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At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. | Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below above sea level and contain species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. |
The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by temperate rain forests. | Between above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. |
The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. | In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 per cent of the forests of the region are deciduous. |
Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in the extreme western areas. | Out of the deciduous species of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. |
Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen, ash, and hazelnut. | At higher elevations above above sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. |
In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from 2,000–2,300 to 3,000–3,500 metres (6,562–7,546 to 9,843–11,483 ft). | The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti. |
There are two main climatic zones, roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts of the country. | The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. |
The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south. | Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from , reaching a maximum during the Autumn months. |
Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. | The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. |
The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation. | The wettest periods generally occur during spring and autumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the driest. |
Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. | As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas. |
A number of large carnivores live in the forests, namely Brown bears, wolves, lynxes and Caucasian Leopards. | The common pheasant (also known as the Colchian Pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of the world as an important game bird. |
The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. | The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species. |
The Rioni River may contain a breeding population of the critically endangered bastard sturgeon. | Slightly more than 6,500 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from Georgia, but this number is far from complete. |
The true total number of fungal species occurring in Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about seven per cent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. | Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country. |
According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, there are 4,300 species of vascular plants in Georgia. | Georgia is home to four ecoregions: Caucasus mixed forests, Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, Eastern Anatolian montane steppe, and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe. |
Gold, silver, copper and iron have been mined in the Caucasus Mountains. | Georgian wine making is a very old tradition and a key branch of the country's economy. |
Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography. | For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the Soviet model of command economy. |
Since the fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a free market economy. | As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. |
By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989. | Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. |
In 2007, Georgia's real GDP growth rate reached 12 per cent, making Georgia one of the fastest-growing economies in Eastern Europe. | The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of ease of doing business, and by 2020 further improved its position to 6th in the world. |
As of 2021, it ranked 12th in the world for economic freedom. | In 2019, Georgia ranked 61st on the Human Development Index (HDI). |
Between 2000 and 2019, Georgia's HDI score improved by 17.7%. | Of factors contributing to HDI, education had the most positive influence as Georgia ranks in the top quintile in terms of education. |
The 2006 ban on imports of Georgian wine to Russia, one of Georgia's biggest trading partners, and break of financial links was described by the IMF Mission as an "external shock". | In addition, Russia increased the price of gas for Georgia. |
Around the same time, the National Bank of Georgia stated that ongoing inflation in the country was mainly triggered by external reasons, including Russia's economic embargo. | The Georgian authorities expected that the current account deficit due to the embargo in 2007 would be financed by "higher foreign exchange proceeds generated by the large inflow of foreign direct investment" and an increase in tourist revenues. |
The country has also maintained a solid credit in international market securities. | Georgia is becoming more integrated into the global trading network: its 2015 imports and exports account for 50% and 21% of GDP respectively. |
Georgia's main imports are fuels, vehicles, machinery and parts, grain and other foods, pharmaceuticals. | Main exports are vehicles, ferro-alloys, fertilizers, nuts, scrap metal, gold, copper ores. |
Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, Baku–Tbilisi–Kars Railway line, an oil pipeline from Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline. | Since coming to power the Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. |
Among other things a flat income tax was introduced in 2004. | As a result, budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large budget deficit has turned into a surplus. |
As of 2001, 54 per cent of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34 per cent and by 2015 to 10.1 per cent. | In 2015, the average monthly income of a household was 1,022.3₾ (about $426). |
Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to services (, representing 68.3 per cent of GDP), moving away from the agricultural sector (9.2 per cent). | Since 2014, unemployment has been gradually decreasing each year but remained in double digits and worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic. |
A perception of economic stagnation led to a 2019 survey of 1,500 residents finding unemployment was considered a significant problem by 73% of respondants, with 49% reporting their income had decreased over the prior year. | Georgia's telecommunications infrastructure is ranked the last among its bordering neighbours in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. |
Georgia ranked number 58 overall in the 2016 NRI ranking, up from 60 in 2015. | Georgia was ranked 63rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 48th in 2019. |
In 2016, 2,714,773 tourists brought approximately US$2.16 billion to the country. | In 2019, the number of international arrivals reached a record high of 9.3 million people with foreign exchange income in the year's first three quarters amounting to over US$3 billion. |
The country plans to host 11 million visitors by 2025 with annual revenues reaching US$6.6 billion. | According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different climatic zones in Georgia. |
Tourist attractions include more than 2,000 mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti). | Other tourist attractions are Cave City, Ananuri Castle/Church, Sighnaghi and Mount Kazbek. |
Total length of roads in Georgia, excluding the occupied territories, is and railways – . | Positioned in the Caucasus and on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the European Union from neighbouring Azerbaijan pass. |
The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus, as they make up the largest proportion of a route linking the Black and Caspian Seas. | In turn, this has allowed them to benefit in recent years from increased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to the European Union, Ukraine, and Turkey. |
Passenger services are operated by the state-owned Georgian Railway whilst freight operations are carried out by a number of licensed operators. | Since 2004 the Georgian Railways have been undergoing a rolling programme of fleet-renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at making the service provided more efficient and comfortable for passengers. |
Infrastructural development has also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reorganization in the near future. | Additional projects also include the construction of the economically important Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which was opened on 30 October 2017 and connects much of the Caucasus with Turkey by standard gauge railway. |
Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for transport of freight. | Georgia currently has four international airports, the largest of which is by far Tbilisi International Airport, hub for Georgian Airways, which offers connections to many large European cities. |
The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the Kartvelian languages, is not Indo-European, Turkic, or Semitic. | The present day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of aboriginal, autochthonous inhabitants with immigrants who moved into South Caucasus from the direction of Anatolia in remote antiquity. |
The population of Georgia counted 3,728,573 as of 2021, a slight uptick from 3,713,804 since the last census, in October 2014. | According to that census, Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 per cent of the population, while the remainder include ethnic groups such as Abkhazians, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Greeks, Jews, Kists, Ossetians, Russians, Ukrainians, Yezidis and others. |
The Georgian Jews are one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world. | Georgia was once home to significant ethnic German communities, but most Germans were deported during World War II. |
The 2014 census, executed in collaboration with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), found a population gap of approximately 700,000 compared to the 2014 data from the National Statistical Office of Georgia, Geostat, which was cumulatively built on the 2002 census. | Consecutive research estimated the 2002 census to be inflated by 8 to 9 percent, which affected the annually updated population estimates in subsequent years. |
One explanation put forward by UNFPA is that families of emigrants continued to list them in 2002 as residents for fear of losing certain rights or benefits. | The population registration system from birth to death also did not function. |
It was not until around 2010 that parts of the system became reliable again. | With the support of the UNFPA, the demographic data of the period 1994-2014 has been retro-projected. |
On the basis of this back-projection Geostat has corrected its data for these years. | The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or 6.3 per cent of the population, 52,000 Ukrainians and 100,000 Greeks in Georgia. |
According to United Nations data this totalled to 625 thousand by 2000, which has declined to 450 thousand by 2019. | Initially the out-migration was driven by non-Georgian ethnicities, but due to the war and crisis ridden 1990s, and the subsequent bad economic outlook, increasing numbers of Georgians emigrated as well. |
The 2010 Russian census recorded about 158,000 ethnic Georgians living in Russia, with approximately 40,000 living in Moscow by 2014. | There were 184 thousand immigrants in Georgia in 2014 with most of them hailing from Russia (51.6%), Greece (8.3%), Ukraine (8.11%), Germany (4.3%), and Armenia (3.8%). |
In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conflicts broke out in the autonomous region of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region. | Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's North Ossetia. |
On the other hand, at least 160,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the break-out of hostilities in 1993. | Of the Meskhetian Turks who were forcibly relocated in 1944, only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia . |
The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and Laz. | The official languages of Georgia are Georgian, with Abkhaz having official status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. |
Georgian is the primary language of 87.7 per cent of the population, followed by 6.2 per cent speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 per cent Armenian, 1.2 per cent Russian, and 1 per cent other languages. | In the 2010, the United States federal government began the Teach and Learn English with Georgia programme of promoting English literacy in elementary school. |
The Georgian Orthodox Church is one of the world's most ancient Christian Churches, and claims apostolic foundation by Saint Andrew. | In the first half of the 4th century, Christianity was adopted as the state religion of Iberia (present-day Kartli, or eastern Georgia), following the missionary work of Saint Nino of Cappadocia. |
The Church gained autocephaly during the early Middle Ages; it was abolished during the Russian domination of the country, restored in 1917 and fully recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1989. | The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognized in the Constitution of Georgia and the Concordat of 2002, although religious institutions are separate from the state. |
Islam is represented by both Azerbaijani Shia Muslims (in the south-east) ethnic Georgian Sunni Muslims in Adjara, and Laz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as Sunni Meskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey. | In Abkhazia, a minority of the Abkhaz population is also Sunni Muslim, alongside the faithful of the revived Abkhaz pagan faith. |
Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the 6th century BC; their numbers have dwindled in the last decades due to high levels of immigration to Israel. | Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia, there have been instances of religious discrimination and violence against "nontraditional faiths", such as Jehovah's Witnesses, by followers of the defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili. |
Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14. | The school system is divided into elementary (six years; age level 6–12), basic (three years; age level 12–15), and secondary (three years; age level 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (two years). |
Students with a secondary school certificate have access to higher education. | Only the students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of the scores received at the exams. |
Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a bachelor's programme (three to four years); a master's programme (two years), and a doctoral programme (three years). | There is also a certified specialist's programme that represents a single-level higher education programme lasting from three to six years. |
Gross primary enrolment ratio was 117 per cent for the period of 2012–2014, the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden. | Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian educational system, particularly since the creation of the First Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the establishment of modern, Georgian-language educational institutions. |
With enrolment of over 35,000 students, the number of faculty and staff (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000. | Georgia's main and largest technical university, Georgian Technical University, as well as The University of Georgia (Tbilisi), Caucasus University and Free University of Tbilisi are also in Tbilisi. |
Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century. | Georgian culture was influenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid and Qajar empires), and later, from the 19th century, by the Russian Empire. |
The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts, which according to traditional accounts were invented by King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC. | Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music, dances, theatre, cinema, and art. |
There are several architectural styles for castles, towers, fortifications and churches. | The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of Shatili in Khevsureti, are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. |
Other architectural aspects of Georgia include Rustaveli avenue in Tbilisi and the Old Town District. | Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most notable aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines the classical dome style with the original basilica style, forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. |
The Constitution of Georgia guarantees freedom of speech. | The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and most diverse in the South Caucasus, despite the long-term politicization and polarisation affecting the sector. |
Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances. | Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partially-improvised version in western Georgia. |
He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. | Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, khinkali (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and khachapuri, mainly from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara. |
Local traditions associated with wine are entwined with its national identity, and have been classified by UNESCO as part of the world's Intangible Cultural Heritage. | Archaeology indicates that fertile valleys and slopes in and around Georgia have been home to grapevine cultivation and neolithic wine production (, ɣvino) for millennia. |
In 2013, UNESCO added the ancient traditional Georgian winemaking method using the Kvevri clay jars to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. | Georgia's moderate climate and moist air, influenced by the Black Sea, provide the best conditions for vine cultivation. |
Among the best-known Georgian wine regions are Kakheti (further divided into the micro-regions of Telavi and Kvareli), Kartli, Imereti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, Adjara and Abkhazia. | Georgian wine has been a contentious issue in recent relationships with Russia. |
Political tensions with Russia have contributed to the 2006 Russian embargo of Georgian wine, Russia claimed Georgia produced counterfeit wine. | It was an "official" reason, but instability of economic relations with Russia is well known, as they use the economic ties for political purposes. |
Counterfeiting problems stem from mislabelling by foreign producers and falsified “Georgian Wine” labels on wines produced outside of Georgia and imported into Russia under the auspices of being Georgian produced. | The shipment of counterfeit wine has been primarily channelled through Russian managed customs checkpoints in Russian occupied Georgian territories Abkhazia and South Ossetia, where no inspection and regulation occurs. |
Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; the Romans were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient Iberia. | Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements. |
Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. | There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. |
For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has three styles of wrestling. | Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional Georgian game very similar to rugby. |
The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region is located in Georgia. | Rustavi International Motorpark originally built in 1978 was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction costing $20 million. |
The track satisfies the FIA Grade 2 requirements and currently hosts the Legends car racing series and Formula Alfa competitions. | Basketball was always one of the notable sports in Georgia, and Georgia had a few very famous Soviet Union national team members, such as Otar Korkia, Mikheil Korkia, Zurab Sakandelidze and Levan Moseshvili. |
Dinamo Tbilisi won the prestigious Euroleague competition in 1962. | Georgia had five players in the NBA: Vladimir Stepania, Jake Tsakalidis, Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Tornike Shengelia and current Golden State Warriors centre Zaza Pachulia. |
Other notable basketball players are two times Euroleague champion Giorgi Shermadini and Euroleague players Manuchar Markoishvili and Viktor Sanikidze. | Sport is regaining its popularity in the country in recent years. |
A lance is a pole weapon designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier (lancer). | During the periods of classical and medieval warfare, it evolved into being the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike similar weapons of the javelin and pike family typically used by infantry. |
Lances were often equipped with a vamplate – a small circular plate to prevent the hand sliding up the shaft upon impact. | Though best known as a military and sporting weapon carried by European knights, the use of lances was widespread throughout Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa wherever suitable mounts were available. |
Also compare (), a Greek term for "spear" or "lance". | A lance in the original sense is a light throwing spear or javelin. |
The English verb to launch "fling, hurl, throw" is derived from the term (via Old French ), as well as the rarer or poetic to lance. | The term from the 17th century came to refer specifically to spears not thrown, used for thrusting by heavy cavalry, and especially in jousting. |
The Byzantines used lances in both overarm and underarm grips, as well as being couched under the arm (held horizontally). | The length of the standard kontarion is estimated at about , which is shorter than that of the medieval knight of Western Europe. |
Formations of knights were known to use underarm-couched military lances in full-gallop closed-ranks charges against lines of opposing infantry or cavalry. | Two variants on the couched lance charge developed, the French method, en haie, with lancers in a double line and the German method, with lancers drawn up in a deeper formation which was often wedge-shaped. |
It is commonly believed that this became the dominant European cavalry tactic in the 11th century after the development of the cantled saddle and stirrups (the Great Stirrup Controversy), and of rowel spurs (which enabled better control of the mount). | Cavalry thus outfitted and deployed had a tremendous collective force in their charge, and could shatter most contemporary infantry lines. |
Because of the extreme stopping power of a thrusting spear, it quickly became a popular weapon of infantry in the Late Middle Ages. | These eventually led to the rise of the longest type of spears, the pike. |
This adaptation of the cavalry lance to infantry use was largely tasked with stopping lance-armed cavalry charges. | During the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, these weapons, both mounted and unmounted, were so effective that lancers and pikemen not only became a staple of every Western army, but also became highly sought-after mercenaries. |
In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. | In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. |
The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. | They were on average long, and had hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. |
These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. | In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips. |
This followed on the demise of the pike and of body armor during the early 18th century, with the reintroduction of lances coming from Poland and Hungary. | In both countries formations of lance-armed cavalry had been retained when they disappeared elsewhere in Europe. |
Lancers became especially prevalent during and after the Napoleonic Wars: a period when almost all the major European powers reintroduced the lance into their respective cavalry arsenals. | Formations of uhlans and other types of cavalry used lances between in length as their primary weapons. |
The lance was usually employed in initial charges in close formation, with sabers being used in the melee that followed. | The Crimean War saw the use of the lance in the Charge of the Light Brigade. |
One of the four British regiments involved in the charge, plus the Russian Cossacks who counter-attacked, were armed with this weapon. | During the War of the Triple Alliance (1864–70), the Paraguayan cavalry made effective use of locally manufactured lances, both of conventional design and of an antique pattern used by gauchos for cattle herding. |
While the opportunities for using this weapon effectively proved infrequent during the actual conflict, the entire cavalry corps (hussars, dragoons, cuirassiers, and uhlans) of the post-war Imperial German Army subsequently adopted the lance as a primary weapon. | After 1893 the standard German cavalry lance was made of drawn tubular steel, covered with clear lacquer and with a hemp hand-grip. |
The Austrian cavalry had included regiments armed with lances since 1784. | In 1884 the lance ceased to be carried either as an active service or parade weapon. |