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Refrigeration | Impact on agriculture and food production | While electricity dramatically improved working conditions on farms, it also had a large impact on the safety of food production. Refrigeration systems were introduced to the farming and food distribution processes, which helped in food preservation and kept food supplies safe. Refrigeration also allowed for shipment of perishable commodities throughout the United States. As a result, United States farmers quickly became the most productive in the world, and entire new food systems arose. |
Refrigeration | Impact on agriculture and food production | Farm use In order to reduce humidity levels and spoiling due to bacterial growth, refrigeration is used for meat, produce, and dairy processing in farming today. Refrigeration systems are used the heaviest in the warmer months for farming produce, which must be cooled as soon as possible in order to meet quality standards and increase the shelf life. Meanwhile, dairy farms refrigerate milk year round to avoid spoiling. |
Refrigeration | Effects on lifestyle and diet | In the late 19th Century and into the very early 20th Century, except for staple foods (sugar, rice, and beans) that needed no refrigeration, the available foods were affected heavily by the seasons and what could be grown locally. Refrigeration has removed these limitations. Refrigeration played a large part in the feasibility and then popularity of the modern supermarket. Fruits and vegetables out of season, or grown in distant locations, are now available at relatively low prices. Refrigerators have led to a huge increase in meat and dairy products as a portion of overall supermarket sales. As well as changing the goods purchased at the market, the ability to store these foods for extended periods of time has led to an increase in leisure time. Prior to the advent of the household refrigerator, people would have to shop on a daily basis for the supplies needed for their meals. |
Refrigeration | Effects on lifestyle and diet | Impact on nutrition The introduction of refrigeration allowed for the hygienic handling and storage of perishables, and as such, promoted output growth, consumption, and the availability of nutrition. The change in our method of food preservation moved us away from salts to a more manageable sodium level. The ability to move and store perishables such as meat and dairy led to a 1.7% increase in dairy consumption and overall protein intake by 1.25% annually in the US after the 1890s.People were not only consuming these perishables because it became easier for they themselves to store them, but because the innovations in refrigerated transportation and storage led to less spoilage and waste, thereby driving the prices of these products down. Refrigeration accounts for at least 5.1% of the increase in adult stature (in the US) through improved nutrition, and when the indirect effects associated with improvements in the quality of nutrients and the reduction in illness is additionally factored in, the overall impact becomes considerably larger. Recent studies have also shown a negative relationship between the number of refrigerators in a household and the rate of gastric cancer mortality. |
Refrigeration | Current applications of refrigeration | Probably the most widely used current applications of refrigeration are for air conditioning of private homes and public buildings, and refrigerating foodstuffs in homes, restaurants and large storage warehouses. The use of refrigerators and walk-in coolers and freezers in kitchens, factories and warehouses for storing and processing fruits and vegetables has allowed adding fresh salads to the modern diet year round, and storing fish and meats safely for long periods. |
Refrigeration | Current applications of refrigeration | The optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F).In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for refrigeration. Refrigeration is used to liquefy gases – oxygen, nitrogen, propane, and methane, for example. In compressed air purification, it is used to condense water vapor from compressed air to reduce its moisture content. In oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants, refrigeration is used to maintain certain processes at their needed low temperatures (for example, in alkylation of butenes and butane to produce a high-octane gasoline component). Metal workers use refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery. When transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by trucks, trains, airplanes and seagoing vessels, refrigeration is a necessity. |
Refrigeration | Current applications of refrigeration | Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer. |
Refrigeration | Current applications of refrigeration | One of the most influential uses of refrigeration was in the development of the sushi/sashimi industry in Japan. Before the discovery of refrigeration, many sushi connoisseurs were at risk of contracting diseases. The dangers of unrefrigerated sashimi were not brought to light for decades due to the lack of research and healthcare distribution across rural Japan. Around mid-century, the Zojirushi corporation, based in Kyoto, made breakthroughs in refrigerator designs, making refrigerators cheaper and more accessible for restaurant proprietors and the general public. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration can be classified as non-cyclic, cyclic, thermoelectric and magnetic. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Non-cyclic refrigeration This refrigeration method cools a contained area by melting ice, or by sublimating dry ice. Perhaps the simplest example of this is a portable cooler, where items are put in it, then ice is poured over the top. Regular ice can maintain temperatures near, but not below the freezing point, unless salt is used to cool the ice down further (as in a traditional ice-cream maker). Dry ice can reliably bring the temperature well below water freezing point. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Cyclic refrigeration This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. In the power cycle, heat is supplied from a high-temperature source to the engine, part of the heat being used to produce work and the rest being rejected to a low-temperature sink. This satisfies the second law of thermodynamics. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the refrigerant as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through a refrigerator. It is also applied to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning HVACR work, when describing the "process" of refrigerant flow through an HVACR unit, whether it is a packaged or split system. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Heat naturally flows from hot to cold. Work is applied to cool a living space or storage volume by pumping heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Insulation is used to reduce the work and energy needed to achieve and maintain a lower temperature in the cooled space. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was described mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The most common types of refrigeration systems use the reverse-Rankine vapor-compression refrigeration cycle, although absorption heat pumps are used in a minority of applications. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Cyclic refrigeration can be classified as: Vapor cycle, and Gas cycleVapor cycle refrigeration can further be classified as: Vapor-compression refrigeration Sorption Refrigeration Vapor-absorption refrigeration Adsorption refrigeration Vapor-compression cycle The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. Figure 1 provides a schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The thermodynamics of the cycle can be analyzed on a diagram as shown in Figure 2. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as a low boiling hydrocarbon or hydrofluorocarbons enters the compressor as a vapour. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor as a vapor at a higher temperature, but still below the vapor pressure at that temperature. From point 2 to point 3 and on to point 4, the vapor travels through the condenser which cools the vapour until it starts condensing, and then condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and temperature. Between points 4 and 5, the liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | That results in a mixture of liquid and vapour at a lower temperature and pressure as shown at point 5. The cold liquid-vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapour returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The above discussion is based on the ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, and does not take into account real-world effects like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight thermodynamic irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior, if any. Vapor compression refrigerators can be arranged in two stages in cascade refrigeration systems, with the second stage cooling the condenser of the first stage. This can be used for achieving very low temperatures. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | More information about the design and performance of vapor-compression refrigeration systems is available in the classic Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Sorption cycle Absorption cycle In the early years of the twentieth century, the vapor absorption cycle using water-ammonia systems or LiBr-water was popular and widely used. After the development of the vapor compression cycle, the vapor absorption cycle lost much of its importance because of its low coefficient of performance (about one fifth of that of the vapor compression cycle). Today, the vapor absorption cycle is used mainly where fuel for heating is available but electricity is not, such as in recreational vehicles that carry LP gas. It is also used in industrial environments where plentiful waste heat overcomes its inefficiency. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The absorption cycle is similar to the compression cycle, except for the method of raising the pressure of the refrigerant vapor. In the absorption system, the compressor is replaced by an absorber which dissolves the refrigerant in a suitable liquid, a liquid pump which raises the pressure and a generator which, on heat addition, drives off the refrigerant vapor from the high-pressure liquid. Some work is needed by the liquid pump but, for a given quantity of refrigerant, it is much smaller than needed by the compressor in the vapor compression cycle. In an absorption refrigerator, a suitable combination of refrigerant and absorbent is used. The most common combinations are ammonia (refrigerant) with water (absorbent), and water (refrigerant) with lithium bromide (absorbent). |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Adsorption cycle The main difference with absorption cycle, is that in adsorption cycle, the refrigerant (adsorbate) could be ammonia, water, methanol, etc., while the adsorbent is a solid, such as silica gel, activated carbon, or zeolite, unlike in the absorption cycle where absorbent is liquid.
The reason adsorption refrigeration technology has been extensively researched in recent 30 years lies in that the operation of an adsorption refrigeration system is often noiseless, non-corrosive and environment friendly. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Gas cycle When the working fluid is a gas that is compressed and expanded but doesn't change phase, the refrigeration cycle is called a gas cycle. Air is most often this working fluid. As there is no condensation and evaporation intended in a gas cycle, components corresponding to the condenser and evaporator in a vapor compression cycle are the hot and cold gas-to-gas heat exchangers in gas cycles. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The gas cycle is less efficient than the vapor compression cycle because the gas cycle works on the reverse Brayton cycle instead of the reverse Rankine cycle. As such, the working fluid does not receive and reject heat at constant temperature. In the gas cycle, the refrigeration effect is equal to the product of the specific heat of the gas and the rise in temperature of the gas in the low temperature side. Therefore, for the same cooling load, a gas refrigeration cycle needs a large mass flow rate and is bulky. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Because of their lower efficiency and larger bulk, air cycle coolers are not often used nowadays in terrestrial cooling devices. However, the air cycle machine is very common on gas turbine-powered jet aircraft as cooling and ventilation units, because compressed air is readily available from the engines' compressor sections. Such units also serve the purpose of pressurizing the aircraft. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Thermoelectric refrigeration Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two types of material. This effect is commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments. Peltier coolers are often used where a traditional vapor-compression cycle refrigerator would be impractical or take up too much space, and in cooled image sensors as an easy, compact and lightweight, if inefficient, way to achieve very low temperatures, using two or more stage peltier coolers arranged in a cascade refrigeration configuration, meaning that two or more Peltier elements are stacked on top of each other, with each stage being larger than the one before it, in order to extract more heat and waste heat generated by the previous stages. Peltier cooling has a low COP (efficiency) when compared with that of the vapor-compression cycle, so it emits more waste heat (heat generated by the Peltier element or cooling mechanism) and consumes more power for a given cooling capacity. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Magnetic refrigeration Magnetic refrigeration, or adiabatic demagnetization, is a cooling technology based on the magnetocaloric effect, an intrinsic property of magnetic solids. The refrigerant is often a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | A strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. A heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off. This increases the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the heat sink. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Because few materials exhibit the needed properties at room temperature, applications have so far been limited to cryogenics and research. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Other methods Other methods of refrigeration include the air cycle machine used in aircraft; the vortex tube used for spot cooling, when compressed air is available; and thermoacoustic refrigeration using sound waves in a pressurized gas to drive heat transfer and heat exchange; steam jet cooling popular in the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings; thermoelastic cooling using a smart metal alloy stretching and relaxing. Many Stirling cycle heat engines can be run backwards to act as a refrigerator, and therefore these engines have a niche use in cryogenics. In addition, there are other types of cryocoolers such as Gifford-McMahon coolers, Joule-Thomson coolers, pulse-tube refrigerators and, for temperatures between 2 mK and 500 mK, dilution refrigerators. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Elastocaloric refrigeration Another potential solid-state refrigeration technique and a relatively new area of study comes from a special property of super elastic materials. These materials undergo a temperature change when experiencing an applied mechanical stress (called the elastocaloric effect). Since super elastic materials deform reversibly at high strains, the material experiences a flattened elastic region in its stress-strain curve caused by a resulting phase transformation from an austenitic to a martensitic crystal phase. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | When a super elastic material experiences a stress in the austenitic phase, it undergoes an exothermic phase transformation to the martensitic phase, which causes the material to heat up. Removing the stress reverses the process, restores the material to its austenitic phase, and absorbs heat from the surroundings cooling down the material. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | The most appealing part of this research is how potentially energy efficient and environmentally friendly this cooling technology is. The different materials used, commonly shape-memory alloys, provide a non-toxic source of emission free refrigeration. The most commonly studied materials studied are shape-memory alloys, like nitinol and Cu-Zn-Al. Nitinol is of the more promising alloys with output heat at about 66 J/cm3 and a temperature change of about 16–20 K. Due to the difficulty in manufacturing some of the shape memory alloys, alternative materials like natural rubber have been studied. Even though rubber may not give off as much heat per volume (12 J/cm3 ) as the shape memory alloys, it still generates a comparable temperature change of about 12 K and operates at a suitable temperature range, low stresses, and low cost.The main challenge however comes from potential energy losses in the form of hysteresis, often associated with this process. Since most of these losses comes from incompatibilities between the two phases, proper alloy tuning is necessary to reduce losses and increase reversibility and efficiency. Balancing the transformation strain of the material with the energy losses enables a large elastocaloric effect to occur and potentially a new alternative for refrigeration. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Fridge Gate The Fridge Gate method is a theoretical application of using a single logic gate to drive a refrigerator in the most energy efficient way possible without violating the laws of thermodynamics. It operates on the fact that there are two energy states in which a particle can exist: the ground state and the excited state. The excited state carries a little more energy than the ground state, small enough so that the transition occurs with high probability. There are three components or particle types associated with the fridge gate. The first is on the interior of the refrigerator, the second on the outside and the third is connected to a power supply which heats up every so often that it can reach the E state and replenish the source. In the cooling step on the inside of the refrigerator, the g state particle absorbs energy from ambient particles, cooling them, and itself jumping to the e state. In the second step, on the outside of the refrigerator where the particles are also at an e state, the particle falls to the g state, releasing energy and heating the outside particles. In the third and final step, the power supply moves a particle at the e state, and when it falls to the g state it induces an energy-neutral swap where the interior e particle is replaced by a new g particle, restarting the cycle. |
Refrigeration | Methods of refrigeration | Passive systems When combining a passive daytime radiative cooling system with thermal insulation and evaporative cooling, one study found a 300% increase in ambient cooling power when compared to a stand-alone radiative cooling surface, which could extend the shelf life of food by 40% in humid climates and 200% in desert climates without refrigeration. The system's evaporative cooling layer would require water "re-charges" every 10 days to a month in humid areas and every 4 days in hot and dry areas. |
Refrigeration | Capacity ratings | The refrigeration capacity of a refrigeration system is the product of the evaporators’ enthalpy rise and the evaporators’ mass flow rate. The measured capacity of refrigeration is often dimensioned in the unit of kW or BTU/h. Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or Btu/h of cooling. For commercial and industrial refrigeration systems, the kilowatt (kW) is the basic unit of refrigeration, except in North America, where both ton of refrigeration and BTU/h are used. |
Refrigeration | Capacity ratings | A refrigeration system's coefficient of performance (CoP) is very important in determining a system's overall efficiency. It is defined as refrigeration capacity in kW divided by the energy input in kW. While CoP is a very simple measure of performance, it is typically not used for industrial refrigeration in North America. Owners and manufacturers of these systems typically use performance factor (PF). A system's PF is defined as a system's energy input in horsepower divided by its refrigeration capacity in TR. Both CoP and PF can be applied to either the entire system or to system components. For example, an individual compressor can be rated by comparing the energy needed to run the compressor versus the expected refrigeration capacity based on inlet volume flow rate. It is important to note that both CoP and PF for a refrigeration system are only defined at specific operating conditions, including temperatures and thermal loads. Moving away from the specified operating conditions can dramatically change a system's performance. |
Refrigeration | Capacity ratings | Air conditioning systems used in residential application typically use SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio)for the energy performance rating. Air conditioning systems for commercial application often use EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio) and IEER (Integrated Energy Efficiency Ratio) for the energy efficiency performance rating. |
FicML | FicML | FicML (Fiction Markup Language) is an XML format for fictional stories (short stories, novellas, novels, etc.). Originally conceived of by multiple contributors, it is an initiative and is in the process of forming its first specification. |
FicML | XML format | The speculated XML elements in a typical FicML document are: <ficml version="0.2"> This is the root element. It must contain the version attribute and one head and one body element.<head> Contains metadata. May include any of these optional elements: title, dateCreated, dateModified, authorName, authorEmail.<body> Contains the body of the story, the contents of the narrative. It must have one or more story elements.<story> Represents the general text of the fictional story. It may contain any number of arbitrary attributes. Common attributes include tense (as in past, present), voice (as in first or third person), and view (as in omniscient or limited).<character> Represents where characters appear within a narrative. It may have several attributes such as name, surname, nickname, and role.<setting> Represents where sections of a narrative take place. It may have several attributes such as name, type, alt. Setting tags can appear within other setting tags in order to illustrate a relationship. The setting of an apartment would be within the larger setting of a city or building. |
Public open space | Public open space | A public open space is defined as an open piece of land both green space or hard space to which there is public access.
Public open space is often referred to by urban planners and landscape architects by the acronym 'POS'. Varied interpretations of the term are possible. |
Public open space | Public open space | 'Public' can mean: owned by a national or local government body owned by 'public' body (e.g. a not-for-profit organization) and held in trust for the public owned by a private individual or organization but made available for public use or available public access, see privately owned public space (POPS)'Open' can mean: open for public access open for public recreation outdoors, i.e. not a space within a building vegetatedDepending on which of these definitions are adopted, any of the following could be called Public Open Space: a public park a town square a greenway which is open to the public but runs through farmland or a forest a public highway a private road with public access |
Homeokinetics | Homeokinetics | Homeokinetics is the study of self-organizing, complex systems. Standard physics studies systems at separate levels, such as atomic physics, nuclear physics, biophysics, social physics, and galactic physics. Homeokinetic physics studies the up-down processes that bind these levels. Tools such as mechanics, quantum field theory, and the laws of thermodynamics provide the key relationships. The subject, described as the physics and thermodynamics associated with the up down movement between levels of systems, originated in the late 1970s work of American physicists Harry Soodak and Arthur Iberall. Complex systems are universes, galaxies, social systems, people, or even those that seem as simple as gases. The basic premise is that the entire universe consists of atomistic-like units bound in interactive ensembles to form systems, level by level, in a nested hierarchy. Homeokinetics treats all complex systems on an equal footing, animate and inanimate, providing them with a common viewpoint. The complexity in studying how they work is reduced by the emergence of common languages in all complex systems. |
Homeokinetics | History | Arthur Iberall, Warren McCulloch and Harry Soodak developed the concept of homeokinetics as a new branch of physics. It began through Iberall's biophysical research for the NASA exobiology program into the dynamics of mammalian physiological processes They were observing an area that physics has neglected, that of complex systems with their very long internal factory day delays. They were observing systems associated with nested hierarchy and with an extensive range of time scale processes. It was such connections, referred to as both up-down or in-out connections (as nested hierarchy) and side-side or flatland physics among atomistic-like components (as heterarchy) that became the hallmark of homeokinetic problems. By 1975, they began to put a formal catch-phrase name on those complex problems, associating them with nature, life, human, mind, and society. The major method of exposition that they began using was a combination of engineering physics and a more academic pure physics. In 1981, Iberall was invited to the Crump Institute for Medical Engineering of UCLA, where he further refined the key concepts of homeokinetics, developing a physical scientific foundation for complex systems. |
Homeokinetics | Self-organizing complex Systems | A system is a collective of interacting ‘atomistic’-like entities. The word ‘atomism’ is used to stand both for the entity and the doctrine. As is known from ‘kinetic’ theory, in mobile or simple systems, the atomisms share their ‘energy’ in interactive collisions. That so-called ‘equipartitioning’ process takes place within a few collisions. Physically, if there is little or no interaction, the process is considered to be very weak. Physics deals basically with the forces of interaction—few in number—that influence the interactions. They all tend to emerge with considerable force at high ‘density’ of atomistic interaction. In complex systems, there is also a result of internal processes in the atomisms. They exhibit, in addition to the pair-by-pair interactions, internal actions such as vibrations, rotations, and association. If the energy and time involved internally creates a very large—in time—cycle of performance of their actions compared to their pair interactions, the collective system is complex. If you eat a cookie and you do not see the resulting action for hours, that is complex; if boy meets girl and they become ‘engaged’ for a protracted period, that is complex. What emerges from that physics is a broad host of changes in state and stability transitions in state. Viewing Aristotle as having defined a general basis for systems in their static-logical states and trying to identify a logic-metalogic for physics, e.g., metaphysics, then homeokinetics is viewed to be an attempt to define the dynamics of all those systems in the universe. |
Homeokinetics | Flatland physics vs. homeokinetic physics | Ordinary physics is a flatland physics, a physics at some particular level. Examples include nuclear and atomic physics, biophysics, social physics, and stellar physics. Homeokinetic physics combines flatland physics with the study of the up down processes that binds the levels. Tools, such as mechanics, quantum field theory, and the laws of thermodynamics, provide key relationships for the binding of the levels, how they connect, and how the energy flows up and down. And whether the atomisms are atoms, molecules, cells, people, stars, galaxies, or universes, the same tools can be used to understand them. Homeokinetics treats all complex systems on an equal footing, animate and inanimate, providing them with a common viewpoint. The complexity in studying how they work is reduced by the emergence of common languages in all complex systems. |
Homeokinetics | Applications | A homeokinetic approach to complex systems has been applied to understanding life, ecological psychology, mind, anthropology, geology, law, motor control, bioenergetics, healing modalities, and political science.
It has also been applied to social physics where a homeokinetics analysis shows that one must account for flow variables such as the flow of energy, of materials, of action, reproduction rate, and value-in-exchange. Iberall's conjectures on life and mind have been used as a springboard to develop theories of mental activity and action. |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | The Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System, also known as RAIDRS is a ground-based space control system that provides near real-time event detection. |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Mission | RAIDRS will be a family of systems being designed to detect, report, identify, locate, and classify attacks against military space assets. RAIDRS will include detection sensors, information processors, and a reporting architecture. The RAIDRS system will detect and report attacks on both ground and space-based elements of operational space systems. It will notify operators and users, and carry information to decision-makers |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Block 10 | Worldwide network of sensors; Centralized management Detect, Identify, Characterize SATCOM EMI interference Identify signal characteristics Geo-locate SATCOM EMI (Electro-Magnetic Interference) Report interference on blue space systems and/or services |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Block 20 | Commander's decision support tool that provides Defensive Counterspace (DCS) attack assessment Integrates and processes critical Space Situation Awareness (SSA) information to provide the integrated space picture that enables DCS operations Multi-level distributed data fusion; Advanced visualization |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Contract Information | The RAIDRS system is unique in the acquisitions process for being tailored to small businesses and utilizing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware and software.
According to the Air Force budget, the service intends to spend about $16 million in 2005 on the RAIDRS program; $16.4 million in 2006; $12.1 million in 2007; $12.4 million in 2008; and $66.6 million in 2009.
Contractor: Kratos Defense & Security Solutions |
Rapid Attack Identification Detection Reporting System | Locations | Peterson AFB, Colorado (2007–present) (Central Operating Location) |
Wiswesser line notation | Wiswesser line notation | Wiswesser line notation (WLN), invented by William J. Wiswesser in 1949, was the first line notation capable of precisely describing complex molecules. It was the basis of ICI Ltd's CROSSBOW database system developed in the late 1960s. WLN allowed for indexing the Chemical Structure Index (CSI) at the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI). It was also the tool used to develop the CAOCI (Commercially Available Organic Chemical Intermediates) database, the datafile from which Accelrys' (successor to MDL) ACD file was developed. WLN is still being extensively used by BARK Information Services. Descriptions of how to encode molecules as WLN have been published in several books. |
Wiswesser line notation | Examples | 1H : methane 2H : ethane 3H : propane 1Y : isobutane 1X : neopentane Q1 : methanol 1R : toluene 1V1 : acetone 2O2 : diethyl ether 1VR : acetophenone ZR CVQ : 3-aminobenzoic acid QVYZ1R : phenylalanine QX2&2&2 : 3-ethylpentan-3-ol QVY3&1VQ : 2-propylbutanedioic acid L66J BMR& DSWQ IN1&1 : 6-dimethylamino-4-phenylamino-naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid QVR-/G 5 : pentachlorobenzoic acid |
Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | The Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation is an international peer-reviewed academic journal published bimonthly in English that publishes papers in the field of Veterinary Sciences. The journal's editor is Grant Maxie, DVM, PhD, DACVP (University of Guelph). The Journal has been in publication since 1989 and is currently published by SAGE Publications in association with American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc. |
Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | Scope | JVDI is devoted to all aspects of veterinary laboratory diagnostic science including the major disciplines of anatomic pathology, bacteriology/mycology, clinical pathology, epidemiology, immunology, laboratory information management, molecular biology, parasitology, public health, toxicology, and virology. |
Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | Abstracting and indexing | The Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation is abstracted and indexed in, among other databases: SCOPUS, PubMed/Medline, and the Social Sciences Citation Index. According to the Journal Citation Reports, its 2016 impact factor is 0.925, ranking it 64 out of 136 journals in the category Veterinary Sciences. |
Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation | About the journal | Three manuscript formats are accepted for review: Review Articles, Full Scientific Reports, and Brief Communications. Review articles are strongly encouraged provided they cover subjects of current and broad interest to veterinary laboratory diagnosticians.
JVDI also publishes position announcements for employment and advertisements for diagnostic products.
JVDI content is open access after a 12-month embargo.
This journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) |
Ischial tuberosity | Ischial tuberosity | The ischial tuberosity (or tuberosity of the ischium, tuber ischiadicum), also known colloquially as the sit bones or sitz bones, or as a pair the sitting bones, is a large swelling posteriorly on the superior ramus of the ischium. It marks the lateral boundary of the pelvic outlet.
When sitting, the weight is frequently placed upon the ischial tuberosity. The gluteus maximus provides cover in the upright posture, but leaves it free in the seated position. The distance between a cyclist's ischial tuberosities is one of the factors in the choice of a bicycle saddle. |
Ischial tuberosity | Divisions | The tuberosity is divided into two portions: a lower, rough, somewhat triangular part, and an upper, smooth, quadrilateral portion. |
Ischial tuberosity | Divisions | The lower portion is subdivided by a prominent longitudinal ridge, passing from base to apex, into two parts: The outer gives attachment to the adductor magnus The inner to the sacrotuberous ligament The upper portion is subdivided into two areas by an oblique ridge, which runs downward and outward: From the upper and outer area the semimembranosus arises From the lower and inner, the long head of the biceps femoris and the semitendinosus |
Muscarinic agonist | Muscarinic agonist | A muscarinic agonist is an agent that activates the activity of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor. The muscarinic receptor has different subtypes, labelled M1-M5, allowing for further differentiation. |
Muscarinic agonist | Clinical significance | M1 M1-type muscarinic acetylcholine receptors play a role in cognitive processing. In Alzheimer disease (AD), amyloid formation may decrease the ability of these receptors to transmit signals, leading to decreased cholinergic activity. As these receptors themselves appear relatively unchanged in the disease process, they have become a potential therapeutic target when trying to improve cognitive function in patients with AD.A number of muscarinic agonists have been developed and are under investigation to treat AD. These agents show promise as they are neurotrophic, decrease amyloid depositions, and improve damage due to oxidative stress. Tau-phosphorylation is decreased and cholinergic function enhanced. Notably several agents of the AF series of muscarinic agonists have become the focus of such research:. AF102B, AF150(S), AF267B. In animal models that are mimicking the damage of AD, these agents appear promising. |
Muscarinic agonist | Clinical significance | The agent xanomeline has been proposed as a potential treatment for schizophrenia.
M3 In the form of pilocarpine, muscarinic receptor agonists have been used medically for a short time.
M3 agonists Aceclidine, for glaucoma Arecoline, an alkaloid present in the Betel nut Pilocarpine is a drug that acts as a muscarinic receptor agonist that is used to treat glaucoma Cevimeline (AF102B) (Evoxac®) is a muscarinic agonist that is a Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved drug and used for the management of dry mouth in Sjögren's syndrome |
Muscarinic agonist | Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes | The targets for muscarinic agonists are the muscarinic receptors: M1, M2, M3, M4 and M5. These receptors are GPCRs coupled to either Gi or Gq subunits. |
Motor constants | Motor constants | The motor size constant ( KM ) and motor velocity constant ( Kv , alternatively called the back EMF constant) are values used to describe characteristics of electrical motors. |
Motor constants | Motor constant | KM is the motor constant (sometimes, motor size constant). In SI units, the motor constant is expressed in newton metres per square root watt ( N⋅m/W ): KM=τP where τ is the motor torque (SI unit: newton–metre) P is the resistive power loss (SI unit: watt)The motor constant is winding independent (as long as the same conductive material is used for wires); e.g., winding a motor with 6 turns with 2 parallel wires instead of 12 turns single wire will double the velocity constant, Kv , but KM remains unchanged. KM can be used for selecting the size of a motor to use in an application. Kv can be used for selecting the winding to use in the motor. |
Motor constants | Motor constant | Since the torque τ is current I multiplied by KT then KM becomes KM=KTIP=KTII2R=KTR where I is the current (SI unit, ampere) R is the resistance (SI unit, ohm) KT is the motor torque constant (SI unit, newton–metre per ampere, N·m/A), see belowIf two motors with the same Kv and torque work in tandem, with rigidly connected shafts, the Kv of the system is still the same assuming a parallel electrical connection. The KM of the combined system increased by 2 , because both the torque and the losses double. Alternatively, the system could run at the same torque as before, with torque and current split equally across the two motors, which halves the resistive losses. |
Motor constants | Units | The motor constant may be provided in one of several units. The table below provides conversions between common SI units |
Motor constants | Motor velocity constant, back EMF constant | Kv is the motor velocity, or motor speed, constant (not to be confused with kV, the symbol for kilovolt), measured in revolutions per minute (RPM) per volt or radians per volt second, rad/V·s: no-load peak The Kv rating of a brushless motor is the ratio of the motor's unloaded rotational speed (measured in RPM) to the peak (not RMS) voltage on the wires connected to the coils (the back EMF). For example, an unloaded motor of Kv = 5,700 rpm/V supplied with 11.1 V will run at a nominal speed of 63,270 rpm (= 5,700 rpm/V × 11.1 V). |
Motor constants | Motor velocity constant, back EMF constant | The motor may not reach this theoretical speed because there are non-linear mechanical losses. On the other hand, if the motor is driven as a generator, the no-load voltage between terminals is perfectly proportional to the RPM and true to the Kv of the motor/generator. |
Motor constants | Motor velocity constant, back EMF constant | The terms Ke , Kb are also used, as are the terms back EMF constant, or the generic electrical constant. In contrast to Kv the value Ke is often expressed in SI units volt–seconds per radian (V⋅s/rad), thus it is an inverse measure of Kv . Sometimes it is expressed in non SI units volts per kilorevolution per minute (V/krpm). |
Motor constants | Motor velocity constant, back EMF constant | peak no-load =1Kv The field flux may also be integrated into the formula: Kω=Ebϕω where Eb is back EMF, Kω is the constant, ϕ is the flux, and ω is the angular velocity.
By Lenz's law, a running motor generates a back-EMF proportional to the speed. Once the motor's rotational velocity is such that the back-EMF is equal to the battery voltage (also called DC line voltage), the motor reaches its limit speed. |
Motor constants | Motor torque constant | KT is the torque produced divided by armature current. It can be calculated from the motor velocity constant Kv 60 v(RPM) v(SI) where Ia is the armature current of the machine (SI unit: ampere). KT is primarily used to calculate the armature current for a given torque demand: Ia=τKT The SI units for the torque constant are newton meters per ampere (N·m/A). Since 1 N·m = 1 J, and 1 A = 1 C/s, then 1 N·m/A = 1 J·s/C = 1 V·s (same units as back EMF constant). |
Motor constants | Motor torque constant | The relationship between KT and Kv is not intuitive, to the point that many people simply assert that torque and Kv are not related at all. An analogy with a hypothetical linear motor can help to convince that it is true. Suppose that a linear motor has a Kv of 2 (m/s)/V, that is, the linear actuator generates one volt of back-EMF when moved (or driven) at a rate of 2 m/s. Conversely, s=VKv (s is speed of the linear motor, V is voltage). |
Motor constants | Motor torque constant | The useful power of this linear motor is P=VI , P being the power, V the useful voltage (applied voltage minus back-EMF voltage), and I the current. But, since power is also equal to force multiplied by speed, the force F of the linear motor is F=P/(VKv) or F=I/Kv . The inverse relationship between force per unit current and Kv of a linear motor has been demonstrated. |
Motor constants | Motor torque constant | To translate this model to a rotating motor, one can simply attribute an arbitrary diameter to the motor armature e.g. 2 m and assume for simplicity that all force is applied at the outer perimeter of the rotor, giving 1 m of leverage. |
Motor constants | Motor torque constant | Now, supposing that Kv (angular speed per unit voltage) of the motor is 3600 rpm/V, it can be translated to "linear" by multiplying by 2π m (the perimeter of the rotor) and dividing by 60, since angular speed is per minute. This is linear 377 (m/s)/V Now, if this motor is fed with current of 2 A and assuming that back-EMF is exactly 2 V, it is rotating at 7200 rpm and the mechanical power is 4 W, and the force on rotor is v(SI) 377 N or 0.0053 N. The torque on shaft is 0.0053 N⋅m at 2 A because of the assumed radius of the rotor (exactly 1 m). Assuming a different radius would change the linear Kv but would not change the final torque result. To check the result, remember that 60 So, a motor with 3600 rpm 377 rad V·s will generate 0.00265 N⋅m of torque per ampere of current, regardless of its size or other characteristics. This is exactly the value estimated by the KT formula stated earlier. |
Ab-polar current | Ab-polar current | Ab-polar current, an obsolete term sometimes found in 19th century meteorological literature, refers to any air current moving away from either the North Pole or the South Pole. In the Northern Hemisphere, this term indicates a northerly wind. The Latin prefix ab- means "from" or "away from". |
LYPLAL1 | LYPLAL1 | Lysophospholipase-like 1 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the LYPLAL1 gene. |
LYPLAL1 | LYPLAL1 | The protein is a α/β-hydrolase of uncharacterized metabolic function. Genome-wide association studies in humans have linked the gene to fat distribution and waist-to-hip ratio. The protein's enzymatic function is unclear. LYPLAL1 was reported to act as a triglyceride lipase in adipose tissue and another study suggested that the protein may play a role in the depalmitoylation of calcium-activated potassium channels. However, LYPLAL1 does not depalmitoylate the oncogene Ras and a structural and enzymatic study concluded that LYPLAL1 is generally unable to act as a lipase and is instead an esterase that prefers short-chain substrates, such as acetyl groups. Structural comparisons have suggested that LYPLAL1 might be a protein deacetylase, but this has not been experimentally tested. |
LYPLAL1 | Relationship to acyl-protein thioesterases | Sequence conservation and structural homology suggest a close relationship of LYPLAL1 proteins to acyl-protein thioesterases, and, therefore, it has been suggested that LYPLAL1 might be the third human acyl-protein thioesterase. However, the major structural difference between both protein families has been established in the hydrophobic substrate binding tunnel, which has been identified in human acyl-protein thioesterases 1 and 2, as well as in Zea mays acyl-protein thioesterase 2. In LYPLAL1, this tunnel is closed due to a different loop conformation, changing the enzyme's substrate specificity to short acyl chains. |
LYPLAL1 | Model organisms | Model organisms have been used in the study of LYPLAL1 function. A conditional knockout mouse line called Lyplal1tm1a(KOMP)Wtsi was generated at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Male and female animals underwent a standardized phenotypic screen to determine the effects of deletion. Additional screens performed: - In-depth immunological phenotyping |
Variation potential | Variation potential | A variation potential (VP) (also called slow wave potential) is a hydraulically propagating electrical signal occurring exclusively in plant cells. It is one of three propagating signals in plants, the other two being action potential (AP) and wound potential (WP) (also unique to plants). Variation potentials are responsible for the induction of many physiological processes and are a mechanism for plant systematic responses to local wounding. They induce changes in gene expression; the production of abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene; temporary decreases in photosynthesis; and increases in respiration. Variation potentials have been widely shown in vascular plants.A variation potential, like an action potential, is a temporary change in the membrane potential of the plant cell by depolarization and consequent repolarization. However, it is distinguished by its slower, delayed repolarization phase, variability in shape and amplitude, and the decrease in its velocity with increasing distance from the initial point. Variation potentials can only be produced if the pressure in the xylem is disturbed and followed by an increase in xylem pressure. Additionally, it uses vascular bundles to complete systemic potential throughout the plant.Variation potentials are distinct from action potentials in their cause of stimulation. Depolarization arises from an increase in plant cell turgor pressure from a hydraulic pressure wave that moves through the xylem after events like rain, embolism, bending, local wounds, organ excision, and local burning. Unlike action potentials, variation potentials are not all or nothing. |
Variation potential | Variation potential | Depolarization of a variation potential is determined by the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and the plant's intact interior. However, it has been shown that variation potentials can be suppressed by high humidity and continued darkness. The ionic mechanism is assumed to involve a brief shutdown of the P-type H+ -ATPase in the plasma membrane. Variation potential propagation is accomplished hydraulically by moving with a rapid pressure increase that establishes an axial pressure gradient in the xylem. This gradient transforms with distance into increasing lag phases for the pressure-induced depolarization in the epidermal cells. This allows for communication between the leaf and stem that can move in both directions along the axis of the plant. |
Marble cheese | Marble cheese | Marble cheese is a name given to cheeses with marbled patterns. These are produced by combining either two different colored curds, cheese curds or processed cheeses. |
Marble cheese | Description | Marble cheeses originate from the UK. They are usually hard, processed cow's milk cheeses. Colby-Jack which combines Colby cheese and Monterey Jack is most popular in the United States.Others are produced from a combination of the curds of white and orange cheddars (for Marbled Cheddar), or similar. The marbling is usually not achieved with artificial additives, though cheeses such as Red Windsor and Sage Derby may contain colourings such as Chlorophyll (E140) and Carmine (E120). |
Marble cheese | Description | Types Marble cheddar, a blend of white and orange cheddar.
Colby-Jack, a blend of Colby cheese and Monterey Jack.
Red Windsor, cheddar cheese with added red wine (usually Port or Bordeaux), or with a red food colouring.
Sage Derby, a Derby cheese traditionally made with added sage; now usually made using green plants such as spinach, parsley and marigold; or with green vegetable dye. |
Ergosophy | Ergosophy | Ergosophy is a term coined by the scientist Frederick Soddy, in the early 1920s, and refers to aspects of energy in relation to human existence and energy measurement as in (Ergs). Soddy's aim was to apply science theories and ideas and move the human understanding of work beyond the restrictions of management theory into a new theory of energy economics. |
Ergosophy | Ergosophy | Frederick Soddy first used the term in his book on work and economics: The Role of Money. |
Differential space–time code | Differential space–time code | Differential space–time codes are ways of transmitting data in wireless communications. They are forms of space–time code that do not need to know the channel impairments at the receiver in order to be able to decode the signal. They are usually based on space–time block codes, and transmit one block-code from a set in response to a change in the input signal. The differences among the blocks in the set are designed to allow the receiver to extract the data with good reliability. The first differential space-time block code was disclosed by Vahid Tarokh and Hamid Jafarkhani. |
Ammunition | Ammunition | Ammunition is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weapons that create the effect on a target (e.g., bullets and warheads). |
Ammunition | Ammunition | The purpose of ammunition is to project a force against a selected target to have an effect (usually, but not always, lethal). An example of ammunition is the firearm cartridge, which includes all components required to deliver the weapon effect in a single package. Until the 20th century, black powder was the most common propellant used but has now been replaced in nearly all cases by modern compounds. |
Ammunition | Ammunition | Ammunition comes in a great range of sizes and types and is often designed to work only in specific weapons systems. However, there are internationally recognized standards for certain ammunition types (e.g., 5.56×45mm NATO) that enable their use across different weapons and by different users. There are also specific types of ammunition that are designed to have a specialized effect on a target, such as armor-piercing shells and tracer ammunition, used only in certain circumstances. Ammunition is commonly labeled or colored in a specific manner to assist in its identification and to prevent the wrong ammunition types from being used accidentally or inappropriately. |
Ammunition | Glossary | A round is a single cartridge containing a projectile, propellant, primer and casing.
A shell is a form of ammunition that is fired by a large caliber cannon or artillery piece. Before the mid-19th century, these shells were usually made of solid materials and relied on kinetic energy to have an effect. However, since that time, they are more often filled with high explosives (see artillery).
A shot refers to a single release of a weapons system. This may involve firing just one round or piece of ammunition (e.g., from a semi-automatic firearm), but can also refer to ammunition types that release a large number of projectiles at the same time (e.g., cluster munitions or shotgun shells). |
Ammunition | Glossary | A dud refers to loaded ammunition that fails to function as intended, typically failing to detonate on landing. However, it can also refer to ammunition that fails to fire inside the weapon, known as a misfire, or when the ammunition only partially functions, known as a hang fire. Dud ammunition, which is classified as an unexploded ordnance (UXO), is regarded as highly dangerous. In former conflict zones, it is not uncommon for dud ammunition to remain buried in the ground for many years. Large quantities of ammunition from World War I continue to be regularly found in fields throughout France and Belgium and occasionally still claim lives. Although classified as a UXO, landmines that have been left behind after conflict are not considered duds as they have not failed to work and may still be fully functioning. |
Ammunition | Glossary | A bomb or, more specifically, a guided or unguided bomb (also called an aircraft bomb or aerial bomb), is typically an airdropped, unpowered explosive weapon. Mines and the warheads used in guided missiles and rockets are also referred to as bomb-type ammunition. |
Ammunition | Etymology | The term ammunition can be traced back to the mid-17th century. The word comes from the French la munition, for the material used for war. Ammunition and munition are often used interchangeably, although munition now usually refers to the actual weapons system with the ammunition required to operate it. In some languages other than English ammunition is still referred to as munition, such as French ("munitions"), German ("Munition"), Italian ("munizione") and Portuguese ("munição"). |
Ammunition | Design | Ammunition design has evolved throughout history as different weapons have been developed and different effects required. Historically, ammunition was of relatively simple design and build (e.g., sling-shot, stones hurled by catapults), but as weapon designs developed (e.g., rifling) and became more refined, the need for more specialized ammunition increased. Modern ammunition can vary significantly in quality but is usually manufactured to very high standards. |