In human geography and in the English-speaking world outside the United States, particularly in Canada, \"North America\" and \"North American\" can refer to just Canada and the United States together.\n\nNorth America was reached by its first human populations during the Last Glacial Period, via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 20,000 to 17,000 years ago. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago (the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period). The classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The first recorded Europeans to visit North America (other than Greenland) were the Norse around 1000 AD. Christopher Columbus's arrival in 1492 sparked a transatlantic exchange which included migrations of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the early modern period. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves, immigrants from Europe, Asia, and the descendants of these groups.\n\nOwing to Europe's colonization of the Americas, most North Americans speak European languages such as English, Spanish or French, and their cultures commonly reflect Western traditions. However, in parts of Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America, there are indigenous populations continuing their cultural traditions and speaking native languages.\n\nName \n\nThe Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a world map, in which he placed the word \"America\" on the continent of South America. What was known about the continent was referred to as Parias above what is today Mexico. On a 1553 world map published by Petrus Apianus, North America was called Baccalearum, meaning \"realm of the Cod fish\", in reference to the abundance of Cod fish on the east coast.\n\nWaldseemüller used the Latinized version of Vespucci's name (Americus Vespucius), but in its feminine form \"America\", following the examples of \"Europa\", \"Asia\" and \"Africa\". Later mapmakers extended the name America to the northern continent. In 1538, Gerard Mercator used America on his map of the world for the entire Western Hemisphere.\n\nGerardus Mercator on his map called North America \"America or New India\" (America sive India Nova). The Spanish Empire called its territories in North and South America \"Las Indias\"; the state body overseeing them was the Council of the Indies.\n\nExtent \n\nThe United Nations formally recognizes \"North America\" as comprising three areas: Northern America, Central America, and the Caribbean. This has been formally defined by the UN Statistics Division.\n\n\"Northern America\", as a term distinct from \"North America\", excludes Central America, which itself may or may not include Mexico. In the limited context of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the term covers Canada, the United States, and Mexico, which are the three signatories of that treaty.\n\nFrance, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Greece, and the countries of Latin America use a six-continent model, with the Americas viewed as a single continent and North America designating a subcontinent comprising Canada, the U.S., Mexico, and Saint Pierre et Miquelon (politically part of France), and often Greenland, and Bermuda.\n\nNorth America has been historically referred to by other names. Spanish North America (New Spain) was often referred to as Northern America, and this was the first official name given to Mexico.\n\nRegions\n\nGeographically, the North American continent has many regions and subregions. These include cultural, economic, and geographic regions. Economic regions included those formed by trade blocs, such as those of the NAFTA and Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). Linguistically and culturally, the continent could be divided into Anglo-America and Latin America. Anglo-America includes most of Northern America, Belize, and Caribbean islands with English-speaking populations (though sub-national entities, such as Louisiana and Quebec, have large Francophone populations; in Quebec, French is the sole official language).\n\nThe southern part of the North American continent is composed of two regions. These are Central America and the Caribbean. The north of the continent maintains recognized regions as well. In contrast to the common definition of \"North America\", which encompasses the whole continent, the term \"North America\" is sometimes used to refer only to Mexico, Canada, the U.S., and Greenland.\n\nThe term Northern America refers to the northernmost countries and territories of North America: the U.S., Bermuda, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Canada, and Greenland. Although the term does not refer to a unified region, Middle America—not to be confused with the Midwestern U.S.—groups the regions of Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean.\n\nNorth America's largest countries by land area, Canada and the U.S., also have well-defined and recognized regions. In the case of Canada, these are (from east to west) Atlantic Canada, Central Canada, Canadian Prairies, the British Columbia Coast, and Northern Canada. These regions also contain many subregions. In the case of the U.S.—and in accordance with the U.S. Census Bureau definitions—these regions are: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic states, East North Central states, West North Central states, East South Central states, West South Central states, Mountain states, and Pacific states. Regions shared between both nations include the Great Lakes region. Megalopolises have formed between both nations in the case of the Pacific Northwest and the Great Lakes Megaregion.\n\nCountries, dependencies, and other territories\n\nNatural characteristics\n\nGeography \n\nNorth America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America (which, in many countries is considered as a single continent with North America a subcontinent). North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa. North America's only land connection to South America is at the Isthmus of Darian/Isthmus of Panama. The continent is delimited on the southeast by most geographers at the Darién watershed along the Colombia-Panama border, placing almost all of Panama within North America. Alternatively, some geologists physiographically locate its southern limit at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico, with Central America extending southeastward to South America from this point. The Caribbean islands, or West Indies, are considered part of North America. The continental coastline is long and irregular. The Gulf of Mexico is the largest body of water indenting the continent, followed by Hudson Bay. Others include the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the Gulf of California.\n\nBefore the Central American isthmus formed, the region had been underwater. The islands of the West Indies delineate a submerged former land bridge, which had connected North and South America via what are now Florida and Venezuela.\n\nThere are numerous islands off the continent's coasts; principally, the Arctic Archipelago, the Bahamas, Turks & Caicos, the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Aleutian Islands (some of which are in the Eastern Hemisphere proper), the Alexander Archipelago, the many thousand islands of the British Columbia Coast, and Newfoundland. Greenland, a self-governing Danish island, and the world's largest, is on the same tectonic plate (the North American Plate) and is part of North America geographically. In a geologic sense, Bermuda is not part of the Americas, but an oceanic island that was formed on the fissure of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge over 100 million years ago (mya). The nearest landmass to it is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. However, Bermuda is often thought of as part of North America, especially given its historical, political and cultural ties to Virginia and other parts of the continent.\n\nThe vast majority of North America is on the North American Plate. Parts of western Mexico, including Baja California, and of California, including the cities of San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Cruz, lie on the eastern edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The southernmost portion of the continent and much of the West Indies lie on the Caribbean Plate, whereas the Juan de Fuca and Cocos plates border the North American Plate on its western frontier.\n\nThe continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many subregions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf.\n\nThe western mountains are split in the middle into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, with the Great Basin—a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts—in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska.\n\nThe U.S. Geographical Survey (USGS) states that the geographic center of North America is \"6 miles [10 km] west of Balta, Pierce County, North Dakota\" at about , about from Rugby, North Dakota. The USGS further states that \"No marked or monumented point has been established by any government agency as the geographic center of either the 50 states, the conterminous United States, or the North American continent.\" Nonetheless, there is a field stone obelisk in Rugby claiming to mark the center. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is located from the nearest coastline, between Allen and Kyle, South Dakota at .\n\nGeology\n\nGeologic history \n\nLaurentia is an ancient craton which forms the geologic core of North America; it formed between 1.5 and 1.0 billion years ago during the Proterozoic eon. The Canadian Shield is the largest exposure of this craton. From the Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic eras, North America was joined with the other modern-day continents as part of the supercontinent Pangaea, with Eurasia to its east. One of the results of the formation of Pangaea was the Appalachian Mountains, which formed some 480 mya, making it among the oldest mountain ranges in the world. When Pangaea began to rift around 200 mya, North America became part of Laurasia, before it separated from Eurasia as its own continent during the mid-Cretaceous period. The Rockies and other western mountain ranges began forming around this time from a period of mountain building called the Laramide orogeny, between 80 and 55 mya. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama that connected the continent to South America arguably occurred approximately 12 to 15 mya, and the Great Lakes (as well as many other northern freshwater lakes and rivers) were carved by receding glaciers about 10,000 years ago.\n\nNorth America is the source of much of what humanity knows about geologic time periods. The geographic area that would later become the United States has been the source of more varieties of dinosaurs than any other modern country. According to paleontologist Peter Dodson, this is primarily due to stratigraphy, climate and geography, human resources, and history. Much of the Mesozoic Era is represented by exposed outcrops in the many arid regions of the continent. The most significant Late Jurassic dinosaur-bearing fossil deposit in North America is the Morrison Formation of the western U.S.\n\nCanada \n\nGeologically, Canada is one of the oldest regions in the world, with more than half of the region consisting of Precambrian rocks that have been above sea level since the beginning of the Palaeozoic era. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield, there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry.\n\nUnited States \nThe lower 48 U.S. states can be divided into roughly five physiographic provinces:\n The American cordillera\n The Canadian Shield Northern portion of the upper midwestern U.S.\n The stable platform\n The coastal plain\n The Appalachian orogenic belt\n\nThe geology of Alaska is typical of that of the cordillera, while the major islands of Hawaii consist of Neogene volcanics erupted over a hot spot.\n\nCentral America \n\nCentral America is geologically active with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1976 Guatemala was hit by a major earthquake, killing 23,000 people; Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, the last one killing about 5,000 people; three earthquakes devastated El Salvador, one in 1986 and two in 2001; one earthquake devastated northern and central Costa Rica in 2009, killing at least 34 people; in Honduras a powerful earthquake killed seven people in 2009.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are common in the region. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted and killed 87 people. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in agriculturally productive highland areas.\n\nCentral America has many mountain ranges; the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia, and the Cordillera de Talamanca. Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the people; in fact, most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala live in valleys. Valleys are also suitable for the production of coffee, beans, and other crops.\n\nClimate \n\nNorth America is a very large continent that extends from north of the Arctic Circle to south of the Tropic of Cancer. Greenland, along with the Canadian Shield, is tundra with average temperatures ranging from , but central Greenland is composed of a very large ice sheet. This tundra radiates throughout Canada, but its border ends near the Rocky Mountains (but still contains Alaska) and at the end of the Canadian Shield, near the Great Lakes.\nClimate west of the Cascade Range is described as being temperate weather with average precipitation .\nClimate in coastal California is described to be Mediterranean, with average temperatures in cities like San Francisco ranging from over the course of the year.\n\nStretching from the East Coast to eastern North Dakota, and stretching down to Kansas, is the humid continental climate featuring intense seasons, with a large amount of annual precipitation, with places like New York City averaging .\nStarting at the southern border of the humid continental climate and stretching to the Gulf of Mexico (whilst encompassing the eastern half of Texas) is the humid subtropical climate. This area has the wettest cities in the contiguous U.S., with annual precipitation reaching in Mobile, Alabama.\nStretching from the borders of the humid continental and subtropical climates, and going west to the Sierra Nevada, south to the southern tip of Durango, north to the border with tundra climate, the steppe/desert climates are the driest in the United States. Highland climates cut from north to south of the continent, where subtropical or temperate climates occur just below the tropics, as in central Mexico and Guatemala. Tropical climates appear in the island regions and in the subcontinent's bottleneck, found in countries and states bathed by the Caribbean Sea or to the south of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Precipitation patterns vary across the region, and as such rainforest, monsoon, and savanna types can be found, with rains and high temperatures throughout the year.\n\nEcology \n\nNotable North American fauna include the bison, black bear, jaguar, cougar, prairie dog, turkey, pronghorn, raccoon, coyote and monarch butterfly.\n\nNotable plants that were domesticated in North America include tobacco, maize, squash, tomato, sunflower, blueberry, avocado, cotton, chile pepper\nand vanilla.\n\nHistory\n\nPre-Columbian \n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas have many creation myths by which they assert that they have been present on the land since its creation, but there is no evidence that humans evolved there. The specifics of the initial settlement of the Americas by ancient Asians are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that hunters entered the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska from 27,000 to 14,000 years ago. A growing viewpoint is that the first American inhabitants sailed from Beringia some 13,000 years ago, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the Last Glacial Period, in what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 12,500 years ago. The oldest petroglyphs in North America date from 15,000 to 10,000 years before present. Genetic research and anthropology indicate additional waves of migration from Asia via the Bering Strait during the Early-Middle Holocene.\n\nBefore contact with Europeans, the natives of North America were divided into many different polities, from small bands of a few families to large empires. They lived in several \"culture areas\", which roughly correspond to geographic and biological zones and give a good indication of the main way of life of the people who lived there (e.g., the bison hunters of the Great Plains, or the farmers of Mesoamerica). Native groups can also be classified by their language family (e.g., Athapascan or ). Peoples with similar languages did not always share the same material culture, nor were they always allies. Anthropologists think that the Inuit of the high Arctic came to North America much later than other native groups, as evidenced by the disappearance of Dorset culture artifacts from the archaeological record, and their replacement by the Thule people.\n\nDuring the thousands of years of native habitation on the continent, cultures changed and shifted. One of the oldest yet discovered is the Clovis culture (c. 9550–9050 BCE) in modern New Mexico. Later groups include the Mississippian culture and related Mound building cultures, found in the Mississippi river valley and the Pueblo culture of what is now the Four Corners. The more southern cultural groups of North America were responsible for the domestication of many common crops now used around the world, such as tomatoes, squash, and maize. As a result of the development of agriculture in the south, many other cultural advances were made there. The Mayans developed a writing system, built huge pyramids and temples, had a complex calendar, and developed the concept of zero around 400 CE.\n\nThe first recorded European references to North America are in Norse sagas where it is referred to as Vinland. The earliest verifiable instance of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact by any European culture with the North America mainland has been dated to around 1000 CE. The site, situated at the northernmost extent of the island named Newfoundland, has provided unmistakable evidence of Norse settlement. Norse explorer Leif Erikson (c. 970–1020 CE) is thought to have visited the area. Erikson was the first European to make landfall on the continent (excluding Greenland).\n\nThe Mayan culture was still present in southern Mexico and Guatemala when the Spanish conquistadors arrived, but political dominance in the area had shifted to the Aztec Empire, whose capital city Tenochtitlan was located further north in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered in 1521 by Hernán Cortés.\n\nPost-contact, 1492–1910 \n\nDuring the so-called Age of Discovery, Europeans explored overseas and staked claims to various parts of North America, much of which was already settled by indigenous peoples. Upon Europeans' arrival in the \"New World\", indigenous peoples had a variety of reactions, including curiosity, trading, cooperation, resignation, and resistance. The indigenous population declined substantially following European arrival, primarily due to the introduction of Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which the indigenous peoples lacked immunity, and because of violent conflicts with Europeans. Indigenous culture changed significantly and their affiliation with political and cultural groups also changed. Several linguistic groups died out, and others changed quite quickly.\n\nOn the southern east coast of North America, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León, who had accompanied Columbus's second voyage, visited and named in 1513 La Florida. As the colonial period unfolded, Spain, England, and France appropriated and claimed extensive territories in North America eastern and southern coastlines. Spain established permanent settlements on the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola and Cuba in the 1490s, building cities, putting the resident indigenous populations to work, raising crops for Spanish settlers and panning gold to enrich the Spaniards. Much of the indigenous population died due to disease and overwork, spurring the Spaniards on to claim new lands and peoples. An expedition under the command of Spanish settler, Hernán Cortés, sailed westward in 1519 to what turned out to be the mainland in Mexico. With local indigenous allies, the Spanish conquered the Aztec empire in central Mexico in 1521. Spain then established permanent cities in Mexico, Central America, and Spanish South America in the sixteenth century. Once Spaniards conquered the high civilization of the Aztecs and Incas, the Caribbean was a backwater of the Spanish empire.\n\nOther European powers began to intrude on areas that Spain had claimed, including the Caribbean islands. France took the western half of Hispaniola and developed Saint-Domingue as a cane sugar producing colony worked by black slave labor. Britain took Barbados and Jamaica; the Dutch and Danes also took islands previously claimed by Spain. Britain did not begin settling on the North American mainland until a hundred years after the first Spanish settlements, since it sought first to control nearby Ireland. The first permanent English settlement was in Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and then further settler colonial establishments on the east coast of the continent from what is now Georgia up to Massachusetts, forming the Thirteen Colonies. The English did not establish settlements north, east of the St. Lawrence Valley in what would become Canada until well after the war of independence. English early permanent settlements were St. John's, Newfoundland in 1630 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1749. The first permanent French settlement was in Quebec City, Quebec in 1608. In the British victory the Seven Years' War, France ceded to Britain its claims east of the Mississippi River in 1763. Spain gained rights to the territories west of Mississippi now acting as a border. French so-called \"colonists\" that had first settled the Illinois Country after several generations of experience on the new continent migrated over the Mississippi in the absence of Spanish occupants while leveraging earlier Louisiana French settlements around the Gulf of Mexico. These early French settlers partnering with midwest indigenous tribes and their mixed ancestry descendants would precede the westward push and guide through waves of followers all the way to the Pacific.\n\nThe Thirteen Colonies on the North Atlantic coast declared independence in 1776, fighting a protracted war of independence with the aid of Britain's enemies France and Spain, becoming the United States of America. The new nation steadily attempted to increase its territory. By that time, the Russians were already well established on the Pacific Northwest northern coastline with maritime fur trade activities supported by active settlements. As a result, the Spanish were showing more interest in controlling the trade on the Pacific coast and mapped most of its coastline. The first Spanish settlements were attempted in Alta California during that period. Numerous overland explorations associated with voyageurs, fur trade, and U.S. led expeditions (e.g., Lewis and Clark, Fremont and Wilkes) were reaching the Pacific at various latitudes around the turn of the century. In 1803 Napoleon Bonaparte sold France's remaining claims in North America, west of the Mississippi River, to the U.S., in a deal named the Louisiana Purchase. Spain and the U.S. settled their western boundary dispute in 1819 in the Adams–Onís Treaty. Mexico fought a lengthy war for independence from Spain, winning it for Mexico (which included Central America at the time) in 1821. The U.S. sought further westward expansion and fought the Mexican–American War, gaining a vast territory that first Spain and then Mexico claimed but which they did not effectively control. Much of the area was in fact dominated by indigenous peoples, which did not recognize the claims of Spain, France, or the U.S. Russia sold its North American claims, which included Alaska, to the U.S in 1867. Also in 1867, settler colonies in eastern North America were unified as the dominion of Canada. The U.S. sought to dig a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, a part of Colombia, and aided Panamanians in a war to separate it from Colombia. The U.S. carved out the Panama Canal Zone, over which it claimed sovereignty. After decades of work the Panama Canal was completed, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans in 1913.\n\nDemographics\n\nEconomically, Canada and the U.S. are the wealthiest and most developed nations in the continent, followed by Mexico, a newly industrialized country. The countries of Central America and the Caribbean are at various levels of economic and human development. For example, small Caribbean island-nations, such as Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, and Antigua and Barbuda, have a higher GDP (PPP) per capita than Mexico due to their smaller populations. Panama and Costa Rica have a significantly higher Human Development Index and GDP than the rest of the Central American nations. Additionally, despite Greenland's vast resources in oil and minerals, much of them remain untapped, and the island is economically dependent on fishing, tourism, and subsidies from Denmark. Nevertheless, the island is highly developed.\n\nDemographically, North America is ethnically diverse. Its three main groups are Whites, Mestizos and Blacks. There is a significant minority of Indigenous Americans and Asians among other less numerous groups.\n\nLanguages \n\nThe dominant languages in North America are English, Spanish, and French. Danish is prevalent in Greenland alongside Greenlandic, and Dutch is spoken side by side local languages in the Dutch Caribbean. The term Anglo-America is used to refer to the anglophone countries of the Americas: namely Canada (where English and French are co-official) and the U.S., but also sometimes Belize and parts of the tropics, especially the Commonwealth Caribbean. Latin America refers to the other areas of the Americas (generally south of the U.S.) where the Romance languages, derived from Latin, of Spanish and Portuguese, (but French-speaking countries are not usually included) predominate: the other republics of Central America (but not always Belize), part of the Caribbean (not the Dutch-, English-, or French-speaking areas), Mexico, and most of South America (except Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana [France], and the Falkland Islands [UK]).\n\nThe French language has historically played a significant role in North America and now retains a distinctive presence in some regions. Canada is officially bilingual. French is the official language of the Province of Quebec, where 95% of the people speak it as either their first or second language, and it is co-official with English in the Province of New Brunswick. Other French-speaking locales include the Province of Ontario (the official language is English, but there are an estimated 600,000 Franco-Ontarians), the Province of Manitoba (co-official as de jure with English), the French West Indies and Saint-Pierre et Miquelon, as well as the U.S. state of Louisiana, where French is also an official language. Haiti is included with this group based on historical association but Haitians speak both Creole and French. Similarly, French and French Antillean Creole is spoken in Saint Lucia and the Commonwealth of Dominica alongside English.\n\nA significant number of Indigenous languages are spoken in North America, with 372,000 people in the U.S. speaking an indigenous language at home, about 225,000 in Canada and roughly 6 million in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada, there are approximately 150 surviving indigenous languages of the 300 spoken prior to European contact.\n\nReligions \n\nChristianity is the largest religion in the U.S., Canada and Mexico. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey, 77% of the population considered themselves Christians. Christianity also is the predominant religion in the 23 dependent territories in North America. The U.S. has the largest Christian population in the world, with nearly 247 million Christians (70%), although other countries have higher percentages of Christians among their populations. Mexico has the world's second largest number of Catholics, surpassed only by Brazil.\n\nAccording to the same study, the religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 17% of the population of Canada and the U.S. Those with no religious affiliation make up about 24% of Canada's total population.\n\nCanada, the U.S. and Mexico host communities of Jews (6 million or about 1.8%), Buddhists (3.8 million or 1.1%) and Muslims (3.4 million or 1.0%). The largest number of Jews can be found in the U.S. (5.4 million), Canada (375,000) and Mexico (67,476). The U.S. hosts the largest Muslim population in North America with 2.7 million or 0.9%, while Canada hosts about one million Muslims or 3.2% of the population. In Mexico there were 3,700 Muslims in 2010. In 2012, U-T San Diego estimated U.S. practitioners of Buddhism at 1.2 million people, of whom 40% are living in Southern California.\n\nThe predominant religion in Mexico and Central America is Christianity (96%). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Mexico in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism was the only religion permitted by Spanish crown and Catholic church. A vast campaign of religious conversion, the so-called \"spiritual conquest\", was launched to bring the indigenous peoples into the Christian fold. The Inquisition was established to assure orthodox belief and practice. The Catholic Church remained an important institution, so that even after political independence, Roman Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion. Christianity is also the predominant religion in the Caribbean (85%). Other religious groups in the region are Hinduism, Islam, Rastafari (in Jamaica), and Afro-American religions such as Santería and Vodou.\n\nPopulace \n\nNorth America is the fourth most populous continent after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its most populous country is the U.S. with 329.7 million persons. The second largest country is Mexico with a population of 112.3 million. Canada is the third most populous country with 37.0 million. The majority of Caribbean island-nations have national populations under a million, though Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico (a territory of the U.S.), Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago each have populations higher than a million. Greenland has a small population of 55,984 for its massive size (2,166,000 km2 or 836,300 mi2), and therefore, it has the world's lowest population density at 0.026 pop./km2 (0.067 pop./mi2).\n\nWhile the U.S., Canada, and Mexico maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. There are also large cities in the Caribbean. The largest cities in North America, by far, are Mexico City and New York City. These cities are the only cities on the continent to exceed eight million, and two of three in the Americas. Next in size are Los Angeles, Toronto, Chicago, Havana, Santo Domingo, and Montreal. Cities in the Sun Belt regions of the U.S., such as those in Southern California and Houston, Phoenix, Miami, Atlanta, and Las Vegas, are experiencing rapid growth. These causes included warm temperatures, retirement of Baby Boomers, large industry, and the influx of immigrants. Cities near the U.S. border, particularly in Mexico, are also experiencing large amounts of growth. Most notable is Tijuana, a city bordering San Diego that receives immigrants from all over Latin America and parts of Europe and Asia. Yet as cities grow in these warmer regions of North America, they are increasingly forced to deal with the major issue of water shortages.\n\nEight of the top ten metropolitan areas are located in the U.S. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 5.5 million and include the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles metropolitan area, Chicago metropolitan area, and the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within the U.S., Mexico is host to the largest metropolitan area by population in North America: Greater Mexico City. Canada also breaks into the top ten largest metropolitan areas with the Toronto metropolitan area having six million people. The proximity of cities to each other on the Canada–U.S. border and Mexico–U.S. border has led to the rise of international metropolitan areas. These urban agglomerations are observed at their largest and most productive in Detroit–Windsor and San Diego–Tijuana and experience large commercial, economic, and cultural activity. The metropolitan areas are responsible for millions of dollars of trade dependent on international freight. In Detroit-Windsor the Border Transportation Partnership study in 2004 concluded US$13 billion was dependent on the Detroit–Windsor international border crossing while in San Diego-Tijuana freight at the Otay Mesa Port of Entry was valued at US$20 billion.\n\nNorth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In the U.S. exists eleven megaregions that transcend international borders and comprise Canadian and Mexican metropolitan regions. These are the Arizona Sun Corridor, Cascadia, Florida, Front Range, Great Lakes Megalopolis, Gulf Coast, Northeast, Northern California, Piedmont Atlantic, Southern California, and the Texas Triangle. Canada and Mexico are also the home of megaregions. These include the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, Golden Horseshoe—both of which are considered part of the Great Lakes Megalopolis—and the Central Mexico megalopolis. Traditionally the largest megaregion has been considered the Boston-Washington, DC Corridor, or the Northeast, as the region is one massive contiguous area. Yet megaregion criterion have allowed the Great Lakes Megalopolis to maintain status as the most populated region, being home to 53,768,125 people in 2000.\n\n†2011 Census figures\n\nEconomy \n\nNorth America's GDP per capita was evaluated in October 2016 by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to be $41,830, making it the richest continent in the world, followed by Oceania.\n\nCanada, Mexico, and the U.S. have significant and multifaceted economic systems. The U.S. has the largest economy of all three countries and in the world. In 2016, the U.S. had an estimated per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $57,466 according to the World Bank, and is the most technologically developed economy of the three. The U.S.'s services sector comprises 77% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 22% and agriculture comprises 1.2%. The U.S. economy is also the fastest growing economy in North America and the Americas as a whole, with the highest GDP per capita in the Americas as well.\n\nCanada shows significant growth in the sectors of services, mining and manufacturing. Canada's per capita GDP (PPP) was estimated at $44,656 and it had the 11th largest GDP (nominal) in 2014. Canada's services sector comprises 78% of the country's GDP (estimated in 2010), industry comprises 20% and agriculture comprises 2%. Mexico has a per capita GDP (PPP) of $16,111 and as of 2014 is the 15th largest GDP (nominal) in the world. Being a newly industrialized country, Mexico maintains both modern and outdated industrial and agricultural facilities and operations. Its main sources of income are oil, industrial exports, manufactured goods, electronics, heavy industry, automobiles, construction, food, banking and financial services.\n\nThe North American economy is well defined and structured in three main economic areas. These areas are those under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), and the Central American Common Market (CACM). Of these trade blocs, the U.S. takes part in two. In addition to the larger trade blocs there is the Canada-Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement among numerous other free-trade relations, often between the larger, more developed countries and Central American and Caribbean countries.\n\nThe NAFTA forms one of the four largest trade blocs in the world. Its implementation in 1994 was designed for economic homogenization with hopes of eliminating barriers of trade and foreign investment between Canada, the U.S. and Mexico. While Canada and the U.S. already conducted the largest bilateral trade relationship—and to present day still do—in the world and Canada–U.S. trade relations already allowed trade without national taxes and tariffs, NAFTA allowed Mexico to experience a similar duty-free trade. The free-trade agreement allowed for the elimination of tariffs that had previously been in place on U.S.–Mexico trade. Trade volume has steadily increased annually and in 2010, surface trade between the three NAFTA nations reached an all-time historical increase of 24.3% or US$791 billion. The NAFTA trade bloc GDP (PPP) is the world's largest with US$17.617 trillion. This is in part attributed to the fact that the economy of the U.S. is the world's largest national economy; the country had a nominal GDP of approximately $14.7 trillion in 2010. The countries of NAFTA are also some of each other's largest trade partners. The U.S. is the largest trade partner of Canada and Mexico, while Canada and Mexico are each other's third largest trade partners. In 2018, the NAFTA was replaced by the U.S.–Mexico–Canada Agreement.\n\nThe Caribbean trade bloc (CARICOM) came into agreement in 1973 when it was signed by 15 Caribbean nations. As of 2000, CARICOM trade volume was US$96 billion. CARICOM also allowed for the creation of a common passport for associated nations. In the past decade the trade bloc focused largely on free-trade agreements and under the CARICOM Office of Trade Negotiations free-trade agreements have been signed into effect.\n\nIntegration of Central American economies occurred under the signing of the Central American Common Market agreement in 1961; this was the first attempt to engage the nations of this area into stronger financial cooperation. The 2006 implementation of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) left the future of the CACM unclear. The Central American Free Trade Agreement was signed by five Central American countries, the Dominican Republic, and the U.S. The focal point of CAFTA is to create a free trade area similar to that of NAFTA. In addition to the U.S., Canada also has relations in Central American trade blocs.\n\nThese nations also take part in inter-continental trade blocs. Mexico takes a part in the G3 Free Trade Agreement with Colombia and Venezuela and has a trade agreement with the EU. The U.S. has proposed and maintained trade agreements under the Transatlantic Free Trade Area between itself and the European Union; the U.S.–Middle East Free Trade Area between numerous Middle Eastern nations and itself; and the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership between Southeast Asian nations, Australia, and New Zealand.\n\nTransport \n\nThe Pan-American Highway route in the Americas is the portion of a network of roads nearly in length which travels through the mainland nations. No definitive length of the Pan-American Highway exists because the U.S. and Canadian governments have never officially defined any specific routes as being part of the Pan-American Highway, and Mexico officially has many branches connecting to the U.S. border. However, the total length of the portion from Mexico to the northern extremity of the highway is roughly .\n\nThe first transcontinental railroad in the U.S. was built in the 1860s, linking the railroad network of the eastern U.S. with California on the Pacific coast. Finished on 10 May 1869 at the famous golden spike event at Promontory Summit, Utah, it created a nationwide mechanized transportation network that revolutionized the population and economy of the American West, catalyzing the transition from the wagon trains of previous decades to a modern transportation system. Although an accomplishment, it achieved the status of first transcontinental railroad by connecting myriad eastern U.S. railroads to the Pacific and was not the largest single railroad system in the world. The Canadian Grand Trunk Railway had, by 1867, already accumulated more than of track by connecting Ontario with the Canadian Atlantic provinces west as far as Port Huron, Michigan, through Sarnia, Ontario.\n\nCommunications \nA shared telephone system known as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) is an integrated telephone numbering plan of 24 countries and territories: the U.S. and its territories, Canada, Bermuda, and 17 Caribbean nations.\n\nCulture \n\nThe cultures of North America are diverse. The U.S. and English Canada have many cultural similarities, while French Canada has a distinct culture from Anglophone Canada, which is protected by law. Since the U.S. was formed from portions previously part of the Spanish Empire and then independent Mexico, and there has been considerable and continuing immigration of Spanish speakers from south of the U.S.–Mexico border. In the southwest of the U.S. there are many Hispanic cultural traditions and considerable bilingualism. Mexico and Central America are part of Latin America and are culturally distinct from anglophone and francophone North America. However, they share with the United States the establishment of post-independence governments that are federated representative republics with written constitutions dating from their founding as nations. Canada is a federated parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.\n\nCanada's constitution dates to 1867, with confederation, in the British North America Act, but not until 1982 did Canada have the power to amend its own constitution. Canada's Francophone heritage has been enshrined in law since the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. In contrast to largely Protestant Anglo settlers in North America, French-speaking Canadians were Catholic and with the Quebec Act were guaranteed freedom to practice their religion, restored the right of the Catholic Church to impose tithes for its support, and established French civil law in most circumstances.\n\nThe distinctiveness of French language and culture has been codified in Canadian law, so that both English and French are designated official languages. The U.S. has no official language, but its national language is English.\n\nThe Canadian government took action to protect Canadian culture by limiting non-Canadian content in broadcasting, creating the Canadian Radio and Telecommunications Commission to monitor Canadian content. In Quebec, the provincial government established the Quebec Office of the French Language, often called the \"language police\" by Anglophones, which mandates the use of French terminology and signage in French. Since 1968 the unicameral legislature has been called the Quebec National Assembly. Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day, 24 June, is the national holiday of Quebec and celebrated by francophone Canadians throughout Canada. In Quebec, the school system was divided into Catholic and Protestant, so-called confessional schools. Anglophone education in Quebec has been increasingly undermined.\n\nLatino culture is strong in the southwest of the U.S., as well as Florida, which draws Latin Americans from many countries in the hemisphere. Northern Mexico, particularly in the cities of Monterrey, Tijuana, Ciudad Juárez, and Mexicali, is strongly influenced by the culture and way of life of the U.S. Monterrey, a modern city with a significant industrial group, has been regarded as the most Americanized city in Mexico. Northern Mexico, the Western U.S. and Alberta, Canada share a cowboy culture.\n\nThe Anglophone Caribbean states have witnessed and participated in the decline of the British Empire and its influence on the region, and its replacement by the economic influence of Northern America in the Anglophone Caribbean. This is partly due to the relatively small populations of the English-speaking Caribbean countries, and also because many of them now have more people living abroad than those remaining at home.\n\nGreenland has experienced many immigration waves from Northern Canada, e.g. the Thule people. Therefore, Greenland shares some cultural ties with the indigenous peoples of Canada. Greenland is also considered Nordic and has strong Danish ties due to centuries of colonization by Denmark.\n\nPopular culture – sports \nThe U.S. and Canada have major sports teams that compete against each other, including baseball, basketball, hockey, and soccer/football.\nCanada, Mexico and the U.S. submitted a joint bid to host the 2026 FIFA World Cup.\nThe following table shows the most prominent sports leagues in North America, in order of average revenue. Canada has a separate Canadian Football League from the U.S. teams.\n\nThe Native American game of lacrosse is considered a national sport in Canada. Curling is an important winter sport in Canada, and the Winter Olympics includes it in the roster. The English sport of cricket is popular in parts of anglophone Canada and very popular in parts of the former British empire, but in Canada is considered a minor sport. Boxing is also a major sport in some countries, such as Mexico, Panama and Puerto Rico, and it is considered one of the main individual sports in the U.S.\n\nSee also \n Flags of North America\n List of cities in North America\n North American Union\n Outline of North America\n Table manners in North America\n\nReferences\n\nFootnotes\n\nCitations\n\nFurther reading\n\nExternal links \n \n \n North America: Human Geography at the National Geographic Society \n European Colonization of North America at the National Geographic Society \n \n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press \n \n \n\n \n\n \nCategory:Continents", "title": "North America" }, { "text": "South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southern subregion of a single continent called America.\n\nSouth America is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest. The continent generally includes twelve sovereign states: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela; two dependent territories: the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and one internal territory: French Guiana. In addition, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Ascension Island (dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, a British Overseas Territory), Bouvet Island (dependency of Norway), Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago may also be considered parts of South America.\n\nSouth America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi). Its population has been estimated at more than million. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America). Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the continent's population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela and Peru. In recent decades, Brazil has also generated half of the continent's GDP and has become the continent's first regional power.\n\nMost of the population lives near the continent's western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. The geography of western South America is dominated by the Andes mountains; in contrast, the eastern part contains both highland regions and vast lowlands where rivers such as the Amazon, Orinoco and Paraná flow. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, except for a large part of the Southern Cone located in the middle latitudes.\n\nThe continent's cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the overwhelming majority of South Americans speak Spanish or Portuguese, and societies and states are rich in Western traditions. Relative to Europe, Asia and Africa, 20th-century South America has been a peaceful continent with few wars.\n\nGeography\n\nSouth America occupies the southern portion of the Americas. The continent is generally delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border, although some may consider the border instead to be the Panama Canal. Geopolitically and geographically, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is typically included in North America alone and among the countries of Central America. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate.\n\nSouth America is home to the world's highest uninterrupted waterfall, Angel Falls in Venezuela; the highest single drop waterfall Kaieteur Falls in Guyana; the largest river by volume, the Amazon River; the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest mountain is Aconcagua at ); the driest non-polar place on earth, the Atacama Desert; the wettest place on earth, López de Micay in Colombia; the largest rainforest, the Amazon rainforest; the highest capital city, La Paz, Bolivia; the highest commercially navigable lake in the world, Lake Titicaca; and, excluding research stations in Antarctica, the world's southernmost permanently inhabited community, Puerto Toro, Chile.\n\nSouth America's major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid economic growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies. The fluctuation in the price of commodities in the international markets has led historically to major highs and lows in the economies of South American states, often causing extreme political instability. This is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export.\n\nBrazil is the largest country in South America, covering a little less than half of the continent's land area and encompassing around half of the continent's population. The remaining countries and territories are divided among four subregions: the Andean states, Caribbean South America, The Guianas, and the Southern Cone.\n\nOutlying islands\n\nPhysiographically, South America also includes some of the nearby islands. The Dutch ABC islands (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao), the islands of Trinidad and Tobago (Trinidad Island and Tobago Island etc.), the State of Nueva Esparta, and the Federal Dependencies of Venezuela sit on the northern portion of the South American continental shelf and are sometimes considered parts of the continent. Geopolitically, all the island countries and territories in the Caribbean have generally been grouped as a subregion of North America instead. By contrast, Aves Island (administered by Venezuela) and the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina (San Andrés Island, Providencia Island, and Santa Catalina Island etc., which are administered by Colombia) are politically parts of South American countries but physiographically parts of North America.\n\nOther islands often associated with geopolitical South America are the Chiloé Archipelago and Robinson Crusoe Island (both administered by Chile), Easter Island (culturally a part of Oceania, also administered by Chile), the Galápagos Islands (administered by Ecuador, sometimes considered part of Oceania), and Tierra del Fuego (split between Argentina and Chile). In the Atlantic Ocean, Brazil administers Fernando de Noronha, Trindade and Martim Vaz, and the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, while the Falkland Islands () and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (biogeographically and hydrologically associated with Antarctica) have been administered as two British Overseas Territories under the Crown, whose sovereignty over the islands is disputed by Argentina.\n\nSpecial cases\nAn isolated volcanic island on the South American Plate, Ascension Island is geologically a part of South America. Administered as a dependency of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha, the island is geopolitically a part of Africa.\n\nAn uninhabited sub-Antarctic volcanic island located in the South Atlantic Ocean, Bouvet Island (administered by Norway) is geographically, geologically, biogeographically, and hydrologically associated with Antarctica, but the United Nations geoscheme has included the territory in South America instead.\n\nClimate\n\nAll of the world's major climate zones are present in South America.\n\nThe distribution of the average temperatures in the region presents a constant regularity from the 30° of latitude south, when the isotherms tend, more and more, to be confused with the degrees of latitude.\n\nIn temperate latitudes, winters and summers are milder than in North America. This is because the most extensive part of the continent is in the equatorial zone (the region has more areas of equatorial plains than any other region.), therefore giving the Southern Cone more oceanic influence, which moderates year round temperatures.\n\nThe average annual temperatures in the Amazon basin oscillate around , with low thermal amplitudes and high rainfall indices. Between the Maracaibo Lake and the mouth of the Orinoco, predominates an equatorial climate of the type Congolese, that also includes parts of the Brazilian territory.\n\nThe east-central Brazilian plateau has a humid and warm tropical climate. The northern and eastern parts of the Argentine pampas have a humid subtropical climate with dry winters and humid summers of the Chinese type, while the western and eastern ranges have a subtropical climate of the dinaric type. At the highest points of the Andean region, climates are colder than the ones occurring at the highest point of the Norwegian fjords. In the Andean plateaus, the warm climate prevails, although it is tempered by the altitude, while in the coastal strip, there is an equatorial climate of the Guinean type. From this point until the north of the Chilean coast appear, successively, Mediterranean oceanic climate, temperate of the Breton type and, already in Tierra del Fuego, cold climate of the Siberian type.\n\nThe distribution of rainfall is related to the regime of winds and air masses. In most of the tropical region east of the Andes, winds blowing from the northeast, east and southeast carry moisture from the Atlantic, causing abundant rainfall. However, due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. In the Orinoco Llanos and in the Guianas Plateau, the precipitation levels go from moderate to high. The Pacific coast of Colombia and northern Ecuador are rainy regions, with Chocó in Colombia being the rainiest place in the world along with the northern slopes of Indian Himalayas. The Atacama Desert, along this stretch of coast, is one of the driest regions in the world. The central and southern parts of Chile are subject to extratropical cyclones, and most of the Argentine Patagonia is desert. In the Pampas of Argentina, Uruguay and South of Brazil the rainfall is moderate, with rains well distributed during the year. The moderately dry conditions of the Chaco oppose the intense rainfall of the eastern region of Paraguay. In the semiarid coast of the Brazilian Northeast the rains are linked to a monsoon regime.\n\nImportant factors in the determination of climates are sea currents, such as the current Humboldt and Falklands. The equatorial current of the South Atlantic strikes the coast of the Northeast and there is divided into two others: the current of Brazil and a coastal current that flows to the northwest towards the Antilles, where there it moves towards northeast course thus forming the most Important and famous ocean current in the world, the Gulf Stream.\n\nFauna \n\nSouth America is one of the most biodiverse continents on Earth. South America is home to many unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a major proportion of Earth's species.\n\nHistory\n\nPrehistory\n\nSouth America is thought to have been first inhabited by humans when people were crossing the Bering Land Bridge (now the Bering Strait) at least 15,000 years ago from the territory that is present-day Russia. They migrated south through North America, and eventually reached South America through the Isthmus of Panama.\n\nThe first evidence for the existence of the human race in South America dates back to about 9000 BC, when squashes, chili peppers and beans began to be cultivated for food in the highlands of the Amazon Basin. Pottery evidence further suggests that manioc, which remains a staple food today, was being cultivated as early as 2000 BC.\n\nBy 2000 BC, many agrarian communities had been settled throughout the Andes and the surrounding regions. Fishing became a widespread practice along the coast, helping establish fish as a primary source of food. Irrigation systems were also developed at this time, which aided in the rise of an agrarian society.\n\nSouth American cultures began domesticating llamas, vicuñas, guanacos, and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BC. Besides their use as sources of meat and wool, these animals were used for transportation of goods.\n\nPre-Columbian civilizations\n\nThe rise of plant growing and the subsequent appearance of permanent human settlements allowed for the multiple and overlapping beginnings of civilizations in South America.\n\nOne of the earliest known South American civilizations was at Norte Chico, on the central Peruvian coast. Though a pre-ceramic culture, the monumental architecture of Norte Chico is contemporaneous with the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. Norte Chico governing class established a trade network and developed agriculture then followed by Chavín by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of . Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.\n\nIn the central coast of Peru, around the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, Moche (100 BC – 700 AD, at the northern coast of Peru), Paracas and Nazca (400 BC – 800 AD, Peru) cultures flourished with centralized states with permanent militia improving agriculture through irrigation and new styles of ceramic art. At the Altiplano, Tiahuanaco or Tiwanaku (100 BC – 1200 AD, Bolivia) managed a large commercial network based on religion.\n\nAround the 7th century, both Tiahuanaco and Wari or Huari Empire (600–1200, Central and northern Peru) expanded its influence to all the Andean region, imposing the Huari urbanism and Tiahuanaco religious iconography.\n\nThe Muisca were the main indigenous civilization in what is now Colombia. They established the Muisca Confederation of many clans, or cacicazgos, that had a free trade network among themselves. They were goldsmiths and farmers.\n\nOther important Pre-Columbian cultures include: the Cañaris (in south central Ecuador), Chimú Empire (1300–1470, Peruvian northern coast), Chachapoyas, and the Aymaran kingdoms (1000–1450, Western Bolivia and southern Peru).\nHolding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, and \"the land of the four regions,\" in Quechua, the Inca Empire was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some nine to fourteen million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture.\n\nThe Mapuche in Central and Southern Chile resisted the European and Chilean settlers, waging the Arauco War for more than 300 years.\n\nEuropean colonization\n\nIn 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime European powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed, with the support of the Pope, that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries.\n\nThe treaty established an imaginary line along a north–south meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (known to comprise most of the South American soil) would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian.\n\nBeginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies.\n\nEuropean infectious diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles, and typhus) – to which the native populations had no immune resistance – caused large-scale depopulation of the native population under Spanish control. Systems of forced labor, such as the haciendas and mining industry's mit'a also contributed to the depopulation. After this, enslaved Africans, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them.\n\nThe Spaniards were committed to converting their native subjects to Christianity and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end; however, many initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as native groups simply blended Catholicism with their established beliefs and practices. Furthermore, the Spaniards brought their language to the degree they did with their religion, although the Roman Catholic Church's evangelization in Quechua, Aymara, and Guaraní actually contributed to the continuous use of these native languages albeit only in the oral form.\n\nEventually, the natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a mestizo class. At the beginning, many mestizos of the Andean region were offspring of Amerindian mothers and Spanish fathers. After independence, most mestizos had native fathers and European or mestizo mothers.\n\nMany native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers; this included many gold and silver sculptures and other artifacts found in South America, which were melted down before their transport to Spain or Portugal. Spaniards and Portuguese brought the western European architectural style to the continent, and helped to improve infrastructures like bridges, roads, and the sewer system of the cities they discovered or conquered. They also significantly increased economic and trade relations, not just between the old and new world but between the different South American regions and peoples. Finally, with the expansion of the Portuguese and Spanish languages, many cultures that were previously separated became united through that of Latin American.\n\nGuyana was initially colonized by the Dutch before coming under British control, though there was a brief period during the Napoleonic Wars when it was occupied by the French. The region was initially partitioned between the Dutch, French and British before fully coming under the control of Britain.\n\nSuriname was first explored by the Spanish in the 16th century and then settled by the English in the mid-17th century. It became a Dutch colony in 1667.\n\nSlavery in South America\n\nThe indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with enslaved Africans who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries via the slave trade. European colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but the enslavement of indigenous peoples continued well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade brought enslaved Africans primarily to South American colonies, beginning with the Portuguese since 1502. The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies and Brazil, as European nations built up economically slave-dependent colonies in the New World. Nearly 40% of all African slaves trafficked to the Americas went to Brazil. An estimated 4.9 million slaves from Africa came to Brazil during the period from 1501 to 1866.\n\nIn contrast to other European colonies in the Americas which mainly used the labor of African slaves, Spanish colonists mainly enslaved indigenous Americans. In 1750, the Portuguese Crown abolished the enslavement of indigenous peoples in colonial Brazil, under the belief that they were unfit for labor and less effective than enslaved Africans. Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas on slave ships, under inhuman conditions and ill-treatment, and those who survived were sold in slave markets. After independence, all South American countries maintained slavery for some time. The first South American country to abolish slavery was Chile in 1823, Uruguay in 1830, Bolivia in 1831, Colombia and Ecuador in 1851, Argentina in 1853, Peru and Venezuela in 1854, Suriname in 1863, Paraguay in 1869, and in 1888 Brazil was the last South American nation and the last country in western world to abolish slavery.\n\nIndependence from Spain and Portugal\n\nThe European Peninsular War (1807–1814), a theater of the Napoleonic Wars, changed the political situation of both the Spanish and Portuguese colonies. First, Napoleon invaded Portugal, but the House of Braganza avoided capture by escaping to Brazil. Napoleon also captured King Ferdinand VII of Spain, and appointed his own brother instead. This appointment provoked severe popular resistance, which created Juntas to rule in the name of the captured king.\n\nMany cities in the Spanish colonies, however, considered themselves equally authorized to appoint local Juntas like those of Spain. This began the Spanish American wars of independence between the patriots, who promoted such autonomy, and the royalists, who supported Spanish authority over the Americas. The Juntas, in both Spain and the Americas, promoted the ideas of the Enlightenment. Five years after the beginning of the war, Ferdinand VII returned to the throne and began the Absolutist Restoration as the royalists got the upper hand in the conflict.\n\nThe independence of South America was secured by Simón Bolívar (Venezuela) and José de San Martín (Argentina), the two most important Libertadores. Bolívar led a great uprising in the north, then led his army southward towards Lima, the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Meanwhile, San Martín led an army across the Andes Mountains, along with Chilean expatriates, and liberated Chile. He organized a fleet to reach Peru by sea, and sought the military support of various rebels from the Viceroyalty of Peru. The two armies finally met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, where they cornered the Royal Army of the Spanish Crown and forced its surrender.\n\nIn the Portuguese Kingdom of Brazil, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese King Dom João VI, proclaimed the independent Kingdom of Brazil in 1822, which later became the Empire of Brazil. Despite the Portuguese loyalties of garrisons in Bahia, Cisplatina and Pará, independence was diplomatically accepted by the crown in Portugal in 1825, on condition of a high compensation paid by Brazil mediatized by the United Kingdom.\n\nNation-building and fragmentation\n\nThe newly independent nations began a process of fragmentation, with several civil and international wars. However, it was not as strong as in Central America. Some countries created from provinces of larger countries stayed as such up to modern times (such as Paraguay or Uruguay), while others were reconquered and reincorporated into their former countries (such as the Republic of Entre Ríos and the Riograndense Republic).\n\nThe first separatist attempt was in 1820 by the Argentine province of Entre Ríos, led by a caudillo. In spite of the \"Republic\" in its title, General Ramírez, its caudillo, never really intended to declare an independent Entre Rios. Rather, he was making a political statement in opposition to the monarchist and centralist ideas that back then permeated Buenos Aires politics. The \"country\" was reincorporated at the United Provinces in 1821.\n\nIn 1825 the Cisplatine Province declared its independence from the Empire of Brazil, which led to the Cisplatine War between the imperials and the Argentine from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to control the region. Three years later, the United Kingdom intervened in the question by proclaiming a tie and creating in the former Cisplatina a new independent country: The Oriental Republic of Uruguay.\n\nLater in 1836, while Brazil was experiencing the chaos of the regency, Rio Grande do Sul proclaimed its independence motivated by a tax crisis. With the anticipation of the coronation of Pedro II to the throne of Brazil, the country could stabilize and fight the separatists, which the province of Santa Catarina had joined in 1839. The Conflict came to an end by a process of compromise by which both Riograndense Republic and Juliana Republic were reincorporated as provinces in 1845.\n\nThe Peru–Bolivian Confederation, a short-lived union of Peru and Bolivia, was blocked by Chile in the War of the Confederation (1836–1839) and again during the War of the Pacific (1879–1883). Paraguay was virtually destroyed by Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay in the Paraguayan War.\n\nWars and conflicts\n\nDespite the Spanish American wars of independence and the Brazilian War of Independence, the new nations quickly began to suffer with internal conflicts and wars among themselves. Most of the 1810 borders countries had initially accepted on the uti possidetis iuris principle had by 1848 either been altered by war or were contested.\n\nIn 1825 the proclamation of independence of Cisplatina led to the Cisplatine War between historical rivals the Empire of Brazil and the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Argentina's predecessor. The result was a stalemate, ending with the British government arranging for the independence of Uruguay. Soon after, another Brazilian province proclaimed its independence leading to the Ragamuffin War which Brazil won.\n\nBetween 1836 and 1839 the War of the Confederation broke out between the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation and Chile, with the support of the Argentine Confederation. The war was fought mostly in the actual territory of Peru and ended with a Confederate defeat and the dissolution of the Confederacy and annexation of many territories by Argentina.\n\nMeanwhile, the Argentine Civil Wars plagued Argentina since its independence. The conflict was mainly between those who defended the centralization of power in Buenos Aires and those who defended a confederation. During this period it can be said that \"there were two Argentines\": the Argentine Confederation and the Argentine Republic. At the same time, the political instability in Uruguay led to the Uruguayan Civil War among the main political factions of the country. All this instability in the platine region interfered with the goals of other countries such as Brazil, which was soon forced to take sides. In 1851 the Brazilian Empire, supporting the centralizing unitarians, and the Uruguayan government invaded Argentina and deposed the caudillo, Juan Manuel Rosas, who ruled the confederation with an iron hand. Although the Platine War did not put an end to the political chaos and civil war in Argentina, it brought temporary peace to Uruguay where the Colorados faction won, supported by Brazil, Britain, France and the Unitarian Party of Argentina.\n\nPeace lasted only a short time: in 1864 the Uruguayan factions faced each other again in the Uruguayan War. The Blancos supported by Paraguay started to attack Brazilian and Argentine farmers near the borders. The Empire made an initial attempt to settle the dispute between Blancos and Colorados without success. In 1864, after a Brazilian ultimatum was refused, the imperial government declared that Brazil's military would begin reprisals. Brazil declined to acknowledge a formal state of war, and, for most of its duration, the Uruguayan–Brazilian armed conflict was an undeclared war which led to the deposition of the Blancos and the rise of the pro-Brazilian Colorados to power again. This angered the Paraguayan government, which even before the end of the war invaded Brazil, beginning the biggest and deadliest war in both South American and Latin American histories: the Paraguayan War.\n\nThe Paraguayan War began when the Paraguayan dictator Francisco Solano López ordered the invasion of the Brazilian provinces of Mato Grosso and Rio Grande do Sul. His attempt to cross Argentinian territory without Argentinian approval led the pro-Brazilian Argentine government into the war. The pro-Brazilian Uruguayan government showed its support by sending troops. In 1865 the three countries signed the Treaty of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay. At the beginning of the war, the Paraguayans took the lead with several victories, until the Triple Alliance organized to repel the invaders and fight effectively. This was the second total war experience in the world after the American Civil War. It was deemed the greatest war effort in the history of all participating countries, taking almost 6 years and ending with the complete devastation of Paraguay. The country lost 40% of its territory to Brazil and Argentina and lost 60% of its population, including 90% of the men. The dictator Lopez was killed in battle and a new government was instituted in alliance with Brazil, which maintained occupation forces in the country until 1876.\n\nThe last South American war in the 19th century was the War of the Pacific with Bolivia and Peru on one side and Chile on the other. In 1879 the war began with Chilean troops occupying Bolivian ports, followed by Bolivia declaring war on Chile which activated an alliance treaty with Peru. The Bolivians were completely defeated in 1880 and Lima was occupied in 1881. Peace was signed with Peru in 1883 while a truce was signed with Bolivia in 1884. Chile annexed territories of both countries leaving Bolivia landlocked.\n\nIn the new century, as wars became less violent and less frequent, Brazil entered into a small conflict with Bolivia for the possession of the Acre, which was acquired by Brazil in 1902. In 1917 Brazil declared war on the Central Powers, joined the allied side in the First World War and sent a small fleet to the Mediterranean Sea and some troops to be integrated with the British and French forces in the region. Brazil was the only South American country that participated in the First World War. Later in 1932 Colombia and Peru entered a short armed conflict for territory in the Amazon. In the same year Paraguay declared war on Bolivia for possession of the Chaco, in a conflict that ended three years later with Paraguay's victory. Between 1941 and 1942 Peru and Ecuador fought for territories claimed by both that were annexed by Peru, usurping Ecuador's frontier with Brazil.\n\nAlso in this period, the first major naval battle of World War II took place in the South Atlantic close to the continental mainland: the Battle of the River Plate, between a British cruiser squadron and a German pocket battleship. The Germans still made numerous attacks on Brazilian ships on the coast, causing Brazil to declare war on the Axis powers in 1942, being the only South American country to fight in this war (and in both World Wars). Brazil sent naval and air forces to combat German and Italian submarines off the continent and throughout the South Atlantic, in addition to sending an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian Campaign.\n\nA brief war was fought between Argentina and the UK in 1982, following an Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands, which ended with an Argentine defeat. The last international war to be fought on South American soil was the 1995 Cenepa War between Ecuador and the Peru along their mutual border.\n\nRise and fall of military dictatorships\n\nWars became less frequent in the 20th century, with Bolivia-Paraguay and Peru-Ecuador fighting the last inter-state wars. Early in the 20th century, the three wealthiest South American countries engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race which began after the introduction of a new warship type, the \"dreadnought\". At one point, the Argentine government was spending a fifth of its entire yearly budget for just two dreadnoughts, a price that did not include later in-service costs, which for the Brazilian dreadnoughts was sixty percent of the initial purchase.\n\nThe continent became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. Some democratically elected governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay were overthrown or displaced by military dictatorships in the 1960s and 1970s. To curtail opposition, their governments detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured or killed on inter-state collaboration. Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the US Cold War doctrine of \"National Security\" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict.\n\nIn 1982, Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, a British dependent territory. The Falklands War began and 74 days later Argentine forces surrendered.\n\nColombia has had an ongoing, though diminished internal conflict, which started in 1964 with the creation of Marxist guerrillas (FARC-EP) and then involved several illegal armed groups of leftist-leaning ideology as well as the private armies of powerful drug lords. Many of these are now defunct, and only a small portion of the ELN remains, along with the stronger, though also greatly reduced, FARC.\n\nRevolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships became common after World War II, but since the 1980s, a wave of democratization passed through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Nonetheless, allegations of corruption are still very common, and several countries have developed crises which have forced the resignation of their governments, although, on most occasions, regular civilian succession has continued.\n\nInternational indebtedness turned into a severe problem in the late 1980s, and some countries, despite having strong democracies, have not yet developed political institutions capable of handling such crises without resorting to unorthodox economic policies, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century. The last twenty years have seen an increased push towards regional integration, with the creation of uniquely South American institutions such as the Andean Community, Mercosur and Unasur. Notably, starting with the election of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1998, the region experienced what has been termed a pink tide – the election of several leftist and center-left administrations to most countries of the area, except for the Guianas and Colombia.\n\nContemporary issues \nSouth America's political geography since the 1990s has been characterized by a desire to reduce foreign influence. The nationalization of industries, by which the state controls entire economic sectors (as opposed of private companies doing it), has become a prominent political issues in the region. Some South American nations have nationalized their electricity industries.\n\nCountries and territories\n\nGovernment and politics \n\nHistorically, the Hispanic countries were founded as Republican dictatorships led by caudillos. Brazil was the only exception, being a constitutional monarchy for its first 67 years of independence, until a coup d'état proclaimed a republic. In the late 19th century, the most democratic countries were Brazil, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay.\n\nAll South American countries are presidential republics with the exception of Suriname, a parliamentary republic. French Guiana is a French overseas department, while the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are British overseas territories. It is currently the only inhabited continent in the world without monarchies; the Empire of Brazil existed during the 19th century and there was an unsuccessful attempt to establish a Kingdom of Araucanía and Patagonia in southern Argentina and Chile. Also in the twentieth century, Suriname was established as a constituent kingdom of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and Guyana retained the British monarch as head of state for 4 years after its independence.\n\nRecently, an intergovernmental entity has been formed which aims to merge the two existing customs unions: Mercosur and the Andean Community, thus forming the third-largest trade bloc in the world.\nThis new political organization, known as Union of South American Nations, seeks to establish free movement of people, economic development, a common defense policy and the elimination of tariffs.\n\nDemographics\n\nSouth America has a population of over 428 million people. They are distributed as to form a \"hollow continent\" with most of the population concentrated around the margins of the continent. On one hand, there are several sparsely populated areas such as tropical forests, the Atacama Desert and the icy portions of Patagonia. On the other hand, the continent presents regions of high population density, such as the great urban centers. The population is formed by descendants of Europeans (mainly Spaniards, Portuguese and Italians), Africans and Amerindians. There is a high percentage of Mestizos that vary greatly in composition by place. There is also a minor population of Asians, especially in Brazil, Peru, and Argentina. The two main languages are by far Spanish and Portuguese, followed by English, French and Dutch in smaller numbers.\n\nLanguage\n\nSpanish and Portuguese are the most spoken languages in South America, with approximately 200 million speakers each. Spanish is the official language of most countries, along with other native languages in some countries. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. Dutch is the official language of Suriname; English is the official language of Guyana, although there are at least twelve other languages spoken in the country, including Portuguese, Chinese, Hindustani and several native languages. English is also spoken in the Falkland Islands. French is the official language of French Guiana and the second language in Amapá, Brazil.\n\nIndigenous languages of South America include Quechua in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile and Colombia; Wayuunaiki in northern Colombia (La Guajira) and northwestern Venezuela (Zulia); Guaraní in Paraguay and, to a much lesser extent, in Bolivia; Aymara in Bolivia, Peru, and less often in Chile; and Mapudungun is spoken in certain pockets of southern Chile. At least three South American indigenous languages (Quechua, Aymara, and Guarani) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages.\n\nOther languages found in South America include Hindustani and Javanese in Suriname; Italian in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Venezuela; and German in certain pockets of Argentina and Brazil. German is also spoken in many regions of the southern states of Brazil, Riograndenser Hunsrückisch being the most widely spoken German dialect in the country; among other Germanic dialects, a Brazilian form of East Pomeranian is also well represented and is experiencing a revival. Welsh remains spoken and written in the historic towns of Trelew and Rawson in the Argentine Patagonia. Arabic speakers, often of Lebanese, Syrian, or Palestinian descent, can be found in Arab communities in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela and in Paraguay.\n\nReligion\n\nAn estimated 90% of South Americans are Christians (82% Roman Catholic, 8% other Christian denominations mainly traditional Protestants and Evangelicals but also Orthodox), accounting for 19% of Christians worldwide.\n\nAfrican descendent religions and Indigenous religions are also common throughout all South America; some examples of are Santo Daime, Candomblé, and Umbanda.\n\nCrypto-Jews or Marranos, conversos, and Anusim were an important part of colonial life in Latin America.\n\nBoth Buenos Aires, Argentina and São Paulo, Brazil figure among the largest Jewish populations by urban area.\n\nEast Asian religions such as Japanese Buddhism, Shintoism, and Shinto-derived Japanese New Religions are common in Brazil and Peru. Korean Confucianism is especially found in Brazil while Chinese Buddhism and Chinese Confucianism have spread throughout the continent.\n\nKardecist Spiritism can be found in several countries.\n\nHindus form 25% of the Guyanese population and 22% of Suriname's.\n\nMuslims account for 6.8% of the Guyanese population and 13.9 of the Surinamese population. Almost all Muslims in Suriname are either Indonesian or Indians and in Guyana, most are Indian.\n\nPart of Religions in South America (2013):\n\nEthnic demographics\n\nGenetic admixture occurs at very high levels in South America. In Argentina, the European influence accounts for 65–79% of the genetic background, Amerindian for 17–31% and sub-Saharan African for 2–4%. In Colombia, the sub-Saharan African genetic background varied from 1% to 89%, while the European genetic background varied from 20% to 79%, depending on the region.\nIn Peru, European ancestries ranged from 1% to 31%, while the African contribution was only 1% to 3%. The Genographic Project determined the average Peruvian from Lima had about 28% European ancestry, 68% Native American, 2% Asian ancestry and 2% sub-Saharan African.\n\nDescendants of indigenous peoples, such as the Quechua and Aymara, or the Urarina of Amazonia make up the majority of the population in Bolivia (56%) and Peru (44%). In Ecuador, Amerindians are a large minority that comprises two-fifths of the population. The native European population is also a significant element in most other former Portuguese colonies.\n\nPeople who identify as of primarily or totally European descent, or identify their phenotype as corresponding to such group, are a majority in Argentina, Uruguay and Chile (64.7%), and are 48.4% of the population in Brazil. In Venezuela, according to the national census, 42% of the population is primarily native Spanish, Italian and Portuguese descendants. In Colombia, people who identify as European descendants are about 37%. In Peru, European descendants are the third group in number (15%).\n\nMestizos (mixed European and Amerindian) are the largest ethnic group in Bolivia, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador and the second group in Peru and Chile.\n\nSouth America is also home to one of the largest populations of Africans. This group is significantly present in Brazil, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Venezuela and Ecuador.\n\nBrazil followed by Peru have the largest Japanese, Korean and Chinese communities in South America, Lima has the largest ethnic Chinese community in Latin America. Guyana and Suriname have the largest ethnic East Indian community.\n\nIndigenous people\n\nIn many places indigenous people still practice a traditional lifestyle based on subsistence agriculture or as hunter-gatherers. There are still some uncontacted tribes residing in the Amazon Rainforest.\n\n Aguarunas\n Alacalufe\n Arawaks\n Ashanincas\n Atacameños\n Awá\n Aymara – live in the Altiplano of Bolivia, Chile and Peru. Their language is co-official in Bolivia and Peru. Traditional lifestyle includes llama herding.\n Banawa\n Cañaris\n Caiapos\n Chibcha\n Cocama\n Chayahuita\n Diaguita\n Enxet\n Gê,\n Guaraní – live in Paraguay where the Guarani language is co-official with Spanish. The ethnic group is also found in Bolivia.\n Juris\n Kuna live on the Colombia–Panama border.\n Mapuche – live mainly in southern Chile and southwestern Argentina (see Araucanian).\n Matsés\n Pehuenche – a branch of Mapuches that lived in the Andean valleys of southern (see Araucanian).\n Quechuas – make up a large part of the population of Peru and Bolivia. Are diverse as an ethnic group. The Incas spoke Southern Quechua.\n Selknam\n Shipibo\n Shuar (see Jívaro).\n Tupi\n Urarina\n Wai-Wai\n Wayuu\n Xucuru\n Yaghan\n Yagua\n Yąnomamö\n Zaparos\n\nPopulace \n\nThe most populous country in South America is Brazil with million people. The second largest country is Colombia with a population of . Argentina is the third most populous country with .\n\nWhile Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia maintain the largest populations, large city populations are not restricted to those nations. The largest cities in South America, by far, are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Lima, and Bogotá. These cities are the only cities on the continent whose metropolitan areas' population exceed eight million. Next in size are Caracas, Belo Horizonte, and Medellin.\n\nFive of the top ten metropolitan areas are in Brazil. These metropolitan areas all have a population of above 4 million and include the São Paulo metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, and Belo Horizonte metropolitan area. Whilst the majority of the largest metropolitan areas are within Brazil, Argentina is host to the second largest metropolitan area by population in South America: the Buenos Aires metropolitan region is above 13 million inhabitants.\n\nSouth America has also been witness to the growth of megapolitan areas. In Brazil four megaregions exist including the Expanded Metropolitan Complex of São Paulo with more than 32 million inhabitants. The others are the Greater Rio, Greater Belo Horizonte and Greater Porto Alegre. Colombia also has four megaregions which comprise 72% of its population, followed by Venezuela, Argentina and Peru which are also homes of megaregions.\n\nThe top ten largest South American metropolitan areas by population as of 2015, based on national census numbers from each country:\n\n2015 Census figures.\n\nEconomy\n\nSouth America relies less on the export of both manufactured goods and natural resources than the world average; merchandise exports from the continent were 16% of GDP on an exchange rate basis, compared to 25% for the world as a whole. Brazil (the seventh largest economy in the world and the largest in South America) leads in terms of merchandise exports at $251 billion, followed by Venezuela at $93 billion, Chile at $86 billion, and Argentina at $84 billion.\n\nSince 1930, the continent has experienced remarkable growth and diversification in most economic sectors. Most agricultural and livestock products are destined for the domestic market and local consumption. However, the export of agricultural products is essential for the balance of trade in most countries.\n\nThe main agrarian crops are export crops, such as soy and wheat. The production of staple foods such as vegetables, corn or beans is large, but focused on domestic consumption. Livestock raising for meat exports is important in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Colombia. In tropical regions the most important crops are coffee, cocoa and bananas, mainly in Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador. Traditionally, the countries producing sugar for export are Peru, Guyana and Suriname, and in Brazil, sugar cane is also used to make ethanol. On the coast of Peru, northeast and south of Brazil, cotton is grown. 50.5% of the South America's land surface is covered by forest, but timber industries are small and directed to domestic markets. In recent years, however, transnational companies have been settling in the Amazon to exploit noble timber destined for export. The Pacific coastal waters of South America are the most important for commercial fishing. The anchovy catch reaches thousands of tonnes, and tuna is also abundant (Peru is a major exporter). The capture of crustaceans is remarkable, particularly in northeastern Brazil and Chile.\n\nOnly Brazil and Argentina are part of the G20 (industrial countries), while only Brazil is part of the G8+5 (the most powerful and influential nations in the world). In the tourism sector, a series of negotiations began in 2005 to promote tourism and increase air connections within the region. Punta del Este, Florianópolis and Mar del Plata are among the most important resorts in South America.\n\nThe most industrialized countries in South America are Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Uruguay respectively. These countries alone account for more than 75 percent of the region's economy and add up to a GDP of more than US$3.0 trillion. Industries in South America began to take on the economies of the region from the 1930s when the Great Depression in the United States and other countries of the world boosted industrial production in the continent. From that period the region left the agricultural side behind and began to achieve high rates of economic growth that remained until the early 1990s when they slowed due to political instabilities, economic crises and neoliberal policies.\n\nSince the end of the economic crisis in Brazil and Argentina that occurred in the period from 1998 to 2002, which has led to economic recession, rising unemployment and falling population income, the industrial and service sectors have been recovering rapidly. Chile, Argentina and Brazil have recovered fastest, growing at an average of 5% per year. All of South America after this period has been recovering and showing good signs of economic stability, with controlled inflation and exchange rates, continuous growth, a decrease in social inequality and unemploymentfactors that favor industry.\n\nThe main industries are: electronics, textiles, food, automotive, metallurgy, aviation, naval, clothing, beverage, steel, tobacco, timber, chemical, among others. Exports reach almost US$400 billion annually, with Brazil accounting for half of this.\n\nThe economic gap between the rich and poor in most South American nations is larger than on most other continents. The richest 10% receive over 40% of the nation's income in Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Paraguay, while the poorest 20% receive 4% or less in Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie in the vicinity of skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments; nearly one in nine South Americans live on less than $2 per day (on a purchasing power parity basis).\n\nEconomically largest cities as of 2014\n\nThe four countries with the strongest agriculture are Brazil, Argentina, Chile and Colombia. Currently:\n Brazil is the world's largest producer of sugarcane, soy, coffee, orange, guaraná, açaí and Brazil nut; is one of the top 5 producers of maize, papaya, tobacco, pineapple, banana, cotton, beans, coconut, watermelon, lemon and yerba mate; is one of the top 10 world producers of cocoa, cashew, avocado, tangerine, persimmon, mango, guava, rice, oat, sorghum and tomato; and is one of the top 15 world producers of grape, apple, melon, peanut, fig, peach, onion, palm oil and natural rubber;\n Argentina is the world's largest producer of yerba mate; is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of soy, maize, sunflower seed, lemon and pear, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of barley, grape, artichoke, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of wheat, oat, chickpea, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit;\n Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and cranberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits;\n Colombia is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa;\n Peru is the world's largest producer of quinoa; is one of the 5 largest producers of avocado, blueberry, artichoke and asparagus; one of the 10 largest producers in the world of coffee and cocoa; one of the 15 largest producers in the world of potato and pineapple, and also has a considerable production of grape, sugarcane, rice, banana, maize and cassava; its agriculture is considerably diversified;\n Paraguay's agriculture is currently developing, being currently the 6th largest producer of soy in the world and entering the list of the 20 largest producers of maize and sugarcane.\n\nBrazil is the world's largest exporter of chicken meat: 3.77 million tonnes in 2019. The country is the holder of the second largest herd of cattle in the world, 22.2% of the world herd. The country was the second largest producer of beef in 2019, responsible for 15.4% of global production. It was also the 3rd largest world producer of milk in 2018. This year, the country produced 35.1 billion liters. In 2019, Brazil was the 4th largest pork producer in the world, with almost 4 million tonnes.\n\nIn 2018, Argentina was the 4th largest producer of beef in the world, with a production of 3 million tonnes (behind only USA, Brazil and China). Uruguay is also a major meat producer. In 2018, it produced 589 thousand tonnes of beef.\n\nIn chicken meat production, Argentina ranks among the 15 largest producers in the world, and Peru and Colombia among the 20 biggest producers. In beef production, Colombia is one of the 20 largest producers in the world. In honey production, Argentina ranks among the 5 largest producers in the world, and Brazil among the 15 largest. In terms of production of cow's milk, Argentina ranks among the 20 largest producers in the world.\n\nThe World Bank annually lists the top manufacturing countries by total manufacturing value. According to the 2019 list, Brazil has the thirteenth most valuable industry in the world (US$173.6 billion), Venezuela the thirtieth largest (US$58.2 billion, however, it depends on oil to obtain this value), Argentina the 31st largest (US$57.7 billion), Colombia the 46th largest (US$35.4 billion), Peru the 50th largest (US$28.7 billion) and Chile the 51st largest (US$28.3 billion).\n\nBrazil has the third-largest manufacturing sector in the Americas. Accounting for 28.5 percent of GDP, Brazil's industries range from automobiles, steel, and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft (Embraer), food, pharmaceutical, footwear, metallurgy and consumer durables. In the food industry, in 2019, Brazil was the second largest exporter of processed foods in the world. In 2016, the country was the 2nd largest producer of pulp in the world and the 8th producer of paper. In the footwear industry, in 2019, Brazil ranked 4th among world producers. In 2019, the country was the 8th producer of vehicles and the 9th producer of steel in the world. In 2018, the chemical industry of Brazil was the 8th in the world. In textile industry, Brazil, although it was among the 5 largest world producers in 2013, is very little integrated in world trade.\n\nMining is one of the most important economic sectors in South America, especially for Chile, Peru and Bolivia, whose economies are highly dependent on this sector. The continent has large productions of gold (mainly in Peru, Brazil and Argentina); silver (mainly in Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina); copper (mainly in Chile, Peru and Brazil); iron ore (Brazil, Peru and Chile); zinc (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); molybdenum (Chile and Peru); lithium (Chile, Argentina and Brazil); lead (Peru and Bolivia); bauxite (Brazil); tin (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil); manganese (Brazil); antimony (Bolivia and Ecuador); nickel (Brazil); niobium (Brazil); rhenium (Chile); iodine (Chile), among others.\n\nBrazil stands out in the extraction of iron ore (where it is the 2nd largest producer and exporter in the world – iron ore is usually one of the 3 export products that generate the greatest value in the country's trade balance), copper, gold, bauxite (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), manganese (one of the 5 largest producers in the world), tin (one of the largest producers in the world), niobium (concentrates 98% of reserves known to the world) and nickel. In terms of gemstones, Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst, topaz, agate and one of the main producers of tourmaline, emerald, aquamarine, garnet and opal.\n\nChile contributes about a third of the world copper production. In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world.\n\nIn 2019, Peru was the 2nd largest world producer of copper and silver, 8th largest world producer of gold, 3rd largest world producer of lead, 2nd largest world producer of zinc, 4th largest world producer of tin, 5th largest world producer of boron and 4th largest world producer of molybdenum.\n\nIn 2019, Bolivia was the 8th largest world producer of silver; 4th largest world producer of boron; 5th largest world producer of antimony; 5th largest world producer of tin; 6th largest world producer of tungsten; 7th largest producer of zinc, and the 8th largest producer of lead.\n\nIn 2019, Argentina was the 4th largest world producer of lithium, the 9th largest world producer of silver, the 17th largest world producer of gold and the 7th largest world producer of boron.\n\nColombia is the world's largest producer of emeralds. In the production of gold, among 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, breaking a record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. The country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world. In the production of silver, in 2017 the country extracted 15,5 tons.\n\nIn the production of oil, Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Venezuela was the 21st largest, with 877 thousand barrels / day, Colombia in 22nd with 886 thousand barrels / day, Ecuador in 28th with 531 thousand barrels / day and Argentina 29th with 507 thousand barrels / day. As Venezuela and Ecuador consume little oil and export most of their production, they are part of OPEC. Venezuela had a big drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5 million barrels / day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments.\n\nIn the production of natural gas, in 2018, Argentina produced 1524 bcf (billion cubic feet), Venezuela 946, Brazil 877, Bolivia 617, Peru 451, Colombia 379.\n\nIn the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, Brazil exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January 2021, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nIn the production of coal, the continent had 2 of the 30 largest world producers in 2018: Colombia (12th) and Brazil (27th).\n\nGallery\n\nTourism\nTourism has increasingly become a significant source of income for many South American countries.\n\nHistorical relics, architectural and natural wonders, a diverse range of foods and culture, vibrant and colorful cities, and stunning landscapes attract millions of tourists every year to South America. Some of the most visited places in the region are Rio de Janeiro, Florianópolis, Iguazu Falls, São Paulo, Armação dos Búzios, Salvador, Bombinhas, Angra dos Reis, Balneário Camboriú, Paraty, Ipojuca, Natal, Cairu, Fortaleza and Itapema in Brazil; Buenos Aires, Bariloche, Salta, Jujuy, Perito Moreno Glacier, Valdes Peninsula, Guarani Jesuit Missions in the cities of Misiones and Corrientes, Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Ushuaia and Patagonia in Argentina;\nIsla Margarita, Angel Falls, Los Roques archipelago, Gran Sabana in Venezuela; Machu Picchu, Lima, Nazca Lines, Cuzco in Peru; Lake Titicaca, Salar de Uyuni, La Paz, Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos in Bolivia; Tayrona National Natural Park, Santa Marta, Bogotá, Cali, Medellín, Cartagena in Colombia, and the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. In 2016 Brazil hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics.\n\nCulture\n\nSouth Americans are culturally influenced by their indigenous peoples, the historic connection with the Iberian Peninsula and Africa, and waves of immigrants from around the globe.\n\nSouth American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include vallenato and cumbia from Colombia, pasillo from Colombia and Ecuador, samba, bossa nova and música sertaneja from Brazil, joropo from Venezuela and tango from Argentina and Uruguay. Also well known is the non-commercial folk genre Nueva Canción movement which was founded in Argentina and Chile and quickly spread to the rest of the Latin America.\n\nPeople on the Peruvian coast created the fine guitar and cajon duos or trios in the most mestizo (mixed) of South American rhythms such as the Marinera (from Lima), the Tondero (from Piura), the 19th-century popular Creole Valse or Peruvian Valse, the soulful Arequipan Yaravi, and the early-20th-century Paraguayan Guarania. In the late 20th century, Spanish rock emerged by young hipsters influenced by British pop and American rock. Brazil has a Portuguese-language pop rock industry as well a great variety of other music genres. In the central and western regions of Bolivia, Andean and folklore music like Diablada, Caporales and Morenada are the most representative of the country, which were originated by European, Aymara and Quechua influences.\n\nThe literature of South America has attracted considerable critical and popular acclaim, especially with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s, and the rise of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel García Márquez in novels and Jorge Luis Borges and Pablo Neruda in other genres. The Brazilians Machado de Assis and João Guimarães Rosa are widely regarded as the greatest Brazilian writers.\n\nFood and drink\n\nBecause of South America's broad ethnic mix, South American cuisine has African, Mestizo, South Asian, East Asian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well known for its West African–influenced cuisine. Argentines, Chileans, Uruguayans, Brazilians, Bolivians, and Venezuelans regularly consume wine. People in Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, southern Chile, Bolivia and Southern Brazil drink mate, an herb which is brewed. The Paraguayan version, terere, differs from other forms of mate in that it is served cold. Pisco is a liquor distilled from grapes in Peru and Chile. Peruvian cuisine mixes elements from Chinese, Japanese, Spanish, Italian, African, Arab, Andean, and Amazonic food.\n\nPlastic arts \n\nThe artist Oswaldo Guayasamín (1919–1999) from Ecuador, represented with his painting style the feeling of the peoples of Latin America highlighting social injustices in various parts of the world. The Colombian Fernando Botero (1932) is one of the greatest exponents of painting and sculpture that continues still active and has been able to develop a recognizable style of his own. For his part, the Venezuelan Carlos Cruz-Diez has contributed significantly to contemporary art, with the presence of works around the world.\n\nCurrently several emerging South American artists are recognized by international art critics: Guillermo Lorca – Chilean painter, Teddy Cobeña – Ecuadorian sculptor and recipient of international sculpture award in France) and Argentine artist Adrián Villar Rojas – winner of the Zurich Museum Art Award among many others.\n\nSport\n\nA wide range of sports are played in the continent of South America, with football being the most popular overall, while baseball is the most popular in Venezuela.\n\nOther sports include basketball, cycling, polo, volleyball, futsal, motorsports, rugby (mostly in Argentina and Uruguay), handball, tennis, golf, field hockey, boxing, and cricket.\n\nSouth America hosted its first Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2016, and has hosted the Youth Olympic Games in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 2018.\n\nSouth America shares with Europe supremacy over the sport of football as all winners in FIFA World Cup history and all winning teams in the FIFA Club World Cup have come from these two continents. Brazil holds the record for most times winning the FIFA World Cup with five titles. Argentina has three titles and Uruguay two. So far five South American nations have hosted the tournament including the first edition in Uruguay (1930). Two were from Brazil (1950, 2014), Chile (1962), and Argentina (1978).\n\nSouth America is home to the longest-running international football tournament, the Copa América, which has been contested since 1916. Argentina and Uruguay have won the Copa América 15 times each, the most among all countries.\n\nAlso, in South America, a multi-sport event, the South American Games, are held every four years. The first edition was held in La Paz in 1978 and the most recent took place in Santiago in 2014.\n\nSouth American Cricket Championship is an international one-day cricket tournament played since 1995 featuring national teams from South America and certain other invited sides including teams from North America, currently played annually but until 2013 was usually played every two seasons.\n\nInfrastructure\n\nEnergy\nDue to the diversity of topography and pluviometric precipitation conditions, the region's water resources vary enormously in different areas. In the Andes, navigation possibilities are limited, except for the Magdalena River, Lake Titicaca and the lakes of the southern regions of Chile and Argentina. Irrigation is an important factor for agriculture from northwestern Peru to Patagonia. Less than 10% of the known electrical potential of the Andes had been used until the mid-1960s.\n\nThe Brazilian Highlands have a much higher hydroelectric potential than the Andean region and its possibilities of exploitation are greater due to the existence of several large rivers with high margins and the occurrence of great differences forming huge cataracts, such as those of Paulo Afonso, Iguaçu and others. The Amazon River system has about 13,000 km of waterways, but its possibilities for hydroelectric use are still unknown.\n\nMost of the continent's energy is generated through hydroelectric power plants, but there is also an important share of thermoelectric and wind energy. Brazil and Argentina are the only South American countries that generate nuclear power, each with two nuclear power plants. In 1991 these countries signed a peaceful nuclear cooperation agreement.\n\nThe Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported petroleum. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became self-sufficient in oil in 2006–2007. Brazil was the 10th largest oil producer in the world in 2019, with 2.8 million barrels / day. Production manages to supply the country's demand. In the beginning of 2020, in the production of oil and natural gas, the country exceeded 4 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, for the first time. In January this year, 3.168 million barrels of oil per day and 138.753 million cubic meters of natural gas were extracted.\n\nBrazil is one of the main world producers of hydroelectric power. In 2019, Brazil had 217 hydroelectric plants in operation, with an installed capacity of 98,581 MW, 60.16% of the country's energy generation. In the total generation of electricity, in 2019 Brazil reached 170,000 megawatts of installed capacity, more than 75% from renewable sources (the majority, hydroelectric).\n\nIn 2013, the Southeast Region used about 50% of the load of the National Integrated System (SIN), being the main energy consuming region in the country. The region's installed electricity generation capacity totaled almost 42,500 MW, which represented about a third of Brazil's generation capacity. The hydroelectric generation represented 58% of the region's installed capacity, with the remaining 42% corresponding basically to the thermoelectric generation. São Paulo accounted for 40% of this capacity; Minas Gerais by about 25%; Rio de Janeiro by 13.3%; and Espírito Santo accounted for the rest. The South Region owns the Itaipu Dam, which was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world for several years, until the inauguration of Three Gorges Dam in China. It remains the second largest operating hydroelectric in the world. Brazil is the co-owner of the Itaipu Plant with Paraguay: the dam is located on the Paraná River, located on the border between countries. It has an installed generation capacity of 14 GW for 20 generating units of 700 MW each. North Region has large hydroelectric plants, such as Belo Monte Dam and Tucuruí Dam, which produce much of the national energy. Brazil's hydroelectric potential has not yet been fully exploited, so the country still has the capacity to build several renewable energy plants in its territory.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind power was 22 GW, with average capacity factor of 58%. While the world average wind production capacity factors is 24.7%, there are areas in Northern Brazil, specially in Bahia State, where some wind farms record with average capacity factors over 60%; the average capacity factor in the Northeast Region is 45% in the coast and 49% in the interior. In 2019, wind energy represented 9% of the energy generated in the country. In 2019, it was estimated that the country had an estimated wind power generation potential of around 522 GW (this, only onshore), enough energy to meet three times the country's current demand. In 2021 Brazil was the 7th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (21 GW), and the 4th largest producer of wind energy in the world (72 TWh), behind only China, US and Germany.\n\nNuclear energy accounts for about 4% of Brazil's electricity. The nuclear power generation monopoly is owned by Eletronuclear (Eletrobrás Eletronuclear S/A), a wholly owned subsidiary of Eletrobrás. Nuclear energy is produced by two reactors at Angra. It is located at the Central Nuclear Almirante Álvaro Alberto (CNAAA) on the Praia de Itaorna in Angra dos Reis, Rio de Janeiro. It consists of two pressurized water reactors, Angra I, with capacity of 657 MW, connected to the power grid in 1982, and Angra II, with capacity of 1,350 MW, connected in 2000. A third reactor, Angra III, with a projected output of 1,350 MW, is planned to be finished.\n\n according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 21 GW, with average capacity factor of 23%. Some of the most irradiated Brazilian States are MG (\"Minas Gerais\"), BA (\"Bahia\") and GO (Goiás), which have indeed world irradiation level records. In 2019, solar power represented 1.27% of the energy generated in the country. In 2021, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (13 GW), and the 11th largest producer of solar energy in the world (16.8 TWh).\n\nIn 2020, Brazil was the 2nd largest country in the world in the production of energy through biomass (energy production from solid biofuels and renewable waste), with 15,2 GW installed.\n\nAfter Brazil, Colombia is the country in South America that most stands out in energy production. In 2020, the country was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, and in 2015 it was the 19th largest exporter. In natural gas, the country was, in 2015, the 40th largest producer in the world. Colombia's biggest highlight is in coal, where the country was, in 2018, the world's 12th largest producer and the 5th largest exporter. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 45th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (0.5 GW), 76th in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.1 GW) and 20th in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (12.6 GW). Venezuela, which was one of the world's largest oil producers (about 2.5 million barrels/day in 2015) and one of the largest exporters, due to its political problems, has had its production drastically reduced in recent years: in 2016, it dropped to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2 million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, reaching only 300,000 barrels/day at a given point. The country also stands out in hydroelectricity, where it was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed capacity in 2020 (16,5 GW). Argentina was, in 2017, the 18th largest producer in the world, and the largest producer in Latin America, of natural gas, in addition to being the 28th largest oil producer; although the country has the Vaca Muerta field, which holds close to 16 billion barrels of technically recoverable shale oil, and is the second largest shale natural gas deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to exploit the deposit: it is necessary capital, technology and knowledge that can only come from offshore energy companies, who view Argentina and its erratic economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in the country. In renewable energies, in 2020, the country ranked 27th in the world in terms of installed wind energy (2.6 GW), 42nd in the world in terms of installed solar energy (0.7 GW) and 21st in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW). The country has great future potential for the production of wind energy in the Patagonia region. Chile, although currently not a major energy producer, has great future potential for solar energy production in the Atacama Desert region. Paraguay stands out today in hydroelectric production thanks to the Itaipu Power Plant. Bolivia stand out in the production of natural gas, where it was the 31st largest in the world in 2015. Ecuador, because it consumes little energy, is part of OPEC and was the 27th largest oil producer in the world in 2020, being the 22nd largest exporter in 2014.\n\nTransport\n\nTransport in South America is basically carried out using the road mode, the most developed in the region. There is also a considerable infrastructure of ports and airports. The railway and fluvial sector, although it has potential, is usually treated in a secondary way.\n\nBrazil has more than 1.7 million km of roads, of which 215,000 km are paved, and about 14,000 km are divided highways. The two most important highways in the country are BR-101 and BR-116. Argentina has more than 600,000 km of roads, of which about 70,000 km are paved, and about 2,500 km are divided highways. The three most important highways in the country are Route 9, Route 7 and Route 14. Colombia has about 210,000 km of roads, and about 2,300 km are divided highways. Chile has about 82,000 km of roads, 20,000 km of which are paved, and about 2,000 km are divided highways. The most important highway in the country is the Route 5 (Pan-American Highway) These 4 countries are the ones with the best road infrastructure and with the largest number of double-lane highways.\n\nDue to the Andes Mountains, Amazon River and Amazon Forest, there have always been difficulties in implementing transcontinental or bioceanic highways. Practically the only route that existed was the one that connected Brazil to Buenos Aires, in Argentina and later to Santiago, in Chile. However, in recent years, with the combined effort of countries, new routes have started to emerge, such as Brazil-Peru (Interoceanic Highway), and a new highway between Brazil, Paraguay, northern Argentina and northern Chile (Bioceanic Corridor).\n\nThere are more than 2,000 airports in Brazil. The country has the second largest number of airports in the world, behind only the United States. São Paulo International Airport, located in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, is the largest and busiest in the country – the airport connects São Paulo to practically all major cities around the world. Brazil has 44 international airports, such as those in Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Belo Horizonte, Porto Alegre, Florianópolis, Cuiabá, Salvador, Recife, Fortaleza, Belém and Manaus, among others. Argentina has important international airports such as Buenos Aires, Cordoba, Bariloche, Mendoza, Salta, Puerto Iguazú, Neuquén and Usuhaia, among others. Chile has important international airports such as Santiago, Antofagasta, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Iquique, among others. Colombia has important international airports such as Bogotá, Medellín, Cartagena, Cali and Barranquilla, among others. Other important airports are those in the capitals of Uruguay (Montevideo), Paraguay (Asunción), Peru (Lima), Bolivia (La Paz) and Ecuador (Quito). The 10 busiest airports in South America in 2017 were: São Paulo-Guarulhos (Brazil), Bogotá (Colombia), São Paulo-Congonhas (Brazil), Santiago (Chile), Lima (Peru), Brasília (Brazil), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Buenos Aires-Aeroparque (Argentina), Buenos Aires-Ezeiza (Argentina), and Minas Gerais (Brazil).\n\nAbout ports, Brazil has some of the busiest ports in South America, such as Port of Santos, Port of Rio de Janeiro, Port of Paranaguá, Port of Itajaí, Port of Rio Grande, Port of São Francisco do Sul and Suape Port. Argentina has ports such as Port of Buenos Aires and Port of Rosario. Chile has important ports in Valparaíso, Caldera, Mejillones, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica and Puerto Montt. Colombia has important ports such as Buenaventura, Cartagena Container Terminal and Puerto Bolivar. Peru has important ports in Callao, Ilo and Matarani. The 15 busiest ports in South America are: Port of Santos (Brazil), Port of Bahia de Cartagena (Colombia), Callao (Peru), Guayaquil (Ecuador), Buenos Aires (Argentina), San Antonio (Chile), Buenaventura (Colombia), Itajaí (Brazil), Valparaíso (Chile), Montevideo (Uruguay), Paranaguá (Brazil), Rio Grande (Brazil), São Francisco do Sul (Brazil), Manaus (Brazil) and Coronel (Chile).\n\nThe Brazilian railway network has an extension of about 30,000 kilometers. It's basically used for transporting ores. The Argentine rail network, with 47,000 km of tracks, was one of the largest in the world and continues to be the most extensive in Latin America. It came to have about 100,000 km of rails, but the lifting of tracks and the emphasis placed on motor transport gradually reduced it. It has four different trails and international connections with Paraguay, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. Chile has almost 7,000 km of railways, with connections to Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. Colombia has only about 3,500 km of railways.\n\nAmong the main Brazilian waterways, two stand out: Hidrovia Tietê-Paraná (which has a length of 2,400 km, 1,600 on the Paraná River and 800 km on the Tietê River, draining agricultural production from the states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás and part of Rondônia, Tocantins and Minas Gerais) and Hidrovia do Solimões-Amazonas (it has two sections: Solimões, which extends from Tabatinga to Manaus, with approximately 1600 km, and Amazonas, which extends from Manaus to Belém, with 1650 km. Almost entirely passenger transport from the Amazon plain is done by this waterway, in addition to practically all cargo transportation that is directed to the major regional centers of Belém and Manaus). In Brazil, this transport is still underused: the most important waterway stretches, from an economic point of view, are found in the Southeast and South of the country. Its full use still depends on the construction of locks, major dredging works and, mainly, of ports that allow intermodal integration. In Argentina, the waterway network is made up of the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are Zárate and Campana. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which stretches along 67 km of the Santa Fé portion of the Paraná River, brings together 17 ports that concentrate 50% of the total exports of the country.\n\nOnly two railroads are continental: the Transandina, which connects Buenos Aires, in Argentina to Valparaíso, in Chile, and the Brazil–Bolivia Railroad, which makes it the connection between the port of Santos in Brazil and the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in Bolivia. In addition, there is the Pan-American Highway, which crosses Argentina and the Andean countries from north to south, although some stretches are unfinished.\n\nTwo areas of greater density occur in the railway sector: the platinum network, which develops around the Platine region, largely belonging to Argentina, with more than 45,000 km in length; And the Southeast Brazil network, which mainly serves the state of São Paulo, state of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. Brazil and Argentina also stand out in the road sector. In addition to the modern roads that extend through northern Argentina and south-east and south of Brazil, a vast road complex aims to link Brasília, the federal capital, to the South, Southeast, Northeast and Northern regions of Brazil.\n\nSouth America has one of the largest bays of navigable inland waterways in the world, represented mainly by the Amazon basin, the Platine basin, the São Francisco and the Orinoco basins, Brazil having about 54,000 km navigable, while Argentina has 6,500 km and Venezuela, 1,200 km.\n\nThe two main merchant fleets also belong to Brazil and Argentina. The following are those of Chile, Venezuela, Peru and Colombia. The largest ports in commercial movement are those of Buenos Aires, Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Bahía Blanca, Rosario, Valparaíso, Recife, Salvador, Montevideo, Paranaguá, Rio Grande, Fortaleza, Belém and Maracaibo.\n\nIn South America, commercial aviation has a magnificent expansion field, which has one of the largest traffic density lines in the world, Rio de Janeiro–São Paulo, and large airports, such as Congonhas, São Paulo–Guarulhos International and Viracopos (São Paulo), Rio de Janeiro International and Santos Dumont (Rio de Janeiro), El Dorado (Bogotá), Ezeiza (Buenos Aires), Tancredo Neves International Airport (Belo Horizonte), Curitiba International Airport (Curitiba), Brasilia, Caracas, Montevideo, Lima, Viru Viru International Airport (Santa Cruz de la Sierra), Recife, Salvador, Salgado Filho International Airport (Porto Alegre), Fortaleza, Manaus and Belém.\n\nThe main public transport in major cities is the bus. Many cities also have a diverse system of metro and subway trains, the first of which was the Buenos Aires subte, opened 1913. The Santiago subway is the largest network in South America, with 103 km, while the São Paulo subway is the largest in transportation, with more than 4.6 million passengers per day and was voted the best in the Americas. Rio de Janeiro installed the first railroad of the continent in 1854. Today the city has a vast and diversified system of metropolitan trains, integrated with buses and subway. Recently it was also inaugurated in the city a Light Rail System called VLT, a small electrical trams at low speed, while São Paulo inaugurated its monorail, the first of South America. In Brazil, an express bus system called Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), which operates in several cities, has also been developed. Mi Teleférico, also known as Teleférico La Paz–El Alto (La Paz–El Alto Cable Car), is an aerial cable car urban transit system serving the La Paz–El Alto metropolitan area in Bolivia.\n\nSee also \n\n Flags of South America\n List of World Heritage Sites in South America\n \n South American Games\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources\n\nExternal links \n \n \n South America's Ancient Civilisations at the National Geographic Society\n \n The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online Columbia University Press\n \n\nCategory:Continents", "title": "South America" } ]

[ "Before their first contact with Europeans, thousands of languages were spoken by diverse peoples across North and South America. These initial encounters with Europeans took place between the start of the 11th century and the end of the 15th century. Some indigenous cultures of the Americas, such as the Maya, had developed their own writing systems. The indigenous languages varied widely in terms of demographics, with languages like Quechuan, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl having millions of active speakers, while others had only a few hundred. After the pre-Columbian era, several indigenous creole languages emerged in the Americas, influenced by European, indigenous, and African languages.", "The context does not specify a single language that was typically spoken across the Americas. However, it mentions that Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl were among the indigenous languages with millions of active speakers. The most spoken indigenous language in the United States today is mentioned as Navajo, with over 200,000 speakers. Meanwhile, in the era of European colonization, languages such as Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch were introduced and became the official or national languages of modern nation-states in the Americas.", "The context provided does not offer detailed information on the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. It mentions that many indigenous cultures had their own languages and writing systems and that Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and cultures to preach Christianity. However, specific cultural practices, traditions, or societal structures are not discussed.", "The context does not provide specific years for when the indigenous languages of the Americas were developed. It mentions that these languages were spoken by various peoples prior to their first contact with Europeans, which occurred between the beginning of the 11th century and the end of the 15th century. However, it does not give a specific timeframe for when these languages were first developed.", "Yes, according to the context, Greenland, in the Arctic region, adopted Kalaallisut as its sole official language in 2009.", "Yes, this context also discusses how the attitudes of European colonizers and their successor states towards Native American languages varied widely. It details how some Europeans, such as friars in Brazil and Spanish missionaries in Latin American colonies, learned and promoted local languages. However, it also points out that the Europeans suppressed the use of indigenous languages in many instances, leading to cultural suppression and loss of speakers. In the modern day, many indigenous languages are critically endangered while others remain in daily use and some are officially recognized within their countries. Additionally, the context mentions the special use of the Navajo language during World War II, when Navajo men were recruited as code talkers to transmit secret US military messages that were never deciphered by the Germans or Japanese.", "According to the context, while several indigenous languages have been given official status in the countries where they occur, their usage in practice can vary. For example, Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia are constitutionally recognized as official, but Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts in practice. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language. Therefore, it is clear that some languages are practiced more than others, often influenced by factors such as formal recognition and the number of active speakers.", "The context only mentions that the United States, specifically the US Marine Corps, used the Navajo language during World War II. Navajo men were recruited as code talkers to transmit secret US military messages. The context does not mention any other backgrounds or countries choosing to use the Navajo language." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Neutral", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What happened in 1983?", "What did he perform at Udinese?", "Did the transfer ever go through?", "Did he win on his new team?", "What else happened in this time?", "Why was this disputed?", "Was there any other controversy?", "How did the board respond to this?", "When were the charges filed?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 175 ], [ 531 ], [ 1109 ], [ 1216 ], [ 1355 ], [ 1600 ], [ 1752 ], [ 1774 ], [ 1933 ] ], "texts": [ [ "After receiving offers from A.S. Roma and A.C. Milan, moving to Italy seemed right and a four-million dollar proposal from Udinese was on the table." ], [ "bigger clubs pressure the FIGC (Italian Football Federation) that blocked the transfer expecting financial guarantees." ], [ "At the end of the controversy, the deal went through and though leaving Flamengo fans in sadness, Zico made the Friulians fans finally dream of better days." ], [ "only gathered 32 points and was ninth in the final standing, losing three places in comparison to 1982-83." ], [ "His personal top scoring dispute against Juventus's Michel Platini was exciting - Zico scored 19 goals," ], [ "having played 4 fewer matches than the French footballer due to an injury." ], [ "He also used to complain about the board's lack of ambition for not signing competitive players," ], [ "Italian tax officials pressed charges against him for tax evasion." ], [ "pressed charges against him for tax evasion." ], [ "returned to Brazil and Flamengo, sponsored by a group of companies." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 175, 531, 1109, 1216, 1355, 1600, 1752, 1774, 1933 ], "texts": [ "After receiving offers from A.S. Roma and A.C. Milan, moving to Italy seemed right and a four-million dollar proposal from Udinese was on the table.", "bigger clubs pressure the FIGC (Italian Football Federation) that blocked the transfer expecting financial guarantees.", "At the end of the controversy, the deal went through and though leaving Flamengo fans in sadness, Zico made the Friulians fans finally dream of better days.", "only gathered 32 points and was ninth in the final standing, losing three places in comparison to 1982-83.", "His personal top scoring dispute against Juventus's Michel Platini was exciting - Zico scored 19 goals,", "having played 4 fewer matches than the French footballer due to an injury.", "He also used to complain about the board's lack of ambition for not signing competitive players,", "Italian tax officials pressed charges against him for tax evasion.", "pressed charges against him for tax evasion.", "returned to Brazil and Flamengo, sponsored by a group of companies." ] }

[]

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[ "what made it difficult", "What else made it difficult", "What did it do to the floor", "Why did the officers struggle", "How many times did the interview Sutcliff", "what else add paper", "What did the public do then", "What did the police do" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 106 ], [ 208 ], [ 335 ], [ 420 ], [ 518 ], [ 668 ], [ 2179 ], [ 2356 ] ], "texts": [ [ "It was one of the largest investigations by a British police force and predated the use of computers." ], [ "Information on suspects was stored on handwritten index cards. Aside from difficulties in storing and accessing the paperwork" ], [ "the floor of the incident room was reinforced to cope with the weight of the paper" ], [ "it was difficult for officers to overcome the information overload of such a large manual system." ], [ "Sutcliffe was interviewed nine times, but all information the police had about the case was stored in paper form, making cross-referencing difficult," ], [ "compounded by television appeals for information which generated thousands more documents." ], [ "of 'Reclaim the Night' marches. The group and other feminists had criticised the police for victim-blaming," ], [ "Eleven marches in various towns across the United Kingdom took place on the night of 12 November 1977." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 106, 208, 335, 420, 518, 668, 2179, 2356 ], "texts": [ "It was one of the largest investigations by a British police force and predated the use of computers.", "Information on suspects was stored on handwritten index cards. Aside from difficulties in storing and accessing the paperwork", "the floor of the incident room was reinforced to cope with the weight of the paper", "it was difficult for officers to overcome the information overload of such a large manual system.", "Sutcliffe was interviewed nine times, but all information the police had about the case was stored in paper form, making cross-referencing difficult,", "compounded by television appeals for information which generated thousands more documents.", "of 'Reclaim the Night' marches. The group and other feminists had criticised the police for victim-blaming,", "Eleven marches in various towns across the United Kingdom took place on the night of 12 November 1977." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "Did the band Weezer do an album in 1992?", "What was the name of the album they did with Geffen?", "When did the band Weezer originally form?", "How was the Blue Album received?", "Did the band win any awards for the album?", "Did the band go on tour then?", "What album followed Blue Album?", "What was the biggest song from the Blue Album?", "What else can you tell me about the Blue Album?", "Did word-of-mouth generate sales?", "What other albums has Weezer done?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 271 ], [ 517 ], [ 0 ], [ 1028 ], [ 1246 ], [ 1728 ], [ 1728 ], [ 1069 ], [ 589 ], [ 1585 ], [ 1728 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Weezer signed with Geffen Records on June 25, 1993, and the group recorded its debut album" ], [ "Weezer (also referred to as the \"Blue Album\") was released in May 1994." ], [ "Vocalist and lead guitarist Rivers Cuomo, drummer Patrick Wilson, bassist Matt Sharp and guitarist Jason Cropper formed Weezer in 1992." ], [ "The video became an instant hit on MTV." ], [ "The video achieved heavy rotation on MTV and went on to win four MTV Video Music Awards," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Jonze also directed the band's second video, \"Buddy Holly\", splicing footage from the 1970s television sitcom Happy Days with Weezer performing in a remade \"Arnold's Drive-In.\"" ], [ "Geffen originally did not wish to release a single, to see what sales could be generated by word-of-mouth alone." ], [ "Weezer is certified quadruple platinum in the United States, making it Weezer's best-selling album." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 271, 517, 0, 1028, 1246, 1728, 1728, 1069, 589, 1585, 1728 ], "texts": [ "Weezer signed with Geffen Records on June 25, 1993, and the group recorded its debut album", "Weezer (also referred to as the \"Blue Album\") was released in May 1994.", "Vocalist and lead guitarist Rivers Cuomo, drummer Patrick Wilson, bassist Matt Sharp and guitarist Jason Cropper formed Weezer in 1992.", "The video became an instant hit on MTV.", "The video achieved heavy rotation on MTV and went on to win four MTV Video Music Awards,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Jonze also directed the band's second video, \"Buddy Holly\", splicing footage from the 1970s television sitcom Happy Days with Weezer performing in a remade \"Arnold's Drive-In.\"", "Geffen originally did not wish to release a single, to see what sales could be generated by word-of-mouth alone.", "Weezer is certified quadruple platinum in the United States, making it Weezer's best-selling album.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "No, the band Weezer did not do an album in 1992. They recorded their debut album in 1993.", "The album they did with Geffen is referred to as Weezer, also known as the \"Blue Album\".", "The band Weezer originally formed in 1992.", "The \"Blue Album\" was well-received. The video for \"Undone - The Sweater Song\" became an instant hit on MTV after being released as the first single. Another song from the album, \"Buddy Holly\", and its video also achieved notable success, winning four MTV Video Music Awards and two Billboard Music Video Awards. The album has been certified quadruple platinum in the United States and triple platinum in Canada, making it Weezer's best-selling album.", "Yes, the band won several awards for the \"Blue Album.\" The music video for \"Buddy Holly\", a song from the album, won four MTV Video Music Awards, including Breakthrough Video and Best Alternative Music Video, and two Billboard Music Video Awards.", "The context does not provide information on whether the band Weezer went on tour following the release of the \"Blue Album\".", "The context does not provide information on what album followed the \"Blue Album\" by Weezer.", "The context does not specify which song from the \"Blue Album\" was the biggest. However, it mentions that \"Undone - The Sweater Song\" and \"Buddy Holly\" were successful, with both music videos achieving significant airplay on MTV. The video for \"Buddy Holly\" also won several awards.", "The \"Blue Album\", also known as Weezer, is the debut album of the band Weezer. It was recorded with producer Ric Ocasek at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. The album was released by Geffen Records in May 1994 after they signed with the label in June 1993. The band's guitarist, Jason Cropper, left during the recording of the album and was replaced by Brian Bell. Initially, Geffen decided not to release a single to see what sales could be generated by word-of-mouth alone. However, DJ Marco Collins of the Seattle radio station The End started playing \"Undone - The Sweater Song\", leading Geffen to release it as the first single. A third single, \"Say It Ain't So\", also followed. The \"Blue Album\" is certified quadruple platinum in the United States and is Weezer's best-selling album.", "The context does not provide information on whether word-of-mouth alone generated significant sales for Weezer's \"Blue Album\". However, after the Seattle radio station The End started playing \"Undone - The Sweater Song\", Geffen released it as the first single.", "The context does not provide information on any other albums that Weezer has produced." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "When did Weezer go on hiatus?", "What did some of the artist's do when they left on hiatus?", "What did Bell do?", "What did Sharp do?", "What did Cuomo do?", "When did Weezer reunite with each other?", "Did the group hire any other performers?", "Where did the group reunite?", "Did the group Weezer go by any other band name?", "Did any of the band members have any emotional problems?", "What did Cuomo do while he had depression?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 68 ], [ 171 ], [ 208 ], [ 637 ], [ 1305 ], [ 1217 ], [ 1031 ], [ 1556 ], [ 1742 ], [ 1780 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Weezer completed the Pinkerton tour in mid-1997 and went on hiatus." ], [ "Wilson returned to his home in Portland, Oregon to work on his side project," ], [ "Bell worked on his band Space Twins." ], [ "Sharp left Weezer to complete the follow-up album for his group the Rentals." ], [ "Cuomo returned to Harvard but took a break to focus on songwriting." ], [ "Weezer continued rehearsing and cut demos until the fall of 1998." ], [ "The group hired Mikey Welsh, who had played with Cuomo in Boston, as their new bassist." ], [ "Cuomo, Bell and Wilson reunited in Los Angeles to start work on the next Weezer album." ], [ "the band played two club shows with a substitute drummer in California under the name Goat Punishment," ], [ "Cuomo entered a period of depression," ], [ "painting the walls of his home black and putting fiberglass insulation over his windows to prevent light entering." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 68, 171, 208, 637, 1305, 1217, 1031, 1556, 1742, 1780 ], "texts": [ "Weezer completed the Pinkerton tour in mid-1997 and went on hiatus.", "Wilson returned to his home in Portland, Oregon to work on his side project,", "Bell worked on his band Space Twins.", "Sharp left Weezer to complete the follow-up album for his group the Rentals.", "Cuomo returned to Harvard but took a break to focus on songwriting.", "Weezer continued rehearsing and cut demos until the fall of 1998.", "The group hired Mikey Welsh, who had played with Cuomo in Boston, as their new bassist.", "Cuomo, Bell and Wilson reunited in Los Angeles to start work on the next Weezer album.", "the band played two club shows with a substitute drummer in California under the name Goat Punishment,", "Cuomo entered a period of depression,", "painting the walls of his home black and putting fiberglass insulation over his windows to prevent light entering." ] }

[]

[ "Weezer went on hiatus in mid-1997.", "During the hiatus, Wilson returned to his home in Portland, Oregon to work on his side project, the Special Goodness, and Bell worked on his band Space Twins. Sharp left Weezer to complete the follow-up album for his group, the Rentals. Cuomo returned to Harvard but took a break to focus on songwriting, forming a new band composed of a changing lineup of Boston musicians, and performed new material.", "Bell worked on his band Space Twins during the hiatus.", "Sharp left Weezer to complete the follow-up album for his group, the Rentals.", "Cuomo returned to Harvard but took a break to focus on songwriting. He formed a new band composed of a changing lineup of Boston musicians, and performed new material, including possible songs for the next Weezer album.", "Weezer reunited in Los Angeles in February 1998 to start work on the next Weezer album.", "Yes, after rumors of Sharp not rejoining the band, the group hired Mikey Welsh, who had played with Cuomo in Boston, as their new bassist.", "The group reunited in Los Angeles.", "Yes, in November 1998, the band played two club shows with a substitute drummer in California under the name Goat Punishment.", "Yes, in the months following the band's two club shows in November 1998, Cuomo entered a period of depression.", "While Cuomo was going through depression, he painted the walls of his home black and put fiberglass insulation over his windows to prevent light from entering." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "What is the Blonds?", "Was Austin part of this tag team?", "What about The Stud Stable?", "Did he win any fights with them?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 33 ], [ 92 ], [ 723 ], [ 808 ] ], "texts": [ [ "tag team" ], [ "They won the unified NWA and WCW World Tag Team Championship on March 3 by defeating Ricky Steamboat and" ], [ "With Pillman still injured, Austin joined Colonel Robert Parker's Stud Stable." ], [ "Pillman returned, Austin betrayed and defeated him in a singles match at Clash of the Champions XXV on November 10." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 33, 92, 723, 808 ], "texts": [ "tag team", "They won the unified NWA and WCW World Tag Team Championship on March 3 by defeating Ricky Steamboat and", "With Pillman still injured, Austin joined Colonel Robert Parker's Stud Stable.", "Pillman returned, Austin betrayed and defeated him in a singles match at Clash of the Champions XXV on November 10." ] }

[ { "text": "Bibliography (from and ), as a discipline, is traditionally the academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology (from ). English author and bibliographer John Carter describes bibliography as a word having two senses: one, a list of books for further study or of works consulted by an author (or enumerative bibliography); the other one, applicable for collectors, is \"the study of books as physical objects\" and \"the systematic description of books as objects\" (or descriptive bibliography).\n\nEtymology \nThe word was used by Greek writers in the first three centuries CE to mean the copying of books by hand. In the 12th century, the word started being used for \"the intellectual activity of composing books.\" The 17th century then saw the emergence of the modern meaning, that of description of books. Currently, the field of bibliography has expanded to include studies that consider the book as a material object. Bibliography, in its systematic pursuit of understanding the past and the present through written and printed documents, describes a way and means of extracting information from this material. Bibliographers are interested in comparing versions of texts to each other rather than in interpreting their meaning or assessing their significance.\n\nField of study \nBibliography is a specialized aspect of library science (or library and information science, LIS) and documentation science. It was established by a Belgian, named Paul Otlet (1868–1944), who was the founder of the field of documentation, as a branch of the information sciences, who wrote about \"the science of bibliography.\" However, there have recently been voices claiming that \"the bibliographical paradigm\" is obsolete, and it is not today common in LIS. A defence of the bibliographical paradigm was provided by Hjørland (2007).\n\nThe quantitative study of bibliographies is known as bibliometrics, which is today an influential subfield in LIS and is used for major collection decisions such as the cancellation of big deals, through data analysis tools like Unpaywall Journals.\n\nBranches \nCarter and Barker describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography) and the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography). These two distinct concepts and practices have separate rationales and serve differing purposes. Innovators and originators in the field include W. W. Greg, Fredson Bowers, Philip Gaskell and G. Thomas Tanselle.\n\nBowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production (3). He refers to descriptive bibliography as the systematic description of a book as a material or physical artefact. Analytical bibliography, the cornerstone of descriptive bibliography, investigates the printing and all physical features of a book that yield evidence establishing a book's history and transmission (Feather 10). It is the preliminary phase of bibliographic description and provides the vocabulary, principles and techniques of analysis that descriptive bibliographers apply and on which they base their descriptive practice.\n\nDescriptive bibliographers follow specific conventions and associated classification in their description. Titles and title pages are transcribed in a quasi-facsimile style and representation. Illustration, typeface, binding, paper, and all physical elements related to identifying a book follow formulaic conventions, as Bowers established in his foundational opus, The Principles of Bibliographic Description. The thought expressed in this book expands substantively on W. W. Greg's groundbreaking theory that argued for the adoption of formal bibliographic principles (Greg 29). Fundamentally, analytical bibliography is concerned with objective, physical analysis and history of a book while descriptive bibliography employs all data that analytical bibliography furnishes and then codifies it with a view to identifying the ideal copy or form of a book that most nearly represents the printer's initial conception and intention in printing.\n\nIn addition to viewing bibliographic study as being composed of four interdependent approaches (enumerative, descriptive, analytical, and textual), Bowers notes two further subcategories of research, namely historical bibliography and aesthetic bibliography. Both historical bibliography, which involves the investigation of printing practices, tools, and related documents, and aesthetic bibliography, which examines the art of designing type and books, are often employed by analytical bibliographers.\n\nD. F. McKenzie extended previous notions of bibliography as set forth by Greg, Bowers, Gaskell and Tanselle. He describes the nature of bibliography as \"the discipline that studies texts as recorded forms, and the processes of their transmission, including their production and reception\" (1999 12). This concept broadens the scope of bibliography to include \"non-book texts\" and an accounting for their material form and structure, as well as textual variations, technical and production processes that bring sociocultural context and effects into play. McKenzie's perspective contextualizes textual objects or artefacts with sociological and technical factors that have an effect on production, transmission and, ultimately, ideal copy (2002 14). Bibliography, generally, concerns the material conditions of books [as well as other texts] how they are designed, edited, printed, circulated, reprinted, collected.\n\nBibliographic works differ in the amount of detail depending on the purpose and can generally be divided into two categories: enumerative bibliography (also called compilative, reference or systematic), which results in an overview of publications in a particular category and analytical or critical bibliography, which studies the production of books. In earlier times, bibliography mostly focused on books. Now, both categories of bibliography cover works in other media including audio recordings, motion pictures and videos, graphic objects, databases, CD-ROMs and websites.\n\nEnumerative bibliography \n\nAn enumerative bibliography is a systematic list of books and other works such as journal articles. Bibliographies range from \"works cited\" lists at the end of books and articles, to complete and independent publications. A notable example of a complete, independent publication is Gow's A. E. Housman: A Sketch, Together with a List of His Classical Papers (1936). As separate works, they may be in bound volumes such as those shown on the right, or computerized bibliographic databases. A library catalog, while not referred to as a \"bibliography,\" is bibliographic in nature. Bibliographical works are almost always considered to be tertiary sources.\n\nEnumerative bibliographies are based on a unifying principle such as creator, subject, date, topic or other characteristic. An entry in an enumerative bibliography provides the core elements of a text resource including a title, the creator(s), publication date and place of publication. Belanger (1977) distinguishes an enumerative bibliography from other bibliographic forms such as descriptive bibliography, analytical bibliography or textual bibliography in that its function is to record and list, rather than describe a source in detail or with any reference to the source's physical nature, materiality or textual transmission. The enumerative list may be comprehensive or selective. One noted example would be Tanselle's bibliography that exhaustively enumerates topics and sources related to all forms of bibliography. A more common and particular instance of an enumerative bibliography relates to specific sources used or considered in preparing a scholarly paper or academic term paper.\n\nCitation styles vary.\nAn entry for a book in a bibliography usually contains the following elements:\n creator(s)\n title\n place of publication\n publisher or printer\n date of publication\n\nAn entry for a journal or periodical article usually contains:\n creator(s)\n article title\n journal title\n volume\n pages\n date of publication\n\nA bibliography may be arranged by author, topic, or some other scheme. Annotated bibliographies give descriptions about how each source is useful to an author in constructing a paper or argument. These descriptions, usually a few sentences long, provide a summary of the source and describe its relevance. Reference management software may be used to keep track of references and generate bibliographies as required.\n\nBibliographies differ from library catalogs by including only relevant items rather than all items present in a particular library. However, the catalogs of some national libraries effectively serve as national bibliographies, as the national libraries own almost all their countries' publications.\n\nDescriptive bibliography \nFredson Bowers described and formulated a standardized practice of descriptive bibliography in his Principles of Bibliographical Description\n(1949). Scholars to this day treat Bowers' scholarly guide as authoritative. In this classic text, Bowers describes the basic function of bibliography as, \"[providing] sufficient data so that a reader may identify the book described, understand the printing, and recognize the precise contents\" (124).\n\nDescriptive bibliographies as scholarly product \nDescriptive bibliographies as a scholarly product usually include information on the following aspect of a given book as a material object:\nFormat and Collation/Pagination Statement—a conventional, symbolic formula that describes the book block in terms of sheets, folds, quires, signatures, and pages\n\nAccording to Bowers (193), the format of a book is usually abbreviated in the collation formula:\nBroadsheet: I° or b.s. or bs.\nFolio: 2° or fol.\nQuarto: 4° or 4to or Q° or Q\nOctavo: 8° or 8vo\nDuodecimo: 12° or 12mo\nSexto-decimo: 16° or 16mo\nTricesimo-secundo: 32° or 32mo\nSexagesimo-quarto: 64° or 64mo\nThe collation, which follows the format, is the statement of the order and size of the gatherings.\nFor example, a quarto that consists of the signed gatherings:\n2 leaves signed A, 4 leaves signed B, 4 leaves signed C, and 2 leaves signed D\nwould be represented in the collation formula:\n4°: A2B-C4D2\nBinding—a description of the binding techniques (generally for books printed after 1800)\nTitle Page Transcription—a transcription of the title page, including rule lines and ornaments\nContents—a listing of the contents (by section) in the book\nPaper—a description of the physical properties of the paper, including production process, an account of chain-line measurements, and a description of watermarks (if present)\nIllustrations—a description of the illustrations found in the book, including printing process (e.g. woodblock, intaglio, etc.), measurements, and locations in the text\nPresswork—miscellaneous details gleaned from the text about its production\nCopies Examined—an enumeration of the copies examined, including those copies' location (i.e. belonging to which library or collector)\n\nAnalytical bibliography \nThis branch of the bibliographic discipline examines the material features of a textual artefact—such as type, ink, paper, imposition, format, impressions and states of a book—to essentially recreate the conditions of its production. Analytical bibliography often uses collateral evidence—such as general printing practices, trends in format, responses and non-responses to design, etc.—to scrutinize the historical conventions and influences underlying the physical appearance of a text. The bibliographer utilizes knowledge gained from the investigation of physical evidence in the form of a descriptive bibliography or textual bibliography. Descriptive bibliography is the close examination and cataloging of a text as a physical object, recording its size, format, binding, and so on, while textual bibliography (or textual criticism) identifies variations—and the aetiology of variations—in a text with a view to determining \"the establishment of the most correct form of [a] text\" (Bowers 498[1]).\n\nBibliographers \n\nA bibliographer is a person who describes and lists books and other publications, with particular attention to such characteristics as authorship, publication date, edition, typography, etc. A person who limits such efforts to a specific field or discipline is a subject bibliographer.\"\n\nA bibliographer, in the technical meaning of the word, is anyone who writes about books. But the accepted meaning since at least the 18th century is a person who attempts a comprehensive account—sometimes just a list, sometimes a fuller reckoning—of the books written on a particular subject. In the present, bibliography is no longer a career, generally speaking; bibliographies tend to be written on highly specific subjects and by specialists in the field.\n\nThe term bibliographer is sometimes—in particular subject bibliographer—today used about certain roles performed in libraries and bibliographic databases.\n\nOne of the first bibliographers was Conrad Gessner who sought to list all books printed in Latin, Greek and Hebrew in Bibliotheca Universalis (1545).\n\nNon-book material \nSystematic lists of media other than books can be referred to with terms formed analogously to bibliography:\n Discography—recorded music\n Filmography—films\n Webography (or webliography)—websites\n Arachniography, a term coined by NASA research historian Andrew J. Butrica, which means a reference list of URLs about a particular subject. It is equivalent to a bibliography in a book. The name derives from arachne in reference to a spider and its web.\n\nSee also \n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n (in Wikipedia)\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading \n Blum, Rudolf. (1980) Bibliographia. An Inquiry in Its Definition and Designations, Dawson, American Library Association.\n Bowers, Fredson. (1995) Principles of Bibliographical Description, Oak Knoll Press.\n Duncan, Paul Shaner. (1973) How to Catalog a Rare Book, 2nd ed., rev., American Library Association.\n \n Gaskell, Philip. (2000) A New Introduction to Bibliography, Oak Knoll Press.\n McKerrow, R. B. (1927) An Introduction to Bibliography for Literary Students, Oxford: Clarendon Press\n Schneider, Georg. (1934) Theory and History of Bibliography, New York: Scarecrow Press.\n National Library of Canada, Committee on Bibliography and Information Services for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Guidelines for the Compilation of a Bibliography (National Library of Canada, 1987). N.B.: This is a brief guide to accurately practical bibliography, not a study concerning more precise and systematic bibliography.\n \nRobinson, A. M. Lewin (1966) Systematic Bibliography; rev. ed. London: Clive Bingley\n\nExternal links \n\n Oxford Bibliographies Online, in-depth annotated bibliographies by scholars in selected fields\n Introduction to Bibliography, a comprehensive syllabus by G. Thomas Tanselle\n The Bibliographical Society of America, a resource for information about current work in the field of bibliography\n Studies in Bibliography, the journal of the Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia\n A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology, (University of Zaragoza) includes thousands of listings on literary, philological and other subjects\n\n \nCategory:Book design\nCategory:Book terminology\nCategory:Textual scholarship", "title": "Bibliography" } ]

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[ "What can you tell me about Arsenal?", "Where is that out of?", "Did he win awards while there?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Who was he playing against?", "Did he stay with Arsenal after winning?", "Was that his best year?", "Did they win that year?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 81 ], [ 1868 ], [ 128 ], [ 1868 ], [ 353 ], [ 515 ], [ 806 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Drake moved to Arsenal in March 1934 for PS6,500, and scored on his league debut" ], [ "against Wolves on 24 March 1934, in a 3-2 win." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Although he joined too late to qualify for a League Championship medal in 1933-34, Drake would win one in 1934-35," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "With two more goals in the FA Cup and Charity Shield, Drake scored 44 in all that season, breaking Jack Lambert's club record, one that still holds to this day." ], [ "The following season, 1935-36 Drake scored seven in a single match against Aston Villa at Villa Park on 14 December 1935," ], [ "Drake would go on to win the FA Cup in 1935-36" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 81, 1868, 128, 1868, 353, 515, 806 ], "texts": [ "Drake moved to Arsenal in March 1934 for PS6,500, and scored on his league debut", "against Wolves on 24 March 1934, in a 3-2 win.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Although he joined too late to qualify for a League Championship medal in 1933-34, Drake would win one in 1934-35,", "CANNOTANSWER", "With two more goals in the FA Cup and Charity Shield, Drake scored 44 in all that season, breaking Jack Lambert's club record, one that still holds to this day.", "The following season, 1935-36 Drake scored seven in a single match against Aston Villa at Villa Park on 14 December 1935,", "Drake would go on to win the FA Cup in 1935-36" ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide specific information about Arsenal.", "The context does not provide information on where Arsenal is located.", "Yes, while at Arsenal, Drake won a League Championship medal in 1934-35, an FA Cup in 1935-36, and another League title in 1937-38. He was also the club's top scorer for five seasons from 1934-35 to 1938-39.", "Yes, the article highlights some record-breaking performances by Drake, including scoring 42 goals in one season in 1934-35, which broke a club record that still holds. Drake scored seven goals in a single match against Aston Villa in 1935-36, a club and top flight record that also still stands. Despite regular injuries, Drake was Arsenal's first-choice centre forward for the rest of the decade. His career ended after a spinal injury during a game in 1945. He is one of the 32 Arsenal legends whose names are featured in a mural at the club's Emirates Stadium.", "Drake played against various opponents while at Arsenal. In his debut, he played against Wolves. He scored seven goals in a match against Aston Villa. He had to retire from playing due to a spinal injury incurred in a game against Reading in 1945.", "Yes, Drake continued to play for Arsenal after winning. Despite being regularly injured, he remained Arsenal's first-choice centre forward for the rest of the decade. He won the FA Cup in 1935-36 and the League title again in 1937-38 with Arsenal. He was the club's top scorer for each of the five seasons from 1934-35 to 1938-39. However, a spinal injury incurred in a game in 1945 forced him to retire from playing. He also served in the Royal Air Force and played for Arsenal in wartime games during the Second World War.", "The text suggests that Drake's performance during the 1934-35 season was particularly significant. He scored 42 goals in 41 league games, which included three hat-tricks and four four-goal hauls. This was a record-breaking feat, surpassing Jack Lambert's club record. Additionally, in the following season (1935-36), Drake scored seven goals in a single match - a club and top flight record. So, it can be argued that this period, from 1934-35 to 1935-36 was among his best years at Arsenal.", "If you're referring to the 1934-35 season, yes, Arsenal won the League Championship during that year. This was the same season where Drake scored 42 goals in 41 league games, establishing a new club record." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "Who is chelsea?", "What did he do as manager?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What was the new?", "How did the public take the change?", "What other changes did he implement?", "Was there a team change up", "how did the team do after these changes?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 211 ], [ 322 ], [ 442 ], [ 2011 ], [ 523 ], [ 819 ], [ 960 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Without much ado he was appointed manager of First Division Chelsea" ], [ "he made a series of sweeping changes, doing much to rid the club of its previous amateurish, music hall image." ], [ "He discarded the club's Chelsea pensioner crest and with it the Pensioners nickname, and insisted a new one be adopted." ], [ "From these changes came the Lion Rampant Regardant crest and the Blues nickname." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He introduced scouting reports and a new, tougher, training regime based on ballwork, a rare practice in English football at the time." ], [ "recruit little-known, but more reliable players." ], [ "Within three years, in the 1954-55 season, Drake had led Chelsea to their first league championship triumph." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 211, 322, 442, 2011, 523, 819, 960 ], "texts": [ "Without much ado he was appointed manager of First Division Chelsea", "he made a series of sweeping changes, doing much to rid the club of its previous amateurish, music hall image.", "He discarded the club's Chelsea pensioner crest and with it the Pensioners nickname, and insisted a new one be adopted.", "From these changes came the Lion Rampant Regardant crest and the Blues nickname.", "CANNOTANSWER", "He introduced scouting reports and a new, tougher, training regime based on ballwork, a rare practice in English football at the time.", "recruit little-known, but more reliable players.", "Within three years, in the 1954-55 season, Drake had led Chelsea to their first league championship triumph." ] }

[]

[ "Chelsea is a First Division football club.", "As manager of Chelsea, Drake made sweeping changes, doing away with the club's previous amateurish image. He discarded the club's Chelsea pensioner crest and nickname, and introduced the Lion Rampant Regardant crest and the Blues nickname. He introduced scouting reports, a tougher training approach based on ballwork, which was rare in English football at the time. Drake abandoned the club's policy of signing big-name players and instead recruited reliable but lesser-known players from the lower divisions and amateur games. He is especially recognized for leading Chelsea to their first-ever league championship triumph in the 1954-55 season.", "Yes, there are a few interesting aspects. One thing to note is that Drake became the first person to win the league title both as a player and a manager. His success in Chelsea's first-ever league championship, however, was not repeated and the side was gradually replaced by youngsters from the club's youth team. His position weakened after an FA Cup loss to Crewe Alexandra, ultimately leading to his sacking in the 1961-62 season. After leaving Chelsea, Drake went on to positions with Fulham and Barcelona.", "The \"new\" in this context refers to numerous changes that Drake initiated as Chelsea's manager. He replaced the club's previous emblem of Chelsea pensioner crest and its nickname, introducing a new crest of Lion Rampant Regardant and a nickname \"the Blues\". He introduced scouting reports and a new tougher training regime based on ballwork, a rare practice in English football at the time. He also changed the team's recruitment policy, focusing on reliable, less well-known players instead of big-name players.", "The text does not provide information on how the public reacted to the changes implemented by Drake at Chelsea.", "Drake implemented several changes at Chelsea. He discarded the club's Chelsea pensioner crest and with it the Pensioners nickname, and insisted a new one be adopted. From these changes came the Lion Rampant Regardant crest and the Blues nickname. He introduced scouting reports and a new, tougher, training regime based on ballwork, a rare practice in English football at the time. He replaced the club's previous policy of signing unreliable big-name players and instead he used his knowledge of the lower divisions and the amateur game to recruit little-known, but more reliable players.", "Yes, there was a team change up. The championship-winning side was gradually broken up, and replaced by youngsters emerging from the club's youth team, such as Jimmy Greaves, Peter Brabrook, and Bobby Tambling. Drake's policy of signing little-known, reliable players from the lower divisions and the amateur game also significantly changed the player lineup.", "After the changes, Chelsea won their first league championship title in the 1954-55 season. However, in the subsequent years, the team's performance was erratic, which left them stranded in mid-table. They suffered an FA Cup loss to Crewe Alexandra, a Fourth Division side, which weakened Drake's position. It led to his sacking early into the 1961-62 season. Therefore, the changes initially led to success, but eventually the team's performance declined." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What was his personality like?", "What else can you tell me about his personality?", "Did he have more than one personality?", "Did his personality have any weaknesses?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did any one else say anything about his personality?", "Was pinhead ever a nice person or was he always evil?", "Can you share anything else about the article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 803 ], [ 1129 ], [ 1796 ], [ 3130 ], [ 2398 ], [ 1282 ], [ 1742 ], [ 2589 ] ], "texts": [ [ "I find intelligence scary, particularly twisted intelligence; it's one of the reasons why Hannibal Lecter is scary, isn't it?" ], [ "Pinhead prefers using coercive methods in order to obtain his goals, a fact which brings him into conflict with his ally, the demon Princess Angelique." ], [ "In his demonic incarnations, Pinhead is irreverent toward Christianity: in the third film," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Paul T. Taylor, who portrays Pinhead in Hellraiser: Judgment, described the character as \"twisted and intelligent\"." ], [ "Pinhead can be reasoned and bargained with. In both Hellraiser and Hellraiser: Hellseeker, Kirsty Cotton bargains with Pinhead to offer him more \"souls\" in exchange for her own (" ], [ "Pinhead agrees to let Emma go and take Nico instead." ], [ "Taylor tried to capture that in his performance: \"It's about the stillness. He's already so terrifying that when he makes a move," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 803, 1129, 1796, 3130, 2398, 1282, 1742, 2589 ], "texts": [ "I find intelligence scary, particularly twisted intelligence; it's one of the reasons why Hannibal Lecter is scary, isn't it?", "Pinhead prefers using coercive methods in order to obtain his goals, a fact which brings him into conflict with his ally, the demon Princess Angelique.", "In his demonic incarnations, Pinhead is irreverent toward Christianity: in the third film,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Paul T. Taylor, who portrays Pinhead in Hellraiser: Judgment, described the character as \"twisted and intelligent\".", "Pinhead can be reasoned and bargained with. In both Hellraiser and Hellraiser: Hellseeker, Kirsty Cotton bargains with Pinhead to offer him more \"souls\" in exchange for her own (", "Pinhead agrees to let Emma go and take Nico instead.", "Taylor tried to capture that in his performance: \"It's about the stillness. He's already so terrifying that when he makes a move," ] }

[]

[ "Pinhead is portrayed as an articulate and intelligent character. He is evocative and has a 'penetrating intelligence'. This is what makes him more terrifying according to Clive Barker. Despite his intelligence, Pinhead is also very persuasive and inventive, often using coercive methods to fulfill his goals. He can, however, be reasoned and bargained with. He is irreverent towards Christianity and mocks it in the films. In his demonic incarnations, he's often in a state of agony, a characteristic he seems to enjoy, given his sadomasochistic nature. By the time of Hellraiser comics, Pinhead had reached a crisis point and wanted spiritual salvation and the opportunity to reach Heaven.", "Pinhead, despite being a demon, prefers to use persuasion and inventiveness to achieve his goals, even though this sometimes puts him in conflict with his allies. While he appears irreverent towards Christianity, by the time of the Hellraiser comics, Pinhead starts showing a desire for spiritual salvation and contemplates reaching Heaven. He even comes up with a plan to destroy his fellow cenobites as a form of atonement. Pinhead is also capable of bargaining, as he spares Kirsty Cotton's life in exchange for other souls in two of the Hellraiser movies. He also changes his initial decision of taking Emma to the cenobite realm when he learns that she opened the box under duress, showing that he can be reasoned with. Despite partaking in sadomasochistic behavior, Paul T. Taylor, who portrays Pinhead, explained that the character possesses a certain stillness to him and is very economical and eloquent with his words and actions.", "Based on the provided information, it doesn't appear that Pinhead has more than one personality. However, his character shows a range of traits - he is articulate, intelligent, persuasive, inventive, and he can be reasoned and bargained with. His demeanor can vary, being irreverent towards Christianity in one instance and yet seeking spiritual salvation in another. He's also described as experiencing constant agony due to his sadomasochistic nature. But these are facets of a complex character, not separate personalities.", "The text does not provide explicit information on any weaknesses in Pinhead's personality.", "Yes, one of the interesting aspects of this article is the conflict between Clive Barker's vision for Pinhead and the traditional portrayals of horror characters during the height of the A Nightmare on Elm Street, Friday the 13th, and Halloween film series. Barker insisted on making Pinhead an intelligent and articulate character instead of a silent or joking one, which shows the creative differences that can arise in movie production. \n\nAlso, although Pinhead is a demon, the character's existential crisis and desire for spiritual salvation as depicted in the Hellraiser comics published by BOOM! in 2011 adds a layer of depth and complexity. It's not common to see a demonic character express such desires, which can be seen as an interesting twist to the usual depictions of such characters in popular media. \n\nLastly, actor Paul T. Taylor's approach to portraying Pinhead also provides insight into how he tried to capture the original essence of the character while incorporating his own take on it. He highlighted the importance of stillness and minimal actions in playing Pinhead and explained how he used the discomfort from the make-up and costume to enhance his portrayal of the character's sadomasochistic nature. This shows the level of dedication and thought actors can put into their roles.", "Yes, Paul T. Taylor, who portrays Pinhead in Hellraiser: Judgment, described the character as \"twisted and intelligent\". He also emphasized the stillness and eloquence of Pinhead and pointed out that his movements were economical and meaningful. Taylor took the discomfort from the make-up and costume into account, stating \"Pinhead's always in agony so he likes it. I feel like I was in character the whole time, and I don't mean that in some sort of artistic, lofty way. I mean I maintained the demeanor the whole time because I had to.\"", "Based on the provided passage, it does not explicitly state whether Pinhead was ever a \"nice person\" or if he was always evil. However, it presents him as a demon who can be reasoned and bargained with, suggesting at least some capacity for fair deals. It also mentions he seeks spiritual salvation and reaches a crisis point in his existence, showing some level of remorse or desire for redemption. Nonetheless, he is still portrayed as a mostly malevolent figure. Further information might be available in the wider Hellraiser series to provide a more comprehensive understanding of Pinhead's full character arc.", "The information provided in the context seems to have been exhausted. The article covers details about Pinhead's character, Clive Barker's insistence on him being intelligent and articulate, conflict with his portrayal, details about his actions in different Hellraiser iterations, his irreverence towards Christianity, his personal desire for spiritual salvation, and Paul T. Taylor's portrayal of Pinhead in Hellraiser: Judgment. Beyond this, there is no further information given in the provided context about the article." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

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[ "What was Pinhead's weaknesses?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What were Pinhead's limitations?", "What other kind of illusions did he have?", "What kind of powers did Pinhead have?", "What kind of realities did he warp onto himself?", "What else can you tell me about this article?", "Were there other ways he liked attacking?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1285 ], [ 597 ], [ 1883 ], [ 1744 ], [ 1627 ], [ 1991 ], [ 166 ], [ 597 ] ], "texts": [ [ "eliminates these restraints when he is separated from the part of him that is Elliot Spencer, wreaking havoc indiscriminately upon every human subject he encounters" ], [ "His magic is also used for creating objects out of thin air, teleporting, creating explosions at distances and deceiving opponents with illusions." ], [ "Peter Atkins described as him being \"spiritually weakened\" and subsequently killed by the Chanard Cenobite." ], [ "Pinhead at first has no memory of his human past, though is reminded of it in Hellbound: Hellraiser II," ], [ "his powers were apparently expanded beyond their normal limits allowing him to physically warp reality to his will." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His preferred method of attack is by summoning hooks and chains to mutilate victims, often pulling said victims in several directions to tear them apart." ], [ "His magic is also used for creating objects out of thin air, teleporting, creating explosions at distances and deceiving opponents with illusions." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1285, 597, 1883, 1744, 1627, 1991, 166, 597 ], "texts": [ "eliminates these restraints when he is separated from the part of him that is Elliot Spencer, wreaking havoc indiscriminately upon every human subject he encounters", "His magic is also used for creating objects out of thin air, teleporting, creating explosions at distances and deceiving opponents with illusions.", "Peter Atkins described as him being \"spiritually weakened\" and subsequently killed by the Chanard Cenobite.", "Pinhead at first has no memory of his human past, though is reminded of it in Hellbound: Hellraiser II,", "his powers were apparently expanded beyond their normal limits allowing him to physically warp reality to his will.", "CANNOTANSWER", "His preferred method of attack is by summoning hooks and chains to mutilate victims, often pulling said victims in several directions to tear them apart.", "His magic is also used for creating objects out of thin air, teleporting, creating explosions at distances and deceiving opponents with illusions." ] }

[]

[ "Pinhead's weaknesses include needing to be purposely summoned through the Lament Configuration to act in the physical world and being spiritually weakened when reminded of his human past. His powers are also kept in check when the part of him that is Elliot Spencer is active.", "The article highlights several interesting aspects, including Pinhead's wide range of supernatural abilities, such as summoning hooks and chains, resisting direct assault, teleporting, and creating illusions. He also has the power to create other cenobites. Furthermore, his destructive behavior is increased when he is separated from Elliot Spencer, expanding his powers and allowing him to physically warp reality. When merged with Spencer, however, his tendencies are kept under control. Another fascinating point is his selectivity in victims, as demonstrated when he spares an emotionally traumatized girl from his torture, suggesting a certain level of discernment.", "Pinhead's limitations include needing to be purposely summoned into the physical world through the Lament Configuration puzzle. While separated from Elliot Spencer, he becomes more destructive, suggesting a limitation in control over his extremes, which Spencer helps to keep in check. Additionally, being reminded of his human past weakens Pinhead, which results in him being killed by the Channard Cenobite in Hellbound: Hellraiser II.", "The text does not provide specific details about the various kinds of illusions Pinhead can create.", "Pinhead possessed several supernatural abilities, such as summoning hooks and chains, controlling these chains mentally and even changing their shape after attaching them to a victim. He was highly resistant to damage and direct assault from both traditional and futuristic weapons. He could use his magic to create objects out of thin air, teleport, create explosions at distances, and deceive opponents with illusions. Pinhead also had the power to create other cenobites from both living and dead victims. During a particular incident when he was separated from Elliot Spencer, his powers were expanded beyond their normal limits, allowing him to warp physical reality to his will.", "The text does not provide specific details about the types of realities Pinhead warped onto himself. It only mentions that his powers were enhanced beyond normal limits when he was separated from Elliot Spencer, enabling him to warp reality to his will.", "This article essentially provides a comprehensive character analysis of Pinhead, a character described as more powerful than Jason Voorhees and Michael Myers. It details Pinhead's multiple supernatural abilities, including the power to control chains for mutilation purposes, resistance to damage from weapons, and the ability to create and manipulate objects and illusions. He also has the power to create other cenobites from both living and dead victims. Importantly, the article mentions his need to be purposely summoned into the physical world and how being reminded of his human past can weaken him. The article also mentions a unique aspect of Pinhead's character: his selectivity in choosing victims based on desire rather than the mere act of summoning him.", "Based on the context given, Pinhead's preferred method of attack is by summoning hooks and chains to mutilate victims, often tearing them apart by pulling in several directions. There is no mention of any other methods of attack used by Pinhead." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What was their musical style?", "What was their favorite style to perform?", "What did the green amplifier do?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did they have any influences?", "Any other influences?", "Is there any other interesting apsects of their musical style?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 39 ], [ 290 ], [ 758 ], [ 1162 ], [ 61 ], [ 2154 ], [ 2313 ] ], "texts": [ [ "popular R&B and blues styles; then, under the influence of The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording, developed louder rock and hard rock sounds" ], [ "Dave Davies was \"really bored with this guitar sound - or lack of an interesting sound\" so he purchased \"a little green amplifier ..." ], [ "cut round the cone [from the centre to the edge] ... so it was all shredded but still on there, still intact. I played and I thought it was amazing." ], [ "From 1966 onwards, The Kinks came to be known for their adherence to traditions of English music and culture," ], [ "styles; then, under the influence of The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording," ], [ "baroque music through use of harpsichord, acoustic guitar, mellotron, and horns, and creating some of the most influential and important music of the period." ], [ "Beginning with Everybody's In Show-biz (1972), Ray Davies began exploring theatrical concepts on the group's albums;" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 39, 290, 758, 1162, 61, 2154, 2313 ], "texts": [ "popular R&B and blues styles; then, under the influence of The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording, developed louder rock and hard rock sounds", "Dave Davies was \"really bored with this guitar sound - or lack of an interesting sound\" so he purchased \"a little green amplifier ...", "cut round the cone [from the centre to the edge] ... so it was all shredded but still on there, still intact. I played and I thought it was amazing.", "From 1966 onwards, The Kinks came to be known for their adherence to traditions of English music and culture,", "styles; then, under the influence of The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording,", "baroque music through use of harpsichord, acoustic guitar, mellotron, and horns, and creating some of the most influential and important music of the period.", "Beginning with Everybody's In Show-biz (1972), Ray Davies began exploring theatrical concepts on the group's albums;" ] }

[]

[ "The Kinks started out playing R&B and blues styles before developing louder rock and hard rock sounds due to the influence of The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording. They are often labelled as \"the original punks\". From 1966 onwards, they became known for their adherence to traditions of English music and culture, incorporating elements of music hall, folk, and baroque music. They also explored theatrical concepts on their albums beginning with Everybody's In Show-biz (1972). Later, they reverted to a traditional rock format and returned to hard rock for Low Budget (1979), and continued to record within the genre throughout the remainder of their career.", "The text does not provide specific information on The Kinks' favorite style to perform.", "Dave Davies, a member of The Kinks, purchased a green amplifier, Elpico, and modified it by attaching a jack plug to the wires going to the speaker and plugging it into a larger amplifier, the AC30. However, he didn't achieve the sound he wanted until he shredded the cone of the amplifier with a razorblade. This created a jagged sound which became a mainstay in The Kinks' early recordings, particularly in the songs \"You Really Got Me\" and \"All Day and All of the Night\".", "Yes, the article notes that from 1966 The Kinks became known for their commitment to English music traditions during a time when many British bands were leaning towards American blues, R&B and pop styles. Notably, Ray Davies began writing more introspective and linguistically complex songs without Americanizing his accent. Furthermore, a ban by the American Federation of Musicians pushed them to focus on the British and European markets, further cementing their commitment to English music and culture. The band incorporated elements of music hall, folk, and baroque music into their sound, and this became some of the most influential music of the period. Also of interest is that The Kinks moved into the realm of conceptual works with theatrical themes on certain albums, but found little success and returned to more traditional rock, eventually regaining commercial success with the album Sleepwalker in 1977.", "Yes, according to the text, The Kinks were influenced by The Kingsmen's \"Louie Louie\" recording to develop louder rock and hard rock sounds.", "The text does not mention any other specific influences on The Kinks. However, it mentions that from 1966 onwards, they came to be known for their adherence to traditions of English music and culture. This suggests some level of influence from these traditions.", "Yes, another interesting aspect of The Kinks' musical style is that after being banned by the American Federation of Musicians, which forced them to focus on the British and European markets, they began to incorporate elements of other English music genres such as music hall, folk, and baroque into their songs. They also used a variety of different instruments such as the harpsichord, acoustic guitar, mellotron, and horns to create their unique sound. Later in their career, starting with the album Everybody's In Show-biz in 1972, they began to explore theatrical concepts in their music. However, they weren't successful with these conceptual works and returned to a more conventional rock format." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "what was his composition?", "how was it created?", "who created it?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "who was in the song?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 131 ], [ 1535 ], [ 500 ], [ 800 ] ], "texts": [ [ "\"Vogue\" is a house song" ], [ "\"deep house groove\" and to have a \"throbbing beat\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Madonna's vocal range spans from C4 to E5." ], [ "feature the names of 16 stars from the 1920s to the 1950s." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 131, 1535, 500, 800 ], "texts": [ "\"Vogue\" is a house song", "\"deep house groove\" and to have a \"throbbing beat\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "Madonna's vocal range spans from C4 to E5.", "feature the names of 16 stars from the 1920s to the 1950s." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on who \"his\" refers to and what \"his\" composition was.", "The context does not provide information on how \"Vogue\" was created.", "The context does not provide information on who created the song \"Vogue\".", "The context mentions that the lyrics of \"Vogue\" reference 16 Hollywood celebrities from the 1920s to the 1950s, including notable figures like Marilyn Monroe, Marlon Brando, and Fred Astaire. It is also mentioned that many of these stars received a royalty payment when Madonna performed the song at the 2012 Super Bowl and their images were used. Furthermore, the song is noted for its elements of house, disco, and dance music, and for having a theme of escapism.", "The context does not provide information on who was in the song \"Vogue\"." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "no" ]

[ "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#0", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#1", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#2", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#3", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#4", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#5", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#6", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#7", "C_24f75fe71bad4c53aee504decee009be_0_q#8" ]

[ "How did Andy Griffith get his start as a comedian", "When did he start acting?", "What was his role in that teleplay", "How did he transition into comedy from his monoloques", "What did he do after he was on the television anthology series", "How long did the show run on broadway", "What was the most interesting thing that happened to him in this time period", "Did he win any other awards", "how old was he when he started on broadway" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 379 ], [ 475 ], [ 478 ], [ 604 ], [ 690 ], [ 734 ], [ 867 ], [ 2103 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Griffith's early career was as a monologist, delivering long stories such as What It Was, Was Football, which is told from the point of view of a naive country preacher" ], [ "Griffith starred in Ira Levin's one-hour teleplay version of No Time for Sergeants (March 1955) --" ], [ "-- a story about a country boy in the United States Air Force -- on The United States Steel Hour, a television anthology series." ], [ "a story about a country boy in the United States Air Force -- on The United States Steel Hour, a television anthology series." ], [ "He expanded that role in Ira Levin's full-length theatrical version of the same name (October 1955) on Broadway in New York City." ], [ "October 1955" ], [ "The role earned him a \"Distinguished Supporting or Featured Dramatic Actor\" nomination at the 1956 Tony Awards, losing to Ed Begley." ], [ "He did win the 1956 Theatre World Award, however, a prize given for debut roles on Broadway." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 379, 475, 478, 604, 690, 734, 867, 2103 ], "texts": [ "Griffith's early career was as a monologist, delivering long stories such as What It Was, Was Football, which is told from the point of view of a naive country preacher", "Griffith starred in Ira Levin's one-hour teleplay version of No Time for Sergeants (March 1955) --", "-- a story about a country boy in the United States Air Force -- on The United States Steel Hour, a television anthology series.", "a story about a country boy in the United States Air Force -- on The United States Steel Hour, a television anthology series.", "He expanded that role in Ira Levin's full-length theatrical version of the same name (October 1955) on Broadway in New York City.", "October 1955", "The role earned him a \"Distinguished Supporting or Featured Dramatic Actor\" nomination at the 1956 Tony Awards, losing to Ed Begley.", "He did win the 1956 Theatre World Award, however, a prize given for debut roles on Broadway.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

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[ "What year was Andy Griffith born ?", "Who was his father ?", "Who was his mother ?", "What high school did he attended ?", "Did he go to college ?", "Was he an only child ?", "What did he study in college ?", "Did he write any song ?", "What was his first job after graduating from college ?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 21 ], [ 83 ], [ 115 ], [ 745 ], [ 1501 ], [ 2269 ], [ 1617 ], [ 2245 ], [ 2104 ] ], "texts": [ [ "June 1, 1926" ], [ "Carl Lee Griffith" ], [ "Geneva (Nunn)." ], [ "Mount Airy High School," ], [ "He attended the University of North Carolina (UNC)" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Music" ], [ "He also began to write." ], [ "he taught music and drama for a few years" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 21, 83, 115, 745, 1501, 2269, 1617, 2245, 2104 ], "texts": [ "June 1, 1926", "Carl Lee Griffith", "Geneva (Nunn).", "Mount Airy High School,", "He attended the University of North Carolina (UNC)", "CANNOTANSWER", "Music", "He also began to write.", "he taught music and drama for a few years" ] }

[]

[ "Andy Griffith was born on June 1, 1926.", "His father was Carl Lee Griffith.", "His mother was Geneva (Nunn).", "He attended Mount Airy High School.", "Yes, he attended the University of North Carolina (UNC) in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.", "Yes, he was an only child.", "He began college studying to be a Moravian preacher, but he changed his major to music.", "The text does not provide information on whether Andy Griffith wrote any songs.", "His first job after graduating from college was teaching music and drama at Goldsboro High School in Goldsboro, North Carolina." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "no", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#0", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#1", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#2", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#3", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#4", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#5", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#6", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#7", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#8", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_1_q#9" ]

[ "Where did he begin his career", "What year was this", "What did he do for them", "How long did this last", "What was his next job", "how long did this last", "Who did he work for", "Why is this diffrent", "Who was in charge", "Why did they move" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 21 ], [ 3 ], [ 61 ], [ 111 ], [ 131 ], [ 188 ], [ 42 ], [ 194 ], [ 302 ], [ 356 ] ], "texts": [ [ "broadcaster with the CBS Radio network," ], [ "1930," ], [ "delivering a nightly news and commentary program." ], [ "After two years," ], [ "switched to the NBC Radio network" ], [ "1947." ], [ "CBS" ], [ "In contrast to today's practices, Thomas was not an employee of either NBC News or CBS News." ], [ "he was employed by the broadcast's sponsor Sunoco." ], [ "returned to CBS to take advantage of lower capital-gains tax rates, establishing an independent company to produce the broadcast" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 21, 3, 61, 111, 131, 188, 42, 194, 302, 356 ], "texts": [ "broadcaster with the CBS Radio network,", "1930,", "delivering a nightly news and commentary program.", "After two years,", "switched to the NBC Radio network", "1947.", "CBS", "In contrast to today's practices, Thomas was not an employee of either NBC News or CBS News.", "he was employed by the broadcast's sponsor Sunoco.", "returned to CBS to take advantage of lower capital-gains tax rates, establishing an independent company to produce the broadcast" ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on where he began his career.", "The context does not provide a specific year.", "He became a broadcaster with the CBS Radio network in 1930, delivering a nightly news and commentary program. He also hosted the first-ever television news broadcast in 1939 and the first regularly scheduled television news broadcast beginning on February 21, 1940.", "He worked for CBS Radio from 1930 for two years before switching to NBC Radio. He returned to CBS in 1947. He retired in 1976, giving him a radio career of approximately four decades.", "After working for CBS Radio network in 1930, he switched to the NBC Radio network after two years.", "The context does not provide specific information on how long he worked at the NBC Radio network.", "He worked for CBS Radio network, then he switched to NBC Radio network, and returned to CBS in 1947. Before 1947, he was employed by the broadcast's sponsor Sunoco. He also established an independent company to produce broadcast which he sold to CBS.", "This was different because, unlike today's practices, Thomas was not an employee of either NBC News or CBS News, but rather was employed by the broadcast's sponsor, Sunoco, and later established his own independent company to produce the broadcast.", "The context does not provide information on who was in charge.", "He returned to CBS in 1947 to take advantage of lower capital-gains tax rates. He established an independent company to produce the broadcast, which he sold to CBS." ]

[ "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#0", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#1", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#2", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#3", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#4", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#5", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#6", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#7", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#8", "C_ad45c3ed30d84f508f070326b4b509bc_0_q#9" ]

[ "What did he do", "What is this", "WHat did he say", "What actually came out of his mouth", "What did he do", "What happened", "Who helped him", "What did he send him", "Where did he work from", "What was the joke" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 99 ], [ 237 ], [ 282 ], [ 372 ], [ 435 ], [ 565 ], [ 657 ], [ 763 ], [ 1042 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Thomas's most amusing on-air gaffe" ], [ "He was reading a story \"cold\" (going on the air without pre-reading his copy, contrary to his usual practice" ], [ "She suffered a near fatal heart attack\". The line came out of Thomas's mouth as" ], [ "line came out of Thomas's mouth as \"She suffered a near fart ... err fatal heart attack\"." ], [ "Realizing instantly what he had said, he tried to continue" ], [ "eventually collapsed into gales of laughter, which continued into - and beyond - his announcer's chuckling sign-off for the day." ], [ "Thomas' long-time friend and ghostwriter Prosper Buranelli wrote the nightly newscasts." ], [ "day's script was sent by teletype to Thomas' home in Pawling, NY" ], [ "One evening, Buranelli's final story was about an actress going into a Los Angeles hotel with a Great Dane." ], [ "Thomas read the story as written with Buranelli's comment, \"Who ever thought a piece of tail was worth 10 grand?\"" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 99, 237, 282, 372, 435, 565, 657, 763, 1042 ], "texts": [ "Thomas's most amusing on-air gaffe", "He was reading a story \"cold\" (going on the air without pre-reading his copy, contrary to his usual practice", "She suffered a near fatal heart attack\". The line came out of Thomas's mouth as", "line came out of Thomas's mouth as \"She suffered a near fart ... err fatal heart attack\".", "Realizing instantly what he had said, he tried to continue", "eventually collapsed into gales of laughter, which continued into - and beyond - his announcer's chuckling sign-off for the day.", "Thomas' long-time friend and ghostwriter Prosper Buranelli wrote the nightly newscasts.", "day's script was sent by teletype to Thomas' home in Pawling, NY", "One evening, Buranelli's final story was about an actress going into a Los Angeles hotel with a Great Dane.", "Thomas read the story as written with Buranelli's comment, \"Who ever thought a piece of tail was worth 10 grand?\"" ] }

[]

[ "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#0", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#1", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#2", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#3", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#4", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#5", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#6", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#7", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#8", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#9", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_0_q#10" ]

[ "When did Abner Doubleday have a relationship with baseball?", "How did he invent baseball?", "When did he invent baseball?", "Who played baseball after Doubleday invented it?", "Why is baseball interesting with Doubleday?", "What happened after he invented baseball?", "What did Mills say about Doubleday?", "How did Doubleday describe baseball?", "What is the significance of Doubleday inventing baseball?", "who never recalled hearing Doubleday described as inventor?", "Did anyone else speak of Doubleday in regards to baseball?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 122 ], [ 122 ], [ 256 ], [ 3242 ], [ 2624 ], [ 296 ], [ 493 ], [ 3242 ], [ 1836 ], [ 1674 ], [ 3242 ] ], "texts": [ [ "he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839." ], [ "he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball," ], [ "1839." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "There may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday." ], [ "Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball." ], [ "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor." ], [ "Chairman Mills" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 122, 122, 256, 3242, 2624, 296, 493, 3242, 1836, 1674, 3242 ], "texts": [ "he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.", "he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball,", "1839.", "CANNOTANSWER", "There may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday.", "Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball.", "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor.", "Chairman Mills", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide specific information on when Abner Doubleday had a relationship with baseball.", "The text does not provide specific information on how Abner Doubleday invented baseball. It is mentioned that a claim was made stating he devised the first scheme for playing baseball in 1839 in Cooperstown, New York. However, this claim is disputed and considered a myth by many scholars.", "According to the disputed claim by the Mills Commission, Abner Doubleday supposedly invented baseball in 1839. However, several scholars dispute this claim.", "No specific individuals or groups are mentioned in the text as playing baseball after Abner Doubleday supposedly invented it.", "Abner Doubleday is interesting in the context of baseball due to a long-standing myth that he was the inventor of the game. The Mills Commission's 1907 report proclaimed Doubleday as the originator of baseball, a claim which has been largely debunked by historians yet remains an enduring part of baseball folklore. This myth has notably contributed to Doubleday's fame and the continuing interest in his supposed connection to the game.", "The text does not provide specific details on what happened immediately after Abner Doubleday was said to have invented baseball. However, the text mentions that the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s and spread throughout the country via New Yorkers. Over time, baseball grew in popularity, with Cooperstown, New York, the supposed location of the invention of the game, becoming the home of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1937.", "The Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, declared in a report in 1907 that according to the best evidence they could find, Abner Doubleday had devised the first scheme for playing baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. They further predicted that Doubleday's fame would rest as much on being the inventor of baseball as on his distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army. However, it is also noted in the text that Mills, who knew Doubleday personally, never recalled hearing him claim to be the inventor of the game.", "The text does not provide any information about how Abner Doubleday described baseball. In fact, the text mentions that Doubleday left many documents and letters at his death that do not mention baseball or suggest that he considered himself a key figure in the evolution of the game.", "The supposed invention of baseball by Abner Doubleday is significant because it has become a part of baseball folklore and has contributed to his fame. The Mills Commission's report in 1907 claimed Doubleday was the originator of the game, predicting his fame would rest as much upon being its inventor as on his military career. Despite considerable historical evidence refuting this claim, the myth has proved powerful in the American imagination, likely supported by the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown. This enduring myth led to Cooperstown, New York becoming the home to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.", "Abraham G. Mills, who was the chairman of the Mills Commission and had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor of baseball.", "The text mentions that Abner Graves provided testimony to the Mills Commission, connecting Abner Doubleday to the origins of baseball. However, Graves's credibility is questionable due to his subsequent commitment to an institution for the criminally insane. No other individuals are mentioned in the text as speaking of Doubleday in regards to baseball." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#0", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#1", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#2", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#3", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#4", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#5", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#6", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#7", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#8", "C_24e3179a47b04860be8b9746a2b95e16_1_q#9" ]

[ "what was his role in Gettysburg?", "what side did he fight on?", "who were some of his comrades?", "what were some of his victories in the battle?", "did he win the battle?", "did he kill anyone?", "what was the end of the battle like for him?", "did he receive any medals?", "who was his commanding officer?", "what was their relationship like?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 56 ], [ 136 ], [ 1184 ], [ 679 ], [ 476 ], [ 762 ], [ 991 ], [ 2168 ], [ 1184 ], [ 1510 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to" ], [ "the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford." ], [ "Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade" ], [ "leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades" ], [ "their line eventually broke" ], [ "Seven of those brigades sustained casualties" ], [ "the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle;" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade" ], [ "Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 56, 136, 1184, 679, 476, 762, 991, 2168, 1184, 1510 ], "texts": [ "Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to", "the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford.", "Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade", "leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades", "their line eventually broke", "Seven of those brigades sustained casualties", "the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle;", "CANNOTANSWER", "Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade", "Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness," ] }

[]

[ "Doubleday's role in Gettysburg started as the leader of the second infantry division of the Union army. Upon the death of his corps commander, Major General John F. Reynolds, Doubleday took command of the corps and led his men against Confederate forces in a hard-fought battle. After the battle, he was replaced as commander by Major General John Newton despite his performance. Doubleday then returned to division command and fought for the remainder of the battle. He was wounded on the second day and received a brevet promotion to colonel for his service. Despite requesting reinstatement as I Corps commander, his request was refused and he left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.", "Doubleday fought on the Union side during the Battle of Gettysburg.", "Some of Doubleday's comrades mentioned in the text include Brigadier General John Buford, Major General John F. Reynolds, and Maj. Gen. George G. Meade. Major General John Newton also becomes involved later but is not initially identified as a comrade. Major General Oliver O. Howard is mentioned but in a negative context as having falsely reported Doubleday's actions during the battle.", "The text does not specifically outline any of Doubleday's victories in the Battle of Gettysburg, but it does mention that his men fought well and put up a stout resistance against overwhelming Confederate forces. It also mentions that seven of the Confederate brigades they fought against sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense led by Doubleday. However, his division eventually had to retreat.", "The text does not provide specific information on whether Doubleday individually won the Battle of Gettysburg. It mentions that his men retreated due to overwhelming Confederate forces. Although he was replaced as the corps commander, he fought well for the remainder of the battle. However, the outcome of the battle in regard to Doubleday's personal involvement is not detailed.", "The text does not provide any information on whether Doubleday killed anyone during the Battle of Gettysburg.", "The end of the battle for Doubleday was marked by him being wounded in the neck on the second day. Despite his performance, he was replaced as commander by Major General John Newton and returned to division command for the remainder of the battle. He received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service in the battle. After formally requesting reinstatement as I Corps commander and being refused, Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.", "The text does not mention Doubleday receiving any medals for his role in the Battle of Gettysburg. However, he did receive a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service.", "Doubleday's commanding officer at the start of the Battle of Gettysburg was Major General John F. Reynolds. However, Reynolds was killed early in the fighting, leaving Doubleday in command of the corps.", "The text does not provide information on the relationship between Doubleday and his commanding officer, Major General John F. Reynolds." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "no", "No", "Yes", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#0", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#1", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#2", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#3", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#4", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#5", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#6", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_0_q#7" ]

[ "What is Epistemology?", "What was Putnam's \"brain in a vat\" experiment?", "What did the experiment prove?", "How did it explain metaphysical realism?", "When was this experiment performed?", "Was this experiment done on humans?", "What else was notable about epistemology?", "Did Putnam originally theorize that metaphysical realism was possible?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 483 ], [ 1407 ], [ 1761 ], [ 2060 ], [ 2060 ], [ 1910 ], [ 2060 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In the field of epistemology, Putnam is known for his \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment (a modernized version of Descartes's evil demon hypothesis)." ], [ "if some person, Mary, were a \"brain in a vat\", whose every experience is received through wiring and other gadgetry created by the \"mad scientist" ], [ "Putnam has clarified that his real target in this argument was never skepticism, but metaphysical realism." ], [ "such a scenario is impossible, attempts to show that this notion of a gap between man's concept of the world and the way it is, is in itself absurd." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Man cannot have a \"God's eye\" view of reality. He is limited to his conceptual schemes. Metaphysical realism is therefore false, according to Putnam." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 483, 1407, 1761, 2060, 2060, 1910, 2060 ], "texts": [ "In the field of epistemology, Putnam is known for his \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment (a modernized version of Descartes's evil demon hypothesis).", "if some person, Mary, were a \"brain in a vat\", whose every experience is received through wiring and other gadgetry created by the \"mad scientist", "Putnam has clarified that his real target in this argument was never skepticism, but metaphysical realism.", "such a scenario is impossible, attempts to show that this notion of a gap between man's concept of the world and the way it is, is in itself absurd.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "Man cannot have a \"God's eye\" view of reality. He is limited to his conceptual schemes. Metaphysical realism is therefore false, according to Putnam.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide a definition or explanation of what Epistemology is. CANNOTANSWER", "Putnam's \"brain in a vat\" is a philosophical thought experiment. It suggests the argument that one cannot coherently state that one is a disembodied \"brain in a vat\" placed there by a \"mad scientist\". This idea is based on the causal theory of reference, according to which the words always refer to the kinds of things they were coined to refer to. For instance, if a person were a \"brain in a vat\", they would have never seen a real brain or vat, and their understanding of these concepts would be based on images provided by their environment. Therefore, the statement \"I'm a brain in a vat\" is inherently incoherent, as they would be referring to brain-images in vat-images. Similarly, if the person is not a brain in a vat, the statement remains incoherent as they'll mean the opposite. This is part of Putnam's epistemological externalism, where knowledge or justification depends on factors outside the mind.", "Putnam's \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment was used to argue against metaphysical realism. According to Putnam, metaphysical realism assumes a gap between how man conceives the world and how the world actually is. Through the thought experiment, Putnam argued that such skeptical scenarios that propose this gap were impossible, and thus, the concept of a gap between man's concept of the world and reality itself is absurd. Putnam was suggesting that man cannot have a \"God's eye\" view of reality and is only limited to his conceptual schemes. As such, Putnam argues that metaphysical realism is false.", "Putnam uses his \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment to argue against metaphysical realism. Metaphysical realism assumes a gap between how humans conceive the world and how it really is. According to Putnam's argument, metaphysical realism proposes a \"God's eye\" view of reality that humans can't have, as they are limited to their conceptual schemes. He suggests that the existence of a gap between man's concept of the world and the real world is absurd. Therefore, from Putnam's perspective, the thought experiment demonstrates that metaphysical realism is false because it proposes an unachievable view of reality.", "The text does not provide specific information on when Putnam's \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment was performed. CANNOTANSWER", "The \"brain in a vat\" is a thought experiment proposed by Putnam in the field of epistemology. It is not a physical experiment performed on humans, but a philosophical proposition designed to explore and challenge certain assumptions about knowledge, reality, and human perception.", "The text does not provide any additional information about the field of epistemology outside of its connection to Putnam's \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment. CANNOTANSWER", "The text does not provide information on whether Putnam originally theorized that metaphysical realism was possible. The text only mentions that Putnam used his \"brain in a vat\" thought experiment to argue against metaphysical realism. CANNOTANSWER" ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#0", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#1", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#2", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#3", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#4", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#5", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#6", "C_7e5e1fa4caa846fcb76db700e82dd3d1_1_q#7" ]

[ "What is multiple realizability?", "Were there any notable people working on it?", "Did they differ in opinion?", "What was said about the theory?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What were the examples?", "How else did they experiment?", "What did he discover through this?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2526 ], [ 2388 ], [ 3040 ], [ 2910 ], [ 587 ], [ 942 ], [ 1021 ], [ 1357 ] ], "texts": [ [ "implies that any low-level explanation of higher-level mental phenomena is insufficiently abstract and general." ], [ "Jerry Fodor, Putnam, and others" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "there are many functional kinds, such as mousetraps, software and bookshelves, which are multiply realized at the physical level." ], [ "Putnam cited examples from the animal kingdom to illustrate his thesis." ], [ "mental states were realized by different physical states in different species." ], [ "Putnam then took his argument a step further, asking about such things as the nervous systems of alien beings, artificially intelligent robots and other silicon-based life forms." ], [ "Putnam concluded that type-identity theorists had been making an \"ambitious\" and \"highly implausible\" conjecture which could be disproven with one example of multiple realizability." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2526, 2388, 3040, 2910, 587, 942, 1021, 1357 ], "texts": [ "implies that any low-level explanation of higher-level mental phenomena is insufficiently abstract and general.", "Jerry Fodor, Putnam, and others", "CANNOTANSWER", "there are many functional kinds, such as mousetraps, software and bookshelves, which are multiply realized at the physical level.", "Putnam cited examples from the animal kingdom to illustrate his thesis.", "mental states were realized by different physical states in different species.", "Putnam then took his argument a step further, asking about such things as the nervous systems of alien beings, artificially intelligent robots and other silicon-based life forms.", "Putnam concluded that type-identity theorists had been making an \"ambitious\" and \"highly implausible\" conjecture which could be disproven with one example of multiple realizability." ] }

[]

[ "Multiple realizability, as described in Putnam's thesis, is the idea that a particular mental state, such as \"being in pain\", can correspond to completely different physical states in the nervous system depending on the organism experiencing it. This hypothesis challenges the type-identity theory that equates specific mental states with specific physical states, like \"Pain is identical to C-fibre firing.\" Putnam argued that mental states could be realized by different physical states in different species, including hypothetical entities like artificially intelligent robots or alien beings. It implies that two functionally isomorphic systems (different systems with states that share the same relation to one another) but diverse constitutionally could experience the same mental state.", "Yes, along with Hilary Putnam, philosopher Jerry Fodor also worked on the concept of multiple realizability. They noted that this concept was an effective argument against type-identity theories. They also suggested that multiple realizability implies that any low-level explanation of higher-level mental phenomena is insufficient, indicating the need for a more abstract and general explanation such as functionalism.", "The text does not provide information on whether Hilary Putnam and Jerry Fodor differed in their opinions on multiple realizability.", "Multiple realizability was proposed as a hypothesis by Hilary Putnam in several key papers from the late 1960s. According to this theory, specific mental states do not necessarily correspond to specific physical states in the same way across all organisms. Putnam used examples from various species and posed hypothetical situations about alien life forms or artificially intelligent robots to assert that the experience of mental states such as pain could be realized through very different physical states. This argued against the type-identity theory's claim, which equated specific mental states with specific physical states. Jerry Fodor and others noted that this concept was effective against type-identity theories and suggested that it indicated low-level explanations of higher-level mental phenomena were insufficient. Multiple realizability seemed to support an explanation of the mind-body relation through functionalism, which abstracts from the level of microphysics.", "The text provides interesting points of discussion around Hilary Putnam's arguments against the type-identity theory. Two significant arguments Putnam formulated that stand out are the \"likelihood argument\" and \"functional isomorphism\". The likelihood argument maintains that it is highly unlikely that diverse species have the same mental states, as they do not share the same brain structures. Functional isomorphism, on the other hand, maintains that two systems can be functionally identical even though they are made up of entirely different material components, thereby supporting the concept of multiple realizability. Furthermore, the perspective brought forth by Putnam and supported by others, that low-level explanations of mental phenomena might be insufficient and a higher level of abstraction, like functionalism, might be necessary, is also a thought-provoking point. Finally, Putnam's consideration of not only different animal species but also hypothetical entities like alien beings and artificially intelligent life forms adds an intriguing breadth to the discussion of mind and consciousness.", "Putnam cited examples from the animal kingdom, asking whether the brain structures of diverse types of animals realize pain, or other mental states, the same way. He suggested that if they do not share the same brain structures, they cannot share the same mental states and properties. He also extended his argument to hypothetical entities such as the nervous systems of alien beings, artificially intelligent robots, and other silicon-based life forms, contending that they should not be considered incapable of experiencing pain just because they lack the same neurochemistry as humans.", "The text does not provide information on how Hilary Putnam or Jerry Fodor conducted any experiments on multiple realizability.", "Through his exploration of the concept of multiple realizability, Hilary Putnam challenged the type-identity theory, which suggested a direct correlation between specific mental and physical states. Putnam concluded that mental states could correspond to different physical states in the nervous system across different organisms and even hypothetical entities who do not share the same neurochemistry as humans. This suggested that two systems could be functionally isomorphic (sharing the same relation of states) but constitutionally diverse. Putnam, along with others like Jerry Fodor, also noted that multiple realizability implied any low-level explanation of higher-level mental phenomena was insufficient, indicating a need for more abstract, functional kind explanations of the mind-body relation." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What threats and shooting was there?", "What more happened?", "What was the result of this?", "What was the aftermath of the shooting?", "What legal punishments were given?", "What were the results of the case?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 911 ], [ 1224 ], [ 1428 ], [ 1573 ], [ 2472 ], [ 2475 ] ], "texts": [ [ "On October 15, 1938, Snyder detained Myrl Alderman at a local radio station and forced the pianist to take him to his former wife at gunpoint." ], [ "Snyder held Etting and Alderman at gunpoint; when told his daughter was in another part of the house, he made Etting call her into the room." ], [ "quiet. When Myrl Alderman attempted to speak, Snyder shot him. Snyder then told his ex-wife, \"I've had my revenge, so you can call the police.\"" ], [ "Snyder claimed Myrl Alderman pulled a gun and shot at him first and that his ex-wife would not file charges against him because she still loved him." ], [ "\". Snyder was accused of attempting to murder his ex-wife, his daughter, and Etting's accompanist, Myrl Alderman, the kidnapping of Alderman," ], [ "Snyder was accused of attempting to murder his ex-wife," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 911, 1224, 1428, 1573, 2472, 2475 ], "texts": [ "On October 15, 1938, Snyder detained Myrl Alderman at a local radio station and forced the pianist to take him to his former wife at gunpoint.", "Snyder held Etting and Alderman at gunpoint; when told his daughter was in another part of the house, he made Etting call her into the room.", "quiet. When Myrl Alderman attempted to speak, Snyder shot him. Snyder then told his ex-wife, \"I've had my revenge, so you can call the police.\"", "Snyder claimed Myrl Alderman pulled a gun and shot at him first and that his ex-wife would not file charges against him because she still loved him.", "\". Snyder was accused of attempting to murder his ex-wife, his daughter, and Etting's accompanist, Myrl Alderman, the kidnapping of Alderman,", "Snyder was accused of attempting to murder his ex-wife," ] }

[]

[ "In January 1938, Etting began receiving threatening phone calls from her ex-husband, Snyder. He threatened to kill her because he believed she was seeing another man and that she had withheld assets from him during their divorce. On October 15, 1938, Snyder detained Myrl Alderman, Etting's pianist and love interest, at a local radio station and forced him to lead him to Etting’s home at gunpoint. When they got there, Snyder threatened to kill Etting, Alderman, and his own daughter, Edith. When Alderman tried to intervene, Snyder shot him. Later, during a struggle, Etting's firearm landed on the floor. Edith Snyder picked it up and shot at her father, but missed and hit the floor instead. Snyder later claimed that Alderman had pulled a gun on him first and that he was under the influence of alcohol when he made the initial telephone threats to Etting.", "After Snyder shot Myrl Alderman, he claimed that he had his revenge and told Ruth Etting that she could call the police. Snyder stated that Alderman had shot at him first and that Etting wouldn't press charges against him because she still loved him. When Etting retrieved her own gun, Snyder managed to take it from her. His daughter, Edith, then picked up the gun and attempted to shoot her father but missed, hitting the floor instead. Following these events, three days later during a police reenactment, Edith was emotionally conflicted whether she was glad or sorry she missed shooting her father. Snyder was finally charged with attempted murder of his ex-wife, his daughter, and Alderman, as well as kidnapping Alderman and violating California state gun laws.", "The text does not provide any information on the result of these events.", "The text does not provide any information on the aftermath of the shooting.", "The text does not provide any information about the legal punishments given to Snyder.", "The text does not provide any information about the results of the case." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No" ]

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[ "Was there anything special about her personal life?", "Did she have any hobbies or special interests?", "Where did her hobbies and interest take her in her career?", "was she successful in her career?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Did she ever work with anyone famous?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 534 ], [ 844 ], [ 1170 ], [ 1249 ], [ 3744 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Etting was born in David City, Nebraska in 1897 to Alfred, a banker, and Winifred (nee Kleinhan) Etting." ], [ "Etting was interested in drawing at an early age; she drew and sketched anywhere she was able." ], [ "Etting got a job designing costumes at the Marigold Gardens nightclub, which led to employment singing and dancing in the chorus there." ], [ "she was successful enough to earn a partnership in the shop through her work." ], [ "While she enjoyed singing at school and in church, Etting never took voice lessons." ], [ "She went on to appear in a number of other hit shows in rapid succession, including Ziegfeld's Simple Simon and Whoopee" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 534, 844, 1170, 1249, 3744 ], "texts": [ "Etting was born in David City, Nebraska in 1897 to Alfred, a banker, and Winifred (nee Kleinhan) Etting.", "Etting was interested in drawing at an early age; she drew and sketched anywhere she was able.", "Etting got a job designing costumes at the Marigold Gardens nightclub, which led to employment singing and dancing in the chorus there.", "she was successful enough to earn a partnership in the shop through her work.", "While she enjoyed singing at school and in church, Etting never took voice lessons.", "She went on to appear in a number of other hit shows in rapid succession, including Ziegfeld's Simple Simon and Whoopee" ] }

[]

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[ "Where was Theodore Roosevelt born?", "Who was his mother?", "What type of work did his father do?", "Did Roosevelt have any siblings?", "What were his interests in his early life?", "Did he have any hobbies while growing up?", "Did he ever overcome his asthma and poor health?", "Were there any influential figures in his early life?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What did he do with the seal's head?", "Did his interest in taxidermy or zoology lead him to do anything else?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 134 ], [ 180 ], [ 234 ], [ 1066 ], [ 1391 ], [ 1308 ], [ 1891 ], [ 1486 ], [ 1612 ], [ 1784 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at East 20th Street in New York City." ], [ "socialite Martha Stewart \"Mittie\" Bulloch" ], [ "businessman and philanthropist" ], [ "He had an older sister, Anna (nicknamed \"Bamie\"), a younger brother, Elliott, and a younger sister, Corinne." ], [ "Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma." ], [ "His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market;" ], [ "Doctors had no cure." ], [ "Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him." ], [ "after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the \"Roosevelt Museum of Natural History\"." ], [ "Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught;" ], [ "At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled \"The Natural History of Insects\"." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 134, 180, 234, 1066, 1391, 1308, 1891, 1486, 1612, 1784 ], "texts": [ "Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27, 1858, at East 20th Street in New York City.", "socialite Martha Stewart \"Mittie\" Bulloch", "businessman and philanthropist", "He had an older sister, Anna (nicknamed \"Bamie\"), a younger brother, Elliott, and a younger sister, Corinne.", "Roosevelt's youth was largely shaped by his poor health and debilitating asthma.", "His lifelong interest in zoology began at age seven when he saw a dead seal at a local market;", "Doctors had no cure.", "Roosevelt's father significantly influenced him.", "after obtaining the seal's head, Roosevelt and two cousins formed what they called the \"Roosevelt Museum of Natural History\".", "Having learned the rudiments of taxidermy, he filled his makeshift museum with animals that he killed or caught;", "At age nine, he recorded his observation of insects in a paper entitled \"The Natural History of Insects\"." ] }

[ { "text": "Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.\n\nIt may be used positively in the context of a \"political solution\" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as \"the art or science of government\", but also often carries a negative connotation. The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or limitedly, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.\n\nA variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal and external force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.\n\nIn modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.\n\nA political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra.\n\nEtymology \nThe English politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle's classic work, Politiká, which introduced the Greek term (). In the mid-15th century, Aristotle's composition would be rendered in Early Modern English as , which would become Politics in Modern English.\n\nThe singular politic first attested in English in 1430, coming from Middle French —itself taking from , a Latinization of the Greek () from () and ().\n\nDefinitions \n Harold Lasswell: \"who gets what, when, how\"\n David Easton: \"the authoritative allocation of values for a society\"\n Vladimir Lenin: \"the most concentrated expression of economics\"\n Otto von Bismarck: \"the capacity of always choosing at each instant, in constantly changing situations, the least harmful, the most useful\"\n Bernard Crick: \"a distinctive form of rule whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences\"\n Adrian Leftwich: \"comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies\"\n\nApproaches \nThere are several ways in which approaching politics has been conceptualized.\n\nExtensive and limited \nAdrian Leftwich has differentiated views of politics based on how extensive or limited their perception of what accounts as 'political' is. The extensive view sees politics as present across the sphere of human social relations, while the limited view restricts it to certain contexts. For example, in a more restrictive way, politics may be viewed as primarily about governance, while a feminist perspective could argue that sites which have been viewed traditionally as non-political, should indeed be viewed as political as well. This latter position is encapsulated in the slogan \"the personal is political,\" which disputes the distinction between private and public issues. Politics may also be defined by the use of power, as has been argued by Robert A. Dahl.\n\nMoralism and realism \nSome perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while others see it as a social function with a normative basis. This distinction has been called the difference between political moralism and political realism. For moralists, politics is closely linked to ethics, and is at its extreme in utopian thinking. For example, according to Hannah Arendt, the view of Aristotle was that \"to be political…meant that everything was decided through words and persuasion and not through violence;\" while according to Bernard Crick \"politics is the way in which free societies are governed. Politics is politics and other forms of rule are something else.\" In contrast, for realists, represented by those such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, and Harold Lasswell, politics is based on the use of power, irrespective of the ends being pursued.\n\nConflict and co-operation \nAgonism argues that politics essentially comes down to conflict between conflicting interests. Political scientist Elmer Schattschneider argued that \"at the root of all politics is the universal language of conflict,\" while for Carl Schmitt the essence of politics is the distinction of 'friend' from foe'. This is in direct contrast to the more co-operative views of politics by Aristotle and Crick. However, a more mixed view between these extremes is provided by Irish political scientist Michael Laver, who noted that:Politics is about the characteristic blend of conflict and co-operation that can be found so often in human interactions. Pure conflict is war. Pure co-operation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both.\n\nHistory \n\nThe history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of government.\n\nPrehistoric \nFrans de Waal argued that chimpanzees engage in politics through \"social manipulation to secure and maintain influential positions.\" Early human forms of social organization—bands and tribes—lacked centralized political structures. These are sometimes referred to as stateless societies.\n\nEarly states \nIn ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states have today, and their borders could be more accurately described as frontiers. Early dynastic Sumer, and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their borders. Moreover, up to the 12th century, many people lived in non-state societies. These range from relatively egalitarian bands and tribes to complex and highly stratified chiefdoms.\n\nState formation \n\nThere are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.\n\nVoluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest. The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis, which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.\n\nConflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states. In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation.\n\nAncient history \nThe first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt, which arose from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively around approximately 3000 BCE. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed. Early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia with its borders extending from the Persian Gulf to parts of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.\n\nEgyptians, Romans, and the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.\n\nSeveral important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states (polis) and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population; in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.\n\nModern states \n\nThe Peace of Westphalia (1648) is considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system, in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs. The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel. States became the primary institutional agents in an interstate system of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The \"Westphalian\" doctrine of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th century thought of nationalism, under which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations—groups of people united by language and culture.\n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multinational empires: the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire. Such empires also existed in Asia, Africa, and the Americas; in the Muslim world, immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632, Caliphates were established, which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. The multinational empire was an absolute monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. A few of the smaller states survived, such as the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino.\n\nMost theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy, and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic. Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, Michel Foucault, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state did not arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention. Rather, the nation state is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined with cartography and advances in map-making technologies.\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. National self-determination was a key aspect of United States President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, leading to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, while the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War. Decolonization lead to the creation of new nation states in place of multinational empires in the Third World.\n\nGlobalization \n\nPolitical globalization began in the 20th century through intergovernmental organizations and supranational unions. The League of Nations was founded after World War I, and after World War II it was replaced by the United Nations. Various international treaties have been signed through it. Regional integration has been pursued by the African Union, ASEAN, the European Union, and Mercosur. International political institutions on the international level include the International Criminal Court, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization.\n\nPolitical science \n\nThe study of politics is called political science, or politology. It comprises numerous subfields, including comparative politics, political economy, international relations, political philosophy, public administration, public policy, gender and politics, and political methodology. Furthermore, political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, geography, psychology/psychiatry, anthropology, and neurosciences.\n\nComparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political philosophy is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.\n\nPolitical science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research, and cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.\n\nPolitical system \n\nThe political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. According to David Easton, \"A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society.\" Each political system is embedded in a society with its own political culture, and they in turn shape their societies through public policy. The interactions between different political systems are the basis for global politics.\n\nForms of government \n\nForms of government can be classified by several ways. In terms of the structure of power, there are monarchies (including constitutional monarchies) and republics (usually presidential, semi-presidential, or parliamentary).\n\nThe separation of powers describes the degree of horizontal integration between the legislature, the executive, the judiciary, and other independent institutions.\n\nSource of power \n\nThe source of power determines the difference between democracies, oligarchies, and autocracies.\n\nIn a democracy, political legitimacy is based on popular sovereignty. Forms of democracy include representative democracy, direct democracy, and demarchy. These are separated by the way decisions are made, whether by elected representatives, referendums, or by citizen juries. Democracies can be either republics or constitutional monarchies.\n\nOligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules. These may be in the form of anocracy, aristocracy, ergatocracy, geniocracy, gerontocracy, kakistocracy, kleptocracy, meritocracy, noocracy, particracy, plutocracy, stratocracy, technocracy, theocracy, or timocracy.\n\nAutocracies are either dictatorships (including military dictatorships) or absolute monarchies.\n\nVertical integration \nIn terms of level of vertical integration, political systems can be divided into (from least to most integrated) confederations, federations, and unitary states.\n\nA federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Federations were formed first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1871 and in 1901, Australia. Compared to a federation, a confederation has less centralized power.\n\nState \n\nAll the above forms of government are variations of the same basic polity, the sovereign state. The state has been defined by Max Weber as a political entity that has monopoly on violence within its territory, while the Montevideo Convention holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations.\n\nA stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state. In stateless societies, there is little concentration of authority; most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power and are generally not permanently held positions; and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small. Stateless societies are highly variable in economic organization and cultural practices.\n\nWhile stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state. In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them.\n\nSome political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of anarchism is the advocacy of society without states. The type of society sought for varies significantly between anarchist schools of thought, ranging from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. In Marxism, Marx's theory of the state considers that in a post-capitalist society the state, an undesirable institution, would be unnecessary and wither away. A related concept is that of stateless communism, a phrase sometimes used to describe Marx's anticipated post-capitalist society.\n\nConstitutions \nConstitutions are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the legislative and judiciary branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but after the Restoration abandoned them to be taken up later by the American Colonies after their emancipation and then France after the Revolution and the rest of Europe including the European colonies.\n\nConstitutions often set out separation of powers, dividing the government into the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary (together referred to as the trias politica), in order to achieve checks and balances within the state. Additional independent branches may also be created, including civil service commissions, election commissions, and supreme audit institutions.\n\nPolitical culture \n\nPolitical culture describes how culture impacts politics. Every political system is embedded in a particular political culture. Lucian Pye's definition is that \"Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system\".\n\nTrust is a major factor in political culture, as its level determines the capacity of the state to function. Postmaterialism is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as human rights and environmentalism. Religion has also an impact on political culture.\n\nPolitical dysfunction\n\nPolitical corruption \n\nPolitical corruption is the use of powers for illegitimate private gain, conducted by government officials or their network contacts. Forms of political corruption include bribery, cronyism, nepotism, and political patronage. Forms of political patronage, in turn, includes clientelism, earmarking, pork barreling, slush funds, and spoils systems; as well as political machines, which is a political system that operates for corrupt ends.\n\nWhen corruption is embedded in political culture, this may be referred to as patrimonialism or neopatrimonialism. A form of government that is built on corruption is called a kleptocracy ('rule of thieves').\n\nLevels of politics\n\nMacropolitics \n\nMacropolitics can either describe political issues that affect an entire political system (e.g. the nation state), or refer to interactions between political systems (e.g. international relations).\n\nGlobal politics (or world politics) covers all aspects of politics that affect multiple political systems, in practice meaning any political phenomenon crossing national borders. This can include cities, nation-states, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and/or international organizations. An important element is international relations: the relations between nation-states may be peaceful when they are conducted through diplomacy, or they may be violent, which is described as war. States that are able to exert strong international influence are referred to as superpowers, whereas less-powerful ones may be called regional or middle powers. The international system of power is called the world order, which is affected by the balance of power that defines the degree of polarity in the system. Emerging powers are potentially destabilizing to it, especially if they display revanchism or irredentism.\n\nPolitics inside the limits of political systems, which in contemporary context correspond to national borders, are referred to as domestic politics. This includes most forms of public policy, such as social policy, economic policy, or law enforcement, which are executed by the state bureaucracy.\n\nMesopolitics \nMesopolitics describes the politics of intermediary structures within a political system, such as national political parties or movements.\n\nA political party is a political organization that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within government, usually by participating in political campaigns, educational outreach, or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision, bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition among disparate interests.\n\nPolitical parties within a particular political system together form the party system, which can be either multiparty, two-party, dominant-party, or one-party, depending on the level of pluralism. This is affected by characteristics of the political system, including its electoral system. According to Duverger's law, first-past-the-post systems are likely to lead to two-party systems, while proportional representation systems are more likely to create a multiparty system.\n\nMicropolitics \nMicropolitics describes the actions of individual actors within the political system. This is often described as political participation. Political participation may take many forms, including:\n Activism\n Boycott\n Civil disobedience\n Demonstration\n Petition\n Picketing\n Strike action\n Tax resistance\n Voting (or its opposite, abstentionism)\n\nPolitical values\n\nDemocracy \n\nDemocracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.\n\nAmong modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: aggregative, deliberative, and radical.\n\nAggregative \nThe theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit the preferences of citizens, and aggregate them together to determine what social policies the society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.\n\nDifferent variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not \"rule\" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.\n\nAccording to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.\n\nGovernments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.\n\nRobert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that \"democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal.\"\n\nDeliberative \n\nDeliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.\n\nRadical \n\nRadical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes.\n\nEquality \n\nEquality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same social status, especially socioeconomic status, including protection of human rights and dignity, and equal access to certain social goods and social services. Furthermore, it may also include health equality, economic equality and other social securities. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced social class or caste boundaries and the absence of discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity. To this end there must be equal justice under law, and equal opportunity regardless of, for example, sex, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, origin, caste or class, income or property, language, religion, convictions, opinions, health or disability.\n\nLeft–right spectrum \nA common way of understanding politics is through the left–right political spectrum, which ranges from left-wing politics via centrism to right-wing politics. This classification is comparatively recent and dates from the French Revolution, when those members of the National Assembly who supported the republic, the common people and a secular society sat on the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the Church sat on the right.\n\nToday, the left is generally progressivist, seeking social progress in society. The more extreme elements of the left, named the far-left, tend to support revolutionary means for achieving this. This includes ideologies such as Communism and Marxism. The center-left, on the other hand, advocate for more reformist approaches, for example that of social democracy.\n\nIn contrast, the right is generally motivated by conservatism, which seeks to conserve what it sees as the important elements of society such as law and order, limited federal government and preserving individual freedoms. The far-right goes beyond this, and often represents a reactionary turn against progress, seeking to undo it. Examples of such ideologies have included Fascism and Nazism. The center-right may be less clear-cut and more mixed in this regard, with neoconservatives supporting the spread of free markets and capitalism, and one-nation conservatives more open to social welfare programs.\n\nAccording to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality—believing it to be unethical or unnatural, while the right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.\nSome ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right-wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, \"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles.\" Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Fascist Terza Posizione economic politics in Italy and Peronism in Argentina.\n\nFreedom \n\nPolitical freedom (also known as political liberty or autonomy) is a central concept in political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies. Negative liberty has been described as freedom from oppression or coercion and unreasonable external constraints on action, often enacted through civil and political rights, while positive liberty is the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society. This capability approach to freedom requires economic, social and cultural rights in order to be realized.\n\nAuthoritarianism and libertarianism \nAuthoritarianism and libertarianism disagree the amount of individual freedom each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where \"individual rights and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities,\" while libertarians generally oppose the state and hold the individual as sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of political parties and of other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, by definition, totalitarians who support state control over all aspects of society.\n\nFor instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissez-faire liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, \"the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'\" For anarchist political philosopher L. Susan Brown (1993), \"liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations.\"\n\nSee also \n\n Political history of the world\n Horseshoe theory\n Index of law articles\n Index of politics articles – alphabetical list of political subjects\n List of politics awards\n List of years in politics\n Outline of law\n Outline of political science – structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area\n Political polarization\n Political lists – lists of political topics\n Politics of present-day states\n List of political ideologies\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading \n Adcock, Robert. 2014. Liberalism and the Emergence of American Political Science: A Transatlantic Tale. New York: Oxford University Press.\n Adcock, Robert, Mark Bevir, and Shannon Stimson (eds.). 2007. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1870. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.\n Almond, Gabriel A. 1996. \"Political Science: The History of the Discipline\", pp. 50–96, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), The New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.\n \n \n Mount, Ferdinand, \"Ruthless and Truthless\" (review of Peter Oborne, The Assault on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Barbarism, Simon and Schuster, 2021, , 192 pp.; and Colin Kidd and Jacqueline Rose, eds., Political Advice: Past, Present and Future, I.B. Tauris, February 2021, , 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp. 3, 5–8.\n Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.\n Ross, Dorothy. 1991. The Origins of American Social Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.\n \n\n \nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Politics" }, { "text": "Media may refer to:\n\nCommunication \n Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data\n Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising\n Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass electronic communication networks\n Digital media, electronic media used to store, transmit, and receive digitized information\n Electronic media, communications delivered via electronic or electromechanical energy\n Hypermedia, media with hyperlinks\n Interactive media, media that is interactive\n Mass media, technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication\n MEDIA Programme, a European Union initiative to support the European audiovisual sector\n Multimedia, communications that incorporate multiple forms of information content and processing\n New media, the combination of traditional media and computer and communications technology\n News media, mass media focused on communicating news\n Print media, communications delivered via paper or canvas\n Published media, any media made available to the public\n Recording medium, devices used to store information\n Social media, media disseminated through social interactions\n\nArts, entertainment, and media\n Media (album), the 1998 album by The Faint\n Media, a 2017 American TV thriller film directed by Craig Ross Jr.\n List of art media, materials and techniques used by an artist to produce a work of art\n\nComputing \n Media player (software), for playing audio and video\n Storage media, in data storage devices\n\nLife sciences \n Media, a group of insect wing veins in the Comstock-Needham system\n Growth medium, objects in which microorganisms or cells can experience growth\n Media filter, a filter consisting of several different filter materials\n Tunica media, the middle layer of the wall of a blood vessel\n\nPlaces\n\nUnited States\n Media, Illinois\n Media, Kansas\n Media, Pennsylvania\n\nElsewhere\n Media (castra), a fort in the Roman province of Dacia\n Media (region), a region of and former empire based in north-western Iran\n Media, Africa, an Ancient city and former bishopric, now a Latin Catholic titular see in Algeria\n\nTransport\n Media (automobile company)\n , a World War II US Navy ship that was never commissioned\n , a Cunard Line cargo liner in service 1948–61\n\nSee also \n \n Medium (disambiguation)\n Medea (disambiguation)\n Midea (disambiguation)", "title": "Media" }, { "text": "Other often refers to:\n Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy\n\nOther or The Other may also refer to:\n\nFilm and television\n The Other (1913 film), a German silent film directed by Max Mack\n The Other (1930 film), a German film directed by Robert Wiene\n The Other (1972 film), an American film directed by Robert Mulligan\n The Other (1999 film), a French-Egyptian film directed by Youssef Chahine\n The Other (2007 film), an Argentine-French-German film by Ariel Rotter\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character in Doctor Who\n The Other (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a fictional character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe\n\nLiterature\n Other: British and Irish Poetry since 1970, a 1999 poetry anthology\n The Other (Applegate novel), a 2000 Animorphs novel by K.A. Applegate\n The Other (Tryon novel), a 1971 horror novel by Tom Tryon\n \"The Other\" (short story), a 1972 short story by Jorge Luis Borges\n The Other, a 2008 novel by David Guterson\n Spider-Man: \"The Other\", a 2005–2006 Marvel Comics crossover story arc\n\nMusic\n The Other (band), a German horror punk band\n Other (Alison Moyet album) or the title song, 2017\n Other (Lustmord album), 2008\n The Other (album), by King Tuff, or the title song, 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Lauv from I Met You When I Was 18 (The Playlist), 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Tonight Alive from Underworld, 2018\n\nHuman name\n Othoere, or Other, a contemporary of Alfred the Great\nOther, father of Walter Fitz Other, castellan of Windsor in the time of William the Conqueror\n Other Windsor (disambiguation), several people \n Other Robert Ivor Windsor-Clive, 3rd Earl of Plymouth (1923–2018)\n Other C. Wamsley, a builder in Hamilton, Montana\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character\n\nOther uses\n Other Music, a defunct music store in New York City\n OtherOS, a feature available in early versions of the PlayStation 3 console\n\nSee also\n Another (disambiguation)\n Others (disambiguation)\n Otherness (disambiguation)", "title": "Other" }, { "text": "Theodore may refer to:\n\nPlaces\n Theodore, Alabama, United States\n Theodore, Australian Capital Territory\n Theodore, Queensland, a town in the Shire of Banana, Australia\n Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada\n Theodore Reservoir, a lake in Saskatchewan\n\nPeople\n Theodore (given name), includes the etymology of the given name and a list of people\n Theodore (surname), a list of people\n\nFictional characters\n Theodore \"T-Bag\" Bagwell, on the television series Prison Break\n Theodore \"T-Dog\" Douglas, fictional character in The Walking Dead\n Theodore Huxtable, on the television series The Cosby Show\n\nOther uses\n Theodore (horse), a British Thoroughbred racehorse\n Theodore Racing, a Formula One racing team\n\nSee also\n Principality of Theodoro, a principality in the south-west Crimea from the 13th to 15th centuries\n Thoros (disambiguation), Armenian for Theodore\n James Bass Mullinger, a 19th-century author who used \"Theodorus\" as a pen name", "title": "Theodore" } ]

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[ { "text": "Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.\n\nIt may be used positively in the context of a \"political solution\" which is compromising and nonviolent, or descriptively as \"the art or science of government\", but also often carries a negative connotation. The concept has been defined in various ways, and different approaches have fundamentally differing views on whether it should be used extensively or limitedly, empirically or normatively, and on whether conflict or co-operation is more essential to it.\n\nA variety of methods are deployed in politics, which include promoting one's own political views among people, negotiation with other political subjects, making laws, and exercising internal and external force, including warfare against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international level.\n\nIn modern nation states, people often form political parties to represent their ideas. Members of a party often agree to take the same position on many issues and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties.\n\nA political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a society. The history of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics, Confucius's political manuscripts and Chanakya's Arthashastra.\n\nEtymology \nThe English politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle's classic work, Politiká, which introduced the Greek term (). In the mid-15th century, Aristotle's composition would be rendered in Early Modern English as , which would become Politics in Modern English.\n\nThe singular politic first attested in English in 1430, coming from Middle French —itself taking from , a Latinization of the Greek () from () and ().\n\nDefinitions \n Harold Lasswell: \"who gets what, when, how\"\n David Easton: \"the authoritative allocation of values for a society\"\n Vladimir Lenin: \"the most concentrated expression of economics\"\n Otto von Bismarck: \"the capacity of always choosing at each instant, in constantly changing situations, the least harmful, the most useful\"\n Bernard Crick: \"a distinctive form of rule whereby people act together through institutionalized procedures to resolve differences\"\n Adrian Leftwich: \"comprises all the activities of co-operation, negotiation and conflict within and between societies\"\n\nApproaches \nThere are several ways in which approaching politics has been conceptualized.\n\nExtensive and limited \nAdrian Leftwich has differentiated views of politics based on how extensive or limited their perception of what accounts as 'political' is. The extensive view sees politics as present across the sphere of human social relations, while the limited view restricts it to certain contexts. For example, in a more restrictive way, politics may be viewed as primarily about governance, while a feminist perspective could argue that sites which have been viewed traditionally as non-political, should indeed be viewed as political as well. This latter position is encapsulated in the slogan \"the personal is political,\" which disputes the distinction between private and public issues. Politics may also be defined by the use of power, as has been argued by Robert A. Dahl.\n\nMoralism and realism \nSome perspectives on politics view it empirically as an exercise of power, while others see it as a social function with a normative basis. This distinction has been called the difference between political moralism and political realism. For moralists, politics is closely linked to ethics, and is at its extreme in utopian thinking. For example, according to Hannah Arendt, the view of Aristotle was that \"to be political…meant that everything was decided through words and persuasion and not through violence;\" while according to Bernard Crick \"politics is the way in which free societies are governed. Politics is politics and other forms of rule are something else.\" In contrast, for realists, represented by those such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, and Harold Lasswell, politics is based on the use of power, irrespective of the ends being pursued.\n\nConflict and co-operation \nAgonism argues that politics essentially comes down to conflict between conflicting interests. Political scientist Elmer Schattschneider argued that \"at the root of all politics is the universal language of conflict,\" while for Carl Schmitt the essence of politics is the distinction of 'friend' from foe'. This is in direct contrast to the more co-operative views of politics by Aristotle and Crick. However, a more mixed view between these extremes is provided by Irish political scientist Michael Laver, who noted that:Politics is about the characteristic blend of conflict and co-operation that can be found so often in human interactions. Pure conflict is war. Pure co-operation is true love. Politics is a mixture of both.\n\nHistory \n\nThe history of politics spans human history and is not limited to modern institutions of government.\n\nPrehistoric \nFrans de Waal argued that chimpanzees engage in politics through \"social manipulation to secure and maintain influential positions.\" Early human forms of social organization—bands and tribes—lacked centralized political structures. These are sometimes referred to as stateless societies.\n\nEarly states \nIn ancient history, civilizations did not have definite boundaries as states have today, and their borders could be more accurately described as frontiers. Early dynastic Sumer, and early dynastic Egypt were the first civilizations to define their borders. Moreover, up to the 12th century, many people lived in non-state societies. These range from relatively egalitarian bands and tribes to complex and highly stratified chiefdoms.\n\nState formation \n\nThere are a number of different theories and hypotheses regarding early state formation that seek generalizations to explain why the state developed in some places but not others. Other scholars believe that generalizations are unhelpful and that each case of early state formation should be treated on its own.\n\nVoluntary theories contend that diverse groups of people came together to form states as a result of some shared rational interest. The theories largely focus on the development of agriculture, and the population and organizational pressure that followed and resulted in state formation. One of the most prominent theories of early and primary state formation is the hydraulic hypothesis, which contends that the state was a result of the need to build and maintain large-scale irrigation projects.\n\nConflict theories of state formation regard conflict and dominance of some population over another population as key to the formation of states. In contrast with voluntary theories, these arguments believe that people do not voluntarily agree to create a state to maximize benefits, but that states form due to some form of oppression by one group over others. Some theories in turn argue that warfare was critical for state formation.\n\nAncient history \nThe first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt, which arose from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively around approximately 3000 BCE. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed. Early dynastic Sumer was located in southern Mesopotamia with its borders extending from the Persian Gulf to parts of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.\n\nEgyptians, Romans, and the Greeks were the first people known to have explicitly formulated a political philosophy of the state, and to have rationally analyzed political institutions. Prior to this, states were described and justified in terms of religious myths.\n\nSeveral important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city-states (polis) and the Roman Republic. The Greek city-states before the 4th century granted citizenship rights to their free population; in Athens these rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political thought and history.\n\nModern states \n\nThe Peace of Westphalia (1648) is considered by political scientists to be the beginning of the modern international system, in which external powers should avoid interfering in another country's domestic affairs. The principle of non-interference in other countries' domestic affairs was laid out in the mid-18th century by Swiss jurist Emer de Vattel. States became the primary institutional agents in an interstate system of relations. The Peace of Westphalia is said to have ended attempts to impose supranational authority on European states. The \"Westphalian\" doctrine of states as independent agents was bolstered by the rise in 19th century thought of nationalism, under which legitimate states were assumed to correspond to nations—groups of people united by language and culture.\n\nIn Europe, during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were the multinational empires: the Austrian Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the British Empire. Such empires also existed in Asia, Africa, and the Americas; in the Muslim world, immediately after the death of Muhammad in 632, Caliphates were established, which developed into multi-ethnic trans-national empires. The multinational empire was an absolute monarchy ruled by a king, emperor or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups, and they spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, and their language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that group. Some of the smaller European states were not so ethnically diverse, but were also dynastic states, ruled by a royal house. A few of the smaller states survived, such as the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the republic of San Marino.\n\nMost theories see the nation state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy, and mass media. However, historians also note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal and the Dutch Republic. Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, Michel Foucault, and Jeremy Black have advanced the hypothesis that the nation state did not arise out of political ingenuity or an unknown undetermined source, nor was it an accident of history or political invention. Rather, the nation state is an inadvertent byproduct of 15th-century intellectual discoveries in political economy, capitalism, mercantilism, political geography, and geography combined with cartography and advances in map-making technologies.\n\nSome nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of political campaigns by nationalists, during the 19th century. In both cases, the territory was previously divided among other states, some of them very small. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union, the Zollverein. National self-determination was a key aspect of United States President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, leading to the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the First World War, while the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union after the Russian Civil War. Decolonization lead to the creation of new nation states in place of multinational empires in the Third World.\n\nGlobalization \n\nPolitical globalization began in the 20th century through intergovernmental organizations and supranational unions. The League of Nations was founded after World War I, and after World War II it was replaced by the United Nations. Various international treaties have been signed through it. Regional integration has been pursued by the African Union, ASEAN, the European Union, and Mercosur. International political institutions on the international level include the International Criminal Court, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization.\n\nPolitical science \n\nThe study of politics is called political science, or politology. It comprises numerous subfields, including comparative politics, political economy, international relations, political philosophy, public administration, public policy, gender and politics, and political methodology. Furthermore, political science is related to, and draws upon, the fields of economics, law, sociology, history, philosophy, geography, psychology/psychiatry, anthropology, and neurosciences.\n\nComparative politics is the science of comparison and teaching of different types of constitutions, political actors, legislature and associated fields. International relations deals with the interaction between nation-states as well as intergovernmental and transnational organizations. Political philosophy is more concerned with contributions of various classical and contemporary thinkers and philosophers.\n\nPolitical science is methodologically diverse and appropriates many methods originating in psychology, social research, and cognitive neuroscience. Approaches include positivism, interpretivism, rational choice theory, behavioralism, structuralism, post-structuralism, realism, institutionalism, and pluralism. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondary sources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis, case studies, experimental research, and model building.\n\nPolitical system \n\nThe political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. According to David Easton, \"A political system can be designated as the interactions through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society.\" Each political system is embedded in a society with its own political culture, and they in turn shape their societies through public policy. The interactions between different political systems are the basis for global politics.\n\nForms of government \n\nForms of government can be classified by several ways. In terms of the structure of power, there are monarchies (including constitutional monarchies) and republics (usually presidential, semi-presidential, or parliamentary).\n\nThe separation of powers describes the degree of horizontal integration between the legislature, the executive, the judiciary, and other independent institutions.\n\nSource of power \n\nThe source of power determines the difference between democracies, oligarchies, and autocracies.\n\nIn a democracy, political legitimacy is based on popular sovereignty. Forms of democracy include representative democracy, direct democracy, and demarchy. These are separated by the way decisions are made, whether by elected representatives, referendums, or by citizen juries. Democracies can be either republics or constitutional monarchies.\n\nOligarchy is a power structure where a minority rules. These may be in the form of anocracy, aristocracy, ergatocracy, geniocracy, gerontocracy, kakistocracy, kleptocracy, meritocracy, noocracy, particracy, plutocracy, stratocracy, technocracy, theocracy, or timocracy.\n\nAutocracies are either dictatorships (including military dictatorships) or absolute monarchies.\n\nVertical integration \nIn terms of level of vertical integration, political systems can be divided into (from least to most integrated) confederations, federations, and unitary states.\n\nA federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government (federalism). In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Federations were formed first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1871 and in 1901, Australia. Compared to a federation, a confederation has less centralized power.\n\nState \n\nAll the above forms of government are variations of the same basic polity, the sovereign state. The state has been defined by Max Weber as a political entity that has monopoly on violence within its territory, while the Montevideo Convention holds that states need to have a defined territory; a permanent population; a government; and a capacity to enter into international relations.\n\nA stateless society is a society that is not governed by a state. In stateless societies, there is little concentration of authority; most positions of authority that do exist are very limited in power and are generally not permanently held positions; and social bodies that resolve disputes through predefined rules tend to be small. Stateless societies are highly variable in economic organization and cultural practices.\n\nWhile stateless societies were the norm in human prehistory, few stateless societies exist today; almost the entire global population resides within the jurisdiction of a sovereign state. In some regions nominal state authorities may be very weak and wield little or no actual power. Over the course of history most stateless peoples have been integrated into the state-based societies around them.\n\nSome political philosophies consider the state undesirable, and thus consider the formation of a stateless society a goal to be achieved. A central tenet of anarchism is the advocacy of society without states. The type of society sought for varies significantly between anarchist schools of thought, ranging from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. In Marxism, Marx's theory of the state considers that in a post-capitalist society the state, an undesirable institution, would be unnecessary and wither away. A related concept is that of stateless communism, a phrase sometimes used to describe Marx's anticipated post-capitalist society.\n\nConstitutions \nConstitutions are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the legislative and judiciary branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the Civil War but after the Restoration abandoned them to be taken up later by the American Colonies after their emancipation and then France after the Revolution and the rest of Europe including the European colonies.\n\nConstitutions often set out separation of powers, dividing the government into the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary (together referred to as the trias politica), in order to achieve checks and balances within the state. Additional independent branches may also be created, including civil service commissions, election commissions, and supreme audit institutions.\n\nPolitical culture \n\nPolitical culture describes how culture impacts politics. Every political system is embedded in a particular political culture. Lucian Pye's definition is that \"Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments, which give order and meaning to a political process and which provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system\".\n\nTrust is a major factor in political culture, as its level determines the capacity of the state to function. Postmaterialism is the degree to which a political culture is concerned with issues which are not of immediate physical or material concern, such as human rights and environmentalism. Religion has also an impact on political culture.\n\nPolitical dysfunction\n\nPolitical corruption \n\nPolitical corruption is the use of powers for illegitimate private gain, conducted by government officials or their network contacts. Forms of political corruption include bribery, cronyism, nepotism, and political patronage. Forms of political patronage, in turn, includes clientelism, earmarking, pork barreling, slush funds, and spoils systems; as well as political machines, which is a political system that operates for corrupt ends.\n\nWhen corruption is embedded in political culture, this may be referred to as patrimonialism or neopatrimonialism. A form of government that is built on corruption is called a kleptocracy ('rule of thieves').\n\nLevels of politics\n\nMacropolitics \n\nMacropolitics can either describe political issues that affect an entire political system (e.g. the nation state), or refer to interactions between political systems (e.g. international relations).\n\nGlobal politics (or world politics) covers all aspects of politics that affect multiple political systems, in practice meaning any political phenomenon crossing national borders. This can include cities, nation-states, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations, and/or international organizations. An important element is international relations: the relations between nation-states may be peaceful when they are conducted through diplomacy, or they may be violent, which is described as war. States that are able to exert strong international influence are referred to as superpowers, whereas less-powerful ones may be called regional or middle powers. The international system of power is called the world order, which is affected by the balance of power that defines the degree of polarity in the system. Emerging powers are potentially destabilizing to it, especially if they display revanchism or irredentism.\n\nPolitics inside the limits of political systems, which in contemporary context correspond to national borders, are referred to as domestic politics. This includes most forms of public policy, such as social policy, economic policy, or law enforcement, which are executed by the state bureaucracy.\n\nMesopolitics \nMesopolitics describes the politics of intermediary structures within a political system, such as national political parties or movements.\n\nA political party is a political organization that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within government, usually by participating in political campaigns, educational outreach, or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision, bolstered by a written platform with specific goals, forming a coalition among disparate interests.\n\nPolitical parties within a particular political system together form the party system, which can be either multiparty, two-party, dominant-party, or one-party, depending on the level of pluralism. This is affected by characteristics of the political system, including its electoral system. According to Duverger's law, first-past-the-post systems are likely to lead to two-party systems, while proportional representation systems are more likely to create a multiparty system.\n\nMicropolitics \nMicropolitics describes the actions of individual actors within the political system. This is often described as political participation. Political participation may take many forms, including:\n Activism\n Boycott\n Civil disobedience\n Demonstration\n Petition\n Picketing\n Strike action\n Tax resistance\n Voting (or its opposite, abstentionism)\n\nPolitical values\n\nDemocracy \n\nDemocracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. The uncertainty of outcomes is inherent in democracy. Democracy makes all forces struggle repeatedly to realize their interests and devolves power from groups of people to sets of rules.\n\nAmong modern political theorists, there are three contending conceptions of democracy: aggregative, deliberative, and radical.\n\nAggregative \nThe theory of aggregative democracy claims that the aim of the democratic processes is to solicit the preferences of citizens, and aggregate them together to determine what social policies the society should adopt. Therefore, proponents of this view hold that democratic participation should primarily focus on voting, where the policy with the most votes gets implemented.\n\nDifferent variants of aggregative democracy exist. Under minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens have given teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not \"rule\" because, for example, on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not well-founded. Joseph Schumpeter articulated this view most famously in his book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William H. Riker, Adam Przeworski, Richard Posner.\n\nAccording to the theory of direct democracy, on the other hand, citizens should vote directly, not through their representatives, on legislative proposals. Proponents of direct democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.\n\nGovernments will tend to produce laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter—with half to their left and the other half to their right. This is not a desirable outcome as it represents the action of self-interested and somewhat unaccountable political elites competing for votes. Anthony Downs suggests that ideological political parties are necessary to act as a mediating broker between individual and governments. Downs laid out this view in his 1957 book An Economic Theory of Democracy.\n\nRobert A. Dahl argues that the fundamental democratic principle is that, when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to have his/her interests be given equal consideration (not necessarily that all people are equally satisfied by the collective decision). He uses the term polyarchy to refer to societies in which there exists a certain set of institutions and procedures which are perceived as leading to such democracy. First and foremost among these institutions is the regular occurrence of free and open elections which are used to select representatives who then manage all or most of the public policy of the society. However, these polyarchic procedures may not create a full democracy if, for example, poverty prevents political participation. Similarly, Ronald Dworkin argues that \"democracy is a substantive, not a merely procedural, ideal.\"\n\nDeliberative \n\nDeliberative democracy is based on the notion that democracy is government by deliberation. Unlike aggregative democracy, deliberative democracy holds that, for a democratic decision to be legitimate, it must be preceded by authentic deliberation, not merely the aggregation of preferences that occurs in voting. Authentic deliberation is deliberation among decision-makers that is free from distortions of unequal political power, such as power a decision-maker obtained through economic wealth or the support of interest groups. If the decision-makers cannot reach consensus after authentically deliberating on a proposal, then they vote on the proposal using a form of majority rule.\n\nRadical \n\nRadical democracy is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes.\n\nEquality \n\nEquality is a state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same social status, especially socioeconomic status, including protection of human rights and dignity, and equal access to certain social goods and social services. Furthermore, it may also include health equality, economic equality and other social securities. Social equality requires the absence of legally enforced social class or caste boundaries and the absence of discrimination motivated by an inalienable part of a person's identity. To this end there must be equal justice under law, and equal opportunity regardless of, for example, sex, gender, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, origin, caste or class, income or property, language, religion, convictions, opinions, health or disability.\n\nLeft–right spectrum \nA common way of understanding politics is through the left–right political spectrum, which ranges from left-wing politics via centrism to right-wing politics. This classification is comparatively recent and dates from the French Revolution, when those members of the National Assembly who supported the republic, the common people and a secular society sat on the left and supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the Church sat on the right.\n\nToday, the left is generally progressivist, seeking social progress in society. The more extreme elements of the left, named the far-left, tend to support revolutionary means for achieving this. This includes ideologies such as Communism and Marxism. The center-left, on the other hand, advocate for more reformist approaches, for example that of social democracy.\n\nIn contrast, the right is generally motivated by conservatism, which seeks to conserve what it sees as the important elements of society such as law and order, limited federal government and preserving individual freedoms. The far-right goes beyond this, and often represents a reactionary turn against progress, seeking to undo it. Examples of such ideologies have included Fascism and Nazism. The center-right may be less clear-cut and more mixed in this regard, with neoconservatives supporting the spread of free markets and capitalism, and one-nation conservatives more open to social welfare programs.\n\nAccording to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality—believing it to be unethical or unnatural, while the right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian.\nSome ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right-wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, \"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles.\" Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include Fascist Terza Posizione economic politics in Italy and Peronism in Argentina.\n\nFreedom \n\nPolitical freedom (also known as political liberty or autonomy) is a central concept in political thought and one of the most important features of democratic societies. Negative liberty has been described as freedom from oppression or coercion and unreasonable external constraints on action, often enacted through civil and political rights, while positive liberty is the absence of disabling conditions for an individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions, e.g. economic compulsion, in a society. This capability approach to freedom requires economic, social and cultural rights in order to be realized.\n\nAuthoritarianism and libertarianism \nAuthoritarianism and libertarianism disagree the amount of individual freedom each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where \"individual rights and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities,\" while libertarians generally oppose the state and hold the individual as sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of political parties and of other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, by definition, totalitarians who support state control over all aspects of society.\n\nFor instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissez-faire liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual property rights, free markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, \"the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government as necessary.'\" For anarchist political philosopher L. Susan Brown (1993), \"liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations.\"\n\nSee also \n\n Political history of the world\n Horseshoe theory\n Index of law articles\n Index of politics articles – alphabetical list of political subjects\n List of politics awards\n List of years in politics\n Outline of law\n Outline of political science – structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area\n Political polarization\n Political lists – lists of political topics\n Politics of present-day states\n List of political ideologies\n\nReferences\n\nNotes\n\nCitations\n\nBibliography\n\nFurther reading \n Adcock, Robert. 2014. Liberalism and the Emergence of American Political Science: A Transatlantic Tale. New York: Oxford University Press.\n Adcock, Robert, Mark Bevir, and Shannon Stimson (eds.). 2007. Modern Political Science: Anglo-American Exchanges Since 1870. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.\n Almond, Gabriel A. 1996. \"Political Science: The History of the Discipline\", pp. 50–96, in Robert E. Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds.), The New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.\n \n \n Mount, Ferdinand, \"Ruthless and Truthless\" (review of Peter Oborne, The Assault on Truth: Boris Johnson, Donald Trump and the Emergence of a New Moral Barbarism, Simon and Schuster, 2021, , 192 pp.; and Colin Kidd and Jacqueline Rose, eds., Political Advice: Past, Present and Future, I.B. Tauris, February 2021, , 240 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 43, no. 9 (6 May 2021), pp. 3, 5–8.\n Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder (eds.). Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.\n Ross, Dorothy. 1991. The Origins of American Social Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.\n \n\n \nCategory:Main topic articles", "title": "Politics" }, { "text": "Media may refer to:\n\nCommunication \n Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data\n Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising\n Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass electronic communication networks\n Digital media, electronic media used to store, transmit, and receive digitized information\n Electronic media, communications delivered via electronic or electromechanical energy\n Hypermedia, media with hyperlinks\n Interactive media, media that is interactive\n Mass media, technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication\n MEDIA Programme, a European Union initiative to support the European audiovisual sector\n Multimedia, communications that incorporate multiple forms of information content and processing\n New media, the combination of traditional media and computer and communications technology\n News media, mass media focused on communicating news\n Print media, communications delivered via paper or canvas\n Published media, any media made available to the public\n Recording medium, devices used to store information\n Social media, media disseminated through social interactions\n\nArts, entertainment, and media\n Media (album), the 1998 album by The Faint\n Media, a 2017 American TV thriller film directed by Craig Ross Jr.\n List of art media, materials and techniques used by an artist to produce a work of art\n\nComputing \n Media player (software), for playing audio and video\n Storage media, in data storage devices\n\nLife sciences \n Media, a group of insect wing veins in the Comstock-Needham system\n Growth medium, objects in which microorganisms or cells can experience growth\n Media filter, a filter consisting of several different filter materials\n Tunica media, the middle layer of the wall of a blood vessel\n\nPlaces\n\nUnited States\n Media, Illinois\n Media, Kansas\n Media, Pennsylvania\n\nElsewhere\n Media (castra), a fort in the Roman province of Dacia\n Media (region), a region of and former empire based in north-western Iran\n Media, Africa, an Ancient city and former bishopric, now a Latin Catholic titular see in Algeria\n\nTransport\n Media (automobile company)\n , a World War II US Navy ship that was never commissioned\n , a Cunard Line cargo liner in service 1948–61\n\nSee also \n \n Medium (disambiguation)\n Medea (disambiguation)\n Midea (disambiguation)", "title": "Media" }, { "text": "Other often refers to:\n Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy\n\nOther or The Other may also refer to:\n\nFilm and television\n The Other (1913 film), a German silent film directed by Max Mack\n The Other (1930 film), a German film directed by Robert Wiene\n The Other (1972 film), an American film directed by Robert Mulligan\n The Other (1999 film), a French-Egyptian film directed by Youssef Chahine\n The Other (2007 film), an Argentine-French-German film by Ariel Rotter\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character in Doctor Who\n The Other (Marvel Cinematic Universe), a fictional character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe\n\nLiterature\n Other: British and Irish Poetry since 1970, a 1999 poetry anthology\n The Other (Applegate novel), a 2000 Animorphs novel by K.A. Applegate\n The Other (Tryon novel), a 1971 horror novel by Tom Tryon\n \"The Other\" (short story), a 1972 short story by Jorge Luis Borges\n The Other, a 2008 novel by David Guterson\n Spider-Man: \"The Other\", a 2005–2006 Marvel Comics crossover story arc\n\nMusic\n The Other (band), a German horror punk band\n Other (Alison Moyet album) or the title song, 2017\n Other (Lustmord album), 2008\n The Other (album), by King Tuff, or the title song, 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Lauv from I Met You When I Was 18 (The Playlist), 2018\n \"The Other\", a song by Tonight Alive from Underworld, 2018\n\nHuman name\n Othoere, or Other, a contemporary of Alfred the Great\nOther, father of Walter Fitz Other, castellan of Windsor in the time of William the Conqueror\n Other Windsor (disambiguation), several people \n Other Robert Ivor Windsor-Clive, 3rd Earl of Plymouth (1923–2018)\n Other C. Wamsley, a builder in Hamilton, Montana\n The Other (Doctor Who), a fictional character\n\nOther uses\n Other Music, a defunct music store in New York City\n OtherOS, a feature available in early versions of the PlayStation 3 console\n\nSee also\n Another (disambiguation)\n Others (disambiguation)\n Otherness (disambiguation)", "title": "Other" }, { "text": "Theodore may refer to:\n\nPlaces\n Theodore, Alabama, United States\n Theodore, Australian Capital Territory\n Theodore, Queensland, a town in the Shire of Banana, Australia\n Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada\n Theodore Reservoir, a lake in Saskatchewan\n\nPeople\n Theodore (given name), includes the etymology of the given name and a list of people\n Theodore (surname), a list of people\n\nFictional characters\n Theodore \"T-Bag\" Bagwell, on the television series Prison Break\n Theodore \"T-Dog\" Douglas, fictional character in The Walking Dead\n Theodore Huxtable, on the television series The Cosby Show\n\nOther uses\n Theodore (horse), a British Thoroughbred racehorse\n Theodore Racing, a Formula One racing team\n\nSee also\n Principality of Theodoro, a principality in the south-west Crimea from the 13th to 15th centuries\n Thoros (disambiguation), Armenian for Theodore\n James Bass Mullinger, a 19th-century author who used \"Theodorus\" as a pen name", "title": "Theodore" } ]

[ "Roosevelt was mostly home schooled by tutors and his parents. He also attended Harvard College and Columbia Law School.", "In addition to being home schooled, Roosevelt attended Harvard College and Columbia Law School.", "Roosevelt graduated from Harvard in 1880.", "Yes, while at Harvard, Roosevelt was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi literary society, the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, and the prestigious Porcellian Club. He was also an editor of The Harvard Advocate. Roosevelt graduated Phi Beta Kappa (22nd of 177) from Harvard with an A.B. magna cum laude. He was also an accomplished naturalist and a published ornithologist.", "During his education, Roosevelt participated in rowing and boxing and was once a runner-up in a Harvard boxing tournament. He studied biology intensely and had an almost photographic memory. He also wrote a book on the War of 1812 while attending Columbia Law School.", "Yes, after graduating from Harvard, Roosevelt attended Columbia Law School.", "The text does not provide information on when Roosevelt graduated from Columbia Law School.", "Despite attending prestigious Ivy League schools, Roosevelt felt that he had gotten little from his education at Harvard. He was disappointed by the formalistic treatment of subject matters and their lack of connection to the overall picture. Despite his earlier interest and study in natural science, he decided to study law at Columbia Law School. However, he often found the law irrational. Despite struggling with Latin and Greek, Roosevelt demonstrated strength in geography, history, biology, French, and German. He also demonstrated a strong memory, with his biographer noting his ability to read prodigiously with near-photographic recall.", "Roosevelt felt he got little from his education at Harvard because he was depressed by the formalistic treatment of many subjects. He felt that there was too much rigidity and attention to minor details that, while important in themselves, were never linked up with the broader perspective or picture.", "While attending Columbia Law School, Roosevelt was an able student. However, he often found law to be irrational and spent much of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. Nonetheless, he was determined to enter politics, which ultimately led to his decision to drop out of law school.", "During his time at Columbia Law School, Roosevelt was an able law student but often found the study of law to be irrational. Instead of focusing solely on his legal studies, he spent a significant amount of his time writing a book on the War of 1812. Despite his academic pursuits, Roosevelt was determined to enter politics and began to engage with the local political scene, attending meetings at a local Republican association's headquarters. These experiences ultimately led him to drop out of law school to pursue his political ambitions.", "The text does not provide information on whether the book Roosevelt wrote on the War of 1812 while at Columbia Law School was published." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

[ "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#0", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#1", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#2", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#3", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#4", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_1_q#5" ]

[ "Did he ever win a super bowl?", "What team was he with the longest?", "What will be be remembered for most?", "who broke that record?", "Did he play football in college too", "What year did he retire?" ]

[ 1, 1, 0, 2, 1, 1 ]

[ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 710 ], [ 2469 ], [ 460 ], [ 544 ], [ 2469 ], [ 2469 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Tittle was never able to deliver a title to his team." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record which stood for over two decades" ], [ "it was surpassed by Dan Marino in 1984; as of 2016 it remains a Giants franchise record." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 710, 2469, 460, 544, 2469, 2469 ], "texts": [ "Tittle was never able to deliver a title to his team.", "CANNOTANSWER", "His 36 touchdown passes in 1963 set a record which stood for over two decades", "it was surpassed by Dan Marino in 1984; as of 2016 it remains a Giants franchise record.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on whether Tittle ever won a Super Bowl.", "The text does not provide information on which team Tittle was with the longest.", "Tittle will be most remembered for holding various NFL records at the time of his retirement, including being the fourth player to throw seven touchdown passes in a game, and setting a record with 36 touchdown passes in 1963. He will also be remembered for making seven Pro Bowls, four first-team All-Pro teams, and being named the NFL's Most Valuable Player or Player of the Year four times. However, despite these accomplishments, he was not able to deliver a championship to his team.", "His record of 36 touchdown passes in a season was surpassed by Dan Marino in 1984.", "The text does not provide information on whether Tittle played football in college.", "The text does not provide information on the year Tittle retired." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_0_q#0", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_0_q#1", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_0_q#2", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_0_q#3", "C_b901c128b61e49aebba5bdf4ff5d7760_0_q#4" ]

[ "What was the famous photo?", "What made it so famous?", "Was anyone else in the photo?", "When was it taken/.", "Was it circulated heavily in newspapers?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 1 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 859 ], [ 1816 ], [ 99 ], [ 584 ] ], "texts": [ [ "A photo of a dazed Tittle in the end zone" ], [ "It is regarded as having changed the way that photographers look at sports," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "September 20, 1964," ], [ "Post-Gazette editors declined to publish the photo, looking for \"action shots\" instead, but Berman entered the image into contests" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 859, 1816, 99, 584 ], "texts": [ "A photo of a dazed Tittle in the end zone", "It is regarded as having changed the way that photographers look at sports,", "CANNOTANSWER", "September 20, 1964,", "Post-Gazette editors declined to publish the photo, looking for \"action shots\" instead, but Berman entered the image into contests" ] }

[]

[ "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_0_q#0", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_0_q#1", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_0_q#2", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_0_q#3", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_0_q#4" ]

[ "When did they produce the album You're Living all Over Me.", "Was it a bill board hit?", "Was this their first album?", "Did they perform this on tour?", "Was this there only hit?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 1, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 829 ], [ 977 ], [ 2552 ], [ 2552 ], [ 2552 ] ], "texts": [ [ "1987;" ], [ "The album received much more attention in the indie-rock community than the debut." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 829, 977, 2552, 2552, 2552 ], "texts": [ "1987;", "The album received much more attention in the indie-rock community than the debut.", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "You're Living All Over Me was released in 1987.", "The text does not provide information on whether the album You're Living All Over Me was a Billboard hit.", "No, this was not their first album. \"You're Living All Over Me\" was Dinosaur's second album.", "The text does not provide information on whether Dinosaur performed the album \"You're Living All Over Me\" on tour.", "The text does not provide information on whether \"You're Living All Over Me\" was Dinosaur's only hit." ]

[ "Yes", "no", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_1_q#0", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_1_q#1", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_1_q#2", "C_0b78922b700d484ab0ed16af5a0f9e77_1_q#3" ]

[ "When did the group form?", "How did they decide on the name?", "Did they sign onto a label?", "Did they have any influences?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 107 ], [ 1370 ], [ 2022 ], [ 190 ] ], "texts": [ [ "formed in 1982 while the pair were attending high school in western Massachusetts." ], [ "The band was initially named Mogo, and played their first show on University of Massachusetts Amherst campus" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "After high school, they began exploring slower yet still aggressive music such as Black Sabbath, the Replacements, and Neil Young." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 107, 1370, 2022, 190 ], "texts": [ "formed in 1982 while the pair were attending high school in western Massachusetts.", "The band was initially named Mogo, and played their first show on University of Massachusetts Amherst campus", "CANNOTANSWER", "After high school, they began exploring slower yet still aggressive music such as Black Sabbath, the Replacements, and Neil Young." ] }

[]

[ "The new band, Dinosaur, formed a few days after the initial group Mogo played their first show in the first week of September 1984.", "The context does not provide information on how the band decided on the name Dinosaur.", "The text does not provide information on whether the band Dinosaur signed onto a record label. However, it mentions that Gerard Cosloy, who was running Homestead Records, had promised Mascis that if he were to make a record Homestead would release it.", "Yes, they had several influences. They began exploring slower yet still aggressive music such as Black Sabbath, the Replacements, and Neil Young after high school. Additionally, Mascis' college friend introduced him to psychedelic-influenced pop bands like Dream Syndicate, which he in turn showed to Barlow." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#0", "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#1", "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#2", "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#3", "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#4", "C_f207d2cb833b4c43b883ae090648dd06_1_q#5" ]

[ "What sport did he play?", "What happen in 2011", "Why did he turn it down", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "What else did he do that stood out", "What was some of his scores" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 540 ], [ 0 ], [ 140 ], [ 415 ], [ 261 ], [ 2095 ] ], "texts": [ [ "golfer" ], [ "Entering the 2011 season, Kaymer turned down a chance to become a full PGA Tour member;" ], [ "Championship. He stated he would concentrate on the European Tour for 2011, but would play several U.S. events as well." ], [ "After his runner-up finish at the 2011 WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, Kaymer overtook Lee Westwood as the number one golfer in the world," ], [ "In January, Kaymer claimed his third Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship title in four years and displaced Tiger Woods as number two in the world rankings." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 540, 0, 140, 415, 261, 2095 ], "texts": [ "golfer", "Entering the 2011 season, Kaymer turned down a chance to become a full PGA Tour member;", "Championship. He stated he would concentrate on the European Tour for 2011, but would play several U.S. events as well.", "After his runner-up finish at the 2011 WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, Kaymer overtook Lee Westwood as the number one golfer in the world,", "In January, Kaymer claimed his third Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship title in four years and displaced Tiger Woods as number two in the world rankings.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "__NOTOC__\nThis is a list of players who graduated from the Challenge Tour in 2006. The top 20 players on the Challenge Tour's money list in 2006 earned their European Tour card for 2007.\n\n* European Tour rookie in 2007\nT = Tied \n The player retained his European Tour card for 2008 (finished inside the top 117).\n The player did not retain his European Tour Tour card for 2008, but retained conditional status (finished between 118-149).\n The player did not retain his European Tour card for 2008 (finished outside the top 149).\n\nThe players ranked 16th through 20th were placed below the Qualifying School graduates on the exemption list, and thus could improve their status by competing in Qualifying School. Álvaro Quirós improved his status in this way.\n\nWinners on the European Tour in 2007\n\nRunners-up on the European Tour in 2007\n\nSee also\n2006 European Tour Qualifying School graduates\n2007 European Tour\n\nExternal links\nFinal ranking for 2006\n\nCategory:Challenge Tour\nCategory:European Tour\nChallenge Tour Graduates\nChallenge Tour Graduates", "title": "2006 Challenge Tour graduates" }, { "text": "This is a list of golfers who have won eight or more events on the European Tour since it was established in 1972. There are some complications in preparing such a list, and different publications have produced different numbers. This list is based on what the European Tour reports the victories being according to their own player guide (through the 2009 season).\n\nThe number of wins a player can accumulate on the European Tour depends in part on how many years he devotes to the tour. There have always been some leading European players or European Tour members from outside Europe who have gone on to play part or full-time on the U.S.-based PGA Tour and cut back their commitments in Europe, and this seems to be an increasing trend.\n\nDetailed criteria\nOnly European Tour sanctioned events are counted. As all elite golfers enter the four major championships and the four (three before 2009) individual World Golf Championships each season it is possible for a player to accumulate eight wins in European Tour sanctioned events without ever joining the European Tour, and Tiger Woods (who has never joined the European Tour) reached that mark in the 2000 Open Championship.\nThe three U.S.-based majors were not designated as European Tour events until 1997, so victories in them before that date were initially excluded. This is in contrast to the list of golfers with most PGA Tour wins, which includes Open Championship wins before that tournament became an official money event in 1995, because they were retrospectively designated as PGA Tour wins in 2002. Sometime prior to 2009, the European Tour made such a retrospective designation with respect to the three U.S. majors, as reflected in their 2009 media guide.\nWins in the Wentworth World Match Play Championship before 2003 are not included.\nThe win lists in the player profiles on the European Tour's official site include some miscellaneous items which are not regular individual tour wins and are therefore excluded: wins in 18 hole pro-ams associated with European Tour events; wins in the Volvo Bonus Pool; team wins in the Seve Trophy; wins on the Challenge Tour and the European Senior Tour.\n\nThere are additional players who won eight or more tournaments on the pre-tour European circuit and the European Tour in the period straddling 1972 who are not included on the list.\n\nMany of the players on the list have won many events on other tours and unofficial events. The numbers in the \"Majors\" column are the total number of major championships the player won in his career whether or not he was a member of the European Tour at the time.\n\nPlayers under 50 years of age are shown in bold. At age 50, golfers become eligible for the major senior tours, most notably the European Senior Tour and the U.S.-based PGA Tour Champions, competing for substantial prize money against other golfers in that age group. Only Miguel Ángel Jiménez and Phil Mickelson have ever won a European Tour event after turning 50, and only three golfers of that age have won on the PGA Tour since 1975.\n\nPlayers with the same number of wins are listed alphabetically. This list is up to date through 28 May 2023.\n\nH signifies members of the World Golf Hall of Fame.\n\nSee also\nList of golfers with most PGA Tour wins\nList of men's major championships winning golfers\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nEuropean\nCategory:European Tour\n \nEuropean Tour", "title": "List of golfers with most European Tour wins" }, { "text": "The men's major golf championships, also known simply as the majors, are the four most prestigious events in professional golf. The competitions are the Masters Tournament, the U.S. Open, The Open Championship and the PGA Championship, contested annually.\n\nJack Nicklaus has won the most majors, achieving 18 victories during his career. Second on the list is Tiger Woods, who has won 15 majors to date; his most recent major victory was at the 2019 Masters. Walter Hagen is third with 11 majors; he and Nicklaus have both won the most PGA Championships with five. Nicklaus also holds the record for the most victories in the Masters, winning the tournament six times. Additionally, Nicklaus shares the record for the most U.S. Open victories with Willie Anderson, Bobby Jones and Ben Hogan, each winning four times. Harry Vardon holds the record for the most Open Championship victories, winning six times during his career. Five men: Nicklaus, Woods, Hogan, Gary Player and Gene Sarazen are the only golfers to have won all four of the majors during their career, thus achieving the career grand slam. Although the U.S. Amateur and The Amateur Championship were once considered to be majors, they are no longer recognized as such, and victories in these competitions are not included in the list.\n\nTo date, 464 majors have been played. A total of 230 different men have won majors and, of these, 86 have won at least two.\n\nBy golfer\n\nBy country\n\nGallery\n\nSee also\n Chronological list of men's major golf champions\n List of LPGA major championship winning golfers\n\nReferences\nGeneral\n \n \n \n \n\nSpecific\n\nMajors\n \n*Most wins\nMajor wins", "title": "List of men's major championships winning golfers" } ]

[ "The sport he played was golf.", "In 2011, Kaymer chose to concentrate on the European Tour rather than becoming a full PGA tour member. He claimed his third Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship title in January and became ranked as the number two golfer in the world. Later, after finishing as runner-up at the WGC-Accenture Match Play Championship, he became the number one golfer in the world. However, he relinquished this ranking after eight weeks to Lee Westwood. Kaymer also decided to change his swing style that year, a decision he later considered a mistake. He missed the cut at the Masters. In November, he had a come-from-behind win at the WGC-HSBC Champions event in Shanghai, China, making history as the biggest comeback win ever in the WGC events. This win moved him back to the number four spot in world rankings.", "Kaymer turned down the chance to become a full PGA Tour member because he wanted to focus on the European Tour for 2011.", "Yes, there are several. One interesting aspect is that Kaymer, at the start of 2011, climbed the golf rankings to become the world number one making him only the second German after Bernhard Langer to achieve this. Another interesting aspect is the swing change Kaymer subjected himself to during his reign at the number one spot. He altered his game so he could draw better but later referred to this alteration as a \"big mistake\" as it seemed to hurt his performance at the Masters. However, despite the ups and downs, he achieved a significant victory at the WGC-HSBC Champions event in Shanghai with the biggest comeback win in the event's history and the lowest final round by a WGC winner.", "One thing that stood out was his win at the Abu Dhabi HSBC Golf Championship for the third time in four years. This led to him displacing Tiger Woods at the number two spot in the world rankings. Another standout achievement was his exceptional performance at WGC-HSBC Champions event where he entered the final round trailing by five strokes, but ended up winning by three strokes. This was the biggest comeback win in the history of the WGC events, and in doing so he also set a record for the lowest final round by a WGC winner. He achieved this by birdying nine of the last twelve holes of the round. This win also made him the tenth player to have won both a major and a WGC event.", "The only specific score mentioned in the context is at the WGC-HSBC Champions event in Shanghai, China where Kaymer shot a final round 9-under 63, which was the lowest final round by a WGC winner." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#0", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#1", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#2", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#3", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#4", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#5", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#6", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#7", "C_2ec250dfaaa14ef4a8e92f7aff8b33f5_0_q#8" ]

[ "Why was there a controversy?", "What was the criteria?", "Did many people want to overrule this?", "What was the end result?", "Were they the only ones to bypass the rule through the new committee?", "Anything else you found interesting in this section?", "Did they receive any other awards?", "Who else came to the induction?", "What is his significance to have such an honor?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 2, 0, 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 409 ], [ 256 ], [ 841 ], [ 1693 ], [ 1055 ], [ 2505 ], [ 2647 ], [ 1469 ], [ 2235 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Brown's first solo recording did not meet that criterion." ], [ "The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame's criterion states that only artists whose first recording had been out for more than 25 years were eligible for induction." ], [ "In 2011, a special committee was set up to correct exclusions which might have occurred during the first two years of Rock Hall inductions (" ], [ "Bennett, as the Famous Flames' only surviving member, accepted the honor in person in Cleveland on April 14, 2012." ], [ "The Famous Flames (Byrd, Bennett, Terry and Stallworth) were inducted in April 2012 alongside other \"backing groups" ], [ "In May 2012, the oldies music magazine Goldmine inducted James Brown & The Famous Flames into their first class of The Goldmine Hall of Fame." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Smokey Robinson, who did the induction honors for all of the groups," ], [ "Smokey Robinson, said, \"If James Brown was the Hardest Working Man in Show Business, The Famous Flames were the hardest-working group\"." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 409, 256, 841, 1693, 1055, 2505, 2647, 1469, 2235 ], "texts": [ "Brown's first solo recording did not meet that criterion.", "The Rock & Roll Hall of Fame's criterion states that only artists whose first recording had been out for more than 25 years were eligible for induction.", "In 2011, a special committee was set up to correct exclusions which might have occurred during the first two years of Rock Hall inductions (", "Bennett, as the Famous Flames' only surviving member, accepted the honor in person in Cleveland on April 14, 2012.", "The Famous Flames (Byrd, Bennett, Terry and Stallworth) were inducted in April 2012 alongside other \"backing groups", "In May 2012, the oldies music magazine Goldmine inducted James Brown & The Famous Flames into their first class of The Goldmine Hall of Fame.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Smokey Robinson, who did the induction honors for all of the groups,", "Smokey Robinson, said, \"If James Brown was the Hardest Working Man in Show Business, The Famous Flames were the hardest-working group\"." ] }

[]

[ "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#0", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#1", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#2", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#3", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#4", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#5", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_1_q#6" ]

[ "What are the circumstances of the origin of the Vlachs?", "What is notable or interesting about them?", "What traits do they have?", "Most interesting facts in the article?", "What would you want readers to know from the article?", "What is unique about romance speaking people?", "Anything novel or out of the ordinary about them? Any major accomplishments?" ]

[ 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1 ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 405 ], [ 1656 ], [ 1512 ], [ 862 ], [ 1656 ], [ 1656 ] ], "texts": [ [ "The word \"Vlach\" is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz which meant \"stranger\", from *Wolka" ], [ "The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon (German: Welsch), and in Poland Wlochy became an exonym for Italians. Via both Germanic and Latin," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "The term \"Vlach\" is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and Macedonia." ], [ "Romans\". During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a social class of Vlachs in Serbia and Macedonia," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 405, 1656, 1512, 862, 1656, 1656 ], "texts": [ "The word \"Vlach\" is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz which meant \"stranger\", from *Wolka", "The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon (German: Welsch), and in Poland Wlochy became an exonym for Italians. Via both Germanic and Latin,", "CANNOTANSWER", "The term \"Vlach\" is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and Macedonia.", "Romans\". During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a social class of Vlachs in Serbia and Macedonia,", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The term \"Vlach\" is derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, which was adopted into Proto-Germanic and meant \"stranger\". The term was adopted into different languages, including Gothic, Latin, Greek, Hungarian, and others, and took on meanings such as \"foreigner\" or \"Romance-speaker\". It also started to signify \"stranger, foreigner\" in the Balkans, but eventually evolved to mean \"shepherd, nomad\". It's suggested that the term Vlach first appeared in the Eastern Roman Empire and was spread to the Germanic- and later Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen, who were in contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages. Vlach is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans.", "The term \"Vlach\" notably evolved over time and space: it was adopted into different languages, took on a variety of meanings such as \"foreigner\", \"Romance-speaker\", \"stranger\", and \"shepherd, nomad\" and was even used as a social class label in the early Ottoman Empire in Serbia and Macedonia. Its original meaning was altered due to historical migration and cultural interchange, having origins from a Celtic tribe to designating Roman-speaking groups in the Balkans. It was spread via different channels including Norsemen who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages. The term \"Vlach\", while becoming derogatory in places like Croatia, is used in modern scholarship to refer to Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, including Greece, Albania, and Macedonia.", "The text does not provide specific information on the traits of the Vlachs.", "The term \"Vlach\" evolved from a Proto-Germanic term that meant \"stranger\" and it was adopted into different languages, taking on different meanings like \"foreigner\", \"Romance-speaker\" and eventually \"shepherd, nomad\". In Serbia and Macedonia during the early Ottoman Empire, a social class of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and enjoyed the same rights as Muslims were referred as Vlachs. However, in Croatia it became a derogatory term used for the ethnic Serb community. It's interesting that despite its diverse uses and meanings, modern scholarship uses the term to refer to Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, including Greece, Albania, and Macedonia. Another fascinating fact is the assertion by Romanian scholars that the term first appeared in the Eastern Roman Empire and was spread to Germanic and Slavic-speaking worlds by the Norsemen, who were in contact with Byzantium in the early Middle Ages.", "Readers should understand the complex history and evolution of the term \"Vlach\". Originally derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe, it pervaded through various languages and cultures, taking on a multitude of meanings from \"stranger\" and \"foreigner\" to \"Romance-speaker\", \"shepherd, and \"nomad\". It was used as a term of a social class in early Ottoman Serbia and Macedonia, and in Croatia, it became a derogatory term. Importantly, despite the term's varied historical usage, academic research now primarily uses \"Vlach\" to refer to Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, particularly in Greece, Albania, and Macedonia. It's also interesting that the term disseminated from the Eastern Roman Empire to Germanic and Slavic worlds possibly through the Norsemen.", "The context provided does not offer specific information about what is unique about Romance-speaking people.", "The context does not provide specific information about any out of the ordinary characteristics or major accomplishments of the Romance-speaking people referred to as the Vlachs." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#0", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#1", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#2", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#3", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#4", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#5", "C_430e9633c74448fdb3c3d6f6cdbf7082_0_q#6" ]

[ "Can you tell me about Vlachs in the 13th century?", "Can you tell me what led to this?", "Was there anything else interesting about that?", "What happened after they began to settle in the Orthodox region?", "Was there any controversy?", "Was anyone hurt or killed?", "Anything important that happened after that?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 265 ], [ 723 ], [ 989 ], [ 1155 ], [ 1390 ], [ 1542 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 1213 an army of Romans (Vlachs), Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin." ], [ "At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Keza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns." ], [ "Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region." ], [ "The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum" ], [ "In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River." ], [ "). In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia" ], [ "they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Campulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia)." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 265, 723, 989, 1155, 1390, 1542 ], "texts": [ "In 1213 an army of Romans (Vlachs), Transylvanian Saxons, and Pechenegs, led by Ioachim of Sibiu, attacked the Bulgars and Cumans from Vidin.", "At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon de Keza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns.", "Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region.", "The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum", "In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River.", "). In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia", "they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Campulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia)." ] }

[]

[ "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#0", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#1", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#2", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#3", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#4", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#5", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#6", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_0_q#7" ]

[ "when was sam introduced to islam?", "how does sam feel about islam?", "how does he view the peacefulness of islam?", "what happened in 2006?", "does he think muslims are dangerous?", "what does the news have to say?", "what about rights, freedoms, and islam?", "why does islam have such a bad rap?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 3086 ], [ 2416 ], [ 499 ], [ 418 ], [ 999 ], [ 1446 ], [ 1685 ], [ 1243 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Harris has criticized common usage of the term \"Islamophobia\". \"My criticism of Islam is a criticism of beliefs and their consequences," ], [ "The idea that Islam is a 'peaceful religion hijacked by extremists' is a dangerous fantasy" ], [ "In 2006, after the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, Harris wrote, \"The idea that Islam is a 'peaceful religion hijacked by extremists' is a dangerous fantasy" ], [ "the Muslim world is utterly deranged by its religious tribalism." ], [ "The Huffington Post on whether critics of Islam are unfairly labeled as bigots:" ], [ "The freedom to poke fun at Mormonism is guaranteed [not by the First Amendment but" ], [ "his criticism of the religion is aimed not at Muslims as people, but at the doctrine of Islam." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 3086, 2416, 499, 418, 999, 1446, 1685, 1243 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Harris has criticized common usage of the term \"Islamophobia\". \"My criticism of Islam is a criticism of beliefs and their consequences,", "The idea that Islam is a 'peaceful religion hijacked by extremists' is a dangerous fantasy", "In 2006, after the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, Harris wrote, \"The idea that Islam is a 'peaceful religion hijacked by extremists' is a dangerous fantasy", "the Muslim world is utterly deranged by its religious tribalism.", "The Huffington Post on whether critics of Islam are unfairly labeled as bigots:", "The freedom to poke fun at Mormonism is guaranteed [not by the First Amendment but", "his criticism of the religion is aimed not at Muslims as people, but at the doctrine of Islam." ] }

[]

[ "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#0", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#1", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#2", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#3", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#4", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#5", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#6", "C_e22aa13195f44587a290b5a8650a54f6_1_q#7" ]

[ "how does sam feel about islam", "does he know any one that died from that attack?", "when was he born?", "where was he born?", "who is sams father?", "how was sam raised?", "has sam ever done drugs?", "what did sam major in" ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1416 ], [ 305 ], [ 11 ], [ 36 ], [ 60 ], [ 229 ], [ 644 ], [ 791 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Faith, immediately after the September 11" ], [ "two." ], [ "born on April 9, 1967" ], [ "Los Angeles," ], [ "actor Berkeley Harris and TV producer Susan Harris (nee Spivak), who created The Golden Girls." ], [ "He was raised by his mother following his parents' divorce when he was aged two." ], [ "Harris experimented with MDMA, and has written and spoken about the insights he experienced under its influence." ], [ "English," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1416, 305, 11, 36, 60, 229, 644, 791 ], "texts": [ "Faith, immediately after the September 11", "two.", "born on April 9, 1967", "Los Angeles,", "actor Berkeley Harris and TV producer Susan Harris (nee Spivak), who created The Golden Girls.", "He was raised by his mother following his parents' divorce when he was aged two.", "Harris experimented with MDMA, and has written and spoken about the insights he experienced under its influence.", "English," ] }

[]

[ "The text does not provide information on Sam Harris's feelings about Islam.", "The text does not provide information on whether Sam Harris knew anyone who died in the September 11 attacks.", "Harris was born on April 9, 1967.", "Harris was born in Los Angeles.", "Sam's father is actor Berkeley Harris.", "Sam Harris was raised by his mother following his parents' divorce when he was two. His upbringing was entirely secular, and his parents rarely discussed religion.", "Yes, while a student at Stanford University, Harris experimented with MDMA.", "Originally, Sam Harris's major was in English at Stanford University, but he switched and completed a B.A. degree in philosophy in 2000. He later received a Ph.D. in cognitive neuroscience in 2009." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "Did Randy win the Intercontinental Championship?", "How long did he hold the title?", "Who did he fight for the title?", "How did the fight go?", "What happened after Savage lost?", "Who else did Savage fight in his carreer?", "And what was the outcome of this fight?", "Did Savage fight anyone else after that fight?", "What happened in WrestleMania?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 1155 ], [ 1955 ], [ 761 ], [ 861 ], [ 1037 ], [ 2388 ], [ 2467 ], [ 2798 ], [ 2682 ], [ 2947 ] ], "texts": [ [ "on the February 24, 1986" ], [ "in mid-1990," ], [ "Savage started a feud with then Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion Tito Santana over that title." ], [ "Santana beat him on October 19, 1985 at San Juan, Puerto Rico." ], [ "Savage won the match by countout, but not the title because the title did not change hands by countout)." ], [ "Savage wrestled Ricky Steamboat at WrestleMania III in the Pontiac Silverdome." ], [ "After 19 two-counts, Steamboat pinned Savage" ], [ "Savage was a stickler for detail, and he and Steamboat laid out and rehearsed every spot in the match prior to WrestleMania," ], [ "The match was extremely choreographed, as opposed to the \"on the fly\" nature of most wrestling matches at the time." ], [ "The match was named 1987's Match of the Year by both Pro Wrestling Illustrated and the Wrestling Observer." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 1155, 1955, 761, 861, 1037, 2388, 2467, 2798, 2682, 2947 ], "texts": [ "on the February 24, 1986", "in mid-1990,", "Savage started a feud with then Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion Tito Santana over that title.", "Santana beat him on October 19, 1985 at San Juan, Puerto Rico.", "Savage won the match by countout, but not the title because the title did not change hands by countout).", "Savage wrestled Ricky Steamboat at WrestleMania III in the Pontiac Silverdome.", "After 19 two-counts, Steamboat pinned Savage", "Savage was a stickler for detail, and he and Steamboat laid out and rehearsed every spot in the match prior to WrestleMania,", "The match was extremely choreographed, as opposed to the \"on the fly\" nature of most wrestling matches at the time.", "The match was named 1987's Match of the Year by both Pro Wrestling Illustrated and the Wrestling Observer." ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Randy Savage won the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship by beating Tito Santana.", "Randy Savage held the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship for nearly 14 months.", "Randy Savage fought Tito Santana for the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship.", "In the fight for the Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship, Randy Savage knocked out Tito Santana using an illegal steel object that he had stashed in his tights.", "After Savage lost his Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship title, he was seen cheering with and hugging other wrestlers.", "Throughout his career, Randy Savage also fought Ivan Putski, Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat, the Dynamite Kid, Junkyard Dog, Hulk Hogan, Bruno Sammartino, George \"The Animal\" Steele, and had matches in tag-team with Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura.", "This context does not provide information on the outcome of all the fights Randy Savage had with Ivan Putski, Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat, the Dynamite Kid, Junkyard Dog, Hulk Hogan, Bruno Sammartino and George \"The Animal\" Steele. However, it does mention that he lost to Junkyard Dog in a 16-man tournament, unsuccessfully challenged Tito Santana for the Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion title at one point, and won over Ricky Steamboat and Dynamite Kid in the same tournament. Later on, he also won a match against George Steele at WrestleMania 2 but lost to Ricky Steamboat at WrestleMania III, ending his reign as Intercontinental Heavyweight Champion.", "The context does not provide information on whether Randy Savage fought anyone after his match with Ricky Steamboat at WrestleMania III.", "At WrestleMania 2, Randy Savage defeated George \"The Animal\" Steele to retain his Intercontinental Heavyweight Title. However, at WrestleMania III, held at the Pontiac Silverdome, Savage lost his Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship title to Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat after 19 two-counts and nearly 14 months as a champion. The match was highly choreographed and rehearsed beforehand, which was a difference in approach compared to most wrestling matches at the time, and was subsequently named 1987's Match of the Year by Pro Wrestling Illustrated and the Wrestling Observer.", "Other interesting aspects mentioned in this article include Savage's character gimmick of a crazed, egotistical bully who mistreated his manager, Miss Elizabeth, and threatened anyone who looked at her. He was billed as \"the top free agent in pro wrestling\" and his debut featured several high-profile wrestling managers trying to win him over. Despite this, Savage declined their offers and chose Miss Elizabeth instead. His feuds with other wrestlers such as George \"The Animal\" Steele, who developed a crush on Miss Elizabeth, add intrigue to his wrestling career narrative. His detailed approach to choreographing matches, especially his critically acclaimed fight with Ricky \"The Dragon\" Steamboat at WrestleMania III, can also be considered a notable element of his wrestling style." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

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[ "What happened during the birth control movement?", "Why was it against the law?", "Did they get in trouble for importing them?", "How long did she stay in Jail?", "Did she have to serve the entire 30?", "How did the law respond to that?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "How was that received?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 382 ], [ 2356 ], [ 718 ], [ 1746 ], [ 1585 ], [ 2356 ], [ 2269 ], [ 2356 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Diaphragms were generally unavailable in the United States, so Sanger and others began importing them from Europe, in defiance of United States law." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Nine days after the clinic opened, Sanger was arrested." ], [ "she was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse." ], [ "Sanger was offered a more lenient sentence if she promised to not break the law again, but she replied: \"I cannot respect the law as it exists today.\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In February 1917, Sanger began publishing the monthly periodical Birth Control Review." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 382, 2356, 718, 1746, 1585, 2356, 2269, 2356 ], "texts": [ "Diaphragms were generally unavailable in the United States, so Sanger and others began importing them from Europe, in defiance of United States law.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Nine days after the clinic opened, Sanger was arrested.", "she was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse.", "Sanger was offered a more lenient sentence if she promised to not break the law again, but she replied: \"I cannot respect the law as it exists today.\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "In February 1917, Sanger began publishing the monthly periodical Birth Control Review.", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom, that of WWII, the pre-Columbian Americas, early Islam, and China—and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question. \n\nIn the ancient world, chronological annals were produced in civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Ancient Near East. The discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the Histories of Herodotus, the founder of historiography. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder produced the first Roman historiography, the Origines, in the 2nd century BCE. His near contemporaries Sima Tan and Sima Qian in the Han Empire of China established Chinese historiography, compiling the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). During the Middle Ages, medieval historiography included the works of chronicles in medieval Europe, Islamic histories by Muslim historians, and the Korean and Japanese historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as Voltaire, David Hume, and Edward Gibbon, who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline.\n\nThe research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural studies. From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent. In 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history. Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration.\n\nTerminology\nIn the early modern period, the term historiography meant \"the writing of history\", and historiographer meant \"historian\". In that sense certain official historians were given the title \"Historiographer Royal\" in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660), and Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence.\n\nHistoriography was more recently defined as \"the study of the way history has been and is written – the history of historical writing\", which means that, \"When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians.\"\n\nAntiquity\n\nUnderstanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the \"telling of history\" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. \nWhat constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history).\n\nThe earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, in the form of chronicles and annals. However, no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. By contrast, the term \"historiography\" is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. In this limited sense, \"ancient history\" begins with the early historiography of Classical Antiquity, in about the 5th century BC.\n\nEurope\n\nGreece\n\nThe earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484–425 BC) who became known as the \"father of history\". Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.\n\nThe generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual city-states (poleis), written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides, and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out: Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.\n\nThucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon ( – 355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.\n\nThe proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384–322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367–283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius ( – 120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view.\n\nThe Chaldean priest Berossus ( BC) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war.\n\nRome\n\nThe Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (103–44 BC) de Bello Gallico exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.\n\nStrabo (63 BC –  AD) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.\n\nBiography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch ( – 125 CE) and Suetonius ( – after 130 CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus ( CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage.\n\nEast Asia\n\nChina\n\nThe Han dynasty eunuch Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His work superseded the older style of the Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled in the 5th century BC, the Bamboo Annals and other court and dynastic annals that recorded history in a chronological form that abstained from analysis. Sima's Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) pioneered the \"Annals-biography\" format, which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China. In this genre a history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs, and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question. The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC, and included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people. He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.\n\nWhereas Sima's had been a universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing, his successor Ban Gu wrote an annals-biography history limiting its coverage to only the Western Han dynasty, the Book of Han (96 AD). This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start- and end-points, and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties.\n\nThe Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the Book of the Later Han (488 CE) (replacing the earlier, and now only partially extant, Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion) and the Records of the Three Kingdoms (297 CE) to form the \"Four Histories\". These became mandatory reading for the Imperial Examinations and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to the Confucian Classics. More annals-biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties, eventually bringing the number to between twenty-four and twenty-six, but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four.\n\nTraditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.\n\nIn 281 AD the tomb of King Xiang of Wei (d. 296 BC) was opened, inside of which was found a historical text called the Bamboo Annals, after the writing material. It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers the time from the Yellow Emperor to 299 BC. Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and in any event it was re-discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn.\n\nMiddle Ages to Renaissance\n\nChristendom\n\nChristian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age, though its historical reliability is disputed. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century.\nThe growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers. Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.\n\nWriting history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede, who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).\n\nIslamic world\n\nMuslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the \"science of biography\", \"science of hadith\" and \"Isnad\" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar (1372–1449). Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice). His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century.\n\nEast Asia\n\nJapan\n\nThe earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720.\n\nKorea\n\nThe tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1122–1146). It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost.\n\nChina\nIn 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period (403 BCE) to the end of the Five Dynasties period (959 CE) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the \"Official Histories\" for the Six dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties, and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader.\n\nThe great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read.\n\nSouth East Asia\n\nPhilippines\n\nHistoriography of the Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines. It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century.\n\nBefore the arrival of Spanish colonial powers, the Philippines did not actually exist. Southeast Asia is classified as part of the Indosphere and the Sinosphere. The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty (960-1279), and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires.\n\nThe pre-colonial Philippines widely used the Abugida system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history. Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal. The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines.\n\nThe arrival of the Spanish colonizers, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained. The interplay of pre-colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study.\n\nEnlightenment\n\nDuring the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began. Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), and Cesare Baronio (1538–1607).\n\nVoltaire\nFrench philosophe Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous influence on the development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:\n\nVoltaire's best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.\n\nVoltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on \"History\" in Diderot's Encyclopédie: \"One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population.\" Already in 1739 he had written: \"My chief object is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization – in a word, – of the human mind.\" Voltaire's histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past. He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote \"very good history\", citing his \"scrupulous concern for truths\", \"careful sifting of evidence\", \"intelligent selection of what is important\", \"keen sense of drama\", and \"grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study\".\n\nDavid Hume\n\nAt the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain. In 1754 he published The History of England, a 6-volume work which extended \"From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688\". Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other – he paid special attention to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and William Harvey.\n\nHe also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved \"the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind\".\n\nEdward Gibbon\n\nThe apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first \"modern historian\". The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, \"His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting.\"\n\nGibbon's work has been praised for its style, its piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, \"I set out upon ... Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style. ... I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all.\" Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing and 'desanctifying' of history, remarking, for example, on the \"want of truth and common sense\" of biographies composed by Saint Jerome. Unusually for an 18th-century historian, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions). He said, \"I have always endeavoured to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend.\" In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon broke new ground in the methodical study of history:\n\nIn accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ... Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period.\n\n19th century\n\nThe tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England. Nineteenth century historiography, especially among American historians, featured conflicting viewpoints that represented the times. According to 20th-century historian Richard Hofstadter:\n\nThomas Carlyle\nThomas Carlyle published his three-volume The French Revolution: A History, in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century.\n\nFrench historians: Michelet and Taine\n\nIn his main work Histoire de France (1855), French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) coined the term Renaissance (meaning \"rebirth\" in French), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The 19-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view.\n\nMichelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet:\n\nHippolyte Taine (1828–1893), although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism, and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. He pioneered the idea of \"the milieu\" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passé.\n\nCultural and constitutional history\nOne of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt. Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: \"The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well.\"\n\nHis most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860; it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read. According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that \"history is past politics and politics current history.\n\nBy the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–1878) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.\n\nVon Ranke and professionalization in Germany\n\nThe modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities, especially the University of Göttingen. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, \"Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century.\"\n\nSpecifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including \"memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses\". Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources, an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (). Sources had to be solid, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.\n\nRanke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called .\n\nAnother important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of \"World history ... represents the development of the spirit's consciousness of its own freedom and of the consequent realization of this freedom.\" This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia, and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them:\n\nWorld history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself. The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free. ... The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Greeks, and they were accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some, and not all men as such, are free. ... The Germanic nations, with the rise of Christianity, were the first to realize that All men are by nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence.\n\nKarl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of \"leadership\". This progressed to a slave society where the idea of class emerged and the State developed. Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy, with\nprivate property and parliamentary democracy. Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism, followed by communism, where property would be communally owned.\n\nPrevious historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of \"one's own\" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.\n\nMacaulay and Whig history\n\nThe term \"Whig history\", coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931, means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.\n\nPaul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became \"the classic Whig history\" for the first half of the 18th century. It was later supplanted by the immensely popular The History of England by David Hume. Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This included James Mackintosh's History of the Revolution in England in 1688, William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Henry Hallam's Constitutional History of England.\n\nThe most famous exponent of 'Whiggery' was Thomas Babington Macaulay. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history. He published the first volumes of his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of James II, in 1848. It proved an immediate success and replaced Hume's history to become the new orthodoxy. His 'Whiggish convictions' are spelled out in his first chapter:\n\nHis legacy continues to be controversial; Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that \"most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did.\" However, J. R. Western wrote that: \"Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's History of England has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period\".\n\nThe Whig consensus was steadily undermined during the post-World War I re-evaluation of European history, and Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend. Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal. Other criticized 'Whig' assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development, assuming that political figures in the past held current political beliefs (anachronism), considering British history as a march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes, who advanced the cause of this political progress, or villains, who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph. J. Hart says \"a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story.\"\n\n20th century\n\n20th-century historiography in major countries is characterized by a move to universities and academic research centers. Popular history continued to be written by self-educated amateurs, but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD's trained in research seminars at a university. The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives. Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics, so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use, and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses. Western Europe and the United States took leading roles in this development. The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices.\n\nFrance: Annales school\n\nThe French Annales school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.\n\nThe Annales d'histoire économique et sociale journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (la longue durée) over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called mentalités, or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history. For early modern Mexican history, the work of Marc Bloch's student François Chevalier on the formation of landed estates (haciendas) from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography, setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic.\n\nAn eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation. The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a histoire totale, or histoire tout court, a complete study of a historical problem.\n\nThe second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: l'histoire quasi immobile (motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (la longue durée), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures. His 'longue durée' approach stressed slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The Annales historians, after living through two world wars and major political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress slow change and the longue durée. They paid special attention to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They considered the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries.\n\nNoting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argued that \"in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the Annales came to an end after 1968, and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply.\" Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history. However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research.\n\nMarxist historiography\n\nMarxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Friedrich Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany, which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an early interest in history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society.\n\nR. H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper.\n\nHistoriography in the Soviet Union was greatly influenced by Marxist historiography, as historical materialism was extended into the Soviet version of dialectical materialism.\n\nA circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history.\n\nChristopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as representative of this school. His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in 17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others.\n\nE. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:\n\nThompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined \"class\". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians, such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes.\n\nOther important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm, C. L. R. James, Raphael Samuel, A. L. Morton and Brian Pearce.\n\nBiography\n\nBiography has been a major form of historiography since the days when Plutarch wrote the parallel lives of great Roman and Greek leaders. It is a field especially attractive to nonacademic historians, and often to the spouses or children of famous people, who have access to the trove of letters and documents. Academic historians tend to downplay biography because it pays too little attention to broad social, cultural, political and economic forces, and perhaps too much attention to popular psychology. The \"Great Man\" tradition in Britain originated in the multi-volume Dictionary of National Biography (which originated in 1882 and issued updates into the 1970s); it continues to this day in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. In the United States, the Dictionary of American Biography was planned in the late 1920s and appeared with numerous supplements into the 1980s. It has now been displaced by the American National Biography as well as numerous smaller historical encyclopedias that give thorough coverage to Great Persons. Bookstores do a thriving business in biographies, which sell far more copies than the esoteric monographs based on post-structuralism, cultural, racial or gender history. Michael Holroyd says the last forty years \"may be seen as a golden age of biography\", but nevertheless calls it the \"shallow end of history\". Nicolas Barker argues that \"more and more biographies command an ever larger readership\", as he speculates that biography has come \"to express the spirit of our age\".\n\nDaniel R. Meister argues that:\n\nBritish debates\n\nMarxist historian E. H. Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book What Is History?, which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject. He presented a middle-of-the-road position between the empirical or (Rankean) view of history and R. G. Collingwood's idealism, and rejected the empirical view of the historian's work being an accretion of \"facts\" that they have at their disposal as nonsense. He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always chooses the \"facts\" they decide to make use of. In Carr's famous example, he claimed that millions had crossed the Rubicon, but only Julius Caesar's crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians. For this reason, Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke's famous dictum wie es eigentlich gewesen (show what actually happened) was wrong because it presumed that the \"facts\" influenced what the historian wrote, rather than the historian choosing what \"facts of the past\" they intended to turn into \"historical facts\". At the same time, Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views. In this way, Carr argued that history was \"an unending dialogue between the past and present\".\n\nCarr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history. Others have modified or rejected this use of the label \"determinist\". He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history. Carr emphatically contended that history was a social science, not an art, because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one's subject.\n\nOne of Carr's most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who argued that Carr's dismissal of the \"might-have-beens of history\" reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation. Trevor-Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a \"parlour-game\" was rather an essential part of the historians' work, as only by considering all possible outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period.\n\nThe controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book The Practice of History. Elton criticized Carr for his \"whimsical\" distinction between the \"historical facts\" and the \"facts of the past\", arguing that it reflected \"...an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it\". Elton, instead, strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made by postmodernism. Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively analyzing what the evidence has to say. As a traditionalist, he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in history instead of abstract, impersonal forces. Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history. Elton had no use for those who seek history to make myths, to create laws to explain the past, or to produce theories such as Marxism.\n\nU.S. approaches\n\nClassical and European history was part of the 19th-century grammar curriculum. American history became a topic later in the 19th century.\n\nIn the historiography of the United States, there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century. In 2009–2012, there were an average of 16,000 new academic history books published in the U.S. every year.\n\nProgressive historians\n\nThe Progressive historians were a group of 20th century historians of the United States associated with a historiographical tradition that embraced an economic interpretation of American history. Most prominent among these was Charles A. Beard, who was influential in academia and with the general public.\n\nConsensus history\n\nConsensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial. It was especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter, Louis Hartz, Daniel Boorstin, Allan Nevins, Clinton Rossiter, Edmund Morgan, and David M. Potter. In 1948 Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the U.S. political tradition:\n\nNew Left history\nConsensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted a younger generation of radical historians in the 1960s. These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class, race and gender. The history of dissent, and the experiences of racial minorities and disadvantaged classes was central to the narratives produced by New Left historians.\n\nQuantification and new approaches to history\n\nSocial history, sometimes called the \"new social history\", is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary people in the past. It had major growth as a field in the 1960s and 1970s, and still is well represented in history departments. However, after 1980 the \"cultural turn\" directed the next generation to new topics. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in U.S. universities identifying with social history rose from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40 to 30 percent.\n\nThe growth was enabled by the social sciences, computers, statistics, new data sources such as individual census information, and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of Michigan. The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics, as the focus shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections.\n\nThe Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal Social Science History and an annual convention. The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences, especially political science, sociology and economics. The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification. However, by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off, as traditional historians counterattacked. Harvey J. Graff says:\n\nMeanwhile, quantitative history became well-established in other disciplines, especially economics (where they called it \"cliometrics\"), as well as in political science. In history, however, quantification remained central to demographic studies, but slipped behind in political and social history as traditional narrative approaches made a comeback.\n\nLatin America\n\nLatin America is the former Spanish American empire in the Western Hemisphere plus Portuguese Brazil. Professional historians pioneered the creation of this field, starting in the late nineteenth century. The term \"Latin America\" did not come into general usage until the twentieth century and in some cases it was rejected. The historiography of the field has been more fragmented than unified, with historians of Spanish America and Brazil generally remaining in separate spheres. Another standard division within the historiography is the temporal factor, with works falling into either the early modern period (or \"colonial era\") or the post-independence (or \"national\") period, from the early nineteenth onward. Relatively few works span the two eras and few works except textbooks unite Spanish America and Brazil. There is a tendency to focus on histories of particular countries or regions (the Andes, the Southern Cone, the Caribbean) with relatively little comparative work.\n\nHistorians of Latin America have contributed to various types of historical writing, but one major, innovative development in Spanish American history is the emergence of ethnohistory, the history of indigenous peoples, especially in Mexico based on alphabetic sources in Spanish or in indigenous languages.\n\nFor the early modern period, the emergence of Atlantic history, based on comparisons and linkages of Europe, the Americas, and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework. For all periods, global or world history have focused on the connections between areas, likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective. Latin America's importance to world history is notable but often overlooked. \"Latin America's central, and sometimes pioneering, role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period. Indeed, the region's political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world. The first is the so-called liberal revolution, the shift from monarchies of the ancien régime, where inheritance legitimated political power, to constitutional republics... The second, and related, trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation-states.\"\n\nHistorical research appears in a number of specialized journals. These include Hispanic American Historical Review (est. 1918), published by the Conference on Latin American History; The Americas, (est. 1944); Journal of Latin American Studies (1969); Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies,(est.1976) Bulletin of Latin American Research, (est. 1981); Colonial Latin American Review (1992); and Colonial Latin American Historical Review (est. 1992). Latin American Research Review (est. 1969), published by the Latin American Studies Association, does not focus primarily on history, but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics.\t\n\nGeneral works on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s, when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U.S. universities and colleges. Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era, focusing on institutional, political, social and economic history. An important, eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is The Cambridge History of Latin America, with separate volumes on the colonial era, nineteenth century, and the twentieth century. There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions. Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history and historiography. Reference works include the Handbook of Latin American Studies, which publishes articles by area experts, with annotated bibliographic entries, and the Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture.\n\nWorld history\nWorld history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points: integration – (how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together), and difference – (how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience).\n\nArnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History, took an approach that was widely discussed in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s his work was virtually ignored by scholars and the general public. He compared 26 independent civilizations and argued that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. He proposed a universal model to each of these civilizations, detailing the stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. The later volumes gave too much emphasis on spirituality to satisfy critics.\n\nChicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly.\n\nThe cultural turn\nThe \"cultural turn\" of the 1980s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history. Inspired largely by anthropology, it turned away from leaders, ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society.\n\nThe British historian Peter Burke finds that cultural studies has numerous spinoffs, or topical themes it has strongly influenced. The most important include gender studies and postcolonial studies, as well as memory studies, and film studies.\n\nDiplomatic historian Melvyn P. Leffler finds that the problem with the \"cultural turn\" is that the culture concept is imprecise, and may produce excessively broad interpretations, because it:\n\nMemory studies\n\nMemory studies is a new field, focused on how nations and groups (and historians) construct and select their memories of the past in order to celebrate (or denounce) key features, thus making a statement of their current values and beliefs. Historians have played a central role in shaping the memories of the past as their work is diffused through popular history books and school textbooks. French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs, opened the field with La mémoire collective (Paris: 1950).\n\nMany historians examine how the memory of the past has been constructed, memorialized or distorted. Historians examine how legends are invented. For example, there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II, notably the Holocaust in Europe and Japanese war crimes in Asia. British historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body.\n\nRepresentative of recent scholarship is a collection of studies on the \"Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe\". SAGE has published the scholarly journal Memory Studies since 2008, and the book series \"Memory Studies\" was launched by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010 with 5–10 titles a year.\n\nScholarly journals\nThe historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences, and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations, a publication of the Annales school in France. Journals now typically have one or more editors and associate editors, an editorial board, and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are sent for confidential evaluation. The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that usually run 500 to 1000 words. The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer. Publication in a prestigious journal (which accept 10 percent or fewer of the articles submitted) is an asset in the academic hiring and promotion process. Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field. Page charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history. Journals are subsidized by universities or historical societies, scholarly associations, and subscription fees from libraries and scholars. Increasingly they are available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions. Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter-library loan.\n\nSome major historical journals\n\n 1839 Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro (Brazil)\n 1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)\n 1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)\n 1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)\n 1867 Századok (Hungary)\n 1869 Časopis Matice moravské (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)\n 1876 Revue Historique (France)\n 1880 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)\n 1886 English Historical Review (England)\n 1887 Kwartalnik Historyczny (Poland – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1892 William and Mary Quarterly (US)\n 1894 Ons Hémecht (Luxembourg)\n 1895 American Historical Review (US)\n 1895 Český časopis historický (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed in 1964 the Journal of American History) (US)\n 1915 The Catholic Historical Review (US)\n 1916 The Journal of Negro History (renamed in 2001 The Journal of African American History) (US)\n 1916 Historisk Tidskrift för Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)\n 1918 Hispanic American Historical Review (US)\n 1920 Canadian Historical Review (Canada)\n 1922 Slavonic and East European Review (SEER), (England)\n 1928 Scandia (Sweden)\n 1929 Annales d'histoire économique et sociale (France)\n 1935 Journal of Southern History (USA)\n 1941 The Journal of Economic History (US)\n 1944 The Americas (US)\n 1951 Historia Mexicana (Mexico)\n 1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (England)\n 1953 Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany)\n 1954 Ethnohistory (US)\n 1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)\n 1957 Victorian Studies (US)\n 1960 Journal of African History (England)\n 1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (US)\n 1960 History and Theory (US)\n 1967 Indian Church History Review (India) (earlier published as the Bulletin of Church History Association of India)\n 1967 The Journal of Social History (US)\n 1969 Journal of Interdisciplinary History (US)\n 1969 Journal of Latin American Studies (UK)\n 1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)\n 1975 Signs (US)\n 1976 Journal of Family History (US)\n 1978 The Public Historian (US)\n 1981 Bulletin of Latin American Research (UK)\n 1982 Storia della Storiografia – History of Historiography – Histoire de l'Historiographie – Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung\n 1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)\n 1986 Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts (Germany)\n 1990 Gender and History (US)\n 1990 Journal of World History (US)\n 1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft (Austria)\n 1990 Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG)\n 1992 Women's History Review\n 1992 Colonial Latin American Historical Review (US)\n 1992 Colonial Latin American Review\n 1996 Environmental History (US)\n 2011 International Journal for the Historiography of Education\n\nNarrative\nAccording to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, \"More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative.\"\n\nHistorians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.\n\nTopics studied\nSome of the common topics in historiography are:\n\n Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. (See also source criticism.)\n Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, for example Marxist, Annales school, \"total history\", or political history.\n Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment\n Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations\n Historical metanarratives and metahistory.\n\nApproaches\nHow a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. Historians commonly recognise that individual historical facts – dealing with names, dates and places – are not particularly meaningful in themselves. Such facts only become useful/informative when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.\n\nSome of the most influential historiographical approaches include:\n\n Big history\n Black history\n Business history\n Chronology\n Comparative history\n Cultural history\n Diplomatic history\n Economic history (history of capitalism), (cliometrics)\n Environmental history, a relatively new field\n Ethnohistory\n Gender history including women's history, family history, feminist history\n History of medicine\n History of religion and church history; the history of theology is usually handled under theology\n Indigenous history\n Industrial history and the history of technology\n Intellectual history and the history of ideas\n Labor history\n Legendary history - important in pre-modern contexts\n Local history and microhistory\n Marxist historiography and historical materialism\n Military history, including naval and air history\n Mythistory - history incorporating elements of myth\n National history - comforting myths of individual peoples\n Oral history\n Political history\n Public history, especially museums and historic preservation\n Quantitative history (prosopography using statistics to study biographies)\n History of religions\n Historiography of science \n Social history and people's history; along with the French version the Annales school and the German Bielefeld School\n Subaltern Studies, regarding post-colonial India\n Urban history\n American urban history\n Whig history, history interpreted as the story of continuous progress\n World history\n\nRelated fields\nImportant related fields include:\n Antiquarianism\n Genealogy\n Intellectual history\n Numismatics\n Paleography\n Philosophy of history\n Pseudohistory\n\nSee also \n\n List of historians by area of study\n Historical significance\n National memory\n\nMethods\n Archival research\n Auxiliary sciences of history\n Historical method\n List of historians, inclusive of most major historians\n List of historians by area of study\n List of history journals\n Philosophy of history\n Popular history\n Primary source – documents, correspondence, diaries\n Secondary source – interpretations, written history\n Tertiary source – textbooks and encyclopedias\n Periodization\n Public history, including museums and historical preservation\n Historical revisionism\n Shared historical authority\n Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the School of History\n\nTopics\n African historiography\n Historiography of Argentina\n Atlantic history\n Historiography of Canada\n Chinese historiography\n Historiography of the Cold War\n Historiography of early Christianity\n Historiography of the French Revolution\n Annales school, in France\n Historiography of Germany \n Bielefeld School, in Germany\n Greek historiography\n Historiography of Alexander the Great\n Classics\n History of India#Historiography\n Historiography of the fall of the Mughal Empire\n Historiography of Islam\n Historiography of early Islam\n Historiography of Japan\n Historiography of Korea\n Korean nationalist historiography\n Latin American History\n Middle Ages\n Historiography of feudalism\n Dark Ages (historiography)\n Historiography of the Crusades\n Historiography and nationalism\n Roman historiography \n Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire\n Historiography of Switzerland\n Historiography in the Soviet Union\n Historiography of the United Kingdom\n Historiography of Scotland\n Historiography of the British Empire\n Historiography of the United States\n Frontier thesis\n World history\n Historiography of the causes of World War I\n Historiography of World War II\n Historiography of the Battle of France, 1940\n\nBibliography\n\nTheory\n Appleby, Joyce, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.\n Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 \n Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (1940)\n Burke, Peter. History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992\n David Cannadine (editor), What is History Now, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002\n E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, \n R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, \n Deluermoz, Quentin, and Singaravélou, Pierre: A Past of Possibilities: A History of What Could Have Been’’ ; Yale University Press, 2021\n Doran, Robert. ed. Philosophy of History After Hayden White. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.\n Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, \n Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, \n Fischer, David Hackett. Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970\n Gardiner, Juliet (ed) What is History Today...? London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1988.\n Harlaftis, Gelina, ed. The New Ways of History: Developments in Historiography (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 260 pp; trends in historiography since 1990\n Hewitson, Mark, History and Causality, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014\n Jenkins, Keith ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006)\n Jenkins, Keith. Rethinking History, 1991, \n Arthur Marwick, The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, \n Munslow, Alan. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000), an encyclopedia of concepts, methods and historians\n Olstein, Diego. Thinking History Globally (2025), summary\n Spalding, Roger & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, \n Sreedharan, E, \"A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000\". New Delhi, Oreient Black Swan, 2004, \n Sreedharan, E, \"A Manual of Historical Research Methodology\". Trivandrum, Centre for South Indian Studies, 2007, \n Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History, 2002, \n Tucker, Aviezer, ed. A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden: Blackwell, 2009\n White, Hayden. The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007, Johns Hopkins, 2010. Ed. Robert Doran\n\nGuides to scholarship\n The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature, ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online, vol 2 online\n Allison, William Henry et al. eds. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 as selected by scholars from the American Historical Association online edition, free; \n Backhouse, Roger E. and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A Historiography of the Modern Social Sciences (Cambridge University Press, 2014) pp. ix, 248; essays on the ways in which the histories of psychology, anthropology, sociology, economics, history, and political science have been written since 1945\n Black, Jeremy. Clio's Battles: Historiography in Practice (Indiana University Press, 2015.) xvi, 323 pp. \n Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (2 Vol 1999), 1600 pp covering major historians and themes\n Cline, Howard F. ed. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Handbook of Middle American Indians (4 vols U of Texas Press 1973.\n Gray, Wood. Historian's Handbook, 2nd ed. (Houghton-Miffin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 pp; a primer\n Elton, G.R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online\n Loades, David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760 pp; highly detailed guide to British historiography excerpt and text search\n \n Parish, Peter, ed. Reader's Guide to American History (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to historiography of American topics excerpt and text search\n Popkin, Jeremy D. From Herodotus to H-Net: The Story of Historiography (Oxford UP, 2015).\n Woolf, Daniel et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011–r12), covers all major historians since AD 600 \n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199218158.001.0001\n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.001.0001\n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199533091.001.0001\n\nHistories of historical writing\n Arnold, John H. History: A Very Short Introduction (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. \n Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962)\n Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)\n Bauer, Stefan. The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (Oxford University Press, 2020).\n Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, , 39 chapters by experts\n Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing (2 vol. Taylor & Francis, 1999), 1562 pp\n Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, \n Budd, Adam, ed. The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources. (Routledge, 2009).\n Cline, Howard F., ed.Latin American History: Essays on Its Study and Teaching, 1898–1965. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1965.\n Cohen, H. Floris The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, (1994), \n Conrad, Sebastian. The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century (2010)\n Crymble, Adam. Technology and the Historian: Transformations in the Digital Age (University of Illinois, 2021), 241 pp\n Fitzsimons, M.A. et al. eds. The development of historiography (1954) 471 pages; comprehensive global coverage; online free\n Gilderhus, Mark T. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 2002, \n Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005)\n Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520 pp; .\n Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, \n The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011), Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600; Volume 2: 600–1400; Volume 3: 1400–1800; Volume 4: 1800–1945; Volume 5: Historical Writing since 1945 catalog\n Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006) Excerpt and text search\n Soffer, Reba. History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan (2009) excerpt and text search\n Thompson, James Westfall. A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th Century (1942); A History of Historical Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries (1942)\n Woolf, Daniel, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (2 vol. 1998)\n Woolf, Daniel. \"Historiography\", in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005), vol. I.\n Woolf, Daniel. A Global History of History (Cambridge University Press, 2011)\n Woolf, Daniel, ed. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 2011–12).2011)\n Woolf, Daniel, A Concise History Of History (Cambridge University Press, 2019)\n\nFeminist historiography\n Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard University Press 2000\n Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979\n Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006\n Julie Des Jardins, Women and the Historical Enterprise in America, University of North Carolina Press, 2002\n Donna Guy, \"Gender and Sexuality in Latin America\" in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History, José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 367–81.\n Asunción Lavrin, \"Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America\" in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History, José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 132–54.\n Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002\n Clare Hemmings, \"Why Stories Matter: The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory\", Duke University Press 2011\n\nNational and regional studies\n Berger, Stefan et al., eds. Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800 (1999) excerpt and text search; how history has been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist, communist and Catholic internationalism\n Iggers, Georg G. A new Directions and European Historiography (1975)\n LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspective (1982)\n\nAsia and Africa\n Cohen, Paul. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. New York, London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p. Reprinted: 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author. .\n R.C. Majumdar, Historiography in Modem India (Bombay, 1970) \n Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003)\n Martin, Thomas R. Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History with Documents (2009)\n E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004)\n Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) \n Shourie, Arun (2014). Eminent historians: Their technology, their line, their fraud. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India : HarperCollins Publishers. \n Yerxa, Donald A. Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation (2008) excerpt and text search\n\nBritain\n Bann, Stephen. Romanticism and the Rise of History (Twayne Publishers, 1995)\n Bentley, Michael. Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970 (2006) excerpt and text search\n Cannadine, David. In Churchill's Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain (2003)\n Furber, Elizabeth, ed. Changing Views on British History; Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939 (1966); 418pp; essays by scholars\n \n \n Hale, John Rigby, ed. The evolution of British historiography: from Bacon to Namier (1967).\n Hexter, J. H. On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history (1979); covers Carl Becker, Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock\n Howsam, Leslie. \"Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing\". Victorian Literature and Culture 32.02 (2004): 525–545. online\n Jann, Rosemary. The Art and Science of Victorian History (1985)\n Jann, Rosemary. \"From Amateur to Professional: The Case of the Oxbridge Historians\". Journal of British Studies (1983) 22#2 pp: 122–47.\n Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (1983)\n Loades, David. Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long historiographical essays on about 1000 topics\n Mitchell, Rosemary. Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 1830–1870 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000)\n Philips, Mark Salber. Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820 (Princeton University Press, 2000).\n Richardson, Roger Charles, ed. The debate on the English Revolution (2nd ed. Manchester University Press, 1998)\n Schlatter, Richard, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 (1984) 525 pp; 13 topics essays by scholars\n\nBritish Empire\n Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900, (2nd ed. 1986)\n Bhattacharjee, J. B. Historians and Historiography of North East India (2012)\n Davison, Graeme. The Use and Abuse of Australian History (2000)\n Farrell, Frank. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990)\n Gare, Deborah. \"Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography\", The Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 2000), pp. 1145–1155 in JSTOR\n Guha, Ranajiit. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Harvard UP, 1998)\n Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (1998)\n Mittal, S. C India distorted: A study of British historians on India (1995), on 19th century writers\n Saunders, Christopher. The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class, (1988)\n Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001)\n\nFrance\n\n Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–2014 (John Wiley & Sons, 2015).\n \n Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen, eds. French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France (2010) 40 long essays by experts. excerpt\n Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp; 65 essays by French historians\n Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (1976)\n\nGermany\n\n Fletcher, Roger. \"Recent developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its critics\". German Studies Review (1984): 451–480. in JSTOR\n Hagemann, Karen, and Jean H. Quataert, eds. Gendering Modern German History: Rewriting Historiography (2008)\n Iggers, Georg G. The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present (2nd ed. 1983)\n Rüger, Jan, and Nikolaus Wachsmann, eds. Rewriting German history: new perspectives on modern Germany (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). excerpt\n Sheehan, James J. \"What is German history? Reflections on the role of the nation in German history and historiography\". Journal of Modern History (1981): 2–23. in JSTOR\n Sperber, Jonathan. \"Master Narratives of Nineteenth-century German History\". Central European History (1991) 24#1: 69–91. online\n Stuchtey, Benedikt, and Peter Wende, eds. British and German historiography, 1750–1950: traditions, perceptions, and transfers (2000).\n\nLatin America\n Adelman, Jeremy, ed. Colonial Legacies. New York: Routledge 1999.\n Coatsworth, John. \"Cliometrics and Mexican History\", Historical Methods18:1 (Winter 1985)31–37.\n \n \n Lockhart, James. \"The Social History of Early Latin America\". Latin American Research Review 1972.\n Moya, José C. The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History. New York: Oxford University Press 2011.\n \n \n\nUnited States\n Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)\n Novick, Peter. That Noble Dream: The \"Objectivity Question\" and the American Historical Profession (1988), \n Palmer, William W. \"All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States, 1970–2010\", Journal of The Historical Society (2012), 12: 111–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x\n Palmer, William. Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians (2001)\n Parish, Peter J., ed. Reader's Guide to American History (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics\n Wish, Harvey. The American Historian (1960), covers pre-1920\n\nThemes, organizations, and teaching\n Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (1998) excerpt and text search\n Charlton, Thomas L. History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (2007)\n Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)\n Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The Holocaust and Historians. (1981).\n Ernest, John. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794–1861. (2004)\n Evans, Ronald W. The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages\n Ferro, Marc, Cinema and History (1988)\n Green, Anna, and Kathleeen Troup. The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory. 2 ed. Manchester University Press, 2016.\n Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)\n Keita, Maghan. Race and the Writing of History. Oxford UP (2000)\n Leavy, Patricia. Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research (2011) excerpt and text search\n Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)\nManning, Patrick, ed. World History: Global And Local Interactions (2006)\n Maza, Sarah. Thinking About History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226109473.001.0001.\n Meister, Daniel R. \"The biographical turn and the case for historical biography\" History Compass (Dec. 2017) DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12436 abstract\n Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (2005), \n Ritchie, Donald A. The Oxford Handbook of Oral History (2010) excerpt and text search\n Tröhler, Daniel \"History and Historiography. Approaches to Historical Research in Education\" T. Fitzgerald (ed.), THandbook of Historical Studies in Education'' (2019);\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography\n short guide to Historiographical terms\n Basic guide to historiography research for undergraduates\n Cromohs – cyber review of modern historiography open-access electronic scholarly journal \n History of Historiography scholarly journal in several languages\n\n \nCategory:Philosophy of history", "title": "Historiography" } ]

[ "During the birth control movement, Sanger, an activist, learned about diaphragms from a Dutch birth control clinic and believed they were a more effective method of contraception. Despite diaphragms being generally unavailable in the U.S, she and others began importing them from Europe, defying U.S law. Sanger opened the first family planning and birth control clinic in the U.S in Brooklyn, but was arrested nine days later and her sister was also arrested for breaking a law prohibiting distribution of contraceptives. After trials and convictions, Byrne was pardoned after ten days of a hunger strike only when Sanger pledged she would not break the law anymore. Sanger was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse. In 1918, Judge Frederick E. Crane of the New York Court of Appeals permitted doctors to prescribe contraception, marking a victory for the birth control movement. The arrest, trial, and appeal of Sanger sparked birth control activism across the U.S and attracted the support of many donors. In February 1917, Sanger started publishing the monthly periodical, Birth Control Review.", "Based on the context provided, it was against the law in New York state to distribute contraceptives in the United States at that time. Also, Sanger was charged with running a public nuisance by operating a family planning and birth control clinic. The exact reasons for these laws are not mentioned in the context.", "The text does not provide specific information about whether Sanger and her associates faced legal consequences specifically for importing diaphragms from Europe. It does mention that she was arrested and later convicted for opening a birth control clinic and distributing contraceptives, which was against New York state law at the time.", "Margaret Sanger was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse, which is a type of jail, after her refusal to promise not to break the law again. However, the context does not provide specific information on whether she served the entire sentence.", "The text does not provide specific information regarding whether Margaret Sanger served her entire 30-day sentence in the workhouse.", "The text does not provide specific information on how the law responded to Margaret Sanger's jail sentence or whether she served the entire sentence. However, it's known that an initial appeal to her conviction was rejected. Later in 1918, the New York Court of Appeals issued a ruling which allowed doctors to prescribe contraception, marking a victory for the birth control movement.", "Certainly, several interesting aspects can be found in the context. The article highlights the historical struggle for reproductive rights, outlining Margaret Sanger's bold steps at a time when contraception was illegal in the United States. The opening of the first family planning and birth control clinic in the United States, despite the legal risks, is notable. Furthermore, Sanger's arrest and the subsequent trial brought significant attention to the issue, escalating the birth control movement across the country. Also of interest is Ethel Byrne's hunger strike and force-feeding while in jail, marking her as the first woman hunger striker in the U.S to be force-fed. Lastly, in the wake of these controversies, Sanger started publishing a monthly periodical named 'Birth Control Review', a pioneering endeavor in promoting the cause of birth control.", "The text does not provide specific information on how Margaret Sanger's publishing of the 'Birth Control Review' periodical was received." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#0", "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#1", "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#2", "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#3", "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#4", "C_881c247f9b0a4812b008da0d5d88eb09_0_q#5" ]

[ "When did Planned Parenthood come into existence?", "When was the name changed to Planned Parenthood?", "Were there any prominent people on the board?", "Did the organization have legal troubles?", "Were there other legal problems?", "How many clinics does Planned Parenthood have?" ]

[ 0, 2, 2, 0, 1, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 3476 ], [ 3668 ], [ 4246 ], [ 2500 ], [ 4633 ], [ 4633 ] ], "texts": [ [ "in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America." ], [ "in 1942, more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America," ], [ "the early 1950s, Sanger encouraged philanthropist Katharine McCormick to provide funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the birth control pill which was eventually sold under the name Enovid." ], [ "The diaphragm was confiscated by the United States government, and Sanger's subsequent legal challenge led to a 1936 court decision which overturned an important provision of the Comstock laws" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 3476, 3668, 4246, 2500, 4633, 4633 ], "texts": [ "in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America.", "in 1942, more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America,", "the early 1950s, Sanger encouraged philanthropist Katharine McCormick to provide funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the birth control pill which was eventually sold under the name Enovid.", "The diaphragm was confiscated by the United States government, and Sanger's subsequent legal challenge led to a 1936 court decision which overturned an important provision of the Comstock laws", "CANNOTANSWER", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[ { "text": "Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques, and theoretical approaches. Scholars discuss historiography by topic—such as the historiography of the United Kingdom, that of WWII, the pre-Columbian Americas, early Islam, and China—and different approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with the development of academic history, there developed a body of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and loyalties—such as to their nation state—remains a debated question. \n\nIn the ancient world, chronological annals were produced in civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Ancient Near East. The discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the Histories of Herodotus, the founder of historiography. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder produced the first Roman historiography, the Origines, in the 2nd century BCE. His near contemporaries Sima Tan and Sima Qian in the Han Empire of China established Chinese historiography, compiling the Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian). During the Middle Ages, medieval historiography included the works of chronicles in medieval Europe, Islamic histories by Muslim historians, and the Korean and Japanese historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as Voltaire, David Hume, and Edward Gibbon, who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline.\n\nThe research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural studies. From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent. In 2007, of 5,723 faculty in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history. Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration.\n\nTerminology\nIn the early modern period, the term historiography meant \"the writing of history\", and historiographer meant \"historian\". In that sense certain official historians were given the title \"Historiographer Royal\" in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660), and Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence.\n\nHistoriography was more recently defined as \"the study of the way history has been and is written – the history of historical writing\", which means that, \"When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians.\"\n\nAntiquity\n\nUnderstanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the \"telling of history\" has emerged independently in civilizations around the world. \nWhat constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history).\n\nThe earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, in the form of chronicles and annals. However, no historical writers in these early civilizations were known by name. By contrast, the term \"historiography\" is taken to refer to written history recorded in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. In this limited sense, \"ancient history\" begins with the early historiography of Classical Antiquity, in about the 5th century BC.\n\nEurope\n\nGreece\n\nThe earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a development which would be an important influence on the writing of history elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. Greek historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484–425 BC) who became known as the \"father of history\". Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity in the determination of historical events.\n\nThe generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the individual city-states (poleis), written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides, and these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures stand out: Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who compiled more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.\n\nThucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon ( – 355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.\n\nThe proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384–322 BC) on Philip II of Macedon marked the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch Ptolemy I (367–283 BC) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius ( – 120 BC) wrote on the rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view.\n\nThe Chaldean priest Berossus ( BC) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the Seleucid king Antiochus I, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war.\n\nRome\n\nThe Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines, composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BC), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style, Julius Caesar's (103–44 BC) de Bello Gallico exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator Cicero (106–43 BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.\n\nStrabo (63 BC –  AD) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.\n\nBiography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch ( – 125 CE) and Suetonius ( – after 130 CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities, stressing their human side. Tacitus ( CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues, elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage.\n\nEast Asia\n\nChina\n\nThe Han dynasty eunuch Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His work superseded the older style of the Spring and Autumn Annals, compiled in the 5th century BC, the Bamboo Annals and other court and dynastic annals that recorded history in a chronological form that abstained from analysis. Sima's Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) pioneered the \"Annals-biography\" format, which would become the standard for prestige history writing in China. In this genre a history opens with a chronological outline of court affairs, and then continues with detailed biographies of prominent people who lived during the period in question. The scope of his work extended as far back as the 16th century BC, and included many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people. He also explored the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras.\n\nWhereas Sima's had been a universal history from the beginning of time down to the time of writing, his successor Ban Gu wrote an annals-biography history limiting its coverage to only the Western Han dynasty, the Book of Han (96 AD). This established the notion of using dynastic boundaries as start- and end-points, and most later Chinese histories would focus on a single dynasty or group of dynasties.\n\nThe Records of the Grand Historian and Book of Han were eventually joined by the Book of the Later Han (488 CE) (replacing the earlier, and now only partially extant, Han Records from the Eastern Pavilion) and the Records of the Three Kingdoms (297 CE) to form the \"Four Histories\". These became mandatory reading for the Imperial Examinations and have therefore exerted an influence on Chinese culture comparable to the Confucian Classics. More annals-biography histories were written in subsequent dynasties, eventually bringing the number to between twenty-four and twenty-six, but none ever reached the popularity and impact of the first four.\n\nTraditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.\n\nIn 281 AD the tomb of King Xiang of Wei (d. 296 BC) was opened, inside of which was found a historical text called the Bamboo Annals, after the writing material. It is similar in style to the Spring and Autumn Annals and covers the time from the Yellow Emperor to 299 BC. Opinions on the authenticity of the text has varied throughout the centuries, and in any event it was re-discovered too late to gain anything like the same status as the Spring and Autumn.\n\nMiddle Ages to Renaissance\n\nChristendom\n\nChristian historical writing arguably begins with the narrative sections of the New Testament, particularly Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic Age, though its historical reliability is disputed. The first tentative beginnings of a specifically Christian historiography can be seen in Clement of Alexandria in the second century.\nThe growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after Constantine I (see State church of the Roman Empire) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and in the subjects it covers. Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.\n\nWriting history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the Great in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These included Gregory of Tours and more successfully Bede, who wrote both secular and ecclesiastical history and who is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of the English People.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, history was written about states or nations. The study of history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae anymore, but merely history (historia).\n\nIslamic world\n\nMuslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the \"science of biography\", \"science of hadith\" and \"Isnad\" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d. 712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d. 728), Ibn Ishaq (d. 761), al-Waqidi (745–822), Ibn Hisham (d. 834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) and Ibn Hajar (1372–1449). Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406), who published his historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice). His work was forgotten until it was rediscovered in the late 19th century.\n\nEast Asia\n\nJapan\n\nThe earliest works of history produced in Japan were the Rikkokushi (Six National Histories), a corpus of six national histories covering the history of Japan from its mythological beginnings until the 9th century. The first of these works were the Nihon Shoki, compiled by Prince Toneri in 720.\n\nKorea\n\nThe tradition of Korean historiography was established with the Samguk Sagi, a history of Korea from its allegedly earliest times. It was compiled by Goryeo court historian Kim Busik after its commission by King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1122–1146). It was completed in 1145 and relied not only on earlier Chinese histories for source material, but also on the Hwarang Segi written by the Silla historian Kim Daemun in the 8th century. The latter work is now lost.\n\nChina\nIn 1084 the Song dynasty official Sima Guang completed the Zizhi Tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), which laid out the entire history of China from the beginning of the Warring States period (403 BCE) to the end of the Five Dynasties period (959 CE) in chronological annals form, rather than in the traditional annals-biography form. This work is considered much more accessible than the \"Official Histories\" for the Six dynasties, Tang dynasty, and Five Dynasties, and in practice superseded those works in the mind of the general reader.\n\nThe great Song Neo-Confucian Zhu Xi found the Mirror to be overly long for the average reader, as well as too morally nihilist, and therefore prepared a didactic summary of it called the Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu (Digest of the Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government), posthumously published in 1219. It reduced the original's 249 chapters to just 59, and for the rest of imperial Chinese history would be the first history book most people ever read.\n\nSouth East Asia\n\nPhilippines\n\nHistoriography of the Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by scholars to study the history of the Philippines. It includes historical and archival research and writing on the history of the Philippine archipelago including the islands of Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippine archipelago was part of many empires before the Spanish Empire arrived in the 16th century.\n\nBefore the arrival of Spanish colonial powers, the Philippines did not actually exist. Southeast Asia is classified as part of the Indosphere and the Sinosphere. The archipelago had direct contact with China during the Song dynasty (960-1279), and was a part of the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires.\n\nThe pre-colonial Philippines widely used the Abugida system in writing and seals on documents, though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history. Ancient Filipinos usually wrote documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves, which did not survive, unlike inscriptions on clay, metal, and ivory did, such as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal. The discovery of the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines.\n\nThe arrival of the Spanish colonizers, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left unexplained. The interplay of pre-colonial events and the use of secondary sources written by historians to evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine historical study.\n\nEnlightenment\n\nDuring the Age of Enlightenment, the modern development of historiography through the application of scrupulous methods began. Among the many Italians who contributed to this were Leonardo Bruni (c. 1370–1444), Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540), and Cesare Baronio (1538–1607).\n\nVoltaire\nFrench philosophe Voltaire (1694–1778) had an enormous influence on the development of historiography during the Age of Enlightenment through his demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the past. Guillaume de Syon argues:\n\nVoltaire's best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and his Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.\n\nVoltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on \"History\" in Diderot's Encyclopédie: \"One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population.\" Already in 1739 he had written: \"My chief object is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization – in a word, – of the human mind.\" Voltaire's histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past. He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare. Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote \"very good history\", citing his \"scrupulous concern for truths\", \"careful sifting of evidence\", \"intelligent selection of what is important\", \"keen sense of drama\", and \"grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study\".\n\nDavid Hume\n\nAt the same time, philosopher David Hume was having a similar effect on the study of history in Great Britain. In 1754 he published The History of England, a 6-volume work which extended \"From the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution in 1688\". Hume adopted a similar scope to Voltaire in his history; as well as the history of Kings, Parliaments, and armies, he examined the history of culture, including literature and science, as well. His short biographies of leading scientists explored the process of scientific change and he developed new ways of seeing scientists in the context of their times by looking at how they interacted with society and each other – he paid special attention to Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and William Harvey.\n\nHe also argued that the quest for liberty was the highest standard for judging the past, and concluded that after considerable fluctuation, England at the time of his writing had achieved \"the most entire system of liberty, that was ever known amongst mankind\".\n\nEdward Gibbon\n\nThe apex of Enlightenment history was reached with Edward Gibbon's monumental six-volume work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, published on 17 February 1776. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, its methodology became a model for later historians. This has led to Gibbon being called the first \"modern historian\". The book sold impressively, earning its author a total of about £9000. Biographer Leslie Stephen wrote that thereafter, \"His fame was as rapid as it has been lasting.\"\n\nGibbon's work has been praised for its style, its piquant epigrams and its effective irony. Winston Churchill memorably noted, \"I set out upon ... Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated both by the story and the style. ... I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end and enjoyed it all.\" Gibbon was pivotal in the secularizing and 'desanctifying' of history, remarking, for example, on the \"want of truth and common sense\" of biographies composed by Saint Jerome. Unusually for an 18th-century historian, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible (though most of these were drawn from well-known printed editions). He said, \"I have always endeavoured to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend.\" In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon broke new ground in the methodical study of history:\n\nIn accuracy, thoroughness, lucidity, and comprehensive grasp of a vast subject, the 'History' is unsurpassable. It is the one English history which may be regarded as definitive. ... Whatever its shortcomings the book is artistically imposing as well as historically unimpeachable as a vast panorama of a great period.\n\n19th century\n\nThe tumultuous events surrounding the French Revolution inspired much of the historiography and analysis of the early 19th century. Interest in the 1688 Glorious Revolution was also rekindled by the Great Reform Act of 1832 in England. Nineteenth century historiography, especially among American historians, featured conflicting viewpoints that represented the times. According to 20th-century historian Richard Hofstadter:\n\nThomas Carlyle\nThomas Carlyle published his three-volume The French Revolution: A History, in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by John Stuart Mill's maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch. Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's The French Revolution was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century.\n\nFrench historians: Michelet and Taine\n\nIn his main work Histoire de France (1855), French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) coined the term Renaissance (meaning \"rebirth\" in French), as a period in Europe's cultural history that represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place in the world. The 19-volume work covered French history from Charlemagne to the outbreak of the French Revolution. His inquiry into manuscript and printed authorities was most laborious, but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political prejudices, made him regard all things from a singularly personal point of view.\n\nMichelet was one of the first historians to shift the emphasis of history to the common people, rather than the leaders and institutions of the country. He had a decisive impact on scholars. Gayana Jurkevich argues that led by Michelet:\n\nHippolyte Taine (1828–1893), although unable to secure an academic position, was the chief theoretical influence of French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism, and one of the first practitioners of historicist criticism. He pioneered the idea of \"the milieu\" as an active historical force which amalgamated geographical, psychological, and social factors. Historical writing for him was a search for general laws. His brilliant style kept his writing in circulation long after his theoretical approaches were passé.\n\nCultural and constitutional history\nOne of the major progenitors of the history of culture and art, was the Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt. Siegfried Giedion described Burckhardt's achievement in the following terms: \"The great discoverer of the age of the Renaissance, he first showed how a period should be treated in its entirety, with regard not only for its painting, sculpture and architecture, but for the social institutions of its daily life as well.\"\n\nHis most famous work was The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860; it was the most influential interpretation of the Italian Renaissance in the nineteenth century and is still widely read. According to John Lukacs, he was the first master of cultural history, which seeks to describe the spirit and the forms of expression of a particular age, a particular people, or a particular place. His innovative approach to historical research stressed the importance of art and its inestimable value as a primary source for the study of history. He was one of the first historians to rise above the narrow nineteenth-century notion that \"history is past politics and politics current history.\n\nBy the mid-19th century, scholars were beginning to analyse the history of institutional change, particularly the development of constitutional government. William Stubbs's Constitutional History of England (3 vols., 1874–1878) was an important influence on this developing field. The work traced the development of the English constitution from the Teutonic invasions of Britain until 1485, and marked a distinct step in the advance of English historical learning. He argued that the theory of the unity and continuity of history should not remove distinctions between ancient and modern history. He believed that, though work on ancient history is a useful preparation for the study of modern history, either may advantageously be studied apart. He was a good palaeographer, and excelled in textual criticism, in examination of authorship, and other such matters, while his vast erudition and retentive memory made him second to none in interpretation and exposition.\n\nVon Ranke and professionalization in Germany\n\nThe modern academic study of history and methods of historiography were pioneered in 19th-century German universities, especially the University of Göttingen. Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886) at Berlin was a pivotal influence in this regard, and was the founder of modern source-based history. According to Caroline Hoefferle, \"Ranke was probably the most important historian to shape historical profession as it emerged in Europe and the United States in the late 19th century.\"\n\nSpecifically, he implemented the seminar teaching method in his classroom, and focused on archival research and analysis of historical documents. Beginning with his first book in 1824, the History of the Latin and Teutonic Peoples from 1494 to 1514, Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of the age, including \"memoirs, diaries, personal and formal missives, government documents, diplomatic dispatches and first-hand accounts of eye-witnesses\". Over a career that spanned much of the century, Ranke set the standards for much of later historical writing, introducing such ideas as reliance on primary sources, an emphasis on narrative history and especially international politics (). Sources had to be solid, not speculations and rationalizations. His credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity.\n\nRanke also rejected the 'teleological approach' to history, which traditionally viewed each period as inferior to the period which follows. In Ranke's view, the historian had to understand a period on its own terms, and seek to find only the general ideas which animated every period of history. In 1831 and at the behest of the Prussian government, Ranke founded and edited the first historical journal in the world, called .\n\nAnother important German thinker was Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose theory of historical progress ran counter to Ranke's approach. In Hegel's own words, his philosophical theory of \"World history ... represents the development of the spirit's consciousness of its own freedom and of the consequent realization of this freedom.\" This realization is seen by studying the various cultures that have developed over the millennia, and trying to understand the way that freedom has worked itself out through them:\n\nWorld history is the record of the spirit's efforts to attain knowledge of what it is in itself. The Orientals do not know that the spirit or man as such are free in themselves. And because they do not know that, they are not themselves free. They only know that One is free. ... The consciousness of freedom first awoke among the Greeks, and they were accordingly free; but, like the Romans, they only knew that Some, and not all men as such, are free. ... The Germanic nations, with the rise of Christianity, were the first to realize that All men are by nature free, and that freedom of spirit is his very essence.\n\nKarl Marx introduced the concept of historical materialism into the study of world historical development. In his conception, the economic conditions and dominant modes of production determined the structure of society at that point. In his view five successive stages in the development of material conditions would occur in Western Europe. The first stage was primitive communism where property was shared and there was no concept of \"leadership\". This progressed to a slave society where the idea of class emerged and the State developed. Feudalism was characterized by an aristocracy working in partnership with a theocracy and the emergence of the nation-state. Capitalism appeared after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrew the feudal system and established a market economy, with\nprivate property and parliamentary democracy. Marx then predicted the eventual proletarian revolution that would result in the attainment of socialism, followed by communism, where property would be communally owned.\n\nPrevious historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in the 19th century, resulted with separation of \"one's own\" history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that constructed history as history of a nation. A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.\n\nMacaulay and Whig history\n\nThe term \"Whig history\", coined by Herbert Butterfield in his short book The Whig Interpretation of History in 1931, means the approach to historiography which presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy. In general, Whig historians emphasized the rise of constitutional government, personal freedoms and scientific progress. The term has been also applied widely in historical disciplines outside of British history (the history of science, for example) to criticize any teleological (or goal-directed), hero-based, and transhistorical narrative.\n\nPaul Rapin de Thoyras's history of England, published in 1723, became \"the classic Whig history\" for the first half of the 18th century. It was later supplanted by the immensely popular The History of England by David Hume. Whig historians emphasized the achievements of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. This included James Mackintosh's History of the Revolution in England in 1688, William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, and Henry Hallam's Constitutional History of England.\n\nThe most famous exponent of 'Whiggery' was Thomas Babington Macaulay. His writings are famous for their ringing prose and for their confident, sometimes dogmatic, emphasis on a progressive model of British history, according to which the country threw off superstition, autocracy and confusion to create a balanced constitution and a forward-looking culture combined with freedom of belief and expression. This model of human progress has been called the Whig interpretation of history. He published the first volumes of his most famous work of history, The History of England from the Accession of James II, in 1848. It proved an immediate success and replaced Hume's history to become the new orthodoxy. His 'Whiggish convictions' are spelled out in his first chapter:\n\nHis legacy continues to be controversial; Gertrude Himmelfarb wrote that \"most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did.\" However, J. R. Western wrote that: \"Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's History of England has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period\".\n\nThe Whig consensus was steadily undermined during the post-World War I re-evaluation of European history, and Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend. Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its presentist and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal. Other criticized 'Whig' assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development, assuming that political figures in the past held current political beliefs (anachronism), considering British history as a march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes, who advanced the cause of this political progress, or villains, who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph. J. Hart says \"a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story.\"\n\n20th century\n\n20th-century historiography in major countries is characterized by a move to universities and academic research centers. Popular history continued to be written by self-educated amateurs, but scholarly history increasingly became the province of PhD's trained in research seminars at a university. The training emphasized working with primary sources in archives. Seminars taught graduate students how to review the historiography of the topics, so that they could understand the conceptual frameworks currently in use, and the criticisms regarding their strengths and weaknesses. Western Europe and the United States took leading roles in this development. The emergence of area studies of other regions also developed historiographical practices.\n\nFrance: Annales school\n\nThe French Annales school radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.\n\nThe Annales d'histoire économique et sociale journal was founded in 1929 in Strasbourg by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (la longue durée) over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called mentalités, or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history. For early modern Mexican history, the work of Marc Bloch's student François Chevalier on the formation of landed estates (haciendas) from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography, setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic.\n\nAn eminent member of this school, Georges Duby, described his approach to history as one that relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation. The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a histoire totale, or histoire tout court, a complete study of a historical problem.\n\nThe second era of the school was led by Fernand Braudel and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: l'histoire quasi immobile (motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (la longue durée), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures. His 'longue durée' approach stressed slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The Annales historians, after living through two world wars and major political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress slow change and the longue durée. They paid special attention to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They considered the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries.\n\nNoting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argued that \"in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the Annales came to an end after 1968, and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply.\" Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history. However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research.\n\nMarxist historiography\n\nMarxist historiography developed as a school of historiography influenced by the chief tenets of Marxism, including the centrality of social class and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Friedrich Engels wrote The Peasant War in Germany, which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although it lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it indicated an early interest in history from below and class analysis, and it attempts a dialectical analysis. Another treatise of Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, was salient in creating the socialist impetus in British politics from then on, e.g. the Fabian Society.\n\nR. H. Tawney was an early historian working in this tradition. The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century (1912) and Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the 'Storm over the Gentry' in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper.\n\nHistoriography in the Soviet Union was greatly influenced by Marxist historiography, as historical materialism was extended into the Soviet version of dialectical materialism.\n\nA circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) formed in 1946 and became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill and E. P. Thompson) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history.\n\nChristopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognised as representative of this school. His books include Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965 and revised in 1996), The Century of Revolution (1961), AntiChrist in 17th-century England (1971), The World Turned Upside Down (1972) and many others.\n\nE. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, The Making of the English Working Class, published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:\n\nThompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined \"class\". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. He opened the gates for a generation of labor historians, such as David Montgomery and Herbert Gutman, who made similar studies of the American working classes.\n\nOther important Marxist historians included Eric Hobsbawm, C. L. R. James, Raphael Samuel, A. L. Morton and Brian Pearce.\n\nBiography\n\nBiography has been a major form of historiography since the days when Plutarch wrote the parallel lives of great Roman and Greek leaders. It is a field especially attractive to nonacademic historians, and often to the spouses or children of famous people, who have access to the trove of letters and documents. Academic historians tend to downplay biography because it pays too little attention to broad social, cultural, political and economic forces, and perhaps too much attention to popular psychology. The \"Great Man\" tradition in Britain originated in the multi-volume Dictionary of National Biography (which originated in 1882 and issued updates into the 1970s); it continues to this day in the new Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. In the United States, the Dictionary of American Biography was planned in the late 1920s and appeared with numerous supplements into the 1980s. It has now been displaced by the American National Biography as well as numerous smaller historical encyclopedias that give thorough coverage to Great Persons. Bookstores do a thriving business in biographies, which sell far more copies than the esoteric monographs based on post-structuralism, cultural, racial or gender history. Michael Holroyd says the last forty years \"may be seen as a golden age of biography\", but nevertheless calls it the \"shallow end of history\". Nicolas Barker argues that \"more and more biographies command an ever larger readership\", as he speculates that biography has come \"to express the spirit of our age\".\n\nDaniel R. Meister argues that:\n\nBritish debates\n\nMarxist historian E. H. Carr developed a controversial theory of history in his 1961 book What Is History?, which proved to be one of the most influential books ever written on the subject. He presented a middle-of-the-road position between the empirical or (Rankean) view of history and R. G. Collingwood's idealism, and rejected the empirical view of the historian's work being an accretion of \"facts\" that they have at their disposal as nonsense. He maintained that there is such a vast quantity of information that the historian always chooses the \"facts\" they decide to make use of. In Carr's famous example, he claimed that millions had crossed the Rubicon, but only Julius Caesar's crossing in 49 BC is declared noteworthy by historians. For this reason, Carr argued that Leopold von Ranke's famous dictum wie es eigentlich gewesen (show what actually happened) was wrong because it presumed that the \"facts\" influenced what the historian wrote, rather than the historian choosing what \"facts of the past\" they intended to turn into \"historical facts\". At the same time, Carr argued that the study of the facts may lead the historian to change his or her views. In this way, Carr argued that history was \"an unending dialogue between the past and present\".\n\nCarr is held by some critics to have had a deterministic outlook in history. Others have modified or rejected this use of the label \"determinist\". He took a hostile view of those historians who stress the workings of chance and contingency in the workings of history. In Carr's view, no individual is truly free of the social environment in which they live, but contended that within those limitations, there was room, albeit very narrow room for people to make decisions that affect history. Carr emphatically contended that history was a social science, not an art, because historians like scientists seek generalizations that helped to broaden the understanding of one's subject.\n\nOne of Carr's most forthright critics was Hugh Trevor-Roper, who argued that Carr's dismissal of the \"might-have-beens of history\" reflected a fundamental lack of interest in examining historical causation. Trevor-Roper asserted that examining possible alternative outcomes of history was far from being a \"parlour-game\" was rather an essential part of the historians' work, as only by considering all possible outcomes of a given situation could a historian properly understand the period.\n\nThe controversy inspired Sir Geoffrey Elton to write his 1967 book The Practice of History. Elton criticized Carr for his \"whimsical\" distinction between the \"historical facts\" and the \"facts of the past\", arguing that it reflected \"...an extraordinarily arrogant attitude both to the past and to the place of the historian studying it\". Elton, instead, strongly defended the traditional methods of history and was also appalled by the inroads made by postmodernism. Elton saw the duty of historians as empirically gathering evidence and objectively analyzing what the evidence has to say. As a traditionalist, he placed great emphasis on the role of individuals in history instead of abstract, impersonal forces. Elton saw political history as the highest kind of history. Elton had no use for those who seek history to make myths, to create laws to explain the past, or to produce theories such as Marxism.\n\nU.S. approaches\n\nClassical and European history was part of the 19th-century grammar curriculum. American history became a topic later in the 19th century.\n\nIn the historiography of the United States, there were a series of major approaches in the 20th century. In 2009–2012, there were an average of 16,000 new academic history books published in the U.S. every year.\n\nProgressive historians\n\nThe Progressive historians were a group of 20th century historians of the United States associated with a historiographical tradition that embraced an economic interpretation of American history. Most prominent among these was Charles A. Beard, who was influential in academia and with the general public.\n\nConsensus history\n\nConsensus history emphasizes the basic unity of American values and downplays conflict as superficial. It was especially attractive in the 1950s and 1960s. Prominent leaders included Richard Hofstadter, Louis Hartz, Daniel Boorstin, Allan Nevins, Clinton Rossiter, Edmund Morgan, and David M. Potter. In 1948 Hofstadter made a compelling statement of the consensus model of the U.S. political tradition:\n\nNew Left history\nConsensus history was rejected by New Left viewpoints that attracted a younger generation of radical historians in the 1960s. These viewpoints stress conflict and emphasize the central roles of class, race and gender. The history of dissent, and the experiences of racial minorities and disadvantaged classes was central to the narratives produced by New Left historians.\n\nQuantification and new approaches to history\n\nSocial history, sometimes called the \"new social history\", is a broad branch that studies the experiences of ordinary people in the past. It had major growth as a field in the 1960s and 1970s, and still is well represented in history departments. However, after 1980 the \"cultural turn\" directed the next generation to new topics. In the two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in U.S. universities identifying with social history rose from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40 to 30 percent.\n\nThe growth was enabled by the social sciences, computers, statistics, new data sources such as individual census information, and summer training programs at the Newberry Library and the University of Michigan. The New Political History saw the application of social history methods to politics, as the focus shifted from politicians and legislation to voters and elections.\n\nThe Social Science History Association was formed in 1976 as an interdisciplinary group with a journal Social Science History and an annual convention. The goal was to incorporate in historical studies perspectives from all the social sciences, especially political science, sociology and economics. The pioneers shared a commitment to quantification. However, by the 1980s the first blush of quantification had worn off, as traditional historians counterattacked. Harvey J. Graff says:\n\nMeanwhile, quantitative history became well-established in other disciplines, especially economics (where they called it \"cliometrics\"), as well as in political science. In history, however, quantification remained central to demographic studies, but slipped behind in political and social history as traditional narrative approaches made a comeback.\n\nLatin America\n\nLatin America is the former Spanish American empire in the Western Hemisphere plus Portuguese Brazil. Professional historians pioneered the creation of this field, starting in the late nineteenth century. The term \"Latin America\" did not come into general usage until the twentieth century and in some cases it was rejected. The historiography of the field has been more fragmented than unified, with historians of Spanish America and Brazil generally remaining in separate spheres. Another standard division within the historiography is the temporal factor, with works falling into either the early modern period (or \"colonial era\") or the post-independence (or \"national\") period, from the early nineteenth onward. Relatively few works span the two eras and few works except textbooks unite Spanish America and Brazil. There is a tendency to focus on histories of particular countries or regions (the Andes, the Southern Cone, the Caribbean) with relatively little comparative work.\n\nHistorians of Latin America have contributed to various types of historical writing, but one major, innovative development in Spanish American history is the emergence of ethnohistory, the history of indigenous peoples, especially in Mexico based on alphabetic sources in Spanish or in indigenous languages.\n\nFor the early modern period, the emergence of Atlantic history, based on comparisons and linkages of Europe, the Americas, and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework. For all periods, global or world history have focused on the connections between areas, likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective. Latin America's importance to world history is notable but often overlooked. \"Latin America's central, and sometimes pioneering, role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period. Indeed, the region's political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world. The first is the so-called liberal revolution, the shift from monarchies of the ancien régime, where inheritance legitimated political power, to constitutional republics... The second, and related, trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation-states.\"\n\nHistorical research appears in a number of specialized journals. These include Hispanic American Historical Review (est. 1918), published by the Conference on Latin American History; The Americas, (est. 1944); Journal of Latin American Studies (1969); Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies,(est.1976) Bulletin of Latin American Research, (est. 1981); Colonial Latin American Review (1992); and Colonial Latin American Historical Review (est. 1992). Latin American Research Review (est. 1969), published by the Latin American Studies Association, does not focus primarily on history, but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics.\t\n\nGeneral works on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s, when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U.S. universities and colleges. Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era, focusing on institutional, political, social and economic history. An important, eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is The Cambridge History of Latin America, with separate volumes on the colonial era, nineteenth century, and the twentieth century. There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions. Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history and historiography. Reference works include the Handbook of Latin American Studies, which publishes articles by area experts, with annotated bibliographic entries, and the Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture.\n\nWorld history\nWorld history, as a distinct field of historical study, emerged as an independent academic field in the 1980s. It focused on the examination of history from a global perspective and looked for common patterns that emerged across all cultures. The basic thematic approach of this field was to analyse two major focal points: integration – (how processes of world history have drawn people of the world together), and difference – (how patterns of world history reveal the diversity of the human experience).\n\nArnold J. Toynbee's ten-volume A Study of History, took an approach that was widely discussed in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s his work was virtually ignored by scholars and the general public. He compared 26 independent civilizations and argued that they displayed striking parallels in their origin, growth, and decay. He proposed a universal model to each of these civilizations, detailing the stages through which they all pass: genesis, growth, time of troubles, universal state, and disintegration. The later volumes gave too much emphasis on spirituality to satisfy critics.\n\nChicago historian William H. McNeill wrote The Rise of the West (1965) to show how the separate civilizations of Eurasia interacted from the very beginning of their history, borrowing critical skills from one another, and thus precipitating still further change as adjustment between traditional old and borrowed new knowledge and practice became necessary. He then discusses the dramatic effect of Western civilization on others in the past 500 years of history. McNeill took a broad approach organized around the interactions of peoples across the globe. Such interactions have become both more numerous and more continual and substantial in recent times. Before about 1500, the network of communication between cultures was that of Eurasia. The term for these areas of interaction differ from one world historian to another and include world-system and ecumene. His emphasis on cultural fusions influenced historical theory significantly.\n\nThe cultural turn\nThe \"cultural turn\" of the 1980s and 1990s affected scholars in most areas of history. Inspired largely by anthropology, it turned away from leaders, ordinary people and famous events to look at the use of language and cultural symbols to represent the changing values of society.\n\nThe British historian Peter Burke finds that cultural studies has numerous spinoffs, or topical themes it has strongly influenced. The most important include gender studies and postcolonial studies, as well as memory studies, and film studies.\n\nDiplomatic historian Melvyn P. Leffler finds that the problem with the \"cultural turn\" is that the culture concept is imprecise, and may produce excessively broad interpretations, because it:\n\nMemory studies\n\nMemory studies is a new field, focused on how nations and groups (and historians) construct and select their memories of the past in order to celebrate (or denounce) key features, thus making a statement of their current values and beliefs. Historians have played a central role in shaping the memories of the past as their work is diffused through popular history books and school textbooks. French sociologist Maurice Halbwachs, opened the field with La mémoire collective (Paris: 1950).\n\nMany historians examine how the memory of the past has been constructed, memorialized or distorted. Historians examine how legends are invented. For example, there are numerous studies of the memory of atrocities from World War II, notably the Holocaust in Europe and Japanese war crimes in Asia. British historian Heather Jones argues that the historiography of the First World War in recent years has been reinvigorated by the cultural turn. Scholars have raised entirely new questions regarding military occupation, radicalization of politics, race, and the male body.\n\nRepresentative of recent scholarship is a collection of studies on the \"Dynamics of Memory and Identity in Contemporary Europe\". SAGE has published the scholarly journal Memory Studies since 2008, and the book series \"Memory Studies\" was launched by Palgrave Macmillan in 2010 with 5–10 titles a year.\n\nScholarly journals\nThe historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences, and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to establish various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations, a publication of the Annales school in France. Journals now typically have one or more editors and associate editors, an editorial board, and a pool of scholars to whom articles that are submitted are sent for confidential evaluation. The editors will send out new books to recognized scholars for reviews that usually run 500 to 1000 words. The vetting and publication process often takes months or longer. Publication in a prestigious journal (which accept 10 percent or fewer of the articles submitted) is an asset in the academic hiring and promotion process. Publication demonstrates that the author is conversant with the scholarly field. Page charges and fees for publication are uncommon in history. Journals are subsidized by universities or historical societies, scholarly associations, and subscription fees from libraries and scholars. Increasingly they are available through library pools that allow many academic institutions to pool subscriptions to online versions. Most libraries have a system for obtaining specific articles through inter-library loan.\n\nSome major historical journals\n\n 1839 Revista do Instituto Histórico e Geográfico Brasileiro (Brazil)\n 1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)\n 1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)\n 1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)\n 1867 Századok (Hungary)\n 1869 Časopis Matice moravské (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)\n 1876 Revue Historique (France)\n 1880 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)\n 1886 English Historical Review (England)\n 1887 Kwartalnik Historyczny (Poland – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1892 William and Mary Quarterly (US)\n 1894 Ons Hémecht (Luxembourg)\n 1895 American Historical Review (US)\n 1895 Český časopis historický (Czech republic – then part of Austria-Hungary)\n 1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed in 1964 the Journal of American History) (US)\n 1915 The Catholic Historical Review (US)\n 1916 The Journal of Negro History (renamed in 2001 The Journal of African American History) (US)\n 1916 Historisk Tidskrift för Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)\n 1918 Hispanic American Historical Review (US)\n 1920 Canadian Historical Review (Canada)\n 1922 Slavonic and East European Review (SEER), (England)\n 1928 Scandia (Sweden)\n 1929 Annales d'histoire économique et sociale (France)\n 1935 Journal of Southern History (USA)\n 1941 The Journal of Economic History (US)\n 1944 The Americas (US)\n 1951 Historia Mexicana (Mexico)\n 1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (England)\n 1953 Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany)\n 1954 Ethnohistory (US)\n 1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)\n 1957 Victorian Studies (US)\n 1960 Journal of African History (England)\n 1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (US)\n 1960 History and Theory (US)\n 1967 Indian Church History Review (India) (earlier published as the Bulletin of Church History Association of India)\n 1967 The Journal of Social History (US)\n 1969 Journal of Interdisciplinary History (US)\n 1969 Journal of Latin American Studies (UK)\n 1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)\n 1975 Signs (US)\n 1976 Journal of Family History (US)\n 1978 The Public Historian (US)\n 1981 Bulletin of Latin American Research (UK)\n 1982 Storia della Storiografia – History of Historiography – Histoire de l'Historiographie – Geschichte der Geschichtsschreibung\n 1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)\n 1986 Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts (Germany)\n 1990 Gender and History (US)\n 1990 Journal of World History (US)\n 1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft (Austria)\n 1990 Österreichische Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaften (ÖZG)\n 1992 Women's History Review\n 1992 Colonial Latin American Historical Review (US)\n 1992 Colonial Latin American Review\n 1996 Environmental History (US)\n 2011 International Journal for the Historiography of Education\n\nNarrative\nAccording to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, \"More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative.\"\n\nHistorians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.\n\nTopics studied\nSome of the common topics in historiography are:\n\n Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption of the text. (See also source criticism.)\n Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, for example Marxist, Annales school, \"total history\", or political history.\n Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment\n Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations\n Historical metanarratives and metahistory.\n\nApproaches\nHow a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. Historians commonly recognise that individual historical facts – dealing with names, dates and places – are not particularly meaningful in themselves. Such facts only become useful/informative when assembled with other historical evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.\n\nSome of the most influential historiographical approaches include:\n\n Big history\n Black history\n Business history\n Chronology\n Comparative history\n Cultural history\n Diplomatic history\n Economic history (history of capitalism), (cliometrics)\n Environmental history, a relatively new field\n Ethnohistory\n Gender history including women's history, family history, feminist history\n History of medicine\n History of religion and church history; the history of theology is usually handled under theology\n Indigenous history\n Industrial history and the history of technology\n Intellectual history and the history of ideas\n Labor history\n Legendary history - important in pre-modern contexts\n Local history and microhistory\n Marxist historiography and historical materialism\n Military history, including naval and air history\n Mythistory - history incorporating elements of myth\n National history - comforting myths of individual peoples\n Oral history\n Political history\n Public history, especially museums and historic preservation\n Quantitative history (prosopography using statistics to study biographies)\n History of religions\n Historiography of science \n Social history and people's history; along with the French version the Annales school and the German Bielefeld School\n Subaltern Studies, regarding post-colonial India\n Urban history\n American urban history\n Whig history, history interpreted as the story of continuous progress\n World history\n\nRelated fields\nImportant related fields include:\n Antiquarianism\n Genealogy\n Intellectual history\n Numismatics\n Paleography\n Philosophy of history\n Pseudohistory\n\nSee also \n\n List of historians by area of study\n Historical significance\n National memory\n\nMethods\n Archival research\n Auxiliary sciences of history\n Historical method\n List of historians, inclusive of most major historians\n List of historians by area of study\n List of history journals\n Philosophy of history\n Popular history\n Primary source – documents, correspondence, diaries\n Secondary source – interpretations, written history\n Tertiary source – textbooks and encyclopedias\n Periodization\n Public history, including museums and historical preservation\n Historical revisionism\n Shared historical authority\n Historiography at Wikiversity, where it is part of the School of History\n\nTopics\n African historiography\n Historiography of Argentina\n Atlantic history\n Historiography of Canada\n Chinese historiography\n Historiography of the Cold War\n Historiography of early Christianity\n Historiography of the French Revolution\n Annales school, in France\n Historiography of Germany \n Bielefeld School, in Germany\n Greek historiography\n Historiography of Alexander the Great\n Classics\n History of India#Historiography\n Historiography of the fall of the Mughal Empire\n Historiography of Islam\n Historiography of early Islam\n Historiography of Japan\n Historiography of Korea\n Korean nationalist historiography\n Latin American History\n Middle Ages\n Historiography of feudalism\n Dark Ages (historiography)\n Historiography of the Crusades\n Historiography and nationalism\n Roman historiography \n Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire\n Historiography of Switzerland\n Historiography in the Soviet Union\n Historiography of the United Kingdom\n Historiography of Scotland\n Historiography of the British Empire\n Historiography of the United States\n Frontier thesis\n World history\n Historiography of the causes of World War I\n Historiography of World War II\n Historiography of the Battle of France, 1940\n\nBibliography\n\nTheory\n Appleby, Joyce, Lynn Hunt & Margaret Jacob, Telling the Truth About History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994.\n Bentley, Michael. Modern Historiography: An Introduction, 1999 \n Marc Bloch, The Historian's Craft (1940)\n Burke, Peter. History and Social Theory, Polity Press, Oxford, 1992\n David Cannadine (editor), What is History Now, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002\n E. H. Carr, What is History? 1961, \n R.G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, 1936, \n Deluermoz, Quentin, and Singaravélou, Pierre: A Past of Possibilities: A History of What Could Have Been’’ ; Yale University Press, 2021\n Doran, Robert. ed. Philosophy of History After Hayden White. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.\n Geoffrey Elton, The Practice of History, 1969, \n Richard J. Evans In Defence of History, 1997, \n Fischer, David Hackett. Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought, Harper & Row, 1970\n Gardiner, Juliet (ed) What is History Today...? London: MacMillan Education Ltd., 1988.\n Harlaftis, Gelina, ed. The New Ways of History: Developments in Historiography (I.B. Tauris, 2010) 260 pp; trends in historiography since 1990\n Hewitson, Mark, History and Causality, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014\n Jenkins, Keith ed. The Postmodern History Reader (2006)\n Jenkins, Keith. Rethinking History, 1991, \n Arthur Marwick, The New Nature of History: knowledge, evidence, language, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001, \n Munslow, Alan. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000), an encyclopedia of concepts, methods and historians\n Olstein, Diego. Thinking History Globally (2025), summary\n Spalding, Roger & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, \n Sreedharan, E, \"A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000\". New Delhi, Oreient Black Swan, 2004, \n Sreedharan, E, \"A Manual of Historical Research Methodology\". Trivandrum, Centre for South Indian Studies, 2007, \n Tosh, John. The Pursuit of History, 2002, \n Tucker, Aviezer, ed. A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden: Blackwell, 2009\n White, Hayden. The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007, Johns Hopkins, 2010. Ed. Robert Doran\n\nGuides to scholarship\n The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature, ed. by Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (3rd ed. 2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995) 2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics vol 1 online, vol 2 online\n Allison, William Henry et al. eds. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to 1930 as selected by scholars from the American Historical Association online edition, free; \n Backhouse, Roger E. and Philippe Fontaine, eds. A Historiography of the Modern Social Sciences (Cambridge University Press, 2014) pp. ix, 248; essays on the ways in which the histories of psychology, anthropology, sociology, economics, history, and political science have been written since 1945\n Black, Jeremy. Clio's Battles: Historiography in Practice (Indiana University Press, 2015.) xvi, 323 pp. \n Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers (2 Vol 1999), 1600 pp covering major historians and themes\n Cline, Howard F. ed. Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Handbook of Middle American Indians (4 vols U of Texas Press 1973.\n Gray, Wood. Historian's Handbook, 2nd ed. (Houghton-Miffin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 pp; a primer\n Elton, G.R. Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969 (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. online\n Loades, David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760 pp; highly detailed guide to British historiography excerpt and text search\n \n Parish, Peter, ed. Reader's Guide to American History (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to historiography of American topics excerpt and text search\n Popkin, Jeremy D. From Herodotus to H-Net: The Story of Historiography (Oxford UP, 2015).\n Woolf, Daniel et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011–r12), covers all major historians since AD 600 \n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199218158.001.0001\n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400–1800 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199219179.001.0001\n The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945 online at DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199533091.001.0001\n\nHistories of historical writing\n Arnold, John H. History: A Very Short Introduction (2000). New York: Oxford University Press. \n Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962)\n Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)\n Bauer, Stefan. The Invention of Papal History: Onofrio Panvinio between Renaissance and Catholic Reform (Oxford University Press, 2020).\n Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, , 39 chapters by experts\n Boyd, Kelly, ed. Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing (2 vol. Taylor & Francis, 1999), 1562 pp\n Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, \n Budd, Adam, ed. The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources. (Routledge, 2009).\n Cline, Howard F., ed.Latin American History: Essays on Its Study and Teaching, 1898–1965. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1965.\n Cohen, H. Floris The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, (1994), \n Conrad, Sebastian. The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American Century (2010)\n Crymble, Adam. Technology and the Historian: Transformations in the Digital Age (University of Illinois, 2021), 241 pp\n Fitzsimons, M.A. et al. eds. The development of historiography (1954) 471 pages; comprehensive global coverage; online free\n Gilderhus, Mark T. History and Historians: A Historiographical Introduction, 2002, \n Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (2005)\n Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520 pp; .\n Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, \n The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011), Volume 1: Beginnings to AD 600; Volume 2: 600–1400; Volume 3: 1400–1800; Volume 4: 1800–1945; Volume 5: Historical Writing since 1945 catalog\n Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006) Excerpt and text search\n Soffer, Reba. History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan (2009) excerpt and text search\n Thompson, James Westfall. A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th Century (1942); A History of Historical Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries (1942)\n Woolf, Daniel, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (2 vol. 1998)\n Woolf, Daniel. \"Historiography\", in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005), vol. I.\n Woolf, Daniel. A Global History of History (Cambridge University Press, 2011)\n Woolf, Daniel, ed. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 2011–12).2011)\n Woolf, Daniel, A Concise History Of History (Cambridge University Press, 2019)\n\nFeminist historiography\n Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard University Press 2000\n Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979\n Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006\n Julie Des Jardins, Women and the Historical Enterprise in America, University of North Carolina Press, 2002\n Donna Guy, \"Gender and Sexuality in Latin America\" in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History, José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 367–81.\n Asunción Lavrin, \"Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America\" in The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History, José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, pp. 132–54.\n Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002\n Clare Hemmings, \"Why Stories Matter: The Political Grammar of Feminist Theory\", Duke University Press 2011\n\nNational and regional studies\n Berger, Stefan et al., eds. Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800 (1999) excerpt and text search; how history has been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist, communist and Catholic internationalism\n Iggers, Georg G. A new Directions and European Historiography (1975)\n LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspective (1982)\n\nAsia and Africa\n Cohen, Paul. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. New York, London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p. Reprinted: 2010, with a New Introduction by the Author. .\n R.C. Majumdar, Historiography in Modem India (Bombay, 1970) \n Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003)\n Martin, Thomas R. Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History with Documents (2009)\n E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004)\n Arvind Sharma, Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) \n Shourie, Arun (2014). Eminent historians: Their technology, their line, their fraud. Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India : HarperCollins Publishers. \n Yerxa, Donald A. Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation (2008) excerpt and text search\n\nBritain\n Bann, Stephen. Romanticism and the Rise of History (Twayne Publishers, 1995)\n Bentley, Michael. Modernizing England's Past: English Historiography in the Age of Modernism, 1870–1970 (2006) excerpt and text search\n Cannadine, David. In Churchill's Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain (2003)\n Furber, Elizabeth, ed. Changing Views on British History; Essays on Historical Writing Since 1939 (1966); 418pp; essays by scholars\n \n \n Hale, John Rigby, ed. The evolution of British historiography: from Bacon to Namier (1967).\n Hexter, J. H. On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history (1979); covers Carl Becker, Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock\n Howsam, Leslie. \"Academic Discipline or Literary Genre?: The Establishment of Boundaries in Historical Writing\". Victorian Literature and Culture 32.02 (2004): 525–545. online\n Jann, Rosemary. The Art and Science of Victorian History (1985)\n Jann, Rosemary. \"From Amateur to Professional: The Case of the Oxbridge Historians\". Journal of British Studies (1983) 22#2 pp: 122–47.\n Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (1983)\n Loades, David. Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long historiographical essays on about 1000 topics\n Mitchell, Rosemary. Picturing the Past: English History in Text and Image 1830–1870 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000)\n Philips, Mark Salber. Society and Sentiment: Genres of Historical Writing in Britain, 1740–1820 (Princeton University Press, 2000).\n Richardson, Roger Charles, ed. The debate on the English Revolution (2nd ed. Manchester University Press, 1998)\n Schlatter, Richard, ed. Recent Views on British History: Essays on Historical Writing Since 1966 (1984) 525 pp; 13 topics essays by scholars\n\nBritish Empire\n Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900, (2nd ed. 1986)\n Bhattacharjee, J. B. Historians and Historiography of North East India (2012)\n Davison, Graeme. The Use and Abuse of Australian History (2000)\n Farrell, Frank. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography (1990)\n Gare, Deborah. \"Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography\", The Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 2000), pp. 1145–1155 in JSTOR\n Guha, Ranajiit. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Harvard UP, 1998)\n Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (1998)\n Mittal, S. C India distorted: A study of British historians on India (1995), on 19th century writers\n Saunders, Christopher. The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class, (1988)\n Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001)\n\nFrance\n\n Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–2014 (John Wiley & Sons, 2015).\n \n Daileader, Philip and Philip Whalen, eds. French Historians 1900–2000: New Historical Writing in Twentieth-Century France (2010) 40 long essays by experts. excerpt\n Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp; 65 essays by French historians\n Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (1976)\n\nGermany\n\n Fletcher, Roger. \"Recent developments in West German Historiography: the Bielefeld School and its critics\". German Studies Review (1984): 451–480. in JSTOR\n Hagemann, Karen, and Jean H. Quataert, eds. Gendering Modern German History: Rewriting Historiography (2008)\n Iggers, Georg G. The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder to the Present (2nd ed. 1983)\n Rüger, Jan, and Nikolaus Wachsmann, eds. Rewriting German history: new perspectives on modern Germany (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015). excerpt\n Sheehan, James J. \"What is German history? Reflections on the role of the nation in German history and historiography\". Journal of Modern History (1981): 2–23. in JSTOR\n Sperber, Jonathan. \"Master Narratives of Nineteenth-century German History\". Central European History (1991) 24#1: 69–91. online\n Stuchtey, Benedikt, and Peter Wende, eds. British and German historiography, 1750–1950: traditions, perceptions, and transfers (2000).\n\nLatin America\n Adelman, Jeremy, ed. Colonial Legacies. New York: Routledge 1999.\n Coatsworth, John. \"Cliometrics and Mexican History\", Historical Methods18:1 (Winter 1985)31–37.\n \n \n Lockhart, James. \"The Social History of Early Latin America\". Latin American Research Review 1972.\n Moya, José C. The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History. New York: Oxford University Press 2011.\n \n \n\nUnited States\n Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)\n Novick, Peter. That Noble Dream: The \"Objectivity Question\" and the American Historical Profession (1988), \n Palmer, William W. \"All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United States, 1970–2010\", Journal of The Historical Society (2012), 12: 111–53. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x\n Palmer, William. Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians (2001)\n Parish, Peter J., ed. Reader's Guide to American History (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics\n Wish, Harvey. The American Historian (1960), covers pre-1920\n\nThemes, organizations, and teaching\n Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi (1998) excerpt and text search\n Charlton, Thomas L. History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (2007)\n Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)\n Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The Holocaust and Historians. (1981).\n Ernest, John. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794–1861. (2004)\n Evans, Ronald W. The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages\n Ferro, Marc, Cinema and History (1988)\n Green, Anna, and Kathleeen Troup. The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory. 2 ed. Manchester University Press, 2016.\n Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)\n Keita, Maghan. Race and the Writing of History. Oxford UP (2000)\n Leavy, Patricia. Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research (2011) excerpt and text search\n Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)\nManning, Patrick, ed. World History: Global And Local Interactions (2006)\n Maza, Sarah. Thinking About History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226109473.001.0001.\n Meister, Daniel R. \"The biographical turn and the case for historical biography\" History Compass (Dec. 2017) DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12436 abstract\n Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (2005), \n Ritchie, Donald A. The Oxford Handbook of Oral History (2010) excerpt and text search\n Tröhler, Daniel \"History and Historiography. Approaches to Historical Research in Education\" T. Fitzgerald (ed.), THandbook of Historical Studies in Education'' (2019);\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography\n short guide to Historiographical terms\n Basic guide to historiography research for undergraduates\n Cromohs – cyber review of modern historiography open-access electronic scholarly journal \n History of Historiography scholarly journal in several languages\n\n \nCategory:Philosophy of history", "title": "Historiography" } ]

[ "Planned Parenthood came into existence in 1942.", "The name was changed to Planned Parenthood in 1942.", "The text does not provide specific information on any prominent people who were on the board of Planned Parenthood.", "Yes, the organization had legal troubles. In 1932, Sanger ordered a diaphragm from Japan intending to provoke a legal challenge over restrictions on contraception. The diaphragm was confiscated by the United States government, leading to a court case in 1936. Sanger's legal challenge led to a court decision that overturned an important provision of the Comstock laws, which prohibited physicians from obtaining contraceptives.", "The text does not provide information on any other legal problems faced by the organization.", "The text does not provide information on the number of clinics that Planned Parenthood has." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "When was Kurien born?", "Where was he born?", "Where did he go to school/college?", "Where did he go after Secondary School?", "Did he go to college?", "What did he do after college?", "Where did he work after college?", "What was his position there?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 35 ], [ 116 ], [ 337 ], [ 505 ], [ 684 ], [ 879 ], [ 986 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He was born on 26 November 1921" ], [ "Calicut, Madras Presidency (now Kozhikode, Kerala) in a Syrian Christian family." ], [ "He schooled at Diamond Jubilee Higher Secondary School, Gobichettipalayam," ], [ "Loyola College, Madras (now, Chennai) at the age of 14, graduating in science with physics in 1940, and then got a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering" ], [ "College of Engineering," ], [ "He lost his father at 22 and his grand-uncle moved his family to his home in Trichur (now Thrissur)." ], [ "his mother persuaded him to join the Tata Steel Technical Institute," ], [ "management by his uncle, who was a director with the Tatas, and from where he graduated in 1946, but soon found himself wanting to get away" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 35, 116, 337, 505, 684, 879, 986 ], "texts": [ "He was born on 26 November 1921", "Calicut, Madras Presidency (now Kozhikode, Kerala) in a Syrian Christian family.", "He schooled at Diamond Jubilee Higher Secondary School, Gobichettipalayam,", "Loyola College, Madras (now, Chennai) at the age of 14, graduating in science with physics in 1940, and then got a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering", "College of Engineering,", "He lost his father at 22 and his grand-uncle moved his family to his home in Trichur (now Thrissur).", "his mother persuaded him to join the Tata Steel Technical Institute,", "management by his uncle, who was a director with the Tatas, and from where he graduated in 1946, but soon found himself wanting to get away" ] }

[]

[ "Kurien was born on 26 November 1921.", "He was born at Calicut, Madras Presidency (now Kozhikode, Kerala).", "He went to school at Diamond Jubilee Higher Secondary School, Gobichettipalayam, in Coimbatore district (now in Erode district, Tamil Nadu). He joined Loyola College, Madras at the age of 14 and graduated in science with physics in 1940. He also got a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from the College of Engineering, Guindy, Madras, in 1943. He later attended the Tata Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur and then went to the Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry in Bangalore. He also studied at Michigan State University in America.", "After secondary school, he joined Loyola College, Madras (now, Chennai) at the age of 14, where he graduated in science with physics in 1940.", "Yes, he went to several colleges. He initially attended Loyola College, Madras where he took his undergraduate degree in science, then did a bachelor's in mechanical engineering from the College of Engineering, Guindy, Madras. He also attended the Tata Steel Technical Institute, Jamshedpur and the Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry in Bangalore. Additionally, he studied at Michigan State University in America.", "After his college education, he found himself wanting to get away from the hangers-on and yesmen of his uncle at Tata Steel Technical Institute, so he applied for a government of India scholarship. Through this, he was sent to the Imperial Institute of Animal Husbandry in Bangalore to study dairy engineering, to his surprise and reluctance. However, he took some dairying electives and ended up with a master's degree in mechanical engineering (metallurgy) (with a minor in nuclear physics) from the Michigan State University in 1948. Later, he trained in dairy technology on a government sponsorship to New Zealand and Australia, in preparation for setting up the Amul dairy.", "The text does not provide information on where he worked after college.", "The text does not provide information on his position after college." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "No", "No" ]

[ "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#0", "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#1", "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#2", "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#3", "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#4", "C_82d3321a49f143afba8b61d25d742833_0_q#5" ]

[ "What was moving on?", "Are there interesting aspects?", "How did he do that?", "What are some other accomplishments?", "What did they find?", "Did he make any other accomplishments" ]

[ 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 0 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 3470 ], [ 1253 ], [ 1371 ], [ 1499 ], [ 3470 ], [ 1991 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "During his period in Canada, Sapir came into his own as the leading figure in linguistics in North America." ], [ "substantial publications" ], [ "he laid out an approach to using historical linguistics to study the prehistory of Native American cultures." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Ottawa, he also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 3470, 1253, 1371, 1499, 3470, 1991 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "During his period in Canada, Sapir came into his own as the leading figure in linguistics in North America.", "substantial publications", "he laid out an approach to using historical linguistics to study the prehistory of Native American cultures.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Ottawa, he also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry." ] }

[]

[ "CANNOTANSWER", "Yes, there are several interesting aspects mentioned in the context. This includes Sapir's work on Athabascan and his focus on the historical relationships between the Na-Dene languages, his personal struggles with his family situation and his relationships with other intellectuals such as Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, along with his contribution to linguistics evident in his substantial publications like 'Time Perspective in the Aboriginal American Culture' and 'Language'. Other intriguing details relate to his interests beyond his profession like his collection and publication of French Canadian Folk Songs and his own poetry.", "The context does not specify what action you're referring to that Sapir carried out. Could you please provide more details?", "Apart from Edward Sapir's linguistic work on Athabascan and Na-Dene languages, his other accomplishments as per the context include authoring substantial publications such as his book \"Time Perspective in the Aboriginal American Culture\" (1916) and \"Language\" (1921). He contributed to the formulation of a report on standardization of orthographic principles for writing Indigenous languages. He also gathered and published French Canadian Folk Songs, and wrote a volume of his own poetry.", "CANNOTANSWER", "In addition to his linguistic work, Edward Sapir also collected and published French Canadian Folk Songs and wrote a volume of his own poetry. However, the text does not mention any other accomplishments outside these and his linguistic research and publications." ]

[ "Yes", "Neutral", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes" ]

[ "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#0", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#1", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#2", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#3", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#4", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#5", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#6", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#7", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#8", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#9", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#10", "C_0d96e094dc2a405b98dc8f03cac71a36_0_q#11" ]

[ "what is the new world order?", "what did the world order describe?", "who is randy savage", "how many championships did savage win", "who is sting", "anything else i nee to know", "why did savage have knee surgeries", "who was savage fighting when he tore his ACL", "in what year did he tore his ACL", "who else did savage fight", "who is roddy piper?", "who is hulk hogan" ]

[ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 ]

[ 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 2501 ], [ 0 ], [ 1515 ], [ 1515 ], [ 1165 ], [ 2101 ], [ 1583 ], [ 157 ], [ 1001 ], [ 494 ], [ 2501 ], [ 1787 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Savage returned to WCW on the January 20, 1997 episode of Nitro hijacking the show, claiming to have been \"blackballed\"" ], [ "Savage beat Sting for his third WCW World Heavyweight Championship," ], [ "Savage beat Sting for his third WCW World" ], [ "When Hogan failed to recapture his \"nWo\" title from Sting," ], [ "Savage took a hiatus from the company to recover from at least two major knee surgeries." ], [ "despite tearing his ACL in his knee during the match." ], [ "Sting" ], [ "1998," ], [ "Savage left Sting's side and joined the nWo by helping Hogan defeat Roddy Piper." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Nash came to Savage's aid, powerbombing Hogan. but an interfering Bret Hart attacked Savage and preserved the victory for Hogan." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 2501, 0, 1515, 1515, 1165, 2101, 1583, 157, 1001, 494, 2501, 1787 ], "texts": [ "CANNOTANSWER", "Savage returned to WCW on the January 20, 1997 episode of Nitro hijacking the show, claiming to have been \"blackballed\"", "Savage beat Sting for his third WCW World Heavyweight Championship,", "Savage beat Sting for his third WCW World", "When Hogan failed to recapture his \"nWo\" title from Sting,", "Savage took a hiatus from the company to recover from at least two major knee surgeries.", "despite tearing his ACL in his knee during the match.", "Sting", "1998,", "Savage left Sting's side and joined the nWo by helping Hogan defeat Roddy Piper.", "CANNOTANSWER", "Nash came to Savage's aid, powerbombing Hogan. but an interfering Bret Hart attacked Savage and preserved the victory for Hogan." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide information on what the New World Order is.", "The context does not provide information on what the New World Order describes.", "The context does not provide specific information on who Randy Savage is.", "According to the context, Savage won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship three times.", "The context does not provide specific information on who Sting is.", "The context does not provide any other specific information that you need to know.", "According the context, Savage had knee surgeries due to tearing his ACL during a match in WCW.", "Savage was fighting Sting when he tore his ACL.", "Savage tore his ACL in 1998.", "According to the context, in addition to Sting, Savage also fought Diamond Dallas Page, Lex Luger, Hulk Hogan, Bret Hart, and Roddy Piper.", "The context does not provide specific information on who Roddy Piper is.", "The context does not provide specific information on who Hulk Hogan is." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#0", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#1", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#2", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#3", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#4", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#5", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#6", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#7", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_0_q#8" ]

[ "Did gleason work for a network", "What specials did he do", "What other special did he do", "who did he do these specials for", "What did he do after that", "what company was he with", "did he host for abc", "what year", "what where they called" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 49 ], [ 110 ], [ 138 ], [ 16 ], [ 314 ], [ 284 ], [ 345 ], [ 389 ], [ 449 ] ], "texts": [ [ "CBS after giving up his regular show in the 1970s," ], [ "Honeymooners" ], [ "Reginald Van Gleason III" ], [ "Jackie Gleason" ], [ "Honeymooners specials for ABC." ], [ "NBC." ], [ "Gleason hosted four ABC specials" ], [ "mid-1970s." ], [ "Izzy and Moe" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 49, 110, 138, 16, 314, 284, 345, 389, 449 ], "texts": [ "CBS after giving up his regular show in the 1970s,", "Honeymooners", "Reginald Van Gleason III", "Jackie Gleason", "Honeymooners specials for ABC.", "NBC.", "Gleason hosted four ABC specials", "mid-1970s.", "Izzy and Moe" ] }

[]

[ "Yes, Gleason worked for several networks including CBS, NBC, and ABC.", "Gleason did two Jackie Gleason Show specials for CBS, including Honeymooners segments and a Reginald Van Gleason III sketch. He later did a series of Honeymooners specials for ABC, and he hosted four ABC specials during the mid-1970s. In April 1974, he revived several of his classic characters in a television special with Julie Andrews.", "Apart from the Jackie Gleason Show, Honeymooners and ABC specials, Gleason also made a television movie with Carney entitled Izzy and Moe in 1985. The special was about an unusual pair of historic Federal prohibition agents in New York City. Gleason also revived several of his classic characters in a television special with Julie Andrews in April 1974.", "Gleason did two Jackie Gleason Show specials for CBS, and after his contract with CBS expired, he signed with NBC. He later did a series of Honeymooners specials for ABC and hosted four other ABC specials. The television movie, Izzy and Moe, aired on CBS in 1985. The \"lost episodes\" of his live 1950s programs were aired on the Showtime cable network in 1985.", "The text does not provide information on what Gleason did after the airing of the \"lost episodes\" on the Showtime cable network in 1985.", "Jackie Gleason was associated with several companies, specifically television networks such as CBS, NBC, ABC, and the Showtime cable network.", "Yes, Gleason hosted four ABC specials during the mid-1970s.", "The context does not provide specific years for when Jackie Gleason hosted the four ABC specials, only mentioning it was during the mid-1970s.", "The text does not provide the names of the four ABC specials that Jackie Gleason hosted in the mid-1970s." ]

[ "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#0", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#1", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#2", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#3", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#4", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#5", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#6", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#7", "C_1cdf774a63434976b21df0154dc0afc4_1_q#8" ]

[ "what did gleason do before films", "What got him discovered", "who discovered him", "what movie was he in first", "who else was in the movie", "what year was this", "what movie came after that one", "what year was it filmed", "who was on the film" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 112 ], [ 235 ], [ 428 ], [ 451 ], [ 440 ], [ 484 ], [ 440 ], [ 513 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Gleason worked his way up to a job at New York's Club 18," ], [ "Gleason greeted noted skater Sonja Henie by handing her an ice cube and saying," ], [ "Jack L. Warner first saw Gleason, signing him to a film contract for $250 a week." ], [ "Navy Blues" ], [ "Ann Sheridan and Martha Raye" ], [ "1941" ], [ "All Through the Night" ], [ "1941" ], [ "with Humphrey Bogart," ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 112, 235, 428, 451, 440, 484, 440, 513 ], "texts": [ "Gleason worked his way up to a job at New York's Club 18,", "Gleason greeted noted skater Sonja Henie by handing her an ice cube and saying,", "Jack L. Warner first saw Gleason, signing him to a film contract for $250 a week.", "Navy Blues", "Ann Sheridan and Martha Raye", "1941", "All Through the Night", "1941", "with Humphrey Bogart," ] }

[]

[ "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#0", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#1", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#2", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#3", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#4", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#5", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#6", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#7", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_1_q#8" ]

[ "Where was Malakian from?", "What year did they immigrate to the US?", "Who were Malakian's parents?", "Did he have any siblings?", "Where did he go to school?", "Did he play any instruments in school?", "Was he married?", "What is the most fascinating life that happened in his life?", "Who else did he collaborate with?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 108 ], [ 31 ], [ 72 ], [ 3018 ], [ 1464 ], [ 2070 ], [ 3018 ], [ 2680 ], [ 2589 ] ], "texts": [ [ "ethnic Armenian immigrants originally from Iraq." ], [ "on July 18, 1975, in Hollywood," ], [ "child to Vartan and Zepur Malakian," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Daron went to Rose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School in the Los Feliz side of Hollywood, which his future bandmates Shavo Odadjian and Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian" ], [ "was playing keyboard for" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "Malakian co-produced System of a Down's albums with Rick Rubin, as well as albums by The Ambulance and Bad Acid" ], [ "They then recruited drummer Andy Khachaturian, who was replaced by John Dolmayan in 1997." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 108, 31, 72, 3018, 1464, 2070, 3018, 2680, 2589 ], "texts": [ "ethnic Armenian immigrants originally from Iraq.", "on July 18, 1975, in Hollywood,", "child to Vartan and Zepur Malakian,", "CANNOTANSWER", "Daron went to Rose and Alex Pilibos Armenian School in the Los Feliz side of Hollywood, which his future bandmates Shavo Odadjian and Ontronik \"Andy\" Khachaturian", "was playing keyboard for", "CANNOTANSWER", "Malakian co-produced System of a Down's albums with Rick Rubin, as well as albums by The Ambulance and Bad Acid", "They then recruited drummer Andy Khachaturian, who was replaced by John Dolmayan in 1997." ] }

[]

[ "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#0", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#1", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#2", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#3", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#4", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#5", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#6", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#7", "C_e95cb7abcf0948b0a1c4ebb98937fb7a_0_q#8" ]

[ "When did he become a part of Scars on Broadway?", "How many people were a part of the group?", "what were some of their songs?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "How long was he with the band?", "Did they do any touring?", "Did they do any other tours?", "Did they win any awards?", "Is there anything else you can share about the article?" ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 576 ], [ 1365 ], [ 1531 ], [ 2852 ], [ 1820 ], [ 2399 ], [ 2852 ], [ 2693 ] ], "texts": [ [ "In 2003, Daron Malakian" ], [ "Scars on Broadway - a band which would include System of a Down bassist, Shavo Odadjian, and himself." ], [ "The group released an eponymous album in 2008, which featured the hit single \"They Say\" (written by Malakian)." ], [ "Malakian cancelled all scheduled concert and TV appearances, blaming a lack of enthusiasm and that his \"heart wasn't into touring.\"" ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "In August 2009, Scars on Broadway, minus Malakian, traveled to Iraq for a USO tour across the U.S. army bases." ], [ "On May 2, 2010, Malakian reunited with Scars on Broadway at the Troubadour in West Hollywood." ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "On February 24, 2012, System of a Down announced that the Scars on Broadway website is back online" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 576, 1365, 1531, 2852, 1820, 2399, 2852, 2693 ], "texts": [ "In 2003, Daron Malakian", "Scars on Broadway - a band which would include System of a Down bassist, Shavo Odadjian, and himself.", "The group released an eponymous album in 2008, which featured the hit single \"They Say\" (written by Malakian).", "Malakian cancelled all scheduled concert and TV appearances, blaming a lack of enthusiasm and that his \"heart wasn't into touring.\"", "CANNOTANSWER", "In August 2009, Scars on Broadway, minus Malakian, traveled to Iraq for a USO tour across the U.S. army bases.", "On May 2, 2010, Malakian reunited with Scars on Broadway at the Troubadour in West Hollywood.", "CANNOTANSWER", "On February 24, 2012, System of a Down announced that the Scars on Broadway website is back online" ] }

[]

[ "C_65342175629e4ef9a33c8af3130f72d7_0_q#0", "C_65342175629e4ef9a33c8af3130f72d7_0_q#1", "C_65342175629e4ef9a33c8af3130f72d7_0_q#2", "C_65342175629e4ef9a33c8af3130f72d7_0_q#3" ]

[ "What kind of responses came from the Chinese?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Why was it not well received?", "Was it shown to the public?" ]

[ 0, 0, 2, 1 ]

[ 2, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 74 ], [ 1096 ], [ 1655 ], [ 1877 ] ], "texts": [ [ "banning by the People's Republic of China. Relations between Japan and Mainland China were particularly tense due to two main factors: Japan's Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi" ], [ "The film is set in Japan during World War II, when the Second Sino-Japanese War was taking place." ], [ "there were concerns that the casting of Chinese actresses as geishas could rouse anti-Japan sentiment and stir up feelings over Japanese wartime actions in China," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 74, 1096, 1655, 1877 ], "texts": [ "banning by the People's Republic of China. Relations between Japan and Mainland China were particularly tense due to two main factors: Japan's Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi", "The film is set in Japan during World War II, when the Second Sino-Japanese War was taking place.", "there were concerns that the casting of Chinese actresses as geishas could rouse anti-Japan sentiment and stir up feelings over Japanese wartime actions in China,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The Chinese responses to the film were hostile, which included banning the film by the People's Republic of China. The Chinese State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television deemed the film as \"too sensitive\". Newspapers in China also raised concerns that the film might be banned by censors, fearing that casting Chinese actresses as geishas could stir up anti-Japan sentiment and feelings regarding Japanese wartime actions in China.", "The article also highlights the tense relations between Japan and Mainland China at the time due to Japan's Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's visits to Yasukuni Shrine, which honors Japan's war dead including convicted war criminals, and China's role in preventing Japan from getting a seat at the UN Security Council. Furthermore, the article also states that the film \"Memoirs of a Geisha\" stirred cultural conflict due to its misunderstanding of geisha and its connection to the controversial issue of \"comfort women\" during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "The film was not well received in China primarily due to its political context and perceived cultural misunderstandings. Its release amid tense relations between China and Japan exacerbated cultural conflicts. Furthermore, there was controversy in China because of a perceived confusion of equating geisha with prostitution, and thus a connection with, and reminder of, \"comfort women\" used in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War. There were also concerns that casting Chinese actresses as geishas could stir up anti-Japan sentiment and feelings over Japan's wartime actions in China.", "The film was originally scheduled to be shown in cinemas in the People's Republic of China on February 9, 2006. However, the Chinese State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television banned the film on February 1, 2006. Thus, it was not publicly shown as intended in China." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "No" ]

[ "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#0", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#1", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#2", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#3", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#4", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#5", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#6", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#7", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#8", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#9", "C_9a807ca07b784bcd96b22e7932d65b83_0_q#10" ]

[ "What is Masters?", "When was this?", "Did he win the the tournament?", "What was his final score?", "Who else was in the tournament?", "Who were other players in the tournament?", "What did Mickleson have to say about his victory?", "What else was notable about the tournament?", "Why was this poignant?", "Did they say anythign else about the cancer?", "Was there anybody else in the tournament that you haven't mentioned?" ]

[ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1 ]

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{ "answer_starts": [ [ 27 ], [ 49 ], [ 140 ], [ 1635 ], [ 771 ], [ 1541 ], [ 1730 ], [ 1180 ], [ 1257 ], [ 1409 ], [ 945 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Masters Tournament" ], [ "April 11" ], [ "The win marked the third Masters victory for Mickelson and his fourth major championship overall." ], [ "he was in close contention throughout for the lead and finished tied with Choi for 4th at -11." ], [ "Westwood recaptured a one-stroke lead by the end of the round," ], [ "Tiger Woods had a dramatic return to competitive play" ], [ "Mickelson and others showed exciting play" ], [ "For many fans, Mickelson's finish in the tournament was especially poignant," ], [ "given that Amy had been suffering from breast cancer during the preceding year. Mary Mickelson, Phil's mother, was also dealing with cancer." ], [ "announcer Jim Nantz's call of the final birdie putt, \"That's a win for the family,\"" ], [ "No other pursuer was able to keep pace to the end, though K. J. Choi and Anthony Kim made notable charges." ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 27, 49, 140, 1635, 771, 1541, 1730, 1180, 1257, 1409, 945 ], "texts": [ "Masters Tournament", "April 11", "The win marked the third Masters victory for Mickelson and his fourth major championship overall.", "he was in close contention throughout for the lead and finished tied with Choi for 4th at -11.", "Westwood recaptured a one-stroke lead by the end of the round,", "Tiger Woods had a dramatic return to competitive play", "Mickelson and others showed exciting play", "For many fans, Mickelson's finish in the tournament was especially poignant,", "given that Amy had been suffering from breast cancer during the preceding year. Mary Mickelson, Phil's mother, was also dealing with cancer.", "announcer Jim Nantz's call of the final birdie putt, \"That's a win for the family,\"", "No other pursuer was able to keep pace to the end, though K. J. Choi and Anthony Kim made notable charges." ] }

[]

[ "The context does not provide specific information on what the \"Masters\" is.", "This event occurred in 2010.", "Yes, Mickelson won the Masters Tournament in 2010.", "Mickelson's final score was 16-under-par.", "Other players in the tournament included Lee Westwood, K. J. Choi, Anthony Kim, and Tiger Woods.", "Other players in the tournament included Lee Westwood, K. J. Choi, Anthony Kim, and Tiger Woods.", "The context does not provide any information on what Mickelson said about his victory.", "The notable aspects of the tournament included Mickelson's dramatic run in the third and fourth rounds, his wife Amy and mother both dealing with cancer during the tournament, and Tiger Woods' dramatic return to competitive play after a scandal-ridden 20-week absence. Also, the tournament had strong television ratings in the United States, ranking third all-time to Woods's historic wins in 1997 and 2001.", "This tournament win was particularly poignant for many fans because Mickelson's wife, Amy, had been suffering from breast cancer during the preceding year. Additionally, Phil Mickelson's mother, Mary, was also dealing with cancer. The victory was seen as a win for the entire family in the midst of these health struggles.", "No, the context does not provide any additional information about the cancer diagnoses of Amy and Mary Mickelson.", "The context does not mention any other players in the tournament apart from Mickelson, Lee Westwood, K. J. Choi, Anthony Kim, and Tiger Woods." ]

[ "No", "No", "Yes", "No", "No", "No", "No", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]

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[ "What kind of reviews did this film receive?", "What were some of the reviews it got?", "Are there any other interesting aspects about this article?", "Was there any awards for this?" ]

[ 0, 2, 0, 1 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 0 ], [ 686 ], [ 990 ], [ 2468 ] ], "texts": [ [ "Memoirs of a Geisha received mixed reviews from western critics." ], [ "The film scored a 35% \"Rotten\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes;" ], [ "In the United States, the film managed $57 million during its box office run. The film peaked at 1,654 screens, facing off against King Kong, The Chronicles of Narnia," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 0, 686, 990, 2468 ], "texts": [ "Memoirs of a Geisha received mixed reviews from western critics.", "The film scored a 35% \"Rotten\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes;", "In the United States, the film managed $57 million during its box office run. The film peaked at 1,654 screens, facing off against King Kong, The Chronicles of Narnia,", "CANNOTANSWER" ] }

[]

[ "The film \"Memoirs of a Geisha\" received mixed reviews from western critics. While some praised its visuals, acting, and compelling story, others criticized it as lacking nuance and having a simplistic soap opera-like quality. The film received a 35% \"Rotten\" rating on Rotten Tomatoes, and a mixed or average review score of 54/100 on Metacritic. The individual performances of the cast, such as Zhang Ziyi and Gong Li, were frequently highlighted as standout elements.", "Illinois' Daily Herald appreciated the strong acting, meticulously created sets, stunning visuals, and compelling story of the film. The Washington Times described it as a sumptuously faithful and evocative adaption, though noted the contrasting dialects might be a minor issue for some viewers. The New Statesman criticized the film's plot, stating that it lost momentum and that the film version abandoned the original's scholarly mien to reveal the underlying soap opera. The Evening Standard, however, compared the film to Cinderella and praised Gong Li's performance, as did Glasgow's Daily Record which also complimented the detailed portrayal of the geisha world.", "The article mentions that despite the mixed reviews, \"Memoirs of a Geisha\" did well at the box office, earning $57 million in the United States. The film's international gross reached $158 million. During its first week in limited release, being screened in only eight theaters, the film had an $85,313 per theater average, making it the second in highest per theater averages behind \"Brokeback Mountain\" for 2005.", "The context does not provide information on any awards that \"Memoirs of a Geisha\" may have received." ]

[ "Yes", "No", "Yes", "Yes" ]

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[ "Where did Fodor go to school?", "Did he have a good relationship with his parents?", "Did he get married?", "Do they have any kids?", "What was his first job?", "What did he do after MIT?" ]

[ 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, 2 ]

[ 2, 2, 0, 0, 2, 2 ]

{ "answer_starts": [ [ 84 ], [ 3036 ], [ 2882 ], [ 2949 ], [ 304 ], [ 506 ] ], "texts": [ [ "He received his A.B. degree (summa cum laude) from Columbia University in 1956," ], [ "CANNOTANSWER" ], [ "He lived in New York with his wife, the linguist Janet Dean Fodor," ], [ "and had two grown children." ], [ "From 1959 to 1986 Fodor was on the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts." ], [ "From 1988 until his retirement in 2016 he was State of New Jersey Professor of philosophy and cognitive science at Rutgers University" ] ] }

{ "answer_starts": [ 84, 3036, 2882, 2949, 304, 506 ], "texts": [ "He received his A.B. degree (summa cum laude) from Columbia University in 1956,", "CANNOTANSWER", "He lived in New York with his wife, the linguist Janet Dean Fodor,", "and had two grown children.", "From 1959 to 1986 Fodor was on the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "From 1988 until his retirement in 2016 he was State of New Jersey Professor of philosophy and cognitive science at Rutgers University" ] }

[]

[ "Fodor received his A.B. degree from Columbia University in 1956 and a PhD in philosophy from Princeton University in 1960.", "The text does not provide information on Jerry Fodor's relationship with his parents.", "Yes, Jerry Fodor was married to Janet Dean Fodor, who is a linguist.", "Yes, Jerry Fodor and his wife Janet Dean Fodor had two grown children.", "The text does not provide information on Jerry Fodor's first job.", "After working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1959 to 1986, Jerry Fodor became a full professor at the City University of New York (CUNY) from 1986 to 1988. He then became the State of New Jersey Professor of philosophy and cognitive science at Rutgers University in New Jersey from 1988 until his retirement in 2016." ]

[ "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "Yes", "No", "Yes" ]