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As noted earlier, a small number of benefit-cost studies of SEL programmes have extended the estimation of benefits to education and direct earnings outcomes.
Belfield et al.
(2015) have estimated benefits and costs for a number of relatively well-known United States of America SEL programmes, which include 4R, Positive Action, LST, Second Step, Responsive Classroom and a Swedish Social and Emotional Training programme. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 100 |
These programmes address a wide range of adolescent social and emotional issues and include delinquency, aggression, bullying and harmful substance use as well as academic behaviours and achievement.
Many of the benefits are calculated based on costs avoided, such as community costs of delinquency.
Other benefits include earnings gains from improved academic performance.
The programmes yield BCRs ranging from 3.5 for LST to 13.9 for socioemotional training, with a median of 10. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 114 |
4.4.2 Social and emotional learning and beyond Stelmach et al.
(2022) conducted a more comprehensive cost-benefit analysis of the returns to investing in treating and preventing adolescent disorders.
This study involved 36 countries and provided results for 11 interventions by World Bank income group, WHO region, age and sex.
The largest net benefits were derived from a SEL-like school-based prevention programme for anxiety and depression. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 105 |
Stelmach et al.’s (2022) model includes health effects, education attainment and impact on lifetime earnings.
The interventions address anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder and suicide.
For depression and anxiety, the interventions are for universal preventative programmes with the exception of one indicated preventative programme for mild depression.
The interventions were drawn from the literature and best practice guidelines, such as the WHO mhGAP intervention guide (2016a). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 108 |
They include CBT, internet-based guided and self-help programmes and school-based programmes for anxiety and depression.
The effect sizes are taken largely from studies for HICs but were assumed to be applicable to LICs and LMICs.
The overall result of the modelling was a BCR of 23.6, which includes both improved health and long-term benefits from higher educational attainment (years of schooling) and higher lifetime wages. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 104 |
An allowance was also made in the modelling for increased productivity from reduced absenteeism.
49 4.
Investing in adolescent mental health This suggests that investment in a range of mental health intervention programmes in LICs and LMICs should produce sizeable economic gains compared with the relatively modest investment required. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 72 |
4.4.3 Community-based programmes for parents While preventing conduct disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common objective of most SEL and other school-based programmes, there are cost-effective community-based programmes directed towards improving positive parenting and parenting competence in addressing adolescent behavioural problems. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 74 |
Programmes include the Triple P (Mihalopoulos et al., 2007; Sampaio et al., 2018), Connect (Moretti et al., 2017) and Strengthening Families Program for Parents and Youth, 10–14 years (SFP 10–14) (Aos et al., 2004).
One study by Lindsay and Strand (2013) has systematically evaluated four programmes for parents: Incredible Years; SFP 10–14; Strengthening Families, Strengthening Communities; and Triple P for children (8–13 years).
Nystrand et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 166 |
Nystrand et al.
(2020) undertook a cost-benefit study of the four most widespread programmes used in Sweden based on an evaluation by Stattin et al.
(2015).
These were: Comet (Kling et al., 2010), Cope (Cunningham, 2005), Incredible Years (Webster-Stratton et al., 2004) and Connect (Moretti et al., 2004).
Connect, a preventative programme based on attachment theory, instructed parents in strategies to deal with adolescent behaviours through role play and evaluation.
It was the largest of the four. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 160 |
It was the largest of the four.
The BCR for the programme was 10.61 (95%CI 10.29-10.93) (Nystrand et al., 2020, p309).
The model developed by Nystrand et al.
(2020) evaluated the long-term economic consequences of the prevention of behavioural problems due to reduced dropout risk (Erskine et al., 2016).
The model estimated increased earnings from completing secondary school based on Hultkrantz et al.
(2017). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 141 |
(2017).
The other three programmes (Comet, Cope, and Incredible Years), which were based on social learning theory (positive reinforcement and praise), had varying effectiveness in improving parental performance and reducing behavioural problems, but delivered BCRs in the range of 6 to 16 using the same model. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 75 |
4.4.4 Harmful substance use – community and parent-based intervention programmes Accidental and intentional fatalities that are associated with drug and alcohol use in the adolescent population have been known for many years as one of the leading preventable causes of death for those aged 15–24 (NCHS, 1992; Schwartz et al., 1986; Smith et al., 1989). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 97 |
Moreover, adolescents using alcohol and other drugs carry a higher risk of school underachievement, delinquency, teenage pregnancy and depression (Cornelius et al., 1995).
Studies of interventions with rate of return analysis McRae et al.
(2001) indicated that a better understanding of behavioural processes, motivational issues and processes of behavioural change have helped develop effective psychosocial treatments. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 99 |
As harmful substance use is seen to be caused by both genetic and family environmental factors, many of the interventions to prevent harmful substance use are family-focused.
Spoth et al.
(2002) studied the cost-effectiveness of two interventions: the Iowa Strengthening Families Program (an earlier version of the SFP 10–14), a seven-session intervention with parents and students together, and Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY), a five-session intervention focusing primarily on parents. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 117 |
The study found that conservative estimates for the Iowa Strengthening Families intervention had a cost-effectiveness figure of US$ 12 459 per case prevented, a BCR of US$ 9.60 per dollar invested and a net benefit of US$ 5923 per family.
For PDFY, estimates were a cost-effectiveness of US$ 20 439 per case prevented, a BCR of US$ 5.85 per dollar invested, and a net benefit of US$ 2697 per family.
A study by Kuklinski et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 135 |
A study by Kuklinski et al.
(2015) concluded that the CTC programme to reduce youth harmful substance use, delinquency, violence and other problem behaviours was a cost-beneficial intervention.
The study involving a longitudinal panel of 4407 youth, included 24 towns in seven states in the United States of America, matched in pairs within states and randomly assigned to the intervention to assess the costs and benefits of the programme. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 104 |
The programme sought to improve the collaboration and action among community stakeholders, strengthening community norms and increasing the adoption and implementation of evidence-based programmes (Hawkins et al., 2002).
The study estimated that the programme produced US$ 4477 in benefits per youth (discounted 2011 dollars), at a cost of US$ 556 per youth to implement the programme for five years.
The BCR was US$ 8.22 per dollar invested and the net present benefit was US$ 3920. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 125 |
50 Adolescents in a changing world.
The case for urgent investment Kuklinski et al.
(2021) estimated the sustained impacts and long-term benefits and costs of the CTC programme with a follow-up 12 years later.
The study found that there were improvements in lifetime abstinence from harmful substance use and an increase in four-year college completions of 1.9%; a 20% relative improvement. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 104 |
Although CTC had small, sustained effects through to age 23, cost-benefit analyses indicated CTC was reliably cost beneficial with an NPV of US$ 7152 (95% credible interval: US$ 1253 to US$ 15 268) per participant from primary impacts and US$ 17 919 (US$ 306 to US$ 39 186) when secondary impacts were also included.
Van Ryzin et al.
(2023) estimated the costs and benefits of cooperative learning (CL), a universal school- based approach to adolescent substance use prevention. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 151 |
CL focuses on interrupting the process of deviant peer clustering and providing at‐risk youth with the opportunity to build social skills and cultivate friendships with low‐risk youth. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 40 |
The study used four waves of data from a cluster-randomized trial (N = 15 middle schools, 1890 students, 47.1% female, 75.2% white, 13.9% of students were receiving special education services) and found that significantly lower percentages of students in the CL intervention schools became regular users of tobacco, alcohol and marijuana. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 84 |
The study estimated that the reduction in substance use associated with the implementation of CL resulted in total lifetime benefits of between US$ 1027 and US$ 4621 per student (in 2019 dollars), or between US$ 8.79 and US$ 39.54 for each dollar invested in CL.
BCRs would go up by US$ 22.54 to US$ 101.39 per dollar invested with the continual implementation of CL, assuming retraining every five years.
4.5 Conclusion Mental disorders represent the largest burden of disease for adolescents. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 139 |
However, there is significant measured variation between countries, depending on, among other structural factors, GNI per capita, youth unemployment and political instability.
The interventions to address mental disorders experienced by adolescents include prevention programmes, such as SEL, and treatment programmes, such as CBT.
They range from classroom interventions to individually delivered programmes in-person and, increasingly, successful interventions via the internet. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 92 |
Of the intervention programmes, those that have been evaluated in the literature using cost-benefit analysis include SEL with BCRs ranging from 3.5 to 13.9 (Belfield et al., 2015), parenting programmes with a BCR of 10.6 (Nystrand et al., 2020) and the CTC harmful substance use programme with a BCR of 8.2 (Kuklinski et al., 2015).
The most comprehensive investment analysis has been conducted by Stelmach et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 128 |
(2022), which estimated a BCR of 23.6 for a range of intervention programmes across 36 countries.
These are illustrative of successful intervention programmes that both reduce mental disorders for adolescents and deliver very substantial ROIs.
51 5.
School feeding – one key response to malnutrition 5.
School feeding – one key response to malnutrition 5.1 Introduction This chapter concentrates on interventions related to school feeding. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 110 |
These are critical to an overall response but by no means are the only approach to addressing malnutrition.
While recognizing the complex nature of this global problem and pointing to the extensive literature on its various dimensions, we have not been able to adequately survey and analyse the literature on all of those dimensions, but highlight the important role that school feeding plays. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 75 |
Malnutrition, which covers undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies and obesity, remains a critical challenge for current and emerging adolescent cohorts.
Indeed, the DBM, which is the simultaneous manifestation of undernutrition and overweight/obesity, affects most LICs and MICs (Popkin et al., 2020).
Many young people in most countries also suffer from micronutrient deficiencies.
DBM increased most in LICs and MICs between 1990 and 2010 with Indonesia experiencing the biggest increase. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 137 |
Many other Asian and sub-Saharan countries have also seen big increases in DBM.
Sustained action to address these issues has been widely discussed in the literature, reviewed briefly below, and some modelling has been done. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 49 |
The impact of malnutrition comes through three channels: inadequate intake of micronutrients, such as various vitamins, iron, iodine, zinc and folic acid, which can predispose adolescents to various adverse effects, such as susceptibility to infections, anaemia, cognitive defects, maternal haemorrhage, birth defects and diseases; hunger and macronutrient or protein-energy undernutrition, giving rise to stunting, underweight and thinness; and overweight and obesity, giving rise inter alia to poor cardiovascular health and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease in later life. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 152 |
The key interventions to address malnutrition are micronutrient supplements of various types and a further expansion of school feeding programmes.
These should be integrated with programmes to provide supplements or fortified foods, supported by steps to improve the quality of the food available to young people and their communities.
There is increasing empirical evidence on school feeding programmes, suggesting that they provide high returns. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 86 |
Important elements in the malnutrition crisis are the shift to commercialized, global systems of food production and distribution, which often generate less healthy foods—those that are energy-dense but nutrient-poor—at the lowest price.
This makes it difficult to access healthy food, especially for families that are time- or income-poor. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 75 |
5.2 Recent studies and action, both locally and globally 5.2.1 An emerging literature on malnutrition in adolescents Table 5.1 provides a list of key papers focused on the complex issues surrounding malnutrition in adolescents. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 56 |
This selection from the literature includes: five papers in Volume 8 of the 3rd edition of Disease Control Priorities (DCP3) published in 2017 (Jamison et al., 2018; and at https://www.dcp-3.org/about-project); survey papers in two series in The Lancet, one series on the DBM in 2020 (Popkin et al., 2020; Wells et al., 2020); and one series on adolescent nutrition in 2022 (Patton et al., 2022; Norris et al., 2022; Neufeld et al., 2022; Hargreaves et al., 2022); two important papers in Frontiers in Public Health in 2020 (Verguet et al., 2020; Drake et al., 2020); and three UN agency or multi-agency reports (FAO et al., 2022; World Food Programme, 2023; UNESCO, UNICEF and WEF, 2023). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 270 |
52 Adolescents in a changing world.
The case for urgent investment Table 5.1 Selected papers in the emerging literature on malnutrition in adolescents Publication/reference Title Disease Control Priorities (3rd Edition) Lassi et al.
(2017) Nutrition in middle childhood and adolescence Drake et al.
(2017) School feeding programmes in middle childhood and adolescence Bundy et al.
(2017) Deworming programmes in middle childhood and adolescence Nandi et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 133 |
(2017) The human capital and productivity benefits of early childhood nutritional interventions Ahuja et al.
(2017) Economics of mass deworming projects Lancet Series: Double Burden of Malnutrition Popkin et al.
(2020) Dynamics of the double burden of malnutrition Wells et al.
(2020) The double burden of malnutrition: aetiological pathways and consequences for health Frontiers in Public Health Verguet et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 117 |
(2020) The broader economic value of school feeding programmes in low- and middle- income countries Drake et al.
(2020) Establishing global school feeding programme targets Lancet Series: Adolescent Nutrition Patton et al.
(2022) Nourishing our future Norris et al.
(2022) Nutrition in adolescent growth and development Neufeld et al.
(2022) Food choice in transition: adolescent autonomy, agency and the food environment Hargreaves et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 129 |
(2022) Strategies and interventions for healthy adolescent growth, nutrition and development Multi-agency reports FAO et al.
(2022) The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2022 World Food Programme (2023) The state of school feeding worldwide 2022 UNESCO, UNICEF and WFP (2023) Ready to thrive and to learn – school health and nutrition around the world It is beyond the scope of this report to explore the arguments and conclusions of this literature in any detail. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 127 |
However, the following points are highlighted here: Neglected area of research.
A common theme across this literature is the need for expanded research in a wide range of areas from scientific studies of nutrition and development in humans and the effect of nutrition on interrelated aspects of growth to the policy dimension of food choice in an age group keen to shape their own choices.
Many dimensions of the malnutrition challenge need to be understood more fully. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 92 |
Nutrition and adolescent development.
This limited knowledge is especially surprising given that adolescence is a time of remarkable growth; adolescent height velocity is second only to the first two years of life.
In such a rapid stage of transition, the level and quality of nutrition will play a central role.
The school as a pivotal location for action in the role of school feeding. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 86 |
A common emphasis in the literature and in the application to policy is that the school can play a major role in improving adolescent nutrition.
This has led to the global emphasis on school feeding programmes.
More limited uptake of school feeding in LICs.
While there is a growing uptake of school feeding programmes in many countries, this is still constrained by funding and other factors in LICs where it is arguably most needed.
53 5. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 107 |
53 5.
School feeding – one key response to malnutrition The global change in the food system and the inadequate supply of good quality food.
As noted above, the shift to commercialized global systems of food production and distribution has added to the malnutrition crisis, making access to healthy food more problematic.
Evidence of good returns to broad-based school feeding programmes. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 92 |
The few studies that are available (Verguet et al., 2020) have found strong evidence of economic and social benefits from such programmes that suggest good returns, but more extensive work is necessary.
Large-scale international action is underway.
Widespread action is underway globally led by groups such as the School Meals Coalition (discussed in the next section).
The broader policy picture for malnutrition.
In one of the papers in The Lancet 2021 series on adolescent nutrition, Hargreaves et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 128 |
(2022, p198) summarize the required policy strategy as follows: … effective interventions and policies will need to cut across sectors; be supported by multifaceted and multilevel policy; and extend across education, health, food systems, social protection and digital media.
Better data standardization and systems will be essential in coordinating and monitoring these responses. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 82 |
In a context of shifts in planetary ecosystems and commercial drivers, resilient food systems will need to both ensure access to healthy and affordable foods and provide the infrastructure and incentives for continuing physical activity.
Intergenerational partnerships with young people will be essential in bringing about transformative change and ensuring that food policies reflect their needs and aspirations. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 73 |
5.2.2 Emerging action – the case of the School Meals Coalition The School Meals Coalition is an unprecedented coalition of more than 90 governments from around the world, working with academia, international agencies and financial groups (such as the World Bank and international development banks) and many other partners to increase the coverage and quality of school meals around the world. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 81 |
The COVID-19 crisis adversely affected global school feeding programmes, but the latest report from the World Food Programme (2023) indicated that by 2022 the level of school feeding had rebounded beyond the pre- pandemic peak in most countries other than in LICs.
In 2022, 418 million children benefited from school feeding programmes compared to the pre-pandemic peak of 388 million. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 102 |
This meant that approximately 41% of children involved in primary schools had access to free or subsidized school meals, rising to 61% in HICs.
However, in LICs, there was a fall of 4% over this period.
In terms of funding, while LICs increased their domestic funding for school meals significantly between 2020 and 2022, there was a 20% reduction in international support. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 101 |
Beyond 2023, the main goals of the Coalition are to reach, by 2030, those who have been missed (the most vulnerable in LICs and LMICs) and to improve the quality and efficiency of school meal programmes in all countries. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 60 |
5.3 The key messages of Ready to Learn and Thrive The key messages of the important 2023 multi-agency Ready to Learn and Thrive review led by UNESCO, summarized in Table 5.2, highlight the importance of both school health and nutrition programmes as part of a broad enhanced schools programme.
The emphasis in this current report on the critical role of enhanced school programmes in addressing the well-being of adolescents aligns well with these review messages. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 108 |
Table 5.2 School health and nutrition programmes, summary of the key messages of the multi-agency report Ready to Learn and Thrive (UNESCO, UNICEF, WFP, 2023) 1.
The health, nutrition and well-being of learners are key determinants of education outcomes.
2.
Almost every country in the world implements school health and nutrition programmes.
3.
Such programmes are cost-effective and feasible in all settings, and deliver significant gains.
4. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 123 |
4.
School health and nutrition programmes promote inclusion and equity in education and health.
5.
More attention must be paid to the school environment, critical to health and learning.
6.
More comprehensive and sustained school health/nutrition programmes are required.
54 Adolescents in a changing world.
The case for urgent investment 5.4 Some modelling results The important work of Verguet et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 101 |
(2020) is one of the few available quantitative studies of school feeding programmes to carry through to the estimation of a BCR.
These researchers developed a methodology to estimate the costs and benefits of school feeding programmes in 14 countries in Latin America, South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, choosing countries where school feeding programmes had been studied in depth and for which data sources and key input parameters were readily available.
Verguet et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 102 |
Verguet et al.
(2020) examined the costs and benefits of school feeding programmes, including, in many cases, deworming medication and other services in these countries.
The coverage of the programmes in the countries varied, from being mandated in all public schools in Brazil and India to being focused on disadvantaged groups in some other countries. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 81 |
The researchers noted that such programmes can incorporate bio-fortified foods and provide benefits to local families as well as social protection benefits (equal to the value of the food provided) to the families of recipient children.
Verguet et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 51 |
Verguet et al.
(2020) modelled four types of benefits: health benefits from the avoidance of anaemia and STHs in terms of the estimated value of the DALYs avoided; education benefits, in terms of the higher lifetime wages arising from each additional year of school; the value of the social protection benefits; and the estimated value of the impact on the local agricultural economy. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 98 |
The costs of delivering the programmes were derived from the local authorities administering them in the 14 countries.
Of the four benefits, the most important in quantitative terms were the education benefits.
Drawing on existing literature, the researchers assumed that school feeding programmes generate, on average, a 9% increase in school attendance and that an additional year of schooling leads to a 9% increase in future wages. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 89 |
The results of the study imply that the BCR for the school feeding programmes studied, including only the health and education benefits, is 17.0.
The main uncertainty identified is the estimated level of future wages for individual countries.
If a range of alternative assumptions about future wages is used, the BCRs range from 7 to 35.
In addition, the social protection and agricultural economy benefits will be significant but were not modelled. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 98 |
While further studies are needed, this is an important study with powerful findings.
5.5 Conclusion As noted above, adolescent malnutrition has not been fully explored in this report.
This is partly because research on the many dimensions of adolescent nutrition is limited and major gaps exist.
It remains an important area for future research.
Despite these limitations, several things are clear. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 85 |
Highly significant school feeding programmes have been and are being implemented with the strong involvement of governments and many international agencies in the countries concerned.
However, for various reasons, the application of school feeding programmes in LMICs is still limited.
There is an evident need to address the global trend in which the food industry is becoming dominated by multinational companies, producing nutrient-poor, energy-dense foods at the expense of local farmers and producers. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 99 |
Finally, it is indisputable that improvements in the various dimensions of adolescent nutrition are vital to improving adolescents’ future well-being, and that measures to this end must be a key component of an adolescent investment programme.
55 6.
Education, skills and employment 6.
Education, skills and employment This chapter analyses the impact and unit cost of nine interventions designed to improve quality education and reduce dropout.
These were identified using analyses of the literature. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 112 |
In the early 21st century, good quality education, at least to secondary level, is vital for adolescents to build the capabilities required to live productive, empowered, connected and satisfying lives.
However, in many LICs, sometimes 30% or less of young people complete secondary school and, when they do, the quality of their education is often of poor quality. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 82 |
There is substantial evidence that better education has many benefits from better health and increased empowerment to an increased likelihood of securing and being productive in a higher-quality job.
In this chapter, we concentrate on the latter—the impact of better education on the level and quality of employment obtained—and, hence, on the earnings and productivity of individuals and of the society as a whole. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 79 |
We extend the analysis to various forms of post-school training but do not cover higher education.
Formal schooling is essential for successful inclusion in present-day societies and for the well-being of young people.
While there are various types of education, usually traditional, formal schooling dictates the way one’s educational success is measured.
People who attend school and attain a higher level of education are more employable and are likely to earn more. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 98 |
Education helps eradicate poverty and hunger, giving people the chance of better lives.
Without education, it is harder for people to participate in society or to live the kind of life they want.
We all have the right to a quality education in order to help us reach our full potential, learn the skills necessary for the job we want, help us decipher how to make things and find solutions to different problems. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 87 |
In this chapter, we briefly review the key facts about attendance at school, school completion and the quality of learning achieved.
We then summarize the two models we used to analyse schooling and its implications (an education and a benefits model) before reporting the results achieved.
6.1 School attendance and the quality of learning 6.1.1 Attendance at school Since 1970, overall schooling attendance rates in most LICs and MICs have experienced unprecedented increases. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 106 |
Involvement in both primary and secondary education has dramatically increased.
Greater gains have been made in primary school, although some children still do not have access to this level of schooling.
The main barriers to accessing increased education have been poverty, gender, ethnicity, disability and living in a conflict-affected area.
Conflict-affected regions, in particular, are a significant exception to the rapid increase in schooling rates. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 97 |
It is these regions that have more than one third of out-of-school children of school-going age.
This is consistent with the reduced likelihood of completing school, which is 30% less likely for primary school and 50% less likely for secondary school.
Dropout rates in conflict-affected areas are higher, together with lower literacy rates and the lower attendance of girls in school.
Despite this, in most continents since 1970, attendance rates in both primary and secondary schools have risen strongly. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 118 |
Rates of school attendance have risen strongly for both girls and boys, although, reflecting historical trends, average years of formal education received by women are much lower than for men in sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa and Asia.
6.1.2 Completion of primary and secondary school Despite progress, improvements in educational outcomes continue to be difficult to achieve in many countries. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 84 |
The lack of progress is most evident in south and west Asia as well as sub-Saharan Africa where many girls still do not complete primary school.
As of 2014, the primary school enrolment rate of girls in LICs was 78%, but the completion rate was only 63%.
In HICs, and Europe and Central Asia, less than 15% of the population 56 Adolescents in a changing world.
The case for urgent investment does not complete secondary school.
However, for LICs and MICs, this figure is approximately 50%. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 137 |
In addition to substantial gains in primary school education, secondary enrolment rates have increased over the past 50 years to more than 50% in every region except sections of sub-Saharan Africa.
Despite this increase, there are still significant gaps between LICs and HICs.
In 2016, over 90% of all children completed secondary school in HICs within the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 103 |
However, in many countries in South Asia, and East and Northern, as well as sub-Saharan African LICs, this figure was less than 40% (Figure 6.1).
Fig.
6.1 Educational attainment by country group as defined by Filmer et al.
(2018, p59) using data from Lee and Lee (2016) 6.1.3 Achieving learning outcomes The gaps in school completions between HICs and LICs are large and some LICs are still catching up in terms of school attendance, but there is a much greater challenge in terms of learning achievement. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 147 |
In too many instances, students are unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10, which is an indicator of learning poverty or deficit.
At the primary level, this is mainly due to poor quality learning.
In contrast, at the secondary level, both high dropout rates as well as poor learning quality are major contributors to the learning deficits.
Angrist et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 86 |
Angrist et al.
(2021) highlighted the persistent difference in primary school learning across different regions, as measured by comparable international test scores.
It is notable that, in spite of rising enrolments, there has been little change in average test scores over the period 2000–2015 in the regions with the lowest scores, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa (Fig.
6.2).
Unfortunately, the data for South Asia is not available.
Fig. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 119 |
6.2 Primary school learning test scores by region, not including South Asia 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa High income countries Incomplete Secondary or less Secondary Post-Secondary Learning in primary school North America Europe and Central Asia East Asia and Pacific Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa Sub-Saharan Africa 600 500 400 300 200 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year 542.5 523.4 503.7 404.2 378.1 345.1 539.1 527.7 524.4 425.3 380.9 361.8 Source: Angrist et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 237 |
(2021, p405).
57 6.
Education, skills and employment 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2015 2019* 2022** Learning crisis (pre-pandemic) Learning crisis (simulation) Sub-Saharan Africa Latin America and the Caribbean South Asia Global Middle East and North Africa East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia This finding of stagnation in learning, often at low levels, is consistent with other indicators. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 143 |
The World Bank describes the widespread learning poverty in some regions as “a global learning crisis.” The specific learning poverty indicator introduced by UNICEF (2022a) and the World Bank is one of being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10, as noted above.
This indicator brings together schooling and learning indicators. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 74 |
It begins with the share of children who have not achieved minimum reading proficiency (as measured in schools) and is adjusted by the proportion of children who are out of school (and are assumed not able to read proficiently).
Reading is a gateway for learning as the child progresses through school and, conversely, an inability to read closes the gate. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 78 |
When children cannot read, it is usually an indication that school systems are not well organized or effective in helping children learn in other areas such as maths, science and the humanities.
While it is possible to learn later in life, children who do not read by age 10 or by the end of primary school often fail to master reading later in their schooling career unless assisted by relevant interventions.
Fig.
6.3 shows the regional levels of learning poverty, with estimated post-COVID values for 2022. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 116 |
Fig.
6.3 Learning poverty, globally and by region Notes: *For the East Asia and Pacific region, the 2015 and 2019 averages are not directly comparable due to major improvements in data quality and availability and new assessments recently available for the two years.
**Numbers for 2022 are simulations.
The global figure is for all LICs and MICs.
Regional and global figures are all population-weighted averages.
Data for North America was not available.
Source: UNICEF (2022, p9). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 136 |
Source: UNICEF (2022, p9).
The study reported in this chapter focused on a particular aspect of the challenge of inadequate education: improving the secondary school outcomes of adolescents by reducing the probability of early dropout and by improving the quality of learning, thereby reducing learning poverty, in 60 LICs and MICs. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 78 |
6.2 Methodology – education model 6.2.1 Model methodology The education model used here to analyse the impact of educational interventions is the VEM, constructed for the analysis of a wide range of LICs and MICs.
The model was first outlined in Sheehan et al.
(2017), documented in detail in Wils et al.
(2019) and further developed in case studies for Syrian Arab Republic, India and Burundi (Rasmussen et al., 2022; Selvaraj et al., 2020; Rasmussen, Sheehan et al., 2019). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 151 |
58 Adolescents in a changing world.
The case for urgent investment This model starts with a standard cohort model of educational attainment and projects to a school completion matrix of pupils by grade and gender over time.
It is dependent on the initial intake, flows to the next grade based on promotion or transition rates and to the same grade in the next year based on repetition rates. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 88 |
It utilizes data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) (2023) and the World Bank (2023b) as well as from the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS Program, 2023) and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) (UNICEF, 2023c) to introduce an age grade component into the model.
This component enables the model to track the progression of students by age, grade and gender. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 113 |
Changes to education outcomes are driven from the bottom up by assumptions about intervention coverage and effectiveness that are assumed to increase linearly from 2024 to 2035 when the coverage (for example, the proportion completing secondary school) is assumed to be 100% of the student population, and this level is maintained until 2050. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 75 |
The cost of the interventions consists of the direct cost of the interventions, such as a school feeding programme themselves and the cost of educating the additional number of students attending through to the final year of secondary school, as reduced dropout increases the number of students in school.
For some interventions, the costs fall after 2035 as the resources needed to maintain a given effect decline once full coverage has been achieved. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 89 |
The sizes and costs for interventions used are listed in Table 6.1.
It is assumed for this application that these figures can be generalized and applied for country-specific assessments.
This assumption is made on the basis that children and adolescents have the same cognitive makeup everywhere, but it is clear that this assumption has limitations as cultural and regional differences may render some of these effects different from country to country.
Further country-by-country analyses would be valuable. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 105 |
6.2.2 Investments and impact There have been many systematic reviews and meta-analyses to evaluate the best education interventions improving the quality of learning and reducing dropout.
Some of these include Angrist et al.
(2020), Masino et al.
(2016), Damon et al.
(2019), Springer and Miller-Grandvaux (2022), Asim et al.
(2015), Ganimian and Murnane (2016), Sampa et al.
(2021), Evans and Popova (2016), Evans et al.
(2023) and Conn (2014). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 169 |
(2023) and Conn (2014).
We have undertaken a detailed review of these and other sources.
The interventions utilized in the modelling are all represented in the systematic reviews.
The interventions included in the modelling are shown in Table 6.1 alongside their effectiveness and costs.
The values used in modelling are average values from those identified in the systematic and meta-reviews. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 95 |
We excluded some interventions identified in the literature as the evidence for them was not as strong as for other interventions, such as public-private partnerships, school vouchers, additional education supplies, parent-teacher partnerships, pupil-teacher ratios, school-based management programmes, teacher performance pay, tutoring programmes and multi-level learning materials.
6.2.3 Intervention selection Following the practice of Conn (2014) and Damon et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 106 |
(2019), interventions were reviewed in terms of their ability to increase time in school and to increase student learning; some interventions affect both.
The effectiveness of interventions has historically been reported as absolute value change, as standard deviations, as percentage changes or as coefficients in a regression.
Another approach to measure the effectiveness of interventions is via the learning-adjusted years of schooling (LAYS). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 93 |
LAYS for a given country, referred to as macro-LAYS by Angrist et al.
(2020), are the product of years of schooling and a measure of schooling quality.
They are produced by scaling the country’s average schooling by its test score performance relative to global benchmarks such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) or Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA). | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 108 |
However, macro-LAYs cannot be used to assess the effectiveness of individual interventions.
Consequently, a metric to assess individual interventions, micro-LAYs, was developed.
In order to make cost-effectiveness comparisons, Angrist et al.
(2020) converted the impact of increased LAYS for every US$100 invested.
A number of assumptions are required to translate existing studies’ measures into micro-LAYS. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 102 |
To ensure a coherent, unifying approach, the micro-LAYS methodology invokes assumptions similar to those used in constructing macro-LAYs.
Given the additional complexity involved in constructing micro-LAYS for each 59 6.
Education, skills and employment intervention, this study utilized impacts in terms of standard deviations or percentage changes for interventions related to either time in school or student learning.
It is important to note the biases and the limitations of the research reviewed. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 111 |
First, the research overall, and certainly our selection of what has been published, is limited in scope and inevitably misses a number of effective interventions.
Second, the effectiveness of interventions varies considerably by context and by mode of implementation.
It is not possible to cover all contexts.
As in practice, the research included only a few different situations.
Another form of bias is that positive results are more likely to be published than negative or insignificant ones. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 104 |
It is likely that, in the coming years, improvements in knowledge may reduce these limitations.
The results are presented here in full awareness of these limitations, but with some confidence that these findings are a reasonable representation and synthesis of what is known about these interventions at this time.
Time in school interventions The amount of time a child spends in school depends upon several factors.
Damon et al. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 87 |
Damon et al.
(2019) categorized these factors as: demand for education, school inputs, pedagogy and governance.
In the past two decades, investigation of the benefits of SEL has attracted increasing interest as it is one factor that can influence the time a young person spends in school. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 70 |
The interventions about increasing time in school with the most high-quality evidence include: CCT; building new schools in underserved areas; improved pedagogy; school meals/nutrition; merit-based scholarships; female-friendly schools with a special focus on water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in Schools (WinS) (UNICEF, 2014); deworming and malaria prevention (where required); ICT assistance; teaching at the right level/remedial teaching; and teacher incentives when combined with CCT as well as SEL. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 146 |
Student learning The same categories that apply to time in school also apply to student learning.
The interventions with the greatest evidence to increase student learning through demand for education, school inputs, pedagogy and governance overlap considerably with those that increase time in school. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 54 |
These interventions include building new schools in underserved areas, the provision of school meals/nutrition, merit-based scholarships, deworming and/or malaria prevention activities, improved pedagogy, remedial teaching, ICT, combined CCT, teacher incentives and SEL.
While extensive evidence exists for the effectiveness of CCT, recent studies have suggested that they are more effective when implemented in combination with SEL.
Consequently, CCT was only modelled in combination. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 108 |
These interventions and their impact are summarized in Table 6.1.
The metric for the effectiveness of education interventions is either a standard deviation change or an improvement of a certain percentage, depending on how the relevant studies were measured.
While standard deviations are not as simple to understand as an improvement in percentage points, generally, the larger the standard deviation, the bigger the expected change.
Additionally, the larger the initial gap, the bigger the expected change. | https://transfered-docs-lawep.s3.amazonaws.com/thematic1e/rr/1726050126293.pdf | https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/adolescents-in-a-changing-world---the-case-for-urgent-invesment.pdf | 103 |