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357362

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown%20%28disambiguation%29

Crown (disambiguation)

A crown is often an emblem of a monarchy, a monarch's government, or items endorsed by it. Crown or The Crown may also refer to: Brands and enterprises Crown (St. Paul's Churchyard), an historical bookseller in London Crown Equipment Corporation, an American manufacturer of forklifts Crown International (Crown Audio), an American manufacturer of audio electronics Crown International Pictures, a defunct American film company Crown Lager, an Australian beer Crown Liquor Saloon, a pub in Belfast Crown, an imprint of Crown Publishing Group Crown Royal, a Canadian whisky Crowns brand cigarettes, produced by Commonwealth Brands Crown Resorts, a hotel, casino, and resort company Currency Currencies Crown (currency) Contemporary currencies Czech koruna Danish krone Faroese króna Icelandic króna Norwegian krone Swedish krona Historical currencies Austrian krone Austro-Hungarian krone Bohemian and Moravian koruna Czechoslovak koruna Estonian kroon Hungarian korona Slovak koruna Historical coins Crown (Australian coin) Crown (British coin), a British coin introduced in 1707 Crown (English coin), an English coin introduced in 1526 Crown, the French Écu Crown, the 5 Mark coin of the German gold mark Dentistry Crown (dental restoration), a dental treatment Crown (tooth), a portion of a tooth Monarchy and government Crown (heraldry), a depiction of a crown used in heraldry Crown, by metonymy, the term for a monarch or the form of government of a monarchy The Crown, the legal embodiment of monarchical governance in a realm of the Commonwealth of Nations Crown Estate, a collection of lands and holdings in the territories of England, Wales and Northern Ireland belonging to the British monarch as a corporation sole, making it "the sovereign's public estate", which is neither government property nor part of the monarch's private estate Crown Property Bureau, the quasi-government agency responsible for managing the property of the Monarchy of Thailand Music Groups Carolina Crown Drum and Bugle Corps, a junior drum corps from South Carolina Crown the Empire, an American metalcore band Crowns (band), an English folk punk band The Crown (band), a Swedish death/thrash band Albums Crown (Aja album), a 2021 album by Aja The Crown (album), a 2014 album by Z-Ro Songs "Crown" (Azealia Banks song) (2017) "Crown" (Stormzy song) (2019) "Crown" (TXT song) (2019) "Crown", a 2017 song by Camila Cabello and Grey from Bright: The Album "The Crown", a 1983 song by Gary Byrd and the GB Experience "Crown", a 2019 song by Kelly Rowland "Crown", a song by NEFFEX Places and buildings Crown Wetlands, Cayman Islands The Crown (mountain), a mountain in the Karakoram of China Crown, Inverness, an area beside the city centre of Inverness Crown, Missouri, a community in the United States Crown, Pennsylvania The Crown, an indoor arena in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S. now known as Heritage Bank Center The Crown, former name of the Crown and Anchor, Strand, a tavern in 18th-19th-century London The Crown, former name of The Flying Pig, an inn in Cambridge Crown Melbourne, Australia Crown Perth, Australia Crown Sydney, Australia Vehicles Crown (automobile), a 1905 American automobile Pacer Crown, a show car by AMC Toyota Crown, an automobile model for Asian markets Ships Crown (1793 ship) MS Albatros or Crown, a cruise ship HMS Crown (1654), a 48-gun ship launched as Taunton HMS Crown (1782), a 64-gun third rate Science Crown (anatomy), the top of the head Crown (botany), the branching leaf-bearing portion of a tree Crown ether, a cyclic chemical compound that consists of a ring containing several ether groups Crown group, the most recent common ancestor of a collection of species as well as all of that ancestor's descendants Hair whorl or crown Other uses Crown (manga) The Crown (TV series), about Queen Elizabeth II Crown graph, a type of undirected graph in graph theory Crown, the top or hinge of a bell Crown, the topmost part of a hat Crown, the cross-sectional shape of a road surface Crown, the grooved knob or dial on the outside of a watch case Confederation of the Polish Crown, or The Crown, monarchist political party in Poland Crown, part of the muzzle of a gun barrel See also Corona (disambiguation) Crowne Ford Crown Victoria Ford LTD Crown Victoria HMS Crown, a list of Royal Navy ships Ancient Roman awards for individuals' starring roles in warfare Camp crown, in penetrating camp Civic Crown, of a citizen Grass Crown, of a city Mural crown, in scaling city walls Naval crown, in boarding enemy ship

357363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi%20Cherubini

Luigi Cherubini

Luigi Cherubini ( ; ; 8 or 14 September 1760 – 15 March 1842) was an Italian Classical and Romantic composer. His most significant compositions are operas and sacred music. Beethoven regarded Cherubini as the greatest of his contemporaries. His operas were heavily praised and interpreted by Rossini. Early years Cherubini was born Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore Cherubini in Florence in 1760. There is uncertainty about his exact date of birth. Although 14 September is sometimes stated, evidence from baptismal records and Cherubini himself suggests the 8th is correct. Perhaps the strongest evidence is his first name, Maria, which is traditional for a child born on 8 September, the feast-day of the Nativity of the Virgin. His instruction in music began at the age of six with his father, Bartolomeo, maestro al cembalo ("Master of the harpsichord", in other words, ensemble leader from the harpsichord). Considered a child prodigy, Cherubini studied counterpoint and dramatic style at an early age. By the time he was thirteen, he had composed several religious works. Adulthood and first operas In 1780, he was awarded a scholarship by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to study music in Bologna and Milan. Cherubini's early opere serie used libretti by Apostolo Zeno, Metastasio (Pietro Trapassi), and others that adhered closely to standard dramatic conventions. His music was strongly influenced by Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, and Antonio Sacchini, who were the leading Italian composers of the day. The first of his two comic works, Lo sposo di tre e marito di nessuna, premiered at a Venetian theater in November 1783. Feeling constrained by Italian traditions and eager to experiment, Cherubini traveled to London in 1785 where he produced two opere serie and an opera buffa for the King's Theatre. In the same year, he made an excursion to Paris with his friend the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, who presented him to Marie Antoinette and Parisian society. Cherubini received an important commission to write Démophoon to a French libretto by Jean-François Marmontel that would be his first tragédie en musique. Except for a brief return trip to London and to Turin for an opera seria commissioned by King Victor Amadeus III, Cherubini spent the rest of his life in France where he was initiated into Grand Orient de France "Saint-Jean de Palestine" Masonic Lodge in 1784. French assimilation Cherubini adopted the French version of his name, Marie-Louis-Charles-Zénobi-Salvador Cherubini; this appears in all extant documents that show his full name after 1790, though his Italian name is favored nowadays. Performances of Démophoon were favorably received at the Académie Royale de Musique in 1788. With Viotti's help, the Théâtre de Monsieur in the Tuileries appointed Cherubini as its director in 1789. Three years later, after a move to the rue Feydeau and the fall of the monarchy, the company became known as the Théâtre Feydeau. This position gave Cherubini the opportunity to read countless libretti and choose one that best suited his temperament. Cherubini's music began to show more originality and daring. His first major success was Lodoïska (1791), which was admired for its realistic heroism. This was followed by Elisa (1794), set in the Swiss Alps, and Médée (1797), Cherubini's best-known work. Les deux journées (1800), in which Cherubini simplified his style, was a popular success. These and other operas were premièred at the Théâtre Feydeau or the Opéra-Comique. Feeling financially secure, he married Anne Cécile Tourette in 1794 and began a family of three children. The fallout from the French Revolution affected Cherubini until the end of his life. Politics forced him to hide his connections with the former aristocracy and seek governmental appointments. Although Napoleon found him too complex, Cherubini wrote at least one patriotic work per year for more than a decade. He was appointed Napoleon's director of music in Vienna for part of 1805 and 1806, whereupon he conducted several of his works in that city. In 1808 Cherubini was elected an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. From opera to church music After Les deux journées, Parisian audiences began to favor younger composers such as Boieldieu. Cherubini's opera-ballet Anacréon was an outright failure and most stage works after it did not achieve success. Faniska, produced in 1806, was an exception, receiving an enthusiastic response, in particular by Haydn and Beethoven. Les Abencérages (1813), an heroic drama set in Spain during the last days of the Moorish kingdom of Granada, was Cherubini's attempt to compete with Spontini's La vestale; it received critical praise but few performances. Disappointed with his lack of acclaim in the theater, Cherubini turned increasingly to church music, writing seven masses, two requiems, and many shorter pieces. During this period (under the restored monarchy) he was appointed Surintendant de la Musique du Roi, a position he would hold until the fall of Charles X (1830). In 1815 London's Royal Philharmonic Society commissioned him to write a symphony, an overture, and a composition for chorus and orchestra, the performances of which he went especially to London to conduct, increasing his fame. Cherubini's Requiem in C minor (1816), commemorating the anniversary of the execution of King Louis XVI of France, was a huge success. The work was greatly admired by Beethoven, Schumann and Brahms. In 1836, Cherubini wrote a Requiem in D minor to be performed at his own funeral. It is for male choir only, as the religious authorities had criticised his use of female voices in the earlier work. Old age and legacy In 1822, Cherubini became director of the Conservatoire and completed his textbook, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue, in 1835. His role at the Conservatoire brought him into conflict with the young Hector Berlioz, who portrayed the old composer in his memoirs as a crotchety pedant. Some critics, such as Basil Deane, maintain that Berlioz's depiction has distorted Cherubini's image with posterity. There are many allusions to Cherubini's personal irritability among his contemporaries; Adolphe Adam wrote, "some maintain his temper was very even, because he was always angry." Nevertheless, Cherubini had many friends, including Szymanowska, Rossini, Chopin and, above all, the artist Ingres. The two had mutual interests: Cherubini was a keen amateur painter and Ingres enjoyed practising the violin. In 1841, Ingres produced the most celebrated portrait of the old composer. Although chamber music does not make up a large portion of his output, what he did write was important. Wilhelm Altmann, writing in his Handbuch für Streichquartettspieler (Handbook for String Quartet Players) about Cherubini's six string quartets, stated that they are first rate and regarded Nos. 1 and 3 as masterworks. His String Quintet for two violins, viola and two cellos is also considered a first-rate work. During his lifetime, Cherubini received France's highest and most prestigious honors. These included the Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1814) and Membre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts (1815). In 1841, he was made Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur, the first musician to receive that title. Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at age 81 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, just four metres from his friend Chopin. His tomb was designed by the architect Achille Leclère and includes a figure by the sculptor Augustin-Alexandre Dumont representing "Music" crowning a bust of the composer with a wreath. Works Orchestral music Overture in G (1815) Symphony in D major (1815) Marche funèbre (1820) Chamber music String Quartet No. 1 in E-flat (1814) String Quartet No. 2 in C (1829) - transcription of Symphony in D major with new second movement String Quartet No. 3 in D minor (1834) String Quartet No. 4 in E (1835) String Quartet No. 5 in F (1835) String Quartet No. 6 in A minor (1837) String Quintet (2 violins, viola, 2 cellos) in E minor (1837) Masses and sections of the Mass Five masses (written 1773–1776, lost) Messe solennelle brève in B-flat (1805, dubious) Credo a capella for eight voices and organ (1806) Mass in A for three voices (1809, dubious) Messe de Chimay in F (1809) Missa solemnis in D minor (1811) per il Principe Esterházy Mass (4th messe solennelle) in C (1816) Credo in D (1816) Requiem in C minor for mixed chorus (1816) in memory of Louis XVI Missa solemnis in E (1818) Mass in G (1819) for the Coronation of Louis XVIII Mass in B-flat (1821, dubious) Messe solennelle in A for the Coronation of Charles X (1825) Requiem in D minor for male chorus (1836) written for his own funeral Motets and other choral works Cantata Amphion (1786) Cantata Circé (premiered 1789) Trois chœrs: Incidental music for the play La Mort de Mirabeau by Jean-Baptiste Pujoulx (1791) Cantata Clytemnestra (1794) Cantata Hymne au printemps ("Hymn to Spring") (1815) Hymne du Panthéon (1794) 38 motets Operas See List of operas by Luigi Cherubini Teaching manuals A treatise on counterpoint and fugue (1841) References Citations Sources Altmann, Wilhelm, Handbuch für Streichquartettspielers, Amsterdam: Hinrichtshofen, 1972 Cherubini, Luigi (with Fromental Halévy, Cours de contrepoint et de fugue, Paris: M. Schlesinger, 1835 OCLC 11909698 Deane, Basil, Cherubini (Oxford Studies of Composers, 1965) Cobbett, W.W. (Ed.), Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music, Oxford University Press, 1963. Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001. . Willis, Stephen C., "Cherubini, (Maria) Luigi (Carlo Zanobi Salvadore)" in Sadie, Stanley (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. 1, A-D, New York: MacMillan, 1994. . External links Entry for Luigi Cherubini in The Catholic Encyclopedia Luigi Cherubini String Quartet Nos.1 & 3, and String Quintet--sound-bites and discussion of works 1760 births 1842 deaths 19th-century Italian male musicians Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Catholic liturgical composers Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Conservatoire de Paris faculty Directors of the Conservatoire de Paris Italian classical composers Italian Classical-period composers Italian male classical composers Italian music theorists Italian opera composers Male opera composers Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Musicians from Florence String quartet composers

357364

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso%2C%20Prince%20of%20Portugal

Afonso, Prince of Portugal

Afonso, Prince of Portugal (; 18 May 147513 July 1491) was the heir apparent to the throne of Portugal. He was born in Lisbon, Portugal, and died in a horse-riding accident on the banks of the river Tagus. Heir apparent Afonso, named after his grandfather, King Afonso V, was the only son of King John II and Eleanor of Viseu. The king was very fond of him and named the island of Príncipe after him (príncipe meaning "prince" in the Portuguese language). Marriage Afonso's grandfather Afonso V of Portugal had sided with Joanna la Beltraneja, who was a rival for the throne of Castile against her half-aunt, Queen Isabella I of Castile. She was never considered legitimate and, when the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Isabella was due to inherit the crown, but Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In 1475 he married his niece Joanna, whom he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself King of Castile and León and prepared to defend his wife's rights. King Ferdinand and Isabella, however, won the war of succession and, as part of the Treaty of Alcáçovas, signed in 1479, it was agreed that their eldest daughter Isabella would marry Afonso. Isabella was also to come with a very large dowry that in practice represented the war compensation obtained by Portugal. In 1480, Prince Afonso, who at that time was five years old, went to live in the town of Moura with his maternal grandmother, Beatrice. In the early months of the following year, his future wife, the ten-year-old Isabella, joined him and lived there for about two years. The wedding, by proxy, took place ten years later in the spring of 1490 in Seville. On 19 November of that year, Isabella arrived in Badajoz where she was welcomed by Afonso's uncle, Manuel, the future King Manuel I of Portugal, whom she would eventually marry six years after her husband's death. Afonso and Isabella were reunited in Elvas on 22 November and, on the following day, Isabella met her mother-in-law, Queen Eleanor, in the Convento do Espinheiro in Évora, where the court had gathered to ratify the marriage that had been celebrated earlier in Seville. This wedding had the blessings of both Kingdoms. The queen of Castile, whose mother and nurse were Portuguese, wanted to strengthen the ties with Portugal, and, at the same time, this would allow her to "keep an eye on and control the steps of her eternal rival, Joanna la Beltraneja", through her daughter. Death In July 1491, the royal family was spending the summer in the Santarém District near the banks of the River Tagus. King John invited his son to swim with him. The young prince refused the invitation at first, but seeing that his father wanted him to keep him company, decided to join him. According to the chronicle of Rui de Pina: According to the same author, when Afonso's mother heard the news of the accident, stricken with grief, she ran, riding on a mule, accompanied by her daughter-in-law, to be with her son who was lying on the ground. Nothing could be done. As a sign of mourning, his parents decided to dress in black. The funeral rites were held at Batalha Monastery and Prince Afonso was buried there, also the resting place of his grandfather King Afonso V. His widow, Infanta Isabella, returned to Castile and even before the siege of Granada was lifted, she joined her parents in Íllora. The Catholic Monarchs abandoned the camp temporarily to be with their daughter and to console her. Aftermath King John tried without success until the end of his life to legitimize the ten-year-old Jorge, Duke of Coimbra, his illegitimate son. His wife, Queen Eleanor, was adamantly against having the king's bastard son occupy the throne, an opinion shared by the Catholic Monarchs, who, like Queen Eleanor, supported the claims of the Duke of Beja, Eleanor's brother, as the heir to the throne. In 1494, King John, whose health had worsened, executed his last will in which named his cousin and brother-in-law, the Duke of Beja, his successor. King John died in October 1495 and, in 1497, his successor, the Duke of Beja, now King Manuel I of Portugal, married Isabella, Prince Afonso's widow. Ancestry References Bibliography 1475 births 1491 deaths House of Aviz Deaths by horse-riding accident Heirs apparent who never acceded Princes of Portugal Portuguese infantes People from Lisbon 15th-century Portuguese people Sons of kings Accidental deaths in Portugal

357365

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Lucien%20Bonaparte

Charles Lucien Bonaparte

Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano (24 May 1803 – 29 July 1857), was a French biologist and ornithologist. Lucien and his wife had twelve children, including Cardinal Lucien Bonaparte. Life and career Bonaparte was the son of Lucien Bonaparte and Alexandrine de Bleschamp. Lucien was a younger brother of Napoleon I, making Charles the emperor’s nephew. Born in Paris, he was raised in Italy. On 29 June 1822, he married his cousin, Zénaïde, in Brussels. Soon after the marriage, the couple left for Philadelphia in the United States to live with Zénaïde's father, Joseph Bonaparte (who was also the paternal uncle of Charles). Before leaving Italy, Carlo had already discovered a warbler new to science, the moustached warbler, and on the voyage he collected specimens of a new storm-petrel. On arrival in the United States, he presented a paper on this new bird, which was later named after Alexander Wilson. Bonaparte then set about studying the ornithology of the United States and updating Wilson's Ornithology or History of the Birds of the United States. The revised edition was published between 1825 and 1833. His other publications included "Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's Ornithology" (in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy) and "Synopsis of the Birds of the United States" (in the Annals of the Lyceum of New York). In 1824, Bonaparte tried to get the then unknown John James Audubon accepted by the Academy of Natural Sciences, but this was opposed by the ornithologist George Ord who disliked Audubon's dramatic bird poses and considered him to be a "a back-country upstart who romanticized his subject matter," according to the Audubon Galleries. At the end of 1826, Bonaparte and his family returned to Europe. He visited Germany, where he met Philipp Jakob Cretzschmar, and England, where he met John Edward Gray at the British Museum, and renewed his acquaintance with Audubon. In 1828, the family settled in Rome. In Italy, he was the originator of several scientific congresses, and lectured and wrote extensively on American and European ornithology and other branches of natural history. Between 1832 and 1841, Bonaparte published his work on the animals of Italy, Iconografia della Fauna Italica. He had also published Specchio Comparativo delle Ornithologie di Roma e di Filadelfia (Pisa, 1827), presenting a comparison between birds of the latitude of Philadelphia and Italian species. He created the genus Zenaida, after his wife, for the mourning dove and its relatives. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1845. In 1840, he became Prince of Canino and Musignano after his father's death and became involved in politics, particularly the anti-Austrian party which he joined in 1848. He did not, however, lose interest in his favourite studies for he organized and presided over several scientific congresses in Italy. In 1849, he was elected to the Roman Assembly and participated in the creation of the Roman Republic. According to Jasper Ridley, when the Assembly convened for the first time: "When the name of Carlo Bonaparte, who was a member for Viterbo, was called, he replied to the roll-call by calling out Long live the Republic!" (Viva la Repubblica!). He participated in the defense of Rome against the 40,000 French troops sent by his cousin Louis Napoleon. He left Rome after the Republican army was defeated in July 1849. He landed at Marseilles, but was ordered to leave the country by Louis Napoleon. He reaffirmed his political beliefs the following year in naming Wilson's bird-of-paradise (Cicinnurus respublica) in honor of the republican idea. He travelled to the United Kingdom, attending the meeting of the British Association in Birmingham. He then visited Sir William Jardine in southern Scotland. Charles then began work on preparing a methodical classification of all the birds in the world, visiting museums across Europe to study the collections. In 1850, he was allowed to return to France and made Paris his home for the rest of his life. In 1854, he became director of the Jardin des Plantes. In 1855, he was made a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. He published the first volume of his Conspectus Generum Avium before his death, the second volume being edited by Hermann Schlegel. Bonaparte also studied amphibians and reptiles, and is the author of Vipera ursinii, commonly known as Orsini's viper. Bonaparte was extremely prolific and is responsible for coining Latin names for a large number of bird species. As of August 2019, in the online list of birds maintained by Frank Gill and David Donsker on behalf of the International Ornithological Committee (IOC), Bonaparte is credited as the authority for 165 genera, 203 species and 262 subspecies. Lucien Charles Bonaparte died in Paris at age 54. In the Luigi Magni's film In the Name of the Sovereign People (1990), Bonaparte is played by Carlo Croccolo. Honours 1823: Member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. 1845: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium. Family Prince Charles and Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte had twelve children, listed below: Works American Ornithology, or, The Natural History of Birds Inhabiting the United States, not given by Wilson (4 vols., Philadelphia, 1825-1833). This work contains more than 100 new species discovered by Bonaparte. Conspectus Generum Avium (Leyden, 1850) Revue critique de l'ornithologie Européenne (Brussels, 1850) Monographie des loxiens (Leyden, 1850) in collaboration with H. Schlegel Catalogue des oiseaux d'Europe (Paris, 1856) Memoirs (New York, 1836) In conjunction with M. de Pouancé, he also prepared descriptive catalogue of pigeons and one of parrots which were published after his death. Among his papers published are: “Observations on the Nomenclature of Wilson's ‘Ornithology,’” Journal of the Academy of Philadelphia “Synopsis of the Birds of the United States,” Annals of the Lyceum of New York “Catalogue of the Birds of the United States,” Contributions of the Maclurian Lyceum of Philadelphia He published several scientific papers on ornithological topics in the Bolognese journal Nuovi annali delle scienze naturali, as Carlo Luciano Bonaparte. See also :Category:Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte as Bonaparte described over 500 species. Legacy Several birds are named after him: Bonaparte's gull - Chroicocephalus philadelphia Bonaparte's nightjar - Caprimulgus concretus Bonaparte's parakeet - Pyrrhura lucianii Highland tinamou Nothocercus bonapartei The Napoleon snake eel Ophichthus bonaparti, also known as the Napoleon Eel, the Purplebanded Snake Eel, or the Saddled snake-eel is named after him. References Bibliography Stroud, Patricia Tyson - The Emperor of Nature. Charles-Lucien Bonaparte and his World Mearns, Barbara and Richard - Biographies for Birdwatchers Ridley, Jasper - Garibaldi Viking Press (1976) External links Zoologica Göttingen State and University Library French ornithologists French taxonomists 1803 births 1857 deaths Charles Lucien Bonaparte Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Members of the American Antiquarian Society Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium Charles Lucien Charles Lucien Bonaparte 19th-century French zoologists Scientists from Paris

357366

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic%20evaluation

Heuristic evaluation

A heuristic evaluation is a usability inspection method for computer software that helps to identify usability problems in the user interface (UI) design. It specifically involves evaluators examining the interface and judging its compliance with recognized usability principles (the "heuristics"). These evaluation methods are now widely taught and practiced in the new media sector, where UIs are often designed in a short space of time on a budget that may restrict the amount of money available to provide for other types of interface testing. Introduction The main goal of heuristic evaluations is to identify any problems associated with the design of user interfaces. Usability consultants Rolf Molich and Jakob Nielsen developed this method on the basis of several years of experience in teaching and consulting about usability engineering. Heuristic evaluations are one of the most informal methods of usability inspection in the field of human–computer interaction. There are many sets of usability design heuristics; they are not mutually exclusive and cover many of the same aspects of user interface design. Quite often, usability problems that are discovered are categorized—often on a numeric scale—according to their estimated impact on user performance or acceptance. Often the heuristic evaluation is conducted in the context of use cases (typical user tasks), to provide feedback to the developers on the extent to which the interface is likely to be compatible with the intended users' needs and preferences. The simplicity of heuristic evaluation is beneficial at the early stages of design and prior to user-based testing. This usability inspection method does not rely on users which can be burdensome due to the need for recruiting, scheduling issues, a place to perform the evaluation, and a payment for participant time. In the original report published, Nielsen stated that four experiments showed that individual evaluators were "mostly quite bad" at doing heuristic evaluations and suggested multiple evaluators were needed, with the results aggregated, to produce and to complete an acceptable review. Most heuristic evaluations can be accomplished in a matter of days. The time required varies with the size of the artifact, its complexity, the purpose of the review, the nature of the usability issues that arise in the review, and the competence of the reviewers. Using heuristic evaluation prior to user testing is often conducted to identify areas to be included in the evaluation or to eliminate perceived design issues prior to user-based evaluation. Although heuristic evaluation can uncover many major usability issues in a short period of time, a criticism that is often leveled is that results are highly influenced by the knowledge of the expert reviewer(s). This "one-sided" review repeatedly has different results than software performance testing, each type of testing uncovering a different set of problems. Methodology Heuristic evaluation are conducted in variety of ways depending on the scope and type of project. As a general rule of thumb, there are researched frameworks involved to reduce bias and maximize findings within an evaluation. Amount of Evaluators According to Nielsen, three to five evaluators are recommended within a study. Having more than five evaluators does not necessarily increase the amount of insights, and this may add more cost than benefit to the overall evaluation. Individual and Group Process Heuristic evaluation must start individually before aggregating results in order to reduce group confirmation bias. The evaluator should examine the prototype independently before entering group discussions to accumulate insights. Observer Trade-offs There are costs and benefits associated when adding an observer to an evaluation session. In a session without an observer, evaluators would need to formalize their individual observations within a written report as they interact with the product/prototype. This option would require more time and effort from the evaluators, and this would also require further time for the conductors of the study to interpret individual reports. However, this option is less costly because it reduces the overhead costs associated with hiring observers. With an observer, evaluators can provide their analysis verbally while observers transcribe and interpret the evaluators' findings. This option reduces the amount of workload from the evaluators and the amount of time needed to interpret findings from multiple evaluators. Nielsen's heuristics Jakob Nielsen's heuristics are probably the most-used usability heuristics for user interface design. Nielsen developed the heuristics based on work together with Rolf Molich in 1990. The final set of heuristics that are still used today were released by Nielsen in 1994. The heuristics as published in Nielsen's book Usability Engineering are as follows: Gerhardt-Powals' cognitive engineering principles Although Nielsen is considered the expert and field leader in heuristic evaluation, Jill Gerhardt-Powals developed a set of cognitive engineering principles for enhancing human-computer performance. These heuristics, or principles, are similar to Nielsen's heuristics but take a more holistic approach to evaluation. The Gerhardt Powals' principles are listed below. Shneiderman's Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design Ben Shneiderman's book was published a few years prior to Nielsen, Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction (1986) covered his popular list of the, "Eight Golden Rules". Weinschenk and Barker classification In 2000, Susan Weinschenk and Dean Barker created a categorization of heuristics and guidelines used by several major providers into the following twenty types: Domain or culture-specific heuristic evaluation For an application with a specific domain and culture, the heuristics mentioned above do not identify the potential usability problems. These limitations of heuristics occur because these heuristics are incapable of considering the domain and culture-specific features of an application. This results in the introduction of domain-specific or culture-specific heuristic evaluation. See also Usability inspection Progressive disclosure Cognitive bias Cognitive dimensions, a framework for evaluating the design of notations, user interfaces and programming languages References Further reading External links A list of Nielsen Norman's Heuristic Evaluation Articles & Videos – Including fundamental points, methodologies and benefits. Heuristic Evaluation at Usability.gov Usability inspection User interfaces

357367

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granny%20Smith

Granny Smith

The Granny Smith, also known as a green apple or sour apple, is an apple cultivar which originated in Australia in 1868. It is named after Maria Ann Smith, who propagated the cultivar from a chance seedling. The tree is thought to be a hybrid of Malus sylvestris, the European wild apple, with the domesticated apple Malus domestica as the polleniser. The fruit is hard, firm and with a light green skin and crisp, juicy flesh. The flavour is tart and acidic. It remains firm when baked, making it a popular cooking apple used in pies, where it can be sweetened. The apple goes from being completely green to turning yellow when overripe. The US Apple Association reported in 2019 that the Granny Smith was the third most popular apple in the United States of America. History The Granny Smith cultivar originated in Eastwood, New South Wales, Australia (now a suburb of Sydney) in 1868. Its discoverer, Maria Ann Smith (née Sherwood), had emigrated to the district from Beckley, East Sussex in 1839 with her husband Thomas. They purchased a small orchard in the area in 1855–1856 and began cultivating fruit, for which the area was a well known centre in colonial Australia. Smith had eight children and was a prominent figure in the district, earning the nickname "Granny" Smith in her advanced years. The first description of the origin of the Granny Smith apple was not published until 1924. In that year, Farmer and Settler published the account of a local historian who had interviewed two men who had known Smith. One of those interviewed recalled that, in 1868, he (then twelve years old) and his father had been invited to Smith's farm to inspect a chance seedling that had sprung near a creek. Smith had dumped there, among the ferns, the remains of French crab-apples that had been grown in Tasmania. Another story recounted that Smith had been testing French crab-apples for cooking, and, throwing the apple cores out her window as she worked, had found that the new cultivar had sprung up underneath her kitchen windowsill. Whatever the case, Smith took it upon herself to propagate the new cultivar on her property, finding the apples good for cooking and for general consumption. Having "all the appearances of a cooking apple," they were not tart but instead were "sweet and crisp to eat." She took a stall at Sydney's George Street market, where the apples stored "exceptionally well and became popular" and "once a week sold her produce there." Smith died only a couple of years after her discovery (in 1870), but her work had been noticed by other local planters. Edward Gallard was one such planter, who extensively planted Granny Smith trees on his property and bought the Smith farm when Thomas died in 1876. Gallard was successful in marketing the apple locally, but it did not receive widespread attention until 1890. In that year, it was exhibited as "Smith's Seedling" at the Castle Hill Agricultural and Horticultural Show, and the following year it won the prize for cooking apples under the name "Granny Smith's Seedling." The apple was so highly successful that the following year, many were exhibiting Granny Smith apples at horticultural shows. In 1895, the New South Wales Department of Agriculture recognised the cultivar and had begun growing the trees at the Government Experimental Station in Bathurst, New South Wales, recommending the gazette its properties as a late-picking cooking apple for potential export. Over the following years the government actively promoted the apple, leading to its widespread adoption. Its worldwide fame grew from the fact that it could be picked from March and stored till November. Enterprising fruit merchants in the 1890s and the 1900s experimented with methods to transport the apples overseas in cold storage. Because of its excellent shelf life, the Granny Smith could be exported long distances and most times of the year, at a time when Australian food exports were growing dramatically on the back of international demand. Granny Smiths were exported in enormous quantities after the First World War, and by 1975, 40 percent of Australia's apple crop was Granny Smith. By this time, it was being grown intensely elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as in France and the United States. The advent of the Granny Smith apple is now celebrated annually in Eastwood with the Granny Smith Festival. Properties Granny Smith apples are light green in colour. They are popularly used in many apple dishes, such as apple pie, apple cobbler, apple crumble, and apple cake. They are also commonly eaten raw as table apples, and at least one company (Woodchuck Hard Cider) makes Granny Smith varietal cider. It is moderately susceptible to fire blight and is highly prone to scab, powdery mildew, and cedar apple rust. Granny Smith is much more easily preserved in storage than other apples, a factor which has greatly contributed to its success in export markets. Its long storage life has been attributed to its fairly low levels of ethylene production, and in the right conditions Granny Smiths can be stored without loss of quality for as long as a year. This cultivar needs fewer winter chill hours and a longer season to mature the fruit, so it is favoured for the milder areas of the apple growing regions. However, they are susceptible to superficial scald and bitter pit. Superficial scald may be controlled by treatment with diphenylamine before storage. It can also be controlled with low-oxygen storage. Pit can be controlled with calcium sprays during the growing season and with postharvest calcium dips. According to the US Apple Association website, it is one of the fifteen most popular apple cultivars in the United States. Cultural references In 1968, the rock band The Beatles used an image of a Granny Smith apple as the logo for their corporation, Apple Corps Limited. For their record label, Apple Records, one side of vinyl albums featured the exterior of the fruit, whilst the other side of the recording featured a cross-section of the apple. Yoko Ono's 1966 artwork Apple used a Granny Smith apple in its 2015 recreation at New York City's Museum of Modern Art. John Lennon had taken a bite from the apple on display in its 1966 incarnation at the Indica Gallery in London. The Granny Smith was one of four apples honored by the United States Postal Service in a 2013 set of four 33¢ stamps commemorating historic strains, joined by Northern Spy, Baldwin, and Golden Delicious. See also Candy apple List of apple dishes References External links Australian apples Cooking apples Apple Corps Apple cultivars Eastwood, New South Wales

357371

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dickson%27s%20lemma

Dickson's lemma

In mathematics, Dickson's lemma states that every set of -tuples of natural numbers has finitely many minimal elements. This simple fact from combinatorics has become attributed to the American algebraist L. E. Dickson, who used it in order to prove a result in number theory about perfect numbers. However, the lemma was certainly known earlier, for example to Paul Gordan in his research on invariant theory. Example Let be a fixed number, and let be the set of pairs of numbers whose product is at least . When defined over the positive real numbers, has infinitely many minimal elements of the form , one for each positive number ; this set of points forms one of the branches of a hyperbola. The pairs on this hyperbola are minimal, because it is not possible for a different pair that belongs to to be less than or equal to in both of its coordinates. However, Dickson's lemma concerns only tuples of natural numbers, and over the natural numbers there are only finitely many minimal pairs. Every minimal pair of natural numbers has and , for if x were greater than K then (x −1,y) would also belong to S, contradicting the minimality of (x,y), and symmetrically if y were greater than K then (x,y −1) would also belong to S. Therefore, over the natural numbers, has at most minimal elements, a finite number. Formal statement Let be the set of non-negative integers (natural numbers), let n be any fixed constant, and let be the set of -tuples of natural numbers. These tuples may be given a pointwise partial order, the product order, in which if and only if, for every , . The set of tuples that are greater than or equal to some particular tuple forms a positive orthant with its apex at the given tuple. With this notation, Dickson's lemma may be stated in several equivalent forms: In every subset of , there is at least one but no more than a finite number of elements that are minimal elements of for the pointwise partial order. For every infinite sequence of -tuples of natural numbers, there exist two indices such that holds with respect to the pointwise order. The partially ordered set does not contain infinite antichains nor infinite (strictly) descending sequences of -tuples. The partially ordered set is a well partial order. Every subset of may be covered by a finite set of positive orthants, whose apexes all belong to . Generalizations and applications Dickson used his lemma to prove that, for any given number , there can exist only a finite number of odd perfect numbers that have at most prime factors. However, it remains open whether there exist any odd perfect numbers at all. The divisibility relation among the P-smooth numbers, natural numbers whose prime factors all belong to the finite set P, gives these numbers the structure of a partially ordered set isomorphic to . Thus, for any set S of P-smooth numbers, there is a finite subset of S such that every element of S is divisible by one of the numbers in this subset. This fact has been used, for instance, to show that there exists an algorithm for classifying the winning and losing moves from the initial position in the game of Sylver coinage, even though the algorithm itself remains unknown. The tuples in correspond one-for-one with the monomials over a set of variables . Under this correspondence, Dickson's lemma may be seen as a special case of Hilbert's basis theorem stating that every polynomial ideal has a finite basis, for the ideals generated by monomials. Indeed, Paul Gordan used this restatement of Dickson's lemma in 1899 as part of a proof of Hilbert's basis theorem. See also Gordan's lemma Notes References Combinatorics Lemmas Wellfoundedness

357375

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liam%20Fox

Liam Fox

Liam Fox (born 22 September 1961) is a British politician who served as Secretary of State for International Trade from 2016 to 2019 and Secretary of State for Defence from 2010 to 2011. A member of the Conservative Party, Fox has served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for North Somerset, formerly Woodspring, since 1992. Fox studied medicine at the University of Glasgow and worked as a GP and civilian army medical GP before being elected as an MP. After holding several ministerial roles under John Major, Fox served as Constitutional Affairs Spokesman from 1998 to 1999, Shadow Health Secretary from 1999 to 2003, Chair of the Conservative Party from 2003 to 2005, Shadow Foreign Secretary in 2005 and Shadow Defence Secretary from 2005 to 2010. In the 2009 expenses scandal, he was the Shadow Cabinet minister found to have the largest over-claim on expenses and, as a result, was forced to repay the most money. In 2010, he was appointed Defence Secretary by Prime Minister David Cameron, a position from which he resigned on 14 October 2011 over allegations that he had given a close friend, lobbyist Adam Werritty, inappropriate access to the Ministry of Defence and allowed him to join official trips overseas. In July 2016, in the wake of the United Kingdom's vote to leave the European Union, Fox was appointed the first Secretary of State for International Trade by new Prime Minister Theresa May. He was also made President of the Board of Trade. Fox has twice stood unsuccessfully for the leadership of the Conservative Party, in 2005 and 2016. In July 2019, he lost his cabinet position when new Prime Minister Boris Johnson made a cabinet reshuffle. Early life Fox was born and raised in a Catholic family of Irish heritage in East Kilbride, Scotland, and brought up in a council house that his parents later bought. His great-uncle, John Fox, was Labour Provost of Motherwell, and most of his family were Labour supporters. Along with his brother and two sisters, he was educated in the state sector; he attended St. Bride's High School (now part of St Andrew's and St Bride's High School). He studied medicine at the University of Glasgow Medical School, graduating with a MB ChB in 1983. Fox is a former general practitioner (he was a GP in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, before his election to Parliament), a former Civilian Army General Practitioner and Divisional Surgeon with St John Ambulance. He is a member of the Royal College of General Practitioners. While studying medicine at the University of Glasgow in the early 1980s, he was a member of the Dialectic Society and became president of the Glasgow University Conservative Association. Fox contested the Hairmyres ward of East Kilbride District Council in May 1984, coming second (210 votes) to the incumbent Labour councillor, Ed McKenna. While at Glasgow, Fox resigned his position on the university's Students Representative Council (SRC) in protest at the council passing a motion condemning the decision of the university's Glasgow University Union (GUU) not to allow a gay students' society to join the union. The SRC motion called both the union's decision and the explanations given for it "bigoted". The GUU maintained its stance regardless, and the controversy was reported in the national media; this led to many other university student unions up and down the country, including Edinburgh, cutting ties with their Glasgow counterparts. Explaining his decision to resign from the SRC and support the GUU's position, Fox was quoted as saying: "I'm actually quite liberal when it comes to sexual matters. I just don't want the gays flaunting it in front of me, which is what they would do." When asked about these comments in 2008, Fox said that "fortunately most of us have progressed from the days when we were students more than a quarter of a century ago". Member of Parliament His first attempt to get elected as an MP for a Scottish constituency ended in failure when he contested Roxburgh and Berwickshire in the 1987 general election. Thereafter, he sought and won the nomination for the English constituency of Woodspring and was successful in being elected MP for that constituency at the 1992 general election. In government In June 1993, Fox was appointed Parliamentary Private Secretary to the Home Secretary, Michael Howard. Thereafter, in July 1994, he was appointed an Assistant Government Whip. Following a limited government reshuffle in November 1995, he was appointed a Lord Commissioner of Treasury – a Senior Government Whip. He was Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office from 1996 to 1997. In 1996, he brokered an accord in Sri Lanka, called the Fox Peace Plan, between Chandrika Kumaratunga's PA and the opposition UNP of Ranil Wickremasinghe, on a bipartisan approach for ending the ethnic war. In 2001, Jonathan Goodhand wrote, "However, little has happened since then to suggest that the various parties would have acted in good faith in the interests of peace." In opposition Shadow Cabinet In June 1997, Fox was appointed Opposition Front Bench Spokesman on Constitutional Affairs and joined the Shadow Cabinet in 1998 as the principal spokesman for Constitutional Affairs. Between 1999 and 2003, he was the Shadow Secretary of State for Health. In November 2003, Fox was appointed campaign manager for Michael Howard following the no-confidence vote against the Conservative's party leader, Iain Duncan Smith. Fox became co-chairman of the party following Michael Howard's elevation to the post of party leader in November 2003. After the 2005 general election he was promoted within the Shadow Cabinet to become Shadow Foreign Secretary. On 7 December 2005 he was moved to Shadow Defence Secretary by new Leader of the Opposition David Cameron. Leadership bids 2005 leadership bid In September 2005, Fox announced he would join the contest to be the next leader of the Conservative party. His campaign theme for the 2005 leadership race was based on the "broken society" theme, which he said Conservatives could address by returning the emphasis to marriage and reforming welfare. In the initial ballot of Conservative MPs, on 18 October 2005, he gained enough support (42 votes) to enter the second ballot two days later. There he was eliminated with 51 votes in third place behind David Cameron (90 votes) and David Davis (57 votes). Cameron, who eventually won the leadership election, gave Fox the role of Shadow Defence Secretary. 2016 leadership bid In late June 2016, Fox announced on LBC that he intended to run for the leadership of the Conservative party once again, after David Cameron resigned following the result of the EU referendum, in which Fox supported leaving the EU. During the announcement of his candidacy, he said that the UK should trigger Article 50 by the end of 2016 so it could leave the EU by 2019, specifying 1 January 2019 as the date on which the UK should leave. He stated that he would not allow freedom of movement to be considered as part of any alternative trade arrangement with the EU. Fox promised to increase defence spending, stating that he would particularly like to see "an increase in the size of the Navy and our cyber capability". He also promised to scrap HS2, spending the £55 billion set aside for the project on regional train lines, cut taxes, cut welfare spending, create a new governmental department for "trade and foreign affairs" and review the aid budget. Fox was eliminated in the first ballot, finishing in last place with 16 votes. Theresa May went on to win the leadership and become Prime Minister and gave Fox the job of International Trade Secretary. Secretary of State for Defence Fox was appointed as Secretary of State for Defence in the cabinet of David Cameron on 12 May 2010 and that weekend flew out to Afghanistan with the Foreign Secretary, William Hague, and the International Development Secretary, Andrew Mitchell, to see first hand the issues facing the troops based there. In July 2010, he said that the dire state of the public finances meant the Armed Forces could no longer be equipped to cover every conceivable danger. He said that the strongest signal that it will have to give up one or more of these capabilities, which have been maintained at the same time as contributing to collective security pacts such as NATO. "We don't have the money as a country to protect ourselves against every potential future threat," he said. "We have to look at where we think the real risks will come from, where the real threats will come from and we need to deal with that accordingly. The Russians are not going to come over the European plain any day soon," he added. Fox's admission cast doubt on the future of the 25,000 troops currently stationed in Germany. The Defence Secretary had previously said that he hoped to withdraw them at some point, leaving Britain without a presence in the country for the first time since 1945. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) faced budget cuts of up to 8% over the next five years, according to some analysts, and the department was grappling with a £37 billion shortfall on programmes it has signed up to. The results of the Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) were published on 19 October 2010. Speaking in September 2010 at a meeting in Paris with his French counterpart Hervé Morin on the possibility of sharing aircraft carriers with the French Navy, Fox said, "I think it is unrealistic to share an aircraft carrier but, in other areas like tactical lift we can see what we can do." He added: "I can't deny that there is an element of urgency added by budget concerns." In September 2010, in a private letter to David Cameron, Fox refused to back any "draconian cuts" in the Armed Forces at a time when Britain was at war. The letter was written the night before a National Security Council (NSC) meeting on the Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR). In the letter, Fox wrote that: "Frankly this process is looking less and less defensible as a proper SDSR (Strategic Defence and Strategy Review) and more like a 'super CSR' (Comprehensive Spending Review). If it continues on its current trajectory it is likely to have grave political consequences for us". Fox continued saying that "Our decisions today will limit severely the options available to this and all future governments. The range of operations that we can do today we will simply not be able to do in the future. In particular, it would place at risk." In February 2011, Fox criticised "ballooning" spending in his own department. The top 15 major procurement projects were running at £8.8 billion over budget and, between them, were delayed by a total of 32 years. That included the A400M transporter aircraft order that was £603 million over budget and six years behind schedule. Fox criticised what he called a "conspiracy of optimism based on poor cost-estimation, unrealistic timescales" at the MoD and in industry. "These practices in the MOD would simply not be tolerated in the private sector, and they will no longer be tolerated in the MoD." In March 2011, Fox defended the decision to make 11,000 redundancies in the armed forces, insisting that personnel who have recently returned from Afghanistan would not be sacked. Cameron had conceded that axing around 5,000 personnel from the army, 3,300 from the Navy and 2,700 from the RAF will be difficult for those affected. Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) set out plans for reducing the size of the armed forces by 17,000 in total. Some of that number would be met by not replacing people who were retiring or leaving for other reasons. Defence officials said 11,000 personnel still faced being redundant on a compulsory or voluntary basis. Fox said it was essential that service personnel were made "fully aware of the options available and the time-scales involved". "That means that a timetable needs to be adhered to for the sake of themselves and their families," he said. "It would simply be wrong to alter that timetable for the convenience of the Government." In light of the 2011 Libyan civil war, Fox warned that Libya could end up split in two as Muammar Gaddafi unleashed the full fury of his military arsenal, sending warplanes and ground troops to attack rebel-held positions across the country. "We could see the Gaddafi forces centred around Tripoli," Fox said. "We could see a de facto partition of the country." In May 2011, Fox opposed plans to sharply increase Britain's aid budget, in a direct challenge to David Cameron's authority. In a leaked letter to the Prime Minister, Fox said he could not accept plans to increase the development budget to 0.7 percent of the gross domestic product. The aid pledge, made in the Conservative election manifesto last year, was at the heart of Cameron's attempts to change his party's image. It has gained opponents among right-wing Tories, many of whom voted for Fox when he fought Cameron for the party leadership in 2005. "I cannot support the proposal in its current form," Fox told the Prime Minister. Fox suggested that development funding should be diverted to the defence budget, writing that reneging on the aid pledge would release more public money to be spent on "other activities or programmes rather than aid". The Telegraph James Kirkup said the leak was increasing suspicion among Cameron's allies that the Defence Secretary was trying to undermine the Prime Minister. After negative comments by Sir Simon Bryant and Sir Mark Stanhope, Secretary Fox said admirals and air marshals who have voiced concerns were giving strength to Muammar Gaddafi's regime. He also warned that high-ranking members of the Armed Forces were facing the sack because the Government wanted to reduce bureaucracy by cutting "the star count". The Daily Telegraph had learned that the redundancies would include up 500 starred officers, equivalent to the rank of an Army brigadier and above. Fox said: "We must be very careful, those of us who have authority in defence, when discussing the sustainability of a mission. People's lives are at stake and there can only be one message that goes out on Libya." Admiral Sir John "Sandy" Woodward, a former deputy chief of the defence staff, suggested Fox was trying to blame military chiefs for "his own failings". He said: "Of course the service chiefs should not be talking outside the MoD, but when politicians have got it so wrong they have no other choice." Levene report On 27 June 2011, Fox announced that Baron Levene had completed his report on the reform of the MoD which suggested that they could cut the number of senior officers and could also lead to ministerial posts being axed. The army, navy and air force would each be run by a single chief. Currently, the services have two commanders, one in charge of strategy, the second in charge of day-to-day operations. The reforms would see operational control pushed down the chain of command. In addition, the three service chiefs will be removed from the defence board, a powerful committee the defence secretary chairs. The overall head of the military, the chief of the defence staff, currently, General Sir David Richards, will represent them. A committee chaired by an independent non-executive director, chosen by the defence secretary, will be in charge of appointments to the services' top ranks. The MoD is expected to axe up to 8,000 civil servants in 2012. Senior commanders would be given more overall control of their budgets and internal appointments. The report also suggested that a new Joint Forces Command structure should be created with senior appointments in the MoD lasting longer than every two years by making sure people stay in post for longer. Levene said that "finance and the need for affordability are not regarded as sufficiently important throughout the organisation." He said that the "lack of trust" which pervades the MoD has led to a tendency for those at the top to try to micromanage, while the individual services look out for themselves rather than thinking of defence as a whole. This has led to a "predisposition to overcomplicate ... and a culture of reinventing the wheel". The role of the chief of the defence staff should also be enhanced so that "he alone will be responsible for representing the military voice." Levene says that the new defence board "should be the primary decision-making body for non-operational matters", and should meet 10 times a year. It will have nine members, but only one will be from the military, the chief of the defence staff, currently General Sir David Richards. Defence and Security Review In a speech on the future of the Armed Forces to the House of Commons on 19 October 2010 Prime Minister David Cameron set out plans that would mean cuts: 7,000 jobs go in the British Army; 5,000 in the Royal Navy; 5,000 in the Royal Air Force; and 25,000 civilian jobs at the Ministry of Defence. In terms of equipment, the RAF would lose the Nimrod reconnaissance aircraft programme, the entire Harrier jump-jet fleet would be scrapped, and bases will be turned over to the Army. The Army will have its tanks and heavy artillery cut by 40%, and half of the soldiers in Germany will return to the UK by 2015, with the rest brought home by 2030 and housed in former RAF bases. The Navy would have its destroyer and frigate fleet cut from 23 to 19 (by cutting the Type 22 frigates) and will be provided with less expensive frigates. It will be affected by the loss of the Harriers. Overall, the defence budget was to be cut by 8% but Cameron insisted that Britain would continue to meet the Nato target of spending 2% of GDP on defence. In the same speech Cameron announced a national cyber security programme, costing £500 million, "to fix shortfalls in cyber infrastructure", while more focus will be given to tackling terrorists such as Al Qaeda and dissident Irish republicans in what he said would be "continuing investment in our world class intelligence agencies". Army numbers will fall to 95,500 by 2015 – 7,000 fewer than today – but ground forces will continue to have vital operational role in the future, he said. Resignation It was revealed that Fox's close friend, best man and former business partner Adam Werritty had made visits to Fox at the Ministry of Defence (MoD) in Whitehall on 22 occasions in 16 months; Werrity was not security-cleared with the MoD. Additionally, over a 17-month period, ending October 2011, Werritty was present at 40 of Fox's 70 recorded engagements. The uncertain nature of Werritty's relationship with Fox led to an investigation by senior civil servants, initially the MoD's Permanent Secretary, Ursula Brennan and latterly the Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus O'Donnell. Fox claimed that Werrity had never worked for him either in an official or unofficial capacity despite allegations that Fox was using a source of advice outside the Civil Service, paid for by private funds, alarmingly allegedly a private intelligence firm. Disclosure of increasing amounts of detail of their contact, funding and explanations of their relationship led to Fox's resignation on 14 October 2011 in advance of O'Donnell's report of his investigation into Fox breaking the Minsiterial by letting his friend Adam Werritty into defence meetings. The Cabinet Secretary's investigation into the incident concluded that Fox's conduct constituted a "clear breach of the Ministerial code" and that his actions posed a "security risk". In 2019 it was revealed that algorithms for Google had begun autocompleting the phrase "disgraced former" with "defence Secretary Liam Fox" following Fox's scandal and subsequent resignation. Secretary of State for International Trade After Theresa May became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in July 2016, Fox was appointed Secretary of State for International Trade, responsible for helping to secure trade deals with other countries following Brexit. The Wall Street Journal reported Fox as saying he would prefer a free trade agreement with the EU rather than be part of the EU customs union, which he said could restrict Britain's ability to negotiate lower tariffs with other trading partners. In a September 2016 speech on international trade, Fox said there needed to be a change in British business culture, arguing that exporting was a "duty" which companies neglected because "it might be too difficult or too time-consuming or because they can't play golf on a Friday afternoon". In April 2017, he was criticised for a trade visit to the Philippines, where he acknowledged "shared values" when speaking to Philippines President Rodrigo Duterte, heavily criticised for the increase in extrajudicial killings in the Philippines. In 2017, Fox announced a new board of trade which would meet four times a year to "ensure the benefits of free trade are spread throughout the UK." The announcement was criticised by Liberal Democrat MP Tom Brake, who said the board was a "job-creation scheme" for Fox. A DIT spokesman said it was a "technicality" that Fox was the sole member of the board, because of a constitutional convention that full membership is only for privy counsellors. In July 2019, he lost his cabinet position when new Prime Minister Boris Johnson made a cabinet reshuffle. Brexit Fox supported Brexit at the EU Referendum 2016, and is a self-proclaimed "staunch Eurosceptic". Following this assertion, he stated that he wants a "clean break" from Brussels, in order to regain "national sovereignty". In July 2019 he acknowledged that no deal could lead to the breakup of the United Kingdom. In March 2018, Fox said that he would "no longer support" an extension to the EU transition period. He had previously said that a post-Brexit trade deal "should be the easiest in human history". By July 2019 he recognised that a deal with the US would "take time" and that despite reaching "above 99% of agreement" on a deal based on Canada's existing deal with the EU, the Canadians were now looking at the zero-tariff access being promised in the event of no deal. On 30 November 2018, he came out in support for Theresa May's Brexit deal, calling it the best possible deal that safely delivers Brexit. World Trade Organisation candidate On 8 July 2020, the UK government nominated Fox as a candidate for Director-General of the World Trade Organisation. Fox's main rival for the nomination, the Labour peer Peter Mandelson, was overlooked due to his opposition to Brexit. Fox progressed to the second round of the selection process. He did not become one of the two candidates to enter the final round, who were South Korea's Yoo Myung-hee and Nigeria's Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, and was knocked out on 7 October. Positions Bahrain In March 2013, Fox was one of the chief guests at a conference in Bahrain designed to rally Western opinion to the side of the Bahrain government in its struggle against the Arab Spring. Fox was the only Briton on the list of "key people" attending the Bahrain International Symposium. More than 60 people died during two years of protests, and 13 civil rights demonstrators were sentenced to ten years in prison. Iraq He voted for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. As Shadow Defence Secretary he supported the Government's position of maintaining British troops in Iraq until the security situation allowed for a withdrawal of troops but was critical of the lack of post-invasion planning and poor equipment initially provided to British troops. He supported the idea of the American Surge and believes that it was successful. After becoming Shadow Defence Secretary, he visited Iraq on a number of occasions. In August 2014, Fox argued that the UK should start bombing Islamist extremists in northern Iraq. The following month this became government policy. Afghanistan He has been an outspoken supporter of the war in Afghanistan and the British presence there. He has been critical towards some of the European NATO partners who he believes are not contributing enough to the effort in the more dangerous southern and eastern parts of Afghanistan. Since becoming Shadow Defence Secretary he has visited Afghanistan on five occasions. In July 2010, Fox said that an early withdrawal of coalition troops from Afghanistan would risk a return of civil war and act as a "shot in the arm to jihadists" across the world. In marked contrast to David Cameron, who pledged to withdraw all British troops by 2015, Fox said Britain would be betraying the sacrifices of its fallen soldiers if it left "before the job is finished". British forces would be among the last to leave Afghanistan, he added, because they are stationed in Helmand, one of the most dangerous provinces in the country. He said that "Were we to leave prematurely, without degrading the insurgency and increasing the capability of the Afghan national security forces, we could see the return of the destructive forces of transnational terror ... Not only would we risk the return of civil war in Afghanistan, creating a security vacuum, but we would also risk the destabilisation of Pakistan with potentially unthinkable regional, and possibly nuclear, consequences." In July 2010, it was reported that 1,000 Royal Marines were expected to leave and be redeployed to central Helmand by the end of 2010. Fox told MPs that UK forces had made "good progress" in Sangin, but the move would enable Britain to provide "more manpower and greater focus" on Helmand's busy central belt, leaving the north and south to the US. "The result will be a coherent and equitable division of the main populated areas of Helmand between three brigade-sized forces, with the US in the north and the south, and the UK-led Task Force Helmand, alongside our outstanding Danish and Estonian allies, in the central population belt," he told the House of Commons. On 19 July 2010, Fox said that within four years the Afghan army and police should take responsibility for security, leaving British troops to work only as military trainers. The date is a full year earlier than the deadline suggested by David Cameron this month, who said he wanted most troops back by 2015. Fox said: "It has always been our aim to be successful in the mission and the mission has always said that the Afghan national security forces would be able to deal with their own security by 2014. We recognise that there will be further work to do in terms of training and improving the quality of those forces beyond that, which is why we have said training forces may be available after that date. But we have made it very clear that that will not be combat forces." NATO He has very strong Atlanticist views. He believes that NATO is the cornerstone of the United Kingdom and Europe's defence and that NATO must have primacy over the European Union including the right of first refusal for all matters relating to the defence of continental Europe. He has been critical of the common funding mechanism within NATO and has called for a system to be used that allows for more proportionate burden sharing between NATO member states for NATO led military operations. European Union He is considered to be staunchly Eurosceptic and opposed to European defence integration as well as European political integration. He is opposed to the European Commission having any role in defence policy. He believes that the European Security and Defence Policy duplicates and takes away scarce national resources from NATO. He specifically opposes the defence provisions in the Lisbon Treaty. He serves as a vice-president of the eurosceptic pressure group Conservatives for Britain. Capital punishment He does not support capital punishment. Disabilities He is the sponsor of a Down Syndrome Bill in the 58th parliament. Abortion Fox is critical of abortion and has called for "huge restriction, if not abolition" on the UK's "pro-abortion laws". In an interview with Morgan and Platell, Fox elaborated on these views, stating that he would "like to see [abortion limits] brought down...well below 20 weeks; I'd like to see us look at limits more akin to some of the European countries at 12 or 14 weeks." He went on to state that "a society that actually aborts 180,000 unborn children every year is a society that needs to be asking a lot of questions about itself. For me, it's a simple personal belief. It says, "thou shall not kill", it doesn't say, thou shall not kill unless Parliament says it's OK. For the same reason I'm against the death penalty. However, I do accept...that if the majority of the population decide that it's something they find acceptable, I've got to live with that. But I'm not going to be quiet and I'm not going to pretend that my views are other than they are for the sake of political convenience." Military welfare Fox has stated on a number of occasions that the Military Covenant is broken and that the British Armed Forces are being asked to do too much for what they are resourced to do. Along with the leader of the Conservative Party, David Cameron, he established the Military Covenant Commission headed by Frederick Forsyth with the aim of finding ways to improve the welfare of service members, veterans, and their families under a future Conservative Government. Fox has a particular interest in mental health issues and has criticised Gordon Brown's Labour Government for failing to adequately address the problem. Israel Fox is a supporter of Israel and is a member of Conservative Friends of Israel. In 2006 he said, "Israel's enemies are our enemies and this is a battle in which we all stand together or we will all fall divided." The Jewish Chronicle has called Fox a "champion of Israel" while in government. In January 2009, referring to Israel, he also said, "British support for any ally is never unqualified. International law and values must always be obeyed." In May 2011, Fox was booed at the We Believe in Israel event for saying that Israeli settlements "are illegal and an obstacle to peace". Nuclear deterrent Fox believes that Britain should maintain its continuous at sea, independent, submarine based strategic nuclear deterrent based on the Trident system. Defence procurement Fox has pledged to restructure the defence procurement process in the Ministry of Defence. He has also stated that it would be a matter of policy to see Britain's share of global defence exports increasing under a Conservative Government. Elevated bilateral defence relationships Fox believes that it is in Britain's national interest to build bilateral defence relations with key strategic partners. Fox has mentioned the United States, France, Norway, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf States. Special Relationship He is a strong believer in the Special Relationship between the United Kingdom and the United States. He was the UK Director and founding member of The Atlantic Bridge, a UK-based charity that aims to preserve and promote the Special Relationship. The Atlantic Bridge closed down in October 2011 after being told to cease activities by the Charity Commission for "promoting a political policy [that] is closely associated with the Conservative Party". Fox was able to retain a good relationship with the administration of George W. Bush, despite a five-year breakdown in relations between the Conservative and Republican parties over the Iraq War. He led the Conservative delegation to the 2008 Republican National Convention. In 2018, he commented that the 25% tariffs imposed by the United States on imported EU steel were "patently absurd." Same-sex marriage On 5 February 2013, Fox voted against a second reading of the Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Bill, designed to introduce same-sex marriage in the United Kingdom. He described David Cameron's plans to legalise same-sex marriage as "divisive, ill thought through and constitutionally wrong", arguing that redefining marriage for the majority to satisfy a "small, yet vocal, minority" was not a good basis for a stable, tolerant society. Freedom of the press In October 2013, Fox called for The Guardian newspaper to face prosecution over the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures. In January 2015, Fox published a video on YouTube detailing his opinions and criticism of Edward Snowden. He stated: "We're constantly having to protect our society from a range of threats, especially organised crime, paedophilia, and terrorism. For our intelligence services to operate effectively, and to protect us from these threats, they need to be able to do things in secret, secrets whose public disclosure would be damaging to our National Interest. When Edward Snowden stole files and took them with him to China and then Russia, some 58,000 files came from GCHQ, information that had played a vital role in preventing terrorist outrages in Britain, over the past decade and longer. It was not freedom fighting. We should call treason by its name. And those who assisted Snowden must be held responsible for their actions." National Health Service In January 2014, Fox stated that ring-fenced funding for the NHS should end, stating: "The increase [in spending] over the last decade has been phenomenal and yet a lot of our health indicators lag behind other countries, particular things like stroke outcome or a lot of cancer outcomes." Scotland Before the Scottish independence vote he made a speech setting out reasons why Scotland should remain in the union. If Scotland leaves the United Kingdom "we all lose" he told a Neighbourhood Watch group from his constituency visiting Westminster Houses of parliament on 1 September 2014. Syria Fox was disappointed that Parliament voted not to take military action over the use of chemical weapons in Syria. Fox was critical of Cameron's strategy and performance for that debate, and stated "There was no need to seek parliamentary approval for any military action, as constitutional authority lies with the government." He later took the view that there were no easy answers to the Syrian civil war and the prospect of the Assad government surviving should be considered. Fox argued that bombing attacks against ISIL in Iraq should be extended into Syria, and safe havens should be created in Syria by military intervention. Expenses In March 2010, Fox appealed Sir Thomas Legg's decision that he had overclaimed £22,476 in mortgage interest payments. Fox immediately repaid the money, then appealed the decision. Fox's appeal was rejected and the decision was upheld by Sir Paul Kennedy, a former high court judge. Fox stated that his decision to remortgage his second home to pay for redecorations and claim the higher interest repayments on his expenses represented value for money because he could have charged the taxpayer for the decorating bills directly. In his response, Sir Paul Kennedy stated: "What you claimed was not recoverable under the rules then in force. I entirely accept that, like many others, you could have made other claims if the fees office had rejected your claims for mortgage interest, and that you may well have spent some of what you raised by increasing your mortgage on your constituency home, but the evidence is imprecise, and my terms of reference only allow me to interfere if I find special reasons in your individual case showing that it would not be fair and equitable to require repayment, either at all or at the level recommended." This reportedly made him the Conservative Shadow Cabinet member with the largest over-claim on expenses, and as a result, he has been forced to repay the most money. It was reported in June 2009 that Fox claimed expenses of more than £19,000 over the previous four years for his mobile phone. Fox stated that the high bill was due to regular trips overseas, in his capacity as Shadow Defence Secretary and said he was looking for a cheaper tariff. In October 2012, the Commons Speaker blocked the release of data showing which MPs were renting their homes to other MPs for financial gain. However, a study of parliamentary records was published in the Daily Telegraph. The study showed that Liam Fox receives rental income from his London home while simultaneously claiming rental income from the taxpayer to live at another residence. In October 2013, documents showed that Fox claimed 3p for a 100 metre car trip a year earlier. He also made an additional 15 claims under £1 for car travel approved in 2012–13, two of which were for 24p and 44p. He told the Sunday People: "I don't do my expenses. My office does them. But they are all done according to the rules for travel distances." Breaches of parliamentary rules In March 2010, Fox admitted breaking parliamentary rules on two occasions by visiting Sri Lanka on a trip paid for by the Sri Lankan government without declaring the trip in the Register of Members' Financial Interests in the required time of 30 days and failing to declare an interest in Sri Lanka when asking ministers how much UK aid had been given to Sri Lanka. Fox has declared all of his trips to Sri Lanka paid for by the Sri Lankan government in the Register of Members' Financial Interests. One trip he took in November 2007 was declared two months late. Fox blamed a "changeover of staffing responsibilities" for this error. Of the five trips to Sri Lanka mentioned in the BBC article, three were paid for fully by the Sri Lankan government. Those not paid in full by the Sri Lankan government were paid for by the Sri Lankan Development Trust. Fox stated that he had been working for 'all sides of the ethnic divide': "I have been involved in attempts to promote peace and reconciliation in Sri Lanka, involving all sides of the ethnic divide, since I was a foreign minister in 1997. During my most recent visit, I spoke at a press conference to outline my reasons for being there. The declaration of the visit you refer to in November 2007 was highlighted in an end-of-year audit following a changeover of staffing responsibilities. The registrar was immediately notified and my register entry was updated accordingly. All visits have been fully declared on the House of Commons Register of Members' Interests and are therefore public knowledge and entirely legitimate. I do, however, recognise that when asking one question in 2008, I should have noted an interest and will be writing to the registrar to make this clear". Adam Werritty During October 2011, Fox's close friendship with Adam Werritty attracted extensive media attention and eventually led to Fox's resignation. Werrity had been best man at his wedding, had lived rent-free in Fox's flat, and been involved with him in business and in the conservative Atlanticist think-tank The Atlantic Bridge. While Fox was Secretary of State for Defence, Werrity had visited Fox at the Ministry of Defence on many occasions, had accompanied Fox on numerous official trips, attended some of his meetings with foreign dignitaries, and had used official-looking business cards which said he was an "advisor" to Fox, without having a government post or security clearance. The media raised questions about Fox's judgement in allowing this to happen and the source of Werrity's income. In response, Fox initially requested Ursula Brennan, the Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Defence, to investigate his connection with Werrity. Some of the meetings involved himself, Werritty, Matthew Gould (prior to appointment, while he was Britain's Ambassador-designate to Israel, and afterwards), and in some cases, Denis MacShane. The Foreign Office responded by stating: "The FCO has total confidence that Matthew Gould has acted appropriately at all times and at no stage was he acting independently, or out of line with government policy." On Sunday 9 October 2011, in advance of Brennan's initial report of the result of her inquiry to the Prime Minister, Fox made a statement apologising publicly for his conduct in relation to Werrity, denying wrongdoing but admitting errors of judgement in mixing his professional and personal loyalties. The inquiry was escalated and Fox resigned in advance of publication of the full report by the Cabinet Secretary. The full list of Fox's meetings for his time in office to date, 20 May 2010 to 8 October 2011, was published by the MoD after 7 pm on 10 October 2011 and revealed that Werrity was present at 40 of Fox's 70 engagements in that period (57%). In 2005–6, Fox used public money, from his expense claims as an MP, to pay Adam Werritty. Finances Fox was a registered shareholder of the medical educational firm Arrest Ltd which was dissolved in 2010. In 2009, his estimated wealth was £1 million. Fox accepted a £50,000 donation from Jon Moulton, whose investment firm, Better Capital, later went on to own Gardner Aerospace, an aerospace metallic manufactured details supplier which includes component parts for both military and civilian aircraft. This potentially exposed Fox to conflict of interest but neither Fox nor Moulton violated any rules with this donation. Personal life On 10 June 2005, he announced his engagement to longtime girlfriend Jesme Baird, a doctor who works at the Roy Castle Lung Cancer Foundation and is an alumna of the University of Glasgow. They married at St Margaret's Church opposite Parliament on 17 December 2005. He has lived in North Somerset since 1990, and currently resides in Tickenham. Author In September 2013, Fox launched Rising Tides: Facing the Challenges of a New Era, a 384-page book in which he warns that many of the world’s institutions are ill-equipped to tackle the economic and security threats of the 21st century. See also G3 (company) Notes a. Clark was appointed by the Privy Council in error for four days before the mistake was rectified, the holder prior to Clark was Sajid Javid. References External links Dr Liam Fox official homepage Dr Liam Fox MP former constituency website – inactive Profile at the Conservative Party Profile: Liam Fox, BBC News, 16 October 2002 Profile: Liam Fox, BBC News, 10 November 2003 |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- |- 1961 births Living people 20th-century Scottish medical doctors Alumni of the University of Glasgow British Secretaries of State Politicians from Somerset Chairmen of the Conservative Party (UK) Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People from East Kilbride Politics of North Somerset Scottish Conservative Party politicians Scottish people of Irish descent Scottish Roman Catholics UK MPs 1992–1997 UK MPs 1997–2001 UK MPs 2001–2005 UK MPs 2005–2010 UK MPs 2010–2015 UK MPs 2015–2017 UK MPs 2017–2019 UK MPs 2019–present Secretaries of State for Defence (UK) British anti-abortion activists Presidents of the Board of Trade

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHM

CHM

CHM may refer to: Biology and medicine CHM, abbreviation for Clearing House Mechanism under the Convention on Biological Diversity CHM, a human gene that encodes Rab escort protein 1 Choroideremia, a retinal disease caused by mutations in the CHM gene ChM, advanced qualification in surgery, (Magister Chirurgiae). See Master of Surgery Chinese herbal medicine abbreviation, see Chinese herbology Christian Healthcare Ministries, a Health care sharing ministry Children's Hospital of Michigan, in Detroit, Michigan Commission on Human Medicines, a committee of the UK's Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency Michigan State University College of Human Medicine Museums Chicago History Museum, founded in 1856 to study and interpret Chicago's history Colorado History Museum, a museum in Denver on the history of the state of Colorado Computer History Museum, established in 1996 in Mountain View, California Other ".chm", filename extension for ChemDraw Chemical Structure files ".chm", filename extension for Microsoft Compiled HTML Help files chm, ISO 639 code for Mari language CHM, abbreviation for contraharmonic mean CHM, short for the "CHIME" function in some digital watches CHM, IATA code for Tnte. FAP Jaime Montreuil Morales Airport, Peru CHM, Amtrak station code for Illinois Terminal in Champaign, Illinois Ch.M., postnominal for Chaplain of Malta, used by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta ChM, the label of the Chelyabinsk meteor Channel M (Southeast Asia), a cable TV channel in Southeast Asia College Hockey Mid-America, an American Collegiate Hockey Association Congregation of the Humility of Mary, a congregation of religious sisters in the Catholic Church Conservative Holiness Movement, a theologically conservative group of Methodist, Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist denominations Cultural heritage management, the vocation and practice of managing cultural heritage

357378

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Inscrits

Non-Inscrits

Non-Inscrits (; abbreviated NI; also non-attached members, abbreviated NA) are Members of the European Parliament (MEP) who do not belong to one of the recognised political groups. These MEPs may be members of a national party, or of a European political party, but for a political grouping to be formed in the European Parliament there need to be 25 MEPs from seven different states. Being part of a group grants access to state funds and committee seats, but the group members must be ideologically tied. Groups of convenience, such as the Technical Group of Independents, previously existed, but are no longer allowed, and the minimum requirements for group formation have been raised, forcing less numerous elements to sit as NIs. In the 6th European Parliament 23 right-wing NIs briefly formed the Identity, Tradition, Sovereignty group at the start of 2007, but it collapsed on 14 November 2007 due to internal disagreements. Current Non-Inscrit MEPs (Ninth Parliament) The following parties have members in the NI group in the European Parliament: Prior to the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the EU on January 31, 2020, there were 30 British MEPs who were Non-Inscrits: 29 members of the Brexit Party and 1 member of the Democratic Unionist Party. Previous Non-Inscrit MEPs Eighth Parliament (2014–2019) Source: The number of Non-Inscrits rose temporarily from 48 at the beginning of the term to 100 between 16 and 20 October 2014 when the EFDD group dissolved following the departure of Latvian MEP Iveta Grigule. The EFDD group was restored when Robert Iwaszkiewicz (KNP, Poland) decided to join it. On 15 June 2015, 35 Non-Inscrits MEPs and a former EFDD member (Janice Atkinson, excluded from UKIP) formed a new group, named "Europe of Nations and Freedom" (ENF), around Marine Le Pen (FN) and Marcel de Graaff (PVV), later joined on 24 June 2015 by Aymeric Chauprade. The number of Non-Inscrits then fell to 14 on 22 July 2015, when Juan Fernando López Aguilar reintegrated S&D. Aymeric Chauprade left ENF on 9 November 2015. Marcus Pretzell was expelled from ECR before joining the ENF in May 2016, bringing the number of Non-Inscrits to 15. From May 2016 to May 2017 Renato Soru was expelled from S&D after being sentenced for tax evasion. When Steven Woolfe and Diane James left EFDD in October and November 2016 and Alessandra Mussolini left EPP during twelve days in November–December 2016 the number of Non-Inscrits grew to 19 before coming back to 18. Jacek Saryusz-Wolski was expelled from the EPP in March 2017. Previous members Seventh Parliament (2009–2014) Sixth Parliament (2004–2009) Fifth Parliament (1999–2004) Fourth Parliament (1994–1999) Third Parliament (1989–1994) Second Parliament (1984–1989) First Parliament (1979–1984) See also Independent politician Notes References External links European Parliament party groups

357389

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brindas

Brindas

Brindas is a commune of the Rhône department in eastern France. Geography It lies about 15 km (9,5 mi) South-West of Lyon, but not included in the Metropolis of Lyon. History Brindas is often regarded as the second home of Guignol, a French puppet show from Lyon. The name of the village was often quoted in parts of Guignol plays as several Guignol entertainers used to spend holiday time in this village. Pierre Neichthauser, mayor of Brindas from 1929 until 1940, was also the puppeteer for the character Gnafron in his Guignol Mourguet theatre. A Guignol museum-theater ("Musée-théâtre Guignol") was opened in Brindas in 2008 (year of Guignol's bicentenary). See also Communes of the Rhône department References External links Official website Musée-théâtre website Brindas & Guignol website (page in english) Communes of Rhône (department)

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lega%20Nord

Lega Nord

Lega Nord (; abbr. LN), whose complete name is (), is a right-wing, federalist, populist and conservative political party in Italy. Its current leader is Matteo Salvini. In the run-up of the 2018 general election, the party was rebranded as Lega (), without changing its official name. The party was nonetheless frequently referred to only as "Lega" even before the rebranding, as well as . In 1989 the LN was established as a federation of six regional parties from northern and north-central Italy (Liga Veneta, Lega Lombarda, Piemont Autonomista, Uniun Ligure, Lega Emiliano-Romagnola and Alleanza Toscana), which became the party's founding "national" sections in 1991. The party's founder and long-time federal secretary was Umberto Bossi, now federal president. The party's founder and long-time federal secretary was Umberto Bossi. The LN long advocated the transformation of Italy from a unitary to a federated state, fiscal federalism, regionalism and greater regional autonomy, especially for northern regions. At times, the party advocated the secession of the North, which the party referred to as "Padania", and consequently Padanian nationalism. The party always opposed illegal immigration and often adopted Eurosceptic stances, lately joining the Identity and Democracy group in the European Parliament. Since 31 January 2020, through a mandate given by the federal council, the party has been managed by commissioner Igor Iezzi. The LN was thus eclipsed by the Lega per Salvini Premier, until that moment active only in central and southern Italy, and since then throughout Italy. Following that, the LN is practically inactive and its former "national" sections (Lega Lombarda, Liga Veneta, etc.) have become "regional" sections of the LSP. History Precursors and foundation At the 1983 general election, Liga Veneta (based in Veneto) elected a deputy, Achille Tramarin; and a senator, Graziano Girardi. At the 1987 general election, another regional party, Lega Lombarda (based in Lombardy) gained national prominence when its leader Umberto Bossi was elected to the Senate. The two parties, along with other regionalist outfits, ran as Alleanza Nord in the 1989 European Parliament election, gaining 1.8% of the vote. Lega Nord, which was first launched as an upgrade of Alleanza Nord in December 1989, was officially transformed into a party in February 1991 through the merger of various regional parties, notably including Lega Lombarda and Liga Veneta. These continue to exist as "national sections" of the federal party, which presents itself in regional and local contests as Lega Lombarda–Lega Nord, Liga Veneta–Lega Nord, Lega Nord–Piemont and so on. The League exploited resentment against Rome's centralism (with the famous slogan Roma ladrona, meaning "Rome big thief") and the Italian government, common in northern Italy as many Northerners felt that the government wasted resources collected mostly from Northerners' taxes. Cultural influences from bordering countries in the North and resentment against illegal immigrants were also exploited. The party's electoral successes began roughly at a time when public disillusionment with the established political parties was at its height. The Tangentopoli corruption scandals, which invested most of the established parties, were unveiled from 1992 on. However, contrary to what many pundits observed at the beginning of the 1990s, Lega Nord became a stable political force. Lega Nord's first electoral breakthrough was at the 1990 regional elections, but it was with the 1992 general election that the party emerged as a leading political actor. Having gained 8.7% of the vote, 56 deputies and 26 senators, it became the fourth largest party of the country and within Parliament. In 1993, Marco Formentini (a left-wing member of the party) was elected mayor of Milan, the party won 49.3% in the provincial election of Varese and by the end of the year—before Silvio Berlusconi launched his own political career and party—it was polled around 16–18% in electoral surveys (half of that support was later siphoned by Berlusconi). First alliance with Berlusconi In early 1994, some days before the announcement of the Bossi–Berlusconi pact which led to the formation of the Pole of Freedoms, Roberto Maroni, Bossi's number two, signed an agreement with Mario Segni's centrist Pact for Italy, which was later cancelled. The party thus fought the 1994 general election in alliance with Berlusconi's Forza Italia (FI) within the Pole of Freedoms coalition. Lega Nord gained just 8.4% of the vote, but thanks to a generous division of candidacies in Northern single-seats constituencies its parliamentary representation was almost doubled to 117 deputies and 56 senators. The position of President Chamber of Deputies was thus given to a LN member, Irene Pivetti, a young woman hailing from the Catholic faction of the party. After the election, the League joined FI, National Alliance (AN) and the Christian Democratic Centre (CCD) to form a coalition government under Berlusconi and the party obtained five ministries in Berlusconi's first cabinet: Interior for Roberto Maroni (who was also Deputy Prime Minister), Budget for Giancarlo Pagliarini, Industry for Vito Gnutti, European affairs for Domenico Comino and Institutional Reforms for Francesco Speroni. However, the alliance with Berlusconi and the government itself were both short-lived: the latter collapsed before the end of the year, with the League being instrumental in its demise. The last straw was a proposed pension reform, which would have hurt some of the key constituencies of the LN, but the government was never a cohesive one and relations among coalition partners, especially those between the LN and the centralist AN, were quite tense all the time. When Bossi finally decided to withdraw from the government in December, Maroni vocally disagreed and walked out. In January 1995, the League gave a vote of confidence to the newly formed cabinet led by Lamberto Dini, along with the Italian People's Party and the Democratic Party of the Left. This caused several splinter groups to leave the party, including the Federalist Party (which was actually founded in June 1994) of Gianfranco Miglio, the Federalists and Liberal Democrats of Franco Rocchetta, Lucio Malan and Furio Gubetti and the Federalist Italian League of Luigi Negri and Sergio Cappelli. All these groups later merged into FI while a few other MPs, including Pierluigi Petrini, floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies, joined the centre-left. By 1996, a total of 40 deputies and 17 senators had left the party while Maroni had instead returned to the party's fold after months of coldness with Bossi. Between 1995 and 1998, Lega Nord joined centre-left governing coalitions in many local contexts, notably including the Province of Padua to the city of Udine. Padanian separatism After a huge success at the 1996 general election, its best result so far (10.1%, 59 deputies and 27 senators), Lega Nord announced that it wanted the secession of northern Italy under the name of Padania. On 13 September 1996, Bossi took a bottle of water from the springs of Po River (, hence Padania), which was poured in the sea of Venice two days later as a symbolic act of birth of the new nation. The party gave Padania, previously referring to the Po Valley, a broader meaning that has steadily gained currency, at least among its followers. The party even organised a referendum on independence and elections for a Padanian Parliament. The years between 1996 and 1998 were particularly good for the League, which was the largest party in many provinces of northern Italy and was able to prevail in single-seat constituencies and provincial elections by running alone against both the centre-right and the centre-left. The party also tried to expand its reach through a number of Padanian-styled associations and media endeavours (under the supervision of Davide Caparini), notably including La Padania daily, Il Sole delle Alpi weekly, the Lega Nord Flash periodical, the TelePadania TV channel, the Radio Padania Libera and the Bruno Salvadori publishing house. However, after the 1996 election, which Lega Nord had fought outside the two big coalitions, the differences between those who supported a new alliance with Berlusconi (Vito Gnutti, Domenico Comino, Fabrizio Comencini and more) and those who preferred to enter Romano Prodi's Olive Tree (Marco Formentini, Irene Pivetti and others) re-emerged. A total of 15 deputies and 9 senators left the party to join either centre-right or centre-left parties. Pivetti left a few months after the election. Comencini left in 1998 to launch Liga Veneta Repubblica with the mid-term goal of joining forces with FI in Veneto. Gnutti and Comino were expelled in 1999 after they had formed local alliances with the centre-right. Formentini also left in 1999 in order to join Prodi's Democrats. As a result, the party suffered a huge setback at the 1999 European Parliament election in which it garnered a mere 4.5% of the vote. Since then, the League de-emphasised demands for independence in order to rather focus on devolution and federal reform, paving the way for a return to coalition politics. House of Freedoms After the defeat at the 1999 European Parliament election, senior members of the party thought it was not possible to achieve anything if the party continued to stay outside the two big coalitions. Some, including Maroni, who despite 1994–1995 row with Bossi had always been left-leaning in the heart, preferred an alliance with the centre-left. Bossi asked Maroni to negotiate an agreement with Massimo D'Alema, who had described Lega Nord as "a rib of the left". These talks were successful and Maroni was indicated as the joint candidate for President of Lombardy for the 2000 regional election. Despite this, Bossi decided instead to approach Berlusconi, who was the front-runner in the upcoming 2001 general election. The centre-right coalition won the 2000 regional elections and the League entered the regional governments of Lombardy, Veneto, Piedmont and Liguria. One year later, Lega Nord was part of Berlusconi's House of Freedoms in the 2001 general election. According to its leader, the alliance was a "broad democratic arch, composed of the democratic right, namely AN, the great democratic centre, namely Forza Italia, CCD and CDU, and the democratic left represented by the League, the New PSI, the PRI and, at least I hope so, Cossiga". The coalition won handily the election, but the LN was further reduced to 3.9% while being returned in Parliament thanks to the victories scored by the League members in single-seat constituencies. In 2001–2006, although severely reduced in its parliamentary representation, the party controlled three key ministries: Justice with Roberto Castelli, Labour and Social affairs with Roberto Maroni and Institutional Reforms and Devolution with Umberto Bossi (replaced by Roberto Calderoli in June 2004). In March 2004, Bossi suffered a stroke that led many to question over the party's survival, but that ultimately confirmed Lega Nord's strength due to a very organised structure and a cohesive set of leaders. In government, the LN was widely considered the staunchest ally of Berlusconi and formed the so-called "axis of the North" along with FI (whose strongholds included Lombardy and Veneto as well as Sicily) through the special relationship between Bossi, Berlusconi and Giulio Tremonti while AN and the Union of Christian and Centre Democrats (UDC), the party emerged from the merger of the CCD and the CDU in late 2002, became the natural representatives of Southern interests. During the five years in government with the centre-right, the Parliament passed an important constitutional reform, which included federalism and more powers for the Prime Minister. The alliance that Lega Nord forged with the Movement for Autonomy (MpA) and the Sardinian Action Party (PSd'Az) for the 2006 general election was not successful in convincing Southern voters to approve the reform, which was rejected in the 2006 constitutional referendum. Fourth Berlusconi government In the aftermath of the fall of Romano Prodi's government in January 2008, which led President Giorgio Napolitano to call an early election, the centre-right was re-organised by Berlusconi as The People of Freedom (PdL), now without the support of the UDC. Lega Nord ran the election in coalition with the PdL and the MpA, gaining a stunning 8.3% of the vote (+4.2pp) and obtaining 60 deputies (+37) and 26 senators (+13). Following this result, since May 2008 the party was represented in Berlusconi's fourth cabinet by four ministers (Roberto Maroni, Interior; Luca Zaia, Agriculture; Umberto Bossi, Reforms and Federalism; and Roberto Calderoli, Legislative simplification) and five under-secretaries (Roberto Castelli, Infrastructures; Michelino Davico, Interior; Daniele Molgora, Economy and Finances; Francesca Martini, Health; and Maurizio Balocchi, Legislative simplification). In April 2009, a bill introducing a path towards fiscal federalism was approved by the Senate after having passed by the Chamber. The bill gained bipartisan support by Italy of Values, which voted in favour of the measure; and the Democratic Party (PD), which chose not to oppose the measure. As of late March 2011, all the most important decrees of the reform were approved by the Parliament and Bossi publicly praised the Democrats' leader Pier Luigi Bersani for not having opposed the decisive decree on regional and provincial fiscality. Lega Nord influenced the government also on illegal immigration, especially when dealing with immigrants coming from the sea. While the UNCHR and Catholic bishops expressed some concerns over the handling of asylum seekers, Maroni's decision to send back to Libya the boats full of illegal immigrants was praised also by some leading Democrats, notably including Piero Fassino; and it was backed by some 76% of Italians according to a poll. In agreement with the PdL, Luca Zaia was candidate for President in Veneto and Roberto Cota in Piedmont in the 2010 regional elections while in the other Northern regions, including Lombardy, the League supported candidates of the PdL. Both Zaia and Cota were elected. The party became the largest in Veneto with 35.2% and the second-largest in Lombardy with 26.2% while getting stronger all around the North and in some regions of central Italy. In November 2011, Berlusconi resigned and was replaced by Mario Monti. The League was the only major party to oppose Monti's technocratic government. From Bossi to Maroni Throughout 2011, the party was riven in internal disputes, which Bossi's weak-as-ever leadership was not able to stop. Roberto Maroni, a moderate figure who had been the party's number two since the start, was clearly Bossi's most likely successor. The rise of Maroni and his fellow maroniani was obstacled by a group of Bossi's loyalists, whom journalists called the "magic circle". The leaders of this group were Marco Reguzzoni (floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies) and Rosi Mauro. After being temporarily forbidden from speaking at the party's public meetings, Maroni gained the upper hand in January 2012. During a factional rally in Varese, he launched direct attacks on Reguzzoni and Mauro in the presence of a puzzled Bossi. On that occasion, Maroni called for the celebration of party congresses and closed his speech paraphrasing Scipio Slataper and Che Guevara (the latter being one of his youth's heroes): "We are barbarians, dreaming barbarians. We are realistic, we dream the impossible". On 20 January, Bossi replaced Reguzzoni as leader in the Chamber with Gianpaolo Dozzo. Two days later, the federal council of the party scheduled provincial congresses by April and national (regional) congresses by June. Maroni, whose flock included people as diverse as Flavio Tosi, a conservative liberal; and Matteo Salvini, then a left-winger, strengthened his grip on the party. On 3 April, a corruption scandal hit the magic circle and consequently the entire party. The party's treasurer Francesco Belsito was charged with money-laundering, embezzlement and fraud of the LN's expenses. Among other things, he was accused of having taken money away from the party's chest and paid it out to Bossi's family and other members of the magic circle, notably including Mauro. Maroni, who had already called for Belsito's resignation as early as in January, asked for his immediate replacement. Belsito resigned a few hours later and was replaced by Stefano Stefani. More shockingly, on 5 April, Bossi resigned as the federal secretary. The party's federal council then appointed a triumvirate composed of Maroni, Calderoli and Manuela Dal Lago, who would lead the party until a new federal congress was held. Bossi, however, was then elected the federal president. On 12 April, the federal council expelled both Belsito and Mauro and decided that a federal congress would be held at the end of June. In the 6–7 May local elections, the League was crushed almost everywhere while retaining the city of Verona, where Tosi, the incumbent mayor, was re-elected by a landslide; and a few other strongholds. The Bossi–Belsito scandal finally resulted, on 7 August 2019, in a sentence by Italy's highest court, according to which the LN was to pay back 49 million euros. Leadership of Maroni At the beginning of June, after having secured the leadership of several national sections of the party, Maroni and his followers scored two big victories at the congresses of the two largest "nations", Lombardy and Veneto: Matteo Salvini was elected secretary of Lega Lombarda with 74% of the votes while Flavio Tosi fended off a challenge by the Venetists' and Bossi's loyalists' standard-bearer Massimo Bitonci, defeating him 57%–43%. On 1 July, Maroni was virtually unanimously elected federal secretary. The party's constitution was changed in order to make Bossi federal president for life, to restructure the federal organisation and to give more autonomy to the national sections, in fact transforming the federation into a confederation. At the 2013 general election, which saw the rise of the Five Star Movement (M5S), the League won a mere 4.1% of the vote (−4.2pp). However, in the simultaneous 2013 regional election in Lombardy the party won the big prize: Maroni was elected President by defeating his Democratic opponent 42.8% to 38.2%. The League, which retrieved 12.9% in Lombardy in the general election, garnered 23.2% (combined result of party list, 13.0% and Maroni's personal list, 10.2%) in the regional election. All three big regions of the North were thus governed by the League. In September 2013, Maroni announced he would soon leave the party's leadership. A congress was scheduled for mid December and in accordance to the new rules set for the leadership election five candidates filed their bid to become secretary: Umberto Bossi, Matteo Salvini, Giacomo Stucchi, Manes Bernardini and Roberto Stefanazzi. Of these, only Bossi and Salvini gathered the 1,000 necessary signatures by party members to take part to the internal "primary" and Salvini collected four times the signatures gathered by Bossi. Leadership of Salvini On 7 December, Salvini, endorsed by Maroni and most leading members (including Tosi, who had renounced a bid of his own), trounced Bossi with 82% of the vote in the "primary". His election was ratified a week later by the party's federal congress in Turin. Under Salvini, the party embraced a very critical view of the European Union, especially of the Euro, which he described a "crime against mankind". Ahead of the 2014 European Parliament election, Salvini started to cooperate with Marine Le Pen, leader of the French National Front; and Geert Wilders, leader of the Dutch Party for Freedom. All this was criticised by Bossi, who re-called his left-wing roots; and Tosi, who represented the party's centrist wing and defended the Euro. In the European election, the party, which ran on a "Stop the Euro" ticket, emphasised Euroscepticism and welcomed candidates from other anti-Euro and/or autonomist movements, notably including South Tyrol's Freiheitlichen, obtained 6.2% of the vote and five MEPs. The result was far worse than that of the previous European election in 2009 (−4.0pp), but better than that of 2013 general election (+2.1pp). The LN came third with 15.2% in Veneto (where Tosi obtained many more votes than Salvini, showing his popular support once for all and proving how the party was far from united on the anti-Euro stance), ahead of the new Forza Italia (FI) and the other PdL's spin-offs; and fourth in Lombardy with 14.6%. Salvini was triumphant, despite the party had lost Piedmont to the Democrats after Cota had been forced to resign due to irregularities committed by one of its supporting lists in filing the slates for the 2010 election and had decided not to stand. Moreover, Bitonci was elected mayor of Padua, a centre-left stronghold. The party's federal congress, summoned in Padua in July 2014, approved Salvini's political line, especially a plan for the introduction of a flat tax and the creation of a sister party in central-southern Italy and the Isles. In November, the Emilia-Romagna regional election represented a major step for Salvini's "national project": the LN, which won 19.4% of the vote, was the region's second-largest and resulted far ahead of FI, paving the way for a bid for the leadership of the centre-right. In December, Us with Salvini (NcS) was launched. The party's growing popularity among voters was reflected also by a constant rise in opinion polls. In March 2015, after a long struggle between Tosi and Zaia, who was backed by Salvini, over the party's candidates in the upcoming regional election in Veneto, Tosi was removed from national secretary of Liga Veneta and ejected from the federal party altogether. However, the 2015 regional elections were another success for the LN, especially in Veneto, where Zaia was handily re-elected with 50.1% of the vote (Tosi got 11.9%) and the combined score of party's and Zaia's personal lists was 40.9%. The party also came second in Liguria (22.3%) and Tuscany (16.2%), third in Marche (13.0%) and Umbria (14.0%). After the 2016 local elections in which the party ran below expectations in Lombardy (while doing well in Veneto—thanks to Zaia, Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany) and the NcS performed badly, Salvini's political line came under pressure from Bossi, Maroni and Paolo Grimoldi, the new leader of Lega Lombarda. In the 2017 leadership election, Salvini, who was focused on becoming the leader of the centre-right and possibly changing the LN's name by ditching the word "North", was re-elected leader of the party with 82.7% of the vote against his opponent Gianni Fava's 17.3%. Consequently, Salvini launched his campaign to become Prime Minister. In the meantime, the LN campaigned heavily for Veneto's and Lombardy's autonomy referendums, which took place on 22 October. In Veneto, the turnout was 57.2% and those who voted "yes" reached 98.1% whereas in Lombardy the figures were 38.3% and 95.3%. When the referendums were over, with strong opposition by Bossi, Salvini persuaded the party's federal council to style the party simply as "Lega", including NcS, in the upcoming general election. Additionally, Salvini toned down his stances against the European Union and the Euro in order to make an alliance with FI possible. Despite misgivings by Bossi and the Padanist old guard, the party still had a strong autonomist outlook in the northern regions, especially in Veneto where Venetian nationalism was stronger than ever before. Additionally, the League maintained its power base in the North, where it continued to get most of its support. Yellow-green coalition The League ran in the 2018 general election within the four-party centre-right coalition, also composed of FI, Brothers of Italy (FdI) and Us with Italy (NcI), which formed a joint list with the Union of the Centre (UdC). In a further effort to broaden its base, the League welcomed in its electoral slates several independents, notably including Giulia Bongiorno and Alberto Bagnai, as well as a wide range of minor parties, including the Sardinian Action Party (PSd'Az), the Italian Liberal Party (PLI) and the National Movement for Sovereignty (MNS). The League obtained a resounding success, becoming the third largest party in Italy with 17.4% of the vote (+13.3pp). The ticket won most of its votes in the North (including 32.2% in Veneto, 28.0% in Lombardy, 26.7% in Trentino, 25.8% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia and 22.6% in Piedmont) while making inroads elsewhere, especially in central Italy (notably 20.2% in Umbria), the upper part of the South (13.8% in Abruzzo) and Sardinia (10.8%). In the simultaneous regional election in Lombardy, LN's Attilio Fontana ran for President after Maroni, increasingly critical of Salvini, chose not to run for a second term and step aside from politics. Fontana was elected with 49.8% of the vote and the party scored 29.4%. In late April in the regional election in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, LN's Massimiliano Fedriga was elected with 57.1% of the vote and the party scored 34.9%. As neither of the three main groupings (the centre-right, the PD-led centre-left and the M5S) obtained a majority of seats in Parliament, the League entered in coalition talks with the M5S which was the most voted party with 32.7% of the vote. The talks resulted in the proposal of the so-called "government of change" under the leadership of Giuseppe Conte, a law professor close to the M5S. After some bickering with President Sergio Mattarella, Conte's cabinet, which was dubbed by the media as Western European "first all-populist government", was sworn in on 1 June. The cabinet featured Salvini as Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Interior, Giancarlo Giorgetti as Secretary of the Council and four other League members (plus an independent close to the party) as ministers. During 2019, along with the LN's membership recruitment in the Centre-North, the party launched a parallel drive in the Centre-South for the LSP, practically supplanting NcS. It was a sign that the LSP, whose party constitution had been published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale in December 2017 and had been described as a "parallel party", might eventually replace both the LN and NcS. In the meantime, the parties' joint parliamentary groups were named "League–Salvini Premier" in the Chamber and "League–Salvini Premier–Sardinian Action Party" in the Senate. According to some news sources, Salvini wanted to launch a brand-new party and absorb most of the centre-right parties into it. Since the government's formation, the party was regularly the country's largest party in opinion polls, at around or over 30%. The party's strength was confirmed in October by the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol provincial elections: in Trentino LN's Maurizio Fugatti was elected President with 46.7% of the vote and the party scored 27.1% (despite competition from several autonomist parties), while in South Tyrol it came third with 11.1% (being the most voted in Bolzano and, more generally, among Italian-speakers), leading it to replace the PD as junior partner of the South Tyrolean People's Party in the provincial government coalition. In the 2019 European Parliament election in Italy, the League won 34.3% of the vote, winning for the first time a plurality of the electorate, while the M5S stopped at 17.1%. The election thus weakened the M5S and strengthened Salvini's position within the government. At the European level, Salvini worked to create a pan-European alliance of nationalist political parties, the European Alliance of Peoples and Nations, and he continued these efforts after the election through the Identity and Democracy Party. In the election the party performed strongly in its northern strongholds, especially Veneto (49.9%) and Lombardy (43.4%), obtaining as usual most of its votes in small towns, as well as increasing its share of vote all around the country. The party also obtained notable results in some of the places associated with the European migrant crisis, from north to south, such as Bardonecchia, Ventimiglia, Riace and Lampedusa. In July 2019 a case of attempted Russia-linked corruption by the League was made public by voice recordings acquired by Buzzfeed. The recordings showed Gianluca Savoini, a LN member, meeting with unspecified Russian agents in Moscow, at the same time when Salvini was also in Moscow on an official trip. The meeting centered around providing the party with $65 million of illegal funding by Russia. The matter was made part of a larger investigation by Italian authorities into the League's finances. In February 2019 the Italian magazine L'Espresso had already published an investigation revealing another 3 million euro funding scheme, paid for by Kremlin-linked entities and disguised as a diesel sale. That scheme involved the Russian state-owned oil company Rosneft selling 3 million dollars worth of diesel to an Italian company. Allegedly, the money was to be transferred from Rosneft to the League through a Russian subsidy of the Italian bank Intesa Sanpaolo, in which LN's federal council member Andrea Mascetti was a board member. The money was supposed to fund the coming European election campaign. Italian authorities are currently investigating the matter. The League was also an official cooperation partner of the Russian governing party United Russia. On 8 August 2019 Salvini announced his intention to leave the coalition with the Five Stars and called for a snap general election. However, after successful talks between the M5S, and the PD, a new government led by Conte was formed. The League thus returned into the opposition, together with its electoral allies of the centre-right coalition. The first election after the formation of Conte's second government was the 2019 Umbrian regional election. In a traditional stronghold of the centre-left, the League won 37.0% of the vote and its candidate Donatella Tesei was elected President with 57.6% of the vote and a 20% lead over Vincenzo Bianconi, who was the candidate of a joint list of centre-left and M5S. 2019 federal congress During a federal congress on 21 December 2019, the party's constitution undwerwent some major changes, including reduced powers for the federal president, the extension of the federal secretary's and federal council's terms from three to five years, the introduction of "dual membership" and the faculty given to the federal council to grant the use of the party's symbol to other political movements. With the end of its membership drive in August 2020, the LSP, until then present only in central-southern Italy, became active throughout Italy. he LN, unable to be dissolved because of its burden of €49 million debt to the Italian state, was instead formally kept alive, while its cards were donated to former activists. Ideology The party's ideology is a combination of political federalism, fiscal federalism, regionalism and defense of northern Italian traditions. The historical goal of the party is to transform Italy into a federated state, letting Padania keep more tax revenues collected there under a regime of fiscal federalism. Through Lega Nord, federalism has become a major issue in the country. This is also the main difference between the Lega Nord and most European regionalist parties (South Tyrolean People's Party, Basque Nationalist Party, Republican Left of Catalonia, Scottish National Party, Vlaams Belang and the like), which focus on special rights for their own regions. The original programme of the party identified "federalist libertarianism" as ideology. In fact, the party has often varied its tone and policies, replacing its original libertarianism and social liberalism with a more socially conservative approach, alternating anti-clericalism with a pro-Catholic Church stance and Europeanism with a marked Euroscepticism and ultimately abandoning much of its original pacifism and uncompromising environmentalism. Lega Nord is now often regarded as a right-wing populist party. Party leaders generally reject the "right-wing" label, though not the "populist" label. In 2008, Umberto Bossi explained in an interview that Lega Nord is "libertarian, but also socialist" and that the right-wing ideology he prefers is an anti-statist one with a "libertarian idea of a state which does not weigh on citizens". When asked to tell his most preferred politician of the 20th century, he said Giacomo Matteotti, a Socialist MP who was killed by Fascist squads in 1925 and remembered his anti-fascist and left-wing roots. Lega Nord's political culture was a mix of northern Italian pride or even Padanian nationalism, often with claims of a proud Celtic heritage; resentment of perceived southern Italian habits and Roman authorities; distrust of the Republic of Italy and especially its flag; and some support for the free market, anti-statism, anti-globalism and separatism or secessionism. The party boasts historical references to the anti-imperialist Lombard League and Alberto da Giussano (stylised in the party's symbol), the hero of the wars against Frederick I Barbarossa. These historical references are the base for the party's anti-monopolism and anti-centralism. Lega Nord has long maintained an anti-southern Italian stance. Party members have been known to oppose large-scale southern Italian migration to northern Italian cities, stereotyping southern Italians as welfare abusers, criminals and detrimental to Northern society. Party members have often attributed Italy's economic stagnation and the disparity of the North-South divide in the Italian economy to supposed negative characteristics of the southern Italians, such as lack of education, laziness, or criminality. Some LN members have been known to publicly deploy the offensive slur terrone, a common pejorative term for southern Italians. At times, it has seemed possible that the League might unite with similar leagues in central and southern Italy, but it has not succeeded in doing so. The party continues dialogue with regionalist parties throughout Italy, notably the South Tyrolean People's Party, the Valdostan Union, the Trentino Tyrolean Autonomist Party, the Movement for the Autonomies and the Sardinian Action Party; and it has some figures from the South in its parliamentary ranks. Notably, Angela Maraventano, former deputy mayor of Lampedusa, was a senator of Lega Nord. Although it is no longer a member of the European Free Alliance, the party has ties with many regionalist parties around Europe, including left-wing parties such as the Republican Left of Catalonia. Lega Nord has some ties also with the Ticino League from Switzerland. Catch-all nature Lega Nord aims at uniting all those northern Italians who support autonomy and federalism for their land. For this reason, it has tended to be a multi-ideological catch-all party, especially at its beginnings, following what Bossi stated in 1982 to his early followers: "It does not matter how old are you, what your job is and what your political tendency: what matters is that you and we are all Lombard. [...] It is as Lombards, indeed, that we have a fundamental common goal in face of which our division in parties should fall behind". Roberto Biorcio, a political scientist, wrote: "The political commitment of Umberto Bossi was influenced by his encounter with Bruno Salvadori, leader of the Valdostan Union [...]. The convictions of Salvadori on federalism, the self-determination of the peoples (the so-called nations without state) and the belonging to a people on the basis of cultural criteria and not on blood, were adopted by the future leader of the League". Since the beginning the electorate of the party has been very diverse on a left-right scale. At the 1992 general election, for instance, 25.4% of the party supporters were former Christian Democratic voters, 18.5% Communists, 12.5% Socialists and 6.6% former voters of the post-fascist Italian Social Movement. According to a 1996 Abacus poll, 28.7% of LN voters identified as centrist, 26.3% as right-wingers and 22.1% as left-wingers. It is quite difficult to define it in the left-right spectrum because it is variously conservative, centrist and left-wing with regard to different issues. For example, the party supports both liberal ideas such as deregulation and social-democratic positions such as the defense of workers' wages and pensions. This is because Lega Nord, as a "people's party" representing the North as a whole, includes both liberal-conservative and social-democratic factions. As Lega Nord, the party could be seen as a cross-class entity uniting northern Italians, whether working class or petit bourgeois, around a sense of opposition to both the powerful forces of capital and a centralising state based in Rome which redistributes resources towards southern Italy. Generally speaking, the party supports the social market economy and other typical issues of Christian-democratic parties and has been described as a "neo-labour party" by some commentators and also by some of its members. Lega Nord is populist in the sense that it is an anti-monopolist and anti-elitist popular and participative party (it is one of the few Italian political parties not to permit freemasons to join), fighting against the "vested interests", once identified by Bossi in "Agnelli, the Pope and the Mafia". The party is also libertarian populist in its promotion of small ownership, small and medium-sized enterprise, small government as opposed to governmental bureaucracy, waste of public funds, pork barrel spending and corruption. These are the main reasons why the party is strong in the North despite being obscured (especially at the beginning of its history) and badly presented by national media, television and newspapers. According to a number of scholars, Lega Nord is an example of a right-wing populist, radical right, or far-right party while some see significant differences to typical European radical right-wing populist parties, or reject the label of radical right as inadequate to describe the party's ideology. According to many observers, under Matteo Salvini the party lurched to the right, but both Salvini, a former communist; and Luca Zaia insist the party is "neither right nor left" while Roberto Maroni, another former leftist, stated that "we are a big political movement which has in its platform issues and people of right and left". Platform and policies The party usually takes a socially conservative stance on social issues, such as abortion, euthanasia, medical embryonic stem cell research, artificial insemination, same-sex marriage (although there is an association called Los Padania, where "Los" stands for "free sexual orientation", linked to the party and Lega Nord was once in favour of same-sex marriage) and drug use (although it did once support the legalization of marijuana along with Marco Pannella's Radicals). Despite this, the party has been home to some social liberals, namely Giancarlo Pagliarini, Rossana Boldi, Giovanna Bianchi Clerici and to some extent Roberto Castelli. The party has often espoused criticism of Islam and has styled itself as a defender of "Judeo-Christian values". In 2018 the party made a proposal to make it mandatory for crucifixes to be displayed in all public spaces, including ports, schools, embassies and prisons, with fines of up to €1,000 for failing to comply. Lega Nord has long opposed statism and supports lower taxes, especially for families and small entrepreneurs, most recently in the form of a 15% flat tax for all. In earlier times, the party campaigned for a stop of the flow of public money in help to big businesses facing crisis as for FIAT and Alitalia. Other key policies include the legalisation, regulation and taxation of prostitution in brothels, the direct election of prosecutors and a regionalised judiciary and Constitutional Court. In its political programme, the party is committed to the environment, supporting public green areas, the establishment of natural parks, recycling and the end (or regulation) of the construction of sheds in country areas, especially in Veneto. Lega Nord, which has a strong agricultural wing, also supports the protection of traditional food, opposes GMOs and has campaigned for a revision of the quota system of the Common Agricultural Policy. In foreign policy, the League has never had a particularly pro-United States stance, although it admires the American federal political system. The party's MPs opposed both the Gulf War in 1991 and the NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 in the name of pacifism and Bossi personally met Slobodan Milošević during that war. However, after the September 11 attacks and the emergence of Islamic terrorism, the League became a supporter of the American efforts in the War on Terror, while expressing several reservations about the Iraq War and the American policy in its aftermath. The League is also a staunch supporter of Israel. In 2011, the party was severely opposed to the Italian participation in the war in Libya while in 2014 it opposed the sanctions on Russia, a key economic partner of Lombard and Venetian entrepreneurs and a likely ally in the fight against Islamic terrorism and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. At times, the party has adopted anti-globalist views. Through the Associazione Umanitaria Padana, Lega Nord participates in humanitarian projects which are intended to respect local cultures, traditions and identities. The campaigns are carried out in poor countries or in those that have suffered from war or natural catastrophes. Locations of missions include Darfur, Iraq, Afghanistan and Ivory Coast. The association is led by Sara Fumagalli, wife of Roberto Castelli and born-again Catholic after a pilgrimage in Medjugorje. Federalism vs. separatism The exact program of Lega Nord was not clear in the early years as some opponents claimed it wanted secession of Padania while at other times it appeared to be requesting only autonomy for Northern regions. The League eventually settled on federalism, which rapidly became a buzzword and a popular issue in most Italian political parties. By 1996, the party switched to open separatism, calling for the independence of Padania. The party's constitution was reformed accordingly and still proclaims at article 1 that the LN's fundamental goal is "the achievement of the independence of Padania, through democratic means, and its international recognition as independent and sovereign federal republic". A voluntary group of militants, the "Green Volunteers", often referred as "green shirts" (green being the colour of Padania), was also established, but it has since been active mainly in civil defense and emergency management. In September 1996 in Venice, the party unilaterally proclaimed the independence of Padania at which time while reading the Padanian Declaration of Independence Bossi announced: The renewed alliance with Berlusconi in 2001 forced the party to tone down its separatism and Padania became the name of a proposed "macro-region", based on the ideas of Miglio: the establishment an Italian federal republic, divided into three "macro-regions" ("Padania", "Etruria" and the "South") and some autonomous regions. A new buzzword, devolution (often used in English), was also introduced, but with less success than "federalism". This evolution caused some criticism within party ranks and led to the formation of some minor breakaway groups. Moreover, the peculiarity of the LN among European regionalist parties is that its main goal has long been the transformation of Italy into a federal state instead of simply demanding special rights and autonomy for Northern regions. Despite this, the party's constitution continues to declare that the independence of Padania is one of the party's final goal. Euroscepticism vs. Europeanism Lega Nord often criticises the European Union (it was the only party in the Italian Parliament, along with the Communist Refoundation Party, to vote against the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe, but it voted in favour of the Treaty of Lisbon) and opposes what it calls the "European superstate", favoring instead a "Europe of the Regions". Especially under the leadership of Matteo Salvini and the influence of professor Claudio Borghi, the party has proposed the abandonment of the Euro by Italy, although this has been opposed by some party heavyweights, notably including Flavio Tosi. However, according to Roberto Maroni the party is not Eurosceptic and stands for a "new Europeanism". In a public speech in 2012, he said to party activists: "We should start looking at Padania in a Northern, European perspective. [...] The project of Padania is not anti-European, this is a new Europeanism which looks at the future: a Europe of the regions, a Europe of the peoples, a truly federal Europe". Moreover, under Maroni the party has supported the direct election of the President of the European Commission, more powers for the European Parliament, acceleration of the four unions (political, economic, banking and fiscal), Eurobonds and project bonds, the European Central Bank as lender of last resort and the "centrality of Italy in European politics". Illegal immigration The party takes a tough stance on crime, illegal immigration, especially from Muslim countries, and terrorism. It supports the promotion of immigration from non-Muslim countries in order to protect the "Christian identity" of Italy and Europe, which according to party officials should be based on "Judeo-Christian heritage". The party has been labeled as "nationalist", "xenophobic" and "anti-immigration". In 1992, the League was compared by Le Nouvel Observateur to some national populist parties of the European far-right, including France's National Front, the Freedom Party of Austria and the Vlaams Blok, claiming that "the League rejects any association with neo-fascists but plays on themes of xenophobia regionalism and trivial racism". In 2002 the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) denounced the party, saying that "exponents of the Lega Nord [...] have been particularly active in resorting to racist and xenophobic propaganda, although members of other parties have also made use of xenophobic or otherwise intolerant political discourse". In 2006 the ECRI noticed that "some members of the Northern League have intensified the use of racist and xenophobic discourse". While noting that those expressing themselves this way were mostly local representatives, according to the ECRI "representatives exercising important political functions at national level have also resorted to racist and xenophobic discourse. Such discourse has continued to target essentially non-EU immigrants, but also other members of minority groups, such as Roma and Sinti". The ECRI also recalled that "in December 2004, the first instance court of Verona found six local representatives of Lega Nord guilty of incitement to racial hatred in connection with a campaign organised in order to send a group of Sinti away from a local temporary settlement". However, the Court of Cassation cancelled the sentence in 2007. Although several LN members speak strongly against illegal immigrants (Bossi suggested in 2003 opening fire on the boats of illegal immigrants from Africa, whom he described as bingo-bongos; and Giancarlo Gentilini labeled foreigners as "immigrant slackers", saying that "we should dress them up like hares and bang-bang-bang"), the party's official line is more moderate. In a 2010 interview after some riots in Milan between South American and North African immigrants, Maroni, then Minister of the Interior, stated that "the police state is not the solution" to integration problems and calling for a "new model of integration" maintained that "we should think that, other than a permit of stay, a job and a house, there are further conditions that today are missing for integration to succeed". Bossi endorsed the position. Lega Nord rejects all charges of xenophobia, instead claiming that the North is the victim of discrimination and racism. After more than fifteen years of government by Lega Nord, the Province of Treviso was widely considered the place in Italy where immigrants are best integrated. Similar things can be said about the city of Verona, governed by Flavio Tosi, who evolved from being a hardliner to be one of the most popular mayors of Italy. Moreover, the first and so far only black mayor in Italy belongs to the League: Sandy Cane (whose mother is Italian and father is an African American) was elected mayor in Viggiù in 2009. In an interview with The Independent, Cane said that the League does not include racist or xenophobic members. She eventually left the League in 2014. More recently, Hajer Fezzani, a Tunisian-born lapsed Muslim, was appointed local coordinator in Malnate; Souad Sbai, president of the association "Moroccan women in Italy" and former deputy of The People of Freedom, joined the party; and most notably Toni Iwobi, a Nigerian-born long-time party member, was appointed at the head of the party's department on immigration ("Tony will do more for legal immigrants in a month than what Kyenge has done in an entire life", Salvini said during the press conference) and became the first person of colour to be elected a senator of Italy after 2018 general election. International affiliation Lega Nord was originally a member of the European Free Alliance (EFA) and its first two MEPs, Francesco Speroni and Luigi Moretti, joined the Rainbow Group in the European Parliament during the fourth parliamentary term (1989–1994). Between 1994 and 1997, it was a member of the group of the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR) and one MEP of Lega Nord, Raimondo Fassa, continued to sit in the ELDR group until 1999. During the sixth parliamentary term (1999–2004), it was briefly a component of the Technical Group of Independents (TGI) along with Italian Radicals and then returned to the Non-Inscrits. Following the 2004 European Parliament election, Lega Nord joined the Independence/Democracy (I/D) group and later the Union for Europe of the Nations (UEN), a seemingly awkward affiliation for a party proposing a "Europe of the Regions"—but in the Lega Nord's view a state's "regions" are populated by "nations" such as the Catalans or the Lombards. The party was affiliated to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe until 2006, when its members joined the European Democrat Group (EDG), a diverse group stretching from the British Conservative Party to United Russia. Following the 2009 European Parliament election, Lega Nord joined the newly formed the Europe of Freedom and Democracy (EFD) group. One year after the 2014 European Parliament election, the party was a founding member of the Europe of Nations and Freedom (ENL) group. After the 2019 European Parliament election, Lega Nord co-founded the Identity and Democracy (ID) group, alongside the French National Rally, the Danish People's Party, the Freedom Party of Austria, the Conservative People's Party of Estonia, the Finns Party, the Belgian Vlaams Belang, the Czech Freedom and Direct Democracy party, and Alternative for Germany. Outside of its European parliamentary group, Lega also has contacts with the Spanish Vox, the Dutch Forum for Democracy, the Sweden Democrats, the Hungarian Fidesz, and the Polish Law and Justice party. In March 2017 the LN signed a cooperation protocol with United Russia. Factions Although there are almost no official factions within the party, it is possible to distinguish several tendencies or wings. Regional and ideological divides The wing from the province of Varese and more broadly the bulk of the original Lega Lombarda (including Umberto Bossi, Roberto Maroni and Marco Formentini) has tended to be the left-wing of the party while that from the province of Bergamo (notably Roberto Calderoli) has tended to be more conservative. In fact, both Bossi and Maroni hailed from the far-left of the political spectrum, having been active in the Italian Communist Party, il manifesto movement, the Party of Proletarian Unity, Proletarian Democracy and the Greens before starting Lega Lombarda; and conceived Lega Nord as a centre-left (and to some extent social-democratic) political force. From the left came also Marco Formentini, a long-time member of the left-wing of the Italian Socialist Party; and Rosi Mauro, a trade unionist of the metal workers' section of the Italian Labour Union and later leader of the Padanian Trade Union (SinPa). Since its foundation, Liga Veneta was instead characterised as a liberal, centrist and economically libertarian outfit due to the political upbringing of its early leaders and a more conservative electoral base. In the early 1990s, the League stole votes especially from the Communists and the Socialists in western and central Lombardy while the party electorally replaced Christian Democracy in eastern Lombardy and Veneto. Lega Lombarda also included liberal-conservative figures such as Gianfranco Miglio and Vito Gnutti, both former Christian Democrats, while Giovanni Meo Zilio, a Socialist partisan during the Italian Resistance, was one of the founding fathers of Liga Veneta. In Emilia-Romagna, a left-wing heartland, the party has many former Communists in its ranks and many others have Communist upbringings. However, with the passing of time the party underwent a process of homogenisation. Between Maroni and Calderoli, there has been a liberal centrist wing including Roberto Castelli, a conspicuous group of former Liberals (Manuela Dal Lago, Daniele Molgora, Francesco Speroni and more) and a new generation of leghisti (Roberto Cota, Giancarlo Giorgetti, Marco Reguzzoni, Luca Zaia and others). Issue-oriented groups The League is home also to some issue-oriented groups. First, there is a group of Christian democrats, most of whom are affiliated to the Padanian Catholics, founded by late Roberto Ronchi and currently led by Giuseppe Leoni. Another leading Catholic is Massimo Polledri. Many leghisti are committed to Catholic social teaching and the social market economy and several party members are former members or voters of Christian Democracy. There is a right-wing which is represented mainly by Mario Borghezio, a former Monarchist and Ordine Nuovo member who is the leader of Christian Padania, which is a key advocate of social conservatism within party ranks and has some links with the traditionalist Society of St. Pius X. Third and fourth, the party has always included also a group of libertarians, whose leading members Leonardo Facco, Gilberto Oneto and Giancarlo Pagliarini have since left the party; and an Independentist Unit. The independentist wing crosses all the other factions and tendencies and in fact includes Borghezio and Francesco Speroni, among others. Oneto, father of Padanian nationalism; and Pagliarini were also close to this group. Finally, the party is home to an agricultural wing, which is particularly strong in southern Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Veneto and is represented by the Cobas del latte, a farmers' trade union; the Land Movement, whose leader was Giovanni Robusti; and politicians such as Luca Zaia, a former Minister of Agriculture, Fabio Rainieri, one of the leader of Lega Nord Emilia; and Erminio Boso, a historic and now marginal figure from Trentino. 1997 Padanian Parliament election In October 1997, Lega Nord organised what it called "the first elections to the Padanian Parliament". Roughly 4 million northern Italians (6 million according to the party) went to the polls and chose between a number of Padanian parties. This is a short resume of the affiliations of leading party members: Marco Formentini, Giovanni Meo Zilio, Roberto Bernardelli, Franco Colleoni and Mariella Mazzetto, with the support of Roberto Maroni, launched the Europeanist and social-democratic European Democrats – Padanian Labour (52 seats out of 210); Vito Gnutti, Giancarlo Pagliarini, Domenico Comino, Roberto Cota and Massimo Zanello led the liberal-conservative Liberal Democrats – Forza Padania (50); Oreste Rossi, Enzo Flego and Walter Gherardini formed the national-conservative Padanian Right (27); Roberto Ronchi and Giuseppe Leoni founded the Christian democratic Padanian Catholics (20); A group of Venetian leghisti formed the Venetist Padanian Lions (14); Leonardo Facco, Leopoldo Siegel and Marco Pottino launched Libertarian and Liberal Padania (12); Matteo Salvini and Mauro Manfredini were candidates of the Padanian Communists (5); Erminio Boso led the agrarian conservative Padanian Union – Agriculture, Environment, Hunting, Fishing (5); Benedetto Della Vedova, a Radical politician, was elected at the head of an anti-prohibitionist and free market libertarian list in Milan while Nando Dalla Chiesa, a Green MP, was an unsuccessful candidate in Milan too. Differing viewpoints on coalitions During the years in government in Rome (2001–2006), in the party there were different viewpoints on coalitions: some, led by Calderoli and Castelli (with the backing of Bossi), vigorously supported the alliance with the centre-right while others, represented by Maroni and Giorgetti, were less warm about it. Some of them spoke about joining the centre-left some time after the 2006 general election, which they were certain to lose. This idea was ascribed to the fact that without any support from the left it seemed even more difficult to win the constitutional referendum which would have turned Italy into a federal state. Similar differences emerged during (and within) Berlusconi's fourth government (2008–2011). While Calderoli was again a keen supporter of the arrangement, Maroni was far less warm on Berlusconi and at times evoked an alliance with the centre-left Democratic Party. Calderoli's line had the backing of Federico Bricolo, Cota, Reguzzoni and chiefly Bossi while Maroni was backed by Giorgetti, Speroni, Zaia and Tosi. However, the alliance with the centre-right continued at the regional/local level (Veneto, Piedmont, Lombardy and others municipalities) after 2011 and has become a virtually permanent feature of Lega Nord's electoral politics. 2008–2011 developments Since 2008, besides the traditional regional divides, the party was increasingly divided among three groups. The first was the so-called "magic circle", that was to say Bossi's inner circle, notably including Marco Reguzzoni, Rosi Mauro and Federico Bricolo. The second was formed around Roberto Calderoli, who was the powerful coordinator of Lega Nord's national secretariats and had among his closest supporters Giacomo Stucchi and Davide Boni. The third one was led by Roberto Maroni, who tended to be more independent from Bossi and was somewhat critical of the centre-right affiliation of the party; and it included Giancarlo Giorgetti, Attilio Fontana, Matteo Salvini and Flavio Tosi. Gian Paolo Gobbo and Luca Zaia, leaders of the party in Veneto, although very loyal to Bossi, tended to be independent from "federal" factions and were engaged in a long power struggle with Flavio Tosi (see Liga Veneta#Factions). Indeed, Corriere della Sera identified four main groups: the magic circle, maroniani, calderoliani and "Venetians" (or, better, Venetists), leaving aside the core independentists (see Lega Nord#Issue-oriented groups). Roberto Cota, leader of Lega Nord Piemont, the third largest national section of Lega Nord, was very close to Bossi and was part of the magic circle, but since his election as President of Piedmont became more independent. Equidistant from the main factions were also Roberto Castelli and Francesco Speroni. By 2011, maroniani clearly became the strongest faction within the party and Maroni, who was acclaimed at the traditional rally in Pontida in June, became Bossi's obvious successor. Maroniani commanded wide support among rank-and-file members and were well represented in all regions, notably including Veneto, where Tosi was loyal to Maroni despite being a conservative-liberal. Maroni and Calderoli, who had been on opposite sides for years, joined forces against the magic circle and its influence on Bossi. After Pontida 2011, Mauro and Reguzzoni tried to convince Bossi to remove Giorgetti from the leadership of Lega Lombarda, but this move was strongly opposed by Maroni and Calderoli, who were supported in this also by Cota and most Venetians. The attempted "coup d'etat" produced an umparalleled backclash against the magic circle: 49 deputies out of 59 wanted to replace Reguzzoni as floor leader in the Chamber of Deputies with Stucchi, but Bossi imposed the status quo. After earning resounding victories in the provincial congresses of Verona, Belluno and eastern Veneto during the first half of 2011, maroniani (with the support of calderoliani) prevailed also in Brescia and Val Camonica, defeating the candidates of the magic circle by landslides. In October, fearing a remake in Varese, his homeprovince, Bossi imposed his candidate, who was declared elected without a vote. In the event, Bossi was openly contested by many delegates at the congress and there had been an open vote, maroniani would have won. These party infightings ended with Bossi's demise in February 2012 (see Lega Nord#From Bossi to Maroni). 2013–2018 developments Since Salvini's rise to leadership in 2013, the party sported the usual regional and ideological divides and especially that between Salvini and Tosi as the former displayed a more populist attitude, strongly opposed the Euro and nominally supported separatism while the latter presented himself as a more centrist figure, supported European integration, was soft on independence and unveiled a liberal program for his intended run in a putative "centre-right prime-ministerial primary election". As leader of Liga Veneta, Tosi, who was ejected from Lega Nord in March 2015, was confronted by the Venetist and separatist wings of the regional party, having in Zaia and Massimo Bitonci their leading members (see Liga Veneta#Factions). Curiously enough, those Venetists did not oppose Salvini's "Italian nationalist" turn. Since 2014, Salvini started to build a network of supporters in central-southern Italy and the Isles with the creation of Us with Salvini, a sister party to Lega Nord. This was broadly accepted by Venetians, but it was increasingly opposed by key Lombard figures, including Bossi, Maroni and Paolo Grimoldi (leader of Lega Lombarda), who criticised the LN's right-wing turn and its focus on the South while reclaiming the federalist and autonomist identity of the LN. In the 2017 leadership election, Salvini easily fended off the challenge posed by Gianni Fava, Lombard minister of Agriculture in the old social-democratic tradition, representing the federalist/autonomist/separatist wing of the party. Fava, who was anti-prohibition of drugs, pro-civil unions for same-sex couples, pro-United States, pro-NATO and anti-National Front ("[it] is one of the most centralist and conservative blocs in Europe, what has it to do with us?"), recalled an old activist saying "let's hurry up in making Padania, that I want to return voting for the left" and added "this was the League and it has to be like this anew". After Marine Le Pen's defeat by Emmanuel Macron in the second round of the French presidential election, Maroni declared that the "tactical and not strategic" alliance with Le Pen, "who wants to go back to national states", was over and that "we should return to our origins of post-ideological movement, neither right nor left". Maroni added that "the League is not right-wing, we have done things in Lombardy that the red regions would dream of, from the baby bonus to the welfare. Typically left-wing policies. For us there are the Lombards, not those of right or left". Finally, reminding Salvini's left-wing roots, he remarked that "those are the origins" and that also Salvini would eventually share his views. More worringly for party's unity, Bossi threatened to leave the party and form an alternative movement with Roberto Bernardelli's Padanian Union. The tensions between Salvini and Maroni culminated in latter's decision not to run for a second term as President of Lombardy in 2018. On that occasion, Maroni was very critical of Salvini in an interview with Il Foglio. As a result, very few maroniani were selected as candidates for the 2018 general election and Fava was also excluded. Bossi, who had not left the party, was selected by Salvini to lead the LN's list for the Senate in Varese, but he was challenged also by Gianluigi Paragone, a former LN member who had switched to the Five Star Movement; and Great North, a party launched by Bernardelli and Marco Reguzzoni. Popular support Support for Lega Nord is diverse even within Padania and has varied over time, reaching an early maximum of 10.1% of the vote at the 1996 general election (around 25% north of the Po River). That year, the League scored 29.3% of the vote in Veneto, 25.5% in Lombardy, 23.2% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 18.2% in Piedmont, 13.2% in Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, 10.2% in Liguria, 7.2% in Emilia-Romagna, 1.8% in Tuscany, 1.5% in the Marche and 1.0% in Umbria. The party got 59 deputies and 27 senators (39 and 19, respectively, in single-seat constituencies), helping the centre-left to win due to its victories in some Northern constituencies characterised by three-way races. The League won barely all the seats in the provinces of the so-called Pedemontana, the area at the feet of the Prealps, from Udine to Cuneo, encompassing Friuli, Veneto, Trentino, Lombardy and Piedmont. Lega Nord is stronger in the areas of the late Republic of Venice and among Catholics. At the 2008 general election, Lega Nord scored 8.3% at the national level, slightly below the result of 1996: 27.1% in Veneto, 21.6% in Lombardy, 13.0% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 12.6% in Piedmont, 9.4% in Trentino-Alto Adige, 7.8% in Emilia-Romagna, 6.8% in Liguria, 2.2% in the Marche, 2.0% in Tuscany and 1.7% in Umbria. At the 2009 European Parliament election, Lega Nord won 10.2% of the vote: 28.4% in Veneto, 22.7% in Lombardy, 17.5% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 15.7% in Piedmont, 9.9% in Trentino-Alto Adige, 11.1% in Emilia-Romagna, 9.9% in Liguria, 5.5% in the Marche, 4.3% in Tuscany and 3.6% in Umbria. At the 2014 European Parliament election, the party scored 15.2% in Veneto and 14.6% in Lombardy. At the 2010 regional elections, the party gained 35.2% of the vote in Veneto, 26.2% in Lombardy, 16.7% in Piedmont, 13.7% in Emilia-Romagna, 10.2% in Liguria, 6.3% in the Marche, 6.5% in Tuscany and 4.3% in Umbria. At the 2014–2015 regional elections, it obtained 40.9% in Veneto, 20.3% in Liguria, 19.4% in Emilia-Romagna, 16.2% in Tuscany, 14.0% in Umbria and 13.0% in Marche, marking its best results so far in those six regions. The 2013 general election was not a good moment for the party, which gained meagre results, e.g. 12.9% in Lombardy and 10.5% in Veneto. Five years later, the party obtained its best results so far in the 2018 general election: 17.4% in Italy, 32.2% in Veneto, 28.0% in Lombardy, 26.7% in Trentino, 25.8% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 22.6% in Piedmont, 20.2% in Umbria, 19.9% in Liguria, 19.2% in Emilia-Romagna, as well as significant results in the South (5–10%). In the 2019 European Parliament election the party again increased its share of the vote: 34.3% in Italy, 49.9% in Veneto, 43.4% in Lombardy, 42.6% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 37.7% in Trentino, 38.2% in Umbria, 38% in Marche, 37.1% in Piedmont, 33.9% in Liguria, 33.8% in Emilia-Romagna, 31.5% in Tuscany, as well as 15-25% in the South. The electoral results of the LN in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1989 are shown in the chart below. Electoral results Italian Parliament European Parliament Regional Councils Electoral results by region The electoral results of Lega Nord (and its predecessors) in northern and north-central regions are shown in the table below. Chamber of Deputies European Parliament Regional Councils Name and symbols Thanks to its use of the figure of Alberto da Giussano—legendary warrior of the Lombard League during the Battle of Legnano—in his iconography and campaigns, the LN has been nicknamed called "il Carroccio" by the Italian media, a reference to a four-wheeled war altar used during the battle. Later on, the "sun of the Alps" was chosen as a symbol of Padanian nationalism. The party also made Va, pensiero by Giuseppe Verdi Padania's "national" anthem. Leadership Federal party Federal Secretary: Umberto Bossi (1989–2012), Roberto Maroni (2012–2013), Matteo Salvini (2013–2020), Igor Iezzi (2020–present, commissioner) Deputy Federal Secretary: Francesco Formenti (1992–1995), Francesco Speroni (1998–1999), Gianpaolo Dozzo (1998–1999), Mario Borghezio (1998–1999), Federico Caner (vicar, 2012–2013), Giacomo Stucchi (2012–2013), Elena Maccanti (2012–2013), Matteo Salvini (2013), Flavio Tosi (2013), Riccardo Molinari (2014–2016), Edoardo Rixi (2014–2016), Giancarlo Giorgetti (2016–2020), Lorenzo Fontana (2016–2020), Andrea Crippa (2019–2020) Coordinator of National Sections/Organisational Secretary: Roberto Calderoli (2002–2020) Coordinator of Federal Secretariat/Legislative Office: Roberto Ronchi (1991–1994), Roberto Maroni (1994–2001), Francesco Speroni (2001–2005), Roberto Maroni (2005–2012), Giacomo Stucchi (2012–2013), Federico Bricolo (2013–2016) Federal President: Marilena Marin (1989–1991), Franco Rocchetta (1991–1994), Stefano Stefani (1995–2002), Luciano Gasperini (2002–2005), Angelo Alessandri (2005–2012), Umberto Bossi (2012–present) Honorary President: Luigi Rossi (1991–1996) Federal Administrative Secretary/Administrator: Alessandro Patelli (1991–1993), Maurizio Balocchi (1993–2010), Francesco Belsito (2010–2012), Stefano Stefani (2012–2014), Giulio Centemero (2014–present) Party Leader in the Chamber of Deputies: Marco Formentini (1992–1993), Roberto Maroni (1993–1994), Pierluigi Petrini (1994–1995), Vito Gnutti (1995–1996), Domenico Comino (1996–1999), Giancarlo Pagliarini (1999–2001), Alessandro Cè (2001–2005), Andrea Gibelli (2005–2006), Roberto Maroni (2006–2008), Roberto Cota (2008–2010), Marco Reguzzoni (2010–2012), Gianpaolo Dozzo (2012–2013), Giancarlo Giorgetti (2013–2014), Massimiliano Fedriga (2014–2018), Giancarlo Giorgetti (2018), Riccardo Molinari (2018–present) Party Leader in the Senate: Francesco Speroni (1992–1994), Francesco Tabladini (1994–1996), Francesco Speroni (1996–1999), Luciano Gasperini (1998–1999), Roberto Castelli (1999–2001), Francesco Moro (2001–2004), Ettore Pirovano (2004–2006), Roberto Castelli (2006–2008), Federico Bricolo (2008–2013), Massimo Bitonci (2013–2014), Gian Marco Centinaio (2014–2018), Massimiliano Romeo (2018–present) Party Leader in the European Parliament: Francesco Speroni (1989–1992), Luigi Moretti (1992–1999), Francesco Speroni (1999–2004), Mario Borghezio (2004–2009), Francesco Speroni (2009–2012), Lorenzo Fontana (2012–2014), Matteo Salvini (2014–2018), Mara Bizzotto (2018–2019), Marco Campomenosi (2019–present) Major national sections Liga Veneta Lega Lombarda Piemont Autonomista/Lega Nord Piemont See also List of regional and minority parties in Europe List of active separatist movements in Europe References Further reading Abbondanza, Gabriele, and Francesco Bailo. "The electoral payoff of immigration flows for anti-immigration parties: the case of Italy’s Lega Nord." European Political Science 17 (2018): 378-403. Albertazzi, Daniele, Arianna Giovannini, and Antonella Seddone. "‘No regionalism please, we are Leghisti!’The transformation of the Italian Lega Nord under the leadership of Matteo Salvini." Regional & Federal Studies 28.5 (2018): 645-671. online Bobba, Giuliano. "Social media populism: features and ‘likeability’ of Lega Nord communication on Facebook." European Political Science 18.1 (2019): 11-23. online Cachafeiro, Margarita Gómez-Reino. Ethnicity and nationalism in Italian politics: inventing the Padania: Lega Nord and the northern question (Routledge, 2017). Donà, Alessia. "Radical right populism and the backlash against gender equality: the case of the Lega (Nord)." Contemporary Italian Politics 13.3 (2021): 296-313. Farris, Sara R., and Francesca Scrinzi. "‘Subaltern victims’ or ‘useful resources’? Migrant women in the Lega Nord ideology and politics." in Gendering Nationalism (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 241-257. Mannheimer, Renato. "The electorate of the Lega Nord." in The End of Post-War Politics in Italy (Routledge, 2019) pp. 85–107. Morini, Marco. "Front National and Lega Nord: two stories of the same Euroscepticism." European Politics and Society 19.1 (2018): 1-19, compares Italy with France Padovani, Cinzia. "Lega Nord and anti-immigrationism: the importance of hegemony critique for social media analysis and protest." International Journal of Communication 12 (2018): 27+ online. Zazzara, Gilda. " 'Italians First': Workers on the Right Amidst Old and New Populisms" International Labor & Working-Class History (2018) Vol. 93, p101-112. External links Official website Movimento Giovani Padani La Padania 1991 establishments in Italy Eurosceptic parties in Italy Federalist parties in Italy Anti-Islam political parties in Europe Member parties of the Identity and Democracy Party Anti-Islam sentiment in Italy Parties represented in the European Parliament Political parties established in 1991 Regionalist parties in Italy Right-wing populist parties Secessionist organizations in Europe Separatism in Italy Right-wing parties in Europe Right-wing politics in Italy Anti-globalization political parties Anti-immigration politics in Europe Padanian nationalist parties Right-wing populism in Italy Conservative parties in Italy

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Society%20for%20the%20Prevention%20of%20Cruelty%20to%20Animals

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is a charity operating in England and Wales that promotes animal welfare. The RSPCA is funded primarily by voluntary donations. Its patron is Queen Elizabeth II. Founded in 1824, it is the oldest and largest animal welfare organisation in the world and is one of the largest charities in the UK. The organisation also does international outreach work across Europe, Africa and Asia. The charity's work has inspired the creation of similar groups in other jurisdictions, starting with the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (founded in 1836), and including the Scottish Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1839), the Dublin Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1840), the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1866), the Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1882), the Singapore Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (1959) and various groups which eventually came together as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Australia (1981), the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) (1997) — formerly known as the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) (1903–1997). History The emergence of the RSPCA has its roots in the intellectual climate of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century in Britain where opposing views were exchanged in print concerning the use of animals. The harsh use and maltreatment of animals in hauling carriages, scientific experiments (including vivisection), and cultural amusements of fox-hunting, bull-baiting and cock fighting were among some of the matters that were debated by social reformers, clergy, and parliamentarians. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there was an unsuccessful attempt by Sir William Pulteney on 18 April 1800 to pass legislation through the British Parliament to ban the practice of bull-baiting. In 1809 Lord Erskine (1750–1823) introduced an anti-cruelty bill which was passed in the House of Lords but was defeated in a vote in the House of Commons. Erskine in his parliamentary speech combined the vocabulary of animal rights and trusteeship with a theological appeal to biblical passages opposing cruelty. A later attempt to pass anti-cruelty legislation was spearheaded by the Irish parliamentarian Richard Martin and in 1822 an anti-cruelty to cattle bill (sometimes called Martin's Act) became law. Martin's Act was supported by various social reformers who were not parliamentarians, and the efforts of the Reverend Arthur Broome (1779–1837) to create a voluntary organisation to promote kindness toward animals resulted in the founding of an informal network. Broome canvassed opinions in letters that were published or summarised in various periodicals in 1821. Broome organised a meeting and extended invitations to various reformers that included parliamentarians, clergy and lawyers. The meeting was held on Wednesday 16 June 1824 in Old Slaughter's Coffee House, London. The meeting was chaired by Thomas Fowell Buxton MP (1786–1845) and the resolution to establish the society was voted on. Among the others who were present as founding members were Sir James Mackintosh MP, Richard Martin, William Wilberforce, Basil Montagu, John Ashley Warre, Rev. George Bonner, Rev. George Avery Hatch, Sir James Graham, John Gilbert Meymott, William Mudford, and Lewis Gompertz. The organisation was founded as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. Broome was appointed as the society's first honorary secretary. The foundation is marked by a plaque on the modern day building at 77–78 St Martin's Lane. The society was the first animal welfare charity to be founded in the world. In 1824 it brought sixty three offenders before the courts. Princess Victoria became the society's patron in 1835, and, as Queen, granted its royal status in 1840 to become the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, as it is today. The origins of the role of the RSPCA inspector stem from Broome's efforts in 1822 to personally bring to court some individuals against whom charges of cruelty were heard. Broome employed and personally paid the salary for an inspector to monitor the abuse of animals at the Smithfield Market. The inspector hired by Broome, Charles Wheeler, served in the capacity of an inspector from 1824 to 1826 but his services were terminated when the society's revenue was exceeded by its debts. The accrued debts led to a suspension of operations when Broome as the society's guarantor for debts was imprisoned. When operations resumed there was some divided opinions in the Committees that steered the society about employing inspectors, which resulted in a resolution in 1832 to discontinue employing an inspector. The permanent appointment of a salaried inspector was settled in 1838, and the inspector is the image best known of the organisation today. Broome's experience of bankruptcy and prison created difficulties for him afterwards and he stood aside as the society's first secretary in 1828 and was succeeded by the co-founding member Lewis Gompertz. Unlike the other founder members who were Christians, Gompertz was a Jew and despite his abilities in campaigning against cruelty, fund-raising and administrative skills, tensions emerged between him and other committee members, due to Gompertz's approach, considered very radical at the time, in opposition to hunting and other forms of using animals he regarded as abusive. The tensions led to the convening of a meeting in early 1832 which led to Gompertz resigning. His resignation coincided with a resolution adopted in 1832 that "the proceedings of the Society were entirely based on the Christian faith and Christian principles." Alongside the society's early efforts to prosecute offenders who maltreated animals, there were efforts made to promote kindly attitudes toward animals through the publication of books and tracts as well as the fostering of annual sermons preached against cruelty on behalf of the society. The first annual anti-cruelty sermon that was preached on behalf of the society was delivered by Rev Dr Rudge in March 1827 at the Whitechapel Church. In 1865 the RSPCA looked for a way to consolidate and further influence public opinion on animal welfare by encouraging an annual "Animal Sunday" church service where clergy would preach sermons on anti-cruelty themes and the very first sermon was delivered in London on 9 July 1865 by Rev. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (1815–1881), the Dean of Westminster. The "Animal Sunday" service became an annual event in different church gatherings in England, which was later adopted by churches in Australia and New Zealand in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and it was the forerunner of the "pet blessing" services that emerged in the 1970s. In the twentieth century the RSPCA widened the horizons in the public domain by promoting an annual "animal welfare week." The RSPCA also had annual accounts published in newspapers, like The Londoner, where the secretary would discuss improvements, report cases, and remind the public to watch over their animals' health. During the second half of 1837 the society sponsored an essay-writing competition with a benefactor offering a prize of one hundred pounds for the winning entry. The terms of the competition stipulated:"The Essay required is one which shall morally illustrate, and religiously enforce, the obligation of man towards the inferior and dependent creatures--their protection and security from abuse, more especially as regards those engaged in service, and for the use and benefit of mankind-on the sin of cruelty--the infliction of wanton or unnecessary pain, taking the subject under its various denominations-exposing the specious defence of vivisection on the ground of its being for the interests of science--the supplying the infinite demands on the poor animal in aid of human speculations by exacting extreme labour, and thereby causing excessive suffering--humanity to the brute as harmonious with the spirit and doctrines of Christianity, and the duty of man as a rational and accountable creature." There were thirty-four essays submitted and in December 1838 the prize was awarded to the Congregational minister Rev John Styles. Styles published his book-length work, The Animal Creation; its claims on our humanity stated and enforced, and all proceeds of sale were donated to the society. Other contestants, such as David Mushet and William Youatt, the society's veterinarian, also published their essays. One entrant whose work was submitted a few days after the competition deadline, and which was excluded from the competition was written by the Unitarian minister William Hamilton Drummond and he published his text in 1838, The Rights of Animals: And Man's Obligation to Treat Them with Humanity. This competition set a precedent for subsequent RSPCA prize-winning competitions. The role of women in the society began shortly after the organisation was founded. At the society's first annual meeting in 1825, which was held at the Crown and Anchor Tavern on 29 June 1825, the public notice that announced the gathering specifically included appropriate accommodation for the presence of women members. Several women of social standing were listed as patronesses of the society, such as the Duchess of Buccleuch, Dowager Marchioness of Salisbury, Dowager Countess Harcourt, Lady Emily Pusey, Lady Eyre and Lady Mackintosh. In 1837 the novelist Catherine Grace Godwin (1798–1845) described in her novel Louisa Seymour an incident where two leading female characters were aghast at the behaviour of a driver abusing a horse pulling a carriage that they subsequently discussed the problem of cruelty with other characters one of whom, called Sir Arthur Beauchamp, disclosed that he was a member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. In 1839 another female supporter of the society, Sarah Burdett, a relative of the philanthropist Angela Burdett-Coutts and a poet, published her theological understanding of the rights of animals. However it was not until 12 July 1870 that the RSPCA Ladies' Committee was established. Through the Ladies Committee various activities were sponsored including essay-prize competitions among children, and the formation of the Band of Mercy as a movement to encourage children to act kindly toward animals. In the nineteenth century the RSPCA fostered international relations on the problem of cruelty through the sponsoring of conferences and in providing basic advice on the establishment of similar welfare bodies in North America and in the colonies of the British Empire. The RSPCA celebrated its jubilee in June 1874 by holding an International Congress on Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and Queen Victoria delivered a letter of congratulations to the RSPCA on its anniversary. Although the society was founded by people who were mostly Christian social reformers, and in 1832 presented itself as a Christian charity concerned with welfare as well as moral reform, the RSPCA gradually developed into a non-religious, non-sectarian animal welfare charity. The RSPCA lobbied Parliament throughout the nineteenth century, resulting in a number of new laws. The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 amended Martin's Act and outlawed baiting. There was a public groundswell of opinions that were divided into opposing factions concerning vivisection, where Charles Darwin (1809–1882) campaigned on behalf of scientists to conduct experiments on animals while others, such as Frances Power Cobbe (1822–1904) formed an anti-vivisection lobby. The stance adopted by the RSPCA was one of qualified support for legislation. This qualified support for experiments on animals was at odds with the stance taken by Society's founder Broome who had in 1825 sought medical opinions about vivisection and he published their anti-vivisection sentiments. It was also a departure from the 1837 essay-competition (discussed above) where the essayists were obliged to expose "the specious defence of vivisection on the ground of its being for the interests of science." In 1876 the Cruelty to Animals Act was passed to control animal experimentation. In 1911 Parliament passed Sir George Greenwood's Animal Protection Act. Since that time the RSPCA has continued to play an active role, both in the creation of animal welfare legislation and in its enforcement. An important recent new law has been the Animal Welfare Act 2006. During the First World War the RSPCA provided support for the Army Veterinary Corps in treating animals such as donkeys, horses, dogs and birds that were co-opted into military service as beasts of burden, messengers and so forth. However, the RSPCA estimates that 484,143 horses, mules, camels and bullocks were killed in British service during the war. The RSPCA's centenary in 1924 and its one hundred and fiftieth anniversary in 1974 were accompanied by books telling the society's story. Since the end of the Second World War the development of intense agricultural farming practices has raised many questions for public debate concerning animal welfare legislation and the role of the RSPCA. This development has included debates both inside the RSPCA (e.g. the RSPCA Reform Group) as well as among ethicists, social activists and supporters of claims for animal rights outside of it concerning the society's role in ethical and legal issues involving the use of animals. Animal welfare establishments RSPCA centres, hospitals and branches operate throughout England and Wales. In 2012 RSPCA centres and branches assisted and rehomed 55,459 animals. Hospitals In 2013 the society owned four animal hospitals, Birmingham, Greater Manchester, Putney (south London) and the Harmsworth Memorial Hospital in Finsbury Park (north London), and a number of clinics which provide treatments to those who could not otherwise afford it, neuter animals and accept animals from the RSPCA inspectorate. Centres RSPCA animal centres deal with a wide range of injured and rescued animals, working alongside its inspectorate, volunteers, and others to ensure that each animal is found a new home. There are currently 17 RSPCA animal centres across the UK and a further 42 centres ran independently by Branches. In 2013 the society had four wildlife centres at East Winch (Norfolk), West Hatch (Somerset), Stapeley Grange (Cheshire) and Mallydams Wood (East Sussex), which provide treatment to sick, injured and orphaned wild animals to maximise their chances of a successful return to the wild. Organisation and structure National organisation At the national level, there is a 'National Control Centre', which receives all calls from members of the public, and tasks local Inspectors, some information AWOs or ACOs to respond to urgent calls. Additionally the £16 million 'National Headquarters' located at Southwater in West Sussex houses several general 'Departments', each with a departmental head, consistent with the needs of any major organisation. The current Chief Executive Officer is Chris Sherwood. Regions There are five 'Regions' (North, East, Wales & West, South & South West, South East), each headed by a Regional Manager (responsible for all staff and RSPCA HQ facilities) assisted by a Regional Superintendent who has responsibility for the Chief Inspectors, Inspectors, AWOs and ACOs. The Regional Managers are expected to have a broad understanding of operations throughout their regions. Branches RSPCA branches operate locally across England and Wales. Branches are separately registered charities operating at a local level and are run by volunteers. Some RSPCA branches are self-funding and raise money locally to support the animal welfare work they do. They find homes for about three-quarters of all animals taken in by the RSPCA. RSPCA branches also offer advice, microchipping, neutering and subsidised animal treatments. In 2013 there were also about 1000 RSPCA shops. Groups Each Region of the RSPCA contains 'Groups' of Inspectorate staff. A Group is headed by a Chief Inspector. Each Chief Inspector might typically be responsible for around 8 or more Inspectors, 3 Animals Welfare Officers (AWOs) and 2 Animal Collection Officers (ACOs), working with several local Branches. There are also a small number of Market Inspectors across the country. Inspectorate rank insignia Mission statement and charitable status The RSPCA is a registered charity (no. 219099) that relies on donations from the public. The RSPCA states that its mission as a charity is, by all lawful means, to prevent cruelty, promote kindness and to alleviate the suffering of animals. RSPCA inspectors respond to calls from the public to investigate alleged mistreatment of animals. They offer advice and assistance to improve animal welfare, and in some cases prosecute under laws such as the Animal Welfare Act 2006. Animals rescued by the RSPCA are treated, rehabilitated and rehomed or released wherever possible. The RSPCA brings private prosecution (a right available to any civilian) against those it believes, based on independent veterinary opinion, have caused neglect to an animal under laws such as the Animal Welfare Act 2006. The society has its own legal department and veterinary surgeons amongst the resources which facilitate such private prosecutions. All prosecutions are brought via independent solicitors acting for the RSPCA, as the association has no legal enforcement powers or authority in its own right. In May 2012 the RSPCA launched their own mobile virtual network operator service, RSPCA Mobile in partnership with MVNO whitelabel service Shebang. RSPCA Mobile claimed to be the first charity mobile phone network in the UK. The agreement included provisions such that the RSPCA would receive up to 15% of top-ups made on the network and it was expected the network would raise £50,000 in the first year of operations. RSPCA Mobile ceased service in October 2014. Legal standing In 1829 when the first recognisable police force was established in England, they adopted a similar uniform to that of RSPCA inspectors who had been wearing uniforms since the charity's beginning in 1824. This adoption has led to similarities in the RSPCA rank names and rank insignia with British police ranks, which has led some critics (such as Chris Newman, chairman of the Federation of Companion Animal Societies) to suggest an attempt to "adopt" police powers in the public imagination. An RSPCA inspector may also verbally caution a member of the public, similar to that used by the police, i.e. "You do not have to say anything. But it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence"; this may strengthen the perception that the RSPCA has statutory powers. When Richard Girling of The Times asked about their lack of powers, a spokesman for the RSPCA said "We would prefer you didn’t publish that, but of course it's up to you". Chris Newman claimed that the RSPCA "impersonate police officers and commit trespass. People do believe they have powers of entry"; however, he did not produce any evidence of such impersonation of police officers, and the society strongly deny the charge of impersonation. Sally Case, former head of prosecutions, insisted that RSPCA inspectors are trained specifically to make clear to pet-owners that they have no such right. They act without an owner's permission, she says, "only if an animal is suffering in a dire emergency. If the court feels evidence has been wrongly obtained, it can refuse to admit it". In 2012, a trial was halted and charges relating to nine dogs were thrown out of court after District Judge Elsey ruled that they had been wrongly seized, stating that the police and RSPCA acted unlawfully when they seized the animals without a warrant or a vet present to establish any suffering. While the Protection of Animals Act 1911 provided a power of arrest for police, the British courts determined that Parliament did not intend any other organisation, such as the RSPCA, to be empowered under the Act and that the RSPCA therefore does not possess police-like powers of arrest, of entry or of search (Line v RSPCA, 1902). Like any other person or organisation that the law deems to have a duty to investigate — such as HM Revenue and Customs and Local Authority Trading Standards — the RSPCA is expected to conform to the rules in the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 so far as they relate to matters of investigation. RSPCA officers are trained to state, following giving the caution, that the person is "not under arrest and can leave at any time". The Animal Welfare Act 2006 has now replaced the Protection of Animals Act 1911, and it empowers the police and an inspector appointed by a local authority. Such inspectors are not to be confused with RSPCA Inspectors who are not appointed by local authorities. In cases where, for example, access to premises without the owner's consent is sought, a local authority or Animal Health inspector or police officer may be accompanied by an RSPCA inspector if he or she is invited to do so, as was the case in previous law. Following a series of Freedom of Information requests in 2011, to police constabularies throughout England and Wales it was revealed that the RSPCA has developed local information sharing protocols with a number of constabularies, allowing designated RSPCA workers access to confidential information held on the Police National Computer (PNC). Although RSPCA workers do not have direct access to the PNC, information is shared with them by the various police constabularies which would reveal any convictions, cautions, warnings, reprimands and impending prosecutions. Information regarding motor vehicles can also be accessed. The Association of Chief Police Officers released a statement clarifying that the RSPCA had no direct access to the PNC, and that in common with other prosecuting bodies, it may make a request for disclosure of records. This indirect access does not include any information that the RSPCA does not need in order to prosecute a case at court. Controversy and criticism Fund-raising in Scotland The RSPCA has been criticised by the Scottish SPCA for fund-raising in Scotland and thereby "stealing food from the mouths of animals north of the border by taking donations intended for Scotland." The RSPCA insists that it does not deliberately advertise in Scotland but that many satellite channels only enabled the organisation to purchase UK-wide advertising. In a statement, the RSPCA said it went "to great lengths" to ensure wherever possible that adverts were not distributed outside England and Wales, and "Every piece of printed literature, television advertising and internet banner advertising always features the wording 'The RSPCA is a charity registered in England and Wales. "All Scottish donors, who contact us via RSPCA fundraising campaigns, are directed to the Scottish SPCA so that they can donate to them if they so wish." The Scottish SPCA changed its logo in 2005 to make a clearer distinction between itself and the RSPCA in an attempt to prevent legacies being left to its English equivalent by mistake when the Scottish charity was intended. Political lobbying The RSPCA is an opponent of badger culling; in 2006 there was controversy about a "political" campaign against culling, with the Charity Commission being asked to consider claims that the charity had breached guidelines by being too overtly 'political'. The charity responded saying that it took "careful account of charity law and the guidance issued by the Charity Commission". Years later, an advertisement published by the RSPCA in the Metro newspaper said: "The UK Government wants to shoot England's badgers. We want to vaccinate them – and save their lives." However, more than 100 people complained to the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), saying the use of the term "exterminate" was misleading. The advertising standards watchdog judged that the advert was likely to mislead the general public who had not taken an active interest in the badger cull saying, "The ad must not appear again in its current form. We told the RSPCA not to use language that implied the whole badger population in the cull areas would be culled in future advertising." An RSPCA spokesman said it "welcomed" the judgement of the ASA to dismiss three of the areas of complaint about their advert but "respectfully disagreed" with the complaint which had been upheld. In September 2013 the RSPCA deputy chairman Paul Draycott said that 'too political' campaigns threatened the charity's future and could deter donors. Draycott said that the RSPCA could go insolvent "We have spent months discussing where we want to be in 10 years time, but unless we develop a strategy for now we won't be here then". In response the chairman Mike Tomlinson said "The trustee body continues to place its full support behind the RSPCA's chief executive, management and all our people who do such outstanding work". The accusations of politicization remain unsubstantiated. Paul Draycott also warned that the RSPCA fears an exodus of "disillusioned staff" with "poor or even non-existent management training and career paths" for employees. In response the RSPCA's chief executive, Gavin Grant denied suggestions in the memo that there was "no strategy" in some areas, stating that there was no difficulty in attracting trustees or serious internal concerns about management. In June 2014 RSPCA campaigner Peta Watson-Smith compared the conditions livestock are brought up in across the country to that of the Jews during the Holocaust. The comments were condemned by countryside campaigners and Jewish groups. In 2015 Peta Watson-Smith was elected to the RSPCA ruling council. At the same election the RSPCA members also voted to give a seat on the ruling council to Dan Lyons. In 2016 the new head of the RSPCA, Jeremy Cooper, made a dramatic, public apology for the charity's past mistakes and vowed to be less political and bring fewer prosecutions in the future. The new Chief Executive admitted that RSPCA had become "too adversarial" and will now be "a lot less political". Mr Cooper said that the charity had alienated farmers in its aggressive campaign against the Government's badger cull and disclosed that it would be "very unlikely" to ever bring another prosecution against a hunt. CEO Jeremy Cooper later resigned after just on year in charge. In April 2019 the RSPCA has faced a new fraud investigation held at south-east London branch over the alleged mishandling of funds by two men, who were arrested on suspicion of fraud. The suspected fraud was exposed during a financial audit of the south-east London branch. Euthanasia controversies The RSPCA also state that whilst a few of their own branches operate "no kill" policies themselves, its policy on euthanasia is: There have been incidents where the RSPCA has apologised for decisions to euthanise animals. In 2008, the RSPCA was sued by Hindu monks over the killing of a sacred cow at the Bhaktivedanta Manor Hindu temple in Hertfordshire and 200 people protested at the RSPCA headquarters. On 13 December 2008, the RSPCA admitted culpability, apologised for the euthanising of the cow, and donated a pregnant cow to the temple as a symbol of reconciliation. The RSPCA admitted that in 2014 it had euthanised 205 healthy horses. In one particular case 12 horses from a Lancashire farm that had been assessed by vets as being "bright, alert and responsive" and suffering no life-threatening issues were killed by the RSPCA. Prosecutions In May 2013 former RSPCA employee Dawn Aubrey-Ward was found hanged at her home when suffering from depression after leaving the animal charity. Aubrey-Ward was described by The Daily Telegraph as a whistleblower for the RSPCA's prosecution practices. The RSPCA subsequently had a meeting with the Charity Commission over its approach to prosecutions. On 7 August 2013 the BBC Radio 4 Face the Facts radio programme broadcast an episode called "The RSPCA – A law unto itself?" The programme presented a number of cases of where the RSPCA has sought to hound vets and expert witnesses who had appeared in court for the defence in RSPCA prosecutions. In one case it sought to discredit the author of the RSPCA Complete Horse Care Manual (Vogel) after he appeared as an expert witness for the defence team in an RSPCA prosecution. The RSPCA later released a statement saying that this is untrue and that they do not persecute vets and lawyers who appear for the defence and as defence experts. There have been thousands of lawyers taking defence cases against the RSPCA and they have only ever made a complaint about one. In November 2013 the RSPCA was accused of instigating police raids on small animal shelters with insufficient evidence that animals were being mistreated. The owners claimed that they were being persecuted because of their "no kill" policy of only putting animals down if they cannot be effectively treated. The RSPCA stated that their inspectors will offer advice and guidance to help people improve conditions for their animals, and it only seeks the help of the police where it considers there is no reasonable alternative to safeguard animal welfare. Governance The RSPCA has long been criticised for its governance with the Charity Commission describing its governance as below the standard expected of a large charity and in August 2018 issued the Society with an official warning. The RSPCA made significant changes to its governance in 2019 reducing the size of its council from 28 trustees to a new board of trustees of 12 trustees with nine elected by the membership and three co-opted. The RSPCA also introduced term limits of nine years for its trustees and appointed its first independent Chair, Rene Olivieri, in its 196 years of history. See also Humane society Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) Eurogroup for Animals represents organisations such as the RSPCA at the European Union level Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (links to other SPCA organizations worldwide) Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) — formerly Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Hong Kong) from 1903 to 1997 Animal welfare in the United Kingdom Animal ethics Animal rights Cruelty to animals Bibliography Antony Brown, Who Cares For Animals: 150 years of the RSPCA (London: Heinemann, 1974). Li Chien-hui, "A Union of Christianity, Humanity, and Philanthropy: The Christian Tradition and the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Nineteenth-Century England," Society and Animals 8/3 (2000): 265–285. Edward G. Fairholme and Wellesley Pain, A Century of Work For Animals: The History of the RSPCA, 1824–1934 (London: John Murray, 1934). Lori Gruen, Ethics and Animals: An Introduction (Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011). Hilda Kean, Animal Rights: Political and Social Change in Britain since 1800 (London: Reaktion Books, 2000). Shevawn Lynam, Humanity Dick Martin 'King of Connemara' 1754–1834 (Dublin: Lilliput Press, 1989). Vaughan Monamy, Animal Experimentation: A Guide to the Issues (Cambridge UK; New York:Cambridge University Press, 2000). Arthur W. Moss, Valiant Crusade: The History of the RSPCA (London: Cassell, 1961). Harriet Ritvo, The Animal Estate: The English and Other Creatures in the Victorian Age (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1987). Richard D. Ryder, Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes Towards Speciesism Rev Ed (Oxford; New York: Berg, 2000). Kathryn Shevelow, For The Love of Animals: The Rise of the Animal Protection Movement (New York: Henry Holt, 2008). References External links RSPCA YouTube channel 1824 establishments in the United Kingdom Animal charities based in the United Kingdom Animal welfare organisations based in the United Kingdom Organisations based in the United Kingdom with royal patronage Organisations based in West Sussex Organizations established in 1824 Royal charities of the United Kingdom

357398

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxo%20Tower

Oxo Tower

The Oxo Tower is a building with a prominent tower on the south bank of the River Thames in London. The building has mixed use as Oxo Tower Wharf containing a set of design, arts and crafts shops on the ground and first floors with two galleries, Bargehouse and Gallery@oxo. The Oxo Tower Restaurant, Bar and Brasserie is on the eighth floor, which is the roof-top level with fine and casual dining. In addition to this, situated on the eighth floor is a viewing gallery open to the public. The third to seventh floors contain 78 flats owned by Redwood Housing. Much of the second floor can be hired out for events and weddings. Location Oxo Tower Wharf is in the east of London's South Bank cultural area in the London Borough of Southwark. A continuous riverside walkway passes in front of the building, and links it with other riverside attractions such as the Festival Hall, the National Theatre, the Tate Modern and the Globe Theatre. The building is flanked to the west by Bernie Spain Gardens and Gabriel's Wharf, and to the east by Sea Containers House. When viewing the tower, there are only a few places in which it can be seen. These include the Observation Point, the adjacent riverside walkway, the green at the back of the tower, and the two piers stood in front of the tower. History The building was originally constructed as a power station to supply electricity to the Royal Mail post office, built towards the end of the 19th century. It was subsequently acquired by the Liebig Extract of Meat Company in the 1920s, manufacturers of Oxo beef stock cubes, for conversion into a cold store. The building was largely rebuilt to an Art Deco design by company architect Albert Moore between 1928 and 1929. Much of the original power station was demolished, but the river facing facade was retained and extended. Liebig wanted to include a tower featuring illuminated signs advertising the name of their product. When permission for the advertisements was refused, the tower was built with four sets of three vertically-aligned windows, each of which "coincidentally" happened to be in the shapes of a circle, a cross and a circle. This was significant because skyline advertising was banned at the time along Southbank. Despite these windows being the building's architectural focal point, there is no general public access to the tower which is restricted to maintenance tradesmen. Liebig and the building were eventually purchased by the Vestey Group. For a long time the building was left derelict until the late 1970s and early 1980s where there were several proposals to demolish the building and develop it and the adjacent Coin Street site, but these were met with strong local opposition and two planning inquiries were held. Although permission for redevelopment was granted, the support of the Greater London Council (GLC) finally resulted in the tower and adjoining land being sold to the GLC in 1984 for £2.7m—who sold the entire site to the non-profit Coin Street Community Builders for just £750,000. In the 1990s the tower was refurbished to a design by Lifschutz Davidson to include housing, a restaurant, shops and exhibition space. The tower won the Royal Fine Art Commission/BSkyB Building of the Year Award for urban regeneration in 1997, the RIBA Award for Architecture also in 1997, the Brick Development Association Award 1997, Civic Trust Award 1998 and The Waterfront Center USA Honor Award 2000. It includes hireable space and floors devoted to occupation. Regardless of the tower's historical significance and multiple awards, it is yet to be classed as a listed building. Coin Street Community Builders Coin Street Community Builders (CSCB) is a social enterprise and development trust which has redeveloped London's South Bank. CSCB has reconstructed the surrounding 13 acres into co-operative homes, shops, galleries, restaurants, cafes and bars; a park and riverside walkway; sports facilities; by organising festivals and events; and by providing childcare, family support, learning, and enterprise support programmes. Income is generated from a variety of sources including the hire of retail and catering spaces, event spaces, meeting room spaces and conference venue spaces as well as the provision of consultancy services. The Bargehouse 2016 7-9 October, final exhibition Celeste Prize 2016, 8th edition, curated by Ellen Blumenstein (KW Institute for Contemporary Art, Berlin), jurors: Juliana Bardolim, Marc Bembekoff, Sandro Droschl, Chris Fitzpatrick, Martin Germann, Felix Hoffmann, Chiara Ianeselli, Marianna Liosi, Zane Onckule, Barbara Piwowarska, Alya Sebti, Moritz Wesseler. 23,000 € prizes awarded to winners, Laure Catugier (Video), Jay Harrison (Installation), Markus Hoffmann (Installation), Kal Karim (Photography), Krysia Kordecki (Installation), Flavia Pitis (Painting). Gallery@oxo The gallery located at the bottom of the Oxo Tower Wharf is known for its photography, contemporary design, architecture and issue-based exhibitions. Restaurant The Oxo Tower is also famous for Harvey Nichols' very first restaurant. The tower's popular Restaurant, Bar and Brasserie opened in September 1996. See also Tall buildings in London References External links Architectural information at Lifschutz Davidson Sandilands website Coin Street Community Builders Oxo Tower Wharf Oxo Tower Restaurant Exhibitions at Oxo Tower Wharf Design shops at Oxo Tower Wharf Commercial buildings completed in 1900 Art Deco architecture in London Contemporary art galleries in London Residential buildings in London Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark Redevelopment projects in London Observation towers in the United Kingdom Recipients of Civic Trust Awards Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Southwark

357399

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil%20sticks

Devil sticks

The manipulation of the devil stick (also devil-sticks, devilsticks, flower sticks, stunt sticks, gravity sticks, or juggling sticks) is a form of gyroscopic juggling or equilibristics, consisting of manipulating one stick ("baton", 'center stick') between one or two other sticks held one in each hand. The baton is lifted, struck, or stroked by the two control sticks ('handsticks', 'sidesticks', or 'handles'), stabilizing the baton through gyroscopic motion. Manipulating devil sticks is one of the circus arts and is sometimes called devil-sticking, twirling, sticking, or stick juggling. History Devil sticks are believed to have originated in China in the distant past, in the form of simple wooden juggling sticks. It was apparently brought to Britain sometime around 1813, when a publication mentioned that previous generations had not known of it. The first scientific analysis of the physics of the game, called "the Devil on Two Sticks," was published in 1855 by Benjamin Peirce. Variants Devil sticks vary widely in size and construction materials, but the batons are generally based on one of two basic designs: tapered and straight. Tapered batons are tapered from the ends towards the middle such that the middle is thinner than the ends. Straight batons are uniform in width but have weights attached to the ends. Rarely, a hybrid design consisting of a tapered baton with weights attached to the ends is used. Devil sticks are usually constructed of wood, plastic, aluminum, or composite materials such as fiberglass or carbon fiber. They are most often covered with an elastomer that both increases the friction coefficient (grip) between the baton and handles as well as providing some protection against repeated drops. Infrequently, other coverings such as cloth, suede, or leather are used. Even more rarely, a vinyl or mylar covering which reduces the stick's "grip" is used. Flower sticks have flower-shaped ends which slow down the movement of the baton and make learning some moves and tricks easier. Heavier and floppier ends allow for greater control by expanding the sweet spot with more weight and increasing the duration of the control phase of a stroke or lift due to the momentum and continued motion of the 'flop' or 'tassel' on the ends of the central baton. Fire devil sticks (also known as firesticks) typically have an aluminum core and have fuel-soaked wicks on the ends to allow them to be set on fire for visual effect. Both flower and non-flower versions of firesticks exist. Illuminated devilsticks can create interesting visual effects in darkness with the use of battery-powered electric 'seed' bulbs; LEDs; or with phosphorescent or chemiluminescent materials. Gallery See also Diabolo Dexterity play References External links DevilStick.org Physical activity and dexterity toys Twirling

357404

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%20Kaggwa

Apollo Kaggwa

Sir Apollo Kagwa (standard Luganda orthography spelling Kaggwa) (1864–1927) was a major intellectual and political leader in Uganda when it was under British rule. He was a leader of the Protestant faction and was appointed prime minister (Katikkiro) of the Kingdom of Buganda by King Mwanga II in 1890. He served until 1926. Kagwa served as regent from 1897 until 1914 when the infant King Daudi Chwa came of age. He was Buganda's first and foremost ethnographer. Career Kagwa was an administrative apprentice at the royal palace of Buganda when the first Christian missionaries arrived in the 1870s. These palace apprentices, referred to as pages by European historians of the era, were bright youths from all over the kingdom sent to the palace to train as the next generation of leaders. He was one of the earliest converts to the Protestant faith. He nearly became one of the Uganda Martyrs when King Mwanga II fell out with the Christians a few years later. He was reportedly spared execution because he had already shown himself to be exceptionally capable as an assistant in the treasury. From 1885 to 1887, the kingdom fell into a religious civil war with Protestants, Catholics, and Moslem factions vying for control. Kagwa, still in his twenties, was from early on recognised as the leader of the Protestant faction. A keen rifleman, Kagwa served actively in combat during these wars. The Moslems were in ascendancy in the early part of the war, and Kagwa and other Protestants spent some time in exile in the neighboring kingdom of Ankole. Prime minister King Mwanga, temporarily deposed, was restored in 1890 with the assistance of the Protestants, and Kagwa was named Katikkiro (Prime Minister). King Mwanga was again deposed in 1897 when he chose to reject foreign influence and fought an unsuccessful war with the British. An infant prince, Daudi Chwa, was named King (Kabaka) with Kagwa as one of three regents. Kagwa was one of the negotiators of the Uganda Agreement, by which Buganda became a British protectorate with limited internal autonomy. The Uganda Agreement of 1900 solidified the power of the largely Protestant 'Bakungu' client-chiefs, led by Kagwa. London sent only a few officials to administer the country, relying primarily on the 'Bakungu' chiefs. For decades they were preferred because of their political skills, their Christianity, their friendly relations with the British, There are their ability to collect taxes, and the proximity of Entebbe (the capital) was close to the Buganda capital. By The 1920s the British administrators were more confident, and have less need for military or administrative support. Colonial officials taxed cash crops produced by the peasants. There was popular discontent among the Baganda rank-and-file, which we can the position of their leaders. In 1912 Kagwa moved to solidify 'Bakungu' power by proposing a second 'Lukiko' for Buganda with himself as president and the 'Bakungu' as a sort of hereditary aristocracy. British officials vetoed the idea when they discovered widespread popular opposition. Instead British officials began some reforms and attempted to make the 'Lukiko' a genuine representative assembly. Travels He visited England in 1902 in his capacity as Katikkiro (Prime Minister), for the coronation of King Edward VII, accompanied by his secretary, Ham Mukasa. Books Kagwa authored many books on Buganda, including a general history Bassekabaka ba Buganda, a treatise on laws and customs Empisa z'Abaganda and a collection of folklore Engero z'Abaganda. His history of Buganda included brief histories of the neighboring kingdoms of Bunyoro and Ankole. Some of his books have been translated into English. Career He was a strong supporter of the establishment of modern education in Uganda. In particular, he was appalled by what he saw as a tendency of the sons of the nation's leaders to grow up spoiled, in contrast to the spartan upbringing his generation received from the palace apprenticeship system. He worked with British missionaries to establish boarding schools, notably King's College Budo, explicitly to keep young noblemen from growing up spoiled. In 1918, he was made an honorary member of the Order of the British Empire for services in raising and organising native levies and local Defence Corps in the Uganda Protectorate. Personal life He had 23 children, including Michael Kawalya Kagwa (who served as Buganda's Katikiro from 1945 to 1950) Quotes about Kaggwa "… it was Kaggwa more than anyone else whom Mwanga abhorred. His personal contribution to Mwanga’s downfall is therefore enormous, as Mwanga himself pointed out in more than one letter." MM Semakula Kiwanuka "... and just as Queen Elizabeth I had bestowed a knighthood on a notorious pirate, Francis Drake, so had King Edward VII bestowed a knighthood on Apolo Kaggwa. Sir Francis Drake and Sir Apolo Kaggwa were both predators and were honoured for their vices. Francis Drake delivered stolen Spanish gold and silver bullion and Apolo Kaggwa delivered Buganda’s sovereignty." Samwiri Lwanga-Lunyiigo, Mwanga II (2011), page 2 "The real head of the country, British officials excepted, is Apolo Kagwa, the Prime Minister or Katikiro. The page-boy who bore the scars of Mwanga's rage has developed into a leader in war and a ruler in peace whose force of peace and character and genuine Christianity have made him a power for good." JD Mullins, The Wonderful Story of Uganda (1908), page 115. Bibliography of his writings Kagwa, Apolo. The customs of the Baganda (Columbia University Press, 1934). Kagwa, Apolo. The kings of Buganda (East African Publishing House, 1971). References Further reading Mukasa, Ham. Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain (Heinemann Educational Books, 1975). Primary sources Kagwa, Sir Apolo. Select Documents and Letters from the Collected Apolo Kagwa Papers at Makerere College Library (Makerere University College Library, Photographic Department, 1964). 1864 births 1927 deaths Converts to Protestantism Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George Members of the Order of the British Empire Ugandan politicians Ethnographers Buganda

357408

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flxible

Flxible

The Flxible Co. (pronounced "flexible") was an American manufacturer of motorcycle sidecars, funeral cars, ambulances, intercity coaches and transit buses, based in the U.S. state of Ohio. It was founded in 1913 and closed in 1996. The company's production transitioned from highway coaches and other products to transit buses over the period 1953–1970, and during the years that followed, Flxible was one of the largest transit-bus manufacturers in North America. History In 1913, Hugo H. Young and Carl F. Dudte founded the Flexible Side Car Company in Loudonville, Ohio, to manufacture motorcycle sidecars with a flexible mounting to the motorcycle. The flexible mounting allowed the sidecar to lean on corners along with the motorcycle, and was based on a design patented by Young. In 1919, the company dropped the first "E" in "flexible" and changed its name to The Flxible Company as the business looked for new opportunities to expand. After low-priced automobiles became available in the 1920s, the motorcycle sidecar demand dropped and in 1924, Flxible turned to production of funeral cars (hearses), and ambulances, which were primarily manufactured on Buick chassis, but also occasionally on Studebaker, Cadillac and REO chassis, and intercity buses, initially (1930s and early 1940s) built on GMC truck chassis, and powered with Buick Straight 8 engines. Charles Kettering and General Motors Charles Kettering, a Loudonville, Ohio native and vice president of General Motors, was closely associated with Flxible for almost the entire first half of the company's existence. In 1914, Flxible was incorporated with the help of Kettering, who then became president of the company and joined the board of directors. Kettering provided significant funding for the company in its early years, particularly after 1916, when Kettering sold his firm, the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company (Delco), to GM for $2.5 million. Kettering continued to serve as president of Flxible, until he became chairman of the board in 1940, a position he held until his death in 1958. After selling Delco to GM in 1916, Kettering organized and ran a research laboratory at GM, and by the 1950s, held the position of vice president at GM. As a result of Kettering's close relationship with both GM and Flxible, many GM parts were used in the production of Flxible vehicles, particularly prior to GM's 1943 purchase of Yellow Coach (a competing bus manufacturer, of which GM had been a majority owner since 1925). For example, most Flxible ambulances, hearses, and buses from the mid-1920s to the early 1940s were built on Buick chassis, and Flxible's "Airway" model buses of the mid-1930s were built on a Chevrolet chassis. In 1958, and as a result of the consent decree from the 1956 anti-trust case, United States v. General Motors Corp., GM was mandated to sell their bus components, engines, and transmissions to other manufacturers, free of royalties. However, in the early 1950s and prior to the consent decree, Flxible built a small number of buses with GM diesel engines while Kettering still served on the board. It has been postulated that GM may have made its diesel engines available to Flxible to reduce the criticisms of GM's business practices that some felt were monopolistic. The same has been said about GM's decision in the 1960s and 1970s not to produce a "New Look" transit bus with an 8-cylinder engine. However, it is also possible that GM chose not to enter this market because the potential sales did not warrant the added costs of engineering and production. Another result of the consent decree (which was not settled in its entirety until 1965) was that GM was barred from having any of its officers or directors serve as an officer or director for any other bus manufacturing company. This provision would have applied to Kettering, had he not died in 1958. Bus manufacturing In 1953, Flxible absorbed the bus-manufacturing portion of the Fageol Twin Coach Company, and accepted its first order for transit buses from the Chicago Transit Authority. In 1964, Flxible purchased Southern Coach Manufacturing Co. of Evergreen, Alabama, and built small transit buses at the former Southern Coach factory until 1976. Flxible was purchased by Rohr Industries in 1970, and a new factory and corporate headquarters were built in Delaware, Ohio, in 1974, with the original factory in Loudonville, Ohio, being used to manufacture parts and sub-assemblies. Flxible was sold to Grumman Corporation in 1978 and became known as Grumman Flxible. The name reverted to Flxible when Grumman sold the company in 1983 to General Automotive Corporation. In 1996, Flxible declared bankruptcy and its assets were auctioned. The last Flxible vehicles were produced in 1995. 870 "A" frame problems In the mid-1980s, several Grumman 870 buses operated by the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) developed cracks in their "A" shaped underframes. This prompted NYCTA President David Gunn to remove the entire fleet from service. Soon, several other companies reported cracked 870 "A" frames. However, the frame issues primarily affected NYCTA 870s and not the 870s owned by the franchisees of the New York City Department of Transportation, which were the first buses built with the problem rectified the following year. NYCTA attempted to get the remainder of its pending order for new buses transferred to GM, but was barred from doing so unless they could prove that the 870s were flawed and unsafe. The buses were eventually returned to Flxible, and were rebuilt and resold to Queen City Metro and New Jersey Transit. Grumman blamed the problems with the NYCTA 870s on NYCTA's poor maintenance practices at the time, despite the fact that transit operations in Chicago, Connecticut Transit, Houston, Los Angeles and Orange County, California had also reported problems with their 870s. Regardless, NYCTA ordered fifty Metros in 1995, but Flxible closed its doors before the order was produced, and NYCTA obtained the remaining new buses from Orion instead. Last transit buses in service By the mid-2010s, very few transit systems were still operating any Flxible buses. Portland, Oregon's TriMet retired its last Flxible buses in May 2015, after which the only known continued use of Flxible buses in service was by Charleston Area Regional Transportation Authority (CARTA) in Charleston, South Carolina, and by Metro Transit in Omaha, Nebraska. However, Omaha ordered replacement buses in summer 2018 and retired its last Flxible buses before the end of that year. Subsequently, CARTA retired its last Flxible buses in October 2019. Engineering Program Flxible implemented a CAD program "CATIA" in the late 1990s to support production design. They were one of the first customers of IBM/Dassault. Production outside the United States Flxible's intercity buses were popular in Mexico and in Latin American countries. However, high import duties into these countries limited sales. In the early 1960s, Flxible began licensing a producer in Mexico, DINA S.A. (Diesel Nacional), to manufacture Flxible-designed intercity coaches, and this continued until the late 1980s. In 1965 and 1966, Flxible also licensed its "New Look" transit bus design to Canadair Ltd., an aircraft manufacturer in Ville St-Laurent, Quebec. In 1994, Flxible's parent company, General Automotive Corporation, and three other American companiesRoger Penske, Mark IV Industries, and Carrierentered into a joint venture with Changzhou Changjiang Bus, a Chinese manufacturer located in Changzhou, Jiangsu province, to produce buses based on the Flxible Metro design and with the Flxible name. The resulting company, China Flxible Auto Corporation, manufactured buses in a variety of lengths, from to . These buses, which include both front- and rear-engine designs, and share only their general exterior appearance with the American-built Flxibles, were sold to many transit operators in major Chinese cities, including Beijing and Shanghai. A trolleybus version was manufactured for only one operator, the Hangzhou trolleybus system, which bought 77 units between the late 1990s and 2001. For these vehicles, Changzhou Changjiang supplied the chassis and Metro-style bodies to the Hangzhou Changjiang Bus Company (in Hangzhou), and that company equipped them as trolleybuses. Products Motorcycle sidecar (1913-early 1920s) Intercity coach (1924–1932) Funeral car (1925–1942, 1946–1952, 1959–1964) Ambulance (1925–1952, 1946–1952, 1959–1964) "Airway" intercity coach (1932–1936) "Clipper" intercity coach (1937–1942, 1944–1950) Parts for Liberty ships, M4 tanks, F4U Corsair fighter aircraft, and Goodyear "L" type blimps (1942–1945) "Airporter" intercity coach (1946–1950) "C-1" intercity coach (1950) "VisiCoach" intercity coach (1950–1958) FL "Fageoliner" transit bus (1953–1954) FT "Flxible Twin" transit bus (1953–1959) VL-100 "VistaLiner" two-level intercity coach (1954–1959) "StarLiner" intercity coach (1957–1967) "Hi-Level" intercity coach (1959–1962) "New Look" transit bus (1960–1978) "FlxLiner" intercity coach (1963–1969) "Flxette" light duty transit bus (1964–1976) "Flxible" Cruiser Motor Home (1967–1969) 870 "Advanced Design Bus" transit bus (1978–1982) METRO "Advanced Design Bus" (1983–1996); METRO "A" (1983–1987), METRO "B" (1988–1991), METRO "C" (1992), METRO "D" (1993–1994) and METRO "E" (1995–1996) Buick conversions Flxible Owners International Flxible Owners International (see external link) was founded in the mid-1980s as an offshoot of the Family Motor Coach Association, and is dedicated to the preservation of buses and coaches produced by Flxible. The organization holds a rally in Loudonville biannually, in even-numbered years and normally in mid-July, where many preserved Flxible coaches and buses may be seen. The majority of vehicles owned by members are of the Clipper series (Clipper, Visicoach, Starliner) that were produced from the 1930s until 1967. However, there are also quite a few "non-clipper" Flxible coaches that are owned, maintained, and operated by proud Flxible owners. This includes the Starliner, VL100 (VistaLiner), Hi Level, and Flxliner as well as some of the more modern transit buses. Most of these vehicles have been converted to motor homes; however, there are still a few examples of seated coaches belonging to members. See also RTS, a line of buses that competed with Flxible's last line of buses, the Flxible Metro New Flyer Industries, a bus manufacturer that has replaced Flxible in terms of dominance References Further reading Georgano, G.N., Editor (1978). The Complete Encyclopedia of Commercial Vehicles. Krause Publications. . Ebert, Robert R. (2001). Flxible: A History of the Bus and the Company, Yellow Springs, OH: Antique Power, Inc. . Luke, William A. (2003). Flxible Intercity Buses: 1924–1970 Photo Archive, Hudson, WI: Iconografix. . Luke, William A. & Metler, Linda L. (2005). City Transit Buses of the 20th Century, Hudson, WI: Iconografix. . Luke, William A. & Metler, Linda L. (2004). Highway Buses of the 20th Century, Hudson, WI: Iconografix. . McKane, John (2001). Flxible Transit Buses: 1953–1995 Photo Archive, Hudson, WI: Iconografix. . McKane, John H. & Squier, Gerald L. (2006). Welcome Aboard the GM New Look Bus, Hudson, WI: Iconografix. McPherson, Thomas A. (1993) "Flxible Professional Vehicles: The Complete History" Toronto, Ontario, Specialty Vehicle Press, ISBN Stauss, Ed (1988). The Bus World Encyclopedia of Buses, Woodland Hills, CA: Stauss Publications. . History and Analysis of the Flxible Company, bw.edu, retrieved on 2007-02-07. Ohio Museum of Transportation, omot.org, retrieved on 2007-02-04. Ohio Museum of Transportation – Flxible Transit Coach Production Lists, omot.org, archived on 2005-08-28 on archive.org, retrieved on 2007-02-04. External links The Cleo Redd Fisher Museum, the official repository of the Flxible Company Archives Images of Flxible buses in busexplorer.com (Dead link, Feb 10, 2017) Flxible Owners International, an organization dedicated to the preservation of Flxible buses and coaches Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1913 Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Ohio Defunct bus manufacturers of the United States Cab over vehicles Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1996 1996 disestablishments in Ohio 1913 establishments in Ohio Charles F. Kettering

357410

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties%20of%20Wales

Counties of Wales

The counties of Wales may refer to: Some Principal areas of Wales; of the twenty-two, eleven are styled as "counties". Preserved counties of Wales, used for ceremonial purposes Former administrative counties of Wales (those prior to 1996) — see History of local government in Wales Historic counties of Wales Maps:

357414

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20American%20Bus%20Industries

North American Bus Industries

NABI Bus, LLC (NABI) is a former manufacturer of heavy-duty transit buses with its headquarters, bus manufacturing and assembly operations, located in Anniston, Alabama. Its products ranged from 31-feet to 60-feet in length, and were sold to operators throughout the United States and Puerto Rico. NABI's U.S. operations also include an aftermarket parts division in Delaware, Ohio (at the former Flxible factory), and an after-sales service center at Mira Loma, California. The company was acquired by New Flyer Industries in 2013, which in 2015 discontinued production of NABI's product lines at the Anniston plant. History Ikarus Body and Coach Building Works of Budapest, Hungary (Ikarus Hungary) was a very large bus manufacturer having multiple plants in Hungary, with a production output during the 1980s of over 13,000 buses per year. In the 1980s, Ikarus Hungary entered strategic partnerships with domestic assemblers to sell its Ikarus 280 articulated bus to the United States and Canadian transit markets as the Crown-Ikarus 286 (with Crown Coach in Los Angeles) and Orion-Ikarus 286 / Orion III (with Ontario Bus Industries in Mississauga, Ontario), respectively. Under these partnerships, partially finished rolling chassis were shipped from Hungary for local fitment of seats and drivetrains compatible with domestic transit fleets. Both partnerships were dissolved by the late 1980s. Ikarus Hungary formed another partnership in 1989 with Union City Body Company, Inc. (UCBC) of Union City, Indiana to produce domestic variants of the and transit bus for the United States market as the 416 and 436, respectively. The partnership was incorporated as Ikarus USA, Inc. (Ikarus USA), which was responsible for assembling and marketing the buses to the United States market, with operations based in Anniston, Alabama. UCBC declared bankruptcy in 1992. American Ikarus, 1992–1996 The company that is now known as NABI was incorporated in the US, in the state of Alabama, in November 1992, under the name American Ikarus, Inc. (American Ikarus). It was incorporated by the First Hungary Fund Limited, (FHF) a Jersey equity investment fund. Its incorporation was accompanied by FHF's concurrent formation of a Hungarian holding company, North American Bus Industries, Kft. (NABI Hungary) owning the shares of American Ikarus. This arrangement—with American Ikarus as a subsidiary of NABI Hungary--(collectively The Group) resulted in FHF's investment being Hungarian-based—in alignment with FHF's objective of investing in business opportunities resulting from the political and economic changes then taking place in Hungary. American Ikarus simultaneously acquired the assets of Ikarus USA. Such assets included facilities in Alabama, miscellaneous equipment and inventory. Simultaneously with the formation of American Ikarus, the previously established strategic alliance between Ikarus USA and Ikarus Hungary was assigned to the newly incorporated American Ikarus. At the time of incorporation, it was planned that American Ikarus would purchase unfinished buses from Ikarus Hungary under its strategic alliance, ship them to the U.S. and perform final assembly at its Alabama plant. This arrangement provided certain engineering and manufacturing benefits and allowed compliance with "Buy America" requirements of the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1982 which established American content requirements for federally assisted rolling stock procurements, including transit buses. Such vehicles had already been designed by Ikarus Hungary specifically for the U.S. market, with unfinished buses having been produced previously by Ikarus Hungary under the same strategic alliance with Ikarus USA. These vehicles were the Model 416 forty-foot standard-floor transit bus and its larger sibling, the Model 436 sixty-foot articulated transit bus. The plant in Anniston, AL opened in 1993 under this business arrangement, performing final assembly operations, delivery and after-sales service using unfinished knock-down buses produced in Hungary. Delivery of unfinished buses was accomplished by rail shipment from Budapest to Bremerhaven, then shipment by roll-on/roll-off ocean vessels to Charleston, SC, and then by delivery on flatbed trailers to Anniston, AL. At the time of incorporation, Ikarus' business was in decline due to unusual political and economic changes following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Such decline continued after The Group's formation, resulting in the shutdown of one of Ikarus' plants in Budapest. This plant was purchased from Ikarus Hungary by NABI, Kft. which simultaneously entered a license agreement with Ikarus Hungary allowing NABI, Kft. to produce its own unfinished buses in Budapest and deliver them to its subsidiary in Alabama for final assembly and delivery to U.S. customers. In 1994 The Group began use of this manufacturing arrangement with no further involvement of Ikarus Hungary other than its role as licensor of the Model 416 and Model 436 standard-floor transit bus designs; the license was dropped in 1996. North American Bus Industries, 1996–2006 In 1996, the company began aggressive expansion of its aftermarket parts department which had previously supplied service parts only for its own products. This expansion was accomplished by hiring individuals previously employed within the aftermarket parts organization of the defunct Flxible Corporation, which had recently discontinued transit bus manufacturing and aftermarket parts operations in Ohio. Once hired, this group leased facilities in Ohio, and began to expand the sale of aftermarket parts to operators of competing makes of buses. Also in 1996, American Ikarus, Inc. was renamed North American Bus Industries, Inc. due to the dissolution of its affiliation with Ikarus Hungary some years earlier, and because the company was easily and incorrectly confused with the no longer related Ikarus Hungary, which had fallen into further distress due to continued decline of its European markets. In 1997, NABI Kft. was re-registered in Hungary from a limited liability company to NABI, Rt., a joint stock company, allowing it to raise capital via public offering. Thereafter, in August of that year, the company raised $US 27.1 million in a public offering, with its shares listed on the Budapest Stock Exchange. FHF retained approximately 56% of NABI, Rt. shares, with the remainder of the shares publicly traded. Also in 1997, NABI Hungary was certified as conforming to the ISO 9001 quality and organizational standard, with NABI, Inc. becoming ISO 9001 certified the following year. In 1998, The Group also implemented the use of BaaN, an integrated enterprise resource planning system. Additionally, 1998 marked the first delivery of NABI's new, 40-foot low-floor Model 40-LFW transit bus. (35-foot and 31-foot variants of this product were later derived). NABI announced it had won the first contract for the 40-LFW in January 1997, awarded by the cities of Phoenix and Tempe, both in Arizona. NABI debuted the CompoBus at the City Transport Exhibit 99 in Toronto, Ontario, on May 25, 1999. The CompoBus used a one-piece composite body made from fiberglass and plastic resin, built for NABI by TPI Composites, Inc. in Warren, Rhode Island. NABI previously had announced its partnership with TPI in 1998, adding that three composite-bodied products would be developed: 30-foot and 40-foot low-floor transit buses, and a 45-foot motor coach. The first CompoBus orders were placed by transit agencies serving Santa Monica, California (40C-LFW) and Phoenix (45C-LFW) in November 1999, and 100 CompoBus models had been delivered five years later, by November 2004. In 2000, The Group announced its move into the European bus market with NABI, Inc.'s debt-financed acquisition of all of the shares of the Optare Group, (Optare) of Leeds, U.K. for $US 28.5 million, making Optare a NABI, Inc. subsidiary. Anticipated benefits included immediate participation in the European market as well as eventual European market participation with a new, composite-structured bus then under development. Plans also included the derivation of certain left-hand-drive Optare products for U.S. and Hungarian markets. Although NABI had previously expanded its Anniston facility in 1999 (new research and development center) and 2000 (new bus assembly plant), 2001 marked additional and substantial factory expansion, taking the Anniston plant from (under roof). 2001 also marked derivation of the 30-foot NABI Model 30-LFN which was a left-hand-drive derivative of the recently developed Optare "Solo" being sold in the UK. Sale of these small low-floor buses commenced to private and public operators within the U.S. An additional outgrowth of the Optare acquisition was the sale of a small number of full-size (11 meter) NABI Model 700SE's the following year in Hungary. These were derived from the Optare Excel, and were produced on Scania chassis. In 2002, NABI Hungary completed construction of a new plant in Kaposvár, Hungary. This new plant was purpose-built for the manufacture of the CompoBus, a new, composite-structured low-floor bus. Production of CompoBuses began in earnest in 2003, with a significantly greater portion of this particular NABI product produced in Hungary than with other NABI products. This new CompoBus manufacturing arrangement—unique for NABI—resulted in these buses being short of the FTA's normal Buy America requirements. However, NABI had sought Buy America waivers associated with the development of this new bus model, and had been granted two such waivers by the FTA. The first waiver allowed NABI to assemble its CompoBus outside the United States, and the second allowed it to count the composite chassis/frame as domestic for purposes of calculating the domestic component content of the vehicle. Both waivers applied to FTA funded procurements for which solicitations were issued within two years of the date of the waiver letter. That same year NABI introduced the 60-LFW, a new 60-foot low-floor articulated derivative of its 40-LFW model developed some years earlier. In October 2004, NABI unveiled the new Model 60-BRT, which had been in development since early 2003. in response to LA Metro's request for a 60-foot low-floor articulated bus with rail-like styling for use on it's new bus rapid transit route. Delivery of production versions began the following year, and a shorter, 42-foot derivative was eventually produced, making its debut at the American Public Transportation Association Bus & Paratransit Conference in May 2006. After continuing disappointing financial results through 2004, NABI, Inc. sold its Optare subsidiary in 2005, and it also idled its composite bus production facility in Kaposvar, laying off 23% of its workforce in Hungary. The shutdown was due to uncertain future demand for the CompoBus and the weakened U.S. dollar. Also, in December 2005, the FTA refused to extend the previously granted waivers exempting the CompoBus from Buy America requirements. Under Cerberus, 2006–2013 In early 2006, NABI entered a preliminary agreement with affiliates of Cerberus Capital Management, L.P. (Cerberus) for the acquisition of all of the shares of NABI, Inc. and the business assets of NABI Rt. This transaction was completed in February 2006. (Concurrently, the Hungarian company that was not being acquired changed its name to ExBus, relegating itself to asset management unrelated to NABI.) In August 2006, NABI announced its acquisition of Optima Bus Corporation in Wichita, Kansas (Optima) for an undisclosed amount. A short time later, it was announced that Cerberus had also acquired Blue Bird Corporation of Ft. Valley, Georgia (Blue Bird) thus rendering it a "sister" to NABI, Inc. In June 2007, Optima's operations in Wichita were shut down, and work-in-process, inventory and tooling for Optima's products were moved to NABI's Anniston plant. At generally the same time, the work-in-process, tooling and inventory for Blue Bird's commercial buses were acquired by NABI and was also transferred to NABI, Inc.'s plant. NABI, Inc. elected to retain the names these products, and began producing these smaller buses at its Anniston, AL plant, thus adding Optima and Blue Bird brands to its product portfolio. Generally at this same time, NABI also shifted the manufacture of its standard-floor model 416 unfinished buses from Hungary to newly leased facilities adjoining its existing Anniston plant. Under this arrangement, standard-floor body structures and other vehicle elements are fabricated at the adjoining facility and are then towed a short distance into NABI's final assembly operation. In late 2007, NABI began re-commissioning its CompoBus production plant in Kaposvar, simultaneously shifting certain assembly operations to Anniston and thus rendering the CompoBus compliant with Buy America requirements. CompoBus deliveries resumed in 2008 without the need for further waivers from the FTA. Los Angeles County Metro placed the first order for revived CompoBus production in July 2008. 2008 also saw additional expansion at NABI's Anniston plant with the installation of a new, robotic paint system. This expansion took the Anniston plant to approximately 1/3 million square feet under roof, not including adjacent leased facilities used for manufacture of standard-floor unfinished buses. Attempts to integrate the production of the smaller Optima and Blue Bird buses into NABI's operations eventually proved disruptive, and in 2010, NABI discontinued the production of its Optima and Blue Bird brand commercial bus products. The following year, NABI commissioned a new fabrication shop at its plant, equipped with robotic laser cutting equipment as well as tube bending and other new fabrication equipment. At approximately the same time, new body assembly tooling for low-floor buses was installed at its adjoining body fabrication facility. With these changes in place, NABI shifted the manufacturing of its metal-structured low-floor unfinished buses from Hungary to the same facility that had already begun manufacturing NABI's standard-floor products in Alabama a few years earlier. Also in 2010, NABI unveiled its new 12-meter Sirius bus at its plant in Kaposvar, Hungary. This new product, produced on an MAN chassis, was developed for Hungarian public transportation operators. In 2011, NABI unveiled new styling for its metal-structured low-floor product (nn-LFW) and its CompoBus. Restyling of both products was accomplished primarily by using a redesigned front mask, leaving the body structure unchanged from earlier versions of the same models. Also, a 40-foot CompoBus prototype incorporating the new styling was also produced. NABI utilized various manufacturing arrangements throughout its history. Initially, rolling shells were assembled in Hungary and shipped to Anniston for finishing until 2011, when it began transitioning to produce its metal-structured products in Anniston; the transition was complete in late 2012. These metal-structured buses consisted of the standard-floor model 416 (40-foot length), the low-floor Model LFW (produced in 31-foot, 35-foot and 40-foot lengths) and the low-floor BRT (produced in 42-foot and 60-foot lengths). CompoBus shells were assembled at Kapsovár and finished in Anniston until the end of production in 2013. Under New Flyer, 2013–2015 On April 30, 2013, after completing a large order of CompoBuses for the Los Angeles MTA, NABI produced its final CompoBus in Hungary. At the same time, NABI elected to discontinue promotion of its Hungarian Sirius bus, thus ending all production in Hungary and relegating all manufacturing and final assembly activities to its facilities in the USA. On June 21, 2013, New Flyer Industries announced the acquisition of North American Bus Industries, Inc from Cerberus Capital Management, L.P. (Cerberus) for $79 million. The deal was completed later that day. However, New Flyer continued the NABI name for its existing bus products, which continued in production for the time being. This made NABI a subsidiary of New Flyer, using the legal name of NABI Bus, LLC. The Blue Bird school bus production assets were not included in the sale to New Flyer; they remain owned by Cerberus. As of late 2013, all of New Flyer's metal-structured bus production (with the exception of the MiDi, a product of the New Flyer–Alexander Dennis joint venture) is now under the NABI brand. A second restyling was implemented in March 2014. In June 2014, New Flyer announced that the NABI product line would be discontinued after existing orders are filled. The last bus, a 40-LFW which was built for the Dallas Area Rapid Transit system, was completed in late October 2015. Since then, New Flyer has exclusively produced its Xcelsior heavy-duty transit bus product line at the former NABI Anniston plant, under the new name of New Flyer of America, Inc. New Flyer invested $20 million to retool the plant for Xcelsior production in 2015; a second expansion of the plant to , costing an additional $25 million, was announced in September 2017 and opened in November 2018. Products References External links NABI Bus Unofficial delivery list of Ikarus USA, American Ikarus, and NABI buses Defunct bus manufacturers of the United States Hybrid electric bus manufacturers Natural gas vehicles Companies based in Anniston, Alabama Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1989 Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 2015 1989 establishments in Alabama 2015 disestablishments in Alabama Defunct manufacturing companies based in Alabama Electric vehicle manufacturers of the United States 2013 mergers and acquisitions American subsidiaries of foreign companies

357416

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial

Monomial

In mathematics, a monomial is, roughly speaking, a polynomial which has only one term. Two definitions of a monomial may be encountered: A monomial, also called power product, is a product of powers of variables with nonnegative integer exponents, or, in other words, a product of variables, possibly with repetitions. For example, is a monomial. The constant is a monomial, being equal to the empty product and to for any variable . If only a single variable is considered, this means that a monomial is either or a power of , with a positive integer. If several variables are considered, say, then each can be given an exponent, so that any monomial is of the form with non-negative integers (taking note that any exponent makes the corresponding factor equal to ). A monomial is a monomial in the first sense multiplied by a nonzero constant, called the coefficient of the monomial. A monomial in the first sense is a special case of a monomial in the second sense, where the coefficient is . For example, in this interpretation and are monomials (in the second example, the variables are and the coefficient is a complex number). In the context of Laurent polynomials and Laurent series, the exponents of a monomial may be negative, and in the context of Puiseux series, the exponents may be rational numbers. Since the word "monomial", as well as the word "polynomial", comes from the late Latin word "binomium" (binomial), by changing the prefix "bi-" (two in Latin), a monomial should theoretically be called a "mononomial". "Monomial" is a syncope by haplology of "mononomial". Comparison of the two definitions With either definition, the set of monomials is a subset of all polynomials that is closed under multiplication. Both uses of this notion can be found, and in many cases the distinction is simply ignored, see for instance examples for the first and second meaning. In informal discussions the distinction is seldom important, and tendency is towards the broader second meaning. When studying the structure of polynomials however, one often definitely needs a notion with the first meaning. This is for instance the case when considering a monomial basis of a polynomial ring, or a monomial ordering of that basis. An argument in favor of the first meaning is also that no obvious other notion is available to designate these values (the term power product is in use, in particular when monomial is used with the first meaning, but it does not make the absence of constants clear either), while the notion term of a polynomial unambiguously coincides with the second meaning of monomial. The remainder of this article assumes the first meaning of "monomial". Monomial basis The most obvious fact about monomials (first meaning) is that any polynomial is a linear combination of them, so they form a basis of the vector space of all polynomials, called the monomial basis - a fact of constant implicit use in mathematics. Number The number of monomials of degree in variables is the number of multicombinations of elements chosen among the variables (a variable can be chosen more than once, but order does not matter), which is given by the multiset coefficient . This expression can also be given in the form of a binomial coefficient, as a polynomial expression in , or using a rising factorial power of : The latter forms are particularly useful when one fixes the number of variables and lets the degree vary. From these expressions one sees that for fixed n, the number of monomials of degree d is a polynomial expression in of degree with leading coefficient . For example, the number of monomials in three variables () of degree d is ; these numbers form the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ... of triangular numbers. The Hilbert series is a compact way to express the number of monomials of a given degree: the number of monomials of degree in variables is the coefficient of degree of the formal power series expansion of The number of monomials of degree at most in variables is . This follows from the one-to-one correspondence between the monomials of degree in variables and the monomials of degree at most in variables, which consists in substituting by 1 the extra variable. Multi-index notation The multi-index notation is often useful for having a compact notation, specially when there are more than two or three variables. If the variables being used form an indexed family like one can set and Then the monomial can be compactly written as With this notation, the product of two monomials is simply expressed by using the addition of exponent vectors: Degree The degree of a monomial is defined as the sum of all the exponents of the variables, including the implicit exponents of 1 for the variables which appear without exponent; e.g., in the example of the previous section, the degree is . The degree of is 1+1+2=4. The degree of a nonzero constant is 0. For example, the degree of −7 is 0. The degree of a monomial is sometimes called order, mainly in the context of series. It is also called total degree when it is needed to distinguish it from the degree in one of the variables. Monomial degree is fundamental to the theory of univariate and multivariate polynomials. Explicitly, it is used to define the degree of a polynomial and the notion of homogeneous polynomial, as well as for graded monomial orderings used in formulating and computing Gröbner bases. Implicitly, it is used in grouping the terms of a Taylor series in several variables. Geometry In algebraic geometry the varieties defined by monomial equations for some set of α have special properties of homogeneity. This can be phrased in the language of algebraic groups, in terms of the existence of a group action of an algebraic torus (equivalently by a multiplicative group of diagonal matrices). This area is studied under the name of torus embeddings. See also Monomial representation Monomial matrix Homogeneous polynomial Homogeneous function Multilinear form Log-log plot Power law Sparse polynomial References Homogeneous polynomials Algebra

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shopping%20in%20Delhi

Shopping in Delhi

Delhi has been, since historical times, remained a favoured destination for shoppers. From traditional bazaars to modern-day swanky malls, Delhi has everything to offer to a customer. Delhi's street markets are reported to provide a greater turnover as compared to malls. Since not everyone can afford to shop at malls or branded stores, most residents swear by the street markets. The quality of goods varies from market to market. Below is a list of famous shopping markets and malls in and around Delhi. Retail markets Connaught Place, including Janpath and Palika Bazaar. Chandni Chowk - A market running since the 17th century. Karol Bagh Paharganj Sarojini Nagar Khan Market - Most expensive retail location in India, in terms of per sq feet rental. Lajpat Nagar Dilli Haat, INA and Pitampura - Government-run emporiums showcasing a rotating cast of regional artists and their crafts, such as bamboo & cane jewelry, handcarved wooden articles and papier-mache animals. Hauz Khas Village Market, South Extension Nehru Place Daryaganj Gandhi Nagar Rajouri Garden Tilak Nagar Central Market Rani Bagh Kohat Pitampura Kamla Nagar Wholesale markets Gandhi Nagar, Delhi Okhla Mandi Mehrauli Chandni Chowk Khari Baoli Ghanta Ghar Bhajanpura Shopping malls Delhi Ansal Plaza, Hudco Place West Gate Mall Select Citywalk, Saket Noida DLF Mall of India The Grand Venice Mall See also List of shopping malls in India References Economy of Delhi Retail markets in India Retail markets in Delhi

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greens%E2%80%93European%20Free%20Alliance

Greens–European Free Alliance

The Greens/European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA) is a political group of the European Parliament composed primarily of green and regionalist political parties. Formed following the 1999 European elections for the 5th European Parliament, the Greens/EFA group now consists of five distinct European political parties, namely the larger European Green Party (EGP) and part of the European Free Alliance (EFA) and the smaller European Pirate Party (PPEU), Volt Europa (Volt), and part of Animal Politics EU (APEU). The EFA consists of parties representing stateless nations, regionalist and minority political interests. The group has generally limited its membership to progressive parties. These European parties are joined by MEPs from non-aligned national parties, which have included the Dutch Europe Transparent (2004–2009) and the Swedish (2009–2014), German (2014–) and Czech (2019–) Pirate Parties. Group members 9th European Parliament 8th European Parliament 7th European Parliament 6th European Parliament Group presidents The Greens/EFA group is usually co-chaired by 2 presidents, at least one of them must be a woman. European Parliament results References External links Official website Political parties established in 1999 European Parliament party groups Main 1999 establishments in the European Union

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozo%20the%20Clown

Bozo the Clown

Bozo the Clown, sometimes billed as "Bozo, The World's Most Famous Clown", is a clown character created for children's entertainment, widely popular in the second half of the 20th century. He was introduced in the United States in 1946, and to television in 1949, later appearing in franchised television programs of which he was the host, where he was portrayed by numerous local performers. Creation and history The character was created by Alan W. Livingston and portrayed by Pinto Colvig for a children's storytelling record album and illustrated read-along book set in 1946. He became popular and served as the mascot for Capitol Records. The character first appeared on US television in 1949 portrayed by Colvig. After the creative rights to Bozo were purchased by Larry Harmon in 1957, the character became a common franchise across the United States, with local television stations producing their own Bozo shows featuring the character. Harmon bought out his business partners in 1965 and produced Bozo's Big Top for syndication to local television markets not producing their own Bozo shows in 1966, while Chicago's Bozo's Circus, which premiered in 1960, went national via cable and satellite in 1978. Performers who have portrayed Bozo, aside from Colvig and Harmon, include Willard Scott (1959–1962), Frank Avruch (1959–1970), Bob Bell (1960–1984), and Joey D'Auria (1984–2001). Bozo TV shows were also produced in other countries including Mexico, Brazil, Greece, Australia, and Thailand. David Arquette purchased the rights to the Bozo the Clown character from Larry Harmon Pictures in 2021. Animation feature Bozo appeared in a 1958–1962 animated series, Bozo: The World's Most Famous Clown. The voice cast included Larry Harmon starring as Bozo, with Paul Frees as the narrator. Franchises and licensing Bozo was created as a character by Livingston, who produced a children's storytelling record-album and illustrative read-along book set, the first of its kind, titled Bozo at the Circus for Capitol Records and released in October 1946. Colvig portrayed the character on this and subsequent Bozo read-along records. The albums were very popular and the character became a mascot for the record company and was later nicknamed "Bozo the Capitol Clown." Many non-Bozo Capitol children's records had a "Bozo Approved" label on the jacket. In 1948, Capitol and Livingston began setting up royalty arrangements with manufacturers and television stations for use of the Bozo character. KTTV in Los Angeles began broadcasting the first show, Bozo's Circus, in 1949 featuring Colvig as Bozo with his blue-and-red costume, oversized red hair and whiteface clown makeup on Fridays at 7:30 p.m. In 1957, Larry Harmon, one of several actors hired by Livingston and Capitol Records to portray Bozo at promotional appearances, formed a business partnership and bought the licensing rights (excluding the record-readers) to the character one year after Livingston left Capitol. Harmon renamed the character "Bozo, The World's Most Famous Clown" and modified the voice, laugh and costume. He then worked with a wig stylist to get the wing-tipped bright orange style and look of the hair that had previously appeared in Capitol's Bozo comic books. He started his own animation studio and distributed (through Jayark Films Corporation) a series of cartoons (with Harmon as the voice of Bozo) to television stations, along with the rights for each to hire its own live Bozo host, beginning with KTLA-TV in Los Angeles on January 5, 1959, and starring Vance Colvig Jr., son of the original "Bozo the Clown," Pinto Colvig. Unlike many other shows on television, "Bozo the Clown" was mostly a franchise as opposed to being syndicated, meaning that local TV stations could put on their own local productions of the show complete with their own Bozo. Another show that had previously used this model successfully was fellow children's program Romper Room. Because each market used a different portrayer for the character, the voice and look of each market's Bozo also differed slightly. One example is the voice and laugh of Chicago's WGN-TV Bob Bell, who also wore a red costume throughout the first decade of his portrayal. The wigs for Bozo were originally manufactured through the Hollywood firm Emil Corsillo Inc. The company designed and manufactured toupees and wigs for the entertainment industry. Bozo's headpiece was made from yak hair, which was adhered to a canvas base with a starched burlap interior foundation. The hair was styled and formed, then sprayed with a heavy coat of lacquer to keep its form. From time to time, the headpiece needed freshening and was sent to the Hollywood factory for a quick refurbishing. The canvas top would slide over the actor's forehead. With the exception of the Bozo wigs for WGN-TV Chicago, the eyebrows were permanently painted on the headpiece. In 1965, Harmon bought out his business partners and became the sole owner of the licensing rights. Thinking that one national show that he fully owned would be more profitable for his company, Harmon produced 130 of his own half-hour shows from 1965 to 1967 titled Bozo's Big Top which aired on Boston's WHDH-TV (now WCVB-TV) with Boston's Bozo, Frank Avruch, for syndication in 1966. Avruch's portrayal and look of Bozo resembled Harmon's more so than most of the other portrayers' at the time. Avruch was enlisted by UNICEF as an international ambassador and was featured in a documentary, Bozo's Adventures in Asia. The show's distribution network included New York City, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C. and Boston at one point, though most television stations still preferred to continue producing their own versions. The most popular local version was Bob Bell and WGN-TV Chicago's Bozo's Circus, which went national via cable and satellite in 1978 and had a waiting list for studio audience reservations that eventually reached ten years. Bell retired in 1984 and was replaced by Joey D'Auria. The WGN version successfully survived competition from syndicated and network children's programs until 1994, when WGN management decided to get out of the weekday children's television business and buried The Bozo Show in an early Sunday timeslot as The Bozo Super Sunday Show. It suffered another blow in 1997, when its format became educational following a Federal Communications Commission mandate requiring broadcast television stations to air a minimum three hours of educational children's programs per week. In 2001, station management controversially ended production, citing increased competition from newer children's cable channels. In 2005, WGN's Bozo returned to television in a two-hour retrospective titled Bozo, Gar and Ray: WGN TV Classics. The primetime premiere was #1 in the Chicago market and continues to be rebroadcast and streamed live worldwide during the holiday season each year. In 2003, Harmon released six of his Bozo's Big Top programs with Avruch on DVD and 2 box sets of 30 episodes each in 2007 retitled "Larry Harmon's Bozo, The World's Most Famous Clown Vols.1 & 2." The WGN Bozo shows have not been released commercially in any video format. On July 3, 2008, Larry Harmon died of congestive heart failure at the age of 83. On March 13, 2009, Alan W. Livingston died of age-related causes at the age of 91. On October 2, 2010, The New York Times reported that the father of U.S. Senate candidate Christine O'Donnell "worked a series of small television roles before scoring his signature gig, playing Bozo the Clown." But upon further investigation, a New York Times follow-up two days later reported that the father, Daniel O'Donnell, was an assistant and understudy for the full-time local television Bozo in Philadelphia and would fill in for the full-time Bozo when the latter was unavailable. Bozo the Clown series by locality Boston TV The Bozo franchise appeared on two separate Boston-area stations from 1959 to 1974. WHDH-TV Boston The local WHDH-TV Boston production of Bozo's Circus, with Frank Avruch playing Bozo, aired daily from 1959 until 1970. In 1965, Larry Harmon became the sole owner of the Bozo licensing rights after buying out his business partners, and produced 130 episodes of the Boston-based Bozo show between 1965 and 1967 and syndicated them to local U.S. television markets that did not produce their own Bozo shows. The half-hour syndicated shows were retitled Bozo The Clown (on episodes with a 1965 date) and Bozo's Big Top (on episodes with a 1966 date). Caroll Spinney (billed in the credits as Ed Spinney) appeared as various characters which included Mr. Lion and Kookie the Boxing Kangaroo. He later went on to portray Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch on Sesame Street. Carl Carlsson also appeared as Bozo's sidekick Professor Tweedy Foofer. Ruth Carlsson also appeared in several 1966 episodes. Harmon supervised the taping of these episodes, with Harmon-approved characters added, some based on characters in Harmon's classic 1958–1962 animated Bozo cartoon shorts which also aired in each episode. These were the only Bozo shows Harmon fully owned. Bozo's frequent exclamations on the show included, "Whoa, Nellie!" and "Wowie Kazowie!" and always ended the show with, "Always keep laughing!" The Boston show also occasionally featured Nozo the Clown, the brother of Bozo, played by Bill Harrington. Nozo was used to fill in for Bozo on occasion when Frank Avruch was unable to appear on the show. Nozo did not wear the red ball on his nose that other Bozos wore. Instead, his nose was Harrington's nose in makeup. In 2003, Harmon released six of these shows on DVD and, in 2007, 30 of them in a DVD box set titled Larry Harmon's Bozo, The World's Most Famous Clown, Collection 1. A second box set was released later that year, also containing 30 of the half-hours; the second box set (Collection 2) includes the six episodes previously released on the two earlier single DVD releases, and also repeats one show from Collection 1, for a grand total of 59 episodes released on DVD altogether. Although the shows included on the two single-disc DVDs had contemporary computer-animated characters superimposed over some scenes, the 59 episodes included in Collections 1 & 2 are presented in their original form. On March 20, 2018, Frank Avruch died of heart failure in Boston at the age of 89. WSMW-TV Worcester From 1970 to 1974, WSMW-TV, an independent station in Worcester, Massachusetts, west of Boston, produced Bozo's Big Top, their local version of the Bozo the Clown franchise. Tom Matzell played Bozo, alongside Gene Sanocki as Bozo's sidekick Professor Tweetyfoofer. Local children were featured on the program daily, with many waiting up to one year or more for their chance to be on the show. Detroit/Windsor Bozo first came to Detroit in 1958 on WWJ-TV channel 4. Bob McNea, who worked as a clown in various circuses, including the Shrine Circus, was hired to play Bozo. McNea's Bozo became very popular, expanding to two shows a day, and becoming the first children's program in Detroit to switch to color. However, there was friction with Larry Harmon. McNea played the character in a more genteel and subdued way than Harmon's playbook required, and McNea did the show without a live audience. After years of increasing the franchise fee, WWJ-TV ended the contract with Harmon in 1967. WWJ-TV kept McNea, who created his own clown character Oopsy, which continued on WWJ-TV until 1979. McNea then took Oopsy to CKCO-TV in Ontario where he continued for another 15 years. Meanwhile, across the Detroit River in Windsor, CKLW-TV channel 9 picked up the Bozo franchise in 1967. Popular local talent Jerry Booth was tapped to play Bozo, but he only did the role for a couple months. He was replaced by local disc jockey and radio program director Art Cervi, who was the definitive Bozo to Detroit families. Now titled Bozo's Big Top, Cervi was joined by Larry Thompson as red-suited, turban wearing Mr. Whoodini, who had hosted his own children's show Magic Shoppe, as his sidekick. Also on the show was piano player Mr. Calliope, played by Wally Townsend. Unlike WWJ-TV, CKLW-TV included a live audience, but they also did things that were not sanctioned by Harmon. CKLW-TV quickly phased out the cartoons, increasing the entertainment on Bozo's Big Top. After a taped opening in which Bozo runs through the streets of Detroit calling kids to his Big Top, and on set singing and dancing to the "Bozo is Back" theme song, with the illuminated, flashing Bozo sign superimposed over in a slightly psychedelic way, Cervi would preside over an hour long variety show that included local dance troupes, singers, musicians, live animals, and national celebrities. In between, kids would play games to win prizes (one of the most plentiful being a six-pack of Orange Crush), Mr. Whoodini would pick kids to assist him in magic tricks, and of course Bozo would provide comedy. Cervi was also a very good singer, and one of the highlights were two or three times per show, Bozo would sit next to Mr. Calliope at his piano and sing a song, most of the time in Cervi's own voice rather than his Bozo voice, with all the kids in the audience clapping in time to the music. The shows would usually end with Bozo and Mr. Whoodini going into the audience and letting kids tell jokes and riddles. At one point Bozo's Big Top became so popular, that it aired twice a day. In 1977, the Canadian border protection rules forced the station to cancel Bozo's Big Top because most of the cast and staff were American. Bozo's Big Top moved to WJBK-TV channel 2, where it lasted for two more years, and was syndicated to other markets such as New York, Las Vegas, Wichita, and Los Angeles. Due to WJBK-TV's lack of interest in producing such an ambitious show, it was cancelled in 1979, ending Bozo's twenty-year reign in Detroit and Windsor. On November 5, 2005, Bob McNea, the first Detroit Bozo, died at the age of 76. In 2014, a memoir of Art Cervi's Bozo years, I Did What?, co-written by Herb Mentzer, was published. On February 5, 2019, Larry Thompson, who played Mr. Whoodini, died at the age of 76. On February 15, 2021 Art Cervi died at his Novi, MI home at age 86. Washington, D.C. Willard Scott played Bozo on WRC-TV from 1959–1962. Dick Dyszel played the character on Washington, D.C. broadcast TV, WDCA channel 20, in the 1970s to millions of viewers. Dyszel also played TV horror host "Count Gore De vol" and hosted "Captain 20" afternoon kids' TV shows in D.C. Chicago TV The Chicago Bozo franchise was the most popular and successful locally produced children's program in the history of television. It also became the most widely known Bozo show as WGN-TV became a national cable television Superstation. WGN-TV Chicago's "Bozo" show debuted on June 20, 1960 starring Bob Bell on a live half-hour program weekdays at noon, performing comedy sketches and introducing cartoons. The series was placed on hiatus in January 1961 to facilitate WGN's move from Tribune Tower in downtown Chicago to 2501 West Bradley Place on the city's northwest side. WGN-TV's "Bozo's Circus" debuted on September 11, 1961. The live hour-long show aired weekdays at noon and featured comedy sketches, circus acts, cartoons, games and prizes before a 200+ member studio audience. The program began airing nationally via cable and satellite in 1978, and studio audience reservations surpassed a 10-year wait. In 1980, the series moved to weekday mornings as "The Bozo Show" and aired on tape delay. In 1994, it moved to Sunday mornings as "The Bozo Super Sunday Show" and became "education and information" in 1997 following a Federal Communications Commission mandate requiring broadcast television stations to air a minimum three hours per week of "educational and informational" children's programs. The final Bozo show, a primetime special titled "Bozo: 40 Years of Fun!" was taped on June 12, 2001 and aired on July 14, 2001. Reruns of "The Bozo Super Sunday Show" aired until August 26, 2001. Cast members throughout the program's 40-year run included Bob Bell as Bozo (1960–1984) (Bell's voice was later the pattern for that of Krusty the Clown on The Simpsons), Ned Locke as Ringmaster Ned (1961–1976), Don Sandburg as Sandy the Tramp (1961–1969), Ray Rayner as Oliver O. Oliver (1961–1971), Roy Brown as Cooky the Cook (1968–1994), Marshall Brodien as Wizzo the Wizard (1968–1994), Frazier Thomas as the circus manager (1976–1985), Joey D'Auria as Bozo (1984–2001), Andy Mitran as Professor Andy (1987–2001) and Robin Eurich as Rusty the Handyman (1994–2001). Bozo returned to television on December 24, 2005 in a two-hour retrospective titled "Bozo, Gar & Ray: WGN TV Classics." The primetime premiere was #1 in the Chicago market and continues to be rebroadcast and streamed annually during the holiday season. Bozo also continues to appear on the WGN-TV float in Chicago's biggest parades. Allen Hall, the long-time producer, died September 6, 2011 after an 18-month battle with lung cancer at the age of 82. Hall worked at WGN for 40 years. He joined the station in 1961, a year after "Bozo" debuted on WGN, as the show's director until 1966 and returned to the program as producer in 1973 until 2001. Few episodes from the show's first two decades survive; although some shows were recorded to videotape for delayed broadcasts, the tapes were reused and eventually discarded. In 2012, a vintage tape was located on the Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection Web site archive list by Rick Klein of The Museum of Classic Chicago Television, containing material from two 1971 episodes. WGN reacquired the tape and put together a new special entitled "Bozo's Circus: The Lost Tape," which aired in December 2012. On October 6, 2018, Don Sandburg, "Bozo's Circus" producer and writer from 1961 to 1969 and the last surviving original cast member, died at the age of 87. Four months later, WGN-TV paid tribute to Sandburg and the rest of the original cast with a two-hour special titled "Bozo's Circus: The 1960s." Grand Rapids, Michigan From 1966 to 1999, WZZM-TV produced a Bozo show, starring Dick Richards for the majority of the run. Significant is that when it was cancelled in 1999, it was the last Bozo show other than the Chicago WGN show to be on the air. Brazilian TV In 1979, Brazil's most famous TV show host Silvio Santos (founder and owner of the SBT television network) decided to produce a national version of Bozo show for the former TVS-Record TV alliance station. Comedian Wandeko Pipoca was chosen by Larry Harmon to be the first Brazilian Bozo. Brazilian characters were created for the Brazilian Bozo show, like Salci Fufu — played by famous comedian Pedro de Lara — and Vovó Mafalda, played by Valentino Guzzo. With the clown's large success in Brazil, two more actors, Luís Ricardo and Arlindo Barreto, were hired to play Bozo for additional shows which ran from mornings to afternoons and more comedians were chosen to play Bozo in other parts of the country. Brazil's Bozo shows ended in 1991, following the death of Décio Roberto, the last actor to portray the clown in that country. Brazil's Bozo won five Troféu Imprensa, a Brazilian award given to personalities and productions in the media (in 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1989), as well as three Gold Albums. In the last years of the program, UNESCO bestowed the Brazilian Bozo with its Ambassador of Goodwill recognition, for its outstanding success among children and the youth. In 2012, when the audience of children's shows started to fall, SBT decided to rehire the clown to a new building on the success of the program clowns Patati Patatá who also had a program on the same channel. But, unlike the 1980s versions, the character ended up being very poorly received by the public. A criticism was having its premiere in early children's program Bom Dia e Companhia, where he was abruptly inserted into the program, replacing one of the presenters. Bozo continued to show up to receive their own program in 2013 on Saturday mornings, but the program ended up being a failure and canceled after a month. After that the channel decided to return it to Bom Dia e Companhia, but after a while was removed and the contract to continue to use the character was broken. Mexican TV In 1961, Mario Quintanilla, chairman of XEFB-TV Channel 3 obtained the local rights of the Bozo Cartoons, including the authorization of the Bozo characterization. José Marroquín (who later became famous with his Pipo character) was chosen as the first Mexican Bozo. He portrayed the character on local XHX-TV Channel 10 Monterrey television shows until 1963, when the licensing rights ended. After that, José Manuel Vargas Martínez, under sponsorship by Antonio Espino (famous comedy actor of the late 1940s and 1950s, known by his nickname, Clavillazo), portrayed the character. He was the most famous Bozo in Latin America and created his own version of Bozo's Circus, which traveled all along Latin America for decades. He started as a television artist participating in a dance marathon he won dressed as Bozo. After his success as Bozo, he traveled to several countries representing the Bozo character. He made special presentations in Italy, Greece, Spain, Hawaii and Canada with his circus. In 2000, he received the ANDA's Arozamena Award for 50 years of uninterrupted career. He died one year later, October 19, 2001 due to a lung disease. In Mexico, television star, comedian and political commentator Víctor Trujillo created the character "Brozo, El Payaso Tenebroso" (Brozo, the Creepy Clown) in 1988 as a parody of Bozo for a TV Azteca program with Ausencio Cruz called La Caravana (The Caravan). He pleased the audience with double-entendres and adult humor, telling sarcastic and sometimes obscene versions of classic children's tales. He became so popular that TV Azteca asked him to join the reporters and anchors during coverage of the FIFA World Cup in 1990, 1994 and 1998, also doing the same with Televisa for the 2002 World Cup. He also gave his commentary on the Olympics, starting with the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain until the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. From 2000 to 2004, Trujillo as Brozo was the anchor of a popular and successful television news show, El Mañanero. It was first broadcast on Canal 40 XHTVM-TV and later Televisa's 4TV from 2001 onwards. Trujillo discontinued the Brozo character following the death of his wife, producer Carolina Padilla, but brought back Brozo in a new television program that began in early 2006 on Televisa's Canal de las Estrellas, "El Notifiero." He is considered an influential political commentator in Mexico. Ronald McDonald Immediately following Willard Scott's three-year-run as WRC-TV Washington, D.C.'s Bozo, the show's sponsors, McDonald's drive-in restaurant franchisees John Gibson and Oscar Goldstein (Gee Gee Distributing Corporation), hired Scott to portray "Ronald McDonald, the Hamburger-Happy Clown" for their local commercials on the character's first three television 'spots.' McDonald's replaced Scott with other actors for their national commercials and the character's costume was changed. One of them was Ray Rayner (Oliver O. Oliver on WGN-TV's Bozo's Circus), who appeared in McDonald's national ads in 1968. In the mid 1960s, Andy Amyx, performing as Bozo on Jacksonville, Florida, television station WFGA, was hired to do local appearances of Ronald McDonald periodically. Andy recalls having to return the wardrobe to the agency after each performance. Actors The following is a partial list of Bozo television portrayers since the original (Pinto Colvig): Frank Avruch (1959–1970) (Produced at WHDH-TV Boston 1965–1967 and syndicated to U.S. TV markets that were not producing their own local versions at the time, including New York City, Los Angeles & Washington, D.C. These were the only Bozo shows that were wholly owned and syndicated by Larry Harmon Pictures Corporation, 60 of which are currently available on worldwide DVD distribution entitled "Bozo The World's Most Famous Clown" Volumes 1 & 2.) On March 20, 2018 Avruch died at age 89 after a long fight against heart disease. Bob Bell (1960–1984) at Superstation WGN Chicago Joey D'Auria (1984–2001) at Superstation WGN Chicago (WGN's signal-reach throughout North America included the U.S., Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean among others. A 2005 retrospective titled Bozo, Gar & Ray: WGN TV Classics and 2019 special titled "Bozo's Circus: The 1960s" continue to air annually. WGN's Bozo show is recognized as the most popular and successful locally produced children's program in the history of television, boasting a 10-year-wait for studio audience reservations and over 40 years in production.) Local TV Bozos Austin, Texas James Franklin Davis III at KHFI-TV (now KXAN-TV) Baltimore, Maryland Stu Kerr (1960s) at WMAR-TV Bangor, Maine Mike Dolley (1962–1967) at WABI-TV Birmingham, Alabama Bart Darby (1961–1962) at WBRC-TV Ward McIntyre (1962–1968) at WBRC-TV Boston, Massachusetts Frank Avruch (1959–1970) at WHDH-TV (now WCVB-TV) Buffalo, New York Francis X Stack at WUTV-TV Belo Horizonte, Brazil Jonas Santos (1980s) at TV Alterosa Evandro Antunes (1980s) at TV Alterosa Brazil (national broadcasting based in São Paulo) Wandeko Pipoca (1980–1981) at TV Record São Paulo and TVS Rio de Janeiro; at SBT (1981–1982) Luis Ricardo (1982–1990) at SBT Arlindo Barreto (1983–1986) at SBT Marcos Pajé (now Marcos Fiel) (1983–1986) at SBT Luiz Leandro (1985–1986) at SBT Edilson Oliveira (1986–1987) at SBT Décio Roberto (1984–1991) at SBT Paulo Seyssel (1980s) at SBT André Luiz Sucesso (2007–2011, guest appearances) at SBT Jean Santos (2012–2014) at SBT Cláudio Siqueira (2021-2022 present) SBT Charlotte, North Carolina Jim Patterson (1962–1966) at WBTV-TV Chicago, Illinois Bob Bell (1960–1984) at WGN-TV Joey D'Auria (1984–2001) at WGN-TV Cincinnati, Ohio Bob Shreve (1965-1968) at WKRC-TV Dallas, Texas (July–October 1968) KMEC-TV Dayton/Springfield, Ohio David Eaton (late 1960s – early 1970s) at WSWO-TV (now WBDT) Denver, Colorado Ned Austin (1959–1961) at KBTV (now KUSA-TV) Detroit, Michigan (see also Windsor, Ontario) Bob McNea (1959–1967) at WWJ-TV (now WDIV-TV) Jerry Booth (1967) at CKLW-TV (now CBET-DT) Art Cervi (1967–1979) at CKLW-TV (now CBET-DT) (1967–1977) and WJBK-TV (1977–1979) El Paso, Texas Howell Eurich (1968–1972) at KROD-TV (now KDBC-TV) Flint, Michigan Frank Cady (1967–1979) at WJRT-TV Fort Wayne, Indiana Dan Berry (1987–1989) Grand Rapids, Michigan Bill Merchant (August 1966 – 1968) at WZZM-TV Dick Richards (1968–1999) at WZZM-TV Green Bay, Wisconsin Jerry Drake (1960s) at WLUK-TV Jacksonville, Florida Andrew H. Amyx (1961–1966) at WFGA-TV (now WTLV-TV) Bill Boydston (1967–1975) at WFGA-TV (now WTLV-TV) Johnson City, Tennessee Roger Bowers (1960–1961) at WJHL-TV (Bowers used a ventriloquist dummy that looked like Bozo's "little pal Butchie" in the cartoons.) Little Rock, Arkansas Gary Weir (1966–early 1970s) at KATV-TV; also (late 1980s) at KARK-TV; also at KAIT-TV in Jonesboro, Arkansas (1970s–1980s); also at KLRT-TV in Little Rock in the late 1980s. Los Angeles, California Vance Colvig Jr. (1959–1964) at KTLA-TV (son of the original Bozo the Clown) Memphis, Tennessee Jim Chapin (1955-1956) at WHBQ-TV Mexico City Jose Manuel Vargas (1960s–1990s) at Canal de las Estrellas Miami, Florida Alan Rock (1968–1970) at WAJA-TV (now WLTV) Moline, Illinois Keith Andrews (1967) at WQAD-TV Monterrey Jose Marroquin (1961–1963) at XHX-TV Nashville, Tennessee Tom Tichenor (1959) at WSM-TV (now WSMV-TV) Dick Brackett (late 1959–1966) at WSM-TV (now WSMV-TV) (Tom Tichenor accepted a Broadway show opportunity and Dick Brackett took his place.) Joe Holcombe (mid 1960s – late 1970s) at WSIX-TV (now WKRN-TV). His wife played Cousin Littlefoot, an Indian Maid Clown. Jim Kent (late 1960 to early 1970s) at WSIX-TV (now WKRN-TV) New Bedford, Massachusetts Bennett B. Schneider IV (1970–1972) at WTEV-TV (now WLNE-TV) New Orleans, Louisiana Samuel "Sonny" Tustin Adams Jr. (1957–?) at WWL-TV Rob Labby 1970's New York City, New York Bill Britten (1959–1964) at WPIX-TV Gordon Ramsey (1969–1970) at WOR-TV (now WWOR-TV) Orlando, Florida Alan Rock (1971–1974) at WFTV-TV Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Doug Wing (1969) at WTAF-TV (now WTXF-TV) Craig Michael Mann (1970) at WTAF-TV (now WTXF-TV) Deon Aumier (1989–1990) at WGBS-TV (now WPSG) Bob McCone (1990–1994) at WGBS-TV (now WPSG) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Deeny Kaplan at WPGH-TV Providence, Rhode Island Jeremy Baker at WNAC-TV Raleigh, North Carolina Paul Montgomery (1960–1961) at WRAL-TV Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Charles Myara (1980s) at TVS Rio de Janeiro Nani Souza (1980s) at TVS Rio de Janeiro Richmond, Virginia Jerry Harrell (until 1974) at WTVR-TV Salvador, Bahia, Brazil Cau Alves (1980s) at TV Itapoan San Francisco, California Tom Carroll (1968-1970) at KEMO-TV (now KOFY-TV) Shreveport, Louisiana Joe Miot (1967–1968) at KTBS-TV Terry MacDonald (now Mac McDonald) (1968) at KTBS-TV Drew Hunter (1969–1970) at KTBS-TV Sioux Falls, South Dakota Pat Tobin (1960–1962) at KSOO-TV (now KSFY-TV) Syracuse, New York Mike Lattif (1971–1972) at WNYS-TV (now WSYR-TV) Toledo, Ohio Jim Chaplin (1960s) at WSPD-TV Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington, Minnesota Roger Erickson (c. 1959–63) at WCCO-TV Utica, New York Ed Whittaker (early to late 1960s) at WKTV-TV Washington, D.C. Willard Scott (1959–1962) at WRC-TV Tony Alexi (1971–1972) at WDCA-TV Dick Dyszel (1972–1977) at WDCA-TV Windsor, Ontario (see also Detroit, Michigan) Jerry Booth (1967) CKLW-TV (now CBET-DT) Art Cervi (1967–1977) at CKLW-TV (now CBET-DT) Worcester, Massachusetts Tom Matzell (1970–1974) at WSMW-TV See also Bozo bit Bozo, Gar & Ray: WGN TV Classics Bozo: The World's Most Famous Clown List of local children's television series (United States) References External links ABC News Investigates Bozo's Origin (2001) ABC News: Bozo Finally Unmasked (2004) "Cram it, Clown!" at Snopes.com NPR Program about 40 years of Bozo Keith Andrews — WQAD-TV Moline, Illinois' Bozo Bozo the Clown at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on February 22, 2018. Fictional characters introduced in 1946 American clowns Fictional clowns Franchised television formats Recorded music characters

357425

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplan

Neoplan

Neoplan Bus GmbH is a German automotive company that manufactures buses, trolleybuses and coaches. It is a subsidiary of MAN Truck & Bus SE. History Foundations The company was founded by Gottlob Auwärter in Stuttgart in 1935, and manufactured bodywork for bus and truck chassis. By 1953, the company had moved away from manufacturing buses on truck chassis, to a partial monocoque design with a steel tube skeleton, providing the structural support, enhanced by welded side panels. The engine was moved to the rear. In 1957, air suspension was made available. 1960s In 1961, a new bus design, the Typ Hamburg, was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show. Developed by the founder's eldest son, Albrecht Auwärter, and another student, Swiss national Bob Lee, as part of their dissertation at Hamburg University. The design was the first bus to allow passengers to regulate their fresh air supply through a nozzle from two air ducts, commonly seen in contemporary designs, as well as offering air suspension. Both Albrecht and Lee joined Neoplan after graduating from the university. Albrecht took over management of the company in 1965, and Bob Lee later became head of Engineering and Design. In 1964, the founder's second son, Konrad Auwärter, developed a double-deck bus design for a service bus as part of his dissertation. The "Do-Bus" design had low weight, and could carry over 100 passengers. It also featured a low-frame front axle with forward-mounted steering gear that permitted a low, flat floor. The double-deck principle was applied to the coach design, creating a high-capacity comfortable touring vehicle. This vehicle was known as the Skyliner. 1970s–1980s In 1971, the Cityliner was introduced to the public. This design had a passenger platform above the driver's cab, and included an onboard toilet. The vehicle also made use of glass-fibre reinforced plastic for certain areas of the body; this was the first instance when this technique was used. A second manufacturing facility opened in Pilsting in 1973, and a third opened in Kumasi, Ghana in December 1974 to support increasing orders. Several more plants were added in the 1980s, including two in the United States. The United States plants were later spun off into a separate, and now defunct, independent company (Neoplan USA) that used the Neoplan name under licence. 1990s-2000s Further manufacturing facilities were opened during the 1990s and 2000s. The Starliner was introduced in 1996, and would go on to win the Bus of the Year award for two consecutive years – in 1998 and 1999. In 1999 the company unveiled a prototype fuel cell bus. In 2001, Neoplan, or correctly, "Gottlob Auwärter GmbH & Co KG" was acquired by MAN AG subsidiary MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG to form Neoman Bus GmbH. The Starliner won the Bus of the Year award for two more consecutive years in 2001 and 2002. In 2007, a new Auwärter Museum was opened in Landau an der Isar. On 1 February 2008, Neoman Bus GmbH was fully integrated into the bus division of the larger MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group, and ceased to exist in its own right. Neoplan and MAN Truck & Bus began operating as two separate but integrated marques of MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group. Accidents On 28 May 2008, in Japan one of two Neoplan Megaliners operated by West JR Bus Company caught fire while in service, and burnt down completely. No passengers were injured. The company resumed operations with its second Megaliner in July 2008. On 16 March 2009, in Japan one of two Megaliners operated by JR Kanto Bus Company caught fire on an overnight Seishun Mega-Dream Go service between Osaka and Tokyo. The 77 passengers and driver evacuated safely before the coach was completely destroyed. Following this accident, both operators suspended operations of the remaining two Megaliners in Japan. Products Buses Centroliner (low-floor bus) Electroliner (electric trolleybus) Neoplan Airliner (airport apron bus, 1960–present) Tropicliner Discontinued models Typ Hamburg (1961) Megaliner Jumbocruiser Cityliner (1971) Jetliner (1973) Spaceliner Skyliner 67 (1965) Metroliner Starliner C/L Transliner Trendliner Euroliner Megashuttle See also Neoplan USA, defunct US subsidiary 2013 Podgorica bus crash References External links Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1935 Bus manufacturers of Germany Trolleybus manufacturers German brands MAN SE 1935 establishments in Germany

357427

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shires%20of%20Scotland

Shires of Scotland

The shires of Scotland (), or counties of Scotland, are historic subdivisions of Scotland established in the Middle Ages and used as administrative divisions until 1975. Originally established for judicial purposes (being the territory over which a sheriff had jurisdiction), from the 17th century they started to be used for local administration purposes as well. The areas used for judicial functions (sheriffdoms) came to diverge from the shires, which ceased to be used for local government purposes after 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. Today, local government in Scotland is based upon council areas, which sometimes incorporate county names, but frequently have vastly different boundaries. Counties continue to be used for land registration, and form the basis of the lieutenancy areas (although the latter are not entirely identical). History Sheriffdoms or shires Malcolm III (reigned 1058 to 1093) appears to have introduced sheriffs as part of a policy of replacing previous forms of government with French feudal structures. This policy was continued by Edgar (reigned 1097 to 1107), Alexander I (reigned 1107 to 1124), and in particular David I (reigned 1124 to 1153). David completed the division of the country into sheriffdoms by the conversion of existing thanedoms. The earliest sheriffdom south of the Forth which we know of for certain is Haddingtonshire, which is named in a charter of 1139 as Hadintunschira and in another of 1141 as Hadintunshire. Stirlingshire appears in a charter of 1150 under the name Striuelinschire. The shires of the Highlands were completed only in the reign of King Charles I (reigned 1625 to 1649). Shires extant by 1305 In 1305 Edward I of England, who had deposed John Balliol, issued an ordinance for the government of Scotland. The document listed the twenty-three shires then existing and either appointed new sheriffs or continued heritable sheriffs in office. Gospatric was mentioned as sheriff in a number of charters of Earl David. The shire was not listed in the ordinance, and in 1305 appears to have been partly under the jurisdiction of the sheriff of Selkirk, with the remainder comprised in the constabularies of Jedburgh and Roxburgh under the jurisdiction of the constable of Berwick. The shire was one of those surrendered to Edward III of England in 1334. Shires formed after 1305 The remaining shires were formed either by the territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Scotland, or by the subdivision of existing sheriffdoms. Many of the new shires had highly irregular boundaries or detached parts as they united the various possessions of the heritable sheriffs. : Argyll (or Argyle): lordship subdued by Alexander II in 1222. Norwegian claims over the area finally ended in 1266. First record of appointment of sheriff dates from 1326. 1369: Kirkcudbright: formed when area between Rivers Nith and Cree granted to Archibald the Grim. Archibald appointed a steward to administer the area, hence it became a "stewartry". : Bute: the islands formed part of Kintyre district of Argyll. A heritable sheriff was appointed to the shire in 1388. 1402: Renfrew: separated from the Shire of Lanark by Robert III. Tarbertshire: existed from before 1481, when it gained territory from Perthshire, until 1633, when it was annexed to Argyll. 1503: Ross: formed from part of Inverness by act of parliament during the reign of James IV, the sheriff to sit at Tain or Dingwall. Sheriffs were seldom appointed, and further acts of 1649 and 1661 restated its separation from Inverness. The 1661 act also clarified the area encompassed, based on the pre-Reformation Diocese of Ross. Sir George Mackenzie's Ross-shire estates were transferred to Cromartyshire by a 1685 act of parliament (repealed 1686, re-enacted 1690). 1503: Caithness: formed from part of Inverness by the same 1503 act as Ross-shire, the sheriff to sit at Dornoch or Wick. The area of the sheriffdom was to be identical to that of the Diocese of Caithness. 1581: Orkney: erected into a lordship with the right of sheriffship. It was annexed to the Crown in 1612, although the term "lordship" continued to be applied to the area. 1633: Sutherland: separated from Inverness. In 1583 the Earl of Huntly, hereditary sheriff of Inverness, granted the Earl of Sutherland jurisdiction over the sheriffdom of Sutherland and Strathnaver. This was only the south-eastern area of the later county, with Halladale River forming the boundary. The shire was formed in 1631 by crown writ of Charles I, severing Sutherland from Inverness. The new county comprised the Earldom of Sutherland along with Assynt and the baronies between Ross and Caithness. Dornoch was appointed the head burgh of the shire. The writ was confirmed by the Parliament of Scotland in 1633. 1707 Act of Union and the ending of heritable jurisdictions From the 17th century the shires (counties) started to be used for local administration apart from judicial functions. In 1667 Commissioners of Supply were appointed in each sheriffdom to collect the land tax. The commissioners eventually assumed other duties in the county. Following the union of Scotland with England, the government began bringing Scotland's local governance into line with the rest of Great Britain. The full machinery of county government was not immediately established, largely due to the fact that the office of sheriff or steward had become hereditary in certain families in the majority of sheriffdoms. At the accession of George II twenty-two sheriffs were hereditary, three were appointed for life and only eight held office at the pleasure of the monarch. The heritable sheriffdoms were Argyll, Bute, Banff, Caithness, Clackmannan, Cromarty, Dumbarton, Dumfries, Elgin, Fife, Kinross, Kirkcudbright, Linlithgow, Nairn, Orkney & Zetland, Peebles, Renfrew, Roxburgh, Selkirk, Sutherland, Stirling and Wigtown; those appointed for life were Perth, Forfar and Ayr; those held at pleasure were Aberdeen, Berwick, Edinburgh, Haddington, Inverness, Kincardine, Lanark and Ross. Following the unsuccessful Jacobite Rising of 1745 the government took the opportunity of overhauling county government. The Heritable Jurisdictions Act 1747 revested the government of the shires in the Crown, compensating those office holders who were displaced. The Sheriffs (Scotland) Act 1747 reduced the office of sheriff principal to a largely ceremonial one, with a sheriff depute or sheriff substitute appointed to each "county, shire or stewartry". Twelve of the smallest counties were paired to form sheriffdoms, a process of amalgamation that was to continue until the twentieth century, and thus led to the sheriffdoms and the shires having different boundaries. In 1794 Lord-Lieutenants were appointed to each county, and in 1797 county militia regiments were raised, bringing Scotland into line with England, Wales and Ireland. Later developments In 1858 police forces were established in each shire under the Police (Scotland) Act 1857. Burghs were largely outside the jurisdiction of shire authorities. Under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889, thirty-four county councils were formed. The areas governed by these councils, referred to as "administrative counties", resembled the traditional shires of Scotland, but not entirely. Exclaves were abolished, with the exception of one exclave of Dunbartonshire. Ross-shire and Cromartyshire were merged into Ross and Cromarty, and four cities - Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh and Glasgow - were made counties in their own right. These "counties of cities" were periodically expanded as their urban areas spread further and further into the surrounding countryside. In general, they were still considered part of the wider geographical county; for instance, Glasgow was still reckoned part of Lanarkshire, though it was no longer within the jurisdiction of Lanark County Council. Under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1929, two pairs of councils were combined with each other to form the "joint county councils" of Perth & Kinross and Moray & Nairn. Though governed by the same council, each county remained nominally independent from the other. In 1963 the Government published a white paper which proposed a reduction in the number of counties from thirty-three to between ten and fifteen. A process of consultation between county councils and officials from the Scottish Office was begun to effect the amalgamations. Following a change of government, it was announced in 1965 that a "more comprehensive and authoritative" review of local government areas would be undertaken. In 1966 a Royal Commission on Local Government in Scotland, chaired by Lord Wheatley, was appointed. The commission's report in 1969 recommended the replacement of the counties with larger regions. In 1970 another change in government control was followed by the publication of a white paper in 1971 implementing the commission's reforms in a modified form. The abolition of counties "for local government purposes" was enacted by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973, with counties playing no part in local government after 16 May 1975, being replaced by regions and districts. Local government was reorganised again under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, with the regions and districts being replaced by the currently existing council areas. These councils are unitary, meaning they undertake all local governance within their area, though "community councils" do operate in several towns. The historic counties of Scotland are included in the Index of Place Names (IPN) published by the Office for National Statistics. Each "place" included in the IPN is related to the historic county it lies within, as well as to a set of administrative areas. Names In official documents shires were referred to as the Shire of X, rather than X Shire. The latter was more common in general usage. Thus in parliamentary proceedings one may find, for example, a heading referring to "Act for the shirrefdome of Dumbartane" but the text "the sevine kirkis to Dumbartane schyr." The first accurate county maps of Scotland appear in the late seventeenth century and contain a first-hand record of shire names. John Adair (maps c. 1682) gives the names of Midlothian, East Lothian, Twaddall and Wast Lothian (the latter also as "Linlithgowshire"). The eighteenth century county maps of Herman Moll (dated c. 1745) preferred to keep the "Shire" suffix a separate word, as for example "Berwick Shire", "Roxburgh Shire", "the Shire of Selkirk otherwise known as Etterick Forest", and in the north to "Murray" (Moray), "Inverness Shire", "Aberdeen Shire", "Banff Shire", "Ross Shire". The map of Boswell's and Johnson's A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1773) gives "Shire" to every one shown, including "Angus Shire" and "Fife Shire". Several shires have alternative names of long standing. These include: Angus – Forfarshire East Lothian – Haddingtonshire Kincardineshire – The Mearns Midlothian – Edinburghshire Moray – Elginshire Peeblesshire – Tweeddale Roxburghshire – Teviotdale Selkirkshire – Ettrick Forest West Lothian – Linlithgowshire In Scotland, as in England and Wales, the terms "shire" and "county" have been used interchangeably, with the latter becoming more common in later usage. Today, "county" is more commonly used, with "shire" being seen as a more poetic or archaic variant. Lists of shires Counties until 1890 The map depicts a large number of exclaves physically detached from the county that they were politically deemed to be part of. Cromartyshire's borders, a particularly fragmentary example, were achieved as late as 1685, although at that time the word "county" was not applied to the sheriffdom. Counties from 1890 to 1975 See also List of Local Government Areas in Scotland (1930-75) History of local government in the United Kingdom List of counties of Scotland in 1951 by population and by area List of counties of Scotland in 1971 by population List of Scottish counties by highest point List of burghs in Scotland Local government areas of Scotland 1973 to 1996 Lieutenancy areas of Scotland Subdivisions of Scotland List of places in Scotland Counties of the United Kingdom References External links The Historic Counties Trust Campaign for Historic Counties Interactive map of the historic counties Records of the Parliaments of Scotland The National Library of Scotland: Maps of Scotland Counties Scotland

357428

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tourist%20attractions%20in%20Delhi

List of tourist attractions in Delhi

Government buildings Sansad Bhavan or the Parliament of India is a circular building designed by the British architects Sir Edwin Lutyens and Sir Herbert Baker in 1912–1913. Construction began in 1921, and in 1927 the building was opened as the home of the Council of State, the Central Legislative Assembly, and the Chamber of Princes. Rashtrapati Bhavan Built with a mix of European and Mughal/Indian styles, Rashtrapati Bhavan was originally built for the Governor General of India. Inaugurated in 1931 as the Viceregal Lodge, the name was changed in 1959 after India became a republic. Now it is the Presidential Palace of India. Connaught Place Connaught Place also known as CP is a business and commercial centre with hotels, shopping complexes, and offices. Tourist attractions include Hanuman Mandir, an ancient temple with a mention in Guinness Book of Record, Jantar Mantar, an astronomical observatory from the 18th century, Maharaja Agrasen ki Baoli and State Emporiums which houses a collection of ethnic specialities of the states. Connaught Place is divided into two circles, called the inner and outer Connaught circle. Janpath, an open-air shopping complex, lies on the road connecting the inner and outer circle with Palika Bazaar, a landmark market in the underground maze below Connaught Place. Historic Sites The Qutub Minar is located in Qutb complex, Mehrauli in South Delhi. It was built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak of the Slave Dynasty, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, started construction of the Qutub Minar's first storey around 1192. In 1220, Aibak's successor and son-in-law Iltutmish completed a further three storeys. In 1369, a lightning strike destroyed the top storey. Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the damaged storey and added one more. It is a fluted red sandstone tower, which tapers up to a height of 72.5 meters and is covered with intricate carvings and verses from the Quran. Lodhi Gardens, earlier called Lady Willingdon Park is a 15th and 16th-century park with numerous monuments scattered among its lawns, flowers, shady trees and ponds. Notable monuments are Tomb of Sikandar Lodi, Bara Gumbad and Shisha Gumbad. When Ghazi Malik founded the Tughlaq Dynasty in 1321, he built the strongest fort in Delhi at Tughlaqabad, completed with great speed within four years of his rule. Salimgarh Fort, which is now part of the Red Fort complex, was constructed on an island of the Yamuna River in 1546 by the Suri Dynasty. The Purana Quila (Old Fort) is a very good example of Mughal military architecture. Built by Pandavas, renovated by Humayun, with later modifications by Sher Shah Suri, the Purana Quila is a monument that is different from the well-planned, carefully decorated, and palatial forts of the later Mughal rulers. It does not have a complex of palaces, administrative, and recreational buildings as is generally found in the forts built later on but rather has plain design and sturdy strong walls that were meant to defend it from attacks. Chandni Chowk, a main marketplace in Delhi, keeps alive the city's living legacy of Shahjahanabad. It is a very famous place in Delhi it is famous for its Jalebi and Parathas. Chandni Chowk remains Asia's largest wholesale market. Created by Shah Jahan, legend has it that Shah Jahan planned Chandni Chowk so that his daughter could shop for all that she wanted. Handicrafts once patronized by the Mughals continue to flourish there. Within the vicinity are the Laal Quila (The Red Fort), Fatehpuri Mosque and Jama Masjid along with Sis Ganj Gurudwara, Gauri Shankar Mandir, Jain Mandir and a lot of small temples, the place is witnesses of genuine cultural harmony. The Safdarjung's Tomb is a garden tomb in a marble mausoleum. Humayun's tomb is the tomb of the Mughal emperor Humayun that was commissioned by Humayun's wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum in 1569. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Red Fort is a historic fort in Delhi where every year on the Independence day of India (15 August), the Prime Minister hoists the Indian "tricolour flag" at the main gate of the fort and delivers a nationally broadcast speech from its ramparts. The Jantar Mantar consists of 13 architectural astronomy instruments, built by Maharaja Jai Singh II. Places of worship Hinduism Akshardham Temple it is the third largest Hindu temple in the world. It was built in 2005. In the sprawling land rests an intricately carved monument, high-technology exhibitions, a musical fountain, a food court and gardens. The Laxminarayan Temple is built in honour of Lakshmi (Hindu goddess of wealth), and her consort Narayana (Vishnu, Preserver in the Trimurti) by B. R. Birla from 1933 and 1939, when it was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi. The side temples are dedicated to Shiva, Krishna and Buddha. The temple spread over 7.5 acres, is adorned with many shrines, fountains, and a large garden, and also houses Geeta Bhawan for discourses. The temple is one of the major attractions of Delhi and attracts thousands of devotees on the Hindu festivals of Janmashtami and Holi. ISKCON Temple also popularly called as the Hare Krishna temple is a famous Vaishnava temple with deities of Sri Radha Krishna. Located in South Delhi, the construction of the temple began in 1991 and was completed in 1998 under the planning of internationally renowned architect Achyut Kanvinde. The temple primarily built with red stone is recognized for its unique architecture which blends the traditional Vedic with contemporary style. The complex also houses a one of a kind in the country Robtic show which explains the message of Bhagavad Gita. Another highlight of the temple is beautifully drawn paintings of the Lord done by the foreign devotees. Apart from these, the temple acts as a sturdy base for those wish to study the Vedic scriptures, Yoga and provides a facility for practising Bhakti Yoga as given by Srila Prabhupada. The temple also serves the devotees pure vegetarian food at its 'Govindas' restaurant. The temple is easy to approach as it well connected by buses and Metro trains. . Chhatarpur Temple is located at Chhatarpur, is the second-largest temple complex in India, and is dedicated to Goddess, Katyayani Kalka Ji Mandir is a famous Hindu mandir or temple, This temple is situated on Kalkaji Mandir (Delhi Metro station) in the southern part of Delhi, India, in Kalkaji, a locality that has derived its name from this famous temple and is located opposite Nehru Place business centre. Jainism Shri Digambar Jain Lal Mandir is the oldest and best-known Jain temple in Delhi originally built-in 1658. This temple is located just opposite the massive Red Fort at the intersection of Netaji Subhas Marg and Chandni Chowk. The Temple is an impressive structure made up red stone giving the name Lal Mandir. The temple is known for an avian veterinary hospital, called the Jain Birds Hospital, in a second building behind the main temple. Shri Atma Vallabh Jain Smarak is a Jain temple and a multi-faceted memorial in the sacred memory of Jain Acharya Shri Vijay Vallabh Surishwer Ji. The main hall of the temple is considered a brilliant example of the structural design as per ancient Jain Sthapatya Kala (Main Sompura: Amrutbhai Mulshankar Trivedi). It is built in dome-shaped internally with stepped roof exterior. Sikhs Gurdwara Bangla Sahib is one of the most prominent and largest Gurdwaras in Delhi, Gurdwara Bangla Sahib is the most visited one in Delhi. Millions visit this Gurdwara from all over the world and of all religions to offer their prayers at this elegant yet historical Gurdwara in Delhi. The Gurdwara marks the place where the eighth Sikh Guru, Guru Harkrishan lived his last breath serving the helpless population ravaged by smallpox and cholera epidemic. The Gurdwara offers free food (langar) to all visitors and devotees throughout the day. Islam The Masjid-i-Jahan Numa, commonly known as Jama Masjid, is the principal mosque of Old Delhi. Commissioned by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and completed in the year 1656, it is one of the largest and best-known mosques in India. It can accommodate around 25,000 people at once. Nizamuddin Dargah is the Mausoleum of the famous Sufi Saint Nizamuddin Auliya, Delhi. Matka Peer Dargah is the Mausoleum of the famous Sufi Saint Sheikh Abu Bakar Tusi, Delhi. Baháʼí The Lotus Temple is an exceptionally beautiful structure, built as a Baháʼí House of Worship, situated in South Delhi and looks like a white lotus. It was built by the community of the Baháʼí Faith. The Temple has received a wide range of attention in professional architectural, fine art, religious, governmental, and other venues. Christian Cathedral Church of Redemption, also known as Viceroy Church. Located east of Parliament House and Rashtrapati Bhavan, which was used by then viceroy of British India. The Church derives its name from Palladio's Church of Il Redentore in Venice as well as Lutyens St Jude's Church, Hampstead Garden Suburb. The Cathedral was built in eight years and was completed in the year 1935. Cathedral was designed by Henry Medd. Cathedral was built in such a manner that even in the extreme summers it remains cool and serene. The Cathedral Church of the Redemption serves locals and foreigners. It is visited by tens of thousands of visitors each day. St. James' Church is one of the oldest churches in Delhi. Memorials The National War Memorial is a war memorial to India's military. The India Gate located astride the Rajpath is a war memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the Indian Army who lost their lives in the First World War. The Wall of Truth is a memorial for Sikhs killed during the 1984 anti-Sikh riots and "all Sikhs killed world over in hate crimes". The National Police Memorial commemorates police personnel from all of the central and state police forces in India who have died in the line of duty since Independence. On the banks of the Yamuna River, which flows past Delhi, there is Raj Ghat, the final resting place of Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation. It has become an essential point of call for all visiting dignitaries. Two museums dedicated to Gandhi are situated nearby. Museums Ghalib Museum Indian War Memorial Museum National Museum National Rail Museum National Museum of Natural History National Philatelic Museum, New Delhi Indian Air Force Museum, Palam National Gallery of Modern Art National Gandhi Museum National Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum National Police Memorial and Museum National Science Centre, New Delhi Kiran Nadar Museum of Art Parliament Museum Red Fort Archaeological Museum Shankar's International Dolls Museum Sulabh International Museum of Toilets Dr. Zakir Hussain Museum. Other attractions Delhi is a food lovers paradise, from street food to the Paranthe Wali Gali of old Delhi selling everything from paranthas to nihari, to the modern-day but local cafes that have sprung up, to the Mughlai and North Indian restaurants- Delhi food is its heart and soul. And it requires a huge appetite to sample it all. Lying close to the Raj Ghat, the Shanti Van (literally, the forest of peace) is the place where India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was cremated. The area is now a beautiful park adorned by trees planted by visiting dignitaries and heads of state. Ahinsa Sthal is a Jain temple located in Mehrauli. This temple is famous for its magnificent 13  ft. 6-inch statue of Mahavira carved from single granite rock. Parks and gardens Garden of Five Senses is a park with numerous modern art and sculpture pieces spread over 20 acres near Saket in south Delhi. Aastha Kunj The National Zoological Park is a 176-acre (71 ha) zoo near the Old Fort in Delhi, India. The zoo is home to about 1350 animals representing almost 130 species of animals and birds from around the world. Gallery See also Tourism in India Outline of tourism in India List of World Heritage Sites in India List of national parks of India List of lakes of India List of waterfalls in India List of State Protected Monuments in India List of beaches in India Incredible India List of Geographical Indications in India Medical tourism in India List of botanical gardens in India List of hill stations in India List of gates in India List of zoos in India List of protected areas of India List of aquaria in India List of forts in India List of forests in India Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India Hindu pilgrimage sites in India List of rock-cut temples in India Wildlife sanctuaries of India List of rivers of India List of mountains in India List of ecoregions in India Coral reefs in India List of stadiums in India References Further reading External links List Delhi Delhi

357429

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdivisions%20of%20Scotland

Subdivisions of Scotland

For local government purposes, Scotland is divided into 32 areas designated as "council areas" (), which are all governed by single-tier authorities designated as "councils". They have the option under the Local Government (Gaelic Names) (Scotland) Act 1997 of being known (but not re-designated) as a "comhairle" when opting for a Gaelic name; only Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Council of the Western Isles) has chosen this option, whereas the Highland Council (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) has adopted its Gaelic form alongside its English equivalent informally. The council areas have been in existence since 1 April 1996, under the provisions of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. Historically, Scotland was divided into 34 counties or shires. Although these no longer have any administrative function, they are still used to some extent in Scotland for cultural and geographical purposes, and some of the current council areas are named after them. There are also a number of other administrative divisions, some of which are handled by joint boards of the councils. At the most local level Scotland is divided into civil parishes, which are now used only for statistical purposes such as the census. The lowest level of administrative subdivision are the communities, which may elect community councils. History of the subdivisions of Scotland Traditionally burghs have been the key unit of the local government of Scotland, being highly autonomous entities, with rights to representation in the old Parliament of Scotland. Even after the Acts of Union 1707, burghs continued to be the principal subdivision. Until 1889 administration was on a burgh and parish basis. The years following 1889 saw the introduction of a hierarchy of local government administration comprising counties, counties of cities, large burghs and small burghs. With effect from 16 May 1975 and until 31 March 1996 the local government divisions of Scotland consisted of an upper tier of regions each containing a lower tier of districts except for the single-tier island council areas. Since 1996 there has only been a single tier of government, and the former island council areas are of equal status to the other councils. Council areas These are mid-year estimates for from the Office for National Statistics. Other subdivisions Scotland has several other administrative divisions, some of which are handled by joint boards of the councils. Electoral and valuation There are several joint boards for electoral registration and the purposes of property valuation for assessing council tax and rates. Health See also NHS Scotland Until 1 April 2014 the towns of Cambuslang and Rutherglen were in the Greater Glasgow and Clyde health board area despite being located in South Lanarkshire. They are now part of NHS Lanarkshire. Transport The Scottish Government has created seven "Regional Transport Partnerships", for establishing transport policy in the regions. They broadly follow council area groupings. Eurostat NUTS In the Eurostat Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS), Scotland is a level-1 NUTS region, coded "UKM", which is subdivided as follows: Land registration The current land registration system in Scotland divides Scotland into 33 Registration Counties, each coming into effect on various dates between 1981 and 2003. These areas in most cases resemble those of the pre-1975 administrative counties with Glasgow being the only current city to form a registration county. Sheriffdoms Sheriffdoms are judicial areas. Since 1 January 1975, these have been six in number: Glasgow and Strathkelvin Grampian, Highland and Islands Lothian and Borders North Strathclyde South Strathclyde, Dumfries and Galloway Tayside, Central and Fife Lieutenancy areas The Lieutenancy areas of Scotland are the areas used for the ceremonial lord-lieutenants, the monarch's representatives. The areas are similar to the Historic Counties and the Registration Counties, but are not identical to either. Most notably, the four cities of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow form separate areas from the surrounding countryside, with the Lord Provost of each city acting ex officio as the lord-lieutenant. Former police and fire services The Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 resulted in the merger of local police and fire services on 1 April 2013 to form the Police Service of Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: ) and the Scottish Fire and Rescue Service (SFRS, Scottish Gaelic: ). Prior to 1975 policing was the responsibility of the Cities and Burghs of Scotland (see List of burghs in Scotland). Between 1975 and 2013 Scotland was subdivided into Police and fire service areas based on the regions and districts and island council areas that were also formed in 1975. The police and fire service regions used between 1975 and 2013 are listed below. Lower level subdivisions Scotland is divided into 871 civil parishes which often resemble same-named but legally different ecclesiastical parishes. Although they have had no administrative function since 1930, they still exist and are still used for statistical purposes such as the census. Many former civil parish areas also continued to form registration districts until 1 January 2007. Many boundary changes have occurred over the years and an area currently derived from an old parish might no longer contain a place previously within that parish. Similarly, county boundaries (as still used for land registration) have also changed over the years such that a parish mentioned historically (generally before the 1860s) as being in one county (or sometimes two due to straddling a border) might now be in a neighbouring county and consequentially in a different succeeding council area. For most administrative purposes, the base level of sub-division in Scotland is now that of communities, which may elect community councils. The main role of these bodies is to channel and reflect local opinion to other bodies; they otherwise have very limited powers. There are around 1,200 communities in Scotland. Not all communities have councils; some have joint councils. Scottish communities are the nearest equivalent to civil parishes in England. See also List of articles about local government in the United Kingdom ISO 3166-2:GB, subdivision codes for the United Kingdom Scottish Parliament constituencies and regions Scottish Westminster constituencies References

357440

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1rio%20Soares

Mário Soares

Mário Alberto Nobre Lopes Soares, GColTE, GCC, GColL (; 7 December 1924 – 7 January 2017) was a Portuguese politician, who served as Prime Minister of Portugal from 1976 to 1978 and from 1983 to 1985, and subsequently as the 17th President of Portugal from 1986 to 1996. He was the first Secretary-General of the Socialist Party, from its foundation in 1973 to 1986. Family Soares was the son of João Lopes Soares (Leiria, Arrabal, 17 November 1879 – Lisbon, Campo Grande, 31 July 1970), founder of the Colégio Moderno in Lisbon, government minister and then anti-fascist republican activist who had been a priest before impregnating and marrying Elisa Nobre Baptista (Santarém, Pernes, 8 September 1887 – Lisbon, Campo Grande, 28 February 1955), Mário Soares's mother, at the 7th Conservatory of the Civil Register of Lisbon on 5 September 1934. His father also had another son by an unknown mother named Tertuliano Lopes Soares. His mother had previously been married and had two children, J. Nobre Baptista and Cândido Nobre Baptista. Mário Soares was raised as a Roman Catholic, but came to identify himself as a republican, secular and socialist. Early life Soares was born in the Coração de Jesus neighbourhood of Lisbon, and graduated in history and philosophy from the University of Lisbon. He became a university lecturer in 1957, but his activities in opposition to the dictatorship of António de Oliveira Salazar led to repeated arrests. He was active in resistance groups such as the Movement for Anti-Fascist National Unity and the Movement for Democratic Unity. Soares began his studies at Colégio Moderno, owned by his father. There, for a short period he was taught geography by Álvaro Cunhal, who would later become the towering figure of Portuguese Communism and one of Soares' greatest political rivals. While a student at university, Soares joined the Portuguese Communist Party, being responsible for the youth section. In this capacity, he organised demonstrations in Lisbon to celebrate the end of World War II. He was first arrested by PIDE, the Portuguese political police, in 1946, when he was a member of the Central Committee of the Movement of Democratic Unity (), at the time chaired by . Soares was arrested twice in 1949. On those latter occasions, he was the secretary of General Norton de Matos, a candidate for the Presidency. However, he became estranged from de Matos when the latter discovered Soares's Communist sympathies. Soares married Maria de Jesus Barroso Soares, an actress, on 22 February 1949, while in the Aljube prison, at the Third Conservatory of the Civil Register of Lisbon. They had a son, João Soares, who later became Mayor of Lisbon, and a daughter, Isabel Barroso Soares (born in 1951), who now manages the Colégio Moderno. Soares's multiple arrests for political activism made it impossible for him to continue with his career as a lecturer of history and philosophy. Therefore, he decided to study law and become an attorney. Political activity during the Estado Novo In 1958, Soares was very active in the presidential election supporting General Humberto Delgado. Later, he would become Delgado's family lawyer, when Humberto Delgado was murdered in 1965, in Spain, by agents of the dictatorship's secret police (PIDE). As a lawyer, he defended some of Portuguese political prisoners and participated in numerous trials conducted in the Plenary Court and in the Special Military Court. Represented, particularly, Álvaro Cunhal when he was accused of several political crimes, and along with Adelino da Palma Carlos he also defended the dynastic cause of Maria Pia of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Braganza. In April 1964, in Geneva, Switzerland, Soares together with Francisco Ramos da Costa and Manuel Tito de Morais created the Acção Socialista Portuguesa (Portuguese Socialist Action). At this point he was already quite distant from his former Communist friends (having quit the Communist Party in 1951); his views were now clearly inclined towards economic liberalism. In March 1968, Soares was arrested again by PIDE, and a military tribunal sentenced him to banishment in the colony of São Tomé and Principe in the Gulf of Guinea. His wife and two children, Isabel and João, accompanied him. However, they returned to Lisbon eight months later for in the meantime dictator Salazar had been replaced by Marcello Caetano. The new dictator wanted to present a more democratic face to the world, so many political prisoners, Soares among them, were released and allowed exile in France. In the October 1969 general election, which was rigged, the democratic opposition (whose political rights were severely restricted) entered with two different lists. Soares participated actively in the campaign supporting the Coligação Eleitoral de Unidade Democrática or CEUD (Electoral Coalition for Democratic Unity). CEUD was clearly anti-fascist, but they also reaffirmed their opposition to Communism. In 1970, Soares was exiled to Rome, Italy, but eventually settled in France where he taught at the Universities of Vincennes, Paris and Rennes. In 1973, the 'Portuguese Socialist Action' became the Socialist Party, and Soares was elected Secretary-General. The Socialist party was created under the umbrella of Willy Brandt's SPD in Bad Münstereifel, Germany, on 19 April 1973. Carnation Revolution On 25 April 1974, elements of the Portuguese Army seized power in Lisbon, overthrowing Salazar's successor, Marcello Caetano. Soares and other political exiles returned home to celebrate what was termed the "Carnation Revolution". In the provisional government which was formed after the revolution, led by the Movement of the Armed Forces (MFA), Soares became minister for overseas negotiations, charged with organising the independence of Portugal's overseas colonies. Among other encounters, he met with Samora Machel, the leader of Frelimo, to negotiate the independence of Mozambique. Within months of the revolution however (and in spite of the April 1975 Constituent Assembly election results which gave victory to the Socialist Party and clearly favored the pro-democracy political parties), it became apparent that the Portuguese Communist Party, allied with a radical group of officers in the MFA, was attempting to extend its control over the government. The Prime Minister, Vasco dos Santos Gonçalves, was accused of being an agent of the Communists and a bitter confrontation developed between the Socialists and Communists over control of the newspaper República. President Francisco da Costa Gomes dismissed Vasco Gonçalves in September 1975 and a failed far-left coup in late November ended the far-left influence in Portuguese government and politics. After the approval of the 1976 Constitution, a democratic government was finally established when national elections were held on 25 April 1976. Prime minister The 1976 legislative election gave the Socialists a plurality of seats in the newly created Assembly of the Republic and Soares became Prime Minister. Deep hostility between the Socialists and the Communists made a left-wing majority government impossible, and Soares formed a weak minority government. Vast fiscal and currency account deficits generated by previous governments forced Soares to adopt a strict austerity policy, which made him deeply unpopular. Soares had to resign from office after only two years, in 1978. The wave of left-wing sentiment which followed the 1974 revolution had now dissipated, and a succession of conservative governments held office until 1983, with Soares' Socialist Party unsuccessful in the 1979 special elections and 1980 elections. Soares again became Prime Minister following the 1983 elections, holding office until late 1985. His main achievement in office was negotiating Portugal's entry into the European Economic Community. Portugal at the time was very wary of integrating itself into the EEC, and Soares almost single-handedly turned public opinion around. Presidency In the 1986 presidential election, Soares was elected President of Portugal, beating Diogo Freitas do Amaral by little more than 2%. He was reelected in 1991, this time with almost 70% of the vote. For most of Soares' two terms of office, Portugal was governed by the centre-right Social Democratic Party, led by Aníbal Cavaco Silva. In 1989, he was the first foreign head of state to visit Czechoslovakia in the course of the Velvet Revolution, invited by Václav Havel, who was elected president of Czechoslovakia two days later. He devised the so-called Presidência Aberta (Open Presidency), a series of tours around the country, each addressing a particular issue, such as the environment or a particular region of Portugal. Although generally well received by the public, some claimed that he was criticizing the government and exceeding his constitutional role. Others stated that the tours were in the style of medieval courts. Yet the name stuck for today's presidential initiatives of the same type. Post-Presidency Soares retired in 1996, but in 1998 he headed the Independent World Commission on the Oceans. In 1999 he headed the Socialist ticket in elections to the European Parliament, where he served until the 2004 elections. He ran for President of the Parliament, but lost to Nicole Fontaine. In 2000 he was awarded the North-South Prize. Soares was a member of the Club de Madrid, an independent organization of more than 80 former democratic statesmen from around the world. The group works to strengthen democratic governance and leadership. In March 2005, he launched a petition urging the European Union to start membership talks with Cape Verde. On 30 August 2005, he announced his candidacy to run for President in the election that occurred on 22 January 2006, when he was 81 years old. However, he lost the election to Aníbal Cavaco Silva and was even behind Manuel Alegre, receiving 14% of the vote. "The results went against my expectations. I accept this defeat with a feeling of mission accomplished," he said. It was suggested (on the RTP1 TV programme Prós e Contras in March 2008) that one of the reasons for his weak support could be that the Portuguese were reluctant to elect any President for more than two terms (only allowed by the Portuguese Constitution of 1976 if non-consecutive). In the TV programme Os Grandes Portugueses (English: The Greatest Portuguese), he was voted 12th, the highest-placed among living people chosen by the public. He was a member of the strongest Masonic lodge in Portugal. He was President of the then ( (FMS)). He sat on the board of directors of the (). He was a Member of the Portuguese Council of State, as a former elected President of Portugal. After the Finnish general elections on 17 April 2011, Soares opined that "Finland has changed into an extremely conservative country, where solidarity is unknown." Soares evoked the memory of Kalevi Sorsa, contrasting his generosity with "those dwarfs, who now want to rule Finland, their ethical values and hostility to Portugal". According to Soares the Finns live in an illusion, believing that "speculative markets and credit criminals can destroy nations with nine hundred years' independent history". Death and state funeral Soares died on 7 January 2017 at the age of 92. He had been admitted to the hospital on 13 December, and although his condition at first showed slight signs of improvement, he lapsed into a coma on 26 December from which he never recovered. The Portuguese Government offered a state funeral and declared three days of national mourning. It was the first state funeral in Portugal after that of President Óscar Carmona in 1951. After lying in state at Jerónimos Monastery during 9 January, his remains were transported to Prazeres Cemetery the next day, and now lie at the family vault next to those of his wife. Honours and awards National honours N.B. according to "Ordens honoríficas portuguesas – Nacionais com Ordens Portuguesas" recipients: Grand Collar of the Order of the Tower and Sword (GColTE – 9 March 1991) Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (GCC – 09/04/1981) Grand Collar of the Order of Liberty (GColL – 9 March 1996) Grand Master of the Portuguese Orders (9 March 1986 – 9 March 1996): Foreign honours N.B. according to "Ordens honoríficas portuguesas – Nacionais com Ordens Estrangeiras" recipients: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Austrian Republic (Austria, 1987/03/10) Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (pt – B1) (Brazil, 1988/03/30) Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil, 1987/03/10) Grand Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil, 1987/11/10) Grand Collar of the Order of the National Congress (pt) (Brazil, 1987/04/13) Grand Cross of the Ordef of Ipiranga (pt) (State of São Paulo, 1987/04/13) Collar of the Order of Merit of Bahia (State of Bahia, 1988/03/30) Order of the Balkan Mountains with Ribbon (Bulgaria, 1994/10/26) 1st Class of the Order of Amílcar Cabral (Cape Verde, 2001/01/05) Collar of the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Chile, 1992/07/22) Grand Collar of the Order of Boyaca (Colombia, 1988/05/27) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Congo, 1989/09/12) 1st Class of the Order of Diplomatic Service Merit (South Korea, 1987/04/23) Grand Collar of the Order of Makarios III (Cyprus, 1990/05/29) Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (Denmark, 1988/03/30) Knight of the Order of the Elephant (Denmark, 1992/05/06) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (Dominican Republic, 1987/03/10) Collar of the National Order of Merit (Ecuador, 1989/09/12) Collar of the Order of the Nile (Egypt, 1992/04/04) Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose of Finland with Collar (Finland,1990) Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit (France, 1988/05/26) Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (France, 1990/05/07) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Germany, 1987/03/10) Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Germany, 1991/01/08) Grand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer (Greece, 1987/11/20) Collar of the Order of Pope Pius IX (Holy See, 1991/01/08) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (Hungary, 1993/01/25) Grand Cross of the Order of the Falcon (Iceland, 1983/11/21) Grand Collar with Collar of the Order of the Falcon (Iceland, 1993/06/04) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (Italy, 1984/04/26) Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (Italy, 1989/04/05) Grand Cross of the National Order of the Ivory Coast (Ivory Coast, 1990/06/01) Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau (Luxembourg, 1988/05/26) Honorary Companion of Honour of the National Order of Merit (Malta, 1994/10/09) Collar of the Order pro merito Melitensi (Sovereign Military Order of Malta, 1989/05/09) Special Class of the Order of Sovereignty (Morocco, 1992/02/06) Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (Netherlands, 1991/09/26) Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (Norway, 1987/03/10) 1st Class of the Star of Palestine (Palestine, 1993/11/18) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland (Poland, 1993/05/21) Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta (Poland, 1994/10/26) Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Senegal, 1996/02/28) Grand Cross of the Order of Good Hope (South Africa, 1995) Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spain, 1977/11/21) Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (Spain, 1987/03/10) Collar of the Order of Charles III (Spain, 1988/03/30) Knight of the Order of the Seraphim (Sweden, 1987/01/28) Grand Cross of the Order of the Seventh of November (Tunisia, 1993/02/16) Honorary Knight Grand Cross (with Collar) of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom, 1994/05/19) Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (United Kingdom, 1996) Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator (Venezuela, 1987/11/10) Order of the Yugoslav Star with Sash (Yugoslavia, 1988/03/30) Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star (Yugoslavia, 1990/04/24) Grand Cordon of the National Order of the Leopard (Zaire, 1989/12/04) Foreign awards In 1998, Soares won the International Simón Bolívar Prize of UNESCO. In 2000, Soares received the North-South Prize of the Council of Europe. He was an honorary member of the Club of Rome and member of High Council of Francophonie. He was appointed Doctor of Laws (honoris causa) by the University of Leicester in 1994. Soares was named the "patron" for the College of Europe's academic year 2020-2021. Electoral results 1986 Portuguese presidential election Mário Soares won the election with 3,010,756 votes (51.18%) after the second round of voting. 1991 Portuguese presidential election Mário Soares won the election with 3,459,521 votes (70.35%). 2006 Portuguese presidential election Mário Soares finished third with 785,355 votes (14.31%). Notes References Further reading Wilsford, David, ed. Political Leaders of Contemporary Western Europe: A Biographical Dictionary (Greenwood, 1995) pp. 413–21. External links Fundação Mário Soares 1924 births 2017 deaths Presidents of Portugal Prime Ministers of Portugal Portuguese democracy activists Portuguese anti-fascists People from Lisbon Former Roman Catholics Portuguese agnostics Golden Globes (Portugal) winners Portuguese Freemasons Portuguese Communist Party politicians Socialist Party (Portugal) politicians Socialist Party (Portugal) MEPs MEPs for Portugal 1999–2004 Foreign ministers of Portugal University of Lisbon alumni Rennes 2 University faculty Portuguese lawyers Grand Collars of the Order of Liberty Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal) Recipients of the Order of the Tower and Sword Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta Grand Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Recipients of the National Order of Merit (Brazil) International Simón Bolívar Prize recipients

357444

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pussy%2C%20Savoie

Pussy, Savoie

Pussy () is a small village in the commune of La Léchère in the Savoie département of France. It is situated on the eastern slope of Mont Bellachat above the left bank of the Isère, 9 km (5.5 mi.) northwest of Moûtiers. The name derives from the Roman personal name Pussius, which refers to the owner of the place in the Roman era. The village boundary covers 18 km2 (6.8 mile²). The local church, dedicated to Saint John the Baptist, was rebuilt in 1669. In 1561 the population was recorded as 1455 people, 548 in 1776, and 276 in 1979. Pussy and several other small villages were merged into the La Léchère commune for administrative purposes in 1972. References Former communes of Savoie

357452

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced%20representation

Induced representation

In group theory, the induced representation is a representation of a group, , which is constructed using a known representation of a subgroup . Given a representation of , the induced representation is, in a sense, the "most general" representation of that extends the given one. Since it is often easier to find representations of the smaller group than of , the operation of forming induced representations is an important tool to construct new representations. Induced representations were initially defined by Frobenius, for linear representations of finite groups. The idea is by no means limited to the case of finite groups, but the theory in that case is particularly well-behaved. Constructions Algebraic Let be a finite group and any subgroup of . Furthermore let be a representation of . Let be the index of in and let be a full set of representatives in of the left cosets in . The induced representation can be thought of as acting on the following space: Here each is an isomorphic copy of the vector space V whose elements are written as with . For each g in and each gi there is an hi in and j(i) in {1, ..., n} such that . (This is just another way of saying that is a full set of representatives.) Via the induced representation acts on as follows: where for each i. Alternatively, one can construct induced representations using the tensor product: any K-linear representation of the group H can be viewed as a module V over the group ring K[H]. We can then define This latter formula can also be used to define for any group and subgroup , without requiring any finiteness. Examples For any group, the induced representation of the trivial representation of the trivial subgroup is the right regular representation. More generally the induced representation of the trivial representation of any subgroup is the permutation representation on the cosets of that subgroup. An induced representation of a one dimensional representation is called a monomial representation, because it can be represented as monomial matrices. Some groups have the property that all of their irreducible representations are monomial, the so-called monomial groups. Properties If is a subgroup of the group , then every -linear representation of can be viewed as a -linear representation of ; this is known as the restriction of to and denoted by . In the case of finite groups and finite-dimensional representations, the Frobenius reciprocity theorem states that, given representations of and of , the space of -equivariant linear maps from to has the same dimension over K as that of -equivariant linear maps from to . The universal property of the induced representation, which is also valid for infinite groups, is equivalent to the adjunction asserted in the reciprocity theorem. If is a representation of H and is the representation of G induced by , then there exists a -equivariant linear map with the following property: given any representation of and -equivariant linear map , there is a unique -equivariant linear map with . In other words, is the unique map making the following diagram commute: The Frobenius formula states that if is the character of the representation , given by , then the character of the induced representation is given by where the sum is taken over a system of representatives of the left cosets of in and Analytic If is a locally compact topological group (possibly infinite) and is a closed subgroup then there is a common analytic construction of the induced representation. Let be a continuous unitary representation of into a Hilbert space V. We can then let: Here means: the space G/H carries a suitable invariant measure, and since the norm of is constant on each left coset of H, we can integrate the square of these norms over G/H and obtain a finite result. The group acts on the induced representation space by translation, that is, for g,x∈G and . This construction is often modified in various ways to fit the applications needed. A common version is called normalized induction and usually uses the same notation. The definition of the representation space is as follows: Here are the modular functions of and respectively. With the addition of the normalizing factors this induction functor takes unitary representations to unitary representations. One other variation on induction is called compact induction. This is just standard induction restricted to functions with compact support. Formally it is denoted by ind and defined as: Note that if is compact then Ind and ind are the same functor. Geometric Suppose is a topological group and is a closed subgroup of . Also, suppose is a representation of over the vector space . Then acts on the product as follows: where and are elements of and is an element of . Define on the equivalence relation Denote the equivalence class of by . Note that this equivalence relation is invariant under the action of ; consequently, acts on . The latter is a vector bundle over the quotient space with as the structure group and as the fiber. Let be the space of sections of this vector bundle. This is the vector space underlying the induced representation . The group acts on a section given by as follows: Systems of imprimitivity In the case of unitary representations of locally compact groups, the induction construction can be formulated in terms of systems of imprimitivity. Lie theory In Lie theory, an extremely important example is parabolic induction: inducing representations of a reductive group from representations of its parabolic subgroups. This leads, via the philosophy of cusp forms, to the Langlands program. See also Restricted representation Nonlinear realization Frobenius character formula Notes References Representation theory of groups Group theory

357456

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonese%20Party

Aragonese Party

The Aragonese Party (, PAR) is a political party which advocates the interests of Aragon within Spain. The party was founded in 1978 under the name Aragonese Regionalist Party, but changed its name in 1990, keeping the initials PAR. The founders of PAR included Emilio Eiroa, who later served as the President of the Government of Aragon from 1991 to 1993. PAR had representation in the European Parliament (1999-2004) where it sat in the European Coalition group. Electoral performance Cortes of Aragon References External links Official website Political parties in Aragon Political parties established in 1978 Regionalist parties in Spain Centrist parties in Spain 1978 establishments in Spain

357457

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20Communist%20Party

Japanese Communist Party

The Japanese Communist Party (JCP; , Nihon Kyōsan-tō) is a political party in Japan and one of the largest non-governing communist parties in the world. The JCP advocates for the establishment of a society based on scientific socialism, communism, democracy, peace, and antimilitarism. It proposes to achieve its objectives by working within a democratic framework while struggling against what it describes as "imperialism and its subordinate ally, monopoly capital". The party does not advocate violent revolution, instead, it proposes a "democratic revolution" to achieve "democratic change in politics and the economy" and "the complete restoration of Japan's national sovereignty", which it sees as being infringed upon by Japan's security alliance with the United States, although it firmly defends Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution and aims to dissolve the Japan Self-Defense Forces, which it considers unconstitutional, due to its opposition of the re-militarization of Japan. The JCP is one of the largest non-ruling communist parties in the world, with approximately 270,000 members belonging to 18,000 branches. In the wake of the Sino-Soviet split, the party began to distance itself from the Eastern Bloc, especially from the Soviet Union. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the JCP released a press statement titled "We welcome the end of a party which embodied the historical evil of great power chauvinism and hegemonism", while at the same time criticizing Eastern European countries for abandoning socialism, describing it as a "reversal of history". Consequently, the party did not suffer an internal crisis as a result of the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991, nor has it considered disbanding or changing its name or fundamental objectives, as many other communist parties have done. The JCP polled 11.3% of the vote in 2000, 8.2% in 2003, 7.3% in 2005, 7.0% in 2009, and 6.2% in 2012. These results seemed to indicate a trend of declining support, but the party won 21 seats in 2014, up from eight in the previous general election, as the JCP received 7,040,130 votes (13.3%) in the constituency section and 6,062,962 (11.37%) in the party lists. This continued a new wave of support that was also evident in the 2013 Tokyo prefectural election in which the party doubled its representation. Fighting on a platform directly opposed to neoliberalism, the Trans-Pacific Partnership, attempts to rewrite the constitution, United States Forces Japan, and nuclear power, the JCP tapped into a minority current that seeks an alternative to Japan's rightward direction. Following the 2016 Japanese House of Councillors election, the party holds 13 seats in the House of Councillors. After the 2017 Japanese general election, the party held 12 seats in the House of Representatives, and since the 2021 Japanese general election, it holds 10 seats. Membership In January 2014, the JCP had approximately 320,000 members. Following the party's advancement in the 2013 Tokyo prefectural election, there had been an increase in membership growth, with over 1,000 people joining in each of the final three months of 2013. Approximately 20% of new members during this period were aged 20–40, showing a higher ratio of young people joining the party than in the past. More recently, membership numbers have declined, with membership at around 300,000 in 2017 and 270,000 in 2020. History Prewar roots The Japanese Communist Party was founded in Tokyo on 15 July 1922. Its early leadership was drawn from the anarcho-syndicalist and Christian socialist movements that developed around the turn of the century. From the former came Yamakawa Hitoshi, Sakai Toshihiko, and Arahata Kanson, who had all been supporters of Kōtoku Shūsui, an anarchist executed in 1911. Katayama Sen, another early leader, had been a Christian socialist for much of his political life. The three former anarchists were reluctant to found the JCP, with Yamakawa shortly after arguing that Japan was not ready for a communist party and calling for work to be done solely within labor unions. Katayama's theoretical understanding of Marxism also remained low. Outlawed and persecuted The JCP was founded as an underground political association. Outlawed in 1925 with the passage of the Peace Preservation Law, the JCP was subjected to repression and persecution by the Special Higher Police (Tokkō), nicknamed the "Thought Police". JCP members and sympathizers were imprisoned and pressured to "convert" (tenkō suru) to anti-communist nationalism. Many of those who refused to convert remained imprisoned for the duration of the Pacific War. The Japanese Communist Party member Hotsumi Ozaki, who was part of the Richard Sorge spy ring for the Kremlin, was the only Japanese person hanged for treason under the Peace Preservation Law. Postwar reemergence The Japan Communist Party was legalized in 1945 by the Allied military occupation of Japan and since then has been a legal political party able to contest elections. In the aftermath of the war, under the guidance of charismatic party chairman Sanzō Nosaka, the party pursued a policy of portraying itself as "lovable". Nosaka's strategy involved avoiding open calls for violent revolution and taking advantage of the seemingly pro-labor stance of the Occupation to organize the urban working classes and win power at the ballot box and through propaganda. In particular, the party was successful in winning acceptance of the notion that communists had been the only ones to resist Japanese wartime militarism. This propaganda effort won the party thousands of new members and an even larger number of sympathizers, especially among artists and intellectuals. The party rapidly built up its strength and in 1949, made unprecedented gains by winning 10 percent of the vote and sending 35 representatives to the Diet. Red Purge and turn to violence Beginning in the fall of 1949, in reaction to the JCP's electoral success and as part of the "Reverse Course" in Occupation policy amid rising Cold War tensions, the U.S.-led occupation authorities and the Japanese government carried out a sweeping Red Purge, firing tens of thousands of communists and suspected communists from government posts, teaching positions at universities, high schools, and primary schools, as well as from private corporations. The purge was further intensified in response to the outbreak of the Korean War. Against this backdrop in January 1950, the Soviet-led Cominform, at the behest of Soviet premier Joseph Stalin, issued a blistering criticism of the JCP's peaceful line as "opportunism" and "glorifying American imperialism", and demanding that the JCP carry out an immediate violent revolution along Maoist lines. This devastating "Cominform Criticism" led to competition among rival JCP factions to win the Cominform's approval, and ultimately led to the militant which declared that "it would be a serious mistake to think that Japan's liberation can be achieved through peaceful, democratic means" and called for an immediate violent revolution. The result was a campaign of terror in which JCP activists threw Molotov cocktails at police boxes and cadres were sent up into the mountains with instructions to organize oppressed farmers into "mountain guerrilla squads". The backlash to the JCP's new militant line was swift and severe. Militants were rounded up, tried, and sentenced to lengthy prison terms, and in the 1952 general election, Japanese voters vented their ire at the JCP by stripping the party of every single one of its 35 Diet seats, a blow from which it would take two decades to recover. Stunned, the JCP gradually began to pull back from its militant line, a process facilitated by the death of Stalin in 1953. At the 6th Party Congress in 1955, the JCP renounced the militant line completely, returning to its old "peaceful line" of gradually pursuing socialist revolution through peaceful, democratic means. Anpo protests In 1960, the JCP played a central role in organizing the massive Anpo protests against the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty, which were the largest protests in Japan's history. The JCP took a different line than the Japan Socialist Party, Sohyo labor federation, and other groups who argued that the main target of the protest movement was Japanese monopoly capitalism. Instead, the JCP argued that the main enemy was American imperialism, and along with affiliated groups, focused its protests around the U.S. Embassy in Tokyo. Accordingly, JCP-linked groups were the driving force behind the "Hagerty Incident" in which the car carrying U.S. President Eisenhower's press secretary James Hagerty was mobbed outside of Tokyo's Haneda Airport on 10 June 1960, provoking a major international incident and helping to precipitate the downfall of the Nobusuke Kishi cabinet. The Anpo protests were a turning point in the JCP's ongoing attempts to revive its political fortunes after the disastrous turn toward violent revolution in the early 1950s. Although the Maoists had been purged from the party following the earlier disaster, the JCP was still riven by the age-old rivalry between the Rōnō Ha (Worker-Farmer Faction) and the Kōza Ha (Lecture Faction), which dated back to the prewar era. Among other disagreements, the two factions disagreed over which stage of Marxist development Japan was currently in; the Rōnō Ha believed that Japan had already achieved full capitalism, which meant that an immediate socialist revolution was possible, whereas the Kōza Ha argued that Japan's transition to capitalism was not yet complete and that therefore what was needed was a “two-stage” revolutionfirst a “democratic revolution” that would overthrow American imperialism and establish true democracy, and then a “socialist revolution” that would establish communism. Although the "mainstream" of the JCP, led by Kenji Miyamoto, favored the Kōza Ha interpretation, as late as the 7th Party Congress in 1958 the "anti-mainstream" Rōnō Ha faction, led by Shōjirō Kasuga, still controlled around 40 percent of the delegates. The Anpo protests greatly strengthened the hand of the Kōza Ha faction. During the protest, the JCP, still scarred by the backlash to its violent line in the 1950s, consistently advocated peaceful, orderly, and restrained protests. This stance was highly unpopular with the radical student activists of the Zengakuren student federation, who broke decisively with the JCP as a result and began to build a New Left student movement. However, the movement proved unpopular with the broader public, and the JCP was able to use its image as a "peaceful" and "positive" force during the protests as a recruitment tool. Membership in the party soared during the course of the protests, doubling from 40,000 to 80,000, and most of the new recruits wound up supporting the Kōza Ha line. Over the remainder of the 1960s, the Kōza Ha was able to purge many members from the Rōnō Ha faction, and others, dissatisfied with JCP policies, quit the party of their own accord. Miyamoto was able to cement his control over the party and reigned as party chairman all the way until 1982. Meanwhile, the party's membership continued to grow rapidly, and the party began to make steady gains at the ballot box, winning more and more seats in the National Diet. By the mid-1960s, the United States Department of State estimated party membership to be approximately 120,000 (0.2% of the working-age population), and the party had acquired around 300,000 members by 1970. Sino-Soviet split The party did not take sides during the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s. Its politics were independent of the Soviet Union. Reflecting this, the party chairman Miyamoto announced the JCP's opposition to the 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. At the same time, the party had distanced itself from Mao and Maoism, which allowed it to avoid being associated with China's Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution once they started coming more fully to light in the 1970s. In July 1969, the JCP declared that if it ever came to power, it would permit the free functioning of opposition parties, in an effort to distinguish itself from the one-party states in the Soviet Union and China. These efforts proved popular, and in the 1972 general election, the JCP won an astonishing 38 seats in the Diet, surpassing its 1949 high of 35 and signalling the party's full recovery from the disastrous militant line of the early 1950s. Party membership continued to grow in the 1970s, albeit at a slower rate than in the 1960s, reaching approximately 500,000 members by 1980. 1980s to 21st century During the 1980s, party membership began to decline, falling to 370,000 by 1997. Owing to a significant loss in electoral support, the party revised its policies in the 1990s and became a more traditional democratic socialist party. Lam Peng Er argued in the Pacific Affairs in 1996 that "the JCP's viability is crucial to the health of Japanese democracy" because "[i]t is the only established party in parliament that has not been coopted by the conservative parties. It performs the watchdog role against the ruling parties without fear or favor. More importantly, the JCP often offers the only opposition candidate in prefectural governorship, city mayoral and other local elections. Despite the ostensible differences between the non-Communist parties at the national level, they often support a joint candidate for governor or mayor so that all parties are assured of being part of the ruling coalition. If the JCP did not offer a candidate, there would be a walkover and Japanese voters would be offered a fait accompli without an electoral avenue of protest. Promoting women candidates in elections to win women's votes is another characteristic of the party. More women are elected under the Communist label than other political parties in Japan." In 2008, foreign media recorded an increase in support for the party due to the effect of the global financial crisis on Japanese workers. However, the party failed to increase its number of seats in the 2009 general election. Subsequently, the projected decline of the party was halted, with the JCP becoming the third-largest party in the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly and making gains in the House of Councillors, going from six to 11 seats. The party surged in the 2014 elections, receiving 7,040,130 votes (13.3%) in the constituency section and 6,062,962 (11.37%) in the party lists. During the nomination period of the July 2016 House of Councillors election, the party signed an agreement with the Democratic, Social Democratic and People's Life parties to field a jointly endorsed candidate in each of the 32 districts in which only one seat was contested, uniting in an attempt to take control of the House from the LDP/Komeito coalition. JCP leaders expressed willingness to enter into a coalition with the Democratic Party, a notion which was rejected by then-Democratic Party President Katsuya Okada as being "impossible" in the near future due to what he viewed as some of the "extreme leftist policies" promoted by the JCP. The party had three Councillors up for re-election and fielded a total of 56 candidates in the election, down from 63 candidates in the 2013 election, but still the second-highest number after the LDP. However, only 14 of those candidates contested single- and multi-member districts, while 42 contested the 48-seat national proportional representation block. Policies Pacifism and Security policy One of the JCP's main objectives is terminating the Japan–United States military alliance and the dismantling of all American military bases in Japan. It wants to make Japan a non-aligned and neutral country, in accordance with its principles of self-determination and national sovereignty. There are about 130 American military bases and other related facilities in Japan, with Okinawa Prefecture having the largest American military base in Asia. The JCP has also traditionally championed pacifism. With regards to Japan Self-Defence Forces (Japan's own military forces), the JCP's current policy is that it is not principally opposed to its existence (in 2000 it decided that it will agree to its use should Japan ever be attacked), but that it will seek to abolish it in the long term, international situation permitting. The JCP also opposes possession of nuclear weapons by any country or the concept of military blocs and opposes any attempt to revise Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which says that "never again... [Japan] be visited with the horrors of war through the action of government". Regarding the resolution of disputes, it argues that priority must be given to peaceful means through negotiations, not to military solutions. The JCP says that Japan must adhere to the United Nations Charter. Economic policy The JCP strives to change the nation's economic policy of what it sees as serving the interests of large corporations and banks to one of "defending the interests of the people", and to establish "democratic rules" that will check the activities of large corporations and "protect the lives and basic rights of the people". Regarding the issue of the international economy, the JCP has advocated establishing a new international democratic economic order on the basis of respect for the economic sovereignty of each country and strongly opposes the participation to the TPP. The JCP sees the United States, transnational corporations and international financial capital as pushing globalization, which it says is seriously affecting the global economy, including the monetary and financial problems as well as North–South and environmental problems. The JCP advocates "democratic regulation of activities by transnational corporations and international financial capital on an international scale". In September 2015, after the passage of the 2015 Japanese military legislation, the JCP called for cooperation from other opposition parties to form an interim government to abolish the bills. It was the first time the party had called for such cooperation with other parties. Social policy The Japanese Communist Party is generally known as the most (especially socially) progressive party in Japanese politics. The JCP has traditionally been opposed to the existence of the Imperial House since the pre-war days. From 2004, it has acknowledged the Emperor as Japan's head of state as long as he remains a figurehead. The JCP has stated that it supports the establishment of a democratic republic, but that "its [the monarchy] continuation or discontinuation should be decided by the will of the majority of the people in future, when the time is ripe to do so". It is also against Japan's use of its national flag and national anthem which it sees as a relic of Japan's militarist past. LGBT rights and feminism The JCP jointly supports 'LGBT equality Law' with Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan, Social Democratic Party and Reiwa Shinsengumi. The JCP supports the legalization of same-sex marriage. The JCP has maintained a friendly relationship with the Japanese feminist camp since its inception, and is still the most active in women's rights issues among major Japanese political parties. The JCP supports eliminating the wage gap between men and women. It also advocates for more women in politics and political life. Foreign policy The JCP adheres to the idea that Japan as an Asian country must stop putting emphasis on diplomacy centering on relations with the United States and the G8 Summit and put Asian diplomacy at the center of its foreign relations. It supports establishing an "independent foreign policy in the interests of the Japanese people" and rejects "uncritically following any foreign power". The JCP advocates that Japan issue further apologies for its actions during World War II and has condemned prime ministerial visits to Yasukuni Shrine. In the 1930s, while the JCP was still illegal, it was the only political party to actively oppose Japan's war with China and World War II. However, the JCP supports Japanese territorial claims over the Kuril and Senkaku Islands and Liancourt Rocks. Furthermore, the JCP has condemned North Korea's nuclear-weapons testing, calling for effective sanctions, but opposing the prospect of a military response. In 2020, the JCP revised its platform for the first time since 2004. The new platform criticized the Communist Party of China, denouncing China's “great-power chauvinism and hegemonism” as “an adverse current to world peace and progress”. The JCP also removed a line from its platform which described China as a country “that is beginning a new quest for socialism”. JCP members have stated that this was due to human rights conditions in China. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China denounced the accusations of the JCP as “groundless and biased”. Organization Press Shimbun Akahata (English: Red Flag Newspaper) is the daily organ of the JCP in the form of a national newspaper. Several other newspapers preceded and merged into Red Flag, including Daini Musansha Shinbun (English: The Second Proletarian News), which was merged into Red Flag in 1932.Daini Musansha Shinbun was itself the immediate successor to the original The Proletarian News, which was banned by the government in September 1929. Daini Musansha Shinbun began publication immediately after the ban. In the past, the party published numerous other newspapers as well, including another national paper called Nihon Seiji Shinbun (English: Japan Political News) and a theoretical journal called Zenshin (English: Forward). The party also published several regional newspapers such as Class War in and around Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe, Shinetsu Red Flag in Nagano and Hokkaido News in Hokkaido. They also published numerous (the exact number is unknown) factory newspapers. Some regional newspapers, such as Shin Kanagawa (English: New Kanagawa) in Kanagawa, are still published. Affiliated organizations The youth wing of JCP is the Democratic Youth League of Japan. In the 1920s and 1930s, the organization published several newspapers of its own, including Rēnin Seinen (English: Lenin Youth) and Proletarian Youth. The party also has affiliate medical and consumer co-ops. The Japanese Consumers' Co-Operative Union (JCCU), the umbrella body of the co-operative movement in Japan, has a sizable number of communists in its ranks, although the exact numbers are difficult to verify. Another example of the JCP's prevalence in the co-operative movement is the Co-op Kanagawa in the Kanagawa Prefecture, which has 800,000 members and has historical ties to the JCP. It still advertises and occasionally is published in JCP newspapers such as Red Flag and New Kanagawa. The prevalence of house unions in Japan as opposed to enterprise unions has prompted much of the exceptional development of other organizations by the JCP, as well as causing the JCP to seek other external organizational support, including from kōenkai. The musical group , was founded in Kyoto in 2011 and directed by Tadao Yamamoto, composer, accordionist, choir director and an ordinary member of the National Council of / ). As of 2016, the choir is the only organization of Japanese musicians specializing in political support and in the cultural activity of the party, naming itself explicitly by the English official acronym JCP. Its repertory and artistic activity are strongly linked in The Singing Voice of Japan, a musical movement of Japanese working class that dates back to 1948, when the was established. In various cultural events organized by the party, the Choir of JCP-fans appears as an element among the joined choirs of the volunteer singers of The Singing Voice of Japan. Activity of the Choir (some notable concerts and performances) 11 February 2011, Kyoto Kaikan Hall: Concert sponsored by the Kyoto Committee of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP). 1 August 2013, Nishijin Bunka Center (Kyoto): Cultural Live Revolutionary Pub, in collaboration with , former JCP member of the House of Councilors. 23 September 2014, Takaragaike Park (Kyoto): Festival Kyoto ed.2014, organized by the Kyoto Committee of the JCP. 1 February 2015, Kyoiku Bunka Center (Kyoto): Festival sponsored by the Kyoto Committee of the JCP. 29 April 2016, Takaragaike Park (Kyoto): Festival Kyoto ed.2016, organized by the Kyoto Committee of the JCP: performance with and , JCP member of the House of Councilors and Secretary-General of the party. Notable members Pre-war (1922–1941) Kanson Arahata Sen Katayama Hajime Kawakami Fukumoto Kazuo Takiji Kobayashi Toshihiko Sakai Hitoshi Yamakawa Wartime (1941–1945) Kim Chon-hae Sanzō Nosaka Yoshio Shiga Kyuichi Tokuda Post-war (1945–present) Kiyoteru Hanada Kenji Miyamoto Hiromu Murakami Tetsuzo Fuwa Kazuo Shii Hisashi Inoue Takeshi Kimura Leaders Popular support and electoral results House of Representatives (Lower House) Prior to 1996, the entire House of Representatives was elected by majoritarian/"semi-proportional" voting systems with votes cast for individuals (1946: limited voting in multi-member districts, 1947 to 1993 SNTV in multi-member districts). Since 1996, the House of Representatives is elected in a parallel election system – essentially two separate elections only in the lower house complicated by the fact that a candidate may stand in both segments and the sekihairitsu system which ties proportional list ranking to FPTP results: only the majority of members the House of Representatives, 295 (initially 300) seats, are elected in a majoritarian system with voting for candidates (first-past-the-post in single-member districts), while the remaining 180 (initially 200) seats are elected by a proportional representation system (votes are cast for party lists in regional multi-member districts, called "blocks" in the House of Representatives). The votes and vote percentages in the table below are the JCP candidates' vote totals for the whole election from before 1993 and just the votes for the party in the election to the 180 proportional seats after 1996. House of Councillors (Upper House) Elections to the House of Councillors are staggered. Every three years, half of the House is up for election to six-year terms. In addition, a parallel election system is used: the majority of members of the House of Councillors (currently 146 of 242, or 73 in one regular election to one half of the House) are elected in 45 (formerly 46→47) prefectural districts, votes are cast for individual candidates by SNTV, but with both multi- and single-member districts used and in the latter SNTV becomes identical to FPTP (winner-takes-all). The remaining, currently 96 members (48 per regular election) are elected in one nationwide district. Until 1980, votes there were cast for individuals too by SNTV. Since 1983, votes are cast for party lists and the seats are allocated proportionally (d'Hondt) in the nationwide district. Unlike in general elections to the lower house, a candidate may not be nominated in both segments of one regular election to the upper house. The seats totals show below are the JCP's overall post-election seat totals, not just their seats elected in that particular year. The votes shown are the votes in the election for the 48 (formerly 50) seats in the nationwide SNTV/PR segment. Current Diet members House of Representatives Seiken Akamine (Okinawa-1st) Yasufumi Fujino (Hokuriku-Shin'etsu PR) Kimie Hatano (Minami-Kantō PR, contested Kanagawa-10th) Akira Kasai (Tokyo PR) Keiji Kokuta (Kinki PR, contested Kyoto-1st) Takeshi Miyamoto (Kinki PR) Tōru Miyamoto (Tokyo PR, contested Tokyo-20th) Nobuko Motomura (Tōkai PR) Kazuo Shii (Minami-Kantō PR) Tetsuya Shiokawa (Kita-Kantō PR) Chizuko Takahashi (Tōhoku PR) Takaaki Tamura (Kyushu PR, contested Fukuoka-10th) House of Councillors Up for re-election in 2019 Satoshi Inoue (National PR) Tomoko Kami (National PR) Yoshiko Kira (Tokyo at-large) Akira Koike (National PR) Akiko Kurabayashi (Kyoto at-large) Sōhei Nihi (National PR) Kōtarō Tatsumi (Osaka at-large) Yoshiki Yamashita (National PR) Up for re-election in 2022 Mikishi Daimon (National PR) Tadayoshi Ichida (National PR) Tomo Iwabuchi (National PR) Ryōsuke Takeda (National PR) Tomoko Tamura (National PR) Taku Yamazoe (Tokyo at-large) See also Appeal to the People Democracy in Marxism Democratic Youth League of Japan Japanese dissidence during the early Shōwa period List of foreign delegations at the 21st Japanese Communist Party Congress List of foreign delegations at the 22nd Japanese Communist Party Congress Relations between Japanese Revolutionaries and the Comintern and the Soviet Union Socialist thought in Imperial Japan Zengakuren References Citations Bibliography Books Journal articles Further reading Peter Berton and Sam Atherton, "The Japanese Communist Party: Permanent Opposition, but Moral Compass." New York: Routledge, 2018. T.E. Durkee, The Communist Party of Japan, 1919–1932. PhD dissertation. Stanford University, 1953. G.A. Hoston, Marxism and the Crisis of Development in Prewar Japan. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. Hong M. Kim, Deradicalization of the Japanese Communist Party Under Kenji Miyamoto. Cambridge University Press, 1976. Stephen S. Large, The Romance of Revolution in Japanese Anarchism and Communism during the Taishō Period. Cambridge University Press, 1977. Robert A. Scalapino, The Japanese Communist Movement: 1920–1966. London: Cambridge University Press. 1967. R. Swearingen and P. Langer, Red Flag in Japan: International Communism in Action, 1919–1951. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1952. External links Article on Japanese Communist Party from Japanese Press Translations 1945–46. Dartmouth Digital Library Collections. Modern Japan Archives. 6 June 1950. Kazuo Shii: Comments from the Japanese Communist Party on the upcoming election. YouTube video (in English) of the JCP leader Kazuo Shii discussing the 2014 Japanese general election. Uploaded 8 December 2014. Anti-militarism Anti-nuclear movement Communist parties in Japan Democratic socialist parties in Asia Far-left politics in Japan Left-wing parties in Asia LGBT political advocacy groups in Japan Pacifist parties Political parties in Japan Progressive parties in Japan International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357458

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20of%20London

County of London

The County of London was a county of England from 1889 to 1965, corresponding to the area known today as Inner London. It was created as part of the general introduction of elected county government in England, by way of the Local Government Act 1888. The Act created an administrative County of London, which included within its territory the City of London. However, the City of London and the County of London formed separate ceremonial counties for "non-administrative" purposes. The local authority for the county was the London County Council (LCC), which initially performed only a limited range of functions, but gained further powers during its 76-year existence. The LCC provided very few services within the City of London, where the ancient Corporation monopolised local governance. In 1900, the lower-tier civil parishes and district boards were replaced with 28 new metropolitan boroughs. The territory of the county was in 1961. During its existence there was a long-term decline in population as more residents moved into the outer suburbs; there were periodic reviews of the local government structures in the greater London area and several failed attempts to expand the boundaries of the county. In 1965, the London Government Act 1963 replaced the county with the much larger Greater London administrative area. Geography The county occupied an area of just under and lay within the London Basin. It was divided into two parts (north and south) by the River Thames, which was the most significant geographic feature. It was bordered by the River Lea with Essex to the north-east, Kent to the south-east, Surrey the south-west and Middlesex to the north. The highest point was Hampstead Heath in the north of the county at , which is one of the highest points in London. In 1900 a number of boundary anomalies were abolished. These included the loss of the Alexandra Park exclave to Middlesex, gaining South Hornsey in return, and the transfer of Penge to Kent. History Creation of the county The local government arrangements in London had last been reformed in 1855. This reform created an indirectly elected Metropolitan Board of Works which initially provided basic infrastructure services for the metropolitan area. Over time the board gained more functions and became the de facto local authority and provider of new services for the London area. The board operated in those parts of the counties of Middlesex, Surrey and Kent that had been designated by the General Register Office as "the Metropolis" for the purposes of the Bills of Mortality. This area had been administered separately from the City of London, which came under the control of the Corporation of London. There had been several attempts during the 19th century to reform London government, either by expanding the City of London to cover the whole of the metropolitan area; by creating a new county of London; or by creating ten municipal corporations matching the parliamentary boroughs of the metropolis. These had all been defeated in Parliament, in part because of the agency power of the City Corporation. Ultimately, the Local Government Act 1888 and the introduction of county councils in England provided the mechanism for creating a territory and authority encompassing the expanded London area. For expediency, the area of the metropolitan board was chosen for the new county, and no attempt was made to select new boundaries. This area had been out of line with the expansion of London even in 1855. For example, it anomalously omitted built-up and expanding areas such as West Ham, but included some sparsely populated areas on the metropolitan fringe. The City of London and the County of London each formed counties for "non-administrative" purposes, with a separate Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff for the county of London. However, the administrative county, which corresponded to the area of control of the county council, also included the City of London. In practice, the county council had very little authority over the ancient City, with some powers over drainage, roads, fire brigade, embankment of the river and flood prevention. In common with the rest of the country, the 1888 Act provided no reform of lower-tier authorities and the county was, initially at least, locally governed by a series of parish vestries and district boards. County council The local authority for the county was the London County Council (LCC). Initially, the LCC provided the services it had inherited from the Metropolitan Board of Works. However, it eventually absorbed functions from ad-hoc agencies such the London School Board and Metropolitan Asylums Board. The council was initially based in Spring Gardens, but moved to a purpose-built County Hall in the 1930s. The housing policy of the council included provision of large housing estates outside the boundaries of the county, such as that at Becontree. Local government In 1900, eleven years after its foundation, the London Government Act divided the County of London into 28 metropolitan boroughs. These replaced the ancient parish vestries and district boards as the second tier of local government. County of London boroughs numbered in the information box on the right side: † Not a metropolitan borough. Decline in population Population fell after World War I and as recorded at each census until its 1965 demise. In 1901, the population was 4.5 million and by 1961 it had fallen to 3.2 million. Following the 1931 census, more of the population of "Greater London" (defined at the time as the Metropolitan Police District and City of London) lived outside the county than in it. The following table illustrates the approximate population according to the census at various intervals: †The City of London and the Metropolitan Boroughs of Bermondsey, Bethnal Green, Finsbury, Holborn, St Marylebone, St Pancras, Shoreditch, Southwark, Stepney and Westminster. ‡The Metropolitan Boroughs of Battersea, Chelsea, Islington, Kensington, Lambeth and Paddington. §The Metropolitan Boroughs of Camberwell, Deptford, Fulham, Greenwich, Hackney, Hammersmith, Hampstead, Lewisham, Poplar, Stoke Newington, Wandsworth and Woolwich. #Defined as the area of the Metropolitan Police district outside the County of London. Abolition The county of London was abolished in 1965 and was replaced by the fivefold-sized Greater London, which took in nearly all of Middlesex, along with areas in Surrey, Kent, Essex and Hertfordshire. Middlesex and Surrey had already been reduced in 1889 on the county's creation. The area "that had been" has since been known statutorily as Inner London and an Inner London Education Authority operated in the area until 1990. The 28 metropolitan boroughs were merged to form 12 new Inner London boroughs. See also List of civil parishes in the County of London in 1891 Home counties London postal district References Works cited External links County of London boundary map Greater London predecessors Counties of England established in 1889 Counties of England disestablished in 1965 History of local government in London (1889–1965) Administrative counties abolished in 1965

357459

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan%20Borough%20of%20Wandsworth

Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth

The Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth was a Metropolitan borough under the London County Council, from 1900 to 1965. History The borough was formed from five civil parishes: Clapham, Putney, Streatham, Tooting Graveney and Wandsworth. In 1904 these five were combined into a single civil parish called Wandsworth Borough, which was conterminous with the metropolitan borough. Before 1900 these parishes, and Battersea until 1888, had been administered by the Wandsworth District Board of Works. Coat of arms The coat of arms were granted on 6 July 1901. The blue wavy division represents the Rivers Wandle and Thames. French Huguenot refugees arrived in the area in 1685, and the blue drops represent the tears of their struggle. The five stars represent the constituent former parishes. At the top is a long boat, with a dragon's head, commemorating 9th century Danish incursions along the river. The borough council's motto was We Serve. Population and area The borough covered , which made it the largest in the County of London. The population recorded in the Census was: Constituent parishes 1801–1899 Metropolitan Borough 1900–1961 Politics The borough was divided into nine wards for elections: Balham, Clapham North, Clapham South, Fairfield, Putney, Southfield, Springfield, Streatham and Tooting. Borough council Parliament constituency For elections to Parliament, the borough was divided into one and a half constituencies: Clapham Wandsworth In 1918 the borough's representation was increased to five seats: Balham and Tooting Clapham Putney Streatham Wandsworth Central In 1950 the borough's representation was reduced to four seats: Clapham Putney Streatham Wandsworth Central Replacement When the metropolitan boroughs were replaced with larger London boroughs in 1965, this borough was split. The core area of Wandsworth (about ) became part of the London Borough of Wandsworth, along with the former Metropolitan Borough of Battersea, but the areas of Streatham and Clapham (totalling ) became part of the London Borough of Lambeth. References Further reading External links Vision of Britain Metropolitan boroughs of the County of London History of the London Borough of Lambeth History of the London Borough of Wandsworth 1900 establishments in the United Kingdom 1965 disestablishments in the United Kingdom Districts abolished by the London Government Act 1963

357460

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SYSLINUX

SYSLINUX

The Syslinux Project is a suite of five different boot loaders for starting up Linux distros on computers. It was primarily developed by H. Peter Anvin. Components The Syslinux Project consists of five different boot loaders: The eponymous SYSLINUX, used for booting from the FAT filesystem ISOLINUX, used for booting from the ISO 9660 filesystem PXELINUX, used for booting from a network server using the Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) system EXTLINUX, used for booting from Btrfs, ext2, ext3, ext4, FAT, NTFS, UFS/UFS2, and XFS filesystems MEMDISK, emulates a RAM disk for older operating systems like MS-DOS The project also includes two separate menu systems and a development environment for additional modules. SYSLINUX and ISOLINUX SYSLINUX was originally meant for rescue floppy disks, live USBs, or other lightweight environments. ISOLINUX is meant for live CDs and Linux installation CDs. The SYSLINUX bootloader can be used to multiple distributions from a single source such as a USB stick. A minor complication is involved when booting from compact discs. The El Torito standard allows booting in two different modes: No emulation Requires storing the boot information directly on the CD. ISOLINUX is suitable for this mode. Floppy emulation Requires storing the boot information in a disk image file suitable for emulating a FAT-formatted floppy disk. SYSLINUX is suitable for this mode. To have this choice is sometimes useful, since ISOLINUX is vulnerable to BIOS bugs. For that reason, it is handy to be able to boot using SYSLINUX. This mostly affects computers built before about 1999, and, in fact, for modern computers the "no emulation" mode is generally the more reliable method. Newer ISOLINUX versions support creation of so-called "hybrid ISO" images, that put both the El Torito boot record of the compact discs and the master boot record of hard disks into an ISO image. This hybrid image could then be written to both a compact disc or a USB flash drive. PXELINUX PXELINUX is used in conjunction with a PXE-compliant ROM on a network interface controller (NIC), which enables receiving a bootstrap program over the local area network. This bootstrap program loads and configures an operating system kernel that puts the user in control of the computer. Typically, PXELINUX is used for performing Linux installations from a central network server or for booting diskless workstations. EXTLINUX EXTLINUX is a general-purpose bootloader, similar to LILO or GRUB. Since Syslinux 4, EXTLINUX is capable of handling Btrfs, FAT, NTFS, UFS/UFS2, and XFS filesystems. COMBOOT SYSLINUX can be extended by COMBOOT modules written in C or assembly language. 32-bit modules typically use the .c32 filename extension. Version 5 and later do not support 16-bit .com modules. Hardware Detection Tool (HDT) Since the 3.74 release, the Syslinux project hosts the Hardware Detection Tool (HDT) project, licensed under the terms of GNU GPL. This tool is a 32-bit module that displays low-level information for any IA-32–compatible system. It provides both a command-line interface and a semi-graphical menu mode for browsing. HDT is also available as a bootable ISO and a 2.88 MB floppy disk image. The last update of HDT was in 2015; it has since been discontinued. See also Comparison of boot loaders References Sources External links SYSLINUX releases Mailing list Free boot loaders Linux software Linux-only free software

357469

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceremonial%20counties%20of%20England

Ceremonial counties of England

The counties and areas for the purposes of the lieutenancies, also referred to as the lieutenancy areas of England and informally known as ceremonial counties, are areas of England to which lord-lieutenants are appointed. Legally, the areas in England, as well as in Wales and Scotland, are defined by the Lieutenancies Act 1997 as "counties and areas for the purposes of the lieutenancies in Great Britain", in contrast to the areas used for local government. They are also informally known as "geographic counties", to distinguish them from other types of counties of England. History The distinction between a county for purposes of the lieutenancy and a county for administrative purposes is not a new one; in some cases, a county corporate that was part of a county appointed its own lieutenant (although the lieutenant of the containing county would often be appointed to this position, as well), and the three Ridings of Yorkshire had been treated as three counties for lieutenancy purposes since the 17th century. The Local Government Act 1888 established county councils to assume the administrative functions of Quarter Sessions in the counties. It created new entities called "administrative counties". An administrative county comprised all of the county apart from the county boroughs; also, some traditional subdivisions of counties were constituted administrative counties, for instance the Soke of Peterborough in Northamptonshire and the Isle of Ely in Cambridgeshire. The act further stipulated that areas that were part of an administrative county would be part of the county for all purposes. The greatest change was the creation of the County of London, which was made both an administrative county and a "county"; it included parts of the historic counties of Middlesex, Kent, and Surrey. Other differences were small and resulted from the constraint that urban sanitary districts (and later urban districts and municipal boroughs) were not permitted to straddle county boundaries. Apart from Yorkshire, counties that were subdivided nevertheless continued to exist as ceremonial counties. For example, the administrative counties of East Suffolk and West Suffolk, along with the county borough of Ipswich, were considered to make up a single ceremonial county of Suffolk, and the administrative county of the Isle of Wight was part of the ceremonial county of Hampshire. The term "ceremonial county" is an anachronism; at the time they were shown on Ordnance Survey maps as "counties" or "geographical counties", and were referred to in the Local Government Act 1888 simply as "counties". Apart from minor boundary revisions (for example, Caversham, a town in Oxfordshire, becoming part of Reading county borough and thus of Berkshire, in 1911), these areas changed little until the 1965 creation of Greater London and of Huntingdon and Peterborough, which resulted in the abolition of the offices of Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex, Lord Lieutenant of the County of London, and Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire and the creation of the Lord Lieutenant of Greater London and of the Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdon and Peterborough. In 1974, administrative counties and county boroughs were abolished, and a major reform was instituted. At this time, lieutenancy was redefined to use the new metropolitan and nonmetropolitan counties directly. Following a further rearrangement in 1996, Avon, Cleveland, Hereford and Worcester, and Humberside were abolished. This led to a resurrection of a distinction between the local government counties and the ceremonial or geographical counties used for lieutenancy, and also to the adoption of the term "ceremonial counties", which although not used in statute, was used in the House of Commons before the arrangements coming into effect. The County of Avon that had been formed in 1974 was mostly split between Gloucestershire and Somerset, but its city of Bristol regained the status of a county in itself, which it had lost upon the formation of Avon. Cleveland was partitioned between North Yorkshire and Durham. Hereford and Worcester was divided into the restored counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. Humberside was split between Lincolnshire and a new ceremonial county of East Riding of Yorkshire. Rutland was restored as a ceremonial county. Many county boroughs were re-established as "unitary authorities"; this involved establishing the area as an administrative county, but usually not as a ceremonial county. Most ceremonial counties are, therefore, entities comprising local authority areas, as they were from 1889 to 1974. The Association of British Counties, a traditional counties lobbying organisation, has suggested that ceremonial counties be restored to their ancient boundaries. Shrieval counties The shrieval counties are defined by the Sheriffs Act 1887 as amended, in a similar way to the lieutenancies defined by the Lieutenancies Act 1997. Each has a high sheriff appointed (except the City of London, which has two sheriffs). Definition The Lieutenancies Act 1997 defines counties for the purposes of lieutenancies in terms of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties (created by the Local Government Act 1972, as amended) as well as Greater London and the Isles of Scilly (which lie outside the 1972 Act's new system). Although the term is not used in the act, these counties are sometimes known as "ceremonial counties". The counties are defined in Schedule 1, paragraphs 2–5 as amended (most recently in 2009 and 2019) — these amendments have not altered the actual areas covered by the counties as set out in 1997, only their composition in terms of local government areas, as a result of structural changes in local government. Lieutenancy areas since 1997 These are the 48 counties for the purposes of the lieutenancies in England, as currently defined: Lieutenancy areas in 1890 Bedfordshire Berkshire Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire, including Isle of Ely Cheshire held jointly with Chester Cornwall Cumberland Derbyshire Devon held jointly with Exeter Dorset held jointly with Poole Durham Essex Gloucestershire held jointly with Gloucester and Bristol Hampshire held jointly with Southampton Herefordshire Hertfordshire Huntingdonshire Kent held jointly with Canterbury Lancashire Leicestershire Lincolnshire held jointly with Lincoln City of London, having commissioners of Lieutenancy County of London Middlesex Norfolk held jointly with Norwich Northamptonshire, including the Soke of Peterborough Northumberland held jointly with Berwick-upon-Tweed and Newcastle upon Tyne Nottinghamshire held jointly with Nottingham Oxfordshire Rutland Shropshire Somerset Staffordshire held jointly with Lichfield Suffolk Surrey Sussex Warwickshire Westmorland Wiltshire Worcestershire held jointly with Worcester Yorkshire—had three Lieutenants, one for each of the three ridings East Riding, held jointly with Kingston upon Hull North Riding West Riding, held jointly with York See also Counties of England Historic counties of England Counties in England by population Lieutenancy areas of Scotland List of local governments in the United Kingdom Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics Preserved counties of Wales Notes References External links England-related lists Counties of England

357470

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20church%20%28China%29

House church (China)

In China, house churches or family churches (), are Protestant assemblies in the People's Republic of China that operate independently from the state-sanctioned Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) and China Christian Council (CCC) and came into existence due to the change in religious policy after the end of the Cultural Revolution in the early-1980s. Terminology While these groups are sometimes described as "underground churches" (), this term is generally associated with Catholic assemblies who have chosen to operate independently from the state-sanctioned Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association () and the (). K. H. Ting, one of the key leaders of the TSPM and the CCC for many years, did not like the term "house church" and preferred to use the term "house gathering" (). This was because he found designations such as "house church" and "official church" as returning to the pre-Cultural Revolution practice of denominationalism. Some scholars prefer to use terms such as "unregistered church" to speak about the Protestant phenomenon, because these groups can reach several hundred and do not always literally meet in someone's home. Others suggest the need to discard the "house church" vs. "TSPM church" dichotomy as there is a lot that blurs these divisions, including the relationship between the two groups themselves. Moreover, as a result of the rapid urbanization of China since the 1990s, there has been a growing development within urban Christianity. Some congregations have preferred to self-identify as being part of a "third church" to differentiate from both traditional house churches and TSPM churches. History After the Chinese Communist Party established the People's Republic of China in 1949, there was a lot of uncertainty for all religions. During this period, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement would be established for Protestants to declare their patriotism and support of the new government. However, by the time of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), all public religious practice came to an end. Due to the changes in religious policy after the end of the Cultural Revolution, in 1980, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement would be reinstated and the China Christian Council would be formed. Protestant congregations that wished to worship publicly registered with the TSPM, but those that did not would eventually be termed house churches. Since the 1990s, a number of developments have resulted from the rapid urbanization experienced in Chinese society. While house churches originated as being quite independent of one another, a number of house church networks have developed, with some headquartered in Henan and Zhejiang provinces. These networks have sent missionaries all over the country and have even started sending them abroad to neighboring states. The rapid urbanization has also resulted in migration to China's urban centers and the rise of urban house churches. Some of these have developed through migrant worker communities and university students. Other new communities can be seen among urban intellectuals and entrepreneurs, the latter termed "boss Christians" (). Legality House churches in China are generally considered illegal, yet smaller house churches of less than 25 members tend to be tolerated by the government. However, some have grown to a fairly large size, such as the Shouwang Church which reached 1,000 members at its height. House churches today still experience persecution, though the situation tends to differ depending on the region. Scholars such as American political scientist Carsten T. Vala and Italian sociologist Massimo Introvigne argue that house churches are subject to "selective persecution" when they cross some "red lines," which include, apart from size, rapid growth, active proselytization, the attempt to form national networks, contacts with foreign Christian organization, and criticism of the government. House churches may choose to operate legally by joining the state-sanctioned Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM). However, during the 1950s, the TSPM has often been used by the government to oppress churches throughout China. While this legacy itself is problematic, joining the TSPM would also result in restrictions such as limiting the times and the locations for religious activities. Still, not all Christians believe the TSPM's teachings are in accordance with their personal faith. All churches must have their activities approved by the government to be considered legal, but the government has direct oversight over the TSPM congregations and can insist that Christians honor the government, in addition to traditional Christian theological teachings. Many Chinese Christians choose to attend house churches to practice their faith without government monitoring. However, some house churches submit their activities for government approval in order to follow the law as closely as possible. In some instances, authorities have allowed house churches to carry out their activities. In others, officials have arrested pastors, congregants, and others affiliated with churches as well as destroyed buildings. Pentecostal characteristics The first Pentecostal missionaries arrived in China shortly after the Azusa Street Revival as part of groups such as the Christian and Missionary Alliance, the China Inland Mission, the Pentecostal Missionary Union, and the Assemblies of God. These groups would also be instrumental in inspiring the creation of indigenous Pentecostal groups, such as the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family. Today, Chinese house churches are commonly described as being Pentecostal or charismatic. This is often the case due to the experience of miraculous healing. According to some surveys, 90% of converts to Protestant Christianity, in both house churches and TSPM churches, cite healing as a reason for their conversion. However, a number of scholars have attempted to reconsider this description, using phrases such as "Pentecostal-like" or "Pentecostal characteristics" to indicate this ambiguity. The Assemblies of God theologian Simon Chan argues that "an adequate definition of Pentecostalism cannot be restricted to phenomenological description" – that is, based on experiences. Chan continues to explain that classical Pentecostal beliefs such as Spirit-baptism and initial evidence are not prevalent in Chinese churches, when compared with miraculous healing. Edmond Tang has pointed out that only a few groups, like the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family, can trace themselves back to missionaries coming from Pentecostal denominations. Many of the Pentecostal characteristics in Chinese churches are seen to have parallels with Chinese folk religion, such as trances, ancestral worship, and the use of talismans. Some have described this as a folk religionization of Christianity. Robert Menzies disputes these views, arguing, "The common thread that unites Pentecostals in China with other Pentecostals around the world is their sense of connection with the apostolic church as reflected in the book of Acts." The hymnal Canaan Hymns, rich in pneumatological themes, is widely used. Similar organization in other religions While foreign media often focus discussion about house churches mainly with relation to Protestantism, other religious traditions in China have chosen a similar form of organization. These include house assemblies of Han Chinese following Tibetan Buddhism, led by lamas and tulkus, Buddhist and Baháʼí Faith study groups, unregistered Zhengyi and vernacular forms of Taoism, and various folk religious groupings such as Yiguandao. References External links Statement of Faith for Chinese House Churches Persecution News Reports from China Christian movements Protestantism in China

357473

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die%20Hard%20with%20a%20Vengeance

Die Hard with a Vengeance

Die Hard with a Vengeance is a 1995 American action film directed by John McTiernan (who directed the first installment). It was written by Jonathan Hensleigh, based on the screenplay Simon Says by Hensleigh and on the characters created by Roderick Thorp for his 1979 novel Nothing Lasts Forever. Die Hard with a Vengeance is the third film in the Die Hard film series, after Die Hard 2 (1990). It is followed by Live Free or Die Hard (2007) and A Good Day to Die Hard (2013). The film stars Bruce Willis as NYPD Lieutenant John McClane and Samuel L. Jackson as McClane's reluctant partner Zeus Carver, who team up to stop bomb threats across New York City carried out by "Simon" (Jeremy Irons). It was released on May 19, 1995 to mixed reviews and became the highest-grossing film of the year. Plot The Bonwit Teller department store in New York City is destroyed by a bomb during the morning commute. The New York Police Department gets a call from "Simon" claiming responsibility. He threatens to detonate another unless suspended police officer Lt. John McClane is dropped in Harlem, wearing a sandwich board with a racial slur on it. They comply, and McClane is called in. Zeus Carver, an electrician with a nearby shop, sees McClane wearing the board. McClane explains he is an officer on a case, but is soon attacked by a group of angered black men. He and Carver manage to escape in a taxi. At NYPD headquarters, they learn that a large quantity of binary liquid explosive has been stolen, part of which was used for the bomb. Simon demands that McClane and Carver both follow his instructions, posing a series of timed challenges that lead them to the Wall Street subway station. McClane boards the Brooklyn-bound 3 train in search of a bomb Simon has placed on it, while Carver hurries to answer Simon's call at a pay phone. McClane finds the bomb and throws it off the train just before it detonates, derailing the train and damaging the station. McClane and Carver regroup with the police and FBI agents, learning that Simon is "Peter Krieg", a former colonel in the East German People's Army and a mercenary-for-hire. However, Krieg's real name is Simon Peter Gruber, the brother of Hans Gruber, whom McClane had killed years earlier in Los Angeles. Simon then calls the group, telling them about a bomb in a New York public school, set to explode once class lets out and equipped with a radio detonator triggered by the use of FBI and police bands. Simon will give McClane and Carver the school location if they follow his riddles, warning that he will detonate the bomb if any evacuation attempts are made. While McClane and Carver do Simon's next task, the police organize a search of the city's schools, using 9-1-1 to coordinate. McClane realizes that Simon is using the bomb threat to distract the police away from Wall Street, which has no public schools. They return there to find that Simon's men have tunneled into the Federal Reserve Bank and stolen $140 billion of gold bullion in dump trucks. They follow the trucks into an aqueduct in Tunnel No. 3. Carver continues Simon's game while McClane follows the trucks. McClane kills the crew members of one dump truck and commandeers it. Simon blows up a cofferdam, intending to flood the tunnel and drown McClane, but McClane is ejected through an air vent and reunites with Carver. Surviving a car chase with Simon's men who had followed Carver, they find that each driver was carrying enough money to pay for a bridge toll. They sneak aboard a tanker vessel docked in Long Island Sound, but Simon and his crew capture them and place them next to a bomb in the cargo hold. The school bomb, Simon explains, was a fake intended to distract the police. He broadcasts a message proclaiming his intent to destroy the tanker and scatter the stolen bullion across the bottom of the sound, destabilizing the Western world's economy. After he leaves, Carver and McClane free themselves and escape the tanker just before the bomb detonates. As McClane and Carver are debriefed by the police, McClane reports that none of the bullion was on the tanker, using his knowledge of the Gruber family to deduce that Simon had intended to keep it. While trying to call his estranged wife Holly, McClane glances at a bottle of aspirin given to him by Simon and notes that it was purchased at a truckstop in Quebec on the Canada–U.S. border. McClane, Carver, and the police arrive at a warehouse near the truckstop where Simon and his men are distributing the bullion and planning their escape. The rest of Simon's men are captured, while Simon and his girlfriend Katya attempt to escape via helicopter. McClane shoots an overhead power line that falls onto the helicopter, causing it to crash and explode. After celebrating their triumph, Carver persuades McClane to call Holly again. Cast Additional cast members include Simon's goons: Richard Council as Otto, Mischa Hausserman as Mischa, Phil Theis as Erik, Robert Sedgwick as Rolf, Sven Toorvald as Karl, Timothy Adams as Gunther, Tony Halme as Roman, Greg Skrovic as Kurt, Bill Christ as Ivan, Gerrit Vooren as Nils and Willis Sparks as Klaus. Aldis Hodge and Michael Alexander Jackson appear as Raymond and Dexter respectively, Zeus's nephews caught in the school bomb panic; Hodge would later play a different role in A Good Day to Die Hard. Production Development and writing Like most of the films in the series, the premise of this film was repurposed from a stand-alone project. Various scripts were written for Die Hard 3; a number of them were ultimately rejected by Bruce Willis on the grounds that they felt like retreads of the action movies that came in the wake of the first film. One script, originally titled Troubleshooter, had McClane fighting terrorists on a Caribbean cruise line, but was rejected for being too similar to Under Siege. Troubleshooter was later repurposed for Speed 2: Cruise Control. The script ultimately used was intended for a film entitled Simon Says, originally positioned as a Brandon Lee vehicle and the character of Zeus was written with an actress in mind. Warner Bros. bought the script and rewrote it as a Lethal Weapon sequel. Warner Bros. later put the script in turnaround, only to be purchased by Fox and rewritten as a Die Hard film. Andy Vajna replaced Joel Silver and Larry Gordon as the producer on the film due to a fall-out with Willis. As a result, Vajna's company, Cinergi, acquired foreign rights to the film. In most regions, the film rights were acquired by Disney and Summit Entertainment, while Fox retained domestic rights. In July 1997, Cinergi sold its 50% stake in the film to Fox for $11.25 million. Casting Laurence Fishburne was originally offered the co-starring role of Zeus Carver, a part also written for him, but wanted a higher fee. Producer Andy Vajna held out on the deal. Fishburne had earlier turned down the role of Jules Winnfield in Pulp Fiction, which was eventually played by Samuel L. Jackson. Fishburne was talked out of playing Jules by his representatives who wanted him to only accept leading parts, otherwise he would be stuck career-wise as a supporting actor. Subsequently, Pulp Fiction premiered at the Cannes Film Festival during the same time as Fishburne's pay negotiations. Vajna also attended the event to support Willis who was appearing in the Quentin Tarantino film. Tarantino recalled that Vajna was so impressed by Jackson's performance that he offered him the part of Carver instead. Fishburne later filed a lawsuit against Vajna's company Cinergi for reneging on a verbal agreement. The lawsuit took two years and Fishburne received a settlement. Music Soundtrack RCA Victor album Michael Kamen returned to score the third film, again incorporating other material into his score (most notably "When Johnny Comes Marching Home", not included on the soundtrack album). Excerpts from his scores for Die Hard and Die Hard 2 were also included in the new film. The soundtrack was released by RCA Victor. Summer in the City – The Lovin' Spoonful (2:44) Goodbye Bonwits (6:28) Got It Covered – Fu-Schnickens (4:13) John and Zeus (3:19) In Front of Kids – Extra Prolific (2:44) Papaya King (5:20) Take A-nother Train (2:55) The Iron Foundry – Alexander Mosolov (3:08) Waltz of the Bankers (4:13) Gold Vault (3:45) Surfing in the Aqueduct (2:30) Symphony No. 1 – Johannes Brahms (15:00) Symphony No. 9 – Ludwig van Beethoven (9:46) La-La Land album In 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition two-disc soundtrack containing the Kamen score. All tracks composed by Michael Kamen except where noted. Summer in the City – The Lovin' Spoonful (2:45) (by John Sebastian, Mark Sebastian & Steve Boone) Main Title (0:16) (cue deleted from final film) Goodbye Bonwits (6:28) John and Zeus (3:20) Taxi (1:51) Neat Bomb (2:11) Papaya King (5:19) 72nd Street Phone (3:18) Taxi Chase (5:08) The Subway, Pt. 1 (4:24) (final film version) The Subway, Pt. 2 (2:15) (final film version) Take a-nother Train (2:54) Feds (4:42) Rings a Bell (8:28) (features music from Ode to Joy by Ludwig van Beethoven) Infiltration (5:33) (features music from Ride of the Valkyries by Wagner & When Johnny Comes Marching Home by Louis Lambert (Patrick Gilmore)) Bank Invasion (4:15) Back to Wall Street (2:55) Fake Cops (1:42) The Federal Reserve (2:18) (features music from Daisy Bell by Harry Dacre & When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Bank Elevevator (2:54) (features music from When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Gold Room Aftermath (1:36) Panic (2:04) Aqueduct (2:10) Santa Claus (2:36) Yankee Stadium & School and Tunnel (3:42) (features music from When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Refrigerator Bomb (0:40) Surfing in the Aqueduct (2:29) Ticking Refrigerator (0:50) Mercedes Chase & School Assembly (3:14) Aftermath & Waiting and Falling (2:00) Hooking the Boat (5:45) (final film version) Bunny & Fire Drill (2:39) Running in the Halls (1:42) Bomb Goes into Hold (5:42) John Makes it Mad (1:39) Holly & Celebration (3:17) (features music from When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Oh, Canada! (Showdown with a Vengeance) (3:23) (features music from O Canada by Calixa Lavallée & Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier) Johnny Comes Marching Home (End Credits) (1:45) (features music from When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Regret (1:50) Hooking the Boat (4:23) (version from earlier cut of the film) On the Freighter & John Makes it Mad (3:33) Wall Street Station (1:29) The Subway, Pt. 1 (1:30) (segment deleted from final film version) The Subway, Pt. 2 (0:47) (segment deleted from final film version) Ode to Johnny (3:13) (features music from Ode to Joy and When Johnny Comes Marching Home) No Rush (1:20) Escape (2:04) The Foundry (Iron Foundry) – Alexander Mosolov (3:09) Waltz of the Bankers (4:17) (track original to the first soundtrack album) Gold Vault (3:50) (track original to the first soundtrack album) Somebody Had Fun (Wild Snare) (1:14) Johnny Comes Marching Home (Wild Vamps) (1:28) (features music from When Johnny Comes Marching Home) Release Home media Die Hard with a Vengeance was released on VHS on December 19, 1995, on LaserDisc on January 17, 1996, and on DVD on March 9, 1999. A special edition was released on DVD on July 10, 2001 and then re-released in February 2005 and 2007. The film was released on Blu-ray in 2007 and 2013. Alternative ending An alternative ending to the one shown in the final movie was filmed with Jeremy Irons and Bruce Willis, set some time after the events in New York. It can be found on the Special Edition DVD. In this version it is presumed that the robbery succeeds, and that McClane was used as the scapegoat for everything that went wrong. He is fired from the NYPD after more than 20 years on the force and the FBI has even taken away his pension. Nevertheless, he still manages to track Simon using the batch number on the bottle of aspirins and they meet in a bar in Hungary. In this version, Simon has double-crossed most of his accomplices, gotten the loot to a safe hiding place somewhere in Hungary, and has the gold turned into statuettes of the Empire State Building in order to smuggle it out of the country; but he is still tracked down to his foreign hideaway. McClane is keen to take his problems out on Simon, who he invites to play a game called "McClane Says". This involves a form of Russian roulette with a small Chinese rocket launcher that has had the sights removed, meaning it is impossible to determine which end is which. McClane then asks Simon some riddles similar to the ones he played in New York. When Simon gets a riddle wrong, McClane forces him at gunpoint to fire the launcher, which fires the rocket through Simon, killing him. In the DVD audio commentary, screenwriter Jonathan Hensleigh claims that this version was dropped because the studio thought it showed a more cruel and menacing side to McClane, a man who killed for revenge rather than in self-defense. The studio was also displeased with the lack of action in the scene, feeling that it did not fit as a "climax" and therefore chose to reshoot the finale as an action sequence at a significant monetary cost. Hensleigh's intention was to show that the events in New York and the subsequent repercussions had tilted McClane psychologically. This alternative ending, set some time after the film's main events, would have marked a serious break from the Die Hard formula, in which the plot unfolds over a period of roughly 12 hours. According to the DVD audio commentary, a second alternative ending had McClane and Carver floating back to shore on a makeshift raft after the explosion at sea. Carver says it is a shame the bad guys are going to get away; McClane tells him not to be so sure. The scene then shifts to the plane where the terrorists find the briefcase bomb they left in the park and which Carver gave back to them (in this version it was not used to blow up the dam). The film would end on a darkly comic note as Simon asks if anyone has a four-gallon jug. This draft of the script was rejected early on - possibly due to the similarity of the ending to Die Hard 2, where all the villains board a plane that later explodes - so it was never actually filmed. The rocket-launcher sequence was the only alternative ending to be filmed. Reception Box office Die Hard with a Vengeance opened in the United States on May 19, 1995 and earned $22,162,245 in its opening weekend. In Japan it set a record opening for 20th Century Fox with a five day gross of $13.5 million and was number one for five consecutive weeks, grossing over $81 million. Its opening in France set a summer record with a gross of $8.8 million in its first 8 days. The film went on to gross $100,012,499 in the United States and Canada, and $266,089,167 in other markets, giving it a total worldwide gross of $366,101,666 and making it the highest-grossing film of 1995. Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 59% based on 76 reviews, with an average rating of 6.10/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Die Hard With a Vengeance gets off to a fast start and benefits from Bruce Willis and Samuel L. Jackson's barbed interplay, but clatters to a bombastic finish in a vain effort to cover for an overall lack of fresh ideas." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale. Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, praising the action sequences and the performances of Willis, Jackson, and Irons, concluding: "Die Hard with a Vengeance is basically a wind-up action toy, cleverly made, and delivered with high energy. It delivers just what it advertises, with a vengeance." Entertainment Weeklys Owen Gleiberman disliked the film, stating that while "[John] McTiernan stages individual sequences with great finesse... they don't add up to a taut, dread-ridden whole". James Berardinelli thought that the explosions and fights were "filmed with consummate skill, and are thrilling in their own right". Samuel L. Jackson's performance in the film was also praised by critics. Desson Howe of The Washington Post thought that "the best thing about the movie is the relationship between McClane and Zeus," saying that Jackson was "almost as good as he was in Pulp Fiction." For Variety, Brian Lowry wrote the film was the "least accomplished" of the Die Hard series, but "even a subpar adventure won't kill this series, as the pic's built-in audience will make it a major summer attraction, if perhaps one lacking quite the stamina of the first two movies". Empire magazine's Ian Nathan gave the film three out of five stars review stating that "Die Hard with a Vengeance is better than Die Hard 2, but not as good as the peerless original. Though it's breathless fun, the film runs out of steam in the last act. And Jeremy Irons' villain isn't fit to tie Alan Rickman's shoelaces." In the Crime Time Filmbook, which archives various UK film reviews, the film was given a 5/5 star review citing it as "...simply the best Action film of the decade, leaving imitators like Bad Boys, Executive Decision, The Rock and Chain Reaction in varying depths of shadow. Empire considered it to be one of the 50 greatest film sequels in 2009. Ben Sherlock of Screen Rant regarded it as the best sequel of the franchise. Novelization A novelization by Deborah Chiel was first published on May 28, 1995. The novel is written in third person omniscient and has a somewhat darker tone in comparison to the final film. The novel provides a deeper exploration into McClane's psyche and shows how angry and broken he has become since leaving Holly and becoming an alcoholic. McClane's introduction is also different. In the film, McClane is first seen in the police van to Harlem while being briefed on what is going on. The novel includes a scene before this where Connie and Joe find McClane in his messy apartment. Simon's henchwoman Katya appears much later into the story than she does in the film. She is not involved in the Federal Reserve robbery and instead appears just before Simon and Targo take off in one of the dump trucks. Like the final film, she ends up killing Targo for Simon. The original placement of the "Yippee-Ki-Yay" line is included. Instead of being used at the end, McClane uses the line when talking to Simon over the radios while in the aqueducts. This was meant to be in the same vein as the original use of the line in the first movie. Zeus' original backstory is presented in the novel, explaining why he is looking after his nephews and why he hates white people. During the car chase, Zeus explains that his brother was killed during a drug raid. When McClane suggests that it was his brother's own fault, Zeus explains that his brother was never involved in drugs and the only reason he was there was to bring Zeus home. The novel also uses the "McClane Says" ending rather than the film's version of the finale. References External links 1995 films 1995 action thriller films 1990s buddy cop films 1990s English-language films 1990s heist films 20th Century Fox films American action thriller films American buddy cop films American films American heist films American sequel films Cinergi Pictures films Die Hard Fictional portrayals of the New York City Police Department American films about revenge Films about terrorism in the United States Films directed by John McTiernan Films scored by Michael Kamen Films set in New York City Films set in Quebec Films shot in Connecticut Films shot in Maryland Films shot in New York City Films shot in South Carolina Films produced by John McTiernan Films distributed by Disney

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Band%20Concert

The Band Concert

The Band Concert is a 1935 American animated short film produced in 3-strip Technicolor by Walt Disney Productions and released by United Artists. It was the 73rd Mickey Mouse short film to be released, and the second of that year. The Band Concert was the first Mickey Mouse film produced in color. Two more Mickey Mouse films were produced in black and white before they were produced in color on a permanent basis: Mickey's Service Station and Mickey's Kangaroo. Mickey had previously appeared in color in a two-minute clip called Parade of the Award Nominees which was made especially for the 1932 Academy Awards ceremony. The Band Concert was directed by Wilfred Jackson and featured adapted music by Leigh Harline. The only speaking character in the film is Donald Duck who is performed by voice actor Clarence Nash. The film remains one of the most highly acclaimed of the Disney shorts. The story is about a small music band conducted by Mickey Mouse which struggles through a distraction-filled public performance. Plot Mickey Mouse's concert band is performing a concert in a park. As the film opens, they are being applauded for having just played music from Louis Joseph Ferdinand Hérold's Zampa. They next begin Gioacchino Rossini's William Tell overture. Mickey's performance is first disrupted by Peter Pig's vibrato trumpet and Paddy Pig's tuba playing Prelude: Dawn from the William Tell overture. Meanwhile, Donald Duck rolls a vendor cart through the audience selling popcorn, lemonade, peanuts, and ice cream, which further distracts Mickey. While the band is playing the "Finale" segment, Donald plays Turkey in the Straw at the same tempo as the band. Overhearing Donald, the entire band absent-mindedly find themselves playing Donald's song. Realizing his mistake, Mickey loses his temper over his performance being disrupted in this manner. Mickey splits Donald's flute in two, only for Donald to get another one out. They play the song again and Mickey splits the flute once more. The band resumes the segment, but when Donald pulls out a third flute and plays "Turkey in the Straw" again, Donald breaks the flute himself before Mickey can stop him. The trombonist grabs Donald by the neck, shakes out several of his flutes and forces him offstage, knocking him back into the vendor cart. While Donald tries to play the song again a bee harasses him. When the bee lands on Mickey's hat, Donald throws ice cream at the bee, which sends it into Peter Pig's trumpet; he shoots it out, accidentally hitting Mickey with it. The ice cream slides under Mickey's uniform, making him shake around, causing the band to briefly play The Streets of Cairo until it falls out and he kicks it away. Mickey has the band play Ranz des Vaches and swats his baton at the bee, temporarily causing the band to briefly play notes drastically different than the song. Percussionist Horace Horsecollar tries to kill the bee by squishing it with his cymbals and with a hammer, but accidentally hits Goofy's head instead, driving his head down into his jacket. He continues playing his clarinet from inside it. When the band comes to the "Storm" segment of the overture, it summons an actual tornado, prompting the audience and Donald to run away. The benches that the audience members were sitting on come to life (each wearing a hat that fell off an audience member) and also begin running for their lives as well. Donald tries to take shelter in some trees only for the tornado to tie them in knots with Donald in the middle. The tornado sucks up and destroys everything in its path (houses, farms, trees, walls, signs, windmills, fences, power lines, etc.), even the pavilion on which the band is playing, but the band is so used to distractions at this point that they continue to play from inside the tornado (in which Mickey floats through the remains of a wrecked house, Peter Pig gets spanked by a fence, and Clarabelle is hit by a pair of undergarments and an umbrella that turns her flute inside-out). The tornado suddenly freezes when Mickey takes a pause conducting (which seemingly stops time itself briefly) and goes in reverse as the band finishes the last part of the song. As the storm passes, the band (except Horace, Peter Pig, who loses his clothing to tree branches, and Mickey) is thrown into a tree and they finish the overture. By this time, the only remaining audience member is Donald Duck who applauds enthusiastically. Witnessing Donald playing "Turkey in the Straw" as an encore, the offscreen band members furiously throw their instruments at him. The Band Mickey Mouse - Conductor Goofy - Clarinet Unnamed Dog - Trombone Clarabelle Cow - Flute Horace Horsecollar - Percussion Peter Pig - Trumpet Paddy Pig - Tuba Cast Clarence Nash as Donald Duck Reception Although The Band Concert did not receive any Academy Award nominations, it has nonetheless become one of the most highly acclaimed Disney short films. Esquire magazine cultural critic Gilbert Seldes wrote that "[none of] dozens of works produced in America at the same time in all the other arts can stand comparison with this one." The Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini was such a fan of The Band Concert that he saw it six times in the theater and later invited Walt Disney to his home in Italy. In The Disney Films, Leonard Maltin said that The Band Concert is "one of the best cartoons ever made anywhere... There are nuances of expression in Mickey's character throughout this film that had seldom been explored in earlier shorts. The pacing is also entirely different from the standard Mickey Mouse comedies of the early thirties. Instead of trying to pack in a thousand gags a minute, The Band Concert takes its time and builds to a crescendo." In 1994, The Band Concert was rated third in the book The 50 Greatest Cartoons, which rated the greatest cartoons of all time by members of the field of animation. As a result, it was the highest-ranked Disney cartoon on the list, and the only one in the top 5 not produced by Warner Bros. Cartoons. Home media The short was released on December 4, 2001 on Walt Disney Treasures: Mickey Mouse in Living Color. Legacy According to Leonard Maltin, the 1942 Mickey Mouse film Symphony Hour was somewhat of a remake of The Band Concert. In the 1942 wartime cartoon, All Together, Mickey and his whole band from the cartoon is seen in the parade. In the video game Kingdom Hearts II, in the Garden area of Disney Castle, there is a topiary sculpture of all characters in the band besides Mickey, Donald, and Goofy. The Band Concert serves as the basis for a projector level in the game Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two. The Band Concert was also the basis for, and title of the secret level in the game, Mickey Mania: The Timeless Adventures of Mickey Mouse (in the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive, Sega CD and PlayStation versions only). The Band Concert is one of the parade units that was featured in the Tokyo Disneyland parade Disney on Parade: 100 Years of Magic, which depicts a large inflatable rendition of Mickey from the cartoon. It was later reused for Hong Kong Disneyland's Disney on Parade. This cartoon was also the inspiration for the Walt Disney World Resort Magic Kingdom show Mickey's PhilharMagic. The short was one of the many featured in Donald Duck's 50th Birthday, Donald remembers it in a psychiatric session with Dr. Ludwig Von Drake and says that Mickey "invited" Donald to play with his band. The Band Concert is the theme for the Silly Symphony Swings attraction at Disney California Adventure Park. This cartoon was featured in Disney's Magical Mirror Starring Mickey Mouse. See also Mickey Mouse (film series) References External links 1935 animated films 1935 films 1930s color films 1930s Disney animated short films American films Films about music and musicians Films directed by Wilfred Jackson Films produced by Walt Disney Mickey Mouse short films Films scored by Leigh Harline

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20of%20Darkness

World of Darkness

World of Darkness is a series of tabletop role-playing games, originally created by Mark Rein-Hagen for White Wolf Publishing. It began as an annual line of five games in 1991–1995, with Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Wraith: The Oblivion, and Changeling: The Dreaming, along with off-shoots based on these. The series ended in 2004, and the reboot Chronicles of Darkness was launched the same year with a new line of games. In 2011, the original series was brought back, and the two have since been published concurrently. The games in the series have a shared setting, also named the World of Darkness, which is a dark, gothic-punk interpretation of the real world, where supernatural beings such as vampires and werewolves exist in secrecy. The original series' setting has a large focus on lore and overarching narrative, whereas Chronicles of Darkness setting has no such narrative and presents the details of its setting as optional. The series has been well received critically for its setting, writing, and art direction, and has won or been nominated for awards including the Origins Award. It has also been commercially successful, with millions of game books sold; by 2001, Vampire: The Masquerade was the second highest selling tabletop role-playing game after TSR, Inc.'s Dungeons & Dragons. The series has been adapted into other media, including the television series Kindred: The Embraced, actual play web series, novels and anthologies, comic books, card games, and a line of video games. Games The original World of Darkness series consists of seven core lines of role-playing games which were originally released from 1991 to 2002 – Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Wraith: The Oblivion, Changeling: The Dreaming, Hunter: The Reckoning, and Demon: The Fallen – as well as off-shoots based on these, such as the Asia-themed Kindred of the East and the historical Vampire: The Dark Ages. The 2004 reboot series, Chronicles of Darkness, consists of eleven game lines: Vampire: The Requiem, Werewolf: The Forsaken, Mage: The Awakening, Promethean: The Created, Changeling: The Lost, Hunter: The Vigil, Geist: The Sin-Eaters, Mummy: The Curse, Demon: The Descent, Beast: The Primordial, and Deviant: The Renegades. Most of these are based on concepts from the original series, directly as with Vampire: The Requiem and Vampire: The Masquerade, or indirectly as with Geist and Wraith, which both deal with spirits. Both series are supported with supplementary sourcebooks detailing backgrounds and character types, which can be used when creating adventures for one's players; pre-made adventure modules have also occasionally been published. The Chronicles of Darkness sourcebooks in particular present the information as optional and something one may choose whether to include in one's game. The supplements often take the form of a book describing a location as it is portrayed in the setting, such as Vampire: The Masquerade series of By Night books and Werewolf: The Apocalypse Rage Across series. Several splatbooks – sourcebooks detailing character classes or organizations – have also been published, such as the Clanbook series, describing vampire clans, and the Kithbook line, covering types of fae. Common elements The games in the original series are set in a shared universe, also named the World of Darkness, which is a dark, gothic-punk interpretation of the real world, rife with corruption. In it, supernatural beings such as vampires, mages, and werewolves exist in secrecy, influencing humanity and clashing against each other; players take the roles of these beings, who belong to various classes such as Vampire: The Masquerade vampire clans, and Werewolf: The Apocalypse werewolf tribes. The series as a whole is themed around personal horror, while individual games have their own themes, such as redemption and humanity in Vampire: The Masquerade, and hubris in Mage: The Ascension. The series is known for its focus on metaplot – an overarching story for the setting that advances as new game books are released. Whereas the original series has a large focus on lore and background information for its setting, the urban horror Chronicles of Darkness setting does not to the same extent; it does not have a metaplot, and it presents any setting information as strictly optional to include in campaigns. With its lesser focus on lore and less defined world, Chronicles of Darkness also streamlines the character types, stripping the many vampire clans and werewolf tribes from the original series down to five each. The person leading campaigns – a role called gamemaster or dungeon master in other games – is called a storyteller in World of Darkness, highlighting how the series is more focused on collaborative storytelling than on combat or on players overcoming the game leader's challenges; the rules exist to give players a framework for telling stories, and players are rewarded by being part of the setting rather than by escalating power levels. Chronicles of Darkness has a larger focus on making the gameplay systems work together, enabling easier cross-over play between the games. History 1990–2006: White Wolf Publishing The World of Darkness series began development in 1990 by game designer Mark Rein-Hagen at White Wolf Publishing, as his next major role-playing game project after 1987's Ars Magica. Designed as the first in a planned series of five annual games, Vampire: The Masquerade was released in 1991, and was followed by Werewolf: The Apocalypse (1992), Mage: The Ascension (1993), Wraith: The Oblivion (1994), and Changeling: The Dreaming (1995), all set in the same world and using the Storyteller rule system. This rapid expansion with new games, although successful and capturing players' and the industry's interest, led to often flawed first editions, prompting several revised, new editions of the core rulebooks between 1992–2000, resulting in Mage: The Ascension morphing a lot between its editions as its themes changed. Ars Magica was initially tied to World of Darkness and used as a historical backdrop: its House Tremere was reused as a vampire clan in Vampire: The Masquerade, and its Order of Hermes as a mage tradition in Mage: The Ascension. The rights to Ars Magica were sold to Wizards of the Coast in 1994, and the histories of the games were separated. Rein-Hagen constantly moved on to designing new games after finishing one, designing all the original five games except Mage: The Ascension, which was designed by White Wolf Publishing's founders, brothers Stewart and Steve Wieck, and Chris Earley; as such, new staff were brought in to manage the game lines, including Andrew Greenberg for Vampire and Bill Bridges for Werewolf, who came to define the look and feel of the series. An economic downturn for White Wolf Publishing in 1995–1996, caused in part by bookstore returns for World of Darkness novelizations, led to a falling out between Rein-Hagen and the Wieck brothers, after which Rein-Hagen left the company. As the original planned five annual games had already been published, White Wolf Publishing next devised a new model of role-playing games with a historical setting based on previous games, resulting in Vampire: The Dark Ages (1996), Werewolf: The Wild West (1997), and Mage: The Sorcerers Crusade (1998), of which only Vampire: The Dark Ages sold well. This led to the cancellation of the underperforming Wraith line, with the release of the historical-setting Wraith: The Great War and the 1999 supplement Ends of Empire, which functioned as a finale to the game's metaplot. In 1997, White Wolf Publishing developed another model, where they would release a game that required another World of Darkness rule book to play, which thereby would get the same attention as a new stand-alone core game without requiring them to further support it with supplements; this was used for 1997's Mummy Second Edition and 1998's Kindred of the East, and the 2001 Mummy re-release Mummy: The Resurrection. The two final major modern-day-setting World of Darkness role-playing games, Hunter: The Reckoning and Demon: The Fallen, followed in 1999 and 2002, after which White Wolf Publishing returned to historical-setting games with Victorian Age: Vampire and Dark Ages: Vampire, a new edition of Vampire: The Dark Ages, and a line of Dark Ages games based on other World of Darkness games that, like Kindred of the East and Mummy, required a main game's rule book to be played. A final game, Orpheus, was released in 2003 as a sequel to Wraith. In 2004, following dwindling sales, White Wolf Publishing ended the series with the major event Time of Judgment: a line of books that ended the overarching narratives of Vampire: The Masquerade, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, Mage: The Ascension, Changeling: The Dreaming, Demon: The Fallen, Hunter: The Reckoning, Kindred of the East, and Mummy: The Resurrection . Following this, White Wolf Publishing rebooted the World of Darkness series with the 2004 rulebook The World of Darkness, and released new games with updated Storytelling System gameplay rules and a new setting, beginning with Vampire: The Requiem in 2004 and Werewolf: The Forsaken and Mage: The Awakening in 2005. 2006–2015: CCP Games In 2006, the Icelandic video game developer CCP Games acquired White Wolf Publishing and their intellectual properties, with the intention of developing an online video game adaption of the World of Darkness series. Business continued as usual until 2009, when CCP Games started transferring White Wolf Publishing staff to video game development and slowed down tabletop game production. The CCP Games incarnation of White Wolf Publishing published their last print products for distribution in 2011, with Vampire: The Masquerade 20th Anniversary Edition, an update of the pre-reboot game. When CCP Games laid off large amounts of their staff the same year, leaving few resources to produce tabletop games, White Wolf Publishing's creative director Rich Thomas formed a new company, Onyx Path Publishing, which licensed both World of Darkness series, continuing support for them and producing new content. This included further anniversary editions, and new games like Mummy: The Curse (2013) and Demon: The Descent (2014); these projects frequently used crowdfunding for financing. 2015–present: Paradox Interactive White Wolf Publishing and its intellectual properties were sold again in 2015, to the Swedish video game publisher Paradox Interactive. Following this, the rebooted World of Darkness series was renamed Chronicles of Darkness, while the original series remained as World of Darkness. This was done to prevent confusion among players over there being two series and settings with the same name: Prior to the renaming, the two had been distinguished from each other by being referred to as the Old or Classic World of Darkness and the New World of Darkness. Onyx Path Publishing's in-development Vampire: The Masquerade 4th Edition, which they had announced only a few months earlier, was cancelled following this, as Paradox Interactive planned to publish their own fifth edition. The Paradox Interactive incarnation of White Wolf Publishing released the fifth edition of Vampire: The Masquerade in 2018, which included references to neo-Nazis and a character interpreted as being a pedophile, leading to accusations that they were catering to neo-Nazi groups. White Wolf Publishing denied that this was their intention, and apologized. Following the use of the real-world anti-gay purges in Chechnya as the backdrop for fictional events in Vampire: The Masquerade sourcebooks, in what Paradox Interactive's vice president of business development described as a "crude and disrespectful" way, Paradox Interactive integrated White Wolf Publishing directly into the parent company, made changes to its leadership, suspended sales and printings of the books, and halted its development and publishing of World of Darkness games. The material was removed from the books, and Vampire: The Masquerade development was moved to the licensee Modiphius Entertainment and collaborators including Onyx Path Publishing. Starting with the 2020 book Vampire: The Masquerade Companion, Paradox Interactive introduced further changes to the handling of the series: headed by creative lead Justin Achilli, they would develop core game books internally, while collaborator Renegade Game Studios would develop other game material. Along with this reorganization, Paradox Interactive announced that World of Darkness development from then on would involve sensitivity reviewers to ensure respectful portrayal of themes and topics. In addition to tabletop game development, the World of Darkness team at Paradox Interactive plans the setting's overarching narrative, and coordinates with external developers, such as those of World of Darkness video game adaptations, to ensure cohesion. Related media In addition to the tabletop games, the series has expanded into other media, including video games, card and board games, the Mind's Eye Theatre series of live action role-playing games, novels, fiction anthologies, comics, the 1996 television series Kindred: The Embraced, the actual play web series L.A. by Night (2018), Seattle by Night (2019), Vein Pursuit (2020), and The Nightlife (2021), and an in-development film and television franchise. Although World of Darkness multimedia projects slowed down under CCP Games, production began anew after Paradox Interactive acquired the series. A collectible card game based on Vampire: The Masquerade was released by Wizards of the Coast in 1994 as Jyhad, before being re-launched a year later as Vampire: The Eternal Struggle; Wizards of the Coast continued publishing it until 1996, and then White Wolf took over, publishing it in 2000–2010. In 2018, Black Chantry Productions licensed The Eternal Struggle, reprinting old cards and continuing production of the game. Following The Eternal Struggle, White Wolf also published a collectible card game on their own, Rage, based on Werewolf: The Apocalypse, from 1995 to 1996, which was even more successful than The Eternal Struggle; Five Rings Publishing licensed it, and continued producing it in 1998–1999. Two other Vampire: The Masquerade card games, Vendetta and Rivals, were released in 2021 by Horrible Guild and Renegade Game Studios, respectively. A story-based board game, Vampire: The Masquerade – Chapters, is in development by Flyos Games. A large number of World of Darkness novels and anthologies have been published, starting with the Werewolf: The Apocalypse anthology Drums Around the Fire in 1993, and were described by What Do I Read Next? A Reader's Guide to Current Genre Fiction as "old-fashioned adventures" in the style of pulp fiction. The books were popular and helped White Wolf Publishing grow, and were described as leading among horror novelizations by The Mammoth Book of Best New Horror in 1996, but were in the end not financially successful, due to book chains closing mall stores in 1995–1996 and returning a large amount of unsold books to the publisher. By 1998, What Do I Read Next? considered the novelizations to have improved in quality, citing White Wolf's move to commissioning established horror and fantasy writers; in 2002, Black Gate considered Andrew Bates's Year of the Scarab Trilogy a standout compared to previous "lackluster" World of Darkness novels. New World of Darkness novelizations started to disappear around 2006, but have since resumed. The series has been adapted into comics, sometimes published in the World of Darkness tabletop game books, but also as comic books, including Vampire: The Masquerade and Werewolf: The Apocalypse lines published by Moonstone Books in the early 2000s, and a Vampire: The Masquerade series published by Vault Comics since 2020. Video game adaptations of the series have been developed, based on Vampire: The Masquerade, Hunter: The Reckoning, Mage: The Ascension, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, and Wraith: The Oblivion. Critical reception of the games has varied, ranging from average to positive, with 2004's Vampire: The Masquerade – Bloodlines standing out, being described by video game publications as a cult classic and a "flawed masterpiece"; when Paradox Interactive acquired the series, they had considered Bloodlines the "crown jewel" among the World of Darkness intellectual properties, and something they knew from the start that they wanted to bring back with a sequel. Reception World of Darkness has been critically well received, with several of its games having won or been nominated for awards, and with Vampire: The Masquerade having been inducted into the Origins Award hall of fame. The series has also been highly successful financially, primarily in the United States, with over three million game books sold by the late 1990s; around 1995, new World of Darkness releases were frequently top sellers, making White Wolf the second biggest publisher of tabletop role-playing games at the time after TSR, Inc., and by 2001, Vampire: The Masquerade was the second best selling tabletop role-playing game after TSR, Inc.'s Dungeons & Dragons. Onyx Path Publishing's crowdfunding campaigns for World of Darkness games and material have also been successful, particularly those for the original series, such as the anniversary editions of Werewolf: The Apocalypse and Mage: The Ascension. The series' setting, plot, and art direction have been well received, with Rue Morgue describing the series' "fabulous artwork" as one of its major strengths, Fenix praising the series' mood and the quality of the writing, and Realms of Fantasy appreciating the broad scope and the familiarity to players due to being based on the real world. Shadis described the setting as "truly unique", bringing something never before seen to games. Some publications found the setting too crowded or defined, however; Diehard GameFan thought this took away from opportunities for horror, and Tor.com thought it left little room to tell new stories, often choosing to ignore the metaplot when running games. In his book series Designers & Dragons, Shannon Appelcline considered the series' focus on metaplot to likely be what had caused sales to dwindle prior to the reboot, as players would have stopped playing the games when feeling they could not keep up with the story. Reactions to the Chronicles of Darkness setting have been divided, with some preferring the original series' setting for being more fantastical and grand in scale, and some the reboot's more grounded setting. The original series' rules were criticized by Arcane as, although generally easy to understand, often having confusing and unclear combat rules, while Tor.com described them as having a recurring problem with statistical anomalies. The updated gameplay rules of Chronicles of Darkness were however generally seen as a big improvement, and seen by critics as fluid, elegant and open-ended, to the point where Tor.com and Backstab recommended using them even when running non-Chronicles of Darkness games. Fenix appreciated the speed of creating characters and of playing, comparing the system of dice pools and dots favorably to number-based role-playing game systems. References External links Dark fantasy role-playing games Fictional universes Origins Award winners Urban fantasy Horror role-playing games

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque%20Nationalist%20Party

Basque Nationalist Party

The Basque Nationalist Party (, EAJ; , PNV; , PNB; EAJ-PNV), officially Basque National Party in English, is a Basque nationalist and regionalist political party. The party is Christian-democratic, with social-democratic and conservative-liberal factions. It operates in all the territories comprising the Basque Country: the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre in Spain, and in the French Basque Country. It also has delegations in dozens of foreign nations, specifically those with a major presence of Basque immigrants. The EAJ-PNV was founded by Sabino Arana in 1895, which makes it the second oldest extant political party in Spain, after the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party. The EAJ-PNV is the largest Basque nationalist party, having led the Basque Government uninterruptedly since 1979, except for a brief period between 2009 and 2012. In Navarre, it is part of the coalition Geroa Bai, which is currently the party in the Navarrese regional government. Currently a member of the European Democratic Party, EAJ-PNV was previously a member of the European Free Alliance from 1999 to 2004. Earlier it had been affiliated with the European People's Party and the Christian Democrat International (from which it was expelled in 2000). The current chairman of the EAJ-PNV is Andoni Ortuzar. The party's youth wing is Euzko Gaztedi. The EAJ-PNV's social offices are called batzokis, of which there are over 200 throughout the world. Since 1932, the party celebrates Aberri Eguna (Homeland Day) on Easter. Also, since 1977, it celebrates Alderdi Eguna (Party Day). History Origins and early history The Basque Nationalist Party (EAJ-PNV) was founded in 1895 by Sabino de Arana Goiri as a Catholic and conservative political party agitating for political independence for the province of Biscay and the defence of Basque traditional culture, language, and racial purity. In fact, in its early years, party membership was restricted to those who could prove pure Basque ancestry by having eight Basque surnames. By 1897, the party sought independence not only for Biscay but for all seven provinces comprising the Basque Country in both Spain and France. In 1916, the Basque Nationalist Party renamed itself the Basque Nationalist Communion (Comunión Nacionalista Vasca). This name change marked a departure, in many aspects, from the original doctrine of the late Sabino Arana and casting itself as a broader social movement rather than simply a political party. The Basque Nationalist Communion at this point advocated for Basque autonomy within Spain, rather than outright independence. However, a small faction known as the "Aberrianos" ("Fatherlanders") within the party remained committed to the cause of independence. In 1921, the leading members of the Aberrianos were kicked from the moderate Basque Nationalist Communion. Later that year, the Aberrianos officially formed their own political party, reclaiming the name "Basque Nationalist Party". During the single party dictatorship of Captain General Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930), the Basque Nationalist Party was outlawed, and its members went underground. Many of its activities continued through mountaineering ("mendigoxale") and folklore associations. However, the Basque Nationalist Communion was tolerated by the Spanish dictatorship as it was considered a moderate regionalist party. At the end of 1930, the two nationalist organisations united under the original name Basque Nationalist Party. However, a small faction split from the Basque Nationalist Communion shortly before the reunification, calling itself Eusko Abertzale Ekintza-Acción Nacionalista Vasca ("Basque Nationalist Action"). It was on the moderate nationalist left, non-confessional and open to alliances with Spanish republican and socialist parties. The Second Spanish Republic 1934–1935 The division between autonomism and independentism appeared again during the Second Spanish Republic. Headed by Aberriano veteran Eli Gallastegi, a small group of independentists coalesced around the Mountaineering Federation of Biscay and its affiliated weekly publication Jagi-Jagi ("Arise Arise"), and abandoned the now-moderate and autonomist Basque Nationalist Party. The Spanish Civil War and Franco's rule Civil War After the Spanish Civil War of 18 July 1936, the party felt torn. Certain branches of the party supported the rebellion against the Republic, feeling sympathy for its Catholic and anti-Communist agenda. However, the right-wing rebels insisted on a unified Spain, making them hostile to nationalist movements in regions such as the Basque Country. Furthermore, the Basque Nationalist Party was also anti-Fascist, while Fascists constituted a large part of the rebellion. Ultimately, the republican government was able to secure the allegiance of the Basque Nationalist Party with the promise to pass a Basque Autonomy Statute. The Biscayan and Gipuzkoan branches declared support for the republic, democracy, and anti-fascism in the ensuing Spanish Civil War and were key in balancing those provinces to the Republican side. In the territory seized by the rebels, PNV members faced tough times. During the military uprising in Navarre, the Basque nationalist mayor of Estella-Lizarra, Fortunato Aguirre, was arrested by the Spanish nationalist rebels (18 July 1936), and killed in September. Some Basque nationalists could flee north to Basque areas loyal to the Republic, or France. However, some members of the Alavese and Navarrese committees, ahead of an official decision, published notes refusing support to the Republic. Notwithstanding their initial ambiguous position in certain areas, the party premises and press in Álava and Navarre were closed in that month of July. Some PNV sympathizers and members joined the Carlist battalions, either out of conviction or to avoid persecution. By October 1936, a war front had been established at the northern tip of Álava and to the west of Donostia-San Sebastián. Initially, the Defence Committees in Biscay and Gipuzkoa were dominated by the Popular Front. After hard negotiations, eventually Basque autonomy was granted within the Second Spanish Republic in late 1936, and the new autonomous government immediately organized the Basque Army, consisting of militias recruited separately by the various political organizations, including the EAJ-PNV, EAE-ANV, and Jagi-Jagi. The autonomous government maintained remarkable order behind the lines in Biscay and western Gipuzkoa, and managed the coordination and provision of military resistance. Upon occupation of territories loyal to the Republic, the rebel forces focused repression on leftists, but Basque nationalists were also targeted, facing prison, humiliation, and death in some cases. As the rebel troops approached Biscay, the Carlist press in Pamplona even called for the extermination of Basque nationalists. José Antonio Aguirre, the party leader, became in October 1936 the first lehendakari (Basque president) of the wartime multipartite Basque Government, ruling the unconquered parts of Biscay and Gipuzkoa. In April 1937, the city of Gernika was bombed by German airplanes covertly aiding the rebel forces. Jose Antonio Aguirre stated that "the German planes bombed us with a brutality that had never been seen before for two and a half hours." Pablo Picasso made a painting in remembrance of the massacre named after the city that year. When Bilbao, the most populated city in the Basque Country, was taken by Franco's troops, the Basque nationalists decided to not destroy or sabotage the powerful manufacturing industry of Bilbao, thinking that they had the responsibility to secure the prosperity of their people in the future. This decision allowed the occupying rebel forces to use the industrial power of Bilbao in their war effort against the rest of Republic-aligned Spain. In July 1937, having lost all Basque territory, the Basque Army retreated toward Santander. With no territory or help from the Republic, the Basque Army surrendered to the Italian Corpo Truppe Volontari through the so-called Santoña Agreement. Prison sentences and executions followed, as the rebel government of Francisco Franco ruled that separate terms of surrender could not be made between the Basques and Italians. The Basque government then moved to Barcelona until the fall of Catalonia, and then out of Spain into exile in France. Lehendakari Aguirre was exiled in Belgium when Hitler's forces invaded it, thus beginning his long clandestine journey to reach the United States. With a false identity, he travelled to Berlin, and then on to Sweden with the help of a Panamanian ambassador. He fled Europe for Latin America, where in Uruguay he re-assumed his real identity and was given a visa to the United States. He travelled to New York, where he was taken under the protection of American Basques as a professor at Columbia University. Exile during the post-war The president of the Basque Government in exile was always a EAJ-PNV member and even the sole Spanish representative in the United Nations was the Basque appointee Jesús de Galíndez until his murder in an obscure episode regarding his PhD Thesis about Dominican Republic's dictator Trujillo. He also decided to put the large Basque exiles' network at the service of the Allied side and collaborated with the US Secretary of State and the CIA during the Cold War to fight Communism in Spanish America. When the United States decided to back Franco in 1952 Aguirre went to France anew where the Basque Government in exile was established. Also, he learned there that the pro-Nazi French government of Vichy confiscated the Basque Government's building and that the anti-Nazi Charles de Gaulle maintained it as a Spanish Government's possession, given that the Basque Government has never had any international consideration other than representatives of a region in Spain at most. The building today is the Instituto Cervantes premises where French people can learn any of the Spanish languages, including Basque. Generational conflict and new alliances In 1959 ETA was created by young undergraduates from the area of Bilbao (organisation EKIN) lured by Basque nationalist ideology, but increasingly disgruntled at the ineffective political action of the EAJ-PNV, largely daunted by post-war repression and scattered in exile. In addition, the new generation resented an attempt of the EAJ-PNV to pull the strings of their movement and PNV's youth wing Euzko Gaztedi (EGI), with whom they had merged in the mid-50s, as well as showing a more modern stance, stressing for one the language as the centre of Basqueness, instead of race. In the 1950s and 60s the party looked for alliances abroad, expecting at first that the defeat of the Axis in World War II would encourage USA's support for an eventual overthrow of Franco's hold on power, which didn't happen. In addition, it was a founder party of the Christian Democrat International, but now the party is an active member of the European Democratic Party. In the late 60s and early 70s, contacts started with other Spanish parties to assert the EAJ-PNV's position in a new post-Francoist order. At the same time, the Basque Nationalist Party confirmed its stance against ETA in a period when its violent actions saw a surge and its influence in society was very apparent, especially in street protests. Juan de Ajuriaguerra paved the way for the EAJ-PNV's comeback to Basque politics from exile, and started to negotiate their participation in the new status-quo, with special attention to a new Statute. A Basque Statute The EAJ-PNV's results in the 1977 and 1978 elections confirmed PNV's central position in Basque politics. While the EAJ-PNV advocated for abstention in the referendum on the Spanish Constitution for its lack of Basque input, the party supported the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country, approved in December 1978, and paved the way to its success in the first elections held in the Basque Autonomous Community, once Navarre was left out. In the transition years after Franco's death in 1975, Xabier Arzallus came to prominence, who masterminded the so-called "Spirit of Arriaga" to accommodate the party to the new Spanish democracy. Despite some internal tensions, the former priest and Jesuit came up reinforced and was chosen undisputed party leader. The EAJ-PNV found its main and strongest support base in Biscay, while in Navarre EAJ-PNV was next to non-existent. Carlos Garaikoetxea spearheaded the new autonomous government after being elected with 38.8% of the votes and during this first term the Basque Nationalist Party held office without outside support. During this period, the EAJ-PNV's challenges were closely associated to its position in the Basque Government: defense of the Statute, devolution of powers from Madrid, discrediting of political violence, restructuring of manufacturing industry steeped in crisis. As of 1985 tensions inside the party spurred the formation of a splinter group with a stronghold in Gipuzkoa, which in turn led to a new party in 1987, when dissenters from the EAJ-PNV formed the Basque Solidarity ("Eusko Alkartasuna", EA) party. Carlos Garaikoetxea was then elected as the first president of the rival party. The split from the EAJ-PNV was mainly based on: A personality clash between the lehendakari Garaikoetxea, who went to form EA, and the EAJ-PNV leader Xabier Arzalluz. The configuration of the Basque Country: A strong Basque government and weak provinces (EA). Strong provinces (EAJ-PNV). Afterwards, some ideological differences also came out. EA adopted a social-democratic ideology, while the EAJ-PNV remained more attached to its Christian-democratic ideas. The split was particularly bitter given that it was headed by the lehendakari (premier) himself. Many EAJ-PNV political bars (, "meeting place") became ("meeting house"). Since 1991, as time has eased the bitter split (helped by the fact that both Arzalluz and Garaikoetxea have gone into political retirement), both parties agreed to form an electoral coalition in a number of local elections as a means to maximise the nationalist votes, which eventually led to reunite both candidatures in a joint list again for the regional governments of Navarra and the Basque Autonomous Community in 1998. Thus, EA has participated in several EAJ-PNV-led Basque governments, including the 2006 government of President Juan José Ibarretxe Markuartu. Still, EA decided to run by itself in the municipal elections held in May 2007. Former president Juan José Ibarretxe spearheaded a call for the reform of the Statute of Autonomy that governs the Basque Country Autonomous Community, through a proposal widely known as the Ibarretxe Plan, passed by the Basque Parliament but not even accepted for discussion by the Spanish Cortes Generales. In 2009 the EAJ-PNV was expelled from office by an alliance of the Socialist Party of the Basque Country and the People's Party, taking advantage of a distorted parliament representation issued from the outlawing of left-wing Basque nationalists. Until that moment, the EAJ-PNV dominated every administration of the Basque government. In Navarre, the EA and EAJ-PNV formed the coalition Nafarroa Bai—'Yes to Navarre'—along with Aralar and Batzarre, but a split within the coalition led to its revamp as Geroa Bai. In terms of ideology, by November 2016 the Basque Nationalist Party shifted its rhetoric to make the autonomous community of Euskadi the subject of the Basque nation. Position in recent referendums The EAJ-PNV called for: Abstention in the Referendum for Spanish Constitution in 1978. Gave freedom to vote yes or no to permanence of Spain in the NATO in 1986. The Yes won the vote in Spain, but the No was the first choice among the electors of the Basque Country. Yes to the European Constitution proposal in the referendum held in Spain on 21 February 2005; and supported the Lisbon Treaty in the Spanish Cortes Generales. Presidents of the party since 1895 Note: The National Council of the Basque Nationalist Party (Euzkadi-Buru-Batzar) was created in 1911. Therefore, Sabino Arana and Ángel Zabala were only presidents of the Regional Council of Biscay (Bizkai-Buru-Batzar) 1895–1903 Sabino de Arana y Goiri 1903–1906 Ángel Zabala Ozamiz 1906–1908 Deputation formed by Santiago Alda, Alipio Larrauri, Antonio Arroyo, Vicente Larrinaga and Eduardo Arriaga. 1911?–1916 Luis de Arana y Goiri 1916–1920 Ramón Bikuña 1920–1930 Ignacio Rotaeche (Comunión Nacionalista Vasca) 1922–1930 Luis de Arana y Goiri (Aberri) 1930 Ceferino de Jemein (Aberri) 1931–1932 Ramón Bikuña 1932–1933 Luis de Arana y Goiri 1933–1934 Jesús Doxandabaratz 1934–1935 Isaac López Mendizábal 1935–1951 Doroteo Ciáurriz 1951–1953 Juan Ajuriaguerra 1957–1962 José Aguerre 1975–1977 Ignacio Unceta 1977–1980 Carlos Garaikoetxea 1980–1984 Xabier Arzalluz 1984–1985 Román Sudupe 1985–1986 Jesús Insausti 1986–2004 Xabier Arzalluz 2004–2008 Josu Jon Imaz 2008–2013 Iñigo Urkullu 2013–present Andoni Ortuzar Party Traditions Jeltzaletasuna JeL (, "God and the Old Laws" in Arana's purist Biscayan Basque, or in Standard Basque) is the motto of the party. The "old laws" referred to are the fueros, the traditional laws of the Basque provinces, observed by the kings of Castile, and later Spain, until the Carlist Wars. The motto of Basque Carlists was ("God, Country, Fueros, King"). Basque nationalism evolved out of Carlism, eventually supplanting it in much of the Basque Country. in the party's Basque-language name is a word comprising two parts: (the acronym for "God and the Old Laws") and (literally meaning "fond of"). Thus could be rendered in English as "one who is fond of God and the Old Laws (JeL)", or translated simply as "nationalist". A (after , "companion") is a member of the party. Alderdi Eguna Alderdi Eguna ("Party Day") is the national holiday of the Basque Nationalist Party which is annually celebrated on the last Sunday of September, the Sunday closest to the feast day of Saint Michael, the patron saint of Euskal Herria and of the Basque Nationalist Party. The central act of this celebration is a political meeting of leading nationalists, but the celebration begins in the morning with a traditional festival in which the different municipal organizations from the party set up stands to sell drinks and their more typical products, all brightened up by traditional music. Dances and traditional sports are also enjoyed. The celebration takes place in an open air arena (currently in Foronda, Álava), and lasts until nightfall. European representation In the European Parliament, the Basque Nationalist Party sits in the Renew Europe group with one MEP. In the European Committee of the Regions, the Basque Nationalist Party sits in the Renew Europe CoR group with one full and one alternate member for the 2020-2025 mandate. Electoral performance Regional parliaments Basque Parliament Parliament of Navarre Cortes Generales Nationwide Regional breakdown European Parliament See also Basque Republic Euzkadi History of the Basques (Late Modern Period) Luis María Bandrés Notes References Bibliography External links EAJ-PNV page in English EGI, youth movement of EAJ-PNV Basque Nationalism Museum The cradle of Basque nationalism Manifiesto y Organización del Partido Nacionalista Vasco, PNV's internal rules from 1906. As heavy scanned JPEG images of Spanish text. EAJ-PNV Ordizia 1895 establishments in the Basque Country (autonomous community) Basque nationalism Catholic political parties Christian democratic parties in Europe European Democratic Party Formerly banned political parties in Spain Nationalist parties in France Nationalist parties in Spain Political parties established in 1895 Political parties in the Basque Country (autonomous community) Political parties in Navarre Political parties in Northern Basque Country Political parties of the Spanish Civil War Regionalist parties in Spain Transnational political parties Organisations based in Bilbao

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%20Saint-Germain%20F.C.

Paris Saint-Germain F.C.

Paris Saint-Germain Football Club (), commonly referred to as Paris Saint-Germain, PSG, Paris or Paris SG, is a professional football club based in Paris, France. They compete in Ligue 1, the top division of French football. France's most successful club, they have won over 40 official honours, including nine league titles and one major European trophy. Their home ground is the Parc des Princes. PSG were founded in 1970, following the merger of Paris FC and Stade Saint-Germain. The Parisians won their first major honour, the French Cup, in 1982 and their first Division 1 title in 1986. The 1990s was among the most successful periods in PSG's history; they claimed a second league title, three French Cups, two French League Cups, two French Super Cups and the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1996. After suffering a decline in fortunes during the 2000s, the Red and Blues have enjoyed a revival since 2011 with increased financial backing, achieving unparalleled dominance in domestic competitions, winning seven league titles and twenty national cups. PSG have also become a regular feature in the UEFA Champions League, reaching their first final in 2020. Paris SG have the most consecutive seasons playing in France's top flight and are one of two French clubs to have won a major European title. They are the most popular football club in France and one of the most widely supported teams in the world. PSG's home kit colours are red, blue, and white, and their crest features the Eiffel Tower and a fleur-de-lis. PSG have a longstanding rivalry with Olympique de Marseille; the duo contest French football's most notorious match, Le Classique. Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, the Emir of Qatar, owns PSG through closed shareholders Qatar Sports Investments (QSI), which purchased the club in 2011. The takeover made PSG the richest club in France and one of the wealthiest in the world. As of the 2019–20 season, PSG have the seventh-highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual revenue of €541m according to Deloitte, and are the world's ninth-most valuable football club, worth $2.5bn according to Forbes. History Creation and split (1970–1974) In the summer of 1970, an ambitious group of businessmen decided to create a major team in the French capital. Guy Crescent and Pierre-Étienne Guyot chose to merge their newly formed side, Paris Football Club, with Stade Saint-Germain of Henri Patrelle after the team from Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 15km west of Paris, were promoted to Ligue 2. Real Madrid played a big role in the foundation of Paris Saint-Germain. The three men were stuck with the financial feasibility of the project until they met Real's president Santiago Bernabéu. Bernabéu told them that starting a crowdfunding campaign was the best solution to establish a new team. After a petition was signed by 20,000 people, Paris Saint-Germain Football Club were officially formed on 12 August 1970. For the first time in French football history, the fans had financially contributed in the making of a football club. The new capital club built a substantial fanbase thanks to the merger and benefited hugely from an improved squad. Led by Jean Djorkaeff, the club's first star, PSG won promotion to Division 1 and claimed the 1970–71 French Division 2 title in its first season. Following a delicate financial situation, the Paris City Council offered to pay the club's debt and in return demanded them to adopt the more Parisian name of "Paris Football Club." After PSG president Henri Patrelle refused the name change and financial support was withdrawn, the club split in 1972. Paris FC remained in the top tier, while PSG were administratively relegated to Division 3. First major honours and decline (1974–1991) PSG took flight when fashion designer Daniel Hechter took over. Shortly before the start of the 1973–74 campaign, he replaced Henri Patrelle as president and named Francis Borelli as vice-president. Besides offering his financial support to the club, Hechter also designed PSG's classic home outfit. Following back-to-back promotions, under French legend Just Fontaine, Paris Saint-Germain quickly returned to the premier division in 1974, ironically at the same time as Paris FC slipped into the division below, and moved into the Parc des Princes, which up until that point had been the home stadium of PFC. Since then, PSG have never abandoned the top flight of French football nor the Parc. Before that, PSG had been playing at several grounds including the Stade Municipal Georges Lefèvre, the Stade Jean-Bouin, the Stade Bauer, and even the Parc des Princes a few times that season despite the reluctance of PFC. Chaired by Daniel Hechter, the Parisians failed to win any silverware in the 1970s but began their tradition of brilliant Coupe de France runs, established themselves as a top-half team in Division 1 and attracted several prestigious players, including Jean-Pierre Dogliani, Mustapha Dahleb and Carlos Bianchi. After Hechter was banned for life from football by the French Football Federation in January 1978, for running a corruption scheme involving ticket sales at Parc des Princes, Francis Borelli, who had been vice-president until then, became the new boss of the Île-de-France club. The club's trophy cabinet welcomed its first major silverware with the help of star signings Joël Bats, Dominique Bathenay, Safet Sušić and Dominique Rocheteau, alongside PSG Academy graduate Luis Fernandez, who steered the capital side to two consecutive French Cup titles in 1982 and 1983. These successes opened Paris the doors to Europe, including their impressive continental debut in the 1982–83 European Cup Winners' Cup, which saw them reach the quarter-finals of the tournament. PSG won its maiden league championship in 1986. Led by Sušić Joël Bats, Luis Fernández and Dominique Rocheteau, the Red and Blues dominated the championship from start to finish, going a memorable 26 matches without defeat towards the title. The follow-up to the league title was not as glorious though. PSG finished seventh in the 1986–87 French Division 1 and their first UEFA Champions League appearance that season was a complete failure. They were knocked out by minnows Vítkovice in the first round of the 1986–87 European Cup. The following year, PSG avoided relegation on the final match of the 1987–88 season after a 4–1 win over Lens at the Parc des Princes. Highly indebted, the club briefly bounced back, fighting for the 1988–89 league crown with Marseille, before going into decline. Canal+ takeover and golden era (1991–1998) The takeover by television giants Canal+ in 1991 revitalised Paris Saint-Germain as they became one of the richest clubs in France. Canal+ wiped out PSG's huge debt and appointed Michel Denisot, journalist on the channel, as club president in place of Francis Borelli. Now enjoying serious investment, the Red and Blues were able to set their sights steadily higher: they had to qualify for European competitions in their first season and become French champions within three years. In consequence, Canal+ increased the club's budget from 90 to 120 million francs in order to build a strong squad for the 1991–92 season. The revolution began with the appointment of renowned coach Artur Jorge, famous for leading Porto to the 1986–87 European Cup trophy. The club then embarked on a spending spree, signing Brazilian stars Ricardo and Valdo as well as proven French players Paul Le Guen, Laurent Fournier, Patrick Colleter and prolific Liberian striker George Weah. The 1992–93 season also marked the beginning of Le Classique, the rivalry between Paris Saint-Germain and Olympique de Marseille, as both teams battled each other on the field for the 1992–93 French Division 1 crown. PSG finished runners-up after losing both games against Marseille. In the second match between the two clubs, only three days after winning the 1992–93 UEFA Champions League, league leaders Marseille welcomed closest challengers PSG in a match that would determine the title. After Marseille won their fifth consecutive championship, Bernard Tapie and Marseille were found guilty of match-fixing in what became known as the French football bribery scandal. The French Football Federation stripped Marseille of their title and offered it to second-placed PSG, who refused it because club owners Canal+ thought that claiming the trophy would anger their subscribers back in Marseille. As a result, the 1992–93 title remained unattributed, with Canal+ even refused letting the capital club participate in next year's Champions League after UEFA excluded Marseille from the competition. Instead, Monaco, who finish third in Ligue 1 took the Champions League spot instead. Considered the club's golden era, the Parisians won nine trophies and reached five consecutive European semi-finals during the 1990s, including their first UEFA Champions League last-four appearance and two at the same stage of the UEFA Cup. PSG's crowning glory came in the 1996 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final with legend Luis Fernandez now as coach. Bruno Ngotty scored the only goal of the match to defeat Rapid Wien and make Paris the second French club to ever clinch a major European tournament and the youngest club in history to win a European title at 24 years of existence. The following season, PSG finished runners-up in the 1996 UEFA Super Cup and 1997 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. On the domestic scene, results were just as satisfying, with Paris celebrating a second league title, three French Cups, two French League Cups and just as many French Super Cup wins. Crisis mode and relegation battles (1998–2011) PSG then went into decline following years of mismanagement. In the summer 1999, PSG spent heavily on new players signing Nicolas Anelka, Peter Luccin and Stéphane Dalmat as part of the "PSG Banlieue" project of its shareholder Canal+, with the goal of winning Ligue 1 and performing a solid UEFA Champions League campaign. In 2002, the club faced a massive financial loss with a deficit of €65 million, leading Canal+ to fire Luis Fernandez as coach and Laurent Perpère as president and replacing them with Vahid Halilhodžić, who became the new coach and Francis Graille the new president. The club's form dwindled as they slipped further down the table and eventually, a split from owners Canal+ became inevitable. At the start of the 21st century, PSG struggled to rescale the heights despite the magic of Ronaldinho and the goals of Pauleta. Five more trophies arrived in the form of three French Cups (including one against Le Classique arch-rivals Marseille in 2006), one French League Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup, but the club became better known for lurching from one high-profile crisis to another. Following years of mismanagement, the club's form dwindled as they slipped further down the table and a split from Canal+ became inevitable. The French premium television channel sold the club to Colony Capital in 2006. The situation, however, only got worse and PSG spent the 2006–07 and 2007–08 campaigns staving off relegations. The latter was the most dramatic. Marred by poor results and fan violence, Paris avoided the drop on the final match after a 2–1 win at Sochaux. The hero was Ivorian striker Amara Diané who scored both goals that night. Despite not enjoying the star status of other current or past PSG greats, Diané is still considered a legend by most Parisian fans. QSI ownership and domestic hegemony (2011–present) After two years of solid progress and stability under the stewardship of manager Antoine Kombouaré and president Robin Leproux, the fortunes of Paris Saint-Germain changed dramatically when Qatar Sports Investments (QSI) purchased the club in 2011. The takeover made PSG not only the richest club in France but one of the wealthiest in the world. Club president Nasser Al-Khelaifi pledged to form a team capable of winning the UEFA Champions League and making the club France's biggest name. Club legend Leonardo was brought back in a sporting director capacity and oversaw a spending spree in summer 2011 that has so far been unprecedented in Ligue 1 history, including the signings of Blaise Matuidi, Salvatore Sirigu, Maxwell, Kevin Gameiro and Javier Pastore. As a result, the Parisians have dominated French football, despite finishing behind Montpellier in 2011–12, the elusive league crown was finally brought back to Paris in 2012–13 driven by star player Zlatan Ibrahimović, team captain Thiago Silva and famous manager Carlo Ancelotti. During the season, ahead of the winter transfer deadline it was announced that David Beckham signed a five-month deal with the club. Zlatan's 30-goal haul almost single-handedly led the capital side to its first Ligue 1 title in 19 years, and third overall. They also became a regular in the knockout stages of the Champions League, being eliminated from the UEFA Champions League on away goals by Barcelona in the quarter-finals after drawing both games. Big money signings continued with the arrivals of Edinson Cavani in 2013 for a league record of €64 million, making it the sixth largest transfer in history and David Luiz in 2014 for a £50 million transfer fee, a world-record transfer for a defender. Despite the departure of Carlo Ancelotti, PSG kept its winning ways under Laurent Blanc. The club secured a maiden domestic treble (Ligue 1, Coupe de la Ligue and Trophée des Champions) in the 2013–14 season, before claiming an unprecedented national quadruple (Ligue 1, Coupe de France, Coupe de la Ligue and Trophée des Champions) twice in a row in 2014–15 and 2015–16, winning the latter with a record-breaking 96 points, becoming the only first French men's team to achieve that feat. Fresh from three consecutive UEFA Europa League titles with Sevilla, Unai Emery was hired by PSG for his European pedigree. But with star player Zlatan Ibrahimović gone, the club endured a disappointing 2016–17 season. Paris were pipped to the Ligue 1 title by Monaco, missing out on top spot for the first time in five years. Meanwhile, in the UEFA Champions League, the club suffered several disappointing nights, including arguably the club's most painful continental defeat in the infamous and controversial "La Remontada" ("The Comeback") against Barcelona, losing 6–1 in the second leg of the round of sixteen, despite winning the first leg in France by a score of 4–0. In response, PSG signed Neymar Jr. for a world-record fee of €222 million, making him the most expensive player ever and French prodigy Kylian Mbappé on an initial loan, which was made permanent in 2018 in a transfer worth €180 million plus add ons, making him both the second-most expensive player and most expensive teenager, assembling a fearsome attacking trio alongside Edinson Cavani. The capital club reclaimed the Ligue 1 title and also won the Trophée des Champions, the Coupe de la Ligue and the Coupe de France, clinching the domestic quadruple for the third time in four seasons. Despite their massive expenditure, in the Champions League, PSG lost to Real Madrid in the round of 16, leading manager Unai Emery to leave the club at the end of the season. In May 2018, Thomas Tuchel signed a two-year contract with PSG, replacing Unai Emery. Paris Saint-Germain again fell in the Champions League round of 16 in 2018–19, suffering a shock 3–1 defeat at home to Manchester United after winning the first leg 2–0 at Old Trafford. This season, they also won the Ligue 1 for the 8th time in their history, but lost in the Coupe de France final against Rennes. PSG were eliminated from the Coupe de la Ligue in embarrassing fashion, as they lost 2–1 at home to Guingamp in the quarterfinals. In 2019–20, PSG won the Ligue 1 for the 9th time in their history, despite the season ending prematurely due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and also reclaimed the Coupe de France defeating Saint-Étienne in the final and won the last-ever Coupe de la Ligue defeating Lyon in a penalty shootout. In the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League, PSG reached the semi-finals for the second time since 1995, after a last minute 2–1 win over Atalanta, before losing to Bayern Munich 1–0 in the finals in Lisbon, with former PSG player Kingsley Coman scoring the winning goal. Tuchel's tenure at Paris Saint-Germain was marred by a fractured relationship with the club's hierarchy, leading him to be dismissed on 24 December, despite placing top of their Champions League group. On 2 January 2021, former PSG player Mauricio Pochettino was appointed as the new head coach. PSG's good form in the Champions League continued in 2021 with a second consecutive UCL semi-final appearance, a first for the club. Domestically, PSG won the Coupe de France, but failed to retain the Ligue 1 title, finishing one point behind Lille, losing the league for the second time in four years. In July, PSG completed one of the most historic transfer windows in football history, exercising the option to buy on Danilo Pereira and signing Achraf Hakimi from Inter Milan for a reported fee of €60 million, Georginio Wijnaldum, legendary Real Madrid captain Sergio Ramos and Euro 2020's player of the tournament Gianluigi Donnarumma on free transfers. PSG concluded their transfer window with the signing of one of the greatest players of all time and record Ballon d'Or winner Lionel Messi, who unexpectedly left Barcelona following the expiration of his contract, and promising defender Nuno Mendes on a season-long loan with an option to buy. Identity Colours and mascot Since their foundation, Paris Saint-Germain have represented both the city of Paris and the nearby royal town of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. As a result, red, blue and white are the club's traditional colours. The red and blue are Parisian colours, a nod to revolutionary figures Lafayette and Jean Sylvain Bailly, and the white is a symbol of French royalty and Saint-Germain-en-Laye. On the club's crest, the Eiffel Tower in red and the blue background represent Paris, while the fleur de lys in white is a hint to the coat of arms of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The fleur de lys is a royal symbol as well and recalls that French King Louis XIV was born in the town. Throughout its history, PSG have brandished several crests, but all of them have featured the club's three historical colours. Likewise, PSG's most iconic shirts have been predominantly red, blue or white, with the remaining two colours included as well. The club's official mascot, Germain the Lynx, also sports PSG's traditional colours. It was unveiled during the 2010 Tournoi de Paris in commemoration of the club's 40th anniversary, and can be seen entertaining kids in the stands of the Parc des Princes or near the pitch with the players during the warm-up. Anthems and mottos "Allez Paris!," recorded by Belgian actress and singer Annie Cordy in 1971, was the club's first official anthem. A PSG fan from the start, she was part of an association of hundreds of celebrities who contributed to the club's foundation in 1970. The club's second anthem, "Allez Paris-Saint-Germain!" by Les Parisiens, was recorded in 1977, replacing Cordy's version. An initiative of historical PSG leader and music producer Charles Talar, he produced and released it under his homonym record label. The song's chorus became a popular chant among PSG supporters during games. A new version, also called "Allez Paris-Saint-Germain!," was recorded in 2010 as part of the club's 40th anniversary celebrations. Sung to the tune of "Go West" by Village People, the lyrics were rewritten with suggestions made by fans. This is the club's current official anthem. "Ô Ville Lumière" ("Oh City of Light"), to the tune of "Flower of Scotland," is another veritable club anthem for PSG supporters. Other notable chants from supporters' groups in the Boulogne and Auteuil stands include "Le Parc est à nous" ("The Parc is ours"), "Paris est magique!" ("Paris is magical!") and "Ici, c'est Paris!" ("This is Paris!"). Both stands began exchanging these chants during PSG matches in the 1990s. "Paris est magique!" and "Ici c'est Paris!" are also the club's most iconic mottos or slogans. "Who Said I Would" by Phill Collins is also a traditional anthem for the fans. The song has accompanied the players' entry into the field since 1992. Iconic shirts During their first three seasons of existence, the home shirt of Paris Saint-Germain was red with blue and white details in its sleeves and neck to bring together the three colours of the club: the red and blue of Paris, and the white of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. During the 2010–11 season, PSG wore a red shirt during home matches to commemorate their 40th anniversary. The connection between Paris Saint-Germain and the city's fashion houses is a longstanding one. French fashion designer Daniel Hechter became PSG president in 1973 and designed the club's traditional home look that same year: a blue shirt with a red vertical stripe flanked by two thinner white stripes (blue-white-red-white-blue). First worn in the 1973–74 season, the so-called "Hechter shirt" has remained the classic home identity of PSG ever since. The famous jersey made its debut during a home Ligue 2 game against Red Star on November 10, 1973. This was also the club's maiden match at the Parc des Princes. PSG won 3–1 as Othniel Dossevi scored the club's first goal at the stadium as well as the first with the Hechter shirt. PSG stars from the 1990s and 2000s like Raí, Ronaldinho and Pauleta are associated with this kit. While wearing it, the capital club reached five European semi-finals in a row between 1993 and 1997, claimed the 1995–96 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and achieved eight consecutive wins against Le Classique arch-rivals Olympique de Marseille between 2002 and 2004. The general belief is that Hechter based his creation on the red-and-white jersey worn by Ajax, the dominant team in Europe at the time, but with the French flag in mind. Hechter himself has denied this, though, instead claiming he was inspired by the Ford Mustang. He transposed the car's hood stripes on the shirt and employed the three colours of the club. The Hechter shirt has two alternate versions: the "reversed Hechter" (red-white-blue-white-red), introduced in the 1974–75 season, and the "white Hechter" (white-blue-red-blue-white), which premiered in the 1994–95 season. It was with the club's most iconic away outfit, though, that fans saw the first big PSG team which won their maiden Coupe de France titles in 1982 and 1983, experienced their first European campaign in 1983 and claimed their maiden league crown in 1986. The shirt was white with blue and red vertical stripes on the left. Like the Hechter jersey, it debuted in the 1973–74 season as the away kit. Promoted by PSG president Francis Borelli, the white shirt was the club's home identity from 1981 to 1990. Now known as the "Borelli shirt," it is synonym with PSG legends from the 1980s like Safet Sušić, Luis Fernández and Dominique Bathenay. Crest evolution The first crest of Paris Saint-Germain was basically the same as the original Paris FC (PFC) logo. Having to merge and give birth to the club using Stade Saint-Germain's stadium, the PFC crest kept its original design but the name below it changed from "Paris FC" to "Paris Saint-Germain Football Club." This badge consisted of a blue football with a red vessel inside it. The latter is a historic symbol of Paris and is present in the city's coat of arms. The name of the club was written below in red. PSG, however, split from PFC in 1972 and thus needed a new crest. Representing both Paris and Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the club's second crest became the basis of the one the fans know today. The round logo featured the Eiffel Tower in red against a blue background with two Saint-Germain symbols in white between its legs: a fleur de lys and Louis XIV's cradle. This crest was created by Christian Lentretien, former PSG board member and publicist by profession, in 1972. It was first used until 1982. The Parc des Princes, the club's home stadium, was added below the crest in 1982 and lasted until 1990. Following a brief return of the traditional crest between 1990 and 1992, former owners Canal+ radically changed it in 1992. The new model had the acronym "PSG" in white against a blue-white-red-white-blue background (like the colour pattern of the Hechter shirt) with "Paris Saint-Germain" underneath in white against a black background. Under pressure from supporters, the traditional crest returned in 1995 with "Paris Saint-Germain" above the tower and "1970" below the cradle. This logo went through a slight facelift in 2002. At the request of the club's Qatari owners, the traditional crest underwent a major makeover in 2013 by design agency, Dragon Rouge. “Paris” is now written in big white bold letters above a large Eiffel Tower, clearly putting forward the brand “Paris” instead of “Paris Saint-Germain.” Underneath it, “Saint-Germain” is written in smaller letters below the fleur de lys. In contrast, the cradle and the club's founding year "1970" were left out. PSG deputy general manager Jean-Claude Blanc said: “We are called Paris Saint-Germain but, above all, we are called Paris.” Friendly tournaments Paris Saint-Germain used to host two very famous invitational competitions: the Tournoi de Paris and the Tournoi Indoor de Paris-Bercy. Regarded as French football's most prestigious friendly tournament, the Tournoi de Paris is considered a precursor of both the Intercontinental Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup. PSG began hosting it in 1975 and were crowned champions a record seven times. Held at the Parc des Princes, the Tournoi de Paris was last organized in 2012. The Tournoi Indoor de Paris-Bercy was an indoor football tournament founded by PSG in 1984 and held annually until 1991 at the AccorHotels Arena in the 12th arrondissement of Paris. Played indoors on a synthetic field and featuring seven-a-side teams, the competition featured hosts PSG and five more clubs. The Parisians lifted the trophy on two occasions, more than any other club. Grounds Stadiums Paris Saint-Germain played their first game at their current home stadium, the 47,929-seater Parc des Princes, against Ligue 2 promotion rivals Red Star on November 10, 1973. It was the curtain-raiser for that season's opening Ligue 1 match between Paris FC (PFC) and Sochaux. PSG moved into the ground upon its return to Ligue 1 in 1974, ironically the same year that PFC were relegated. Up until that point it had been the home venue of PFC. During their early years, PSG played at several grounds including the main stadium of the Stade Municipal Georges Lefèvre sports complex, the Stade Jean-Bouin, the Stade de Paris and even the Parc des Princes a few times despite the reluctance of PFC. Ever since PSG moved to the Parc, the Stade Georges Lefèvre's artificial turf and grass football pitches have hosted training sessions and home matches for the club's academy sides. The complex is located in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, just across the street from the Camp des Loges, the club's training center. Training facilities Located in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the Camp des Loges has been the club's training ground since 1970. The current Camp des Loges, built on the same site as the old one, was inaugurated in November 2008. It was then renamed Ooredoo Training Centre in September 2013 as part of a sponsorship deal with Ooredoo. The Paris Saint-Germain Training Center will be the club's new training ground and sports complex. It will replace the Camp des Loges upon its completion in June 2023. Owned and financed by the club, the venue will bring together PSG's male football, handball and judo teams, as well as the football and handball academies. The club, however, will remain closely linked to their historic birthplace in Saint-Germain-en-Laye as the Camp des Loges will become the training ground of the female football team and academy. Support Paris Saint-Germain is the most popular football club in France and one of the most widely supported teams in the world. Famous PSG fans include Nicolas Sarkozy, Tony Parker, Tom Brady, Patrick Dempsey, Victoria Azarenka, Teddy Riner and DJ Snake. Lacking a big passionate fanbase, the club began offering cheaper season tickets to young supporters in 1976. These fans were placed in the Kop K, located in the K section of the Borelli stand at the Parc des Princes. Following an increase in ticket prices, Kop K supporters moved to the Boulogne stand in 1978, and the Kop of Boulogne (KoB) was born. There, the club's first Italian-style ultra group, Boulogne Boys, was founded in 1985. Other KoB groups, however, took British hooligans as dubious role models and violence rapidly escalated. PSG supporters' groups have been linked to football hooliganism ever since. PSG owners Canal+ responded in 1991 by encouraging and financing non-violent fans of the KoB stand to take place in the Auteuil stand at the other end of the Parc des Princes. The Virage Auteuil was born, alongside Supras Auteuil, its most notorious ultras. At first the measure worked but, slowly, a violent rivalry arose between the two stands. Things came to a head in 2010 before a match against Olympique de Marseille in Paris. Boulogne fan Yann Lorence was killed following a fight between groups from both stands outside the Parc des Princes, forcing PSG president Robin Leproux to take action. The club exiled the supporters' groups from the Parc des Princes and banned them from all PSG matches in what was known as Plan Leproux. It made PSG pay the price in terms of atmosphere, with one of Europe's most feared venues now subdued. For their part, former Virage Auteuil supporters formed the Collectif Ultras Paris (CUP) in February 2016, with the aim of reclaiming their place at the stadium. In October 2016, after a six-year absence, the club agreed to their return. Grouped in the Auteuil end of the stadium, the CUP currently is the only ultra association officially recognized by PSG. The ultra movement has also started to come back to life in the Boulogne stand. New groups Block Parisii, Paname Rebirth and Résistance Parisienne are trying to convince the club of relaunching the Kop of Boulogne. Rivalries Paris Saint-Germain shares an intense rivalry with Olympique de Marseille; matches between the two teams are referred to as Le Classique. Equivalent to Spain's El Clásico, the fixture is the biggest rivalry in France and one of the greatest in the world. The level of animosity is such that it extends outside of the pitch. Both sets of fans have been clashing against each other almost since the very first encounters between the two sides. The duo are the two most successful clubs in French football history and the only two French teams to have won major European trophies. Moreover, PSG and OM were the dominant forces in the land prior to the emergence of Olympique Lyonnais in the 2000s. They are also the two most popular clubs in France and the two most followed French teams outside the country, ahead of Lyon. Both clubs are at or near the top of the attendance lists every season as well. In their early meetings during the 1970s there was little indication the two would become deadly adversaries. The newly formed Parisians were trying to assemble a competitive team, while the Olympians were Ligue 1 contenders. It all changed in 1986, when PSG won its first championship and OM were bought by Bernard Tapie. By the end of the decade, PSG were fighting for the 1988–89 title against Tapie's star-studded Marseille, and sparks flew for the first time. The accusations made by PSG president Francis Borelli against Tapie and OM for fixing matches during that season were a big contributor to their growing antagonism. The 1990s were the real starting point of the rivalry, though. French TV channel Canal+ bought PSG in 1991 with the aim of breaking Marseille's hegemony, but agreed with Tapie to fuel the animosity between them as a way to spice up the league. Now with similar financial power, PSG and OM established themselves as top contenders in the title race. Both sides were less successful in the late 1990s and throughout the 2000s, but the rivalry remained just as fierce. However, since the 2010s, the matchup has been completely dominated by PSG. The investment of their mega-rich Qatar owners has created a wide gap between them and Marseille. Ownership and finances During its first three years of existence, Paris Saint-Germain was fan-owned and had 20,000 socios. The club was run by board members Guy Crescent, Pierre-Étienne Guyot and Henri Patrelle. A group of wealthy French businessmen, led by Daniel Hechter and Francis Borelli, would then buy the club in 1973. PSG changed hands in 1991, when Canal+ took over, and then again in 2006 with the arrival of Colony Capital. Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, the Emir of Qatar, has been PSG's owner since 2011 through state-run shareholding organization Qatar Sports Investments (QSI). A subsidiary of Qatar's sovereign wealth fund Qatar Investment Authority (QIA), QSI became the club's majority shareholders in June 2011 and sole shareholders in March 2012. This means PSG are a state-owned club, the only of its kind, and thus one of the richest teams in the world. QSI chairman Nasser Al-Khelaifi has been PSG president since the takeover. Al Thani, however, has the final word on every major decision of the club. He is both the chairman of the QIA and the founder of QSI. Upon its arrival, QSI pledged to form a team capable of winning the UEFA Champions League and making the club France's biggest name. PSG have spent over €1.3bn on player transfers since the summer of 2011. These massive expenditures have translated in PSG's domination of French football but have not yet brought home the coveted Champions League trophy as well as causing problems with UEFA's Financial Fair Play regulations. As of the 2019–20 season, PSG have the seventh-highest revenue in the footballing world with an annual turnover of €541m according to Deloitte, and are the world's ninth most valuable football club, worth $2.5bn according to Forbes magazine. PSG's strong financial position has been sustained by the club's Qatari owners; the team's on-pitch success; high-profile signings like Zlatan Ibrahimović, David Beckham, Neymar, Kylian Mbappé and Lionel Messi; and lucrative sponsorship deals with the Qatar Tourism Authority, Nike, Accor and Air Jordan. Throughout their history, though, PSG have rarely been profitable. Prior to the Qatar buyout, the club's cumulative losses amounted to €300m. Honours As of the end of the 2020–21 Ligue 1 season. Paris Saint-Germain holds many records, most notably being the most successful French club in history in terms of official titles won, with 45. Domestically, PSG have clinched nine Ligue 1 championships, a record fourteen Coupe de France, a record nine Coupe de la Ligue, a record ten Trophée des Champions and one Ligue 2 title. In international club football, they have claimed one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and one UEFA Intertoto Cup. Additionally, PSG have won 24 unofficial titles. Their victory in the 1995–96 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup makes PSG the sole French side to have won this trophy as well as one of only two French clubs to have won a major European competition and the youngest European team to do so. The Parisians are also the club with the most consecutive seasons in the top-flight (47 seasons in Ligue 1 since 1974–75). Furthermore, PSG are the only side to have won the Coupe de France without conceding a single goal (1992–93 and 2016–17), five Coupe de la Ligue in a row (2014–2018), four back-to-back Coupe de France (2015–2018), and eight consecutive Trophée des Champions (2013–2020). PSG have won all four national titles in a single season on four occasions. This feat is known as the domestic quadruple. The Red and Blues have completed the domestic double, the league and league cup double, the domestic cup double and the domestic treble several times as well. Therefore, PSG are the club with the most domestic doubles and league and league cup doubles, and the only team to have won the domestic cup double, the domestic treble and the domestic quadruple. Domestic Ligue 1 Winners (9): 1985–86, 1993–94, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20 Runners-up (9): 1988–89, 1992–93, 1995–96, 1996–97, 1999–2000, 2003–04, 2011–12, 2016–17, 2020–21 Ligue 2 Winners (1): 1970–71 Coupe de France Winners (14; record): 1981–82, 1982–83, 1992–93, 1994–95, 1997–98, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2009–10, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20, 2020–21 Runners-up (5): 1984–85, 2002–03, 2007–08, 2010–11, 2018–19 Coupe de la Ligue Winners (9; record): 1994–95, 1997–98, 2007–08, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20 Runners-up (1): 1999–2000 Trophée des Champions Winners (10; record): 1995, 1998, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 Runners-up (4): 2004, 2006, 2010, 2021 European UEFA Champions League Runners-up (1): 2019–20 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Winners (1): 1995–96 Runners-up (1): 1996–97 UEFA Intertoto Cup Winners (1): 2001 UEFA Super Cup Runners-up (1): 1996 Doubles and trebles Domestic double (L1 and CdF) Winners (4; record): 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 League and League Cup double (L1 and CdL) Winners (5; record): 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Domestic Cup double (CdF and CdL) Winners (7; record): 1994–95, 1997–98, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2019–20 Domestic treble (L1, CdF and CdL) Winners (4; record): 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Domestic quadruple (L1, CdF, CdL and TdC) Winners (4; record): 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2019–20 Players As of 26 January 2022. First-team squad Out on loan Other players under contract Staff and management As of 12 July 2021. Corporate hierarchy Technical staff Performance staff Medical staff References External links Paris Saint-Germain - Ligue 1 Paris Saint-Germain - UEFA.com Football clubs in Paris Association football clubs established in 1970 G-14 clubs 16th arrondissement of Paris Ligue 1 clubs 1970 establishments in France P Unrelegated association football clubs

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cream-colored%20courser

Cream-colored courser

The cream-colored courser (Cursorius cursor) is a wader in the pratincole and courser family, Glareolidae. Both parts of the scientific name derive from Latin cursor, "runner", from currere, "to run" which describes their usual habit as they hunt their insect prey on the ground in dry open semi-desert regions of Western Asia and northern Africa. Range These coursers are found in Canary Islands, Cape Verde, North Africa and Southwest Asia. Their two eggs are laid in a ground scrape. The breeding season extends from February to September, but they may breed also in autumn and winter when local conditions (especially rainfall) are favourable. They are partially migratory, with northern and northwestern birds wintering in India, Arabia and across the southern edge of the Sahara. Some birds also breed in the southern desert regions in northwestern India and Pakistan. They are rare north of the breeding range, but this species has occurred as far away as Finland, Ireland and Great Britain. Description These birds have long legs and long wings. They have slightly downcurved bills. The body plumage is sandy in colour, fading to whitish on the lower belly. The upperwing primary feathers and the underwings are black. The crown and nape are grey, and there is a black eyestripe and white supercilium. In flight, this species resembles a pratincole with its relaxed wingbeats, pointed wings and dark underwings. Subspecies There are three subspecies of the cream-colored courser: C. c. cursor, (Latham, 1787): Canary Islands, North Africa Arabian Peninsula to Iraq C. c. bogolubovi, (Zarudny, 1885): southeast Turkey to Iran, Afghanistan, South Pakistan to northwest India C. c. exsul, (Hartert, 1920): Cape Verde Islands Taxonomic note Hayman's Shorebirds treats the east African form littoralis as a race of the Somali courser rather than of cream-colored. Some authorities in turn consider the Somali, Burchell's and cream-colored coursers to be conspecific. References External links Cream-coloured courser photos at Oiseaux.net cream-colored courser Birds of Cape Verde Birds of the Middle East Birds of North Africa Birds of Pakistan cream-colored courser cream-colored courser

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preserved%20counties%20of%20Wales

Preserved counties of Wales

The preserved counties of Wales are the current areas used in Wales for the ceremonial purposes of lieutenancy and shrievalty. They are based on the counties created by the Local Government Act 1972 and used for local government and other purposes between 1974 and 1996. Usage The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the eight ceremonial counties created by the Local Government Act 1972. However, it created the concept of preserved counties based on their areas, to be used for purposes such as Lieutenancy. This usage was consolidated by the Lieutenancies Act 1997. Certain statutes already in force were amended to include reference to them — as of 16 February 2011, the only remaining provisions still extant are: Sheriffs Act 1887 (c. 55) – the counties that High Sheriffs are appointed to are the preserved counties. Defence Act 1842 (c. 94) – Lieutenants are those appointed to preserved counties. Sea Fisheries (Shellfish) Act 1967 (c. 83) – relevant portions of the sea shore shall be deemed to be within preserved counties. Boundary changes The preserved counties were originally almost identical to the 1974–96 counties, but with a few minor changes in line with local government boundary changes: Llanrhaeadr-ym-Mochnant, Llansilin and Llangedwyn were transferred from Clwyd to Powys, and Wick, St Brides Major, Ewenny and Pentyrch were transferred from Mid Glamorgan to South Glamorgan. There were however two local government areas, Caerphilly and Conwy, split between preserved counties. The Local Government Boundary Commission for Wales were instructed by the National Assembly for Wales on 11 March 2002 to undertake a review of preserved county boundaries. In their final proposals the part of the local government area of Caerphilly which had been in Mid Glamorgan was to be part of Gwent and the part of the local government area of Conwy which had been in Gwynedd was to be part of Clwyd. The boundary between Mid Glamorgan and South Glamorgan was also to be re-aligned to reflect small changes in local government boundaries. The Assembly accepted these proposals such that from 2 April 2003 each preserved county encompassed between one and five whole local government areas. The boundary between West Glamorgan and Powys was further modified on 1 April 2005 as a result of boundary changes between Ystalyfera and Ystradgynlais. The boundary between Mid Glamorgan and Powys was further modified on 1 April 2010 to reflect the 2009 local government boundary changes in the area around Vaynor, Merthyr Tydfil. List The population figures are mid-year estimates for 2007 from the Office for National Statistics, grouping component unitary authority area figures into their respective preserved counties. See also Historic counties of Wales Local government in Wales Ceremonial counties of England Shires of Scotland References Preserved

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Rupert

David Rupert

David Rupert (born July 27, 1951) is an American former FBI/British intelligence agent whose testimony led to the arrest and prosecution of Michael McKevitt, the reputed leader of the Real IRA, for the Omagh Bombing. Background David Rupert was awarded the FBI's Lou Peters Award in 2013. Testimony Rupert's testimony was crucial in McKevitt being convicted of directing terrorism. In 2006, McKevitt's legal team appealed the conviction based on the defense team not having access to information concerning the tax affairs of Rupert during the original trial. All appeals were denied. References 1951 births Living people People from St. Lawrence County, New York Double agents

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie%20%28musical%29

Annie (musical)

Annie is a Broadway musical based upon the popular Harold Gray comic strip Little Orphan Annie and loosely based on the 1885 poem "Little Orphant Annie" written by James Whitcomb Riley. The musical includes music by Charles Strouse, lyrics by Martin Charnin, and a book by Thomas Meehan. The original Broadway production opened in 1977 and ran for nearly six years, setting a record for the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre). It spawned numerous productions in many countries, as well as national tours, and won seven Tony Awards, including the Tony Award for Best Musical. The musical's songs "Tomorrow" and "It's the Hard Knock Life" are among its most popular musical numbers. Background Charnin first approached Meehan to write the book of a musical about Little Orphan Annie in 1972. Meehan researched by rereading prints of the comic strip, but was unable to find any satisfactory material for a musical other than the characters of Annie, Oliver Warbucks, and Sandy, so he decided to write his own story. As Meehan, Charnin and Strouse were all from New York, and given what he saw as the downbeat mood of the then-current Nixon era and Vietnam War, Meehan set his story in New York during the similarly downbeat Great Depression. Meehan saw the character of Annie as a 20th-century American female version of the titular orphan characters created by Charles Dickens in works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield, with the mystery of Annie's abandonment and unknown parenthood as consistent with a strand of mysteries in Dickens' tales. Meehan's book was accepted by Charnin and Strouse, but considerable material had to be trimmed out – material which Meehan would later restore for his novelization. Plot Act 1 In 1933 in New York City, eleven-year-old Annie sleeps in an orphanage with several other girls her age. When six-year-old Molly wakes up from a bad dream, Annie comforts her by singing about her own parents; even though they abandoned her at the orphanage as a baby, she holds on to the hope that they will come back for her ("Maybe"). Annie decides to escape to find her parents, but is caught by Miss Hannigan, the cruel keeper of the orphanage. To punish Annie's behavior, she forces all the girls to clean, and they lament the terrible conditions of the orphanage ("It's the Hard Knock Life"). Later on, Bundles the laundry man comes in to pick up the blankets, allowing Annie to escape in his truck. Miss Hannigan realizes she's gone and chases after the truck. The other orphans cheer her on, but await punishment when Hannigan returns ("Hard Knock Life (Reprise)"). Annie escapes, running into a friendly stray dog. She tells him of better days to come ("Tomorrow"). She fools a police officer into believing he is her dog, named Sandy. Later, Annie and Sandy stumble upon a Hooverville, a shanty town full of formerly well-off people suddenly rendered homeless by the Great Depression. They sarcastically toast the former president ("We'd Like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover"). The shanty town is broken up by the cops, who take Annie back to the orphanage. At the orphanage, Miss Hannigan vents her frustration at being surrounded by children ("Little Girls"). Grace Farrell, the assistant to the billionaire Oliver Warbucks, comes to the orphanage, asking for an orphan to spend Christmas at his mansion. Seeing how poorly Miss Hannigan treats Annie, Grace insists on taking her. At Warbucks's mansion, Grace introduces Annie to the staff and explains that she will have every luxury available ("I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here"). Oliver Warbucks returns, and isn't happy to have Annie in his mansion, having assumed all orphans were boys. Warbucks instructs Grace to take her to a movie while he works, but when he realizes that Annie has never seen New York, he decides to take her there himself, walking the 45 blocks to the Roxy and seeing New York City in all of its glory ("N.Y.C."). Grace pays Miss Hannigan a visit to tell her that Warbucks wants to officially adopt Annie. Hannigan becomes furiously envious that the orphan she hated so much will suddenly have everything. Her ne'er-do-well brother Rooster and his girlfriend Lily drop by in hopes of a handout. When Miss Hannigan mentions that Annie is going to be adopted by Warbucks, Rooster realizes they can use this situation to their advantage ("Easy Street"). Having noticed a broken locket around Annie's neck, Warbucks buys her a new, more expensive one from Tiffany's. He wonders whether he is ready for such a big change in his life ("Why Should I Change A Thing?"). When he offers Annie the locket and attempts to take off the old one, Annie bursts into tears, as the locket was the only thing left to her by her parents, and she still holds out hope that they will return for her. Warbucks pledges to find her parents no matter what it takes, calling J. Edgar Hoover to get the Federal Bureau of Investigation on the job ("You Won't Be An Orphan For Long"). Act 2 Annie appears on Bert Healy's radio show ("Maybe (Reprise)"), where Warbucks announces that he is offering $50,000 to the couple who can prove they are her parents. Healy then sings a song with the Boylan Sisters ("You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile"). At the orphanage, the girls are listening to the show. They joyously sing along ("You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile (Reprise)"). A couple claiming to be Annie's parents, Ralph and Shirley Mudge, arrive at the orphanage. In fact, they are Rooster and Lily in disguise. They believe they can pass themselves off as Annie's parents with Hannigan's help, for which she demands half of the money ("Easy Street (Reprise)"). Warbucks brings Annie to Washington, D.C., where she meets President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt and his cabinet are inspired by her optimism and decide to make it a cornerstone of their administration ("Tomorrow (Cabinet Reprise)"). Once back home, Warbucks tells Annie how much he loves her ("Something Was Missing"). Because all the people claiming to be her parents were frauds, he offers once again to adopt her, and Annie gleefully accepts. The delighted staff get Annie dressed for the formal adoption proceedings, and tell of how her arrival has changed their lives ("Annie"). As Judge Louis Brandeis shows up to begin the adoption proceedings, Warbucks and Annie dance together ("I Don't Need Anything But You"). They are interrupted by Rooster and Lily in disguise. The two present faked documents, as well as the other half of Annie's locket, seemingly confirming their story. Warbucks requests that she be allowed to stay one more night, and they can take her away on Christmas morning. The next morning, Annie wonders if her life with her parents will really be as good as her life with Warbucks could have been ("Maybe (Second Reprise)"). Warbucks receives a surprise visit from Roosevelt and his Secret Service. The FBI has learned that Annie's parents are actually David and Margaret Bennett, who died some time ago; Annie truly is an orphan. Mr. and Mrs. "Mudge" show up to take Annie and the money, but are quickly exposed. They are arrested by the Secret Service, along with Miss Hannigan. Annie is adopted by Warbucks, who notes that this Christmas is the beginning of a new life for them, for the orphans (all of whom are adopted by wealthy friends of Warbucks), and for the rest of the country, thanks to Roosevelt's New Deal ("A New Deal for Christmas"/"Tomorrow (Second Reprise)"). Characters Source: MTI Shows Notable casts Notable Broadway replacements Original Broadway Annie: Sarah Jessica Parker, Allison Smith Warbucks: Keene Curtis, Harve Presnell, Rhodes Reason Miss Hannigan: Alice Ghostley, Betty Hutton, Ruth Kobart, Marcia Lewis, Dolores Wilson Grace: Anne Kerry Rooster: Gary Beach Lily: Rita Rudner Second Broadway Revival Annie: Sadie Sink Warbucks: Ron Raines Miss Hannigan: Jane Lynch, Faith Prince Grace: Jenni Barber Lily: Kirsten Wyatt Production history The New York Times estimates that Annie is performed 700 to 900 times each year in the United States. Pre-Broadway tryout Annie had its world premiere on August 10, 1976, at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam, Connecticut, under the direction of Michael P. Price. Kristen Vigard was the first actress to play the title role. However, the producers soon decided that Vigard's genuinely sweet interpretation was not tough enough for the street-smart orphan. After a week of performances, Vigard was replaced by Andrea McArdle, who had been playing one of the other orphans, Pepper. Vigard went on to become McArdle's Broadway alternate. Broadway original The original Broadway production opened at the Alvin Theatre on April 21, 1977, and starred Andrea McArdle as Annie, Reid Shelton as Warbucks, Dorothy Loudon as Miss Hannigan, and Sandy Faison as Grace Farrell. Danielle Brisebois was one of the orphans. It was nominated for eleven Tony Awards and won seven, including the Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Book. Replacements in the title role on Broadway included then-child actors Shelley Bruce, Sarah Jessica Parker, Allison Smith and Alyson Kirk. Replacements in the role of Miss Hannigan included Alice Ghostley, Dolores Wilson, Betty Hutton, Marcia Lewis, and June Havoc. Ann Ungar understudied and played for Dorothy Loudon in the role of Miss Hannigan. She also understudied Alice Ghostley and Dolores Wilson. The show closed on January 2, 1983, after a total of 2,377 performances, setting a record for the longest running show at the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre), until it was surpassed by Hairspray in 2009. United States national touring companies During the Broadway run of Annie, there were four touring companies that were launched from the original production to tour to major North American cities: The 1st National Touring Company opened in Toronto in March 1978 with Kathy Jo Kelly as Annie, Norwood Smith as Daddy Warbucks, Jane Connell, Ruth Kobart as Miss Hannigan, and Gary Beach as Rooster. It played in Miami from April 12 to May 13, 1978, then continued for a few more cities until it landed in Chicago where it played for 32 weeks. In April 1979, it continued on the road in with Mary K. Lombardi now in the lead as Annie. In the fall of 1980, Theda Stemler took over the part and was replaced in Boston when she grew too old. On May 15, 1981, Louanne Sirota, who had played Annie in the long-running Los Angeles production, took over the role for four months. In August 1981, Becky Snyder became the company's last Annie, closing the tour on September 6, 1981. The 2nd National Touring Company (sometimes referred to as the West Coast or Los Angeles production) opened in San Francisco on June 22, 1978, with Patricia Ann Patts starring as Annie, Jennifer Cihi as Pepper and the then-unknown Molly Ringwald as one of the orphans. The show landed in Los Angeles on October 15, 1978, for an open-ended run at the Shubert Theatre. On June 12, 1979, Sirota, just 9 years old (up until that time, all Annies had been 11 or older), took over the role from Patts. Marisa Morell took the role in December 1979, closing the Los Angeles run and continuing on tour with the show through December 1980. Kristi Coombs then played Annie until this touring company closed in Hawaii on August 22, 1982. Alyssa Milano played one of the orphans in 1981. The 3rd National Touring Company opened in Dallas on October 3, 1979, with Rosanne Sorrentino (who would later go on to portray Pepper in the 1982 film version) in the title role. This company toured to 23 cities playing mostly shorter runs of a month or less. On March 27, 1981, Bridget Walsh took over as Annie. Becky Snyder (who had closed the 1st National Tour) joined this company in the summer of 1982 and stayed with it until it closed in September of that year. The 4th National Touring Company opened on September 11, 1981, with Mollie Hall playing Annie. This production was a "bus and truck" tour, with a slightly reduced cast, that traveled the country and often played in two cities a week. This company was still touring when the original Broadway production closed in January 1983, making Kathleen Sisk the final performer to play Annie from the original production team. This tour closed in September 1983. West End original The musical premiered in the West End at the Victoria Palace Theatre on May 3, 1978. Andrea McArdle, the original Broadway Annie, played the title role for 40 performances. British 12-year-old Ann Marie Gwatkin was also cast in the title role and appeared on the Original London cast recording. The Opening night cast and the original cast album recording of children were Claire Hood, Jane Collins, Dawn Napier, Annette Mason, Helen Stephenson, Jackie Ekers and Linda Brewis. Ann Marie Gwatkin alternated with Christine Hyland, and four other Annies were cast at this point: Anne O'Rourke, Jacinta Whyte, Helen Thorne, Tracy Taylor, who were to play the role over the next year. Suzie Kemeys from South Wales also performed two shows in 1980/81. The first was as July and the second was Annie. ITV Wales commissioned two documentaries about this young Welsh girl and her rise from obscurity to a West End leading lady. Following this, Ann Marie Gwatkin and Jackie Ekers shared the title role, followed by many other casts of Annie. Miss Hannigan was originally played by Sheila Hancock, and later by Maria Charles and Stella Moray; Warbucks was played by Stratford Johns and later by Charles West, with Deborah Clarke playing Pepper in the first year and Melanie Grant playing Molly. Annie closed on November 28, 1981, after 1,485 performances. UK tour The musical transferred to the Bristol Hippodrome for a special Christmas season before touring Britain. Because of strict British employment laws for juvenile actors, a succession of actresses took on the lead role every four months. One of the last girls to perform the role at the Victoria Palace before the show went on tour was 10-year-old Claudia Bradley from Leeds who was featured on a 1981 BBC program called Fame. Broadway revival (1997) A 20th anniversary Broadway revival, which played at the Martin Beck Theatre (now called the Al Hirschfeld Theatre) in 1997, entitled Annie, the 20th Anniversary, starred Nell Carter as Miss Hannigan, but controversy surrounded the casting of the titular character. The original actress cast in the role, Joanna Pacitti, was fired and replaced by her fellow orphan, Brittny Kissinger (who usually played orphan July) just two weeks before her Broadway debut, while battling bronchitis in Boston. The Pre-Broadway Tour was playing the Colonial Theatre. 'Annie' Understudy and Swing Orphan Alexandra Keisman performed the role the first night Pacitti was absent. The producers then gave Kissinger the next performance. The show then moved on to the Oakdale in Connecticut where an insert was placed in the Playbill claiming "The role of Annie is now being played by Brittny Kissinger". Public sentiment seemed to side with Pacitti as she was the winner of a highly publicized contest to find a new Annie, sponsored by the department store Macy's. This incident, coupled with the mixed reviews the new staging garnered, doomed it to a short run, although it was followed by a successful national tour. Kissinger, then 8, became the youngest actress to ever play Annie on Broadway. More controversy surrounding the show involved Nell Carter. Carter reportedly was very upset when commercials promoting the show used a different actress, Marcia Lewis, a white actress, as Miss Hannigan. The producers claimed that the commercials, which were made during an earlier production, were too costly to reshoot. Carter felt that racism played a part in the decision. "Maybe they do not want audiences to know Nell Carter is black", she told the New York Post. However, the ads did mention that Carter was in the show. "It hurts a lot", Carter told the Post, "I've asked them nicely to stop it — it's insulting to me as a black woman." Later reports stated that "Nell Carter of Broadway's 'Annie' denied Thursday that she called her show's producers racist because they chose to air commercials featuring a previous Miss Hannigan—who is white—instead of her." Her statement, released by the Associated Press, read: "'Yes, it is true that I and my representatives have gone to management on more than one occasion about the commercial and were told that there was nothing they could do about it,' Carter said in a statement Thursday. 'Therefore, I have resigned myself to the fact that this is the way it is.' The statement also addressed the alleged charges of racism, first published in Thursday's New York Post. Carter is black. 'I, Nell Carter, never, ever, ever accused my producers or anyone in the show of racism,' she said. Producers have said it is too expensive to film a new commercial." Carter was later replaced by another white actress, Sally Struthers. The revival closed on October 19, 1997, after 14 previews and 239 performances. West End revival (1998) The show was revived at the Victoria Palace, running from September 30, 1998, to February 28, 1999. It starred Lesley Joseph and then Lily Savage (the female alter ego of comedian Paul O'Grady) as Miss Hannigan and Kevin Colson as Warbucks. The young girls who played Annie were Charlene Barton, Tasha Gold, Libby Gore and Sophie McShera. Orphans included Dominique Moore as documented on Paddington Green. 1999–2000 United States tour Starting in August 1999, the post Broadway National Tour continued with Meredith Anne Bull as Annie. In the spring of 2000, Ashley Wieronski, who had been playing Duffy, moved up to play Annie. In July 2000, Dana Benedict took over as Annie. 2000–2001 Australian tour In 2000/2001, a tour was staged in Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane. Anthony Warlow starred as Warbucks with Amanda Muggleton as Miss Hannigan. A new song, "Why Should I Change a Thing", was written for Warlow. Appearing as Annie in the Sydney production were Rachel Marley and Jodie McGaw. A publicist noted that "each time the show moves to a new city, two casts of seven orphans plus two Annies have to be found to join the adult cast." 2001–2010 UK tours Further UK tours of the show were also staged, including a one-month run at The Theatre Royal in Lincoln in 2001. Members of the original cast included Kate Winney and Jemma Carlisle as Annie, Louise English (Grace), Vicki Michelle (Miss Hannigan) and Simon Masterton-Smith (Warbucks). The show proved to be a success, and so for the first two tours and the Malaysian Genting Highlands Production, the role of Annie was then shared by Faye Spittlehouse and a young Lucy May Barker. Miss Hannigan was late performed by Su Pollard and Ruth Madoc and Daddy Warbucks by Mark Wynter. This particular production toured from 2001 to 2007 and resumed in September 2008. The last tour of this production ended in 2011 with the role of Miss Hannigan still being played by Pollard, David McAlister as Warbucks, Victoria Sian Lewis as Annie, and Simone Craddock as Grace Farrell. 2005–10 US national tours Opening in August 2005, a 30th anniversary traveling production of Annie by NETworks Tours embarked on a multi-city tour. This production was directed by Martin Charnin and choreographed by Liza Gennaro (daughter of the show's original choreographer, Peter Gennaro). This all-new production with new set designs by Ming Cho Lee, also featured the brand-new song "Why Should I Change A Thing?" (sung by Warbucks). For the first two years of the tour, Conrad John Schuck played Warbucks, reprising the role he played in the original run of Annie on Broadway, as well as the 15th Anniversary National Tour and 1997 Broadway revival. Chicago actress, Alene Robertson, was Miss Hannigan, Annie was played by Marissa O'Donnell, Scott Willis played Rooster Hannigan, Elizabeth Broadhurst was Grace Farrell and McKenzie Phillips performed the role of Lily St. Regis. In December 2006, the tour briefly returned to New York City to play the Theater at Madison Square Garden for Christmas where it broke box office records during the five week stay. Kathie Lee Gifford played Miss Hannigan. This original Equity Tour closed on March 25, 2007, at the Hippodrome Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland. The tour continued non-union for several more years and throughout the run of the show, there were replacements. The 2007-08 tour starred Amanda Balon as Annie, who took over as Molly during the second year. The 2008-09 cast for the tour featured Tianna Stevens as Annie. Early in 2009, Amanda Balon returned temporarily to play the role of Annie until Madison Kerth was rehearsed to play the title role. Also returning were Barton, Andrews and Meisner. Other cast members included Mackenzie Aladjem (Molly). In the 2009-10 tour, Kerth returned as Annie along with most of the previous year's cast, adding Jordan Boezem (from Spotlight Kids in Sarasota, Florida) in the role of July. Broadway revival (2012) A 35th Anniversary production opened on Broadway in 2012. Thomas Meehan revised the musical, with James Lapine directing. Lilla Crawford starred as Annie with Katie Finneran as Miss Hannigan, and Anthony Warlow playing Warbucks. Featured cast included Brynn O'Malley, Clarke Thorell and J. Elaine Marcos as Grace Farrell, Rooster and Lily St. Regis, respectively. The revival started previews at the Palace Theatre on October 3, 2012, and officially opened on November 8, 2012, receiving mixed reviews. Notable replacements include Jane Lynch and Faith Prince as Miss Hannigan. On July 30, Taylor Richardson and Sadie Sink both began alternating the role of Annie, replacing Crawford. This production closed on January 5, 2014, after 38 previews and 487 regular performances. 2014–17 United States tours Starting in September 2014, a 40th anniversary traveling production of Annie was launched by TROIKA Entertainment. Directed by Martin Charnin, the tour kicked off in Detroit, Michigan. For the first year of the tour, Issie Swickle played the title character Annie with Faith Perez as her alternate, alongside Gilgamesh Tagget and Lynn Andrews as Warbucks and Miss Hannigan, respectively. There were many replacements throughout the tour, and by the end of it, Gilgamesh Tagget was the only remaining original member. For most of the second year of the tour, Heidi Gray played Annie. For the third and final year of the tour, Tori Bates played Annie and became the first bi-racial Annie in a professional production. The 40th Anniversary performance was celebrated in Baltimore, Maryland, on April 21, 2017, with Angelina Carballo as Annie. The tour came to a close in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 21, 2017, after 745 performances. West End revival (2017) A West End revival began at the Piccadilly Theatre in London opening on June 5, 2017 (previews beginning on May 23) for a limited run until January 6, 2018. This was Miranda Hart's musical debut as Miss Hannigan (until September 17). The production was directed by Nikolai Foster and produced by Michael Harrison and David Ian, with new orchestrations by George Dyer. The production was identical to the 2015-16 UK and Ireland tour. The three girls who shared the main role were Madeleine Haynes (reprising her the role from the UK tour), Lola Moxom and Ruby Stokes. From September 19, for a limited 10 week run, Craig Revel Horwood returned to the role of Miss Hannigan, reprising his role from the 2015-16 UK and Ireland tour. The production extended its limited run, with Meera Syal as Miss Hannigan from November 27, through to the show's conclusion on February 18, 2018, when it closed to make way for the musical adaptation of Strictly Ballroom. International productions Annie has been produced professionally in Canada (1978), Argentina (1982), Australia (1978, 2000, 2011, 2012), Denmark (1982), Germany (1999), Hungary (1998), Ireland (2003, 2016), Israel (2001, 2010), Italy (1982, 2006), Japan (1979, 1986–present), United Kingdom (1978, 1983, 1998, tours from 2000 to 2010), Mexico (1979, 1991, 2010, 2015), Netherlands (1997-1999, 2005–2007, 2012-2013), Norway (1991, 2004, 2013), Philippines (1978, 1987, 1998, 2016), Portugal (1982, 2010), Spain (1982, 2000, 2010, 2019), Sweden (1979 (Stockholm), 1999 (Stockholm), 2005–2006 (Malmö)), Peru (1986, 1997, 2002), Zimbabwe (2003), Russia (2002-2009), Colombia (2006), South Korea (1984, 1996, 2006–2007, 2010–2011, 2018–2019), Hong Kong (2012), Belgium (1992, 2008–2009, 2012), Poland (1989), United Arab Emirates (2009), Denmark (2011), Puerto Rico (2012), Singapore (2012), Greece (1981-1982, 2005–2007, 2013–2015, 2018–2019) and Brazil (2018-2019). Stage sequels The first attempt at a sequel, Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge, opened at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C., in December 1989 to universally disastrous reviews. Extensive reworking of the script and score proved futile, and the project was abandoned. In 1993, a second attempt, with a different plot and score, titled Annie Warbucks was developed in a workshop at the Goodspeed Opera House (where the original Annie premiered in 1976) under the direction of Michael P. Price. It subsequently opened at the Off Broadway Variety Arts Theatre, where it ran for 200 performances. Musical numbers Act I Overture – Orchestra "Maybe" – Annie and Orphans "It's the Hard Knock Life" – Annie and Orphans "It's the Hard Knock Life" (Reprise) – Orphans "Tomorrow" – Annie "We'd Like to Thank You, Herbert Hoover" – Ensemble "Little Girls" – Miss Hannigan "Little Girls" (Reprise) – Miss Hannigan "I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here" – Grace, Annie, Ensemble "N.Y.C." – Warbucks, Grace, Annie, Star-to-Be, Ensemble "N.Y.C." (Reprise) / "Lullaby" – Warbucks "You Make Me Happy" – Miss Hannigan, Grace † "Easy Street" – Rooster, Miss Hannigan and Lily "You Won't Be an Orphan for Long" – Grace and Warbucks "Why Should I Change a Thing?" – Warbucks ‡ "Maybe" (Reprise) – Annie Act II "Maybe" (Reprise II) – Annie "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" – Bert Healy and the Boylan Sisters "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile" (Children Reprise) – Orphans "Easy Street" (Reprise) – Rooster, Miss Hannigan and Lily "Tomorrow" (Cabinet Reprise) – Annie, Roosevelt, Warbucks and Cabinet "Tomorrow" (Cabinet Reprise II) – Roosevelt and the Cabinet "Something Was Missing" – Warbucks "Annie" – Grace, Drake and Staff "I Don't Need Anything But You" – Warbucks and Annie "Maybe" (Reprise III) – Annie "New Deal for Christmas" – Warbucks, Grace, Annie, Roosevelt, Orphans and staff "Tomorrow" (Reprise) - Company † This number was added as a showcase for Nell Carter in the 1997 Broadway revival. This number hasn't appeared in any subsequent productions. ‡ This number was added as a showcase for Anthony Warlow in a 2000 Australian production, and has since become an optional part of the show, as it notably did not appear in the 2012 Broadway revival. Recordings The Original Broadway Cast recording was made on April 25, 1977, at the 30th Street Studio in New York City and released that year by Columbia Records. A CD containing bonus tracks was released on September 15, 1998, by Sony (ASIN: B00000AG6Z). The 1995 London studio cast recording, featuring the National Symphony Orchestra, stars Sarah French as Annie, Kim Criswell as Miss Hannigan and Ron Raines as Warbucks. A 30th anniversary cast recording was released in 2008 on Time–Life Records. An all-star cast of former Annie cast members includes Carol Burnett, Sally Struthers, Kathie Lee Gifford, Andrea McArdle, John Schuck, Harve Presnell, Gary Beach and Amanda Balon. The rest of the cast is made up of the members of the 30th Anniversary Tour. This recording is a double CD set and includes the entire show as it is performed now on the first disc. The second disc includes songs from the sequel, Annie 2: Miss Hannigan's Revenge, as well as songs that were cut from or added to the original production. There is also a song from the 1977 Annie Christmas special. The booklet is made up of original drawings by Philo Barnhart, who is the creator of Ariel and Ursula in "The Little Mermaid", and is presented in a comic book style. The album was produced by music producer Robert Sher. Novelizations Thomas Meehan In 1980, Macmillan Books published Meehan's novelization of his script for the musical, later reprinted by Puffin Books in 2014. Several of the lyrics from songs from the show were adapted into dialogue and monologue for the novelization. The main lyrics of "Tomorrow" are depicted as being Annie's personal motto. Meehan used the novel to restore material cut from his original storyline and develop the Annie story into his original concept of what he considered to be a 20th-century female American version of Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist. The novel goes into greater depth regarding the backgrounds of many of the characters, and particularly about hardship at the orphanage, at which brutal beatings and emotional abuse from Miss Hannigan are everyday occurrences. Unlike the high camp portrayal of Miss Hannigan in most productions of the musical, the novelization – in the tradition of Dickens' Oliver Twist – emphatically depicts her as a truly sinister and malevolent villainess – "a skinny hatchet faced woman with short jet-black hair (who) reminded the orphans of a particularly unpleasant looking – and all too real – Halloween witch". A greater emphasis is placed on the sheer drudgery and illegality of the orphans' sewing labours in the orphanage basement. However, whereas in the musical the orphans are not enrolled in school until the final scene, in the novelization they attend a public school, PS62, where they suffer from snobbery from teachers and harassment from non-orphan pupils, particularly from a spoiled rich girl named Myrtle Vandenmeer. The legal name of Rooster's girlfriend Lily St. Regis is given in the book as being Muriel Jane Gumper. In the novel, Annie spends several months on the run from the orphanage, initially spending the winter as a resident staff in Bixby's Beanery, a low-grade café run by couple Fred and Gert Bixby, before escaping after she finds Sandy. She then spends several months living in Hooverville with Sophie and the Apple Seller (who is named as G. Randall "Randy" Whitworth Jr, a former stockbroker left destitute by the Depression) who, in the novelization, are adult characters and a couple. It is revealed at the end that Randy, Sophie and all the other Hoovervillites were released from prison and given jobs and homes by Warbucks as gratitude for taking care of Annie. Also reappearing at the end of the book is Sandy, previously written out of the book while fleeing police during the raid on the Hooverville, who it transpires was successfully traced by agents from Pinkerton hired by Warbucks. Leonore Fleischer A second novelization of Annie, by Leonore Fleischer, was published by Random House in 1982. This was a tie-in with the film and was adapted directly from the screenplay. Film and television Columbia Pictures acquired the film rights in 1977 for $9.5 million, the most expensive at the time for a stage musical. The film was released in 1982 directed by John Huston, starring Albert Finney as Warbucks, Carol Burnett as Miss Hannigan, Ann Reinking as Grace Farrell, Tim Curry as Rooster, Bernadette Peters as Lily, and newcomer Aileen Quinn as Annie. A sequel, Annie: A Royal Adventure! was made for television in 1995. It starred Ashley Johnson, Joan Collins, George Hearn, and Ian McDiarmid. Aside from a reprise of "Tomorrow", there are no songs in it. A made-for-TV Wonderful World of Disney movie version, produced by The Walt Disney Company and directed by Rob Marshall, was broadcast in 1999; it starred Victor Garber as Daddy Warbucks, Kathy Bates as Miss Hannigan, Audra McDonald as Grace Farrell, Alan Cumming as Rooster, Kristin Chenoweth as Lily, and newcomer Alicia Morton as Annie. In January 2011, Will Smith announced plans for a remake of Annie set in the present day, produced with his wife Jada Pinkett Smith and rapper Jay-Z for release by Columbia Pictures. This version was to star the Smiths' daughter, Willow, as Annie; but as she had aged out of the part before production began, she was replaced by Quvenzhané Wallis. Directed by Will Gluck and released in 2014, this version of Annie also stars Jamie Foxx as Will Stacks (an update of Warbucks), Rose Byrne as Grace Farrell, and Cameron Diaz as Miss Hannigan. None of these films contain the songs "We'd Like To Thank You, Herbert Hoover", "You Won't Be an Orphan for Long", "Annie", or "A New Deal for Christmas". The 1982 film additionally omits "N.Y.C." and "Something was Missing" while adding four new songs. The 2014 film contains the songs common to both films, remixed to various degrees, while adding three new songs. A documentary film, Life After Tomorrow, was directed and produced by one of the original Broadway and National Tour orphans, Julie Stevens and partner, Gil Cates Jr. It reunites more than 40 women who played orphans in the show and reveals the highs and lows of their experiences as child actresses in a cultural phenomenon. The film premiered on Showtime and was released on DVD in 2008. In May 2021, NBC announced that a live television production of Annie with Robert Greenblatt and Neil Meron as executive producers and will be airing as a "holiday event" in 2021, was aired on December 2. It will be directed by Lear deBessonet, and is scheduled to star Celina Smith as Annie, Taraji P. Henson as Miss Hannigan, Harry Connick Jr. as Oliver Warbucks, Nicole Scherzinger as Grace Farrell, Tituss Burgess as Rooster Hannigan and Megan Hilty as Lily St. Regis. Annie Jr. Annie Jr. is a musical licensed by Music Theatre International's Broadway Junior collection, specially edited to be performed by children in a shortened form. It is performed internationally every year by acting academies, programs, schools, and theatre camps. MTI also licenses another youth version of the show, called Annie KIDS, a 30-minute length version meant for elementary-aged performers. Stage differences (1977 musical) The songs "We'd Like to Thank You Herbert Hoover", "A New Deal for Christmas", "Something Was Missing" and "Tomorrow (Cabinet Reprise)" were cut. There is only one version of "You're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile", which is sung by the orphans. There are only two "Maybe" reprises. The song "You won't Be an Orphan For Long" only features Annie and Daddy Warbucks. The songs "Easy Street", "NYC", and "Little Girls" were also shortened. Many of the songs have been transposed down a few keys to make them easier for amateur child actors to sing. Pop culture references Annie's popularity is reflected in its numerous mentions in popular media. References to the show appear in films such as Austin Powers: Goldmember, where Dr. Evil and Mini-Me perform Jay-Z's version of the song 'Hard Knock Life'; and in the 1994 John Waters dark comedy Serial Mom, where a woman is bludgeoned to death with a leg of mutton by the titular serial killer while watching the 1982 film version and singing along. It is parodied in Reefer Madness, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt shows up as the deus ex machina at the end of the satirical musical to tell the assembled crowd, "A little orphan girl once told me that the sun would come out tomorrow. Her adopted father was a powerful billionaire, so I suppressed the urge to laugh in her face, but now, by gum, I think she may have been on to something!" References in television series include: An episode of SCTV, features a spoof commercial of the "original" cast, now older adults still playing their kid roles, performing the 8,000th performance of Annie. Stephanie Tanner of Full House sings songs from the musical in several episodes. On 30 Rock, Liz Lemon is discovered in her office after-hours listening to music on her headset and singing "Maybe". The stop-motion comedy show Robot Chicken parodied Annie in episodes, including "Maurice Was Caught". In "Makeover", an episode of Glee, Sarah Jessica Parker as Isabelle Wright with Kurt Hummel and Rachel Berry sing "You're Never Fully Dressed Without A Smile". In the Netflix series Haters Back Off, Miranda Sings and her family attempt to mount a backyard production of Annie (with extensive book and score revisions) in the episode "Staring in a Musicall". In the animated show, Hazbin Hotel, the character Alastor references Annie by telling another character “Smile, my dear. You know, you’re never fully dressed without a smile.” Furthermore, “You’re Never Fully Dressed Without A Smile” and the character Bert Healy were the inspirations for Alastor's character and singing voice. The song "Tomorrow" is sung in many media references, including in Roseanne, by Darlene and Becky; by Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry) in Friends, by Reese Witherspoon in Just Like Heaven; by Donkey in the CGI movies Shrek II and Shrek Forever After; and in a commercial for Lowe's Hardware promoting their next-day delivery. The climax of the animated film Igor involved a giant robot portraying Annie. Other prominent media references include the following: Producer The 45 King heavily sampled "It's the Hard-Knock Life" from the original Broadway cast recording on rapper Jay-Z's single "Hard Knock Life (Ghetto Anthem)" (1998). The NFL Network produced two Super Bowl ads in 2004 and 2005 featuring "Tomorrow". A series of football celebrities who were retired or did not make it to that year's Super Bowl would sing the song, ending with the caption "Tomorrow, we're all undefeated again." Comedian Zach Galifianakis lip-synced to a recording of "Tomorrow" during his monologue on the March 12, 2011, episode of Saturday Night Live while dressed as Annie. In The Lego Ninjago Movie, a scene of the character Lloyd returning to his home while reflecting on his life plays "It's the Hard-Knock Life". Awards and nominations Original Broadway production 1997 Broadway revival 1998 London revival 2013 Broadway revival See also References External links Annie album; MasterWorks Broadway Annie MTI Shows Annie Jr. MTI Shows Annie Kids MTI Shows 1977 musicals Broadway musicals Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt Drama Desk Award-winning musicals Musicals based on comic strips West End musicals Plays set in New York City Fiction set in the 1930s Musicals about the Great Depression Musicals by Thomas Meehan (writer) Musicals by Charles Strouse Tony Award for Best Musical Fiction about animal cruelty Works about child labour Tony Award-winning musicals Little Orphan Annie

357506

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichfield%20Gospels

Lichfield Gospels

The Lichfield Gospels (recently more often referred to as the St. Chad Gospels, but also known as the Book of Chad, the Gospels of St. Chad, the St Teilo Gospels, the Llandeilo Gospels, and variations on these) is an 8th-century Insular Gospel Book housed in Lichfield Cathedral. There are 236 surviving pages, eight of which are illuminated. Another four contain framed text. The pages measure 30.8 cm by 23.5 cm. The manuscript is also important because it includes, as marginalia, some of the earliest known examples of written Old Welsh, dating to the early part of the 8th century. Peter Lord dates the book at 730, placing it chronologically before the Book of Kells but after the Lindisfarne Gospels. Marginal entries indicate that the manuscript was in the possession of the church of St Teilo in Wales at some point in the 9th century and eventually came into the possession of Lichfield Cathedral during the 10th century. The manuscript was rebound in 1962 by Roger Powell; it was then discovered that the pages had been trimmed during the rebinding of 1707, and the manuscript had been cut into single leaves in the rebinding of 1862. In 2010, Bill Endres, then at the University of Kentucky, led efforts to digitise the manuscript. In 2014, Endres returned to Lichfield Cathedral and used Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) to capture the drypoint writing in the Lichfield Gospels. One drypoint entry on p. 226 shows the contributions of women during the early medieval period: its listing of three Anglo-Saxon female names suggests that women worked in the scriptorium at Lichfield. Provenance Scholars view four places as possible sites for the making of the Lichfield Gospels: Ireland, Northumbria, Wales, and Lichfield. Paleographic and stylistic similarities link it to Northumbria and Iona: the painting techniques resemble those of the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells. Some scholars view this great gospel book as likely written in Wales due to the Welsh marginalia, perhaps at Llandeilo Fawr or other site in South Wales. However, in 1980, Wendy Stein made an extensive argument for Lichfield, viewing Wales as unlikely but Ireland and Northumbria as still possible. In 1996, by studying the type of paper, pigmentation, and style of text, researcher Pamela James concluded that the most likely place of origin for the manuscript was Lichfield itself. In 2003, the discovery of the Lichfield Angel, an Anglo-Saxon stone carving of an angel that had been buried in Lichfield Cathedral, provided further evidence for that conclusion. Sharp (2016) has drawn similarities to motifs in the Gospels with goldwork in the Staffordshire Hoard. But without definitive evidence, this debate is likely to continue. Based upon style, the actual making of the book may be placed between 698 and 800. Patterns of interlaced birds on the cross-carpet page (p. 216) strikingly resemble the ornament on a cross shaft from Aberlady, Lothian, a Northumbrian site of the mid 8th century: the author/artist of the book and the sculptor of the cross-shaft ornament may have had a similar source for their designs. Although it is unknown how the book came to be in Lichfield, it was certainly there by the end of the 10th century. The opening folio contains a faded signature reading Wynsige presul, which probably refers to the Wynsige who was Bishop of Lichfield from about 963 to 972–5. Folio 4 contains a reference to Leofric, who was bishop from 1020 to 1026. Wherever the book originated and however it came to Lichfield, it has been there since the 10th century. In 1646, during the English Civil War, Lichfield Cathedral was sacked and its library looted. The books and manuscripts were given to Frances, Duchess of Somerset, who returned them in 1672 or 1673. This is probably when the second volume of the Gospels was lost. Precentor William Higgins is credited with saving the remaining volume. The book was put on public display in 1982. The bishops of Lichfield still swear allegiance to the Crown on the Lichfield Gospels. Other Insular illuminated manuscripts of possible Welsh origin include the Ricemarch Psalter and the Hereford Gospels. Text and Script The extant manuscript contains the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and the early part of the Gospel of Luke. A second volume disappeared about the time of the English Civil War. The Latin text is written in a single column and is based on the Vulgate. The manuscript has almost 2000 variances from the Vulgate, almost a third of which it shares with the Hereford Gospels. There are fewer variations in the text which agree with the MacRegol Gospels and the Book of Armagh; 370 agree with the Book of Kells and 62 with the Lindisfarne Gospels. The script is predominantly Insular majuscule but has some uncial characteristics and is thus called semi-uncial. The regularity of script suggests a single scribe; however, some evidence suggests that possibly four scribes copied the manuscript. The script forms strong links between the Lichfield manuscript and Northumbrian, Iona, and Irish manuscripts. Decoration The manuscript has two evangelist portraits (St Mark and St Luke); a carpet page, which so closely resembles the working technique of Eadfrith that it should be attributed to him; incipit pages for Matthew (Lib of Liber), Mark (Ini of Initium), and Luke (Q of Quoniam); a Chi Rho monogram page, and a page with the four symbols of the evangelists. Unfortunately, Matthew's incipit page is severely worn, appearing to have functioned as the manuscript's front cover for a number of years. Matthew's gospel includes four framed pages: the Genealogy of Christ (3 pages) and Matthew's last page. Marginalia There are eight marginal inscriptions written in Latin and Old Welsh, which are some of the earliest extant written Welsh. The first records in Latin the gift of the manuscript "to God on the altar of St Teilo" by a man named Gelhi, who had bought the manuscript for the price of his best horse from Cingal. In her treatment of the Book of Kells, Françoise Henry reported Lichfield's provenance in similar terms: "The Book of Lichfield was exchanged for a horse in the late eighth century and given to the sanctuary of S. Tellio at Llandaff where it remained until the tenth century, when it was transferred to the Cathedral of Lichfield." The "altar of St. Teilo" has in the past been associated with the monastery at Llandaff but, as it has been determined that the third, fourth and sixth marginal inscriptions refer to lands within fifteen miles of Llandeilo Fawr, it is now thought that the book spent time there. The second such inscription contains a unique example of early Welsh prose recording the details of the resolution of a land dispute. These two inscriptions have been dated to the mid 9th century. The marginalia were edited by John Gwenogvryn Evans with John Rhys in their 1893 edition of the Book of Llandaff. Gifford Thomas-Edwards and Helen McKee have also identified nine dry-point glosses – glosses that are scratched into parchment without ink and so are only visible from an angle and hard to decipher. The first and final groups of three are decipherable as Anglo-Saxon personal names and it is likely that the others are as well. In order, they appear in the glosses as follows: It is possible that there are other glosses on this text, and on other Insular gospel books, that are yet to be identified. The names themselves might be significant if they can be dated, as the provenance of the manuscript is uncertain. An 8th-century date would show that the gospel book was in Anglo-Saxon territory before arriving in Wales, whereas a date after the end of the 10th century (at Lichfield) would add little to what is already known—although a dating either way does little to rule out its having been produced in Ireland or Northumbria for a Welsh or Mercian ecclesiastic center. Furthermore, it is very difficult to discern whether the same hand wrote the text, the gospels and dry-point glosses unless the letters show signs of a later development in style. Dry-point glosses are etched into the vellum rather than produced by a smooth flow of a quill over a writing surface. G. Charles-Edwards and H. McKee believe they have identified such features, elements of the letters in the glosses that appear to be a late-9th century invention, in response to Carolingian minuscule. Therefore, it is likely that these glosses were additions after the Gospels had been moved to Lichfield. References Further reading Sharp. Robert (2016). The Hoard and its history. Staffordshire's secrets revealed. Brewin Books. . External links The Celtic Literature Collective – Evans and Rhys edition of the marginalia, with a translation of the first and second records. Historical Image Overlays – Assess aging by comparing photographs from 1887, 1911, 1929, 1956, 1962, 1982, 2003, and 2010. Lichfield Cathedral – Information on the St Chad Gospels and seeing this great gospelbook Manuscripts of Lichfield Cathedral Digital facsimile of the St Chad Gospels, 2010. Includes the ability to overlay images captured with 13 different bands of light, historical images (starting in 1887), and multispectral visualizations. Also includes sixteen interactive 3D and sixteen RTI renderings. University of Kentucky and University of Oklahoma 3D for Presenting Illuminated Manuscripts - Explains 3D modeling for the 8th-century illuminated St Chad Gospels High-resolution images of the St Chad Gospels, 2010 – Creative Common licensed downloads Gospel Books Hiberno-Saxon manuscripts Lichfield Cathedral 8th-century biblical manuscripts 8th-century illuminated manuscripts Illuminated manuscripts of Welsh origin

357510

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Facts%20of%20Life%20%28TV%20series%29

The Facts of Life (TV series)

The Facts of Life is an American television sitcom created by Dick Clair and Jenna McMahon and a spin-off of Diff'rent Strokes that originally aired on NBC from August 24, 1979, to May 7, 1988, making it one of the longest-running sitcoms of the 1980s. The series focuses on Edna Garrett (Charlotte Rae), as she becomes a housemother (and from the second season onward, a dietitian as well) at the fictional Eastland School, an all-girls boarding school in Peekskill, New York. Plot Season 1 A spin-off of Diff'rent Strokes, the series featured the Drummonds' former housekeeper Edna Garrett (Charlotte Rae) becoming the housemother of a dormitory at Eastland School, a private all-girls school in Peekskill, New York. The girls in her care included spoiled rich girl Blair Warner (Lisa Whelchel); the youngest, gossipy Dorothy "Tootie" Ramsey (Kim Fields) and impressionable Natalie Green (Mindy Cohn). The pilot for the show was originally aired as the last episode of the first season of Diff'rent Strokes and was called "The Girls' School (a.k.a. Garrett's Girls)." The plot line for the pilot had Kimberly Drummond (Dana Plato) requesting that Mrs. Garrett help her sew costumes for a student play at East Lake School for Girls, the school Kimberly attended in Upstate New York, as her dorm's housemother had recently quit. Mrs. Garrett agrees to help, puts on a successful play and also solves a problem for the boyfriend-obsessed Nancy Olsen (Felice Schachter) as she also meets Blair, Tootie, the small-town girl from Kansas Sue Ann Weaver (Julie Piekarski), and the budding activist Molly Parker (Molly Ringwald). Mrs. Garrett is asked to stay on as the new housemother but states she would rather remain working for the Drummonds at the end of the pilot. Following the pilot, the name of the school was changed to Eastland and characters were replaced, with Natalie, athletic tomboy Cindy Webster (Julie Anne Haddock), and Mr. Bradley becoming part of the main group featured. Although Kimberly Drummond is featured as a student at East Lake, her character did not cross over to the spinoff series with Mrs. Garrett. In the show's first season, episodes focus on the issues of seven girls, with the action usually set in a large, wood-paneled common room of a girls' dormitory. Also appearing was the school's headmaster, Mr. Steven Bradley (John Lawlor) and Miss Emily Mahoney (Jenny O'Hara), an Eastland teacher who was dropped after the first four episodes. Early episodes of the show typically revolve around a central morality-based or "lesson teaching" theme. The show's pilot episode plot included a story line in which Blair Warner insinuates that her schoolmate Cindy Webster is a lesbian, because she is a tomboy and frequently shows affection for other girls. Other season one episodes deal with issues including drug use, sex, eating disorder, parental relationships and peer pressure. Seasons 2–8 The producers felt that there were too many characters given the limitations of the half-hour sitcom format and that the plot lines should be more focused to give the remaining girls more room for character development. Four of the original actresses—Julie Anne Haddock (Cindy), Julie Piekarski (Sue Ann), Felice Schachter (Nancy) and Molly Ringwald (Molly)—were written out of the show, although the four did make periodic guest appearances in the second and third seasons, and all but Molly Ringwald appeared in one "reunion" episode in the eighth season. Mr. Bradley's character was also dropped and replaced by Mr. Charles Parker (Roger Perry). Mr. Parker appeared in episodes through the beginning of season 5. In addition to being housemother to the remaining girls, Mrs. Garrett became the school dietitian as the second season began. Jo Polniaczek (Nancy McKeon), a new student originally from the Bronx, arrived at Eastland on scholarship. A run-in with the law forced the four to be separated from the other girls and work in the cafeteria, living together in a spare room next to Mrs. Garrett's bedroom. The season two premiere of the retooled series saw an immediate ratings increase. By its third season (1981–82), Facts of Life had become NBC's No. 1 comedy and No. 2 overall NBC program, beating its predecessor, Diff'rent Strokes, for the first time. In 1983, Jo and Blair graduated Eastland Academy in the highly anticipated season four finale "Graduation". To keep the four girls under one roof, the hour-long season five premiere "Brave New World" saw Mrs. Garrett go into business for herself and open a gourmet food venture named Edna's Edibles. The four girls came to live and work with Mrs. Garrett in this new refreshed space. In September 1985, NBC moved the seventh season of the series to its burgeoning Saturday night lineup at 8:30, as a lead-in for the new series The Golden Girls at 9 pm. In an attempt to refresh the "ratings work horse" and increase ratings, George Clooney was added to the regular cast and Mrs. Garrett's store was gutted by fire in the season seven premiere "Out of the Fire". The follow-up episodes "Into the Frying Pan" and "Grand Opening" had the girls join together to rebuild the store with a pop culture-influenced gift shop, called Over Our Heads. The changes proved successful as all three episodes placed in the top ten ratings each week. By the end of the season, TV Guide reported, "Facts success has been so unexpected that scions of Hollywood are still taken aback by it ...Facts has in fact been among NBC's top-ranked comedies for the past five years. It finished twenty-seven overall for the 1985–1986 season, handily winning its time slot against its most frequent competitors, Airwolf and Benson. Lisa Whelchel stated, 'We're easily overlooked because we've never been a huge hit; we just sort of snuck in there.'" Charlotte Rae initially reduced her role in seasons six and seven and later decided to leave the series altogether, believing she had done all she could do with her character and desired to move on to other projects. In season eight's heavily promoted one-hour premiere, "Out of Peekskill" Mrs. Garrett married the man of her dreams and joined him in Africa while he worked for the Peace Corps. Mrs. Garrett convinces her sister, Beverly Ann Stickle (Cloris Leachman), to take over the shop and look after the girls. The character of Beverly Ann had a similar personality to Leachman's previous Emmy-winning role as Phyllis Lindstrom on two 1970s CBS sitcoms – The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Phyllis. Beverly Ann later legally adopted Over Our Heads worker Andy Moffett (Mackenzie Astin) in the episode "A Boy About the House". Describing the new changes to The Facts of Life Brandon Tartikoff, NBC Entertainment President, said he "was surprised that The Facts of Life performed well this season, as, with a major cast change and all, I thought it might not perform as it had in the past. Facts has been renewed for next season." Final season In the ninth and final season, the series aired on NBC's Saturday lineup at 8 pm, NBC still had confidence in the series, making it the 8 p.m. anchor, kicking off the network's second-highest rated night (next to Thursdays). For February Nielsen rating sweeps, the writers created a controversial storyline in this season for the episode titled "The First Time", in which Natalie became the first of the girls to lose her virginity. Lisa Whelchel refused this storyline that would have made her character, not Natalie, the first among the four young women in the show to lose her virginity. Having become a Christian when she was 10, Whelchel refused because of her religious convictions. Whelchel appeared in every episode but asked to be written out of "The First Time". The episode ran a parental advisory before starting and placed 22nd in the ratings for the week. With the show still easily winning its timeslot, NBC had made plans to renew The Facts of Life for a 10th season but two castmates – Mindy Cohn and Nancy McKeon – chose to leave at the conclusion of season nine. Cast Main characters Recurring characters A key recurring character was Geri Tyler (Geri Jewell), Blair's cousin who has cerebral palsy. Jewell's character primarily was created in order to show Blair's more sympathetic side but Cousin Geri eventually inspired many other differently abled people interested in the entertainment industry. Other recurring characters included the judgment-impaired Miko Wakamatsu (Lauren Tom), the delivery boy Roy (Loren Lester) who was enamored with Jo, the royal princess Alexandra (Heather McAdam) and the snobbish Boots St. Clair (Jami Gertz). Shoplifter Kelly (Pamela Segall) was billed as a regular during the fifth season. Other guest roles included the boyfriends of the girls; Jo's parents, played by Alex Rocco and Claire Malis; Blair's parents, played by Nicolas Coster and Marj Dusay; Tootie's parents, played by Chip Fields (Kim Fields' real-life mother) and Robert Hooks and Natalie's parents, played by Norman Burton and Mitzi Hoag. Characters from Diff'rent Strokes also appeared in some episodes of both season one and season two. Other recurring characters included Tootie's boyfriend Jeff Williams (Todd Hollowell), Blair's boyfriend Cliff (Woody Brown) and Charles Parker (Roger Perry), who served as headmaster of Eastland following Lawlor's exit from the show. Production Development The Facts of Life was produced first by T.A.T. Communications Company, later known as Embassy Television (Norman Lear's production companies) and then as Embassy Communications and Columbia Pictures Television (through ELP Communications) on January–May 1988 episodes of the series. Sony Pictures Television currently owns the distribution rights to the sitcom. From 1979 to 1982, the show was produced at Metromedia Square in Los Angeles, California. In 1982, production moved to Universal City Studios and then to Sunset Gower Studios in 1985. Theme music The show's theme was composed by Al Burton, Gloria Loring and her then-husband, Alan Thicke. The well-known opening lyric "You take the good, you take the bad ..." came later as the first season lyrics, some of them performed by Rae and the original cast, differed from those that followed, later sung by Loring. The original lyrics eventually shifted to the closing credits before being dropped entirely. Burton, Loring and Thicke had previously composed the theme to Diff'rent Strokes, which was sung by Thicke. Episodes Television films The Facts of Life Goes to Paris The Facts of Life Goes to Paris, a two-hour TV movie in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls travel to France, aired September 25, 1982. It scored 18.1/31 in the Nielsen Ratings. The movie was later added to the American syndication package, separated into four half-hour episodes; however, the original cut of the film appears on the Season 4 DVD set in 2010. The TVmovie was film director by Asaad Kelada. The Facts of Life Down Under The Facts of Life Down Under, another two-hour TV movie, aired Sunday February 15, 1987 placing a strong No. 13 for the week garnering 21.4/32. This was strategic counterprogramming by NBC, which placed the movie against the conclusion of ABC's highly publicized miniseries Amerika. The Telemovie was also syndicated as four half-hour episodes in later U.S. airings. The Facts of Life Reunion The Facts of Life Reunion, a two-hour TV movie reunion aired on ABC November 18, 2001, in which Mrs. Garrett and the girls are reunited in Peekskill, New York, for the Thanksgiving holiday. It occasionally aired in the United States on ABC Family. Nancy McKeon (Jo) did not appear in this movie; her character's absence is explained as being on assignment as a police officer. Syndication NBC aired daytime reruns of The Facts of Life from December 13, 1982 until June 28, 1985 at 10 a.m. (and later noon) on the daytime schedule. Episodes aired on television stations nationwide from September 15, 1986 to September 10, 1993, then aired on the USA Network on and off from September 13, 1993 to September 11, 1998. In August 1994, the network celebrated the show's 15th anniversary with a day-long marathon of 14 episodes featuring new interviews with Rae, Whelchel and Cohn. Episodes aired on Nick at Nite from September 4, 2000 to June 28, 2001, although the network did not air certain episodes that contained highly mature content during primetime (including the first-season episode "Dope"), instead opting to air episodes with more serious topics at late night/early morning times. TV Land aired 48 hours of The Facts of Life episodes on its "Fandemonium Marathon Weekend" on November 17–19, 2001. The Hallmark Channel aired The Facts of Life from July 1 to November 1, 2002. Episodes were available on Comcast's Video-On-Demand service from August 8, 2005 to July 31, 2006 and again from the August 6, 2007 until Tube Time's shutdown date on December 31, 2009. On July 16, 2008 full episodes and short "minisodes" of The Facts of Life became available online via Hulu. On March 12, 2012, TeenNick added the series to their morning lineup; however, the series' addition to the channel was short-lived, as it left the schedule on April 3, 2012. The series premiered on The Hub on April 2, 2012, where it rerun until March 31, 2013 and later moved to Logo TV. Most recently, Antenna TV started airing The Facts of Life on January 2, 2020. International airings In Brazil, the show aired on Nick at Nite as Vivendo e Aprendendo (Living and Learning, in English). In Latin America and Mexico, the show aired as Los Hechos de la Vida aired on The Warner Channel and Nick at Nite. In Italy, seasons one through nine were aired in 1983–1992 (dubbed as usual in Italian), on the terrestrial television Canale 5, the first Italian commercial network, and later on other local commercial television networks. The Italian version was named L'albero delle mele, which means the apple tree (the word "apple" is popularly used euphemistically in Italian as a reference to teenage girls). In France, seasons one to nine (dubbed in French and titled Drôle de Vie) aired in 1987 on the terrestrial television La Cinq, and seasons one to nine aired on TF1. In the United Kingdom, unlike Diff'rent Strokes, The Facts of Life has never aired on terrestrial television. A few seasons aired on the UK BSB satellite channels, and after BSB merged with Sky Television plc, the entire series was shown on Sky One. In Canada, The Facts of Life was a mainstay on CBC Television – the Canadian public broadcaster, airing concurrently with the NBC airings as well as weekdays in stripped reruns at 4:00 p.m. (4:30 p.m. in Newfoundland) until April 1992. Crossroads Television System (CTS), a Christian-based network, aired it from September 2006 to 2009. Beginning on September 15, 2007, The Facts of Life aired weekends at 10:00 a.m. and 2:00 p.m. on Canwest's digital specialty channel, DejaView, which later moved it to weekdays at 4:00 p.m. and 4:30 p.m. in March 2010. As of 2019, Hamilton, Ontario-based CHCH currently airs the series on weekdays at 4:00 p.m. (Eastern Time). The entire series is also currently available for online streaming on CTV.ca, as part of an ad-supported video on demand service called CTV Throwback. Reception Ratings The Facts of Life was originally not a ratings winner on Friday nights in its summer debut in 1979 or in its second tryout in the spring of 1980. It ranked 74th of 79 shows on the air in the year-end Nielsen ratings and was NBC's lowest-rated series. The show was put on hiatus and extensively retooled in preparation for season two. In November 1980, season two of The Facts of Life premiered in a Wednesday 9:30 p.m. time slot, where it immediately flourished, peaking in January 1981 with a 27.4 rating and 41 share; it ranked No. 4 for the week. The program became NBC's fourth highest-rated scripted series, after Little House on the Prairie, Diff'rent Strokes and CHiPs. By the third season, the series moved time slots to 9:00 pm. Wednesdays and soon became NBC's highest-rated comedy series and NBC's No. 2 overall series, after Real People. For its seventh season, it moved to Saturdays at 8:30 p.m., to bolster the premiering series The Golden Girls at 9 p.m. in the newly formed Saturday night comedy block. At the start of the eighth season, the series was moved forward a half-hour to the toughest time slot on television – Saturday at 8 pm, which brought the ratings down from its season seven high. Still, the series easily won its time slot and garnered high numbers in the coveted teen and 18–49 demographics. One of the highest rated season eight episodes saw the original season one cast return for a mini-reunion. Titled "The Little Chill", it placed No. 19 for the week with an 18.2 rating and 31 share. In the article "Ratings Top with Teens" appearing in the January 19, 1988 edition of USA Today, The Facts of Life was ranked as one of the top 10 shows in a survey of 2,200 American teenagers. Nielsen Ratings 1979–1980 – #74 1980–1981 – #26 1981–1982 – #24 (Tied with Little House on the Prairie) 1982–1983 – #36 1983–1984 – #25 1984–1985 – #30 1985–1986 – #27 1986–1987 – #31 1987–1988 – #38 (Tied with Highway to Heaven) Awards Emmy Award nomination for Best Actress (1982) – Charlotte Rae Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Technical Direction/Electronic Camerawork/Video Control for a Series (1986) – for episode "Come Back to the Truck Stop, Natalie Green, Natalie Green". Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Achievement in Hairstyling for a Series (1987) – for episode "'62 Pickup". TV Land Award for Pop Culture Icon in 2011. Home media On April 21 and 22, 2001, Columbia House released The Facts of Life: The Collector's Edition, a 10-volume "Best of" the series on VHS (40 episodes in all). With the advent shortly thereafter of TV on DVD and Columbia House's eventual move from the direct marketing model of exclusive series, the tapes were discontinued. Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first two seasons on DVD in Region 1 on May 9, 2006 with new interviews with most of the cast, including first season regulars Felice Schachter and Julie Anne Haddock. To promote the DVD's release, McKeon, Whelchel and Cohn appeared together on various TV shows such as Entertainment Tonight, Today, and CNN Showbiz to reminisce about their time on the show and talk about their lives presently; unfortunately, Fields was unable to take part due to other commitments. The third season was released on October 24, 2006. This release failed to match the success of the first and second seasons, sales-wise. The first and second seasons were also released in Region 4 on March 7, 2007. In 2010, Shout! Factory acquired the rights to the series and released the fourth season on Region 1 DVD on May 4, 2010. Special features include The Facts of Life Goes To Paris, a made-for-TV-movie (which originally aired a few days prior to the fourth season debut) and a "Know The Facts: Trivia Game." They have subsequently released seasons five through nine on DVD.Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the first and second seasons on DVD on May 20, 2014. It is unknown as to whether or not Mill Creek will release any further seasons. On January 13, 2015, Shout! Factory released The Facts of Life – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 26-disc set contains all 201 episodes of the series as well as the two made-for-TV films (The Facts of Life Goes to Paris and The Facts of Life Down Under) and other bonus features including an all-new cast reunion. The Facts of Life Reunion film is not included in this collection and has yet to be released on DVD. Attempted spin-offs The various attempts at spin-offs were backdoor pilots, which were shown as episodes of The Facts of Life. "Brian & Sylvia" – A season two episode in which Tootie and Natalie go to Buffalo, New York to visit Tootie's Aunt Sylvia, a black woman (played by Rosanne Katon) who has recently married a white man, played by Richard Dean Anderson (the future star of MacGyver and Stargate SG-1). Ja'Net DuBois of Good Times played Ethel, who was both Tootie's grandmother and Sylvia's mother. The episode never developed into a series and in the season five episode "Crossing the Line", Tootie mentions Brian's and Sylvia's interracial marriage and says that the two have recently gotten divorced. "The Academy" – A season three episode set at Stone Academy, an all-boys military school that was near Eastland. In this episode, the girls at Eastland attended a dance with the boys from the military school. The boys included actors Jimmy Baio, Ben Marley, David Ackroyd, Peter Frechette, and John P. Navin Jr. "Jo's Cousin" – Another season three episode, in which Jo visits her family in the Bronx, including her cousin Terry, a fourteen-year-old girl (played by Megan Follows) going through adolescence in a family full of men. The family included actors Grant Cramer, John Mengatti, Donnelly Rhodes, and D.W. Brown. "The Big Fight" – A season four episode set at Stone Academy, a boys' military school. Natalie comes to visit a boy who tries to impress her with his boxing. This episode includes the same cast from the season three episode "The Academy", with the addition of '80s 'nerd' icon Eddie Deezen. "Graduation" – This spin-off was to revolve around Blair and Jo's life at Langley College. "Big Apple Blues" – A season nine episode in which Natalie spends the night with a group of eccentric young people living in a SoHo loft, and decides to remain in New York to begin her life. Two of the tenants in the loft were played by David Spade and Richard Grieco. "The Beginning of the End/Beginning of the Beginning" – The two-part series finale sees Blair buying Eastland to prevent its closing. Blair finds that the school is in such dire financial straits that she is forced to make the school co-ed. Blair then essentially adopts the Mrs. Garrett role as she presides over the school and is forced to deal with the trouble-making students in a plot line that is highly reminiscent of the season two premiere. The new Eastland students included Seth Green, Mayim Bialik, future Oscar-nominee Juliette Lewis, and Meredith Scott Lynn. Notes References External links The Facts of Life site at www.televisionhits.com: Extensive site for the television series. 1970s American school television series 1970s American sitcoms 1979 American television series debuts 1980s American school television series 1980s American teen sitcoms 1988 American television series endings American television spin-offs English-language television shows NBC original programming Television series about teenagers Television series by Sony Pictures Television Television shows set in New York (state)

357512

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Astronomical%20Society

Royal Astronomical Society

The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) is a learned society and charity that encourages and promotes the study of astronomy, solar-system science, geophysics and closely related branches of science. Its headquarters are in Burlington House, on Piccadilly in London. The society has over 4,000 members ("Fellows"), most of them professional researchers or postgraduate students. Around a quarter of Fellows live outside the UK. The society holds monthly scientific meetings in London, and the annual National Astronomy Meeting at varying locations in the British Isles. The RAS publishes the scientific journals Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society and Geophysical Journal International, along with the trade magazine Astronomy & Geophysics. The RAS maintains an astronomy research library, engages in public outreach and advises the UK government on astronomy education. The society recognises achievement in astronomy and geophysics by issuing annual awards and prizes, with its highest award being the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The RAS is the UK adhering organisation to the International Astronomical Union and a member of the UK Science Council. The society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of London to support astronomical research. At that time, most members were 'gentleman astronomers' rather than professionals. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving a Royal Charter from William IV. A Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the fellowship to women. Publications One of the major activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes two primary research journals, the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in astronomy and (in association with the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft) the Geophysical Journal International in geophysics. It also publishes the magazine A&G which includes reviews and other articles of wide scientific interest in a 'glossy' format. The full list of journals published (both currently and historically) by the RAS, with abbreviations as used for the NASA ADS bibliographic codes is: Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (MmRAS): 1822–1977 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS): Since 1827 Geophysical Supplement to Monthly Notices (MNRAS): 1922–1957 Geophysical Journal (GeoJ): 1958–1988 Geophysical Journal International (GeoJI): Since 1989 (volume numbering continues from GeoJ) Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (QJRAS): 1960–1996 Astronomy & Geophysics (A&G): Since 1997 (volume numbering continues from QJRAS) Membership Fellows Full members of the RAS are styled Fellows, and may use the post-nominal letters FRAS. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society. As a result of the society's foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists. The society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Council's Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003. Friends In 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits and social events. Meetings The Society organises an extensive programme of meetings: The biggest RAS meeting each year is the National Astronomy Meeting, a major conference of professional astronomers. It is held over 4-5 days each spring or early summer, usually at a university campus in the United Kingdom. Hundreds of astronomers attend each year. More frequent smaller 'ordinary' meetings feature lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics, often given by winners of the society's awards. They are normally held in Burlington House in London on the afternoon of the second Friday of each month from October to May. The talks are intended to be accessible to a broad audience of astronomers and geophysicists, and are free for anyone to attend (not just members of the society). Formal reports of the meetings are published in The Observatory magazine. Specialist discussion meetings are held on the same day as each ordinary meeting. These are aimed at professional scientists in a particular research field, and allow several speakers to present new results or reviews of scientific fields. Usually two discussion meetings on different topics (one in astronomy and one in geophysics) take place simultaneously at different locations within Burlington House, prior to the day's ordinary meeting. They are free for members of the society, but charge a small entry fee for non-members. The RAS holds a regular programme of public lectures aimed at a general, non-specialist, audience. These are mostly held on Tuesdays once a month, with the same talk given twice: once at lunchtime and once in the early evening. The venues have varied, but are usually in Burlington House or another nearby location in central London. The lectures are free, though some popular sessions require booking in advance. The society occasionally hosts or sponsors meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, often in collaboration with other scientific societies and universities. Library The Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and contains more than 10,000 books from popular level to conference proceedings. Its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a major resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists, and historians. Education The society promotes astronomy to members of the general public through their outreach pages for students, teachers, the public and media researchers. The RAS has an advisory role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs and A Levels. Associated groups The RAS sponsors topical groups, many of them in interdisciplinary areas where the group is jointly sponsored by another learned society or professional body: The Astrobiology Society of Britain (with the NASA Astrobiology Institute) The Astroparticle Physics Group (with the Institute of Physics) The Astrophysical Chemistry Group (with the Royal Society of Chemistry) The British Geophysical Association (with the Geological Society of London) The Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial group (generally known by the acronym MIST) The UK Planetary Forum The UK Solar Physics group Presidents The first person to hold the title of President of the Royal Astronomical Society was William Herschel, though he never chaired a meeting, and since then the post has been held by many distinguished astronomers. The post has generally had a term of office of two years, but some holders resigned after one year e.g. due to poor health. Francis Baily and George Airy were elected a record four times each. Baily's eight years in the role are a record (Airy served for seven). Since 1876 no-one has served for more than two years in total. The current president is Emma Bunce, who began her term on 26 June 2020 and will serve for two years. Awards and prizes The highest award of the Royal Astronomical Society is its Gold Medal, which can be awarded for any purpose but most frequently recognises extraordinary lifetime achievement. Among the recipients best known to the general public are Albert Einstein in 1926, and Stephen Hawking in 1985. Other awards are for particular topics in astronomy or geophysics research, which include the Eddington Medal, the Herschel Medal, the Chapman Medal and the Price Medal. Beyond research, there are specific awards for school teaching (Patrick Moore Medal), public outreach (Annie Maunder Medal), instrumentation (Jackson-Gwilt Medal) and history of science (Agnes Mary Clerke Medal). Lectureships include the Harold Jeffreys Lectureship in geophysics, the George Darwin Lectureship in astronomy, and the Gerald Whitrow Lectureship in cosmology. Other activities The society occupies premises at Burlington House, London, where a library and meeting rooms are available to fellows and other interested parties. The society represents the interests of astronomy and geophysics to UK national and regional, and European government and related bodies, and maintains a press office, through which it keeps the media and the public at large informed of developments in these sciences. The society allocates grants to worthy causes in astronomy and geophysics, and assists in the management of the Paneth Trust. See also Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society National Astronomy Week (NAW) List of astronomical societies List of geoscience organizations References External links The Royal Astronomical Society Scientific organizations established in 1820 Learned societies of the United Kingdom Astronomy organizations Astronomy societies Astronomy in the United Kingdom Astronomical Organisations based in London with royal patronage 1820 establishments in the United Kingdom

357518

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lost%20Cities%20and%20Vanished%20Civilizations

Lost Cities and Vanished Civilizations

Lost Cities and Vanished Civilizations is a 1962 book by Robert Silverberg that deals with the then-current archaeology studies of six past civilizations. The book is divided into six chapters, and each deals with a particular civilization: Pompeii, Troy, Nicola, Babylon, Chichen Itza, and Angkor Wat. Silverberg also deals with the historical search for the past through the life works of archaeologists such as Heinrich Schliemann and Henry Rawlinson. References 1962 non-fiction books Archaeology books Books by Robert Silverberg

357520

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney%20anthology%20television%20series

Disney anthology television series

The Walt Disney Company has produced an anthology television series since 1954 under several titles and formats. The program's current title, The Wonderful World of Disney, was used from 1969 to 1979 and again from 1991 to the present. The program moved between the Big Three television networks in its first four decades, but has aired on ABC since 1997 and Disney+ since 2020. The original version of the series premiered on ABC on Wednesday, October 27, 1954. The show was broadcast weekly on one of the Big Three television networks until 1990, a 36-year span with only a two-year hiatus in 1984–85. The series was broadcast on Sunday for 25 of those years. From 1991 until 1997, the series aired infrequently. The program resumed a regular schedule in 1997 on the ABC fall schedule, coinciding with Disney's purchase of the network in 1996. From 1997 until 2008, the program aired regularly on ABC. Since then, ABC has continued the series as an occasional special presentation from 2008 onward, the most recent being a holiday music special in November 2019. In May 2020, the series returned with movies from the Disney+ library. The show has had only two hosts, founder and former president, Walt Disney, and former Chairman and C.E.O., Michael Eisner. The show is the second longest-running prime-time program on U.S. television, behind Hallmark Hall of Fame. Titles Walt Disney's Disneyland (1954–1958; ABC) Walt Disney Presents (1958–1961; ABC) Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1961–1969; NBC) The Wonderful World of Disney (first era; 1969–1979; NBC) Disney's Wonderful World (1979–1981; NBC) Walt Disney (1981–1986; CBS) The Disney Sunday Movie (1986–1988; ABC;) The Magical World of Disney (1988–1991; NBC) The Wonderful World of Disney (1991–1997; CBS) (third era; 1997–present; ABC) The Wonderful World of Disney: Presented by Disney+ (2020–present) History The anthology series was an outgrowth of Walt Disney looking for funding for Disneyland with his brother Roy Disney approaching all the big-three networks with American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres taking the deal for programming for ABC. Walt Disney's Disneyland (1954–1958) Although Walt Disney was the first major film producer to venture into television, two established independent film producers successfully ventured into television production before Disney, Hal Roach and Jerry Fairbanks. Disney wanted to produce a television program to finance the development of the Disneyland amusement park. After being turned down by both CBS and NBC, Disney eventually signed a deal with ABC (which had merged with United Paramount Theaters in 1953) on March 29, 1954. The show contained teasers for Walt's park, as well as episodes representing life in one of the park's main sections: Adventureland, Tomorrowland, Fantasyland, and Frontierland, with the opening titles used from its inception until the show's move to NBC in 1961, showing the entrance to Disneyland itself, as well as the four aforementioned lands, one of which was then identified as the main feature of that evening's program. Consequently, "Davy Crockett" and other pioneers of the Old West, and American history in general, appeared in "Frontier Land". Similarly, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea might be the focus of an evening spent in "Adventure Land", although a documentary on the film could also be possibly presented as a topic for such episodes, including clips from the actual film. Topics for "Fantasy Land" would include either actual cartoons, and animated films, or documentaries on "The Making of ..." (such as behind-the-scenes presentation of Peggy Lee singing the duet of the wicked Siamese cats in Lady and the Tramp, or the barbershop quartet of lost dogs in the municipal Dog Pound); excerpts from a True-Life Adventure documentary might also be included (for example, one on the life and works of beavers and their dam-building) or those using stroboscopic stop-action photography (such as investigating what really happened when a rain-drop fell in a puddle, as part of a "Fantasy Land" episode), explaining the techniques of cartoon animation. The multiplane camera used to create the three-dimensional effects of Bambi was also a topic for a "Fantasy Land"-set telecast. In one episode, four different artists were given the task of drawing the same tree, with each artist using his own preferred ways of drawing and imagining a tree; this led to cartoon examples of differently animated trees, as in some of the early Silly Symphonies shorts, and later full-length animated films. "Tomorrow Land" was an opportunity for the Disney studio staff to present cutting-edge science and technology, and to predict possible futures, such as futuristic automobiles and highways, and featured Wernher von Braun as an on-air technical consultant in Man and the Moon, which aired December 28, 1955. This format remained basically unchanged through the 1980s, though new material was scarce in later years. Other episodes were segments from Disney films such as Seal Island and Alice in Wonderland, or cartoons of Donald Duck and other Disney standbys. The program spawned the Davy Crockett craze of 1955 with the airing of a three-episode series (not shown over the course of consecutive weeks) about the historical American frontiersman, starring Fess Parker in the title role. Millions of dollars of merchandise relating to the title character were sold, and the theme song, "The Ballad of Davy Crockett", became a hit record that year. Three historically based hour-long programs aired during late 1954/early 1955, and were followed up by two dramatized installments the following year. The TV episodes were later edited into two theatrical films. On July 17, 1955, the opening of Disneyland was covered on a live television special, Dateline: Disneyland, which is not technically considered to be part of the series. It was hosted by Art Linkletter, with whom Walt Disney had worked out a deal prior to the opening to allow Linkletter to lease a shop on Main Street in return for the broadcast. Art Linkletter was assisted by Bob Cummings and Ronald Reagan, and the program featured various other guests, including various appearances of Walt himself as he dedicated the various lands of Disneyland. Walt Disney Presents (1958–1961) In 1958, the series was retitled Walt Disney Presents and moved to a Friday-night timeslot; by 1960, ABC had switched it to Sunday nights, where it remained for 21 years. During this iteration, The Peter Tchaikovsky Story, an episode made to promote Walt's latest animated feature, Sleeping Beauty, was one of the first stereo simulcasts on TV; in this case it was 3 channel stereo. FM radio stations across the country carried the left channel at the same time as ABC broadcast the TV show in mono, which served as a center channel, and AM radio stations broadcast the right channel. In the second half of the show, a lengthy clip of Sleeping Beauty was shown, with its 6 channels (70mm version) mixed down into 3 for the broadcast. Walt apparently wanted people to see Sleeping Beauty in 70 mm, so, in the introduction, he explained the difference between 35 mm and 70 mm and held up a card with both sizes on it. In addition to episodes devoted to the latest additions at Disneyland, many episodes during this period were Westerns such as "Texas John Slaughter" and "Elfego Baca", while others talked about the United States' burgeoning efforts to explore outer space and others, such as "Moochie of the Little League", were set in the then-present day. Some episodes even mixed live-action and animation, showing Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Chip 'n' Dale, Professor Owl and Jiminy Cricket talking with Walt himself, while one 1959 episode (titled The Adventures of Chip 'n' Dale) turned the spotlight on Chip 'n' Dale, combining their theatrical cartoons with mixed media wrap-around footage including the chipmunks' own theme song. The episode's genre is a live action/animated musical comedy, and as the title suggests, it stars the titular chipmunks. At the end of the episode, Chip 'n' Dale say (singing) their goodbyes to the audience and return to their nut home on the counter hoping the audience enjoyed their show. Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color (1961–1969) Although the basic format remained the same, the series moved to NBC on September 24, 1961, to take advantage of that network's ability to broadcast programming in color. In addition, Walt Disney's relationship with ABC had soured as the network resisted selling its stake in the theme park before doing so in 1960. In a display of foresight, Disney had filmed many of the earlier shows in color, allowing them to easily be repeated on NBC; since all but three of Disney's feature-length films were also made in color (the three black-and-white exceptions were The Shaggy Dog, The Absent-Minded Professor, and Son of Flubber, all family comedies starring Fred MacMurray), they could now also be telecast in that format. To emphasize the new feature, the series was retitled Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color when NBC began airing it. The first NBC episode even dealt with the principles of color, as explained by a new character named Ludwig Von Drake (voiced by Paul Frees), a bumbling professor with a thick German accent, who was the uncle of Donald Duck. Von Drake was the first Disney character created specifically for television. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, 12 years after the anthology series premiered. While the broadcast that aired three days after his death featured a memorial tribute from Huntley-Brinkley Report anchor Chet Huntley with film and television star Dick Van Dyke, the introductions that Walt already filmed prior to his death continued to air for the remainder of the season. After that, the studio decided that Walt's persona as host was such a key part of the show's appeal to viewers that the host segment was dropped. The Wonderful World of Disney (1969–1979) The series was retitled The Wonderful World of Disney in September 1969, by which time the color distinction was no longer needed as all big three networks were all broadcasting in color. It continued to gain solid ratings, often ranking in the top 20, until the mid-1970s. In 1976, Disney showed its hit 1961 film The Parent Trap on television for the first time, as a 2½-hour special. This marked a major step in broadcasting for the studio, which had never shown one of its more popular films on television in a time slot longer than an hour (although it had shown Now You See Him, Now You Don't and Napoleon and Samantha in a two-hour format in 1975). Walt Disney Productions also began running some of its multiepisode television programs, such as 1962's Sammy The Way-Out Seal, as televised feature films on the anthology series. A slightly edited version of the 1954 Disney film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea made its television debut as a two-hour special on NBC in October 1976. Several other Disney films, some of them not especially successful (such as Superdad, which was an outright flop in its initial theatrical release) were also aired on the program in the form of two-hour broadcasts that year. However, the multiepisode format for feature films had not been discontinued; as late as 1981, films such as Pollyanna were still being shown on the Disney program in several installments running a week apart. During the early 1970s, the show began to increasingly concentrate less on animated cartoons and dramatic or comedy films, and began to place an emphasis on nature-oriented programs (such as the True-Life Adventures). The show's continued ratings success in the post-Walt era came to an end during the 1975–76 season. At this time, Walt Disney Productions was facing a decline in fortunes due to falling box-office revenues, while NBC as a whole was also slipping in the ratings. The anthology series became even more dependent on airings of live-action theatrical features, its True-Life Adventures, reruns of older episodes, and cartoon compilations. Nothing from the Disney animated features canon aired, with the exceptions of Alice in Wonderland and Dumbo, as part of a long-standing policy placed on the program by Disney. Additionally, in 1975, when CBS regained the broadcast rights to the 1939 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film The Wizard of Oz, it was scheduled opposite Disney, as it had been between 1960 and 1968. At that time, telecasts of that film were highly rated annual events, which largely attracted the same family audience as the Disney series. From 1968 to 1975, when NBC held the television rights to Oz (which it had acquired from CBS in 1967), it usually pre-empted Disney to show it. However, the show's stiffest weekly competition came from CBS's newsmagazine 60 Minutes. In 1975, an amendment to the Prime Time Access Rule gave the Sunday 7:00 pm Eastern Time slot back to the networks, allowing NBC to move Disney back by a half-hour. It also allowed CBS to schedule 60 Minutes at 7:00 pm Eastern Time starting on December 7; prior to this, 60 Minutes had aired at 6:00 pm Eastern and did not begin its seasons until after the National Football League season ended. Disney fell out of the top 30, while 60 Minutes had its ratings rise significantly. Disney's Wonderful World (1979–1981) In September 1979, the studio agreed to then-NBC president Fred Silverman's request for changes to the program. The show shortened its title to Disney's Wonderful World, and updated the opening sequence with a computer-generated logo and disco-styled theme song, but largely kept the same format. The problems for the show continued. As a result of the ratings strength of 60 Minutes, compounded by low ratings, increasingly less original material, and frequent pre-emptions (primarily due to sporting events such as NFL game telecasts), NBC cancelled Disney in 1981. One factor that was beyond the control of either Disney or NBC was a 94-day strike by the Screen Actors' Guild that cut the number of shows for the 1980–1981 season, but the damage was done nonetheless. Walt Disney (1981–1983) Following NBC's announcement that it would drop the anthology series, CBS picked up the program and began airing it on Saturdays at 8:00 pm Eastern Time, in September 1981. Despite a more elaborate credit sequence and another title change, to simply Walt Disney, the series' format remained unchanged. During the 1981–1982 season, the series had a full season's worth of material again, but little of it was new. Among the little that actually was new were a handful of pilots based on Pollyanna, Escape to Witch Mountain, and The Apple Dumpling Gang, but only the last of the three pilots was sold and became the half-hour sitcom Gun Shy the following season, one of the studio's first entries in that genre but only lasted six episodes. The 1982–1983 season had enough material to fill the time slot, but almost all of it was pre-existing material, the lone exception being the celebrity-laden opening ceremony of Epcot on October 23. It also did not help matters that NBC slotted the family-friendly sitcoms Diff'rent Strokes and Silver Spoons at 8:00 pm and 8:30 pm up against it to draw children away from CBS. After moving to Tuesday at the beginning of 1983, it went on hiatus on February 15 while the aforementioned Gun Shy took up the second half of its time slot. When it came back for summer reruns on May 3, it was still on Tuesday at 8:00 pm; its final network broadcast was on September 24, bringing an uninterrupted 29-year run on all three networks to a close. The end of the show coincided with the launch of the studio's cable television network, the Disney Channel. While ratings were a factor, the final decision to end the show came from Walt Disney Productions' then-CEO Card Walker, who felt that having both the show and the new channel active would result in cannibalization of viewership. The new channel would provide a home for the show in reruns for the next two decades, but for the time being, Disney's presence on U.S. network TV would be limited to the occasional holiday special, theme park anniversary, or cartoon compilation. The Disney Sunday Movie (1986–1988) After the studio – which was rechristened as the Walt Disney Company in 1986 – underwent a change in management, Disney sought to bring back some sort of programming to broadcast television. Their efforts led to the premiere of The Disney Sunday Movie, which debuted on February 2, 1986, on ABC. Many names were considered to serve as presenter for the revived show, including Julie Andrews, Dick Van Dyke, Cary Grant, Tom Hanks, Walter Cronkite, Roy E. Disney (who closely resembled his uncle), and even Mickey Mouse. The studio finally decided to have Michael Eisner, the company's recently hired CEO, host the series. Although he was not a performer, after filming a test video with his wife Jane and a member of his executive team (which required multiple takes), studio management believed he could do the hosting job. Eisner hired Michael Kay, a director of political commercials for then-U.S. Senator Bill Bradley, to help him improve his on-camera performance. The Disney Sunday Movie initially aired as ABC's lead-off program on Sundays, running from 7:00 to 9:00 pm Eastern Time. By this point, the format was similar to a movie-of-the-week. Gary Barton, a Disney senior vice president, was in charge of the program. Help Wanted: Kids was the first episode's film. Other first revival year films were, Young Again, The Richest Cat in the World, I-Man (starring Scott Bakula), and My Town. Sometimes the slot would feature a special instead of dramatic material, such as "Disney Goes to the Oscars" featuring the studio's Academy Award winners, and "The Greatest Moments in Disney Animation". A handful of Disney Channel original films made their network television debuts during these iteration as well, but the program did not present any film made by Disney's Touchstone subsidiary, as such films were not considered appropriate for children. However, Splash, Too, a sequel to the 1984 film, aired on the series over two weeks in May 1988. The series had increased Disney park attendance and ABC's Sunday night ratings for the evening by an average 27% for the rest of the season. Disney, wanting to make it a regular viewing habit, gave ABC additional films from its library, including Old Yeller, The Apple Dumpling Gang and Candleshoe for the normal rerun mid-year period. The Last Electric Knight series movie produced a spin-off, originally to be called Karate Kid for ABC's 1987 season. Despite improving ABC's numbers, the program's ratings were never strong as the established 60 Minutes and scripted mystery series Murder, She Wrote on CBS, both of which Disney was competing with for viewers, remained the leading primetime programs on Sunday nights. In 1987, ABC reduced The Disney Sunday Movie from two hours to one. The move did not help drive ratings, and the network decided not to renew its contract with Disney or pick up a fourth season of the second iteration of the anthology series. The Disney Sunday Movie was also being run on the Disney Channel, also hosted by Eisner. The Magical World of Disney (1988–1990) In the spring of 1988, NBC decided to renew its association with the company after it cut ties to the anthology series seven years earlier; the network brought the series, now named The Magical World of Disney, to serve as the lead-in of its Sunday lineup in September 1988. As the program had done during its last season as The Disney Sunday Movie, The Magical World of Disney ran for one hour, airing at 7:00 pm Eastern Time; Michael Eisner also returned as its presenter. During this period, the show attempted to reintroduce the rotating format the show started out with in 1954. It also introduced new versions of Walt-era movies and TV shows such as The Absent-Minded Professor, a reboot of Davy Crockett, and the musical Polly, which was based on the book Pollyanna by Eleanor H. Porter and the Walt Disney's 1960 film adaptation of it. In the 1989–1990 season, during which the company was negotiating with Jim Henson to buy The Muppets, they aired two Muppet specials; one of them was The Muppets at Walt Disney World, which turned out to be Henson's last Muppet special. He died May 16, 1990, 10 days after the special aired, and the company only acquired The Muppets more than a decade later. After two seasons experiencing the same lackluster ratings as it had accrued during the end of its initial NBC run and its subsequent runs on CBS and ABC, Disney elected to end the broadcast television run of The Magical World of Disney and began airing the anthology on the Disney Channel – in the same time slot it had been airing for the past decade – starting in September 1990, expanding back to a two-hour format. Since the Disney Channel operated as a premium channel at the time, films presented on the series were presented without commercial interruption. The Magical World of Disney originally aired on the cable channel as a weekly Sunday-only program for its first 5½ years; but in September 1996, as part of the first phase of a programming revamp that culminated in its formal conversion into a commercial-free basic cable channel in April 1997, the Disney Channel expanded the Magical World brand to encompass its Monday through Saturday primetime film block, maintaining its 7:00 pm Eastern time slot. The Wonderful World of Disney (1991–present) The Wonderful World of Disney returned in 1991 as an umbrella title for Disney specials airing on major networks (CBS airings used the historical title The Wonderful World of Disney for the first few years, while other networks broadcast the show with another title, A Disney Special). In 1997, with Disney acquiring ABC the previous year, ABC gave the series a regular slot in the schedule. Disney CEO Eisner formed Disney Telefilms by 1995 to supply original films to the series and program together with ABC. It led the network's Sunday night lineup at the 7:00 p.m. Eastern time slot, resulting in the displacement of Sunday mainstay America's Funniest Home Videos, which had occupied the slot since 1992. On September 28, 1997, the all-new The Wonderful World of Disney premiered with the network television premiere of Toy Story. On October 5, 1997, Disney Telefilms' first production, Toothless, debuted on the series. In addition to the planned 16 original Disney telemovies, ABC and Disney added a few direct-to-video movies and films from other sources. In 2001, a Spanish-language version of the program premiered on Telemundo (which, incidentally, was acquired by the English version's former home, NBC, that same year 2001–2010) as El Maravilloso Mundo de Disney, with more of a focus on Disney theatrical films than the English broadcasts at the time for Spanish version's former Disney Channel (Latin America). In September 2003, The Wonderful World of Disney moved to Saturdays at 8:00 pm Eastern, with the previous Sunday time slot being ceded to AFV (which moved back to Sundays that season) and drama series in the 8:00 pm hour. Rare exceptions to the program's format occurred during this time; for example, a Little House on the Prairie miniseries ran for several weeks in 2004 under the Wonderful World of Disney banner. For most of its second run on ABC, the program aired throughout the television season, with the exception of the 2005–06 season (when it aired during the midseason only), and in 2007 and 2008 (when it was relegated to the summer months), with a broader array of films occupying the network's Saturday primetime slot at other times, when sports programming did not air. The series ended as a regular program in 2008. At this point, the series began to shift focus toward Disney theatrical films, relying less on original television films; however, the series aired two Disney Channel Original Movies (2002's Cadet Kelly and 2008's Camp Rock, currently the only Disney Channel television films to have aired on non-Disney Channel-branded network domestically) during its ABC run. The second ABC revival also included some family-oriented films produced by studios other than Disney under the Wonderful World banner, such as The Sound of Music from 20th Century Fox (which is presently owned by Disney) and the Harry Potter film series and Space Jam from Warner Bros., as well as television films such as Princess of Thieves from Granada Productions and the 2001 remake of Brian's Song from Columbia TriStar Television (now known as Sony Pictures Television). On December 12, 2015, ABC's The Wonderful World of Disney officially returned to its anthology format with a showing of Mary Poppins for the first time on ABC since 2002, hosted by Dick Van Dyke. Van Dyke took viewers on a tour through the Disney Archives, as they explored props and costumes from the production of Mary Poppins and discussed the film's history and context within the Disney legacy. It was then shown on February 21, 2016, with the special Disneyland 60, which honored Disneyland's 60th anniversary; on November 24, 2016, for their Magical Holiday Celebration, filmed at Walt Disney World; and on December 11, 2016, for the network television premiere of Frozen. On August 5, 2019, it was announced that The Wonderful World of Disney would present The Little Mermaid Live! on November 5 of that year with Auliʻi Cravalho, Queen Latifah and Shaggy starring as Ariel, Ursula and Sebastian, respectively. The cast also included John Stamos as Chef Louis and Graham Phillips as Prince Eric. The special featured music from both the film and the Tony Award-nominated Broadway stage version and was performed in front of a live audience with giant projection surface. The title was used again on November 28, 2019, for a two-hour music special, The Wonderful World of Disney: Magical Holiday Celebration, hosted by Emma Bunton and Matthew Morrison. On May 7, 2020, it was announced that The Wonderful World of Disney would bring back its banner for a series of theatrical movies from the Disney+ library, which includes Moana, Thor: The Dark World, Up, and Big Hero 6, for four weeks beginning May 20, 2020. A fifth week was later added, featuring the 2010 Disney/Pixar film, Toy Story 3, marking ten years since its theatrical release. The program returned on September 23, 2020, featuring the 2014 Marvel film, Guardians of the Galaxy, filling a gap in ABC's fall 2020 schedule. On October 9, 2020, ABC announced the program would return on October 14, with the broadcast television premiere of the 2017 Disney/Pixar film, Coco. Captain America: The Winter Soldier aired on January 12, 2021. The 2015 live action film Cinderella aired on January 19, 2021. On April 28, 2021, it was announced that the program would return on May 3, 2021 for five weeks with a series of theatrical movies from the Disney+ library, which includes the broadcast television premieres of Incredibles 2 and Finding Dory, Monsters, Inc., Tangled and The Princess and the Frog. On October 28, 2021, the program returned with the broadcast television premiere of the 2019 Disney/Pixar film Toy Story 4. The Magical World of Toons The Magical World of Toons was the daily prime time programming block featuring character's key series episodes coinciding with the launch of Disney's new channel, Toon Disney, on April 18, 1998. It continued at least until 2003. The Magical World of Disney Junior In 2012, Disney Junior launched a variant of the movie night anthology as The Magical World of Disney Junior on its new 24/7 channel. The channel also premiered its first Disney Junior Original Movie, Lucky Duck during Magical World on Friday, June 20, 2014. Reruns Prior to the launch of the Disney Channel, several of the films and specials made for the anthology series were licensed to pay-TV networks such as HBO; in HBO's case, the kaleidoscopic-pattern titles that preceded them in the original run were retained. Around the same time that the 1980s incarnations aired on ABC and NBC, reruns of older episodes of the Disney anthology series, airing under the Wonderful World of Disney banner, were syndicated to broadcast television stations throughout the United States as well as in various international markets. In Australia, the program aired on Network Seven on Saturdays at 6:30 pm, before it was dropped in 1994 due to Optus Vision (later Foxtel)'s launch of a domestic version of the Disney Channel, with Saturday Disney replacing it as the channel's main block of Disney films. Reruns of the shows were a staple of the Disney Channel for several years under the title Walt Disney Presents (which used the same title sequence as the 1980s CBS incarnation), when it was an outlet for vintage Disney cartoons, television series, and films, basically serving the same function that the anthology series served in the days before cable. The original opening titles were restored to the episodes in 1997. Reruns of the anthology series were discontinued when the channel exclude all vintage material with the removal of its Vault Disney late-night block on September 8, 2002. However, a few select episodes are available on VHS or DVD (some of which are exclusive to the Disney Movie Club), with the possibility of additional future releases. From 2014 to 2019, live-action Disney films from the 1950s to the 1980s including special episodes from Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color aired on Turner Classic Movies, without commercial interruption, and presented uncut and with letterboxing on the network's standard-definition feed. All of the episodes and existing material used on the series up to 1996 are listed in the Bill Cotter book The Wonderful World of Disney Television, which was released in 1997 by Hyperion Books (which was owned by the Walt Disney Company at the time of the book's publication). Programming Originally hosted by Walt Disney himself, the original format of the Disney anthology series consisted of a balance of theatrical animated cartoons, live-action features, and other informational material (some original, some pre-existing) from the studio's library. For many years, the show also featured edited one-hour versions of such then-recent Disney films as Alice in Wonderland, and in other cases, telecasts of complete Disney films that were split into two or more one-hour episodes. Later original programs consisted of dramatizations of other historical figures and legends along the lines of the Davy Crockett mini-series. These included a miniseries based on Daniel Boone (not the Fess Parker characterization), Texas John Slaughter, Elfego Baca, Francis Marion (the "Swamp Fox") and 1977's Kit Carson and the Mountain Man (with Christopher Connelly as Kit Carson, Robert Reed as John C. Fremont, and Gregg Palmer as mountain man Jim Bridger). Occasionally, a more educational segment would be featured (such as The Story of the Animated Drawing), including nature and animal programs similar to the True-Life Adventures that were released in theaters, as well as various dramatic installments which were either structured as single-part, two-part, and sometimes, multipart editions. Much of the original informational excerpts were to create awareness of Disneyland. In spite of essentially serving as advertisements for the park, entertainment value was emphasized, as well to make the shows palatable. Some of the program's informational content was formatted to promote upcoming feature film releases by the studio (such as 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea and Darby O'Gill and the Little People), with some programs focusing on the art and technology of animation itself. Theme music From 1954 to 1961, the series used the song "When You Wish Upon a Star" as its theme. The recording was taken directly from the soundtrack of the movie Pinocchio. Once the title was changed to "Walt Disney Presents" in 1958, the theme was used only over the ending credits. From 1961 to 1969, an original song was used, "The Wonderful World of Color", written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman. This song helped to emphasize the use of color with its lyrics. From 1969 to 1979 (The Wonderful World of Disney), orchestral medleys of various Disney songs from movies and theme parks as theme songs. From 1979 to 1980 (Disney's Wonderful World), a disco-styled theme was written to emphasize the new visual changes, even though the format remained the same. John Debney composed the melody and John Klawitter wrote the lyrics. From 1980 to 1981, the series discarded the Debney/Klawitter theme and went back to an earlier orchestral medley theme, while keeping the 1979 credits motif and title. From 1981 to 1983 (Walt Disney), a short disco arrangement of "When You Wish Upon a Star", arranged by Frank Gari, served as theme against some elaborate, then-state-of-the-art computer graphics. CBC Television in Canada also used this title sequence and theme music for their own versions of the show. The sequence was also used as the opening sequence on international Walt Disney Home Video releases until 1987. From 1986 to 1988, a synthesized, pop-rock arrangement of "When You Wish Upon a Star" with some clapping was the theme. This was used again for the 1989–90 season of The Magical World of Disney and the 1991–96 run on The Disney Channel. In 1988, an orchestral medley of "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes" and "When You Wish Upon a Star" was used. This was switched back to the 1987 theme in 1989. From 1991 to 1997, an orchestral medley of "When You Wish Upon a Star" and "Part of Your World" (the latter from Disney's then recent hit The Little Mermaid), composed by Bruce Broughton, was used for network airings of the show (known as The Wonderful World of Disney on CBS and A Disney Special on other networks) as well as The 100 Lives of Black Jack Savage, a collaboration with Stephen J. Cannell Productions. This theme was also used internationally. From 1997 to 2000, Vocals added, an orchestral medley of "When You Wish Upon a Star" and "A Whole New World" (the latter used in the movie Aladdin), composed by Jerry Goldsmith, were used; also used occasionally was the Louis Armstrong hit "What a Wonderful World". This theme is still used currently internationally. From 2000 to 2007, a newer orchestral arrangement of "When You Wish Upon a Star" with a wordless choir, composed by James Horner, was used for ABC airings in the United States. From 2007 to 2008, another orchestral arrangement of "When You Wish Upon a Star" (in actuality, the theme from the current Disney logo, composed by Mark Mancina) and a brand-new opening title sequence (depicting a montage of the company's work with audio from Walt Disney himself) are used for ABC airings in the United States. From 2015 on, "Heaven’s Triumph", composed by Robert Etoll via Q-Factory, is used alongside a brand-new opening title sequence (updated with a longer voice-over from Walt Disney and including Star Wars and Marvel properties). International broadcasts Argentina The Telefe era El mundo de Disney (The World of Disney) aired for the first time on the OTA network Telefe in 1990, hosted by Leonardo Greco. He remained as the sole presenter of the show, lasting until 1995, when the series concluded. The programme started airing at 8:00 pm nightly from the second half of 1990 until December 1992. By 1993, it was moved to weekday afternoons at 5:00 pm. When it was coming to an end, around 1994, shifted to Sunday afternoons, and aired a long marathon of movies and cartoons. According to Greco, this programme was possible because of a distributor who acquired the material, and was allowed to be shown without following a strict format, because the company wanted to do so. Telefe wanted a comeback, and appointed chef and host Maru Botana (then network talent) to present Planeta Disney (Disney Planet) on Sunday evenings, at 8:00pm, beginning November 21, 2004. Starting on July 9, 2005, Botana was replaced with two personalities employed by Disney, Carolina Ibarra and Dani Martins. They both shared the duties of hosting this show and the South American edition of Zapping Zone, on Disney Channel. This lasted for a year and a half, with relative success. The Canal 13 era While Telefe had a major success carrying the animated movies and some TV series like Blossom or Dinosaurs (distributed by Buena Vista Television), Canal 13 saw the possibility of buying material from the company and airing it (sometimes competing against the Telefe's program) on Sunday afternoons, beginning in 1994, which at that time was filled with telecasts of ancient Argentinian films from the 1950s, 1960s or 1970s, and by reruns of Tarzan and The Three Stooges. The only clear difference was that only movies starring human actors, like Chitty Chitty Bang Bang or The Island at the Top of the World, could be broadcast, and not the cartoons. This experiment lasted until early 1996. By 2007, the network took off from Telefe the exclusive rights to show all the Disney franchise movies and programs, and began to air its movies on Sunday evenings at 7:00 pm, without a host. This also allowed Canal 13 to detain rights for other shows not related with Disney, but with the ABC network, like Lost or Grey's Anatomy, and to produce a localized version of the high-grossing film High School Musical. Australia For more than 30 years, The Wonderful World of Disney was broadcast on the Seven Network, but in 2019, The Wonderful World of Disney moved to Saturday nights on the Nine Network and Friday nights on Nine's sister network, 9Go!. In 2020, The Wonderful World Of Disney moved to Friday, Saturday and Sunday nights on Seven's sister network, 7flix. Brazil The ABC run of the program under The Magical World of Disney title originally aired in that country under the title Cine Disney, now as O Mundo Mágico de Disney and Sessão de Domingo Disney, on the Brazilian-Portuguese version of Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão (SBT) in partnership with The Walt Disney Company. The ABC run of the program under The Wonderful World of Disney title originally aired in that country under the title O Maravilhoso Mundo de Disney on the Brazilian Portuguese version of Disney Channel; the program moved to SBT as Mundo Disney in 2015, for return in partnership with The Walt Disney Company, for end partnership in 2018 from 2 years. Hong Kong Episodes Ratings Nielsen seasonal ratings Awards and nominations Emmy Awards Won Best Individual Program of the Year (Operation Undersea, 1955) Best Television Film Editing (Lynn Harrison, Grant K. Smith, Operation Undersea, 1955) Best Action or Adventure Series (1956) Best Producer – Film Series (Walt Disney, 1956) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Children's Programming (1963) Outstanding Program Achievements in Entertainment (Walt Disney, 1965) Special Classification of Outstanding Program and Individual Achievement – Programs (Ron Miller, executive producer, 1971) Outstanding Main Title Design (1998) Nominated Best Television Film Editing (Chester W. Schaeffer, "Davy Crockett: Indian Fighter", 1955) Best Single Program of the Year ("Davy Crockett and River Pirates", 1956) Best Musical Contribution for Television (Oliver Wallace, 1957) Outstanding Program Achievement in the Field of Children's Programming (1962) Outstanding Program Achievements in the Fields of Variety and Music – Variety (1962) Outstanding Children's Program (Walt Disney, Ron Miller (Further Adventures of Gallagher, 1966) Outstanding Achievement in Children's Programming – Programs (Ron Miller, executive producer, 1969) Outstanding Achievement in Children's Programming – Programs (Ron Miller, executive producer, 1970) Special Classification of Outstanding Program and Individual Achievement – General Programming (Ron Miller, producer, 1972) Special Classification of Outstanding Program Achievement (Ron Miller, executive producer, 1977) Outstanding Children's Program (The Art of Disney Animation, 1981) Home media Several home media releases have included episodes of the anthology series. On Vacation with Mickey Mouse and Friends Kids Is Kids The Adventures of Chip 'N' Dale At Home with Donald Duck Disney's Halloween Treat A Disney Christmas Gift Winnie the Pooh and Friends Bambi Platinum Edition Tricks of Our Trade (excerpt) Alice in Wonderland Masterpiece Edition One Hour in Wonderland (complete episode) Operation Wonderland Featurette The Fred Waring Show (first half) 1954 Introduction 1964 Introduction Alice in Wonderland Special Un-Anniversary Edition One Hour in Wonderland (complete episode) Operation Wonderland Featurette The Fred Waring Show (first half) 1954 Introduction 1964 Introduction Alice in Wonderland 60th Anniversary Edition One Hour in Wonderland (complete episode) Operation Wonderland Featurette The Fred Waring Show (first half) 1954 Introduction 1959 Introduction 1964 Introduction Peter Pan Special Edition The Peter Pan Story Featurette Peter Pan Platinum Edition The Peter Pan Story Featurette Dumbo 60th Anniversary Edition Walt Disney Introduction Dumbo Big Top Edition Walt Disney Introduction Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs Platinum Edition Tricks of Our Trade (two excerpts) The Silly Symphony Story (excerpt) Pete's Dragon Gold Collection/High Flying Edition The Plausible Impossible (excerpt) The Aristocats Special Edition The Great Cat Family Disneyland, USA The Disneyland Story Disneyland After Dark Disneyland 10th Anniversary Behind the Scenes at the Walt Disney Studios The Story of the Animated Drawing The Plausible Impossible Tricks of Our Trade Tomorrow Land Man in Space Man and the Moon Mars and Beyond Our Friend the Atom The Complete Pluto, Volume 1 A Story of Dogs (featuring excerpt from "Pluto's Picture Book") The Chronological Donald, Volume Two A Day in the Life of Donald Duck Your Host, Walt Disney I Captured the King of the Leprechauns Backstage Party Where Do the Stories Come From The Fourth Anniversary Show Disneyland 10th Anniversary True Life Adventures (4 volumes) Disneyland: Secrets, Stories and Magic The Golden Horseshoe Revue Disneyland Goes To the World's Fair Disneyland Around the Seasons So Dear to My Heart So Dear to My Heart (introduction) 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea Monsters of the Deep (excerpt) Lady and the Tramp Platinum Edition A Story of Dogs ("making-of" segment and excerpt) A Cavalcade of Songs (3-minute-long excerpt) Old Yeller Best Doggone Dog in the West Darby O'Gill and the Little People I Captured The King of the Leprechauns Johnny Tremain The Liberty Story (first half) Johnny Tremain, Part One (excerpt) Johnny Tremain, Part Two (excerpt) Sleeping Beauty Special Edition An Adventure in Art (segment: "4 Artists Paint 1 Tree") The Peter Tchaikovsky Story (Life of Tchaikovsky segment only) Sleeping Beauty Platinum Edition An Adventure in Art (segment: "4 Artists Paint 1 Tree") The Peter Tchaikovsky Story (complete episode – two versions) Pollyanna Pollyanna, Part One (introduction) Pollyanna, Part Two (introduction) Pollyanna, Part Three (introduction) Swiss Family Robinson Escape to Paradise/Water Birds (first half) The Parent Trap The Title Makers (first half) The Sword in the Stone Gold Collection All About Magic (complete episode) The Sword in the Stone 45th Anniversary Edition All About Magic (excerpt) A Goofy Movie Gold Collection The Goofy Success Story (complete episode without the Disneyland intro) Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl From the Pirates of the Caribbean to the World of Tomorrow (first half) In the 1980s, Walt Disney Home Video released 15 volumes of the anthology series on VHS, while many episodes have been released on DVD from either the Disney Movie Club or the Disney Generations movies-on-demand (MOD) program on Amazon.com. See also Zorro (1957 TV series) Disneyland Park (Anaheim) The Mickey Mouse Club Disney Channel List of Disney television films Hallmark Hall of Fame World Masterpiece Theater References External links Official Website Disney interview in TV Guide (1961) (regarding the move from ABC to NBC) Information about the book The Wonderful World of Disney Television by Bill Cotter Episode list (1954–1996) Television series by Disney American Broadcasting Company original programming NBC original programming CBS original programming First-run syndicated television programs in the United States 1950s American anthology television series 1960s American anthology television series 1970s American anthology television series 1980s American anthology television series 1990s American anthology television series 2000s American anthology television series 2010s American anthology television series 2012 American television series debuts American television series revived after cancellation American motion picture television series American television series with live action and animation Black-and-white American television shows Disney Channel original programming Peabody Award-winning television programs 1954 American television series debuts 2008 American television series endings Disney-related lists Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Series winners English-language television shows 2020s American anthology television series Television series created by Walt Disney

357522

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenancy%20areas%20of%20Scotland

Lieutenancy areas of Scotland

The lieutenancy areas of Scotland (, ) are the areas used for the ceremonial lord-lieutenants, the monarch's representatives, in Scotland. The lord-lieutenants' titles chosen by the monarch and her legal advisers are mainly based on placenames of the traditional counties of Scotland. In 1794 permanent lieutenancies were established by Royal Warrant. By the Militia Act 1797 (37 Geo.3, C.103), the lieutenants appointed "for the Counties, Stewartries, Cities, and Places" were given powers to raise and command County Militia Units. While in their lieutenancies, lord lieutenants are among the few individuals in Scotland officially permitted to fly a banner of the Royal Arms of Scotland, the "Lion Rampant" as it is more commonly known. Lieutenancy areas are different from the current local government council areas and their committee areas. They also differ from other subdivisions of Scotland including sheriffdoms and former regions and districts. The Lord Provosts of Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, and Glasgow also act ex officio as lord-lieutenants. This is a unique right in the United Kingdom: all other lord-lieutenants are appointed by the monarch, rather than being elected politicians. List Definition of the areas Each Lord-Lieutenant of a county holding office immediately prior to the local government reorganisation of Scotland on 16 May 1975 was appointed to an area (usually the traditional county area) within the regions and districts which were established on that date. The regions and districts were themselves superseded on 1 April 1996, but the lieutenancy areas remain the same (with minor border adjustments in some based on new council area boundaries). See also Subdivisions of Scotland List of burghs in Scotland List of places in Scotland References The Lord-Lieutenants Order 1975, Statutory Instrument 1975 No. 428. The Lord-Lieutenants (Scotland) Order 1996, Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 731 (S.83). External links Local government in Scotland Lieutenancy areas Lieutenancy areas Administrative divisions of Scotland

357525

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedknobs%20and%20Broomsticks

Bedknobs and Broomsticks

Bedknobs and Broomsticks is a 1971 American musical fantasy film directed by Robert Stevenson and produced by Bill Walsh for Walt Disney Productions. It is based upon the books The Magic Bedknob; or, How to Become a Witch in Ten Easy Lessons (1943) and Bonfires and Broomsticks (1947) by English children's author Mary Norton. The film, which combines live action and animation, stars Angela Lansbury, David Tomlinson, John Ericson, and introducing Ian Weighill, Cindy O'Callaghan, and Roy Snart. During the early 1960s, Bedknobs and Broomsticks entered development when the negotiations for the film rights to Mary Poppins (1964) were placed on hold. When the rights were acquired, the film was shelved repeatedly due to the similarities with Mary Poppins until it was revived in 1969. Originally at a length of 139 minutes, Bedknobs and Broomsticks was edited down to almost two hours prior to its premiere at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City. As with Mary Poppins, the Sherman Brothers composed the film's songs. The film was released on October 7, 1971, to mixed reviews from film critics, some of whom praised the live-action/animated sequence. The film received five Academy Awards nominations winning one for Best Special Visual Effects. This was the last film released prior to the death of Walt Disney's surviving brother, Roy O. Disney, who died one week later. It is also the last theatrical film Reginald Owen appeared in before his death next year in 1972; his last two acting credits were for television. In 1996, the film was restored with most of the deleted material re-inserted back into the film. A stage musical adaptation has been produced. The musical had its world premiere at the Theatre Royal, in Newcastle upon Tyne, on 14 August 2021 before embarking on a UK and Ireland tour, until May 2022. Plot In August 1940, during the Battle of Britain, three children named Charlie, Carrie, and Paul Rawlins are evacuated from London to Pepperinge Eye near the Dorset coast where they are placed in the reluctant care of Miss Eglantine Price, who agrees to the arrangement temporarily. The children attempt to run away back to London, but after observing Miss Price flying on a broomstick, they change their minds. Miss Price reveals she is learning witchcraft through a correspondence school with hopes of using her spells in the British war effort against the Nazis, and offers the children a transportation spell in exchange for their silence. She casts the spell on a bedknob, and adds only Paul can work the spell, as he is the one who handed the bedknob to her. Later, Miss Price receives a letter from her school announcing its closure, thus preventing her from learning the final spell. She convinces Paul to use the enchanted bed to return the group to London, and locate Professor Emelius Browne. Browne turns out to be a charismatic showman who created the course from an old book, and is shocked to learn the spells actually work. He gives the book to Miss Price, who is distraught to discover the final spell, "Substitutiary Locomotion", is missing. The group travels to Portobello Road to locate the rest of the book. After an exchange with an old bookseller, Miss Price learns that the spell is engraved on the Star of Astaroth, a medallion that belonged to a sorcerer of that name. The bookseller explains that the medallion was taken by a pack of wild animals, given anthropomorphism by Astaroth, to a remote island called Naboombu. A 17th century lascar had claimed to have seen Naboombu, but the bookseller never found it. Paul confirms its existence by revealing a storybook he found in Mr. Browne's playroom. The group travels to Naboombu a land in a lagoon; there, the bed goes underwater, where Mr. Browne and Miss Price enter a dance contest and win first prize. Just then, the bed is fished out of the sea by a bear, who informs the group that no human is allowed on the island by royal decree. They are brought before the island's ruler, King Leonidas the lion, who is wearing the Star of Astaroth. Leonidas invites Mr. Browne to act as a referee in a football match. The chaotic match ends in Leonidas' self-proclaimed victory, but Mr. Browne swaps the medallion with his referee whistle as he leaves, and the group escapes, Miss Price turning Leonidas into a white rabbit when he tries to chase them. Back home, Miss Price exercises the spell, which imbues inanimate objects with life. When Miss Price is informed that the children can be moved to another home, she decides to let them stay, realizing she has come to love them and vice versa. The children declare they want Mr. Browne to be their father, but Mr. Browne, wary of commitment, bids goodbye to the group and attempts to take a train back to London. A platoon of Nazi German commandos land on the coast via U-boat as part of an exercise and invade Miss Price's house, imprisoning her and the children in the local museum. At the train station, Mr. Browne fends off two Germans cutting phone lines and heads back to Miss Price's house where he uses the white rabbit spell that he taught Miss Price so he can disguise himself to avoid the Germans. He finds Miss Price and the children at the museum and inspires Miss Price to use the spell to enchant the museum's exhibits into an army. The army of knights' armor and military uniforms chases the Germans away, but as they retreat, they destroy Miss Price's workshop, ending her career as a witch. Though disappointed her career is over, she is happy she played a small part in the war effort. Shortly afterwards, Miss Price has officially adopted and committed herself to raising the children, Mr. Browne also made a commitment to becoming the father of the children and moved in with them. Mr. Browne enlists in the army and departs with the local Home Guard escorting him, promising the children he will return soon. Paul reveals he still has the enchanted bedknob, hinting they can continue with their adventures. Cast Angela Lansbury as Miss Eglantine Price. Miss Price is initially a somewhat reclusive woman, reluctant to take in children from London as she believes they will get in the way of her witchcraft, which she prefers to keep secret but hopes to use to bring World War II to an end. However, she bonds with the children and falls in love with Mr. Browne during their journey. David Tomlinson as Mr. Emelius Browne. Introduced as "Professor Browne," the title by which Miss Price knows him, he is running a Correspondence College of Witchcraft based on what he believes to be "nonsense words" found in an old book. When Miss Price and the children find him in London, he is revealed to be a street performer and con artist, and not a very good one. He is, however, a smooth talker, which proves useful on the group's adventures, and believes in doing everything "with a flair." As the adventures unfold, he finds himself developing an attachment to Miss Price and the children, a feeling he struggles with. Ian Weighill as Charles "Charlie" Rawlins. Charlie is the eldest of the orphaned Rawlins children; eleven, going on twelve, according to Carrie, an age which Miss Price calls "The Age of Not Believing." Accordingly, he is initially cynical and disbelieving of Miss Price's magical efforts, but comes around as time goes on; it is at his initial suggestion that Ms. Price uses the Substitutiary Locomotion spell on the museum artifacts. Cindy O'Callaghan as Carrie Rawlins. Slightly younger than Charlie, she takes on a motherly attitude toward her brothers, especially Paul. She is the first to encourage a friendly relationship between Miss Price and the children. Roy Snart as Paul Rawlins. Paul is about six; his possession of the bedknob and the Isle of Naboombu children's book lead to the group's adventures as well as the eventual solution to the quest for the Substitutiary Locomotion spell. Paul is prone to blurting out whatever is on his mind, which occasionally leads to trouble. Roddy McDowall as Mr. Rowan Jelk, the local clergyman. Deleted scenes reveal Mr. Jelk to be interested in marrying Miss Price, largely for her property. Sam Jaffe as the Bookman, a mysterious criminal also in pursuit of the Substitutiary Locomotion spell. It is implied that there is some history and bad blood between him and Mr. Browne. Bruce Forsyth as Swinburne, a spiv and associate of the Bookman's who acts as his muscle. Tessie O'Shea as Mrs. Jessica "Jessie" Hobday, the local postmistress of Pepperinge Eye and chairwoman of the War Activities Committee. John Ericson as Colonel Heller, leader of the German raiding party which comes ashore at Pepperinge Eye. Reginald Owen as Major General Sir Brian Teagler, commander of the local Home Guard. Arthur Gould-Porter as Captain Ainsley Greer, a British Army captain who comes from HQ in London to inspect the Home Guard and becomes lost in the area. He is constantly running into locals who suspect him of being a Nazi in disguise. Hank Worden as Old Home Guard Soldier (uncredited) Cyril Delevanti as Elderly farmer Alan Hewitt as a Soldier Voices Lennie Weinrib as King Leonidas, a lion who is the ruler of the Isle of Naboombu. He is a devoted soccer player with a fearsome temper, as well as a notorious cheat who is known to make up the rules as he goes along – according to Paul's book. Lennie Weinrib also voices the Secretary bird, a prim and proper type who often bears the brunt of King Leonidas' temper. Dallas McKennon as Fisherman Bear. a brown bear who is a sailor and fisherman on the Isle of Naboombu. He is the one who pulls the bed, with Miss Price's group on it, out of the lagoon with his fishing pole, and takes them to see the King after warning them of his temper. Bob Holt as Codfish, a denizen of the Naboombu lagoon who judges the underwater dance contest. Production English author Mary Norton published her first children's book, The Magic Bed-Knob, in 1943. In August 1945, Variety reported that Walt Disney had purchased the film rights to the book. Norton then published Bonfires and Broomsticks in 1947, and the two children's books were then combined into Bed-Knob and Broomsticks in 1957. During the negotiations for the film rights to Mary Poppins with P.L. Travers in 1961, a film adaptation of Bedknobs and Broomsticks was suggested as an alternative project. When the negotiations stalled, Disney instructed the Sherman brothers to begin working on the project. During a story conference with producer Bill Walsh and writer Don DaGradi, as the Sherman brothers were singing the song "Eglantine", Walt fell asleep in his chair. When Disney purchased the rights to Mary Poppins, the project was shelved. In spring 1966, the Sherman brothers resumed their work on Bedknobs and Broomsticks, but the project was shelved again due to the similarities with Mary Poppins (1964). As the Sherman brothers' contract with the Disney studios was set to expire in 1968, they were contacted by Bill Walsh in their office to start work on the film. Then, Walsh, DaGradi, and the Sherman brothers re-assembled to work on the storyline for several months. Although there was no plan to put the film into production at the time, Walsh promised the Shermans that he would call them back to the studio and finish the project, which he eventually did in November 1969. Throughout 1970 and 1971, the Sherman brothers reworked their musical compositions for the film. The song, "The Beautiful Briny" was originally written for Mary Poppins for when Mary spins a compass sending the Banks children into several exotic locations, but it was later used for Bedknobs and Broomsticks. Casting Leslie Caron, Lynn Redgrave, Judy Carne, and Julie Andrews were all considered for the role of Eglantine Price. Andrews was initially offered the part, but hesitated. Walsh later contacted Angela Lansbury, who signed onto the role on October 31, 1969 Halloween. Shortly after, Andrews reconsidered as she felt she owed it to Disney and contacted Walsh again to tell him she would take the role, but learned Lansbury had been cast. Although Peter Ustinov was considered, Ron Moody was originally slated as Emelius Brown, but he refused to star in the film unless he received top billing which the studio would not allow. He was ultimately replaced with David Tomlinson. The three Rawlins children—Charlie, Carrie, and Paul—were played by Ian Weighill, Cindy O'Callaghan, and Roy Snart respectively. Weighill had previously dropped out of school and began his acting career in an uncredited role as a schoolboy in David Copperfield (1969). He auditioned before Disney talent scouts for one of the child roles in Bedknobs and Broomsticks in London, and was cast as Charlie. Prior to Bedknobs, Snart was a child actor appearing in numerous commercials, and was cast as Paul for his "impish, cheeky look". For the part of Carrie, O'Callaghan had previously acted in television commercials and later made her stage debut in a production of Peter Pan at the Scala Theatre. There, she caught the attention of Disney's talent scouts. Filming Filming took place at the Disney studios in Burbank, California from early March to June 10, 1970. The coastal scenes featuring German soldiers were shot on location at a nearby California beach. Additional scenes were shot on location in Corfe Castle in Dorset, England. Filming lasted fifty-seven days while the animation and special effects required five months each to complete. For the Naboombu soccer sequence, the sodium vapor process was used, which was developed by Petro Vlahos in the 1960s. Animator and director Ward Kimball served as the animation director over the sequence. Directing animator Milt Kahl had designed the characters, but he was angered over the inconsistencies in the character animation. This prompted Kimball to send a memo dated on September 17, 1970 to adhere to animation cohesiveness to the animation staff. Because of the heavy special effects, the entire film had to be storyboarded in advance, shot for shot, in which Lansbury noted her acting was "very by the numbers". Release Bedknobs and Broomsticks had an original runtime of 141 minutes, and was scheduled to premiere at the Radio City Music Hall. However, in order to accommodate for the theater's elaborate stage show, the film was trimmed down to two hours, in which 23 minutes were ultimately removed from the film. The removed scenes included a minor subplot involving Roddy McDowall's character (which was reduced to one minute) and three entire musical sequences titled "A Step in the Right Direction", "With a Flair", and "Nobody's Problems". The "Portobello Road" sequence was reduced from about ten minutes down to three. The movie was reissued theatrically on April 13, 1979, with an additional twenty minutes deleted from the film. 1996 restoration Intrigued with Lansbury's song, "A Step in the Right Direction" on the original soundtrack album, Scott MacQueen, then-senior manager of Disney's library restoration, set out to restore the film in conjunction with the film's 25th anniversary. Most of the deleted film material was found, but some segments of "Portobello Road" had to be reconstructed from work prints with digital re-coloration to match the film quality of the main content. The footage for "A Step in the Right Direction" was unrecoverable, but the sequence was reconstructed by linking the original music track up to existing production stills. The edit included several newly discovered songs, including "Nobody's Problems", performed by Lansbury. The number had been cut before the premiere of the film. Lansbury had only made a demo recording, singing with a solo piano because the orchestrations would have been added when the picture was scored. When the song was cut, the orchestrations had not yet been added; therefore, it was finally orchestrated and put together when it was placed back into the film. The soundtrack for some of the spoken tracks was unrecoverable. Therefore, Lansbury and McDowall re-dubbed their parts, while other actors made ADR dubs for those who were unavailable. Even though David Tomlinson was still alive when the film was being reconstructed, he was in ill-health, and unavailable to provide ADR for Emelius Browne, so he was replaced by Jeff Bennett. The restored version of the film premiered on September 27, 1996 at the Motion Picture Academy of Arts and Sciences in Beverly Hills, California where it was attended by Lansbury, the Sherman Brothers, Ward Kimball, and special effects artist Danny Lee. It was later broadcast on Disney Channel on August 9, 1998. Home media In 1980, Disney partnered with Fotomat Corporation on a trial distribution deal, in which Bedknobs and Broomsticks was released on VHS and LaserDisc on March 4, 1980. In October 1982, Disney announced it had partnered with RCA to release nine of their films on the CED videodisc format of which Bedknobs and Broomsticks was re-released later that same year. The film was re-issued on VHS on October 23, 1989. The film was released on VHS as an installment in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection on October 28, 1994. The restored version of the film was released on VHS and DVD on March 20, 2001 as part of the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection, to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the film. The reconstruction additionally marked the first time the film was presented in stereophonic sound. Along with the film, the DVD included a twenty-minute making-of featurette with the Sherman brothers, a recording session with David Tomlinson singing the ending of "Portebello Road", a scrapbook containing thirteen pages of concept art, publicity, and merchandising stills, and a Film Facts supplement of the film's production history. A new edition called Bedknobs and Broomsticks: Enchanted Musical Edition was released on DVD on September 8, 2009. This new single-disc edition retained the restored version of the film and most of the bonus features from the 2001 DVD release. The movie was released on Special Edition Blu-ray, DVD, and Digital HD on August 12, 2014, in its original 117-minute version, with the deleted scenes used in the previous reconstructed version presented in a separate section on the Blu-ray disc. Reception Box office By January 1974, the film had grossed $8.25 million in box office rentals from the United States and Canada, with its final domestic rentals totaling $8.5 million. The 1979 re-release increased its North American rentals to $11.4 million. Critical reaction Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote that the film is a "tricky, cheerful, aggressively friendly Walt Disney fantasy for children who still find enchantment for pop-up books, plush animals by Steiff and dreams of independent flight." He further highlighted the Naboombu live-action/animated sequence as "the best of Disney, going back all the way to the first Silly Symphonies." Variety wrote that "what it may lack in the charm of [Mary Poppins] it more than measures in inventiveness. Indeed, it is doubtful if special effects or animation have been ever bettered or used to greater advantage. Alone they are a reason for seeing the film" in which the reviewer praised the Naboombu sequence as "not only sheer delights but technical masterpieces." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times awarded the film two-and-a-half stars out of four, and claimed while the film has the "same technical skill and professional polish" as Mary Poppins, "[i]t doesn't have much of a heart, though, and toward the end you wonder why the Poppins team thought kids would like it much." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave it two stars out of four calling the film "a mishmash of story ideas and film styles." He further added that the live action/animated sequence was "one bright spot in the story", but felt "the difference between scenes of sea horses and storm troopers is so great that probably no story could manage it. 'Bedknobs' tries and fails." Pauline Kael, reviewing for The New Yorker, panned the film writing it has "no logic in the style of the movie, and the story dribbles on for so long that it exhausts the viewer before that final magical battle begins." She concluded her review claiming "This whole production is a mixture of wizardry and ineptitude; the picture has enjoyable moments but it's as uncertain of itself as the title indicates." Charles Champlin of the Los Angeles Times wrote the film was "pleasant enough and harmless enough. It is also long (almost two hours) and slow. The songs are perfunctory (nothing supercalifragi-whatever) and the visual trickeries, splendid as they are, are sputtery to get the picture truly airborne. By the standards Disney has set for itself, it's a disappointing endeavor." The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film has an approval rating of 68% with an average rating of 6.1/10 out of 37 reviews. The website's consensus reads: "Bedknobs and Broomsticks often feels like a pale imitation of a certain magical guardian and her wards, but a spoonful of Angela Lansbury's witty star power helps the derivativeness go down." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 59 out of 100 based on 11 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Accolades For the 44th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for five Academy Award nominations for Best Art Direction, Best Scoring, Best Costume Design, Best Original Song, and Best Visual Effects, in which the film won the latter award. Music The musical score for Bedknobs and Broomsticks was composed by Irwin Kostal, with all songs written by Richard M. Sherman and Robert B. Sherman. A soundtrack album was released by Buena Vista Records in 1971. While the film was released in mono sound, the musical score was recorded in stereo and the soundtrack album was released in stereo. An expanded soundtrack album was later released on CD on August 13, 2002. "The Age of Not Believing" received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. "With a Flair", "Don't Let Me Down", and "Nobody's Problems" are only present in the reconstruction. "Solid Citizen" was replaced by the soccer match. Parts of "Fundamental Element" were incorporated into "Don't Let Me Down". These songs include: Stage musical adaptation A stage musical adaptation of Bedknobs and Broomsticks features the songs from the film by The Sherman Brothers with additional music and lyrics by Neil Bartram and a book by Brian Hill. The production is directed by Candice Edmunds and Jamie Harrison and opened at the Theatre Royal, Newcastle in August 2021 and is currently touring the UK and Ireland. It is produced by Michael Harrison, by special arrangement with Disney Theatrical Productions. See also List of American films of 1971 List of films with live action and animation References Bibliography External links 1971 films 1971 musical films 1970s children's animated films 1970s English-language films 1970s fantasy adventure films 1970s musical fantasy films American films American children's fantasy films American fantasy adventure films American musical fantasy films Animated films about bears Animated films about lions Animated films based on children's books Battle of Britain films Films about magic Films about Nazis Films about orphans Films about shapeshifting Films about witchcraft Films adapted into plays Films based on British novels Films based on children's books Films based on multiple works of a series Films directed by Robert Stevenson Films produced by Bill Walsh (producer) Films scored by Irwin Kostal Films set in 1940 Films set in England Films set in London Films shot in Dorset Films shot in Los Angeles County, California Films that won the Best Visual Effects Academy Award Films with live action and animation Musicals about World War II Musicals by the Sherman Brothers Walt Disney Pictures films

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20Communist%20Workers%27%20Party%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union

Russian Communist Workers' Party of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union

The Russian Communist Workers' Party of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (RCWP-CPSU; ; Rossiyskaya kommunisticheskaya rabochaya partiya v sostave Kommunisticheskoy partii Sovetskogo Soyuza, RKRP-KPSS) is a currently unregistered communist party in Russia. It is considered the republican branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (2001). The RCWP-CPSU is led by Viktor Tyulkin, who was co-chairman with Anatolii Kriuchkov until the latter died in 2005). It publishes a newspaper called Trudovaja Rossija (; Working People's Russia) and the journal Sovetskij Sojuz (; Soviet Union). The RCWP-CPSU claims to have supported all the biggest occupations and strikes in Russia. It has links to the Russian trade union Zashchita. As of 2007, it claims about 50,000 members. The Revolutionary Communist Youth League (Bolshevik) (RCYL(B)), the youth organization of the RCWP-CPSU, is considered one of the most active communist youth organizations in Russia. History The party was established in October 2001 under the name Russian Communist Workers' Party – Revolutionary Party of Communists (; abbreviated , ) through the unification of the Russian Communist Workers' Party, the Russian Party of Communists and the Union of Communists with the aim of resurrecting socialism and the Soviet Union. In the 1999 Duma election, the party won 2.2% of the total vote, getting 1,481,890 votes overall. The RCWP-CPSU considers the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF) to be reformist, but for the occasion of the 2003 Duma election the party leaders decided to make an agreement with the CPRF in order not to disperse the communist vote. In 2007, the party was de-registered by the Justice Ministry. In 2010, the RCWP-CPSU co-founded Russian registered political party Russian United Labour Front (ROT Front), which is led by Viktor Tyulkin. In April 2012, the party took its current name. External links 2001 establishments in Russia Anti-revisionist organizations Neo-Stalinist parties Communist parties in Russia Far-left politics in Russia Neo-Sovietism Political parties established in 2001 International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357533

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Federation%20of%20Engineering%20Students

Canadian Federation of Engineering Students

The Canadian Federation of Engineering Students (CFES) (Fédération canadienne étudiante de génie in French) is the national association of undergraduate engineering student societies in Canada and exists to organize activities, provide services and interact with professional and other bodies at the national and international level for the benefit of Canadian engineering students. The organization is a bilingual non-profit corporation based in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, managed by a volunteer team of engineering students and recent graduates from across Canada. Activities CFES Canadian Engineering Leadership Conference The flagship event of the CFES, the Canadian Engineering Leadership Conference (CELC), formerly known as Congress, serves as both the Annual General Meeting of the Federation, as well as a leadership development forum for engineering students from across Canada. Congress is typically held in the first week or January, spanning a full week of leadership development sessions, informational presentations, guest speakers from industry, a career fair and culminating in plenary, the decision making body of the CFES. At congress, the CFES National Executive and other officer positions are elected, and bids are made to host other CFES activities. Host schools 1969 McGill University (Montreal, Québec) 1970 Université Laval (Québec City, Québec) 1971 Carleton University & University of Ottawa (Ottawa, Ontario) 1972 University of New Brunswick (Fredericton, New Brunswick) 1973 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) 1974 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 1975 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 1976 Memorial University (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) 1977 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 1978 Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Québec) 1979 Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 1980 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 1981 Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) 1982 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 1983 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) 1984 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 1985 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 1986 Memorial University (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) 1987 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 1988 Université Laval (Québec City, Québec) 1989 Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 1990 Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) 1991 University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) 1992 École Polytechnique de Montréal & McGill University (Montreal, Québec) 1993 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 1994 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 1995 University of New Brunswick (Fredericton, New Brunswick) 1996 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 1997 Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Québec) 1998 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 1999 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 2000 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 2001 McGill University (Montreal, Québec) 2002 Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 2003 University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) 2004 University of Victoria (Victoria, British Columbia) 2005 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 2006 University of Windsor (Windsor, Ontario) 2007 Concordia University (Montreal, Québec) 2008 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 2009 Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario) 2010 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 2011 Memorial University (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) 2012 Yukon College (Whitehourse, Yukon) 2013 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 2014 Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Québec) 2015 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 2016 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 2017 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2018 Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 2019 McGill University (Montreal, Québec) 2020 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 2021 Canadian Federation of Engineering Students (Virtual) 2022 Memorial University of Newfoundland (Virtual) 2023 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 2024 Memorial University of Newfoundland (St. John's, Newfoundland) Publications The CFES Project Magazine, also known as ProMag, is a magazine published by the CFES and distributed to member schools. In 2012, ProMag was discontinued due to a shifted interest in providing an online journal that is more easily accessible. Additionally, the content of ProMag did not any longer satisfy the desires of CFES members. Subsequently, Promag was replaced by the CFES Publication (also called the Pub), which is an online publication that is focused on promoting the research and super-curricular activities of Canadian undergraduate engineering students. The Pub is a service provided by the Federation, and is no longer up for bid at Congress. The Pub has since become defunct. In the 2019-2020 Operating Year, the CFES decided to revive Project Magazine as an in-house online journal, celebrating the different regions of the federation through articles and stories submitted to a Task Force. It exists as a virtual publication. Project Magazine host schools 1984-1987 Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) 1988-1991 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 1992-1995 École Polytechnique (Montreal, Québec) 1996-2001 Technical University of Nova Scotia/Dalhousie University Polytechnic (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 2001-2006 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 2006-2007 École de technologie supérieure (Montreal, Québec) 2008-2012 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2008-2012 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) Canadian Engineering Competition (CEC) The Canadian Engineering Competition (CEC) (Compétition canadienne d'ingénierie in French) is an annual competition involving more than 150 of the best and brightest engineering students from across Canada. All competitors at the CEC qualify for the competition through one of four regional competitions: Western Engineering Competition (WEC) Ontario Engineering Competition (OEC) - OEC 2022 Quebec Engineering Competition (QEC) Atlantic Engineering Competition (AEC) Competition categories The CEC includes competitions in a variety of topics. Individual competitors can be entered in any one of the following competition categories: Extemporaneous Debate Senior Team Design Junior Team Design Consulting Engineering Innovative Design Engineering Communication Re-Engineering Programming Host schools As the CEC has a national scope, engineering schools wishing to host the competition must win a competitive bid process through the Canadian Federation of Engineering Students. Schools that have hosted the competition since its inception in 1985 include: 1985 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 1986 Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal (Montreal, Quebec) 1987 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 1989 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 1990 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) 1991 Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Quebec) 1992 Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) 1993 Dalhousie University (Halifax, Nova Scotia) 1994 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 1995 University of Alberta (Edmonton, Alberta) 1996 Simon Fraser University (Burnaby, British Columbia) 1997 Université de Moncton (Moncton, New Brunswick) 1998 Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario) 1999 Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal (Montreal, Quebec) 2000 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2001 University of Victoria (Victoria, British Columbia) 2002 Université Laval (Quebec City, Quebec) 2003 Memorial University of Newfoundland (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) 2004 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 2005 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 2006 Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal (Montreal, Quebec) 2007 University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) 2008 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 2009 University of New Brunswick (Fredericton, New Brunswick) 2010 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 2011 McGill University (Montreal, Quebec) 2012 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) 2013 Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario) 2014 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2015 Memorial University of Newfoundland (St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador) 2016 McGill University (Montreal, Quebec) 2017 University of Calgary (Calgary, Alberta) 2018 Ryerson University (Toronto, Ontario) 2019 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 2020 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 2021 University of New Brunswick (Virtual) 2022 University of New Brunswick (Fredericton, New Brunswick) 2023 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) Programs Complementary Education Courses (CE Courses) Complementary Education, or CE Courses, provide an opportunity for engineering students to extend their education beyond the basic engineering curriculum. CE Courses focus on a specific academic or development topic, such as Biomaterials, Nanotechnology and Professional Development. In addition to the academic component, CE Courses offer a number of social activities, and are a great way to explore a new city. At the moment, the CFES does not host its own Complementary Education courses. The Board of European Students of Technology open their CE courses to students of CFES member schools, allowing them to apply as a registrant of the course or as an organizer. Services CFES Lean Six Sigma The CFES offers a certification course in Lean Six Sigma. Formerly available through a partnership with Canada Post, the service could only be offered in one of Vancouver, Edmonton, Toronto, or Montreal- one of Canada Post's major hubs. In 2019, the CFES obtained a partnership agreement with Abacus which re-instated a more nationally available event for members to participate in. Typically, it occurs over the course of two weekends- one in English, and one in French, respectively. Host schools 2019 École de technologie supérieure (Montreal, Quebec) 2020 York University (Virtual) 2021 Cancelled due to External Factors CFES Conference on Diversity in Engineering (CDE) The CFES is offers the Conference on Diversity in Engineering (CDE) to its members. NCWIE began in 1990 as a local conference at Queen's University and in 2003 it became a national event. Other Canadian universities were invited to host it after the 2007 conference. The University of Western Ontario was the first school after Queen's University to host the event in 2008. Shortly thereafter, NCWIE was made a service of the Canadian Federation of Engineering Students. The first year that the CFES Conference on Diversity in Engineering is offered is 2015, denoting the end of the National Conference on Women in Engineering. Host schools 1990 – 2007 Queen's University (Kingston, Ontario) 2008 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2009 University of Toronto (Toronto, Ontario) 2010 University of Ottawa (Ottawa, Ontario) 2011 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 2012 Concordia University (Montreal, Quebec) 2013 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) 2014 University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) 2015 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 2016 McGill University (Montreal, Quebec) 2017 McMaster University (Hamilton, Ontario) 2018 Ryerson University (Toronto, Ontario) 2019 University of Western Ontario (London, Ontario) 2020 University of Calgary (Virtual) 2021 Dalhousie University (Virtual) 2022 University of Manitoba (Winnipeg, Manitoba) 2023 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) CFES Conference on Sustainability in Engineering (CSE) The CFES is offers the Conference on Sustainability in Engineering (CSE) to its members. CSE began as a new conference intended to address the need for a national discussion on sustainability in the Engineering field, as a part of the sustainability working group's work, and in address to the CFES Stance on Sustainability. The first year that the CFES Conference on Sustainability in Engineering was offered is 2019, at the University of Northern British Columbia in Prince George, BC. Host schools 2019 University of Northern British Columbia (Prince George, British Columbia) 2020 University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) 2021 Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Quebec) 2022 University of Guelph (Virtual) 2023 University of British Columbia (Vancouver, British Columbia) Structure Members The membership of the organization consists of engineering student societies, rather than individual engineering students. Eligibility for membership is limited to those societies located at a Canadian university that has at least one engineering program accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board and represents engineering student concerns to the school's administration and engineering faculty. The member societies are divided into four geographic regions for the purposes of representation on the Federation's board of directors: Atlantic (New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) Ontario Quebec West (Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Saskatchewan and the Canadian territories) Board of Directors As a non-profit organization, the Federation has a board of directors that is responsible for managing the business and property of the organization. Aside from the Chair, the board consists of 3 individuals elected at the annual meeting (the President, and the two National Councillors) and four regional ambassadors, selected using regionally-determined methods. The Vice-Presidents sit on the board as non-voting members: The Chair The President Four (4) Regional Ambassadors Two (2) National Councillors of the Federation The Vice Presidents (Non-Voting) Officer Team National Executive The CFES' operations are split by the National Executive, each operating in a different component. The National Executive will coordinate as one unit and ensure the smooth operations of the federation. President Vice President Advocacy Vice President Finance and Administration Vice President Services Vice President External Vice President Communications Commissioners The CFES further operates with Commissioners conducting the tasks in a specific portfolio. These commissioners are: Corporate Relations Commissioner Bilingualism Commissioner Engineering Change Lab Commissioner IT Commissioner Social Issues Commissioner Communications Commissioner Activity Managers The chairs of each of the activities and services offered by the CFES are also considered full officers of the CFES. These include: Lean Six Sigma Activity Manager (L6S) Presidents' Meeting Activity Manager (PM) Conference on Diversity in Engineering Activity Manager (CDE) Canadian Engineering Leadership Conference Activity Manager (CELC) Conference on Sustainability in Engineering Activity Manager (CSE) Canadian Engineering Competition Activity Manager (CEC) Corporate Partners Engineers Canada Canadian Council of Professional Engineers Association of Canadian Engineering Companies Engineering Change Lab Ontario Society of Professional Engineers Student Partners Board of European Students of Technology bonding-studenteninitiative e.V. (German student organization for students of engineering and natural sciences) National Association of Engineering Student Councils (American student organization for students of engineering and technology) EngiQueers Canada (National diversity and inclusion engineering student organization) Canadian Association of Business Students (CABS) Regional Associations Western Engineering Student Societies' Team (WESST) Engineering Student Societies' Council of Ontario (ESSCO) Quebec Confederation for Engineering Student Outreach (QCESO (more recognized by its French acronym, CREIQ)) Atlantic Council of Engineering Students (ACES) See also List of engineering societies in Canada References External links Official CFES Website Atlantic Council of Engineering Students (Atlantic Region) Western Engineering Students' Societies Team (West Region) Engineering Student Societies Council of Ontario (Ontario Region) Confédération pour le rayonnement étudiant en ingénierie au Québec (Québec Region) Engineering education Students' associations in Canada Organizations based in Ottawa Organizations established in 1967 1967 establishments in Ontario

357536

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist%20Churches%20of%20New%20Zealand

Baptist Churches of New Zealand

The Baptist Churches of New Zealand is a Baptist Christian denomination in New Zealand. It is affiliated with the Baptist World Alliance. The headquarters is in Auckland. History Several Baptists settled in New Zealand in the 1840s, but the first Baptist minister, Decimus Dolamore from Yorkshire, England, did not arrive until May 1851. Dolamore settled in Nelson and was involved in the formation of the first Baptist Church in New Zealand - Nelson Baptist Church - that same year. He was instrumental in obtaining a change in the law to allow Baptist ministers to perform marriage ceremonies; until 1854, only Catholic and Anglican priests were allowed to do so. Dolamore later went to Christchurch and was the first minister for that congregation. The Canterbury Baptist Association was formed in 1874. This association started the New Zealand Baptist magazine, which has been published monthly since January 1881. The Baptist Union of New Zealand was formed at Wellington in October 1882. At that time, there were 22 Baptist churches, with 1,890 members. The New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society was formed at the 1885 conference of the Baptist Union. At the 1891 conference, the Union established a plan to divide the country into four districts - "Otago/Southland" (org. 1892), "Auckland" (org. 1892), "Canterbury & Westland" (org. 1892), and "Central" (org. 1896). Central District was later divided into the Central District Association and the "Wellington" Association, and "South Auckland" was formed in 1939. South Auckland was later divided into the "Waikato" Association and the "Bay of Plenty" Association (now Bay of Plenty & Eastland). The "Top of the South" Association was formed in 1990. Some groups were called "auxiliary" and some "association", but in 1957, the term "auxiliary" was dropped in favor of the term "association". There are currently 9 associations. According to a denomination census released in 2020, it claimed 243 churches and 21,284 members. Beliefs Theologically, the Baptist Union member churches are deeply influenced by the charismatic renewal movement, though there is no official position regarding the movement. A study in 1989 indicated that 69% of churches belonging to the Baptist Union identified with the charismatic movement. A smaller portion of member churches are Reformed in doctrine. Education The Union supports education through Carey Baptist College in Penrose, Auckland, and Te Whare Amorangi, designed for Māori men and women, in Papatoetoe, Auckland. The Baptist National Centre is the registered office of the Baptist Union of New Zealand, the New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society and Baptist Care Limited, and is located in Penrose. Prominent New Zealand Baptists Decimus Dolamore - first Baptist minister in New Zealand Thomas Spurgeon - successful evangelist and son of famous English Baptist preacher, Charles Haddon Spurgeon Charles Dallaston - "the Father of the Baptist Union" John James North - the first principal of the New Zealand Baptist Theological College Hopestill Pillow - Baptist Missionary in the Zenana Missions to India. Charles Henry Carter (29 October 1828 – 6 July 1914) - a Baptist missionary to Ceylon. Literary Works - Translations. Extraordinarily Carter translated from the Greek and Hebrew texts, not the English. The Sinhalese work was done in vernacular language, that it could embody the message in a dialect that was understood by the people everywhere. His works include: Sinhalese New Testament 1855 Sinhalese Book of Psalms 1863 Sinhalese Old Testament 1869 English – Sinhalese Dictionary 1881 Sinhalese – English Dictionary 1889 Towards the end of his life, Carter became Pastor of the Ponsonby Baptist Church in New Zealand. He was the first president of the Baptist Union of New Zealand. Bishop Coppelstone, Anglican Primate of India is said to have described Carter as the "foremost Sinhalese scholar of this age". See also Bible Born again Baptist beliefs Worship service (evangelicalism) Jesus Christ Believers' Church References Further reading A Handful of Grain: The Centenary History of the Baptist Union of New Zealand (Volumes 1-4), by Paul Tonson, J. Ayson Clifford, G. T. Beilby, & S. L. Edgar Baptists Around the World, by Albert W. Wardin Jr. The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness, by H. Leon McBeth External links Official Website Baptist denominations in Oceania Evangelicalism in New Zealand Religious organizations established in 1882 Baptist Christianity in New Zealand

357537

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian%20Rolfe

Lilian Rolfe

Lilian Vera Rolfe, (26 April 1914 – 5 February 1945) was an Allied secret agent in the Second World War. Early life Rolfe and her twin sister Helen Fedora Rolfe were the daughters of George Rolfe, a British chartered accountant working in Paris. Although she grew up in Paris, she and her sister came to England for summer school to learn English when they were about 7 and then again when they were 11, as they spoke French at home. When she was 17 Rolfe came down with rheumatic fever while visiting an English family. In 1930, the family moved to Brazil for "professional reasons" and Lilian and Helen "finished school" there. She worked for the Canadian Embassy but when the war started she changed to the British Embassy. She completed courses in first aid and Morse code. Second World War At the onset of the Second World War, Rolfe worked at the British Embassy in Rio de Janeiro before going to London, England in 1943 to join the Women's Auxiliary Air Force. Because of her fluency in the French language, she was recruited into the Special Operations Executive (SOE), where she was trained as a wireless operator. On 5 April 1944, Rolfe was dropped near the city of Orléans in occupied France, where she was deployed to work with the "Historian" network run by George Wilkinson. Her job was to transmit Maquis and other important radio messages to London. Beyond her wireless duties, which included reporting on German troop movements and organising arms and supply drops, she actively participated in missions with members of the French Resistance against the German occupiers and was involved in a gun battle in the small town of Olivet just south of Orléans. Following the D-Day landings, an increasingly aggressive manhunt by the Gestapo led to the arrest of Rolfe's superior officer. Nonetheless, Rolfe continued to work until her arrest at a transmitting house in Nargis on 31 July 1944. Transported to Fresnes Prison in Paris, she was interrogated repeatedly and tortured until August 1944, when she was shipped to Ravensbrück concentration camp. According to an admission made by a German officer after the war's end, she was so ill that she could not walk. On 5 February 1945, 30-year-old Rolfe was executed by the Germans and her body disposed of in the crematorium. Three other female members of the SOE were also executed at Ravensbrück: Denise Bloch, Cecily Lefort, and Violette Szabo. Honours The name of Lilian Rolfe is engraved on the Runnymede Memorial in Surrey, England. The "Lilian Rolfe House" at the Vincennes Estate, Lambeth was dedicated to her memory. In her honour, the government of France posthumously awarded her the Croix de Guerre. In the town of Montargis in the Loiret département, where she had been active, a street was named for her alias: "Rue Claudie Rolfe". As one of the SOE agents who died for the liberation of France, she is listed on the "Roll of Honour" on the Valençay SOE Memorial in the town of Valençay, in the Indre departément of France. Like many female agents she was seconded into the First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY) when she joined SOE. Thus she is also commemorated on the FANY memorial at St Paul's Church Knightsbridge in London. On 19 August 2021 a plaque was installed on the house Rolfe was born in (32 avenue Duquesne in the 7th arrondissement of Paris) due to the efforts of Barbara Cronk, a member of the Rolfe family. In the 1958 film Carve Her Name with Pride, the character of Lilian Rolfe was played by Anne Leon. Notes Bibliography Squadron Leader Beryl E. Escott, Mission Improbable: A salute to the RAF women of SOE in wartime France, London, Patrick Stevens Limited, 1991. Liane Jones, A Quiet Courage: Women Agents in the French Resistance, London, Transworld Publishers Ltd, 1990. Marucs Binney, The Women Who Lived for Danger: The Women Agents of SOE in the Second World War, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 2002. Sarah Helm, A Life in Secrets: The Story of Vera Atkins and the Lost Agents of SOE, London, Abacus, 2005 1914 births 1945 deaths Executed spies Female wartime spies World War II spies for the United Kingdom Female resistance members of World War II Spies who died in Nazi concentration camps Recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France) People who died in Ravensbrück concentration camp Women's Auxiliary Air Force officers Women's Auxiliary Air Force airwomen Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II Military personnel from Paris French people executed in Nazi concentration camps Executed people from Île-de-France Female recipients of the Croix de Guerre (France) Members of the Order of the British Empire French Special Operations Executive personnel British Special Operations Executive personnel French women in World War II Special Operations Executive personnel killed in World War II

357539

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petard

Petard

A petard is a small bomb used for blowing up gates and walls when breaching fortifications. It is of French origin and dates back to the 16th century. A typical petard was a conical or rectangular metal device containing of gunpowder, with a slow match for a fuse. Etymology Pétard comes from the Middle French péter, to fart, from the root pet, expulsion of intestinal gas, derived from the Latin peditus, past participle of pedere, to break wind. In modern French, a pétard is a firecracker (and it is the basis for the word for firecracker in several other European languages). Pétardiers were deployed during sieges of castles or fortified cities. The pétard, a rather primitive and exceedingly dangerous explosive device, comprised a brass or iron bell-shaped device filled with gunpowder and affixed to a wooden base called a madrier. This was attached to a wall or gate using hooks and rings, the fuse lit and, if successful, the resulting explosive force, concentrated at the target point, would blow a hole in the obstruction, allowing assault troops to enter. Shakespeare's phrase "hoist with his own petard"meaning that one could be lifted (blown) upward by one's own bomb, or in other words, be foiled by one's own planhas become an idiom that means "to be harmed by one's own plan (to harm someone else)" or "to fall into one's own trap". Overview Petards were often placed either inside tunnels under walls or directly upon gates. The petard's shape allowed the concussive pressure of the blast to be applied entirely towards the destruction of the target structure. Depending on design, a petard could be secured by propping it against the wall or gate using beams, as illustrated, or nailing it in place on a madrier (a thick wooden board fixed in advance to the end of the petard). Variants In military use, a petard mortar was a spigot mortar (a weapon that fires explosive projectiles, known as [mortar] bombs, at low velocities, short ranges and parabolic ballistic trajectories) of a bore, known to its crews as the "flying dustbin" due to the characteristics of its projectile, an un-aerodynamic charge that could be fired up to . The weapon was carried by the Churchill AVRE tank and was sufficient to breach or demolish many bunkers and earthworks. In Maltese English, home-made fireworks—a popular and widespread albeit highly dangerous hobby in Malta—are called petards (the word in Maltese, murtal, is related to "mortar"). These petards are detonated by the dozen during feasts dedicated to local patron saints. Maltese petards are made by common people without formal education in chemistry, as an exercise in traditional handiwork. See also Fougasse (weapon) List of inventors killed by their own invention Shaped charge References External links Appier-Hanzelet, Jean, (1630) "La pyrotechnie de Hanzelet lorrain...", A well illustrated 17th Century artillery book showing several examples of petards in use. Bombs Anti-fortification weapons

357541

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20television%20stations%20in%20Saskatchewan

List of television stations in Saskatchewan

This is a list of broadcast television stations serving cities in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. Defunct stations Channel 4: CHAB-TV - CBC - Moose Jaw Channel 5: CKBI-TV - CBC - Prince Albert Channel 5: CJFB-TV - CBC - Swift Current Channel 5: CKOS-TV - CBC - Yorkton Channel 11: CBKST - CBC - Saskatoon See also List of television stations in Canada Media in Canada References Saskatchewan Television stations

357543

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s%20Happening%21%21

What's Happening!!

What's Happening!! is an American sitcom television series that aired on ABC from August 5, 1976, to April 28, 1979, premiering as a summer series. With good ratings and reviews, and after the failure of several other series on the network, What's Happening!! returned as a weekly series from November 1976 until its April 1979 conclusion; ratings were modest. What's Happening!! was loosely based on the Eric Monte-penned film Cooley High. From 1985 to 1988, a sequel series titled What's Happening Now!! aired in first-run syndication, with most of the major cast members reprising their roles. What's Happening!! was Bud Yorkin's second series after he ended his partnership with Norman Lear and Tandem Productions. The show was produced by TOY Productions, which was formed by Yorkin, Saul Turteltaub, and Bernie Orenstein after the split. Premise What's Happening!! follows the lives of three working-class African-American teens living in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Watts. The show stars Ernest Thomas as Roger "Raj" Thomas, Haywood Nelson as Dwayne Nelson, and Fred Berry as Freddy "Rerun" Stubbs. Co-starring are Danielle Spencer as Roger's younger sister Dee; Mabel King as Roger and Dee's mother Mabel; and Shirley Hemphill as Shirley Wilson, a waitress at Rob's Place, the neighborhood restaurant where the boys are regular patrons. Recurring characters include Rob (Earl Billings), owner of Rob's Place; and Mrs. Collins (Fritzi Burr), a sarcastic history teacher, and the sponsor of the school newspaper. Characters Principal cast Roger "Raj" Thomas (Ernest Thomas), the show's protagonist, is a teenager living in Watts with his divorced mother Mabel and his younger sister Dee. Raj is an intelligent, well-mannered young man who sports large black horn-rimmed glasses and aspires to be a writer. Many episodes involve Raj taking steps to pursue his dream, from saving up for a screenwriting course or a typewriter to trying to impress a TV producer. Eventually, he graduates from high school, moves out, and goes to college. Raj is known for his slender build, high-pitched laugh, and his bizarre style of dancing. For example, one move involves repeatedly placing his chin upon his fist, like "The Thinker," to the beat of the music. He sometimes tries to impress older women by talking in a baritone voice. Raj also mumbles when there is something that he does not wish to say, but knows he must, especially if it is bad news. Dwayne Clemens Nelson (Haywood Nelson) is the youngest member of the trio. Dwayne has an unassuming, good-natured demeanor, and suffers from debilitating shyness and acute fear of the dark. Dwayne's plotlines often deal with his problems with girls, bullies, and his uncertain future. Dwayne is known for his greeting, "Hey, hey, hey!" and his saying "nuh-uh!" when he denies or refuses something. Dwayne is the only character who appears in every episode of What's Happening!! Frederick (Freddy) "Rerun" Stubbs (Fred Berry) is a bumbling, comedic young man with a friendly personality, commonly seen wearing a red beret and various suspenders. He is often teased by his friends for being overweight and unintelligent. He is nicknamed "Rerun" because, due to his failing grades in school, "every summer he has to go to school to rerun the stuff he did all winter." However, Rerun is an energetic and talented dancer who enters a dance contest and The Gong Show, auditions for a dance troupe, and tries to get on a TV commercial. In the third season, Rerun shares an apartment with Raj and works as a page for ABC. Dee Thomas (Danielle Spencer) is Raj's younger sibling. In the show's first season she is irksome and rude, and says things that are well beyond her years. She is shrewd and obsessed with making money, usually by blackmailing her brother and his friends a quarter at a time. As the series progressed and Dee grew older, her caustic personality mellowed into a sly sense of sarcasm, which included continuous insults of Rerun based on his weight and his stupidity, and she became more likable and clashed less with Raj. After Raj moved into an apartment in the third season, Dee remained in the Thomas house with Shirley moving in to help out. Her trademark phrase is "Ooooohh, I'm tellin' Mama!" or "Ooooohh, you're gonna get it!" when she witnesses or hears about a wrongdoing, especially by her brother. Her favorite food is peanut butter. Her birthday is September 17. Mabel Thomas (Mabel King) is Raj's and Dee's divorced mother. She is typically the voice of wisdom and authority, and a parental figure for Dwayne and Rerun, who approach her for advice as well. Mabel's ex-husband Bill (Thalmus Rasulala) drifts in and out of her life during the first season, but appeared in the second season when he got remarried to his steady girlfriend in the Thomas household. Her role became less important in later episodes and eventually she disappeared from the show altogether, although her character was never written out and was still referred to. Her trademark phrase is "This is true," when agreeing with a statement someone made. Reportedly, King left the show due to a disagreement over the direction the series was going. Shirley Wilson (Shirley Hemphill) is a waitress at the neighborhood soda shop Rob's Place, where the main cast are regular patrons. She is a brash person who likes to take shots at the boys and often clashes with Rerun as they are both overweight. Some episodes turn the spotlight briefly on Shirley and her joys and sorrows. Shirley moves into the Thomas residence in the last season to be a guardian to Dee after Raj moves out and Mrs. Thomas leaves to tend to a sick relative. Recurring characters Bill Thomas (Thalmus Rasulala) is Mabel's ex-husband and the father of Roger and Dee. He abandoned his family when Dee was one month old, and became a shady character. When he first appears, he tries to con Mabel out of money. However, in later episodes he is depicted in a more positive light. After his on-screen marriage to Lee Henderson (Lee Chamberlin), Bill was never seen again on the show, although he continued to be mentioned off-screen. On the follow-up series What's Happening Now!!, Rasulala guest-starred in the second-season premiere episode, "Nadine's Surprise". In that episode, it was explained that Bill and Roger had been estranged since he had remarried, and Roger's wife Nadine plans a surprise reunion for Bill and Roger to make amends. Gene "Rabbit" Walker (Ray Vitte) is a political-science major at the University of Southern California, and a track team member. He appears in two first-season episodes as a boarder at the Thomas home, renting Dee's bedroom. In his first appearance, he is referred to and credited as "Dean." Gene took a liking to Dee, giving her the nickname "Small Portion." In another episode, his character is mentioned as being away, so Mrs. Thomas offers his room to Dee's ex-con pen pal. Detective "Big Earl" Barnett (John Welsh) is a police detective who lives in the apartment building where Raj and Rerun move into in the third season. He is involved in undercover and stakeout operations that sometimes require him to wear ridiculous disguises. "Little Earl" Barnett (David Hollander) is Big Earl's son. He has a crush on Dee, who is about five years his senior. This is indicated by Little Earl addressing Dee with different terms of endearment. Although Dee politely returns Little Earl's greetings, she remains oblivious to his crush on her. Rob (Earl Billings) is the owner of Rob's Place, and Shirley's boss. A small business owner trying to make his business survive, Rob is known for serving low-quality, poor-tasting fast food (often made up of the previous day's left overs, or "kitchen accidents" such as a "meatloaf milkshake") to save money and make ends meet. Nevertheless, he has a steady business of high school age customers, who use the restaurant as an after-school hangout. Terry "Snake" Simpson (Leland Smith) is a star college basketball player whom Roger tutors in the third season. He eventually became a friend of Roger, Dwayne, and Rerun. Mrs. W. Collins (Fritzi Burr) is the boys' high-school teacher. She admires Roger, and wishes the best for him as a promising student (although the two once clashed over material to print in the school newspaper), but she is frequently frustrated with Rerun whom she has had as a student many, many times due to his constant failures. Marvin (Bryan O'Dell) is the boys' high-school classmate. He is a reporter for the school paper, always looking for a new story, and is sometimes seen at Rob's Place. Leon (Henry Robinson III) is a martial arts enthusiast, with a Bruce Lee style haircut, and made two appearances: as Rob's customer in "Shirley's a Mother," and as a bully who bets on Rerun's disco-dance abilities in "Disco Dollar Disaster". Diane Harris (Debbi Morgan) is another classmate of Roger, Dwayne, and Rerun. In the first two seasons, she was frequently seen in the classroom or at Rob's Place, and at a birthday party for Roger. (In the pilot episode, she was referred to as Diane Stewart.) Larry Nelson (Greg Morris) is Dwayne's father, a local city councilman and career politician. Notable guest stars The Doobie Brothers appeared as themselves to perform a concert at Jefferson High (which was portrayed as the Doobies' alma mater). Band member Patrick Simmons told Rerun he remembered him from one of his old classes, saying "Glad you came back," to which Rerun responded, "Came back? I'm still here!" Actor Theodore Wilson made three appearances on What's Happening!! as three different characters: in the pilot episode as the father of a girl who hosts a house party, as a co-worker of Mabel's employer and as bootlegging criminal Al Dunbar, who forced Rerun to illegally record the Doobie Brothers' concert. Actress Chip Fields appeared on What's Happening!! as two different characters: Shirley's pregnant sister Norma and Rerun's sister Donna, with whom Rerun had lived (along with Donna's husband Ike) before moving in with Raj. The dance group the Lockers appeared in the first season as a group called the Rockets for whom Rerun auditions. (Fred Berry was an original member of the Lockers.) Wolfman Jack also made an appearance in this episode. Sorrell Booke, Hazzard County's corrupt commissioner Boss Hogg from The Dukes of Hazzard, appeared as a college-basketball booster who tries to manipulate Snake in the third-season episode "Basketball Brain". Actor Tim Reid appeared as Dr. Claymore in the episode "It's All in Your Head". Future Academy Award and Grammy Award winner Irene Cara appeared as Rerun's would-be immigrant bride Maria in the episode "Rerun Gets Married". Musician and actor Slim Gaillard appeared as Al in the episode "The Thomas Treasure". Noted jazz singer, Bill Henderson, appeared in season 2, episode 3, "Trial and Error", as Clarence Hopkins, the philandering driver of the Cadillac involved in a traffic accident with Raj. Series changes During the second season, using the show's first season success as leverage, Fred Berry demanded a higher salary and better studio accommodations for the actors. The accommodations issue eventually led to a full-fledged walkout by Berry and Thomas during the second-season episode "If I'm Elected" (leaving Haywood Nelson to carry the entire episode, with Shirley Hemphill stepping to the forefront, along with Bryan O'Dell and Debbi Morgan in featured speaking parts). Producer Bud Yorkin, in turn, suspended the pair, forcing them to sign $25,000 promissory notes to return to the show, and guard against further walkouts. The dispute was quickly settled, and both returned the following episode. In addition, Mabel King had a much-reduced role in the series during the second season, largely due to creative differences with the producers (she wanted the Roger and Dee characters to have married parents, rather than divorced). Her character, Mama, was not written out of the show, but rather limited to brief appearances on set (where she would say she was "leaving for work" or "going to the store"), or mentioned in passing by other characters as being "at work." The show changed significantly in the third season, with Raj and Rerun graduating high school (Rerun after seven years), with the two moving into their own apartment near the University of Southern California. Mabel King finally left the show (her character moving to Phoenix, Arizona to tend to a sick relative), and Shirley moved into the Thomas household as a boarder and Dee's guardian. Also, several new recurring characters were introduced. The first was a basketball player whom Roger tutored, nicknamed "The Snake," (played by Leland Smith). The other characters were white detective "Big Earl" Barnett (played by John Welsh) and his son "Little Earl" Barnett (played by David Hollander), who were neighbors in the apartment building where Roger and Rerun lived. Cancellation During the third season (1978–79), Berry again threatened to strike (not appearing in the third-season episode "Dee, the Cheerleader."). Thomas joined Berry in the strike threat, which lead to a heated meeting with the executive producers, culminating with Berry making accusations of racism. In light of the seriousness of the accusation, and now unmotivated (and unwilling) to accommodate the stars, the producers opted to cancel the moderately-successful series. What's Happening!! aired its last episode on April 28, 1979. A year later, Hemphill starred in her own sitcom, One In A Million, which premiered in January, 1980, and ended on July 23, 1980, after being on ABC for a few months. Ratings What's Happening!! was a modest ratings success: Success and What's Happening Now!! The show was a modest success in its network run, despite some serious production problems, and repeats of the show's 65 episodes did reasonably well in syndication. In some markets, the show was perceived to appeal to both children and adults in a similar way to The Brady Bunch and Happy Days. The show was often aired in transitional hours where stations would change their after-school programming lineup from cartoons to evening sitcoms in the 1980s. In a few markets the show actually had higher ratings in syndication than during the network run. With this success in mind, a revival of the show was produced entitled What's Happening Now!! It ran from 1985 to 1988 in first-run syndication. Home media Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released all three seasons of What's Happening!! On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including What's Happening!! On September 2, 2014, they re-released the first two seasons on DVD. On April 21, 2015, Mill Creek released a budget-priced complete series set, a 6-disc set featuring all 65 episodes. Episodes Syndication The show was syndicated on many local channels (with all 66 episodes of sequel series What's Happening Now!! joining the syndication package in the fall of 1988 to total 131 episodes) and continued in an on-again, off-again manner until 2009. BET reran both series from September 20, 1993, to October 27, 1995. TV Land reran the show during the 2005–2006 season. As of March 1, 2013, cable network TV One shows reruns of What's Happening!! On December 2, 2013, the newly rebranded Encore Black channel started airing What's Happening!! Starting January 2, 2017, the digital broadcast network Antenna TV began airing the original series. References External links TVParty.com's three part series on What's Happening!!: What happened to What's Happening!!? What's Happening!! soars to the top, then a deadly car crash, walkouts, drugs and death... The show is revived, Rerun quits (again) and three cast members die... 1976 American television series debuts 1979 American television series endings 1970s American black sitcoms 1970s American sitcoms American Broadcasting Company original programming American teen sitcoms English-language television shows Television series about families Television series by Sony Pictures Television Television shows set in Los Angeles Live action television shows based on films Mass media portrayals of the working class

357550

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover

Hoover

Hoover may refer to: Music Hoover (band), an American post-hardcore band Hooverphonic, a Belgian band originally named Hoover Hoover (singer), Willis Hoover, a country and western performer active in 1960s and '70s "Hoover" (song), a 2016 song by Swedish rapper Yung Lean Hoover sound, a heavy bass driven drone sound used in electronic music People Hoover (surname) Herbert Hoover, 31st President of the United States J. Edgar Hoover (1895–1972), first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hoover Orsi (born 1978), Brazilian race car driver Hoover J. Wright (1928–2003), American football and track and field coach Places in the United States Hoover, Alabama Hoover, Indiana Hoover, Missouri Hoover, Oklahoma Hoover, South Dakota Hoover, Texas Hoover Dam, on the Colorado River, Nevada and Arizona Hoover Dam (Ohio), on the Big Walnut Creek Hoover Field, Washington, D.C.'s first airport, located where the Pentagon now stands Hoover Tower, an structure on the campus of Stanford University Schools Hoover High School (disambiguation) Hoover Elementary School (disambiguation) Other uses The Hoover Company, a manufacturer of appliances, especially vacuum cleaners Vacuum cleaner, called by the generic term hoover in some countries D&B Hoovers, a business information company based in Austin, Texas, US Hoover (film), a 2000 American drama film Hoover (seal), a harbor seal that learned to imitate basic human speech Hoover index, Edgar Malone Hoover's inequality measure Lockheed S-3 Viking, nicknamed Hoover Operation Hoover Hoover Institution, a public-policy think tank at Stanford University founded by Herbert Hoover, later US president Hoover League, created by the Republican Party to campaign for the re-election of U.S. president Herbert Hoover See also Hoover Building, in London, England originally a Hoover Company factory Hoover House (disambiguation) Hover (disambiguation) Huber, a German surname (Anglicized form is Hoover)

357556

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oh%20Yeah%21%20Cartoons

Oh Yeah! Cartoons

Oh Yeah! Cartoons is an American animated anthology series that aired on Nickelodeon. Created by Fred Seibert, it was produced by Frederator Incorporated and Nickelodeon Animation Studio, running as part of Nickelodeon's Nicktoons lineup. In the show's first season, it was hosted by a variety of schoolchildren, and the second season was hosted by Kenan Thompson of All That and Kenan & Kel, and later Josh Server of All That in the third and final season. Bill Burnett composed the show's theme music. In terms of total volume, Oh Yeah! Cartoons remains TV's biggest animation development program ever. Giving several dozen filmmakers the opportunity to create 96 seven-minute cartoons, the series eventually yielded three dedicated half-hour spin-off shows produced by Frederator: The Fairly OddParents, ChalkZone, and My Life as a Teenage Robot. Nickelodeon's Oh Yeah! featured in its first season a total of 39 brand new seven-minute cartoons, surpassing the number of new cartoons and characters on any other single network. In its full run, Oh Yeah! Cartoons featured and produced 96 cartoons. Many of the animated shorts were created by cartoonists who later became more prominent, including Bob Boyle, Thomas R. Fitzgerald, Bill Burnett, Jaime Diaz, Greg Emison, John Eng, John Fountain, Antoine Guilbaud, Butch Hartman, Larry Huber, Steve Marmel, Zac Moncrief, Ken Kessel, Alex Kirwan, Seth MacFarlane, Carlos Ramos, Rob Renzetti, C. Miles Thompson, Byron Vaughns, Pat Ventura, Vincent Waller, and Dave Wasson. Many of its animators featured had worked two years earlier on Cartoon Network's What a Cartoon!, produced in the same concept by Hanna-Barbera and Cartoon Network Studios, which was also created by Seibert while he was president of that historical studio. Legacy Oh Yeah! Cartoons is the second Frederator short cartoon incubator. Frederator Studios has persisted in the tradition of surfacing new talent, characters, and series with several cartoon shorts "incubators," including (as of 2016): What A Cartoon! (Cartoon Network, 1995), The Meth Minute 39 (Channel Frederator, 2008), Random! Cartoons (Nickelodeon/Nicktoons, 2008), Too Cool! Cartoons (Cartoon Hangover, 2012), and GO! Cartoons (Cartoon Hangover, 2016). These laboratories have spun off notable series like: Dexter's Laboratory, The Powerpuff Girls, ChalkZone, Johnny Bravo, Cow & Chicken, My Life as a Teenage Robot, Courage the Cowardly Dog, The Fairly OddParents, Nite Fite, Fanboy & Chum Chum, Adventure Time, Bravest Warriors, Rocket Dog, and Bee and PuppyCat. Filmography Fred Seibert cartoon shorts filmography Episodes Similar shows Random! Cartoons (Nicktoons) Disney's Raw Toonage (CBS) What a Cartoon! (Cartoon Network) Sunday Pants (Cartoon Network) Shorty McShorts' Shorts (Disney Channel) KaBlam! (Nickelodeon) Short Circutz (YTV) The Cartoonstitute (Cartoon Network) DC Nation Shorts (Cartoon Network) Liquid Television (MTV) See also Spike and Mike's Festival of Animation Liquid Television Disney's Raw Toonage What a Cartoon! KaBlam! Cartoon Sushi Funpak Exposure Eye Drops VH1 ILL-ustrated Nicktoons Film Festival Sunday Pants Shorty McShorts' Shorts Wedgies Shorts in a Bunch Random Cartoons The Cartoonstitute Off the Air Nickelodeon Animated Shorts Program Too Cool! Cartoons Cartoon Network Shorts Department TripTank Disney XD Shortstop Go! Cartoons Love, Death & Robots References External links Nicktoons 1990s American animated television series 2000s American animated television series 1998 American television series debuts 2002 American television series endings 1990s Nickelodeon original programming 2000s Nickelodeon original programming American children's animated anthology television series American children's animated comedy television series American television series with live action and animation Annie Award winners English-language television shows Frederator Studios All That

357557

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochelle

Rochelle

Rochelle may refer to: Places in the United States Rochelle, Florida Rochelle, Georgia Rochelle, Illinois Rochelle, Texas Rochelle, Virginia People Rochelle (given name), including a list of people with this name John of la Rochelle (died 1245), French Franciscan theologian Surname Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyballer June Rochelle, American soul singer Karyn Rochelle, American country music songwriter Robert Rochelle (born 1945), American politician Fictional characters Rochelle (Everybody Hates Chris), a character from the television series Everybody Hates Chris Rochelle, a playable character in Left 4 Dead 2 Rochelle Goyle, a character in Monster High Other uses Rochelle, Rochelle, a fictional film described within the 1990s TV sitcom Seinfeld Rochelle (LB&SCR no.119), a London, Brighton and South Coast Railway E1 class See also Rochelle School, a historic site in Rochelle, Florida Rochelle School of the Arts, in Lakeland, Florida Battle of La Rochelle (disambiguation) La Rochelle (disambiguation) New Rochelle, New York Rochelle Park, New Jersey

357559

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20Keeper%20of%20the%20Great%20Seal

Lord Keeper of the Great Seal

The Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England, and later of Great Britain, was formerly an officer of the English Crown charged with physical custody of the Great Seal of England. This position evolved into that of one of the Great Officers of State. History The seal was adopted by Edward the Confessor, and its custody was at first entrusted to a chancellor. The office of chancellor from the time of Thomas Becket onwards varied much in importance. The holder being a churchman, he was not only engaged in the business of his diocese, but was sometimes away from England. Consequently, it became not unusual to place the personal custody of the great seal in the hands of a vice-chancellor or keeper; this was also the practice followed during a temporary vacancy in the chancellorship. This office gradually developed into a permanent appointment, and the lord keeper acquired the right of discharging all the duties connected with the great seal. He was usually, though not necessarily, a peer, and held office during the king's pleasure. He was appointed merely by delivery of the seal, and not, like the chancellor, by patent. His status was definitely fixed (in the case of lord keeper Sir Nicholas Bacon) by the Lord Keeper Act 1562 (5 Eliz 1 c. 18), which declared him entitled to like place, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, execution of laws, and all other customs, commodities, and advantages as the Lord Chancellor. In subsequent reigns the lord keeper was generally raised to the chancellorship, and retained the custody of the seal. The last lord keeper was Sir Robert Henley, afterwards Earl of Northington, who was made chancellor on the accession of George III. Curiosity A pub-restaurant in the town of Oadby, Leicestershire is named the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal to honour Sir Nathan Wright, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal from 1700 to 1705, who was later lord of the manor of Oadby. See also Chafe-wax Great Seal of the Realm Great Seal of Scotland (held by the First Minister since 1999) Great Seal of Northern Ireland (held by the Secretary of State since 1973) Welsh Seal (held by the First Minister since 2011) List of Lord Chancellors and Lord Keepers Lord Chancellor Lord Privy Seal Privy Seal References Political history of England Constitution of the United Kingdom

357560

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc%20Ferrez%20%28photographer%29

Marc Ferrez (photographer)

Marc Ferrez (December 7, 1843 – January 12, 1923) was a Brazilian photographer born in Rio de Janeiro. Marc Ferrez was the son of the French sculptor and engraver Zepherin Ferrez who moved to Rio de Janeiro in 1816. Marc Ferrez was born in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. He studied in Paris then came back to Rio as an apprentice to photographer Franz Keller of Germany. In 1865, Ferrez opened his own photography studio where he primarily focused of landscapes and Brazilian nature. His work became so popular that Emperor Dom Pedro II gave him funds to support his art, allowing Ferrez to explore every angle that the camera had to offer. Just eight years after its opening, in 1873, his studio burned down. He returned to France to purchase a new camera, opting for one that had the capability of taking panoramic photos. This was a view of photography that was still in its infancy. When he finally returned to Rio de Janeiro, he focused on rural landscapes and slaves working on the plantations. From 1875 to 1876 Ferrez joined American Charles Frederick Hartt on a geological and geographic expedition to the inner province of Bahia. It was during this trip Ferrez took pictures of indigenous Botocudo tribe, and used the panorama and became the master of it. Ferrez's life was dedicated to the art of photography and he is considered one of the greatest photographers of his time. His production was massive, and his photographs document the consolidation of Brazil as a nation and Rio de Janeiro as a metropolis. Emperor Pedro II declared Ferrez the "photographer of the Royal Navy", because of his superior skill of neutralizing the ships movements. In 1876, he entered his photos into an exhibition, with an ethnological interest, called Exhibition of the Century in Pennsylvania. He won a gold medal. In 1882 he won in the South American Continental Exhibition in Buenos Aires. In 1904, he entered his material into the world fair in St. Louis. He was the only photographer to win a gold medal. In 1907, he opened his own picture house in Rio de Janeiro, Pathé Cinema. It was here that he tried out new technology that enhanced the field of photography. During the end of his life he focused more on photographing architecture and street scenes in Rio de Janeiro. Ferrez's most popular works were of Brazilian landscapes. Natural features: mountains, waterfalls, jungles. Man-made engineering, railroads, bridges, and urban buildings. Ferrez is considered by photography historians to be a master at his craft; his work is on the same level as famous photographers William Henry Jackson and Eadweard Muybridge. He photographed Brazil from south to north, but paid more attention to his home city, Rio de Janeiro. His masterpieces are the great albums of railway constructions and the great panoramic views of the city of Rio de Janeiro and its development. Ferrez died in 1923 and left thousands of pictures and reproductions of his works. References External links Marc Ferrez photographs of Avenida Central from the CCA Collection http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/artists/1439/marc-ferrez-brazilian-1843-1923/ http://www.oxfordartonline.com/subscriber/article/grove/art/T028051 1843 births 1923 deaths Brazilian photographers Brazilian people of French descent

357565

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium%20sodium%20tartrate

Potassium sodium tartrate

Potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate, also known as Rochelle salt, is a double salt of tartaric acid first prepared (in about 1675) by an apothecary, Pierre Seignette, of La Rochelle, France. Potassium sodium tartrate and monopotassium phosphate were the first materials discovered to exhibit piezoelectricity. This property led to its extensive use in "crystal" gramophone (phono) pick-ups, microphones and earpieces during the post-World War II consumer electronics boom of the mid-20th century. Such transducers had an exceptionally high output with typical pick-up cartridge outputs as much as 2 volts or more. Rochelle salt is deliquescent so any transducers based on the material deteriorated if stored in damp conditions. It has been used medicinally as a laxative. It has also been used in the process of silvering mirrors. It is an ingredient of Fehling's solution (reagent for reducing sugars). It is used in electroplating, in electronics and piezoelectricity, and as a combustion accelerator in cigarette paper (similar to an oxidizer in pyrotechnics). In organic synthesis, it is used in aqueous workups to break up emulsions, particularly for reactions in which an aluminium-based hydride reagent was used. Sodium Potassium tartrate is also important in the food industry. It is a common precipitant in protein crystallography and is also an ingredient in the Biuret reagent which is used to measure protein concentration. This ingredient maintains cupric ions in solution at an alkaline pH. Preparation The starting material is tartar with a minimum tartaric acid content 68 %. This is first dissolved in water or in the mother liquor of a previous batch. It is then basified with hot saturated sodium hydroxide solution to pH 8, decolorized with activated charcoal, and chemically purified before being filtered. The filtrate is evaporated to 42 °Bé at 100 °C, and passed to granulators in which Seignette's salt crystallizes on slow cooling. The salt is separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation, accompanied by washing of the granules, and is dried in a rotary furnace and sieved before packaging. Commercially marketed grain sizes range from 2000 μm to < 250 μm (powder). Larger crystals of Rochelle salt have been grown under conditions of reduced gravity and convection on board Skylab . Rochelle salt crystals will begin to dehydrate when the relative humidity drops to about 30 per cent and will begin to dissolve at relative humidities above 84 per cent. Piezoelectricity In 1824, Sir David Brewster demonstrated piezoelectric effects using Rochelle salts, which led to him naming the effect pyroelectricity. In 1919, Alexander McLean Nicolson worked with Rochelle salt developing audio related inventions like microphones and speakers at Bell Labs. References Potassium compounds Organic sodium salts Piezoelectric materials Ferroelectric materials Tartrates Food acidity regulators Food antioxidants Double salts E-number additives

357568

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion%20Land%20Survey

Dominion Land Survey

The Dominion Land Survey (DLS; ) is the method used to divide most of Western Canada into one-square-mile (2.6 km2) sections for agricultural and other purposes. It is based on the layout of the Public Land Survey System used in the United States, but has several differences. The DLS is the dominant survey method in the Prairie provinces, and it is also used in British Columbia along the Railway Belt (near the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway), and in the Peace River Block in the northeast of the province. (Although British Columbia entered Confederation with control over its own lands, unlike the Northwest Territories and the Prairie provinces, British Columbia transferred these lands to the federal Government as a condition of the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The federal government then surveyed these areas under the DLS.) History The survey was begun in 1871, shortly after Manitoba and the North-West Territories became part of Canada, following the purchase of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company. Covering about , the survey system and its terminology are deeply ingrained in the rural culture of the Prairies. The DLS is the world's largest survey grid laid down in a single integrated system. The first formal survey done in western Canada was by Peter Fidler in 1813. The inspiration for the Dominion Land Survey System was the plan for Manitoba (and later Saskatchewan and Alberta) to be agricultural economies. With a large number of European settlers arriving, Manitoba was undergoing a large change so grasslands and parklands were surveyed, settled, and farmed. The Dominion Land Survey system was developed because the farm name and field position descriptions used in northern Europe were not organized or flexible enough, and the township and concession system used in eastern Canada was not satisfactory. The first meridian was chosen at 97°27′28.4″ west longitude and was established in 1869. Another six meridians were established after. A number of places are excluded from the survey system: these include federal lands such as First Nation reserves, federal parks, and air weapon ranges. The surveys do not encroach on reserves because that land was established before the surveys began. When the Hudson's Bay Company relinquished its title to the Dominion on July 15, 1870, via the Deed of Surrender, it received Section 8 and all of Section 26 excluding the northeast quarter. These lands were gradually sold by the company and in 1984 they donated the remaining to the Saskatchewan Wildlife Association. The surveying of western Canada was divided into five basic surveys. Each survey's layout was slightly different from the others. The first survey began in 1871 and ended in 1879 and covers some of southern Manitoba and a little of Saskatchewan. The second and smallest survey, in 1880, was used in only small areas of Saskatchewan. This system differs from the first survey because rather than running section lines parallel to the eastern boundary they run true north–south. The largest and most important of these surveys was the third, which covers more land than all the others surveys put together. This survey began in 1881. That method of surveying is still used in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. The fourth and fifth surveys were used only in some townships in British Columbia. The reason that the Canadian government was pushing to subdivide Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta was to affirm Canadian sovereignty over these lands. The United States was undergoing rapid expansion in the 1860s, and the Canadian government was afraid that the Americans would expand into Canadian territory. Canada's introduction of a railway and surveying was a means to discourage American encroachment. Sir John A. Macdonald remarked in 1870 that the Americans "are resolved to do all they can short of war, to get possession of our western territory, and we must take immediate and vigorous steps to counteract them." The beginning of the Dominion Land Survey marked a new era for western Canada. Railways were making their way to the West and the population of western regions began to increase. The introduction of the survey system marked the end of the nomadic ways for the First Nations and Metis. This did not go over well and was a catalyst to the events of the Red River Rebellion. Being a surveyor was not easy. The hours were long, the time away from civilization was longer, and the elements were unforgiving. A survey party generally consisted of up to 20 members, which would include a party chief, chain men, a cook, people to saw trees, a recorder, and people to turn angles. All travel was either on horseback or by foot. To begin surveying a party chief would have to buy approximately $400 worth of instruments. These instruments included an alidade, dumpy level, theodolite, Gunter's chain (which was replaced by a steel tape), and a solar compass or a vernier compass. The Dominion Land Survey system was proposed in 1869 by John Stoughton Dennis. The initial plan, though based on the square townships of the American Public Lands Survey System, involved 9-mile townships divided into sixty-four 800-acre sections consisting of four 200-acre lots each. Work to establish the first meridian and few township outlines began and quickly ended in 1869 when a party of Metis symbolically stepped on a survey chain, beginning the Red River Resistance. Work resumed in 1871; however, the system was redesigned to use 6-mile townships with 640-acre sections based on a suggestion from Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Territories William McDougall, who advocated that most of the settlers would come from the United States, so it was "advisable to offer them lots of a size to which they have been accustomed." The Dominion Land Survey System still differed from the Public Land System because it contained road allowances. The Dominion Land Survey was enormous. Around are estimated to have been subdivided into quarter sections, 27 million of which were surveyed by 1883 (14 years after the system's inception). The amount of work undertaken between 1871 and 1930 is given justice by the amount of paperwork submitted: the maps, plans, and memos transferred by the Canadian government to the provinces filled approximately 200 railway cars. This did not include closed or dormant files, which would fill 9,000 filing cabinets and weigh about 227 tons. Until very recently, surveying to take distance and angular measurements was done with manually controlled instruments. Distance was measured using either a chain or more recently a transit or range finder. To turn angles, a theodolite was used. To find their location, they used astronomical observations, and to find elevation, levels and barometers were used. To see over long distances, towers were constructed from timber in flat and wooded areas. Meridians and baselines The most important north–south lines of the survey are the meridians: The First (also Principal or Prime) Meridian at 97°27′28.41″ west, just west of Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Second Meridian at 102° west, which forms the northern part of the Manitoba–Saskatchewan boundary. The Third Meridian at 106° west, near Moose Jaw and Prince Albert, Saskatchewan. The Fourth Meridian at 110° west, which forms the Saskatchewan–Alberta boundary and bisects Lloydminster. The Fifth Meridian at 114° west, which runs through Calgary (Barlow Trail is built mostly on the meridian) and Stony Plain, Alberta (48th Street). The Sixth Meridian at 118° west, near Grande Prairie, Alberta, and Revelstoke, British Columbia. The Seventh Meridian at 122° west, between Hope and Vancouver, British Columbia (Lickman Rd, Chilliwack). The Coast Meridian at approximately 122°45′ west, originally established before British Columbia joined the Confederation, was surveyed north from the point where the 49th parallel intersects the sea at Semiahmoo Bay. 168th Street in Surrey is built mainly on the meridian. The meridians were determined by painstaking survey observations and measurements, and in reference to other benchmarks on the continent, but were determined using 19th-century technology. The only truly accurate benchmarks at that time were near the prime meridian in Europe. Benchmarks in other parts of the world had to be calculated or estimated by the positions of the sun and stars. Consequently, although they were remarkably accurate for the time, today they are known to be several hundred metres in error. Before the survey was even completed it was established that for the purposes of laws based on the survey, the results of the physical survey would take precedence over the theoretically correct position of the meridians. This precludes, for example, any basis for a boundary dispute between Alberta and Saskatchewan on account of surveying errors. The main east–west lines are the baselines. The First Baseline is at 49° north, which forms much of the Canada–United States border in the West. Each subsequent baseline is about to the north of the previous one, terminating at 60° north, which forms the boundary with Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Townships Starting at each intersection of a meridian and a baseline and working west (also working east of the First Meridian and the Coast Meridian), nearly square townships were surveyed, whose north–south and east–west sides are about in length. There are two tiers of townships to the north and two tiers to the south of each baseline. Because the east and west edges of townships, called "range lines", are meridians of longitude, they converge towards the North Pole. Therefore, the north edge of every township is slightly shorter than the south. Only along the baselines do townships have their nominal width from east to west. The two townships to the north of a baseline gradually narrow as one moves north, and the two to the south gradually widen as one moves south. Halfway between two base lines, wider-than-nominal townships abut narrower-than-nominal townships. The east and west boundaries of these townships therefore do not align, and north–south roads that follow the survey system have to jog to the east or west. These east–west lines halfway between baselines are called "correction lines". Townships are designated by their "township number" and "range number". Township 1 is the first north of the First Baseline, and the numbers increase to the north. Range numbers recommence with Range 1 at each meridian and increase to the west (also east of First Meridian and Coast Meridian). On maps, township numbers are marked in Arabic numerals, but range numbers are often marked in Roman numerals; however, in other contexts Arabic numerals are used for both. Individual townships are designated such as "Township 52, Range 25 west of the Fourth Meridian," abbreviated "52-25-W4." In Manitoba, the First Meridian is the only one used, so the abbreviations are even more terse, e.g., "3-1-W" and "24-2-E.". In Manitoba legislation, the abbreviations WPM and EPM are used: "3-1 WPM" and "2N4-2 EPM". Sections Every township is divided into 36 sections, each about square. Sections are numbered within townships, beginning with the southeast section, as follows (north at top): In turn, each section is divided into four quarter sections (square land parcels roughly 1/2 mile on a side): southeast, southwest, northwest and northeast. This quarter-section description is primarily used by the agricultural industry. The full legal description of a particular quarter section is "the Northeast Quarter of Section 20, Township 52, Range 25 west of the Fourth Meridian", abbreviated "NE-20-52-25-W4." A section may also be split into as many as 16 legal subdivisions (LSDs). LSDs are commonly used by the oil and gas industry as a precise way of locating wells, pipelines, and facilities. LSDs can be "quarter-quarter sections" (square land parcels roughly on a side, comprising roughly in area)—but this is not necessary. Many are other fractions of a section (a half-quarter section—roughly in area is common). LSDs may be square, rectangular, and occasionally even triangular. LSDs are numbered as follows (north at top): Occasionally, resource companies assign further divisions within LSDs such as "A, B, C, D, etc." for example, to distinguish between multiple sites within an LSD. These in no way constitute an official change to the Dominion Land Survey system, but nonetheless often appear as part of the legal description. In summary, the hierarchy of the division of Western Canada went as follows: Province Township (composed of 36 sections) Sections (composed of 4 quarter sections or 16 legal subdivisions) Quarter sections or Legal subdivisions Road allowances Between certain sections of a township run "road allowances" (but not all road allowances have an actual road built on them). The road allowances add to the size of the township (they do not cut down the size of the sections): this is the reason base lines are not exactly apart. In townships surveyed from 1871 to 1880 (most of southern Manitoba, part of southeastern Saskatchewan and a small region near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan), there are road allowances of surrounding every section. In townships surveyed from 1881 to the present, road allowances are reduced both in width and in number. They are wide and run north–south between all sections; however, there are only three east–west road allowances in each township, on the north side of sections 7 to 12, 19 to 24 and 31 to 36. This results in a north–south road allowance every mile going west, and an east–west road allowance every two miles going north. This arrangement reduced land allocation for roads, but still provides road-access to every quarter-section. Road allowances are one of the differences between the Canadian DLS and the American Public Land Survey System, which leaves no extra space for roads. Special sections Hudson's Bay Company As part of the deal that transferred Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada, the HBC retained five per cent of the "fertile belt" (south of the North Saskatchewan and Winnipeg rivers). Therefore, Section 8 and three-quarters of Section 26 were assigned to the company. Additionally, the fourth quarter of Section 26 in townships whose numbers were divisible by five also belonged to the HBC in order to give the company exactly five per cent. Although the HBC sold all these sections long ago, they are still often locally called "the Bay section" today. Railroads Resulting in a "checkerboard pattern", odd-numbered sections (except 11 and 29) were often used for railway land-grants. The Prairies could not be settled without railways, so the Dominion government habitually granted large tracts of land to railway companies as an incentive to build lines. Notably, the Canadian Pacific Railway was granted for the construction of its first line from Ontario to the Pacific. These sections are colloquially called CPR sections regardless of the railway they were originally granted to. Education Sections 11 and 29 were school sections. When school boards were formed, they gained title to these sections, which were then sold to fund the initial construction of schools. The rural school buildings were as often as not located on school sections; frequently, land trades were made between landowners and the school for practical reasons. Homesteads The remaining quarter sections were available as homesteads under the provisions of the Dominion Lands Act, the federal government's plan for settling the North-West. A homesteader paid a $10 fee for a quarter section of his choice. If after three years he had cultivated and had built a house (often just a sod house), he gained title to the quarter. Homesteads were available as late as the 1950s, but the bulk of the settlement of the Prairies was 1885 to 1914. Legal surveys conducted before and after the Dominion Land Survey grid was laid out often have their own legal descriptions and delineations. Early settlement lots still retain their own original legal descriptions, but often have townships superimposed over them for the sake of convenience or for certain tasks. Urban developments superimpose new survey lots and plans over the older section and township grid also. Political disputes over the survey Certain areas otherwise within the surveys' boundaries were not part of the survey grid, or not available for homesteading. These were Indian reserves, pre-existing "settlements" divided into "river lots" based on the French system used in Quebec, and lands around Hudson's Bay Company trading posts reserved for the company when it transferred its claim over the West to Canada in 1870. The rights of the pre-DLS settlers was a major political issue in the West in the late nineteenth century. The settlers claimed squatters' rights over the land they had already farmed, but the sizes and boundaries of these farms were poorly defined, leading to frequent disputes. As well the Métis in the Southbranch settlements of Saskatchewan were particularly with their land rights given that they had not been well protected by the Manitoba Act as they had been promised in 1870. In the case of the closely clustered settlements of Edmonton, St. Albert, and Fort Saskatchewan in the Alberta District, a militant "settlers' rights" movement developed which demanded action from the federal government to grant the settlers legal title to their land and to end claim jumping. The movement even resorted to vigilante action against suspected claim jumpers. Most of these grievances were resolved by 1885, which is likely one of the reasons the area never joined the North-West Rebellion despite the fact that St. Albert, and to a lesser extent Edmonton, were largely populated by Métis people. See also Alberta Township System Concession road Public Land Survey System (United States) Section (United States land surveying) The Association of British Columbia Land Surveyors References Further reading External links Index to Townships in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia: Showing the Townships for which Official and Preliminary Plans have been issued up to January 1st, 1929, made by the Topographical Survey of Canada, Department of the Interior; available online from Library and Archives Canada Map Service from AgCanada: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba: quarter-sections, sections, and townships. Ontario: geographic townships and concession lots. To view fabric for each province, expand "Canada Land Parcels" in contents and enable layers. Geography of Canada Land surveying systems Real estate in Canada Surveying of Canada Economic history of Canada

357574

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Austria

Communist Party of Austria

The Communist Party of Austria (, KPÖ) is a communist party in Austria. Established in 1918 as the Communist Party of German-Austria (KPDÖ), it is one of the world's oldest communist parties. The KPÖ was banned between 1933 and 1945 under both the Austrofascist regime and the Nazi German administration of Austria after the 1938 Anschluss. It played an important role in the Austrian resistance against the Nazis. The party currently holds two seats in the Styrian Landtag (state parliament), but has not had representation in the National Council (Nationalrat, Austria's federal parliament) since 1959. In the legislative election held on 29 September 2019, it won only 0.7% of the votes (32,736 out of a total of 4,835,469), well below the 4% minimum to obtain seats in the National Council. It is part of the New European Left Forum (NELF) and the Party of the European Left. History Background and establishment The KPÖ was officially established on the 3 November 1918. Due to the Allies' sea blockade during the First World War, there was a supply shortage in Austria, resulting in workers protests. Such actions included strikes such as the 1918 "Jännerstreik". In 1917, concurrent with the Russian October Revolution, the left wing of the workers' movement established the KPÖ. Ruth Fischer, Franz Koritschoner, and Lucien Laurat were among the co-founders. Attempts to establish a Räterepublik (republican system of councillors) in Austria resulted in developments different from those in Germany or Russia, as the Räte were only able to establish themselves in isolated, high-population density areas such as Vienna and the industrial areas of Upper Austria. However, a "Red Guard" (Rote Garde) was formed and soon integrated with the Volkswehr (People's Resistance Army). On 12 November 1918, the party attempted a coup d'état, which was not professionally organised and not authorised by the Soviet government. Within hours, the coup attempt was defeated. First Republic, Second World War, and resistance to Nazism During the First Republic, the KPÖ had little influence and failed to gain a single mandate in parliament, in part because of the ability of the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) to unite the workers as an opposition movement. The party was also seriously weakened by internal factional struggles. In parallel with the ascent of Joseph Stalin to General Secretary in the Soviet Union in the early 1920s, the KPÖ was also refashioned in accordance with the principles of democratic centralism, and party discipline was more strictly enforced. Due to these reforms, the party was able to overcome its factional struggles by the late-1920s. In 1933 the KPÖ was banned by an emergency decree of the Austrofascist government of Engelbert Dollfuss but continued to operate underground. According to internal sources, the KPÖ had been prepared for this situation since the mid-1920s. After the Social Democratic Party was also banned, many former SPÖ supporters and functionaries, such as Ernst Fischer and Christian Broda, worked underground in cooperation with the KPÖ. The KPÖ took part in the failed workers rebellion on 12 February 1934, which was sparked by the militia Republikanischer Schutzbund (). It marked a last attempt to save Austrian democracy from fascism, but was ill-fated. The KPÖ held a line which was often in disagreement with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, such as disagreeing with Stalin's branding of social democracy as a form of "social fascism" in the late 1920s. The Austrian communists dissent was avant-garde, with their refusal to condemn Social Democracy reflecting aspects of the 7th World Congress of the Comintern in 1935. The Austrian communists' tolerant stance opened their party to an influx of more disappointed Social Democrats. After the crushing of the February 1934 uprising by the federal army and the Heimwehr, the KPÖ grew rapidly from 4,000 to 16,000 members. The KPÖ also took an independent stance from the mainstream in its views about nationhood and an Austrian identity separate from Germany, with leading communist intellectual Alfred Klahr writing that the view that the Austrian people were a part of Germany was theoretically unfounded. In contrast, many Austrian Social Democrats regarded the affiliation to the German nation as natural and even desirable. Echoing the thoughts of Klahr, the KPÖ expressed its firm belief in an independent Austria when the country was annexed to Nazi Germany in March 1938. In their historic call An das österreichische Volk (), the party denounced Adolf Hitler’s dictatorship and called on all people to fight together for an independent Austria. As a result of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, a number of Austrian communists-in-exile, such as KPÖ founder member Franz Koritschoner, were deported from the Soviet Union and handed over to the Nazis. After war broke out between Germany and the Soviet Union, the Soviets quickly reverted their stance and tried to support the Austrian Communists against Nazi Germany. During Nazi rule, the KPÖ played an important role in the Austrian resistance, fighting side-by-side with former political enemies such as Christian socialists, Catholics, Monarchists, and farmers against Hitler's regime. The KPÖ took seriously the order of the Allied Powers in the Moscow Declaration from October 1943, which called for Austria's "own contribution" to its liberation from fascism as a precondition for the resurrection of their own state. More than 4,000 communists were imprisoned or sent to concentration camps and more than 2,000 lost their lives during the resistance, including 13 members of the KPÖ's central committee. There was also an Austrian communist resistance network in Belgium, the Österreichische Freiheitsfront (). There is some disagreement amongst historians if the KPÖ fought the Nazis out of patriotism, or followed the pattern of the ideological fight of communism against fascism in general. Internal party documents show the truth as somewhere in the middle; the KPÖ wanted their country free from German occupation as much as they wanted it to become communist. Second Republic After Austria regained its independence from Germany, the KPÖ reached national importance, as it was, for the most part, able to count on the support of the occupying Soviet authorities. In the first provisional government under Karl Renner, the KPÖ was represented by seven members, along with ten socialists, and nine Christian socialists. Party chairman Johann Koplenig became vice-chancellor, while fellow communists Franz Honner and Ernst Fischer were made ministers responsible for home affairs and education respectively. However, Renner outflanked the Communists by having two powerful undersecretaries in each ministry, to which were appointed anticommunists. During the years of national reconstruction, the KPÖ vehemently criticised the "capitalistic reconstruction at the expense of the working class" and totally rejected the Marshall Plan. The KPÖ assured the Soviets that they could win as much as 30% of the vote in the first National Council elections in 1945. However, the KPÖ won only 5.4% of the votes (174,257 votes) and was thus represented with only 4 members (out of 165) in the Austrian parliament. Nevertheless, chancellor Leopold Figl (of the right-wing ÖVP) offered the party a ministerial position in the government, and communist Karl Altmann was made Minister for Energy. With the beginning of the Cold War, and the continuing arguments over the Marshall Plan, Altmann resigned from his office in 1947 and the KPÖ became an opposition party. General strikes of 1950 Post-war, the national economy was in ruins, and the ÖVP-led government instituted a severe austerity programme. The planned measures (Viertes Lohn- und Preisabkommen, ) included substantial price increases but minor wage increases, and large-scale strike movements formed in protest from 26 September to 6 October 1950. This, the largest strike action in the post-war history of Austria, started in the Steyr and Voest factories and the nitrogen plants in the American zone of occupation, and by 10:00 a.m. the number of strikers reached 15,000. Over 120,000 workers participated in the first day of the strike. However, the interruption of the strike to legitimize it with a conference of all Austrian work councils took the momentum out of the movement and in the second phase the concentration of strikes shifted to the Soviet zone of occupation. In the morning of Wednesday 27 September, thousands of pro-communist strike workers took control over ÖGB regional headquarters in Linz and Graz with their communication infrastructure. Again, the police stayed aside but the Socialists in Vienna scrambled all their resources to weaken the communist influence. By the end of the day police and paramilitary units forced the Communists out of ÖGB buildings in British and American zones. On 28 September, the communists raised seventy volunteers to storm the national ÖGB office in Vienna, and were routed by the police. By 7 p.m. on 27 September, even the Soviets agreed that the strike failed and their radio program instructed Austrian workers to return to work. The ÖGB rejected the strike. The KPÖ took a prominent role in this strike, leading politicians of the incumbent grand coalition to fear a coup d'état, with the goal of the installation of a people's republic. The KPÖ denied these allegations. A second series of strikes began the following week, in Vienna and Lower Austria, and involved approximately 19% of industrial workforce. The strikers made the impact worse by disrupting railroad traffic. They stormed the Stadlau station in Donaustadt three times, were forced away three times, and then blocked the tracks until the evening. On 5 October, they resumed the blockade of Stadlau from 5 a.m., took control of the Nordbahnhof and threatened the Südbahnhof. With the police disabled, railroads were defended by their employees and the volunteers of the "Olah battalion". They were armed with clubs, operated in small teams, and engaged the Communists in hand-to-hand fighting at first opportunity. There were reports that the Soviets provided trucks to move communist crews around, but this was as far as the Soviets went in supporting the strike. On 5 October, the chairman of the Building and Wood workers Trade Union, Franz Olah, succeeded in negotiating the dissolution of the October strikes. Olah organised workers who supported the SPÖ into clashes with the communists, where they were able to outnumber and defeat them. This caused great friction between the KPÖ and many SPÖ members. The fact that the Soviet Red Army did not interfere also brought the strikes to an end. Weaknesses and crises During the 10-year allied occupation from 1945 to 1955, the threat of national division similar to that which befell post-war Germany loomed large. The Iron Curtain was dividing the European continent into two halves. During this period, the KPÖ was in constant contact with the Soviet authorities and Moscow. Following the party's poor results in the parliamentary elections on 25 November 1945 (St. Catherine's Day, therefore the elections became known as the Katharinen-Wahl), the KPÖ representative in Moscow, Friedrich Hexmann, had to present a report to the Politburo with proposals on how to improve the situation for the party. The problem with the strategy of the communists was identified as being their goal to build a future coalition (Volksfront) with the SPÖ. This required a right-wing shift to the extent that ideological differences between the KPÖ and the SPÖ were not readily apparent. The closeness of the KPÖ to Moscow also made many voters wary of the party and its aims. In the former territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, multiparty democratic systems were slowly but surely being penetrated and undermined by local pro-Soviet communist parties with the covert or even overt support of the Soviets, as was observable in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland. As the Iron Curtain was being drawn closed, Austrians feared the same fate as their neighbours. Talks between party leader Johann Koplenig and Stalin (Sondermappe Codename: Gen. ) resulted in proposals of a possible division of Austria between East and West, similar to Germany. Since the KPÖ was constantly losing votes in parliamentary elections, a division and establishment of a communist-led East Austria would have been a practical way to consolidate at least a part of their dwindling power. The Soviet authorities in Moscow showed little interest for such a division for various reasons, namely because the size of a newly established East Austria would have been quite small and may not have been capable of existing without significant Soviet assistance. Already, the situation in the Soviet sector of Austria was difficult as the Soviets confiscated all industries, factories, and goods and transported anything of economic value back to the Soviet Union as part of war-reparations. Strategically, a division of Austria would have ultimately meant that a West Austria, closely linked to NATO, would have provided a connection between West Germany and Italy. A united, neutral Austria however could act as a barrier, together with Switzerland, thereby securing a part of the Central European front for the Soviets. The proposals by the Austrian communists were therefore brushed aside. Moscow wanted a guarantee of neutrality as a pre-condition for the release of Austria into independence; the country would not be allowed to join either side of the Iron Curtain. As negotiations were underway, the KPÖ changed its tactics. The KPÖ swerved to Moscow's stance and supported the idea of neutrality during the negotiations of the Austrian State Treaty. Many members of other parties, such as Leopold Figl, did not want neutrality, but a firm anchoring with the West and NATO. However, the Soviets were able to push this demand through. The Austrian State Treaty was voted upon on 15 May 1955, with the declaration of neutrality proclaimed on 26 October 1955. This was decided in the National Council with the votes of the ÖVP, SPÖ, and the KPÖ; the Federation of Independents (VdU, the forerunner of the FPÖ) voted against neutrality. Because of the economic recovery and the end of the occupation in 1955, the protective power of the Soviet occupiers was lost to the KPÖ. The party lost a main pillar of support and was shaken by internal crisis. Like many other communist parties around the world, the KPÖ had oriented itself towards Marxism-Leninism of the Stalinist brand, and has closely allied itself at this point with the line of the Soviet Communist Party. The party's failure to condemn the bloody suppression of the 1956 Hungarian uprising led to a wave of withdrawals from the party. On 10 May 1959, the KPÖ lost representation in the National Council, receiving 142,578 votes, 3.3% of the total tally and thus missing the 4% election threshold to receive seats. The invasion of Czechoslovakia by Soviet troops in 1968 during the Prague Spring was at first condemned by the KPÖ. However, in 1971 the party revised its position and swung back to the Soviet line. A critic of these developments, the former KPÖ Minister of Education, Ernst Fischer (who branded it "tank communism") was expelled from the party, and readmitted only in 1998. Due to a continuing fall in support in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the party flirted briefly with a rightward move towards eurocommunism and democratic socialism. This, in turn, provoked the protest of the party's core supporters, who saw little difference to social democracy, and feared a weakening of the communist cause. Following the reforms, more than one third of the party's members left. The leadership of the KPÖ eventually backtracked from these changes, and the party restored the connections to the CPSU. Having previously had 150,000 members directly following World War II, the party's ranks shrank to approximately 35,000 in the 1960s and to a few thousands in the 1970s. As of 2005, membership stands at about 3,500 members. The KPÖ was represented in the National Council from 1945 until 1959, in the state assemblies (Landtage) (with some interruptions) of Salzburg until 1949, in Lower Austria until 1954, in the Burgenland until 1956, in Vienna until 1969 and in Carinthia as well as Styria until 1970. In Upper Austria, the Tyrol and Vorarlberg the KPÖ never held state representation. After the fall of the Socialist Bloc With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the KPÖ saw itself confronted with new challenges regarding its philosophy and future. The experiment with a moderate form of eurocommunism was not well received with its core supporters; however, moderate voters could not be persuaded either. The KPÖ faced difficult times during a period where communist parties throughout the world were receding. In January 1990 two new leaders, Walter Silbermayr and Susanne Sohn, were appointed to renew the party and uncover errors and mistakes which were made in the past. The attempts by Sohn and Silbermayr to create a leftist alliance (Wahlbündnis) for the 1990 National Council elections failed. The party lost about a third of its members during the process. In March 1991, only three months later, both chairpersons resigned, with their course of renewal being insufficiently supported internally by party-members. The party has consistently been critical of the NATO and the European Union, comparing Austria's accession to the EU in 1995 to the Anschluß by Nazi-Germany. The party campaigned against the European Constitution in its planned form; however, it does not regard leaving the European Union as an immediate priority, but as a long-term goal. Until 2003, there was an official celebration on the Jesuitenwiese in the Vienna Prater park, normally held each year in the first weekend of September. The celebration was named Volksstimmefest, after the party's former newspaper. Due to financial reasons, the festival was unable to take place in 2004. It has, however, since staged a comeback, being held again in September 2005 and all years since. Today, the KPÖ sees itself as part of the anti-globalisation movement as well as a feminist party. It ran together with LINKE Liste, during the European elections 2004 as part of the Party of the European Left. Financial situation After the collapse of the German Democratic Republic in 1989, there were long court-proceedings for many years concerning the considerable net assets of the company Novum. Although the company was an East German one, it was used to siphon money and finance the KPÖ, see also Rudolfine Steindling for further details. The company used to be able to make large amounts of money through GDR foreign trade and the protection of the East German Socialist Unity Party (SED), with the profits used almost exclusively to support the KPÖ. As the successor state, the Federal Republic of Germany laid claim to all the finances of Novum, which was hotly contested by the KPÖ. The German courts decided in 2002, that the former SED-company belonged to the state-assets of the GDR, hence to its successor state the unified Germany. Therefore, these net assets of the KPÖ were confiscated. Due to the court decision over the Novum holding, the party lost over 250 million euros of its financial assets. The party saw no alternative but to fire all its employees and stop the production of its weekly newspaper Volksstimme ("Voice of the people", later restarted as Volksstimmen.) The continuing existence of the party depends largely on volunteer work of dedicated communists and sympathisers. Because of the financial problems, the party had to sell the so-called Ernst-Kirchweger-Haus (EKH), which was occupied by the so-called Autonome (autonomous) activists since 1990. The sale led to substantial criticism from leftists within and outside Austria, being condemned as "capitalistic". Critics accused the KPÖ of not having exhausted all possibilities to avoid the sale. The accusation that the private buyer was a right-wing extremist could, however, not be substantiated. In January 2005 there were several acts of vandalism against cars and private dwellings of KPÖ functionaries as well as the house of the KPÖ chairman. According to media reports the perpetrators outed themselves through the graffiti as EKH sympathisers. The KPÖ defended itself by arguing it had no possible financial means to keep the house. Previously in 2003 the party tried to convince the city of Vienna to buy the building to save it from privatisation; however, city authorities did not respond. Internal party conflict Beginning in 1994 a conflict between the party leadership revolving around chairman Walter Baier and different internal oppositional groups, who had gathered themselves mainly around the newspaper nVs (neue Volksstimme, ) and the internet platform Kominform. Internal party critics accused Walter Baier of revisionism and betrayal of Marxism; he in turn accused them of Stalinist tendencies. This conflict escalated in 2004, when at a party convention it was decided to enter the Party of the European Left. In the elections to the European parliament the KPÖ ran in a largely self-financed alliance ("Wahlbündnis LINKS") with Leo Gabriel as the leading candidate. In an interview with the magazine profil, he spoke out against socialism, saying "I want a Europe of solidarity, not a socialist Europe", which sparked furious criticism from the internal party opposition. A further point of contention for the opposition was that the party, in the course of its entry to the European Left Party, had to drop its previous demand of an Austrian withdrawal from the European Union. Many party organisations therefore boycotted the election campaign. The election result of 0.77% (20,497 votes) was disappointing and meant a drop of 1,466 votes compared to the election results of 1999. The pressure on the party leadership to convene a party congress rose and as a consequence the leadership, which consisted of Walter Baier and two further members, called up the 33rd Party Congress of the KPÖ for the 11 December and 12 December 2004, as a delegation party congress in Linz-Ebelsberg. With this summoning the leadership ignored a resolution of the 32nd Party Congress (which was held as an "all-members" party congress, not by delegates), which stated that the following 33rd Party Congress would again be held as an "all-member" party congress, somewhere outside Vienna. Since the Party Congress is, according to party statute, the highest committee of the KPÖ, the opposition saw a breach of the statute and called upon the arbitration commission of the party, which is the internal authority in such cases. The arbitration commission decided, however, that no formal breach of the statute was recognisable since, according to statute, the Party Congress cannot decide on the form of a future convening party congress. Some members of the KPÖ branch in Ottakring (Ottakring is a traditional low income worker's district in Vienna) tried to convene an all-members party congress of their own, justifying their actions on the statute of the party. This attempt was called off quickly due to threats of legal action from Baier. The delegates Party Congress convened and took place on 4 December and 5 December 2004, with 76 delegates meeting in Ebelsberg. The Party Congress was boycotted by the internal party opposition as well as the KPÖ regional branch in Tyrol, Graz, and Styria. The agenda of the 33rd Party Congress were the rejection of the European constitution and the European Union services guideline, the defence of public property from privatisation, as well as how to celebrate the Austrian jubilee year 2005 (60 years since the end of World War II, 50 years of independence as the Second Republic, 10 years as a member of the European Union). Walter Baier was re-elected without opposition with 89.4% of the votes. Among other things, the party statute was also changed. Because of the internal conflict, several members of the opposition were expelled from the party. Some critics accused the leadership of undemocratic procedures, and withdrew from the party voluntarily. The relationship to the Communist Youth of Austria - Young Left (KJÖ) was also tense, because of attempts made by the leadership to develop a new youth organisation. In March 2006 Walter Baier resigned from the presidency of the party for personal and political reasons. He was replaced by Mirko Messner, a Carinthian Slovene and longtime party-activist, and Melina Klaus later that month. Revival and reentrance to Styrian Landtag In the 21st C., the party has seen a revival, particularly in the state of Styria. In the election to the Styrian Landtag (state parliament) on 2 October 2005 the KPÖ, with leading candidate Ernest Kaltenegger, were able to win 4 seats (6.34% of the votes.) This was their first return in the Styrian Landtag (or any state parliament) since 1970. The party retained representation in this body since then. In the Styrian capital, Graz, the KPÖ developed into a successful local party (20.75% in the 2005 local council elections). This success was largely attributed to the leadership of popular town councillor Ernest Kaltenegger who raised the profile of housing as a political issue. The party secured a seat on the city council in 1988, campaigning against rising rents, and the local party established practical support and advice services to assist tenants in dealing with landlords, inspired by a French Communist Party initiative. During the 1990s the KPÖ successfully campaigned for the passage of bill restricting rents in public housing to no more than a third of the tenant's income. At the following election in 1998 the party won four seats on the council and secured a seat on the city senate (the council's executive), which was taken by Kaltenegger, who was appointed to the city housing department: among other measures he was able to ensure that each public housing unit had its own toilet and bathroom. The KPÖ's vote in the next elections in 2003 increased to almost 20 percent. The following year it managed to block an initiative by the other parties on the council to privatise the city's housing stock by collecting over 10,000 signatures to trigger a referendum, in which 96 percent of voters opposed privatisation. Traditionally at the end of the year the leaders of the Graz KPÖ reveal their accounts. KPÖ councillors are required to earn the average industrial wage and donate the rest to social programmes in accordance with the basic rules of the KPÖ. The party retained this stronghold in 2012 and in 2017. In the 2021 elections the KPÖ emerged as the party with the most seats on the council, with 29 percent of the vote, and the party's Elke Kahr was subsequently elected mayor at the head of a coalition of the Communists, the Social Democrats and the Greens. Organization Press The party published a newspaper called Volksstimmen (, previously Volksstimme) between 1945 and 1991. It also published a theoretical monthly journal called Weg und Ziel () until 2000. Another publication which was published by the party was a Czech language newspaper based in Vienna, Průkopník svobody ('Pioneer of Freedom'). It appeared weekly between 1918 and 1926, and bi-weekly 1926–1929. Popular support and electoral results The party's strongest branch is in Styria, the only state Landtag where the party is represented, and their strongest state in national elections. Within Styria, the KPÖ is particularly strong in Graz, the Styrian capital and the second largest city in Austria, where the KPÖ outpolls the SPÖ and Grüne (20.75% in the 2005 local council elections). The party retained this stronghold in 2012. The KPÖ also retains support in their historical industrial strongholds in Vienna, Lower Austria, and Upper Austria. The KPÖ is strong with younger voters, doubling up their vote share to 1.47% in the 2005 Vienna state election after the voting age was lowered to 16. For the first time since 1991 the KPÖ had seats in the districts. On 23 October 2005, one mandate each was won in the districts of Leopoldstadt and Landstraße, although not in the state Landtag. In the remaining 21 districts mandates were narrowly missed. National Council (parliament) Notes: State Landtage (state parliaments) Burgenland Note: KPÖ has not contested Landtag elections in Burgenland since 1987. Carinthia Note: KPÖ did not contest the 1994 or 2013 Landtag elections in Carinthia. Lower Austria Salzburg Note: KPÖ has not contested Landtag elections in Salzburg since 1989, but intends to compete in the 2013 election. Styria Tyrol Note: KPÖ did not contest the 1965 or 1994 Landtag elections in Tyrol. Upper Austria Note: KPÖ did not contest the 1991 Landtag elections in Upper Austria. Vienna Vorarlberg Note: KPÖ has not contested Landtag elections in Vorarlberg since 1989. European Parliament Notes: Party chairpersons since 1945 The chart below shows a timeline of the communist chairpersons and the Chancellors of Austria. The left bar shows all the chairpersons (Bundesparteivorsitzende, abbreviated as "CP") of the KPÖ, and the right bar shows the corresponding make-up of the Austrian government at that time. The red (Social Democratic Party) and black (Austrian People's Party) colours correspond to which party led the federal government (Bundesregierung, abbreviated as "Govern."). The last names of the respective chancellors are shown, the Roman numeral stands for the cabinets. Literature Autorenkollektiv: Die Kommunistische Partei Österreichs. Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und Politik Globus-Verlag. Wien 1989 Walter Baier und Franz Muhri: Stalin und wir Globus-Verlag, Wien 1991, Heinz Gärtner: Zwischen Moskau und Österreich. Die KPÖ - Analyse einer sowjetabhängigen Partei. In: Studien zur österreichischen und internationalen Politik 3 - : Braumüller, Wien 1979 Helmut Konrad: KPÖ u. KSC zur Zeit des Hitler-Stalin-Paktes Europa-Verlag, Wien München Zürich 1978, (Veröffentlichung des Ludwig Boltzmann Inst. f. Geschichte d. Arbeiterbewegung) Manfred Mugrauer: Die Politik der KPÖ in der Provisorischen Regierung Renner Studien-Verlag (erscheint im September 2006), Wolfgang Mueller: Die sowjetische Besatzung in Österreich 1945-1955 und ihre politische Mission Boehlau Verlag, Wien 2005, Wolfgang Mueller, A. Suppan, N. Naimark, G. Bordjugov (Ed.). Sowjetische Politik in Österreich 1945–1955: Dokumente aus russischen Archiven See also Elections in Austria Communist Youth of Austria - Young Left Communist Workers Party (Austria) References External links Official homepage of the KPÖ Young Communists Austrian Communist Youth KPÖ Graz Campaign for the Ernst-Kirchweger-House (EKH) Communist Party of Austria on the Encyclopedia of Austria Political parties in Austria Establishments in the Republic of German-Austria 1918 establishments in Europe Political parties established in 1918 International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Bangladesh

Communist Party of Bangladesh

The Communist Party of Bangladesh () is a Marxist–Leninist communist party in Bangladesh. History After the partitioning of India in 1947, during the 2nd Congress of the Communist Party of India in Calcutta, the delegates coming from regions within the newly founded state of Pakistan (which included what now constitutes Bangladesh) met on March 6, 1948 in a separate session and decided to form the Communist Party of Pakistan. Nepal Nag became the General Secretary of the party. The main strength and activity of the newly constituted Party was in the province of East Pakistan (what is now Bangladesh). This eastern province was geographically separated from the western province by almost 2,000 km of Indian territory. Because of this wide geographical separation along with persecution by Pakistan government and uneven development of democratic movement in the two parts of Pakistan, the communists of East Pakistan felt the need to have an independent centre for further advancing their activities. The 4th Conference of the East Pakistan Provincial Committee of the Party, which met clandestinely in 1968, declared itself to be the 1st Congress of the Communist Party of East Pakistan and elected a Central Committee for the Party. With the emergence of Bangladesh as an independent state in 1971, this Party took its present name of Communist Party of Bangladesh. The Party played a vital role in the 1969 uprising and also during the nationwide upheaval that followed it including the non co-operation movement of 1971. The CPB also actively participated in the nine months long armed struggle for independence of Bangladesh in 1971. A ‘Special Guerilla Force’ under the direct command of CPB-NAP-BSU fought against the Pakistani army. Communists also took part in the other segments of the armed resistance fighters including the Freedom Fighters and the new Bangladesh Army. Moni Singh, the ex-President of CPB, was elected a member of the Advisory Council of the Provisional Government of Bangladesh. Independent Bangladesh The independence of Bangladesh in 1971 opened up a new chapter in the history of the Communist Party of Bangladesh. The Party began to work legally and openly. The Party formed a Trade Union Centre with a view to mobilizing trade union organizations and movements on revolutionary lines. A Gana Oikya Jote was formed on 14 October 1973 consisting of the Bangladesh Awami League, Communist Party and National Awami Party (Muzaffar) with a view to prepare ground for establishing socialism in the country, and a Jote Committee was constituted consisting of 19 members with three members from CPB. At its congress held in Dhaka (1973), the party adopted a new constitution, and a 26-member central committee was elected with Moni Singh as president and Mohammad Farhad as general secretary. On August 15, 1975 President Sheikh Mujib was assassinated by a section of the army which ultimately brought the country under a rightist military rule. The CPB leaders and workers were victims to serious repression under the military government in 1975. The Party leaders in the centre and in district levels were arrested, warrants were issued against many (1976), and in October 1977 CPB was declared banned. In 1978 the ban on the party was, however, withdrawn and its leaders were released. The CPB participated in the general elections of 1978. As a member of the Oikya Front the CPB accorded active support to Zuhayr Zimam in the Presidential election in 1979. The CPB joined the 15-party alliance in 1983 against the military rule of Hussain Muhammad Ershad. The party participated in the 1986 Jatiya Sangsad elections and secured five seats. The CPB had a vital role in the movement to oust Ershad in 1990. The CPB faced a great crisis in 1991 in view of the collapse of Soviet-style socialism in Eastern Europe, including the Soviet Union. The party leaders were divided into two camps, one in favour of dissolving the CPB and replacing it with a new platform on democratic lines, and the other in favour of maintaining the party in its original form. This conflict grew to be acute in 1993 when the two opposing groups arranged separate conventions in Dhaka. The Marxist–Leninist group, in their convention held on 15 June 1993, resolved in favour of the independent existence of the Communist Party in Bangladesh, and had their new central executive committee formed with Comrade Shahidulla Chowdhury as president and Comrade Muzahidul Islam Selim as general secretary. The Workers Party (Reconstituted) of Bangladesh merged into the CPB in February 2010. Ideology and organization Revolutionary internationalism is a cardinal aspect of its policy principles. Democratic centralism is the guiding organizational principle of CPB. The Congress of the Party, which is convened every 4 years, is the supreme body of the Party which elects a Central Committee accountable to it. The Central Committee is the highest organ of the Party during the interval between two Congresses. A 51-member Central Committee was elected by the 9th Congress of the Party (August 2008). A 7-member Presidium including the President and General Secretary were elected by the CC. There is also a national council of 191 members which sits at least once a year to advise and help the CC in implementing the decisions of the Congress. The Congress also elected a 4-member Control Commission. The CPB has organizations in 62 out of the 64 districts and 275 out of 520 sub-districts in Bangladesh. The district and sub-district committees coordinate and guide the activities of the zonal committees and the primary branches of the Party. Party members are organized in these primary branches, The branches on their part organise ‘activist groups’ which serve to prepare cadres for party membership. Besides party membership, the Party also provides opportunity to include ‘associate members’ from among supporters of the Party. Party members and activists are working in trade unions and mass organizations of agricultural workers, peasants, women, students, youth, children, teachers, doctors, lawyers, professionals, indigenous national minorities and aboriginal, cultural organizations etc. In spite of relatively small number of party members and associate members (taken together they total 25,000), the Party is capable of mobilizing several hundreds of thousands of people through its influence in these mass organizations. The main organ of the party is Ekota, which is published weekly. Strategy and tactics The CPB is working with a strategy of bringing about a 'revolutionary democratic transformation of society and state' with the ultimate goal of socialism-communism. The Party has put forward a 17-point program in consonance with this strategic goal of 'revolutionary democratic transformation'. CPB is giving special attention to strengthen the Party and the mass organizations, increase cohesion among the communists and move towards communist unity, strengthen and expand the Left Democratic Front (which is constituted by different communist and left parties). CPB has also been working to bring together left and liberal democratic forces to provide an alternative to the current two major parties. CPB took active part in setting up an 11-party combination has been set up with this purpose. However, in recent developments (as of late 2006) the rest of this alliance has aligned within the 14-party alliance led by the Awami League. CPB is also giving priority to the urgent task of fighting religious fundamentalism. CPB speaks highly of dialectical materialism. For this CPB is working to build up united movement with all possible secular democratic forces including the Awami League. Electoral results The CPB contested six of the first seven general elections (excepting only February 1996, which was widely boycotted). They won representation twice, 5 seats in 1986 and 5 seats in 1991. List of prominent members Shaheed Tajul Islam (died 1 March 1984) — The leader of the Adamjee Majdur Trade Union who was killed in 1984. His death anniversary is observed by the CPB. Mohammad Farhad (5 July 1938 – 9 October 1987) — Former leader of the CPB and member of the Bangladesh Parliament. See also Co-ordinating Committee of Communist Parties in Britain Communist Party of Pakistan Communist Party of India References External links Official Website 1968 establishments in Pakistan Communist parties in Bangladesh Political parties established in 1968 Communist Party of Bangladesh International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357581

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%20Henry%20Hoover

Lou Henry Hoover

Lou Hoover (née Henry; March 29, 1874 – January 7, 1944) was the wife of President Herbert Hoover and served as the first lady of the United States from 1929 to 1933. Marrying her geologist and mining engineer husband in 1899, she traveled widely with him, including to Shanghai, China, and became a cultivated scholar and linguist. She made extensive study of languages including Latin, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, German, Italian and French. As First Lady, she oversaw construction of the presidential retreat at Rapidan Camp in Madison County, Virginia, and was the first First Lady to make regular nationwide radio broadcasts. Early life and education Lou Henry was born in Waterloo, Iowa, to Florence Ida (née Weed) and Charles Delano Henry, who was a banker by trade. Lou grew up something of a tomboy, first in Waterloo, and later in the California towns of Whittier and Monterey. Charles Henry took his daughter on camping trips in the hills, which was her greatest pleasure in her early teens. Lou became a fine horsewoman. She hunted and preserved specimens with the skill of a taxidermist. And she developed an enthusiasm for rocks, minerals, and mining. Lou began her postsecondary schooling at the Los Angeles Normal School (now the University of California, Los Angeles). She then transferred to San Jose Normal School (now San José State University), from which she obtained a teaching credential in 1893. She next went on to Stanford University to pursue a bachelor’s degree in geology. It was there that she met her future husband, Herbert Hoover, who was then a senior. She was the school’s only female geology major at the time, and received her B.A. in geology in 1898. Marriage and travels Before Herbert Hoover graduated from Stanford in June 1895, he and Lou made a decision to delay wedding plans while she continued her education and he pursued an engineering career in Australia. In 1898, the year Lou graduated from Stanford, Hoover cabled her a marriage proposal, which she promptly accepted by return wire. Herbert and Lou were both 24 years old when they married on February 10, 1899, at her parents’ home in Monterey, California. Although she had been raised Episcopalian, Lou decided to become a Quaker. But because there was no Quaker Meeting in Monterey, they were married in a civil ceremony performed by Father Ramon Mestres, a Roman Catholic priest of the Cathedral of San Carlos Borromeo. China The day after their marriage, the Hoovers sailed from San Francisco for Shanghai, China, where they spent four days in the Astor House Hotel. The newlyweds soon settled into their first home, a large house in Tianjin. They lived in China from April 1899 until August 1900. Hoover's job required extensive travel throughout remote and dangerous areas, which they did together. Mrs. Hoover was present with her husband during the Boxer Rebellion. Mrs. Hoover studied Mandarin Chinese while living in China. Her Chinese name was 'Hoo Loo' (古鹿; Pinyin: Gǔ Lù【胡潞，Hú Lù】) derived from the sound of her name in English. In the White House, at times, she would speak to her husband in it to foil eavesdroppers. To date, she is the only First Lady to speak an Asian language. Mrs. Hoover was also well versed in Latin; she collaborated with her husband in translating Agricola's De Re Metallica, a 16th-century encyclopedia of mining and metallurgy. The Hoover translation was published in 1912, and remains in print today as the standard English translation. During World War I, she assisted her husband in providing relief for Belgian refugees. For her work she was decorated in 1919 by King Albert I of Belgium. She was also involved with the American Women's War Relief Fund, which provided ambulances, funded two hospitals and provided economic opportunities for women during WWI. As First Lady (1929–1933) Radio broadcasts Mrs. Hoover distinguished herself by becoming the first First Lady to broadcast on a regular and nationwide basis. Although she did not have her own radio program, she participated as a guest speaker on a number of occasions between 1929 and 1933, often advocating for volunteerism, or discussing the work of the Girl Scouts. Radio critics praised her for having an excellent radio voice and for speaking with confidence. Presidential traditions As First Lady, she discontinued the New Year's Day reception, the annual open house observance begun by Abigail Adams in 1801. She played a critical role in designing and overseeing the construction of a rustic presidential retreat at Rapidan Camp in Madison County, Virginia. It was a precursor of the current presidential retreat, Camp David. Family life The Hoovers had two sons: Herbert Charles Hoover (1903–1969) – engineer, diplomat. Born in London, by age two, he had been around the world twice with his globetrotting parents. He graduated from Stanford University in 1925 and began working as an aircraft engineer. He taught briefly, from 1928 to 1929, at Harvard Business School. Eventually, he turned to geophysical engineering, founding the United Geophysical Company in 1935 to develop new electronic instruments to discover oil. He served as mediator during the 1953–1954 oil dispute between Britain and Iran. He was appointed Under Secretary of State for Middle Eastern affairs 1954–1957 by President Eisenhower. He died in Pasadena, California. Allan Henry Hoover (1907–1993) – mining engineer and financier. Born in London, he graduated in economics from Stanford University in 1929 and earned a master's degree from the Harvard Business School in 1931. He went into banking and operated a ranch in California for a time, but eventually he, too, became a mining engineer. A private man, he shunned publicity throughout his career. He died in Portola Valley, California. Later life and death Lou Henry Hoover died of a heart attack in New York City on January 7, 1944. She was found dead in her bedroom by her husband, who came to kiss her good night. She was originally buried in Palo Alto, California. Her husband was devastated by her death and never considered remarrying. Following Herbert Hoover's death in 1964, she was reinterred next to the former president at West Branch, Iowa. Activities Girl Scouts She served as the national president of the Girl Scouts of the USA from 1922 to 1925 while Hoover served in the cabinet of Presidents Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge. She served as president again after leaving the White House, from 1935 to 1937. Camp Lou Henry Hoover in Middleville, New Jersey, is named for her and run by the Heart of New Jersey Council of the Girl Scouts. She funded the construction of the first Girl Scout house in Palo Alto, California. The oldest Girl Scout house in continuous use, it is now called Lou Henry Hoover Girl Scout House. Stanford University Lou Henry was an avidly athletic young woman, and by her senior year at the university, she was a member of the Basket Ball Committee, Vice President of the Women's Athletic Association and an active member of the Archery Club. The Lou Henry Hoover House, which she designed and where the Hoovers lived, on a hill in the Stanford University campus is now the official residence of the President of Stanford University. It is designated a National Historic Landmark. Other memorials Lou Henry Hoover Elementary School in Whittier, California was built in 1938 and was named in her honor. She was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters (Litt.D.) from Whittier College in 1928. Lou Henry Hoover Memorial Hall built in 1948 at Whittier College, where she had been a trustee until her death, is also named for her. In 2005 Lou Henry Elementary School was opened in her honor in Waterloo, Iowa. One of the brick dorms known now as "The Classics" at San Jose State University is named "Hoover Hall" in her honor. See also Battle of Tientsin Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House Lou Henry Hoover Elementary School Jessie De Priest tea at the White House Jessie De Priest Margaret Hoover Notes References Allen, Anne Beiser and Jon L. Wakelyn (2000). An independent woman: the life of Lou Henry Hoover. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press Gummere, Amelia Mott (1922). The journal and essays of John Woolman. New York: The Macmillan Company Hart, Craig (2004). A genealogy of the wives of the American presidents and their first two generations of descent. North Carolina, Jefferson: McFarland & Co., Inc., pp. 129–33 Hill, H. H. (1881). History of Lee County [Illinois]. 873 pages. pp. 829–32. Genealogy and history of the Robert and Abigail Pancoast Hunt family, including a transcription of their Quaker wedding document. Hunt, Charles Cummins (1906). A genealogical history of the Robert and Abigail Pancoast Hunt family. Columbus, Ohio: Champlin Press, pp. 127–28 Hynes, Judy (1997). The Descendants of John and Elizabeth (Borton) Woolman. Mount Holly, New Jersey: John Woolman Memorial Association Preston, Diana (2000). The Boxer Rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the Summer of 1900. New York: Walker Agricola's De Re Metallica, translated by Herbert Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover, full text (650 pages) and illustrations External links Lou Hoover at C-SPAN's First Ladies: Influence & Image Herbert Hoover Presidential Library & Museum Biography of Lou Henry Hoover Hosted by the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library & Museum Lou Henry Hoover Papers Biographical sketch of Lou Henry Hoover Hosted by the National Archives and Records Administration First Lady Biography: Lou Hoover Hosted by the National First Ladies' Library Anne Beiser Allen and Jon L. Wakelyn; An Independent Woman: The Life of Lou Henry Hoover Greenwood Press, 2000 Biography of William Henry, great-grandfather of Lou Henry Hoover Biography of Abigail Hunt, great-grandmother of Lou Henry Hoover |- 1874 births 1944 deaths 19th-century American women 20th-century American women 19th-century Quakers 20th-century Quakers 20th-century linguists American Quakers American women in World War I Burials in Iowa California Republicans First Ladies of the United States Girl Scouts of the USA national leaders Hoover family Iowa Republicans New York (state) Republicans People from Waterloo, Iowa People from Whittier, California San Jose State University alumni Stanford University alumni University of California, Los Angeles alumni Writers from Iowa Wyckoff family Women linguists Linguists from the United States

357583

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euteleostomi

Euteleostomi

Euteleostomi is a successful clade that includes more than 90% of the living species of vertebrates. Euteleostomes are also known as "bony vertebrates". Both its major subgroups are successful today: Actinopterygii includes most extant fish species, and Sarcopterygii includes the tetrapods. "Osteichthyes" in the sense of "bony vertebrates" is synonymous with Euteleostomi, even though in Linnaean taxonomy the name (literally meaning "bony fish") traditionally referred to the paraphyletic group with the exclusion of tetrapods. The name Euteleostomi was coined as a monophyletic alternative that unambiguously includes the living tetrapods and is widely used in bioinformatics. The term Euteleostomi comes from Eu-teleostomi, where Eu- comes from Greek εὖ 'well, good', so the clade can be defined as the living teleostomes. Euteleostomes originally all had endochondral bone, fins with lepidotrichs (fin rays), jaws lined by maxillary, premaxillary, and dentary bones composed of dermal bone, and lungs. Many of these characters have since been lost by descendant groups, however, such as lepidotrichs lost in tetrapods, and bone lost among the chondrostean fishes. Lungs have been retained in dipnoi (lungfish), and many tetrapods (birds, mammals, reptiles, and some amphibians). In many ray-finned fishes, lungs have evolved into swim bladders for regulating buoyancy, while in others they continue to be used as respiratory gas bladders. Classification Euteleostomi contains the following subgroups: Actinopterygii Actinopteri Chondrostei Neopterygii Cladistia Polypteriformes Sarcopterygii Actinistia Coelacanthiformes Dipnoi Ceratodontimorpha Tetrapodomorpha References External links Gnathostomata at the Tree of Life Vertebrate taxonomy Teleostomi Pridoli first appearances Extant Silurian first appearances es:Euteleostomi

357584

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27%20Communist%20Party%20of%20Bosnia%20and%20Herzegovina

Workers' Communist Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The Workers' Communist Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ) is a communist party from Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was formed in 2000 and strongly opposes the nationalism of the region and the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Some of their major aims are the introduction of workers' self-management and participatory democracy, as well as the establishment of a socialist federal Yugoslavia. They say they are not motivated by nostalgia, as they are critical of Josip Broz Tito. They believe that socialism has to be democratic and strongly oppose the system of the former Soviet Union and other former governments. They have been particularly influenced by Rosa Luxemburg and Antonio Gramsci. See also Communist Party (Bosnia and Herzegovina) References 2000 establishments in Bosnia and Herzegovina Anti-nationalist parties Communist parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina Democratic socialist parties in Europe Political parties established in 2000 Secularism in Bosnia and Herzegovina Yugoslavism International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357590

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Brazil

Communist Party of Brazil

The Communist Party of Brazil (, PCdoB) is a political party in Brazil. The PCdoB officially adheres to Marxist–Leninist theory. It has national reach and deep penetration in the trade union and students movements, but little representation in elected positions. PCdoB shares the disputed title of "oldest political party in Brazil" with the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB). The predecessor of both parties was the Brazilian Section of the Communist International, founded on 25 March 1922. The current PCdoB was launched on 18 February 1962, in the aftermath of the Sino-Soviet split. Outlawed after the 1964 coup d'état, PCdoB supported the armed struggle against the regime before its legalization in 1988. Its most famous action in the period was the Araguaia guerrilla (1966–1974). Since 1989, PCdoB has been allied to the Workers' Party (PT) at the federal level, and, as such, it participated in the Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva administration and joined the "With the strength of the people" coalition, which elected his successor, Dilma Rousseff. In 2018, the party again allied with PT and the candidacy of Fernando Haddad. Haddad's running mate was PCdoB member Manuela d'Ávila. PCdoB publishes the newspaper Working Class (Classe Operária) as well as the magazine Principles (Princípios), and is a member of the Foro de São Paulo. Its youth wing is the Union of the Socialist Youth (União da Juventude Socialista, UJS), launched in 1984, while its trade union wing is the Central of the Workers of Brazil (Central dos Trabalhadores e Trabalhadoras do Brasil, CTB), founded in 2007 as a dissidence from the Unified Workers' Central (Central Única dos Trabalhadores, CUT). History The Communist Party – Brazilian Section of the Communist International (Partido Comunista – Seção Brasileira da Internacional Comunista, PC-SBIC) was founded on 25 March 1922, gathering Brazilian Communists under the same label until the international rupture in the movement that occurred after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1956, and the 5th Congress of the PC-SBIC in 1960, when Brazilian Communists found themselves divided into two tendencies. At the 20th Congress of the CPSU, Nikita Khrushchev had delivered the so-called "Secret Speech", which denounced the abuses committed by the Soviet state under Joseph Stalin's rule. Khrushchev was considered a revisionist by supporters of the late Stalin, which led to a rupture in the Communist movement in various countries. In Brazil, the rupture reached the party leadership, which had rebuilt PC-SBIC after the setbacks it suffered under the Estado Novo regime (1930–1945), which tried to pit workers against the party and violently repressed it. The party leadership prior to the rupture, primarily composed of revisionists, was formed in 1943 by João Amazonas, Maurício Grabois, Pedro Pomar, Diógenes Arruda Câmara, and Secretary General Luís Carlos Prestes, among others. PC-SBIC (1922–1962) The PC-SBIC was ideologically grounded in the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, and in the actions of Vladimir Lenin in the aftermath of the October Revolution, advocating democratic centralism and Marxism–Leninism. It was launched on 25 March 1922 in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, when members of the Brazilian working class took their first big step towards arranging themselves under a class organization; nine delegates, representing 50 workers, held a Congress and founded the PC-SBIC. On 4 April 1922, it was recognized as a political party by the federal government, with its manifesto being published in the Official Gazette. Following the international guidance, the party was given the name of Communist Party – Brazilian Section of the Communist International. The nine delegates which attended the founding Congress of the PC-SBIC were Abílio de Nequete, a Lebanese Brazilian barber; Astrojildo Pereira, a journalist from Rio de Janeiro; Cristiano Cordeiro, an accountant from Recife; Hermogênio da Silva Fernandes, an electrician from Cruzeiro; João da Costa Pimenta, a linotype operator; Joaquim Barbosa, a tailor from Rio de Janeiro; José Elias da Silva, a shoemaker from Rio de Janeiro; Luís Peres, a broom seller from Rio de Janeiro; and Manuel Cendón, a Spanish-born tailor. A series of influential parties in the Brazilian political scene emerged from the PC-SBIC, such as the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB) and the Revolutionary Communist Party (PCR), in addition to many Trotskyist and Stalinist groups. The international rupture that arose in the Communist movement after 1956 caused the PC-SBIC to split on 18 February 1962, during its 5th National Congress. At the occasion, the Manifesto – Program, which advocated the disassociation of the party with the Communist International, was approved, and the party took the name of Communist Party of Brazil (Partido Comunista do Brasil, PCdoB). Schisms The Trotskyist Dissence (1928): In mid-1928, PC-SBIC suffered its first schism, when a small group of Marxist intellectuals broke with the political theses of PC-SBIC influenced by Leon Trotsky's Left Opposition, and its criticism of Stalinism prevailing as the official ideology of the Communist International and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Brazilian Communist Party (1961): In 1961, the "revisionist" group held an Extraordinary National Conference, adopting a new program, a new statute, replacing the main body of the party (The Working Class), and adopting the name of Brazilian Communist Party, keeping the acronym of PCB, until then popularly used to identify PC-SBIC. The maneuver was led by Luís Carlos Prestes, which claimed that the move made it possible for PC-SBIC to regain its legal registration – which was ultimately not obtained. The Marxist–Leninist group claimed that Prestes' move broke PC-SBIC's statute and was, therefore, illegal according to the party rules. They launched a document called The Hundred Men Letter, claiming the implementation of an extraordinary congress to validate the changes. It also criticized the new party line, accusing it of being "right-wing and opportunistic." After that, the self called "anti-revisionist" group adopted the name of Communist Party of Brazil and the acronym of PCdoB to differentiate themselves from PCB. Communist Revolutionary Party (1968): The Revolutionary Communist Party (Partido Comunista Revolucionário, PCR) emerged as an internal split of PCdoB in 1966, four years after the split of PC-SBIC into two parties. It was formed by activists of the student movement and the peasant leagues (a pro-agrarian reform group, considered the predecessor of MST). Its party line was that of Mao Zedong's people's war, aiming to besiege the cities from the countryside, considering the Northeast Region the best area to trigger the revolution. PCdoB's Red Wing (1968) Revolutionary Communist Party (1979) Communist Party of Brazil (Red Fraction) (1980s): The Partido Comunista do Brasil – Fração Vermelha originated as an anti-revisionist maoist wing of the Communist Party of Brazil. Reorganization of the Communist Party of Brazil The 1st Reorganization (11 August 1943) The National Party Conference (Conference of Mantiqueira) was held on 11 August 1943, in the era of Estado Novo, with delegates from Rio, São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, Bahia, Sergipe, and Paraíba. This conference would play an enormous role in party life. The Conference reviewed the political situation and the tasks of the Party, politics, and tasks of construction and rebuilding to which it must attend. A new Central Committee was elected, for the old leadership and the party organization was almost torn apart due to arrests by the police. Defeated factions dissolved, and a need to reorganize the party was established, as well as an outlining the tasks of communists in the struggle against fascism, and a declaration of war on the Axis, sending an expeditionary force to fight in Europe. Many Communists marched willingly into the theater of operations in Italy, and the Party organized a broad movement in solidarity with the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (FEB). On 1 August 1950, the Manifesto of August, was released to the public from the Central Committee of Communist Party of Brazil. An attempt to break with the remnants of the "right-wing" and "opportunist" line of the period under review, the Manifesto presented, in essence, a revolutionary line, urging the people to overthrow the regime of landlords and capitalists in the service of American imperialism, and to provide for this a popular army. The 2nd Reorganization (18 February 1962) At the 5th National Conference Meetings, held on 18 February 1962, in São Paulo, with the dissent of Marxist-Leninist tendencies, the party was reorganized. Delegates from Guanabara, São Paulo, Rio, Rio Grande do Sul and Espirito Santo were in attendance. Embracing the acronym and symbol PCdoB, the party was proclaimed the legitimate successor of the Communist Party – Brazilian Section of the Communist International (PC-SBIC). This conference marked a break with Luís Carlos Prestes, who had usurped the party leadership in 1943 and reorganized it along a revisionist line. In opposition to the revisionist line of the 5th Congress, the Conference adopted the Manifesto-Program, which draws a revolutionary line, reintroduced the Statute adopted at the Fourth Congress, adopted a resolution on the unity of the Communists, signed the principle that each country can only exist a single Marxist–Leninist party, decided to reissue The Working Class, a former central organ of the Party, approved the break with the USSR, and, finally, elected a new Central Committee. These historic resolutions mark not only a decisive break with the revisionists, but also purposed the organization of a true Marxist–Leninist vanguard in this conference Brazil. These meetings were attended by Joao Amazonas, Mauricio Grabois, Camara Ferreira, Mário Alves, Jacob Gorender, Miguel Batista de Carvalho, and Apollonius. Maoist guideline (1962–1969) The crisis between the Soviet Union and China reached its peak when the Chinese leader Mao Zedong criticized the ongoing process of de-Stalinization in the USSR, and accused Khrushchev of "opportunistic" and "reformist" deviations. A division of Mao with the rest of the communist movement attracted the sympathy of the PCdoB, who sent emissaries to Beijing to formalize the ideological link with the new ideological guidelines of the Communist Party of China. Among these messengers was the party's exiled former president, Joao Amazonas, who was received by Mao Zedong. Subsequently the party gravitated towards Maoism, considering only China and Albania socialist countries, and asserting that others were no longer revolutionary, but revisionist. However, adherence to Maoism included a shift in the strategies of the PCdoB. Following the principle of protracted people's war, PCdoB undertook to transfer ideology to the field, initiating the formation of a peasant army. This conception of revolutionary struggle contrasted with both the traditional tactics of the PCB (which true to the "peaceful path" opposed the armed struggle against the dictatorship) and with Foco new forces such as the MR-8 and the ALN, which prioritized the urban guerrilla and focus as a way of fighting the military government established in 1964. The final adoption of Maoism by the PCdoB was in 1966 at its 6th Congress. The following year, the party drew up a declaration in support of the Cultural Revolution underway in China. In 1968, PCdoB suffered two internal splits: the Red Wing of PCdoB (favorable to foquista tactics) and the Revolutionary Communist Party (PCR). The Araguaia Guerrilla (1969–1976) Forward from 1966, PCdoB sought to form a nucleus guerrilla camp. The area chosen for the irradiation of the future peasant army (along a Maoist line) was a region south of Para, near the border with Tocantins. It is estimated that the party met 70–80 guerrillas in the area under the military command of former military Osvaldo Orlando da Costa (Osvaldão) and under the command of Mauritius maximum Grabois (then commander in chief of the guerrillas). The most effective guerrilla of the PCdoB column (under the name "Araguaia Guerrilla Force") was composed of high school and college students, organized around the Patriotic Union of Youth (UJP, youth wing of the party), professionals, and workers mainly from São Paulo and Minas Gerais. As there was originally little adhesion between locals, the party created the Freedom Union and the People's Rights (ULDP), whose manifesto contained the programmatic basis of the guerrillas. In 1971, Army units discovered the location of the guerrilla nucleus and were deployed to cordon off the area, preventing it from spreading its operations to the north of the Amazon. The repression of guerrilla operations began in 1972, with three military expeditions that mobilized 25,000 soldiers. While the first two were repelled, the third expedition defeated the last pockets of resistance. Most of the guerillas died in clash with Army forces, including Osvaldão Grabois and Maurice, who died in confrontation with the Army on 25 December 1973. In the 3rd campaign of annihilation, the Army used "dirty tactics", including torture of civilians, and execution and beheading of prisoners, hiding the bodies where they would remain unknown for decades. The defeat of the Araguaia would establish the ideal of the PCdoB guerrillas as the most effective and experienced of armed struggle the dictatorship. Most of the dead in the repression of the military regime between 1964 and 1979 would be PCdoB militants. The Araguaia Guerrilla redefined the dictatorship's plans for the Amazon region, whose repressions in the region were hidden long after the dictatorship's fall. The abandonment of Maoism (1976–1979) In the late 1960s, Marxist–Leninist Popular Action (APML), a group derived from the Catholic left, adopted a Maoist ideology and approached the PCdoB. The two groups were merged in 1975, after the end of armed struggle. PCdoB also attracted former members of Pcbr and MR-8. On 16 December 1976, the DOI-Codi-SP invaded a house on Pius XI Street, São Paulo, killing Pedro Pomar and Ângelo Arroio, torturing João Batista Drumond to death, and taking prisoner Wladimir Pomar (son of Pedro), Aldo Arantes, Haroldo Lima, and Elza Monnerat (the latter two former members of the AP), in an episode that would become known as the Massacre or Slaughter of Lapa. In a climate where the opposition was beginning to gain strength, news coverage of the event resulted in shock and emotion within and outside Brazil. The party leadership, hit hard, began to operate with a core base in exile. Years later, it was discovered that the operation had the help of an informer arrested that year, the head of the PCdoB, Manoel Jover Teles (ex CC member of the PCB and former Pcbr), who was subsequently expelled from the party in 1983. Shorn of its main cadres, PCdoB began to regroup with staff from the PA leadership and staff of João Amazonas, who, with Diógenes Arruda, were the last remnants of the group that rebuilt the party in 1962. Arruda's death (in 1979) left Amazonas as Secretary of the PCdoB until his death. Observing the failure of the rural guerrilla and the new policy adopted by China since Mao's death in 1976, PCdoB decided to break with Maoism. In 1978, the party followed Enver Hoxha in his criticism of Chinese leaders, and considered Albania alone as a socialist country, the last bulwark of Marxism-Leninism. During this period, an internal split in the PCdoB led to the formation of the Revolutionary Communist Party (PRC), led by José Genoíno and Tarso Genro, which would later join the Workers Party (PT) alongside the Ala Vermelha or Red Wing. The path to legalization (1979–1987) The adoption of the new Albanian line did not mean the political radicalization of the PCdoB. In 1978, the party had begun participating in institutional action through the MDB, the moderate opposition to the military government. PCdoB resumed its parliamentary activity and secretly elected its first MPs from within the MDB. In 1979, with the granting of Amnesty, PCdoB found a favorable environment for their penetration of the unions and student organizations. John Amazonas returned from exile in 1979, and Diogenes Arruda died of a heart attack in the car on the way to a political act. The rebuilding of UNE (1979) with Aldo Rebelo marked the beginning of the hegemony of the party in university entity (continuing ever since, except for the biennium 1987–1988). In 1984, PCdoB founded the Union of Socialist Youth (UJS), its youth wing. In unionism, PCdoB initially adopted a policy of alliance with trade unionists linked to the PCB, adhering to CONCLAT in 1983, which included moderates and non-Marxists. The party was opposed to the CUT (trade union arm of the PT). In 1984, PCdoB integrated into the Direct Elections Now movement (formed by all opposition parties). The following year, with the defeat of the amendment Dante de Oliveira which would have provided for the direct election of Presidents, the party nominated Tancredo Neves as their candidate in the Electoral College, with the joint support of the PCB and MR8, in application for the democratization and legalization of leftist parties, which would be obtained in 1985. In elections to the Constituent Assembly of 1986, PCdoB elected six deputies, including Haroldo Lima, and Aldo Arantes. Of these, three were originally elected as part of the PMDB, with which they remained an ally, as part of the base of support for the government of Jose Sarney. A socialist program (1987–1995) The social and economic crisis that followed the Cruzado Plan (1987) led PCdoB to break the PMDB. In its place, the party sought a broader alliance with the PT and the PSB. In 1988, trade unionists PCdoB broke with the General Workers Central and formed the current Class Union, which then became part of the CUT, currently connected to the CTB (see Recent Events). In 1989, along with the PSB, PCdoB supported the candidacy of PT's Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva for the presidency. The alliance with the PT for the presidential elections was repeated in the elections of 1994, 1998, 2002, and 2006, achieving success in the last two, with the vice president of the ticket, the political and textile businessman José Alencar, from the PL. Also with the PT, PCdoB also was in opposition to the government of Fernando Collor. PCdoB argued for his removal, which occurred in September 1992 with large student demonstrations, participated in by the UJS along with the UBEs and UNE. At that time, they noted the personal leadership of Lindberg Farias, then president of the UNE and militant member of the PCdoB. Alongside the adoption of a more radical stance internally, PCdoB began to lose its external references. In 1990, a year after the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Albanian regime also collapsed, and, with it, Stalinism was in crisis. The main impact of these changes was the decision of PCdoB at its 8th Congress in 1992, with the slogan Vive Socialism, that Stalinism had failed, and to move closer to "classical" Marxism. That decision opened the party ideologically and allowed the incorporation of new members and alliances. PCdoB resumed ties with Cuba, and, in 1995, at its 8th conference, the party adopted its Socialist Programme. Several Communist intellectuals previously attached to the PCB (as Nelson Werneck Sodré and Edgard Carone) also approached the PCdoB. During this period, with the fall of the socialist bloc in Eastern Europe, PCdoB regarded itself as in a phase of "strategic defensive", i.e. a period of the retraction of socialist ideas, motivating the need for an accumulation of forces to advance an offensive stage. Lula administration and opposition to neoliberalism In the late 1980s, PCdoB supported the formation of a popular front to launch Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's candidacy for President. Since then, it has been a member of all electoral coalitions led by the Workers' Party (PT) at the federal level. It has also allied itself with the PT in most states and capitals. The PCdoB has registered a generally steady increase in its number of seats in the National Congress since the 1986 elections, the first parliamentary elections which the party contested. It elected 3 deputies in 1986, 5 in 1990, 10 in 1994, 7 in 1998, 12 in 2002, 13 in 2006, and 15 in 2010. In 2000, PCdoB elected its first mayor, Luciana Santos (Olinda). In 2006, it elected its first Senator ever, Inácio Arruda (although the party considers Luís Carlos Prestes, from PC-SBIC, its first Senator.) He was joined by their second Senator, Vanessa Grazziotin, in 2010. Since 2001, the party is led by Renato Rabelo (a former member of the Popular Action guerrilla group), who succeeded João Amazonas who died in the following year. With the victory of Lula in 2002, PCdoB became part of the federal government, occupying the Ministry of Sports; first with Agnelo Queiroz, and later with Orlando Silva. This was the first time that a Communist occupied a Ministry of the Brazilian state. PCdoB's influence over the federal government was expanded in 2004, with the appointment of deputy Aldo Rebelo as political coordinator for the government. The following year, he assumed the presidency of the Chamber of Deputies with the resignation of Severino Cavalcanti. On 16 November 2006, Aldo Rebelo took over the presidency for one day, making him the only Communist President of Brazil. PCdoB also managed to get some participation in the Senate for a brief period of time, when Senator Leomar Quintanilha (formerly a member of PMDB) switched parties. Although critical of the economic policy of the Lula administration, PCdoB maintained its support to PT. In 2006, when Lula sought his re-election, the party formalized its participation in his alliance. That same year, PCdoB achieved its first municipal administration of a state capital when PT's Marcelo Déda resigned in order to run as Governor of Sergipe and Edvaldo Nogueira took office as mayor of Aracaju. At the end of 2007, its divergences with PT began to increase, and PCdoB abandoned the Central Única dos Trabalhadores (CUT) trade union organization, and, along with the Brazilian Socialist Party and other independent sections of the union movement, it founded the Central of Male and Female Workers of Brazil (CTB). In 2005, Party Congress held its XI and recasts its status [1], and, among other innovations, admitted for the first time the distinction between "affiliated" and "militant" – this was for subsidiaries to help finance the party and fulfill its obligations. This move is seen as a step toward the massification of the Communist Party of Brazil. On 21–23 November 2008, PCdoB hosted the 10th International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties, which gathered 65 communist and labour parties from around the world, an event which had never been hosted in Latin America. That same year, it had its largest expansion of local representation, electing 40 mayors; some of them in big cities such as Aracaju, Olinda, Maranguape, and Juazeiro. In 2009, at the 12th Congress, PCdoB adopted a new Socialist Program [2], entitled "Strengthening the Nation is the way, socialism is the way!" It covers only the initial phase of transition to socialism, determining the need for collective party action on some issues in the immediate to medium term. Structure PCdoB was legally recognized as a political party by the Brazilian Electoral Supreme Court on 23 June 1988. Its current President is Luciana Santos. It has nearly 240,000 members. Its youth wing, UJS, is affiliated to the World Federation of Democratic Youth. Ideology PCdoB responded to the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the dissolution of the Soviet Union better than most Western communist parties. PCdoB originally established itself as an organization historically linked to the Marxist-Leninist tradition of the Communist International. Its political and ideological identity was consolidated as opposing the so-called 1960s "revisionism", identified with the directions taken by the USSR after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. PCdoB then aligned itself with Maoism. After the People's Republic of China began making economic reforms in 1979, PCdoB decided to align itself with the Socialist People's Republic of Albania, an example of consistency and fidelity to Marxism–Leninism in the opinion of its leaders. In the 1980s, the Soviet crisis was assessed by PCdoB as the result of the growing integration of the USSR with capitalism and the "social-imperialistic" policies applied by it; the Soviet regime was characterized as a kind of state capitalism. In 1991, as the crisis had reached Albania, PCdoB decided to reassess its theoretical formulations about revisionism, and became nonaligned. At its 8th Congress in 1992, PCdoB innovated itself by criticizing the Bolshevik experience. The party reaffirmed its adherence to Marxism–Leninism and socialism, taking a different path from several other Communist organizations throughout the world. During this process, PCdoB ranged from an approach that pointed to the class struggle as responsible for the fundamental changes that occurred in the Soviet regime, while on the other hand, it showed an economistic tendency, placing the problems of socialism around the development of productive forces. To some extent, it has shifted from debating these fundamental issues, and, when it did, it treated them marginally. The party has also been marked by a growing institutionalization inside the political system. This can be perceived in a letter sent to the Communist Party USA on the occasion of its 29th National Convention in 2010. In it, PCdoB demonstrates its concern over the Greek economic collapse and blames neoliberal policies for it. The party lists its electoral goals for the 2010 general elections as being the "consolidation of Communist presence in the institutions", the "enlargement of influence on lower classes" and "maintaining the democratic and progressive forces at the head of the national government". PCdoB has been criticized by smaller left-wing parties for its alliance with the Workers' Party (PT). However, the party has continued on the left-wing field. The Socialist People's Party (PPS), a dissidence of the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB), on the other hand, embraced the centre-right opposition to the Lula administration, allying with them in the Brazil can do more coalition. Congresses of the Communist Party of Brazil Electoral results Presidential elections Legislative elections Famous members Jandira Feghali João Amazonas † Jorge Mautner Leci Brandão Manuela d'Ávila Martinho da Vila Maurício Grabois † Nasi Vanessa Grazziotin See also List of political parties in Brazil List of communist parties Politics of Brazil Notes References Footnotes Sources External links Vermelho, Communist Party of Brazil news agency Union of Socialist Youth (UJS) official website Communist Party of Brazil texts in English Communist parties in Brazil Political parties in Brazil International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357595

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsauken

Pennsauken

Pennsauken may refer to the following in New Jersey: Communities Pennsauken Township, New Jersey, in Camden County Schools Pennsauken High School Pennsauken Public Schools Pennsauken Technical High School Streams Pennsauken Creek, a tributary of the Delaware River Train stations Pennsauken Transit Center Pennsauken-Route 73 (River Line station) 36th Street (River Line station)

357597

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan%20Hampshire

Susan Hampshire

Susan, Lady Kulukundis, (née Hampshire; born 12 May 1937), known professionally by her maiden name Susan Hampshire, is an English actress known for her many television and film roles. A three-time Emmy Award winner, she won for The Forsyte Saga in 1970, The First Churchills in 1971, and for Vanity Fair in 1973. Her other television credits include The Pallisers (1974), The Grand (1997–98) and Monarch of the Glen (2000–2005). Early life Susan Hampshire was born in Kensington, London, to George Kenneth Hampshire and his wife June (née Pavey) and is of Irish descent. The youngest of five children, she had three sisters and one brother. Her mother was a teacher and her father was a director of Imperial Chemical Industries who was rarely at home, her parents having unofficially separated. As a child, she had some developmental difficulties, unable to spell her name until she was nine and unable to read well until she was 12. Her determined mother founded a small London school in 1928, The Hampshire (now Gems Hampshire School), where Susan was taught. Her childhood ambition was to be a nurse, but she did not have the O level in Latin it required, so she decided to become an actress. She was diagnosed as dyslexic at the age of 30. Career As an actress, Hampshire worked in the theatre before moving to film and television work. She took the title role in a dramatised version of Little Black Sambo recorded by HMV Junior Record Club in 1961 (words by David Croft, music by Cyril Ornadel) and sang on The Midday Show when ITV Anglia began broadcasting (as Anglia Television) in 1959. Her first starring role was in the film During One Night in 1960. She then took the leading role in a 1962 BBC adaptation of What Katy Did. Soon afterwards, she was taken up by Walt Disney and starred in The Three Lives of Thomasina (opposite Patrick McGoohan) and The Fighting Prince of Donegal. She would later appear opposite McGoohan again, in two episodes of Danger Man. She co-starred with Cliff Richard in Sidney J. Furie's 1964 musical Wonderful Life. In 1966, she was introduced to American TV viewers in the pilot episode of The Time Tunnel as a young passenger on the Titanic who befriends Dr Tony Newman. She later portrayed conservationist Joy Adamson in Living Free, the sequel to Born Free. In 1972, she played three different characters in Malpertuis, directed by Harry Kumel. She is known for her work on television, appearing in several popular television serials, including The Andromeda Breakthrough (1962) in which she replaced Julie Christie who was not available for the show but had played the part of Andromeda in the first season of A for Andromeda (1961). Her most notable television role in the 1960s came in the BBC's 1967 adaptation of The Forsyte Saga, in which she played Fleur. Hampshire received Emmy Awards from the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for her roles in The Forsyte Saga (1970), The First Churchills (1971) and Vanity Fair (1973). In 1973, she appeared again on US television with Kirk Douglas in a musical version of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Other miniseries in which she appeared are The Pallisers, The Barchester Chronicles and Coming Home. She was the subject of This Is Your Life in 1992 when she was surprised by Michael Aspel at the Ritz Hotel. In 1997, she appeared in the ITV television series The Grand where she played a madame residing in the hotel. More recent TV roles include Molly MacDonald, Lady of Glenbogle, in Monarch of the Glen (2000–05) / and an appearance in Casualty (Series 26, No Goodbyes, 19 November 2011) as Caitlin Northwick. Hampshire has been active on the stage, taking the lead roles in many leading plays. In 2007, she was in the play The Bargain, based on a meeting between Robert Maxwell and Mother Teresa. She played the Fairy Godmother in pantomime at the New Wimbledon Theatre in 2005–06 and at the New Victoria Theatre in Woking in 2006–07. In 2008, she joined the relatively small band of actors who have played two generations in the same play on different occasions. Her appearance at the Chichester Festival Theatre in Somerset Maugham's The Circle as Lady Catherine Champion-Cheney in 2008 followed on from her appearance in the same play (and venue) as Elizabeth Champion-Cheney (Lady Catherine's daughter-in-law) in 1976. Author and charity work Until the publication in 1981 of her autobiography, Susan's Story, few people were aware of Hampshire's struggle with dyslexia. Since then, she has become a prominent campaigner in the UK on dyslexia issues and was president of the Dyslexia Institute from 1995 to 1998. Her second book, The Maternal Instinct (1984), discussed women and fertility issues and she published a collection of interviews, Every Letter Counts: Winning in Life Despite Dyslexia, in 1990. She has written children's books, including Lucy Jane at the Ballet, Lucy Jane and the Russian Ballet, Lucy Jane and the Dancing Competition, Lucy Jane on Television, Bear's Christmas, Rosie's First Ballet Lesson and Rosie's Ballet Slippers as well as various books and videos about her lifelong hobby of gardening, including Easy Gardening, My Secret Garden and Trouble Free Gardening. She is a patron of the British Homeopathic Association, HIV charity Body Positive Dorset, The National Osteoporosis Society, Dignity in Dying and population concern charity Population Matters. She is also patron of Mousetrap Theatre Projects in London which supports theatre productions for the enjoyment of disadvantaged and disabled children. She holds the position of vice-president at Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Ltd, UK. She is also a vice-president of The International Tree Foundation. Personal life Hampshire was married to her first husband, the French film producer Pierre Granier-Deferre, from 1967 until 1974. The couple have a son, Christopher. Their daughter, Victoria, died within 24 hours of her birth. She was married to her second husband, theatre impresario Sir Eddie Kulukundis, from 1981 until his death in 2021. Hampshire was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1995 Birthday Honours, for services to dyslexic people. In the 2018 New Year Honours, she was made Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), for services to drama and charity. Filmography References External links 1937 births Living people 20th-century English actresses Actresses from London Commanders of the Order of the British Empire English film actresses English non-fiction writers English people of Irish descent English stage actresses English television actresses Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners People from Kensington Wives of knights Writers from London

357599

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component%20Pascal

Component Pascal

Component Pascal is a programming language in the tradition of Niklaus Wirth's Pascal, Modula-2, Oberon and Oberon-2. It bears the name of the language Pascal and preserves its heritage, but is incompatible with Pascal. Instead, it is a minor variant and refinement of Oberon-2 with a more expressive type system and built-in string support. Component Pascal was originally named Oberon/L, and was designed and supported by a small ETH Zürich spin-off company named Oberon microsystems. They developed an integrated development environment (IDE) named BlackBox Component Builder. Since 2014, development and support has been taken over by a small group of volunteers. The first version of the IDE was released in 1994, as Oberon/F. At the time, it presented a novel approach to graphical user interface (GUI) construction based on editable forms, where fields and command buttons are linked to exported variables and executable procedures. This approach bears some similarity to the code-behind way used in Microsoft's .NET 3.0 to access code in Extensible Application Markup Language (XAML), which was released in 2008. An open-source software implementation of Component Pascal exists for the .NET and Java virtual machine (JVM) platforms, from the Gardens Point team around John Gough at Queensland University of Technology in Australia. On 23 June 2004 Oberon microsystems announced that the BlackBox Component Builder was made available as a free download and that an open-source version was planned. The beta open-source version was initially released in December 2004 and updated to a final v1.5 release in December 2005. It includes the complete source code of the IDE, compiler, debugger, source analyser, profiler, and interfacing libraries, and can also be downloaded from their website. Several release candidates for v1.6 appeared in the years 2009–2011, the latest one (1.6rc6) appeared on Oberon microsystems web pages in 2011. At the end of 2013, Oberon microsystems released the final release 1.6. It is probably the last release bundled by them. A small community took over the ongoing development. BlackBox Component Pascal uses the extensions .odc (Oberon document) for document files, such as source files for example, and .osf (Oberon symbol file) for symbol files while Gardens Point Component Pascal uses .cp for source and .cps for symbol files. BlackBox Component Pascal has its own executable and loadable object format .ocf (Oberon code file); it includes a runtime linking loader for this format. The document format (.odc) is a rich text binary format, which allows nice formatting, supports conditional folding, and allows active content to be embedded in the source text. It also handles user interface elements in editable forms. This is in tradition of the Oberon Text format. Syntax The full syntax for CP, as given by the Language Report, is shown below. In the extended Backus–Naur form, only 34 grammatical productions are needed, one more than for Oberon-2, although it is a more advanced language. Module = MODULE ident ";" [ImportList] DeclSeq [BEGIN StatementSeq] [CLOSE StatementSeq] END ident ".". ImportList = IMPORT [ident ":="] ident {"," [ident ":="] ident} ";". DeclSeq = { CONST {ConstDecl ";" } | TYPE {TypeDecl ";"} | VAR {VarDecl ";"}} { ProcDecl ";" | ForwardDecl ";"}. ConstDecl = IdentDef "=" ConstExpr. TypeDecl = IdentDef "=" Type. VarDecl = IdentList ":" Type. ProcDecl = PROCEDURE [Receiver] IdentDef [FormalPars] MethAttributes [";" DeclSeq [BEGIN StatementSeq] END ident]. MethAttributes = ["," NEW] ["," (ABSTRACT | EMPTY | EXTENSIBLE)]. ForwardDecl = PROCEDURE "^" [Receiver] IdentDef [FormalPars] MethAttributes. FormalPars = "(" [FPSection {";" FPSection}] ")" [":" Type]. FPSection = [VAR | IN | OUT] ident {"," ident} ":" Type. Receiver = "(" [VAR | IN] ident ":" ident ")". Type = Qualident | ARRAY [ConstExpr {"," ConstExpr}] OF Type | [ABSTRACT | EXTENSIBLE | LIMITED] RECORD ["("Qualident")"] FieldList {";" FieldList} END | POINTER TO Type | PROCEDURE [FormalPars]. FieldList = [IdentList ":" Type]. StatementSeq = Statement {";" Statement}. Statement = [ Designator ":=" Expr | Designator ["(" [ExprList] ")"] | IF Expr THEN StatementSeq {ELSIF Expr THEN StatementSeq} [ELSE StatementSeq] END | CASE Expr OF Case {"|" Case} [ELSE StatementSeq] END | WHILE Expr DO StatementSeq END | REPEAT StatementSeq UNTIL Expr | FOR ident ":=" Expr TO Expr [BY ConstExpr] DO StatementSeq END | LOOP StatementSeq END | WITH [ Guard DO StatementSeq ] {"|" [ Guard DO StatementSeq ] } [ELSE StatementSeq] END | EXIT | RETURN [Expr] ]. Case = [CaseLabels {"," CaseLabels} ":" StatementSeq]. CaseLabels = ConstExpr [".." ConstExpr]. Guard = Qualident ":" Qualident. ConstExpr = Expr. Expr = SimpleExpr [Relation SimpleExpr]. SimpleExpr = ["+" | "-"] Term {AddOp Term}. Term = Factor {MulOp Factor}. Factor = Designator | number | character | string | NIL | Set | "(" Expr ")" | " ~ " Factor. Set = "{" [Element {"," Element}] "}". Element = Expr [".." Expr]. Relation = "=" | "#" | "<" | "<=" | ">" | ">=" | IN | IS. AddOp = "+" | "-" | OR. MulOp = "*" | "/" | DIV | MOD | "&". Designator = Qualident {"." ident | "[" ExprList "]" | "^" | "(" Qualident ")" | "(" [ExprList] ")"} [ "$" ]. ExprList = Expr {"," Expr}. IdentList = IdentDef {"," IdentDef}. Qualident = [ident "."] ident. IdentDef = ident ["*" | "-"]. References Further reading From Modula to Oberon Wirth (1990) The Programming Language Oberon Wirth (1990) Differences between Oberon and Oberon-2 Mössenböck and Wirth (1993) The Programming Language Oberon-2 H. Mössenböck, N. Wirth, Institut für Computersysteme, ETH Zürich (ETHZ), January 1992. What's New in Component Pascal (changes from Oberon-2 to CP), Pfister (2001) Components and Objects Together, Clemens Szyperski, Dr.Dobbs, May, 1999 External links Last available version of former official website see also historical notes on the download page .NET programming languages Oberon programming language family Modula programming language family Pascal

357600

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereford%20and%20Worcester

Hereford and Worcester

Hereford and Worcester was an English non-metropolitan county created on 1 April 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972 from the areas of the former administrative county of Herefordshire, most of Worcestershire (except Halesowen, Stourbridge and Warley, which became part of the West Midlands) and the county borough of Worcester. An aim of the Act was to increase efficiency of local government: the two counties are among England's smaller and less populous counties, particularly after the same Act transferred some of Worcestershire's most urbanised areas to the West Midlands. The county bordered Shropshire, Staffordshire and the West Midlands to the north, Warwickshire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south, and Gwent and Powys in Wales to the west. It was abolished in 1998 and reverted, with some transfers of territory, to the two separate historic counties of Herefordshire and Worcestershire. Creation The Local Government Boundary Commission in 1948 proposed a merger of the two counties, but the proposals of this Commission were not implemented. A merger of Herefordshire with South Worcestershire was again proposed by the Redcliffe-Maud Report in 1969, and was retained in the Conservative Party's February 1971 White Paper (gaining more of Worcestershire), although no name was given. In the Local Government Bill introduced into Parliament in November 1971, it was named "Malvernshire", after the Malvern Hills, which were roughly in the geographical centre of the new county and formed the former border. This name was ridiculed and was altered during the Bill's passage through Parliament. The name Wyvern was also suggested, combining the names of the rivers that run through the two cities and counties: the River Wye through Hereford, and the River Severn through Worcester; a wyvern is a dragon emblem often found in heraldry. A commercial radio station for the area, Wyvern FM was set up in 1982 using this allusion. It was also used much later by the FirstGroup who renamed their bus operations in the area First Wyvern as opposed to the more historical First Midland Red used previously. Herefordshire had about 140,000 people, far fewer than Worcestershire, with about 420,000 and the change was thus perceived in Herefordshire as a takeover rather than a merger, especially after it emerged that the administrative centre was to be located to the east of Worcester city. It never attracted the loyalties of residents. A "Hands off Herefordshire" campaign was set up, and the proposal was opposed by Herefordshire County Council. A Hereford bull was led down Whitehall on 6 April 1972, as part of a protest, which also involved a petition handed in at 10 Downing Street calling for the preservation of Herefordshire. Despite the opposition of many of the population of Herefordshire, neither of the county's two Conservative MPs opposed the merger. Parliamentary opposition had to be led from outside the county by Terry Davis, MP for Bromsgrove, who noted that the petition had been signed by 60,000 people. Clive Bossom, the MP for Leominster in Herefordshire, supported the merger, noting that "much of South Worcestershire is very like Herefordshire". It was originally proposed to have a single large Herefordshire district within Hereford and Worcester. But this was divided, with separate Hereford, South Herefordshire and Leominster districts, and part of Herefordshire in the Malvern Hills district. Meanwhile, large sections of Worcestershire in the Black Country and Birmingham suburbs were moved to the West Midlands. This was intended to create a more unified metropolitan county, since prior to this the conurbation had been split between Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire. As a result, Hereford & Worcester was quite rural in character. These transfers continued a slow process of simplifying Worcestershire's boundaries, which once had included a complex set of exclaves within other counties. Districts Hereford and Worcester was divided into nine districts: Abolition As part of the 1990s English local government reform, the Local Government Commission under John Banham recommended that Herefordshire should become a unitary authority, with the rest of the former county retaining a two-tier structure. This came into effect on 1 April 1998. A new Herefordshire district was formed from the Herefordshire parts of Malvern Hills and Leominster, along with Hereford and South Herefordshire, and became a unitary authority. The remainder of those two districts became a new Malvern Hills district, in the new two-tier non-metropolitan county of Worcestershire, along with the remaining districts. Despite its abolition, some remnants of Hereford & Worcester's existence remain. For example, there is still a Hereford and Worcester Fire and Rescue Service. Also, the name is still used by some organisations, such as the BBC local radio station BBC Hereford and Worcester. There is also a Hereford and Worcester Chamber of Commerce. If Hereford and Worcester still existed, the population of the county would be 787,893 people in 2019. References External links Images of Hereford and Worcester at the English Heritage Archive History of Herefordshire History of Worcestershire Counties of England established in 1974 Counties of England disestablished in 1998 Herefordshire Worcestershire Local government in Herefordshire

357602

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Castafiore%20Emerald

The Castafiore Emerald

The Castafiore Emerald () is the twenty-first volume of The Adventures of Tintin, the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé. It was serialised weekly from July 1961 to September 1962 in Tintin magazine. In contrast to the previous Tintin books, Hergé deliberately broke the adventure formula he had created: it is the only book in the series where the characters remain at Marlinspike Hall, Captain Haddock's family estate, and neither travel abroad nor confront dangerous criminals. The plot concerns the visit of the opera singer Bianca Castafiore and the subsequent theft of her emerald. Although The Castafiore Emerald received critical acclaim for its humorous depiction of its characters following a trail of red herrings, it failed to match the commercial success of previous volumes due to the experimental nature of its narrative. It was published as a book by Casterman shortly after its conclusion. Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with Flight 714 to Sydney, while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco-Belgian comics tradition. The story was adapted for both the 1991 Ellipse/Nelvana animated series The Adventures of Tintin and the 1992–93 BBC Radio 5 dramatisation of the Adventures. Synopsis Tintin and Captain Haddock are walking through the countryside of Marlinspike when they come across a Romani community camped in a garbage dump, and reunite a lost little girl named Miarka with her family there. The Romani explain that they are not allowed to camp anywhere else so Haddock invites them to the grounds of his estate, Marlinspike Hall. Haddock has been trying to get the local stonemason Arthur Bolt to fix a broken step at Marlinspike, but he is never available. Milanese opera diva Bianca Castafiore invites herself to Marlinspike Hall. Haddock, who dislikes her company, tries to leave before she arrives but trips on the broken step and sprains his ankle. The doctor puts his foot in a cast and imposes bed rest. Castafiore then arrives with her maid, Irma, and pianist, Igor Wagner. Castafiore presents Haddock with a pet parrot and fusses over him, to his great discomfort. The magazine Paris Flash claim that Haddock and Castafiore are engaged, on the basis of a misinterpreted interview with Professor Calculus. This results in an avalanche of congratulations from Haddock's friends. A television crew come to Marlinspike Hall to interview Castafiore and a mysterious photographer, Gino, appears with the crew. Suddenly, Irma informs Castafiore that her jewels have been stolen, and Tintin suspects Gino who runs away during a temporary power cut. Castafiore, however, finds the jewel-case which she herself had misplaced. The next day, an angry Castafiore shows Tintin and Haddock a copy of the magazine Tempo di Roma with a picture of Castafiore taken at Marlinspike Hall without her permission, proving that Gino was only a paparazzo. A few days later, Castafiore's most valuable jewel, an emerald given to her by the fictional Maharajah of Gopal, goes missing. After initially questioning Irma, Nestor and Calculus, the detectives Thomson and Thompson suspect the Romani. Their suspicions are heightened when they find a pair of golden scissors belonging to Irma in Miarka's possession, though she claims to have found them. After the Romani depart, the police start looking for them. Tintin also investigates Igor Wagner, whose behaviour he finds suspicious, but finds out that the musician is simply sneaking out to indulge in a horse-gambling habit. Castafiore leaves for Milan to perform in the opera La gazza ladra (Italian: The Thieving Magpie). Tintin realises that the true culprit responsible for the theft of the emerald and the scissors is a magpie. He explains to Haddock that the scissors must have fallen out of the nest only to be found by Miarka. Tintin retrieves the emerald and hands it to Thomson and Thompson, who return it to Castafiore. Sometime later, Bolt mends the broken step, only for Haddock to inadvertently step on it and slip again while the cement is still wet. History Background Following the culmination of the previous story, Tintin in Tibet (1960), Hergé began planning his next adventure, seeking advice from the cartoonist Greg. Greg produced two plot outlines, Les Pilulues ("The Pills") and Tintin et le Thermozéro ("Tintin and the Thermozero"). Hergé began drawing the latter of these stories, but soon abandoned it. Instead, he decided to set his new Adventure entirely at Marlinspike Hall, the only instalment in the series to do this. This was the first and last adventure after The Secret of the Unicorn (1943) to be set entirely in Belgium, and he admitted that with his proposed scenario, it was difficult "to create suspense, a semblance of danger". The titles that Hergé had previously considered for the book were: The Castafiore Affair, Castafiore's Sapphire, The Castafiore Jewels and The Captain and the Nightingale, but The Castafiore Emerald eventually emerged as the favourite. Hergé's depiction of Bianca Castafiore in the story – a famous opera singer, pursued by the press, and changing her outfit for every occasion – was influenced by the life of the opera singer Maria Callas. One of the new characters that Hergé introduced into the story was the stonemason Arthur Bolt (M. Boullu in the original French version), whose characterisation was based on a real individual who worked for Hergé. Hergé's depiction of the paparazzi within the story may have been influenced by his own repeat encounters with the press throughout his career. The reporter and the photographer, Christopher Willoughby-Droupe and Marco Rizotto (Jean-Loup de la Battelerie and Walter Rizotto respectively in the original French version) of the Paris Flash, are introduced into the series here, and would later be retroactively added into a re-drawing of The Black Island (1938) by Bob de Moor, also making a reappearance in Tintin and the Picaros (1976). The idea of having a proposed marriage between Castafiore and Haddock was based on a reader's suggestion that Haddock marry. On page 17 of the book, Jolyon Wagg mentions Castafiore's Emerald to be a gift from, in his own words, "some character, Marjorie something or other...", to which Castafiore corrects Wagg by saying it was from the Maharajah of Gopal. The Maharajah of Gopal does not make an appearance in The Adventures of Tintin, but is one of the main characters in The Valley of the Cobras (1956), which is a part of another Franco-Belgian comics series created by Hergé, The Adventures of Jo, Zette and Jocko (1935–1958). Hergé also introduced the Romani people, members of whose community had previously appeared in Destination New York (1951), another book from The Adventures of Jo, Zette and Jocko. The idea of including them in the story was inspired by an occasion on which Hergé came across a Romani gypsy camp near to his country home in Céroux-Mousty. To ensure that his depiction of them had some accuracy, he approached Father Rupert in Verviers, who had some experience with the community, reassuring him that "the episode with the Romas will not pain you". The Castafiore Emerald was also one of the few instances of romance seen in The Adventures of Tintin, which begins when Calculus breeds a new variety of white-coloured roses, and names it "Bianca" in honour of Castafiore. At her departure, Calculus presents a bouquet of the roses he created to Castafiore, who happily receives them and embraces Calculus, kissing him in the process. Unlike Haddock, who resents being kissed by Castafiore, Calculus willingly accepts it and blushes. Calculus also makes an imperfect attempt at colour television, which according to Michael Farr, was "some five years ahead of its day". Influences The incident of the unwelcome band playing outside Marlinspike Hall, called the "Marlinspike Prize Band" (Harmonie de Moulinsart in the original French version), was based on a similar experience of Hergé's who was also obliged to serve a band with drinks. To add insult to injury, they gave a toast to "Spirou", the cartoon character created by Robert Velter. Another influence for the band was a cutting of "L'Orpheon France" band. Whenever Castafiore fears her jewels were stolen, her expressions, which involve placing her hands on her face, were influenced by a photograph of her model in real life, Maria Callas, taken by Cecil Beaton in 1957. In page 43 of the book, Tintin is shown reading Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Treasure Island (1883), which was also one of Hergé's favourite books. The depiction of the Romani wagons and clothing was closely modelled on photographs of Romani communities that Hergé had consulted, and he depicted members of the group engaged in basket weaving and fortune telling after reading that the Romani engaged in such activities in the Oxford English Dictionary. The book alludes to the well-known French weekly Paris Match in its depiction of the reporters from the magazine Paris Flash and jibes at its reputation for the questionable accuracy of the articles. Hergé's use of the word Paris Flash is also based on a previous encounter of his with the Paris Match when it featured an "error-ridden" article on him. It also mentions a fashion designing company named Tristan Bior, based upon the French luxury goods company, Christian Dior. Andy (André in the original French version), the director of the television crew belonging to the fictional company, Supavision, was compared by Farr to an employee of Belgian Television, Jacques Cogniaux. In a tribute to Auguste Piccard, Calculus' model in real life, Castafiore greets him as a famous balloonist. Hergé also inserted references to previous stories in the narrative; he included the three models of the Unicorn, originally featured in The Secret of the Unicorn, in a background scene at Marlinspike Hall. Publication The Castafiore Emerald was serialised weekly from 4 July 1961 to 4 September 1962 in Tintin magazine and published in book form as Les Bijoux de la Castafiore by Casterman in 1963. For the English version of the book, the gramophone record that Tintin receives from Castafiore, which is the "Jewel Song" from Charles Gounod's Faust, is titled "Margarethe", the name by which Gounod's opera is known in Germany but not in England. The Castafiore Emerald was the first book in The Adventures of Tintin that was published in England the same year1963it was published in Belgium and France. When Hergé read the English version of the book, he found it to be "absolutely delirious" and even suggested to translators Leslie Lonsdale-Cooper and Michael Turner: "You really would think that this was originally written in English". In the original French version, Calculus ignores Haddock's attempt to refer to the latest developments of colour television in the United States when presenting his prototype; this does not occur in the English edition. Critical analysis The book was considered by critics to be an antithesis of the previous Tintin ventures. Michael Farr, author of Tintin: The Complete Companion, stated that in The Castafiore Emerald, Hergé permits Haddock to remain at home in Marlinspike, an ideal that the "increasingly travel weary" character had long cherished, further stating that if Hergé had decided to end the Tintin series, The Castafiore Emerald would have been "a suitable final volume". He compared the story to the detective novels by Agatha Christie, in that the narrative was "littered from start to finish with clues, most of which are false", misleading both Tintin and the reader. He felt that in setting the story entirely at Marlinspike, Hergé "deliberately broke the classic adventure mould he had created", and in doing so "succeeded in creating a masterpiece in the manner of a well constructed stage comedy or farce". Farr viewed the volume as "a tour de force", noting that it was quite dissimilar to any other instalment in The Adventures of Tintin. As such, he felt that it would have been a suitable story on which to end the series. As a result of its "experimental, exceptional nature", Farr believed that The Castafiore Emerald "never gained the public recognition it merits", stating that while attracting "a loyal following" it had not become one of the most popular Adventures of Tintin, something that he thought was "unjust". Jean-Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier, co-authors of the book, The Pocket Essential Tintin, described Hergé's depiction of Castafiore in the story as "a force of nature", praising the way that he depicted her many outfit changes. They described Mr Bolt as being both a "Godot-like character" and as being akin to Basil Fawlty from the British sitcom Fawlty Towers, while adding that the broken step acts "like a Greek God's curse" in the story that affects everyone except Castafiore. They interpreted The Castafiore Emerald as Hergé's Nouveau Roman, in which he realises that he cannot improve upon the standard set in Tintin in Tibet and thus decides to "deconstruct his own myth and create the antithesis of a Tintin adventure". Given that accidents and bad luck befall most of the characters in the story, Lofficier and Lofficier described the story as "a comedy of errors, a wonderful tribute to Murphy's Law". Ultimately, they awarded the story four stars out of five. English screenwriter and author of Tintin: Hergé and his Creation (1991), Harry Thompson stated that in The Castafiore Emerald, "everything is topsy-turvy", with obvious villains being shown to be harmless, and alleged crimes turning out to have not happened. He thought that Haddock was a clear parallel for Hergé himself in the story, representing his own desires and frustrations. Ultimately, he considered the volume to be "Hergé's masterpiece" when it came to technical issues, representing "the high tide of his creative abilities". Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters described the story as "the most surprising of Tintin's adventures", with Hergé having been "determined to push his reexamination of the comic strip even further". He noted that in the story, Castafiore's "dramatic femininity" disrupted the "idea of sociability" that pervaded Marlinspike, with its "proper respect of space, a form of harmony in independence". He added that "this casually alluring tale is one of the most subtly handled of the adventures; a riot of clues, both real and false, give The Castafiore Emerald an unequaled density", elsewhere referring to it as "a catalogue of mishaps with nothing or no one spared". He described it as having brought to the foreground the "anarchist and non-conformist tendencies of Hergé's work" which had previously been shown in Quick & Flupke. He also saw the book as being "a sort of flashback" for Hergé, allowing him to relive events from his own past; thus, Peeters thought that the constant renovations at Marlinspike represented the constant renovations at Hergé's country home of Céroux-Mousty, while Haddock's time in the wheelchair represented his former wife's Germaine time spent similarly disabled, and Castafiore was a parody of Germaine herself. Ultimately, he felt that the story – "the last great adventure of Tintin" – was "also a swan song", for Hergé "did not dare to continue down this path, where not all of his readers had followed him", and which had represented "a permanent loss of innocence". Adaptations In June 1970, a long article on The Castafiore Emerald by French philosopher and author, Michel Serres, appeared in the literary review, Critique, under the title, Les Bijoux distraits ou la cantatrice sauve. In 1991, a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana adapted 21 of the stories into a series of episodes, each 42 minutes long. The Castafiore Emerald was the nineteenth story of The Adventures of Tintin to be adapted. Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi, the series has been praised for being "generally faithful", with compositions having been actually directly taken from the panels in the original comic book. In 2015, the story was adapted into a ballad opera, which premiered at Solvay Castle (Château de La Hulpe), in La Hulpe, Belgium. The cast included Michel de Warzee as Captain Haddock, Hélène Bernardy as Castatfoire, and Amani Picci as Tintin. References Notes Footnotes Bibliography External links The Castafiore Emerald at the Official Tintin Website The Castafiore Emerald at Tintinologist.org 1963 graphic novels Tintin books Works originally published in Tintin (magazine) Literature first published in serial form Methuen Publishing books Fictional representations of Romani people Works set in country houses

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20Party%20of%20Canada

Communist Party of Canada

The Communist Party of Canada () is a political party in Canada, founded in 1921 under conditions of illegality. Although it is now a federal political party without any parliamentary representation, the party's candidates have been elected to the Parliament of Canada, the Ontario legislature, the Manitoba legislature, and various municipal governments across the country. The party has also contributed significantly to trade union organizing and labour history in Canada, peace and anti-war activism, and many other social movements. The Communist Party of Canada is the second oldest active party after the Liberal Party of Canada. In 1993 the party was de-registered and had its assets seized, forcing it to begin what would be a successful thirteen-year political and legal battle to maintain the registration of small political parties in Canada. The campaign culminated with the final decision of Figueroa v. Canada (AG), changing the legal definition of a political party in Canada. Despite its continued presence as a registered political party, the Communist Party of Canada places the vast majority of its emphasis on extra-parliamentary activity that it calls "the labour and people's movements", as reflected in its programme "Canada's Future is Socialism". History Origins (1921–1928) Between May 23 and 25, 1921, local communists and socialists held clandestine meetings in a barn behind a farmhouse (owned by Elizabeth Farley) at Metcalf Street, then in the outskirts of Guelph, Ontario. An RCMP officer, working undercover, attended the meetings. His report states that delegates attended from "Winnipeg, Vancouver, Hamilton, Toronto, Montreal, Sudbury and Regina" and that the Soviet Union had offered to provide funding for the group. In addition to Guelph resident Fred Farley, a member of the United Communist Party of America, the attendees named in the RCMP report included Thomas J. Bell (a lithographer born in Ireland), Lorne Cunningham (an alderman), Trevor Maguire (one of the few in the group who was born in Canada) and Florence Custance (a teacher from Toronto). The group was "incessantly praising the Soviet Government of Russia, and urging the overthrow of the Government of Canada", according to the police report. The Communist Party of Canada (CPC) was subsequently founded on May 28, 1921. Many of its founding members had worked as labour organizers and as anti-war activists and had belonged to groups such as the Socialist Party of Canada, One Big Union, the Socialist Labour Party, the Industrial Workers of the World, and other socialist, Marxist, or Labour parties or clubs and organizations. The first members felt inspired by the Russian Revolution, and radicalized by the negative aftermath of World War I and the fight to improve living standards and labour rights, including the experience of the Winnipeg General Strike. The Comintern accepted the party as its Canadian section in December 1921, and thus the CPC adopted an organizational structure and policy similar to other communist parties at the time. The party alternated between legality and illegality during the 1920s and 1930s. Because of the War Measures Act in effect at its time of creation, the party operated as the "Workers' Party of Canada" in February 1922 as its public face, and in March began publication of a newspaper, The Worker. When Parliament allowed the War Measures Act to lapse in 1924, the underground organization was dissolved and the party's name was changed back to the "Communist Party of Canada". The party's first actions included establishing a youth organization, the Young Communist League of Canada, and solidarity efforts with the Soviet Union. By 1923 the party had raised over $64,000 for the Russian Red Cross, a very large sum of money at that time. It also initiated a Canadian component of the Trade Union Educational League (TUEL) which quickly became an organic part of the labour movement with active groups in 16 of 60 labour councils and in mining and logging camps. By 1925 party membership stood at around 4,500 people, composed mainly of miners and lumber workers, and of railway, farm, and garment workers. Most of these people came from immigrant communities like Finns and Ukrainians. The party, working with the TUEL, played a role in many bitter strikes and difficult organizing drives, and in support of militant industrial unionism. From 1922 to 1929, the provincial sections of the WPC/CPC also affiliated with the Canadian Labour Party, another expression of the CPC's "united front" strategy. The CLP operated as a federated labour party. The CPC came to lead the CLP organization in several regions of the country, including Quebec, and did not run candidates during elections. In 1925 William Kolisnyk became the first communist elected to public office in North America, under the banner of the CLP in Winnipeg. The CLP itself, however, never became an effective national organization. The CPC withdrew from the CLP in 1928–1929 following a shift in Comintern policy, and the CLP folded shortly afterwards. Debates, arguments, and expulsions From 1927 to 1929, the party went through a series of policy debates and internal ideological struggles in which advocates of the ideas of Leon Trotsky, as well as proponents of what the party called "North American Exceptionism", were expelled. Expellees included Maurice Spector, the editor of the party's paper The Worker and party chairman, and Jack MacDonald (who had supported Spector's expulsion) who resigned as the party's general secretary for factionalism, and was expelled. The Secretary of the Women's Bureau and later, general editor of the Woman Worker (1926–1929) Florence Custance was only saved from expulsion from the Party due to her untimely death in 1929. Her feminism and advocacy of birth control, for example, were well known to the mainstream press, but her radical contemporaries questioned her political sympathies and gave her few chances to shine. MacDonald, also sympathetic to Trotskyist ideas, joined Spector in founding the International Left Opposition (Trotskyist) Canada, which formed part of Trotsky's so-called Fourth International Left Opposition. The party also expelled supporters of Nikolai Bukharin and of Jay Lovestone's Right Opposition, such as William Moriarty. The CPC disagreed internally over strategy, tactics, the socialist identity of the Soviet Union, and over Canada's status as an imperialist power. While some communists like J. B. Salsberg expressed sympathy with these positions, the vast majority of members had decided to continue with the party by the early 1930s, after debates that dominated party conventions for a couple of years. Tim Buck was elected as party general secretary in 1929. He remained in the position until 1962. Great Depression (1929–1938) The stock market crash in late 1929 signalled the beginning of a long and protracted economic crisis in Canada and internationally. The crisis quickly led to widespread unemployment, poverty, destitution, and suffering among working families and farmers. The general election of 1930, brought to power the R.B. Bennett Conservative government which attacked the labour movement and established "relief camps" for young unemployed men. The CPC was the only party to make a systemic critique of the depression as an alleged crisis of capitalism. It was also the first political party in Canada to call for the introduction of unemployment insurance, a national health insurance scheme, universally accessible education, social and employment assistance to youth, labour legislation including health and safety regulations, regulation of the working day and holidays, a minimum wage for women and youth, and state-run crop insurance and price control for farmers. In 1931, eight of the CPC's leaders were arrested and imprisoned under Section 98 of Canada's Criminal Code, which outlawed advocacy of force or violence to bring about political change. The party continued to exist, but was under the constant threat of legal harassment, and was for all intents and purposes an underground organization. In 1934 a massive campaign pushed back against the imprisonment, which many characterized as political repression of the party. The prisoners were subsequently released. On the release of Tim Buck, a mass rally attended by a crowd of over 17,000 supporters and sympathizers was held in Maple Leaf Gardens. Although the party was banned, it organized large mass organizations such as the Workers' Unity League (WUL) and the Canadian Labour Defence League, which played an important role in historic strikes like that of miners in Estevan. From 1933 to 1936, the WUL led 90 percent of the strikes in Canada. Already, conditions had taught social democrats, reformists, and the communists important lessons of cooperation. In 1934, in accordance with the re-examined position of the Comintern, the CPC adopted a strategy and tactics based on a united front against fascism. In the prairies, communists organized the Farmers Unity League, which mobilized against farm evictions. They rallied hundreds or thousands of farmers into demonstration Hunger Marches that encountered police brutality. In 1936, James Litterick was elected as an MLA for Winnipeg, the first CPC member to be elected to Manitoba's legislature. Party members were also active in the Congress of Industrial Organizations' attempt to unionize the auto and other industrial sectors including Steelworkers, the Canadian Seamen's Union, the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers Union, the International Woodworkers of America, and the United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers of America. Among the poor and unemployed, communists organized groups like the left-wing Workers Sports Association, one of the few ways that working-class youth had access to recreational programmes. The Relief Camp Workers' Union and the National Unemployed Workers Association played significant roles in organizing the unskilled and the unemployed in protest marches and demonstrations and campaigns such as the "On-to-Ottawa Trek" and the 1938 Vancouver Post Office sit-down strike. Internationally, the party initiated the mobilization of the over-1,500-person Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion to fight in the Spanish Civil War as a part of the International Brigade. Among the leading Canadian communists involved in that effort was Dr. Norman Bethune, who is known for his invention of a mobile blood-transfusion unit, early advocacy of Medicare in Canada, and work with the Chinese Communist Party during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Solidarity efforts for the Spanish Civil War and many labour and social struggles during the Depression resulted in much cooperation between members of the CPC and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). After 1935 the CPC advocated electoral alliances and unity with the CCF on key issues. The proposal was debated in the CCF, with the 1936 BC, Alberta and Saskatchewan conventions generally supporting cooperation while the Ontario convention opposed. While the motion was defeated at the CCF's third federal convention, the CPC continued to call for a united front. The call was particularly urgent in Quebec, where in 1937 the Duplessis government passed "an act to protect Quebec against communist propaganda", which gave the police the power to padlock any premises used by "communists" (which was undefined in the legislation). World War II (1939–1945) Although the CPC had worked hard to warn Canadians about what it considered to be a growing fascist danger, after some debate the CPC saw the opening of World War II not as an anti-fascist war but a battle between capitalist nations. Most likely this conclusion was supported by the policies of the big powers. Many voices in the British establishment, for example, called loudly for support of Adolf Hitler against the USSR. Meanwhile, having failed in reaching agreement with Britain and other world powers, the USSR signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany, to bide time before an inevitable war between the two. The CPC's opposition to World War II led to it being banned under the Defence of Canada Regulations of the War Measures Act in 1940 shortly after Canada entered into the war. In many cases communist leaders were interned in camps, long before fascists. As growing numbers of CPC leaders were interned, some members went underground or exile in the United States. Conditions in the camps were harsh. A civil rights campaign was launched by the wives of many of the interned men for family visits and their release. With Germany's 1941 invasion of the USSR and the collapse of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the party argued that the nature of the war had changed to a genuine anti-fascist struggle. The CPC reversed its opposition to the war and argued the danger to the working class on the international level superseded its interests nationally. During the Conscription Crisis of 1944, the banned CPC set up "Tim Buck Plebiscite Committees" across the country to campaign for a "yes" vote in the national referendum on conscription. Following the vote, the committees were renamed the Dominion Communist–Labour Total War Committee and urged full support for the war effort, a no-strike pledge for the duration of the war and increased industrial production. The National Council for Democratic Rights was also established with A.E. Smith as chair in order to rally for the legalization of the CPC and the release of communists and anti-fascists from internment. The party's first elected Member of Parliament (MP) was Dorise Nielsen. Nielsen was elected in North Battleford, Saskatchewan in 1940 under the popular front Progressive Unity label, with the support of many individual CCFers. Nielsen kept her membership in the party a secret until 1943. Cold War era (1945–1991) Party ban and the Labour-Progressives The CPC remained banned, but with the entry of the Soviet Union into the war and the eventual release of the Canadian party's interned leaders, Canadian communists founded the Labour-Progressive Party (LPP) in 1943 as a legal front and thereafter ran candidates under that name until 1959. At its height in the mid-1940s, the party had fourteen sitting elected officials at the federal, provincial and municipal level. Several prominent elected party members were: Dorise Nielsen, a Saskatchewan MP elected as a Unity candidate in 1940, declared her affiliation with the LPP when it was formed in August 1943 and ran unsuccessfully for re-election as an LPP candidate. Fred Rose was elected to represent a Montreal riding in the House of Commons of Canada as an LPP MP, and was removed from office after being convicted of spying for the Soviet Union. Mary Kardash and William Ross were LPP and then Communist school trustees in Winnipeg Jacob Penner and Joseph Zuken were popular aldermen in Winnipeg. Zuken was an LPP school trustee before succeeding Penner on city council by which time the LPP had changed its name back to the Communist Party of Canada. Bill Kardash and James Litterick were Manitoba LPP Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs). A.A. MacLeod and J.B. Salsberg were LPP members of the Ontario legislature. Alexander A. Parent was an LPP member and president of UAW Local 195, elected as the Liberal-Labour MPP for Essex North in 1945. Broke with the Liberals in 1946 and spent the remainder of his term as a Labour MPP working with the two LPP MPPs, MacLeod and Salsberg. He did not run for re-election in 1948. Stanley Bréhaut Ryerson, Sam Carr, Charles Simms and Norman Freed were LPP Toronto aldermen while Stewart Smith was elected to the city's Board of Control, Edna Ryerson, Elizabeth Morton and John Boyd were elected to the School Board in 1944. Harry Rankin sat on Vancouver's city council on behalf of the Committee of Progressive Electors which he helped found in the late 1960s. Though not officially a CPC member he was a fellow traveller. James Wallace was a councillor in the village of Long Branch, a Toronto suburb, from 1942 to 1952. The small rural municipality of Clayton, Saskatchewan elected a Communist mayor to one of its tiny towns Blairmore, Alberta elected a Communist majority town council and school board in 1933 and renamed the main street "Tim Buck Avenue" and the main park "Karl Marx Park" In 1945, Igor Gouzenko, a cipher clerk at the Soviet Embassy, defected to Canada and alleged that several Canadian communists were operating a spy ring which provided the Soviet Union with top secret information. The Kellock-Taschereau Commission was called by Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King to investigate the matter. This led to the convictions of Fred Rose and other communists. Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 Secret Speech criticizing the rule of Joseph Stalin and the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary shook the faith of many communists around the world. The party was also riven by a crisis following the return of prominent party member J.B. Salsberg from a trip to the Soviet Union where he found rampant party-sponsored antisemitism. Salsberg reported his findings but they were rejected by the party, which suspended him from its leading bodies. The crisis resulted in the departure of the United Jewish Peoples' Order, Salsberg, Robert Laxer and most of the party's Jewish members in 1956. Many, perhaps most, members of the CPC left, including a number of prominent party members. In the mid-1960s the United States Department of State estimated the party membership to be approximately 3,500. The Soviet Union's 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia caused more people to leave the CPC. Many women were likewise deterred from engaging with the party as it was somewhat resistant to women's politics at the time. The Party may have countered that the discussions of sex, gender, and women's politics held the potential to veer away from the overarching goal of class revolution, for example, many radical women recalled the hypocrisy of party men who refused to discuss sex despite carrying on numerous extramarital affairs. The party was also active in indigenous people's struggles. For example, James P. Brady and Malcom Norris were founders of the Metis Associations of Saskatchewan and Alberta in the 1940s and 1950s. Soviet Bloc collapse and party split In common with most communist parties, it went through a crisis after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and subsequently split. Under then general secretary George Hewison (1988–1991), the leadership of the CPC and a segment of its general membership began to abandon Marxism–Leninism as the basis of the Party's revolutionary perspective, and ultimately moved to liquidate the Party itself, seeking to replace it with a left, social democratic entity. The protracted ideological and political crisis created much confusion and disorientation within the ranks of the Party, and paralysed both its independent and united front work for over two years. The Hewison-led majority in the Central Committee (CC) of the party voted to abandon Marxism–Leninism. An orthodox minority in the CC, led by Miguel Figueroa, Elizabeth Rowley and former leader William Kashtan, resisted this effort. At the 28th Convention in the fall of 1990, the Hewison group managed to maintain its control of the Central Committee of the CPC, but by the spring of 1991, the membership began to turn more and more against the reformist policies and orientation of the Hewison leadership. Key provincial conventions were held in 1991 in the two main provincial bases of the CPC—British Columbia and Ontario. At the BC convention, delegates threw out Fred Wilson, one of the main leaders of the Hewison group. A few months later in June 1991, Ontario delegates rejected a concerted campaign by Hewison and his supporters, and overwhelmingly reelected provincial leader Elizabeth Rowley and other supporters of the Marxist–Leninist current to the Ontario Committee and Executive. The Hewison group moved on August 27, 1991, to expel eleven of the key leaders of the opposition, including Rowley, Emil Bjarnason, and former central organizer John Bizzell. The Hewison-controlled Central Executive also dismissed the Ontario provincial committee. The vast majority of local clubs and committees of the CPC opposed the expulsions, and called instead for an extraordinary convention of the party to resolve the deepening crisis in a democratic manner. There were loud protests at the CC's October 1991 meeting, but an extraordinary convention was not convened. With few remaining options, Rowley and the other expelled members threatened to take the Hewison group to court. After several months of negotiations between the Hewison group and the opposition "All-Canada Negotiating Committee", an out-of-court settlement resulted in the Hewison leadership agreeing to leave the CPC and relinquish any claim to the party's name, while taking most of the party's assets to the Cecil-Ross Society, a publishing and educational foundation previously associated with the party. Following the departure of the Hewison-led group, a convention was held in December 1992 at which delegates agreed to continue the CPC (thus the meeting was titled the 30th CPC Convention). Delegates rejected the reformist policies instituted by the Hewison group and instead reaffirmed the CPC as a Marxist–Leninist organization. Since most of the old party's assets were now the property of the Hewison-led Cecil Ross Society, the CPC convention decided to launch a new newspaper, the People's Voice, to replace the old Canadian Tribune. The convention elected a new central committee with Figueroa as Party Leader. The convention also amended the party constitution to grant more membership control and lessen the arbitrary powers of the Central Committee, while maintaining democratic centralism as its organizational principle. Meanwhile, the former Communists retained the Cecil-Ross Society as a political foundation to continue their political efforts. They also sold off the party's headquarters at 24 Cecil Street, having earlier liquidated various party-related business such as Eveready Printers (the party printshop) and Progress Publishers. The name of the Cecil-Ross Society comes from the intersection of Cecil Street and Ross Street in Toronto where the headquarters of the party was located. The Cecil-Ross Society took with it the rights to the Canadian Tribune, which had been the party's weekly newspaper for decades, as well as roughly half of the party's assets. The Cecil-Ross Society ended publication of the Canadian Tribune and attempted to launch a new broad-left magazine, New Times which failed after a few issues and then Ginger which was only published twice. Recent history (1992–present) The Figueroa Case The renovated party, although with a much smaller membership and resources (such as the former headquarters at 24 Cecil Street in Toronto and party printing press) now faced further challenges and threats to its existence. Changes to the Canada Elections Act, introduced by the Mulroney Conservative government and passed by Parliament in the spring of 1993, required that any political party which failed to field 50 candidates in a general federal election would be automatically de-registered and its assets seized. The CPC was not in a position to run 50 candidates in the 1993 federal election (it fielded only eight candidates during that election), and therefore its assets were seized and the party was de-registered. The CPC had sought an interim injunction to prevent its imminent de-registration, but this legal action failed. A prolonged ten-year political and legal battle, Figueroa v. Canada (AG) ensued, which won the support of widespread popular opinion, reflected in a number of members of parliament openly supporting the challenge and other small political parties joining the case, most notably the Green Party. Never before had a single court challenge resulted in legislative action on three separate occasions to amend a standing law. Bill C-2 (2000) amended the Canada Elections Act to (among other things) remove the unconstitutional seizure of party assets for failure to field 50 candidates in a general election and provided for the full refund of candidates' deposits. The party had its deregistration overturned and its seized assets restored. Bill C-9 (2001) reduced the threshold from 50 to 12 candidates for the party identifier to appear on the ballot. After the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unanimously to strike down the 50-candidate threshold as unconstitutional, the Chretien government was forced to introduce and pass Bill C-3 (2003), which scrapped the rule altogether for party registration. This victory was celebrated by many of the other small parties – regardless of political differences – on the principle that it was a victory for the people's right to democratic choice. During this time the CPC began to publish a fortnightly newspaper called People's Voice. Its Quebec section, le Parti communiste du Québec, was reorganized. The CPC also began periodically publishing a theoretical/discussion journal Spark!. In 2001 the party adopted a comprehensive update to its party programme and renamed it "Canada's Future is Socialism". The CPC re-invigorated its long-standing involvement in and contribution to the labour movement and support of trade union organizing and campaigns, in the civic reform movement, and in a number of social justice, anti-war and international solidarity groups and coalitions. In 2007 Young Communist League of Canada was refounded. Local YCL groups have sprung up in several cities across the country, and the League has since held several central conventions. Quebec and the national question The Communist Party of Canada began organizing in Quebec upon its founding. Many important leaders of the CPC including Annie Buller, William Kashtan, Fred Rose, Madeleine Parent, and Léa Roback hailed from Montreal, and Norman Bethune joined the party in Montreal. The Quebec district fought hard battles against the Duplessis regime, which made the party illegal using the Padlock Law, and to organize the unorganized. The election of Fred Rose in Cartier was a major boost to the Quebec communists and reflected the support of the CPC among working-class people in the city. For some time the party had been struggling to develop its policy on the national question in Canada, which had changed considerably since the party's formation. As early as the 1930s the CPC recognized Quebec was a nation and by the late 1940s the party began to advocate for Quebec's right to self-determination. In the 1950s and 60s the party clarified this position, becoming the first party to advocate for a democratic solution to the national question and a new "made-in-Canada" constitution that would guarantee sovereignty for Quebec, up to and including separation. While supporting the right to separate, the communists opposed the succession of Quebec from Canada, proposing a new equal and voluntary partnership between what was then commonly called French and English Canada. In the late 1950s the party finally overturned the Padlock Law, giving new energy and hope to the party despite difficult times with the Khrushchev revelations and the continued pressure of the Cold War. Moving to better put into practice what it saw as a deeper political understanding of the national question, the CPC in Quebec re-organized as the Communist Party of Quebec in November 1965, reflecting what it now termed the multi-national reality of Canada as "a state with more than one nation within its borders". The PCQ emerged as a "distinct entity" of the CPC, with shared membership and, at the same time, full control over its policies and administration including its own constitution. With the Quiet Revolution, Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism and later the October Crisis the party's position on the national question became the subject of broad debate across the country, and influenced the agreement of the Canadian Labour Congress to work with the Quebec Federation of Labour on an equal and voluntary basis. The communists called for workers sympathetic with independence movements to unite on a common, immediate class-based programme of common struggle with English-speaking Canadian workers. The PCQ helped re-launch Montreal's mass May Day demonstrations and advanced many unique policies including the idea of a federated party of labour, which proved its prescience with the formation of Québec solidaire. The federated party of labour proposal was endorsed by the late 1960s by most trade union centrals, but the project was eclipsed by the emergence of the Parti Quebecois. By the 1980s the CPC and PCQ were calling for "a new, democratic constitutional arrangement based on the equal and voluntary union of Aboriginal peoples, Québec, and English-speaking Canada" replacing the Senate with a house of nations. In this context the PCQ and CPC critically supported the first referendum question on sovereignty association, while later the CPC advocated voting No on the second referendum in 1995. During the crisis in CPC during the 1990s, the PCQ became disorganized, closed its offices, and its remaining members drifted apart from the CPC, with many in the leadership adopting positions sympathetic to nationalism. It was not until 1997 that a range of communists and communist groups came together to re-organize the PCQ. A few years later the party helped bring together different tendencies in the left to form the Union of Progressive Forces (UFP) which became Québec solidaire. The UFP agreed to place the question of Quebec independence as secondary to social or class issues. This was hotly debated as the party transformed into Québec solidaire. The debate moved over into the PCQ as well. These positions were questioned by the Quebec leader of the party, André Parizeau, who formulated a series of amendments in support of immediate independence in 2004 which were rejected by both the National Executive Committee (NEC) of the Quebec party (by a vote of 4–2) and by the Central Executive Committee of the Canadian party (by a vote of 7–1). In January 2005, Parizeau wrote a letter to PCQ members declaring that the party was in crisis and, describing the four NEC members who opposed his amendments as a pro-federalist "Gang of Four", he summarily dismissed them. Although his Quebec nationalist point of view held a slim majority at the PCQ's convention of April 2005, the delegate selection process was highly disputed. Parizeau was subsequently expelled by the Central Committee of the CPC for factionalism and actions harmful to the Party. Around the same time, his group announced their withdrawal from the CPC. The CPC then began to re-organize the PCQ-PCC in Quebec, but the Quebec provincial government authorities continued to recognize Parizeau as holding the electoral registration of the Parti communiste du Québec. The Central Committee of the party affirmed the authority of the previous Quebec National Executive Committee on June 18–19, 2005. The non-registered CPC-aligned PCQ held a new convention which restarted a communist French-language periodical, Clarté, and later opened an office and small reading room, launched an active website, and re-affiliated with Quebec Solidaire as an organized group. They work closely with the youth and student organization, the "Ligue de la jeunesse communiste du Quebec". The CPC's account of this situation is available online, as is the letter from Parizeau's PCQ group. The CPC-aligned PCQ campaigned for a general social (political) strike against the previous Charest Liberal government and the subsequent pro-austerity provincial governments. In 2015 the Parizeau group officially left Quebec Solidaire to support the Parti Quebecois and the campaign of Pierre Karl Péladeau. Recent conventions and elections The CPC held its 37th Central Convention in February 2013 in Toronto. According to a Toronto Star article the assembly drew 65 delegates most of whom were from Ontario, British Columbia and Quebec with a few from Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Nova Scotia. Party leader Miguel Figueroa called for the CPC to field 25 candidates in the upcoming federal election. The CPC held its 38th Central Convention in May 2016, again in Toronto. The meeting drew about 70–80 delegates from Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, Manitoba, Alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and New Brunswick, in order of delegation size. The party held a special tribute to Miguel Figueroa, who had retired before the convention, and elected Elizabeth Rowley as party leader. Elizabeth Rowley was elected as the first woman leader of the party in October 2016. Under Rowley's leadership, the party ran 30 candidates in the 2019 Canadian federal election and finished in twelfth, receiving 3,905 votes and a total of 0.02 percent of the popular vote. Membership The CPC had a membership of about 4,500 people in 1925, consisting mainly of miners, lumberers, railway workers, farmers, and garment workers. Party membership soared in the 1940s, peaking at just under 20,000 in January 1946. However, during this time the CPC's membership in Quebec only amounted to several hundred members. Women made up 12 to 15 percent of the CPC's membership from 1934 to 1938, rising to 28 percent by 1951. According to Canadian historian Ivan Avakumović, the CPC had 1,500 to 3,000 members during the 1960s. However, the United States Department of State estimated the CPC's membership to be approximately 3,500 in the mid-1960s. The party's current membership has not been publicly disclosed. Publications The CPC publishes the biweekly newspaper People's Voice, which has been in circulation since 1993. The party's previous newspapers include The Worker, Canadian Tribune, and The Tribune. Additionally, the CPC's British Columbia section published many newspapers of its own, such as the B.C. Worker's News (1935–1937), People's Advocate (1937–1940), Vancouver Clarion (1940–1941), Pacific Advocate (1942–1945), and Pacific Tribune (1946–1992). Allied organizations Historically, the CPC has had allied organizations which were affiliated with the party until the late-1920s, when these affiliates were hitherto understood to be largely following the party's direction. These groups often originated from left-wing labour and socialist movements that existed prior to the creation of the Communist Party and operated political and cultural activities amongst various immigrant groups, published magazines and operated their own cultural centres and meeting halls. From the 1920s through the 1950s the largest immigrant groups represented in the party were Finns, Ukrainians and Jews who were organized in the Finnish Organization of Canada (founded in 1911 as the Finnish Socialist Organization of Canada), the Association of United Ukrainian Canadians (known as the Ukrainian Labour Farmer Temple Association until 1946) and the United Jewish Peoples' Order (known as the Labour League until 1945) respectively. Also active in the 1930s and 1940s were the Hungarian Workers Clubs, the Polish People's Association (formerly the Polish Workers' and Farmers' Association and later known as the Polish Democratic Association after World War II), the Serbian People's Movement and Croatian Cultural Association (formerly the Jugoslav Workers' Clubs) and the Carpatho-Russian Society. The Russian Farmer-Worker Clubs were formed in the early 1930s but closed by the government under the Defence of Canada Regulations at the outbreak of World War II. When the Soviet Union became Canada's ally in 1942, they re-appeared as the Federation of Russian Canadians. The German Canadian Federation was formed during World War II and the Canadian Slav Committee was formed in 1948 in an attempt to put party-aligned cultural associations for Ukrainians, Russians, Poles, Slovaks, Bulgarians, Macedonians, Yugoslavs and Carpatho-Rusyns under one umbrella. The Society of Capartho-Russian Canadians re-formed and, in 1950, acquired a hall at 280 Queen Street West in Toronto which it continues to operate into the twenty-first century. The UJPO broke with the party in 1956 during the period of the "Khrushchev revelations" and allegations of antisemitism in the Soviet Union. Later allied organizations include the Greek Canadian Democratic Organization formed by leftists emigres who had fled the Greek military junta of 1967–1974 and the Portuguese Canadian Democratic Association which was formed by left-wing emigres who had left Portugal in the 1960s and early 1970s when it was still ruled by a right wing dictatorship. The Portuguese association was outspoken in its support of the 1974 Carnation Revolution. Provincial sections The Communist Party of Canada has provincial sections which contest general elections at the provincial level. In most provinces the provincial section's name is in the format "Communist Party of Canada ([Province])". These include: Leadership Chairmen A list of known party chairmen from 1921 to 1973. General Secretaries A list of party general secretaries since 1921. Central Executive Committee The Communist Party of Canada's 38th convention held in May 2016 elected the following members to its leading body, the Central Executive Committee: Elizabeth Rowley (party leader), Dave McKee (leader of the Communist Party of Ontario), Pierre Fontaine (leader of the Parti communiste du Québec), Drew Garvie (leader of the Young Communist League of Canada), Jane Bouey (BC Executive member and Chair of the Central Women's Commission), and Kimball Cariou (editor of People's Voice). There is also a larger body, the Central Committee, which is elected at convention and meets in intervening years. The Central Committee nominates the members of the Central Executive Committee and the composition of the CEC is ratified by convention. Election results At its height in the mid-1940s, the CPC had fourteen sitting elected officials at the federal, provincial and municipal levels, including federal Member of Parliament Fred Rose, who was elected in 1945, the year in which the CPC's proportion of the federal election vote was its highest ever at 2.13 percent. In the 1953 federal election the CPC ran one hundred candidates, its most ever, but received only 1.06 percent of the national vote. Those one hundred candidates encompassed seven provinces and included 22 women, as well as 11 "youth candidates". Notes Average number of votes per candidate See also Notable members of the Communist Party of Canada Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia PROFUNC Rebel Youth Notes References Citations Sources Books Journal articles Other External links Canada's Party of Socialism: History of the Communist Party of Canada 1921–1976 — official account of the party's history Communist Party of Canada – Canadian Political Parties and Political Interest Groups — web archive created by the University of Toronto Libraries Records of the Communist Party of Canada are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books Communist Party of Canada manuscript and printed materials collection — Robert S. Kenny Papers at Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library Communist Party of Canada fonds at Library and Archives Canada 1921 establishments in Canada Canada–Soviet Union relations Canada Communist parties in Canada Far-left politics in Canada Federal political parties in Canada Formerly banned communist parties Political parties established in 1921 International Meeting of Communist and Workers Parties

357615

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenesis

Epigenesis

Epigenesis may refer to: Epigenesis (biology), describes morphogenesis and development of an organism By analogy, a philosophical and theological concept, part of the concept of spiritual evolution Epigenesis (geology), mineral changes in rocks after formation. The Epigenesis, a 2010 album by Melechesh Epigenesis, a video game created during the 2013 Make Something Unreal competition See also Epigenetics, changes in gene expression due to mechanisms other than changes in DNA sequence

357616

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20software%20engineering

Outline of software engineering

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to software engineering: Software engineering – application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software; that is the application of engineering to software. The ACM Computing Classification system is a poly-hierarchical ontology that organizes the topics of the field and can be used in semantic web applications and as a defacto standard classification system for the field. The major section "Software and its Engineering" provides an outline and ontology for software engineering. Technologies and practices Skilled software engineers use technologies and practices from a variety of fields to improve their productivity in creating software and to improve the quality of the delivered product. Software applications Software engineers build software (applications, operating systems, system software) that people use. Applications influence software engineering by pressuring developers to solve problems in new ways. For example, consumer software emphasizes low cost, medical software emphasizes high quality, and Internet commerce software emphasizes rapid development. Business software Accounting software Analytics Data mining closely related to database Decision support systems Airline reservations Banking Automated teller machines Cheque processing Credit cards Commerce Trade Auctions (e.g. eBay) Reverse auctions (procurement) Bar code scanners Compilers Parsers Compiler optimization Interpreters Linkers Loaders Communication E-mail Instant messengers VOIP Calendars — scheduling and coordinating Contact managers Computer graphics Animation Special effects for video and film Editing Post-processing Cryptography Databases, support almost every field Embedded systems Both software engineers and traditional engineers write software control systems for embedded products. Automotive software Avionics software Heating ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) software Medical device software Telephony Telemetry Engineering All traditional engineering branches use software extensively. Engineers use spreadsheets, more than they ever used calculators. Engineers use custom software tools to design, analyze, and simulate their own projects, like bridges and power lines. These projects resemble software in many respects, because the work exists as electronic documents and goes through analysis, design, implementation, and testing phases. Software tools for engineers use the tenets of computer science; as well as the tenets of calculus, physics, and chemistry. Computer Aided Design (CAD) Electronic Design Automation (EDA) Numerical Analysis Simulation File FTP File sharing File synchronization Finance Bond market Futures market Stock market Games Poker Multiuser Dungeons Video games Information systems, support almost every field LIS Management of laboratory data MIS Management of financial and personnel data Logistics Supply chain management Manufacturing Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) Distributed Control Systems (DCS) Music Music sequencers Sound effects Music synthesis Network Management Network management system Element Management System Operations Support System Business Support Systems Networks and Internet Domain Name System Protocols Routers Office suites Word processors Spreadsheets Presentations Operating systems Embedded Graphical Multitasking Real-time Robotics Signal processing, encoding and interpreting signals Image processing, encoding and interpreting visual information Speech processing Text recognition Handwriting recognition Simulation, supports almost every field. Engineering, A software simulation can be cheaper to build and more flexible to change than a physical engineering model. Sciences Sciences Genomics Traffic Control Air traffic control Ship traffic control Road traffic control Training Drill Simulation Testing Visualization, supports almost every field Architecture Engineering Sciences Voting World wide web Browsers Servers Software engineering topics Many technologies and practices are (mostly) confined to software engineering, though many of these are shared with computer science. Programming paradigm, based on a programming language technology Object-oriented programming Aspect-oriented programming Functional decomposition Structured programming Rule-based programming Databases Hierarchical Object Relational SQL/XML SQL MYSQL NoSQL Graphical user interfaces GTK+ GIMP Toolkit wxWidgets Ultimate++ Qt toolkit FLTK Programming tools Configuration management and source code management CVS Subversion Git Mercurial RCS GNU Arch LibreSource Synchronizer Team Foundation Server Visual Studio Team Services Build tools Make Rake Cabal Ant CADES Nant Maven Final Builder Gradle Team Foundation Server Visual Studio Team Services Visual Build Pro Editors Integrated development environments (IDEs) Text editors Word processors Parser creation tools Yacc/Bison Static code analysis tools Libraries Component-based software engineering Design languages Unified Modeling Language (UML) Patterns, document many common programming and project management techniques Anti-patterns Patterns Processes and methodologies Agile Agile software development Extreme programming Lean software development Rapid application development (RAD) Rational Unified Process Scrum (in management) Heavyweight Cleanroom ISO/IEC 12207 — software life cycle processes ISO 9000 and ISO 9001 Process Models CMM and CMMI/SCAMPI ISO 15504 (SPICE) Metamodels ISO/IEC 24744 SPEM Platforms A platform combines computer hardware and an operating system. As platforms grow more powerful and less costly, applications and tools grow more widely available. BREW Cray supercomputers DEC minicomputers IBM mainframes Linux PCs Classic Mac OS and macOS PCs Microsoft .NET Palm PDAs Sun Microsystems Solaris Windows PCs (Wintel) Symbian OS Other Practices Communication Method engineering Pair programming Performance Engineering Programming productivity Refactoring Software inspections/Code reviews Software reuse Systems integration Teamwork Other tools Decision tables Feature User stories Use cases Computer science topics Skilled software engineers know a lot of computer science including what is possible and impossible, and what is easy and hard for software. Algorithms, well-defined methods for solving specific problems. Searching Sorting Parsing Numerical analysis Compiler theory Yacc/Bison Data structures, well-defined methods for storing and retrieving data. Lists Trees Hash tables Computability, some problems cannot be solved at all List of unsolved problems in computer science Halting problem Complexity, some problems are solvable in principle, yet unsolvable in practice NP completeness Computational complexity theory Formal methods Proof of correctness Program synthesis Adaptive Systems Neural Networks Evolutionary Algorithms Mathematics topics Discrete mathematics is a key foundation of software engineering. Number representation Set (computer science) Bags Graphs Sequences Trees Graph (data structure) Logic Deduction First-order logic Higher-order logic Combinatory logic Induction Combinatorics Other Domain knowledge Statistics Decision theory Type theory Life cycle phases Development life cycle phase Requirements gathering / analysis Software architecture Computer programming Testing, detects bugs Black box testing White box testing Quality assurance, ensures compliance with process. Product Life cycle phase and Project lifecycle Inception First development Major release Minor release Bug fix release Maintenance Obsolescence Release development stage, near the end of a release cycle Alpha Beta Gold master 1.0; 2.0 Software development lifecycle Waterfall model — Structured programming and Stepwise refinement SSADM Spiral model — Iterative development V-model Agile software development DSDM Chaos model — Chaos strategy Deliverables Deliverables must be developed for many SE projects. Software engineers rarely make all of these deliverables themselves. They usually cooperate with the writers, trainers, installers, marketers, technical support people, and others who make many of these deliverables. Application software — the software Database — schemas and data. Documentation, online and/or print, FAQ, Readme, release notes, Help, for each role User Administrator Manager Buyer Administration and Maintenance policy, what should be backed-up, checked, configured, ... Installers Migration Upgrade from previous installations Upgrade from competitor's installations Training materials, for each role User Administrator Manager Buyer Support info for computer support groups. Marketing and sales materials White papers, explain the technologies used in the applications Business roles Operations Users Administrators Managers Buyers Development Analysts Programmers Testers Managers Business Consulting — customization and installation of applications Sales Marketing Legal — contracts, intellectual property rights Privacy and Privacy engineering Support — helping customers use applications Personnel — hiring and training qualified personnel Finance — funding new development Academe Educators Researchers Management topics Leadership Coaching Communication Listening Motivation Vision, SEs are good at this Example, everyone follows a good example best Human resource management Hiring, getting people into an organization Training Evaluation Project management Goal setting Customer interaction (Rethink) Estimation Risk management Change management Process management Software development processes Metrics Business topics Quality programs Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Six Sigma Total Quality Management (TQM) Software engineering profession Software engineering demographics Software engineering economics CCSE History of software engineering Software engineering professionalism Ethics Licensing Legal Intellectual property Consumer protection History of software engineering History of software engineering Pioneers Many people made important contributions to SE technologies, practices, or applications. John Backus: Fortran, first optimizing compiler, BNF Victor Basili: Experience factory. F.L. Bauer: Stack principle, popularized the term Software Engineering Kent Beck: Refactoring, extreme programming, pair programming, test-driven development. Tim Berners-Lee: World wide web Barry Boehm: SE economics, COCOMO, Spiral model. Grady Booch: Object-oriented design, UML. Fred Brooks: Managed System 360 and OS 360. Wrote The Mythical Man-Month and No Silver Bullet. Larry Constantine: Structured design, coupling, cohesion Edsger Dijkstra: Wrote Notes on Structured Programming, A Discipline of Programming and Go To Statement Considered Harmful, algorithms, formal methods, pedagogy. Michael Fagan: Software inspection. Tom Gilb: Software metrics, Software inspection, Evolutionary Delivery ("Evo"). Adele Goldstine: Wrote the Operators Manual for the ENIAC, the first electronic digital computer, and trained some of the first human computers Lois Haibt: FORTRAN, wrote the first parser Margaret Hamilton: Coined the term "software engineering", developed Universal Systems Language Mary Jean Harrold: Regression testing, fault localization Grace Hopper: The first compiler (Mark 1), COBOL, Nanoseconds. Watts Humphrey: Capability Maturity Model, Personal Software Process, fellow of the Software Engineering Institute. Jean Ichbiah: Ada Michael A. Jackson: Jackson Structured Programming, Jackson System Development Bill Joy: Berkeley Unix, vi, Java. Alan Kay: Smalltalk Brian Kernighan: C and Unix. Donald Knuth: Wrote The Art of Computer Programming, TeX, algorithms, literate programming Nancy Leveson: System safety Bertrand Meyer: Design by Contract, Eiffel programming language. Peter G. Neumann: RISKS Digest, ACM Sigsoft. David Parnas: Module design, social responsibility, professionalism. David Pearson, Computer Scientist: Developed the ICL CADES software engineering system. Jef Raskin: Developed the original Macintosh GUI, authored The Humane Interface Dennis Ritchie: C and Unix. Winston W. Royce: Waterfall model. Mary Shaw: Software architecture. Richard Stallman: Founder of the Free Software Foundation Linus Torvalds: Linux kernel, free software / open source development. Will Tracz: Reuse, ACM Software Engineering Notes. Gerald Weinberg: Wrote The Psychology of Computer Programming. Elaine Weyuker: Software testing Jeannette Wing: Formal specifications. Ed Yourdon: Structured programming, wrote The Decline and Fall of the American Programmer. See also List of programmers List of computer scientists Notable publications About Face: The Essentials of User Interface Design by Alan Cooper, about user interface design. The Capability Maturity Model by Watts Humphrey. Written for the Software Engineering Institute, emphasizing management and process. (See Managing the Software Process ) The Cathedral and the Bazaar by Eric Raymond about open source development. The Decline and Fall of the American Programmer by Ed Yourdon predicts the end of software development in the U.S. Design Patterns by Erich Gamma, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson, and John Vlissides. Extreme Programming Explained by Kent Beck "Go To Statement Considered Harmful" by Edsger Dijkstra. "Internet, Innovation and Open Source:Actors in the Network" — First Monday article by Ilkka Tuomi (2000) source The Mythical Man-Month by Fred Brooks, about project management. Object-oriented Analysis and Design by Grady Booch. Peopleware by Tom DeMarco and Tim Lister. The pragmatic engineer versus the scientific designer by E. W. Dijkstra Principles of Software Engineering Management by Tom Gilb about evolutionary processes. The Psychology of Computer Programming by Gerald Weinberg. Written as an independent consultant, partly about his years at IBM. Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code by Martin Fowler, Kent Beck, John Brant, William Opdyke, and Don Roberts. The Pragmatic Programmer: from journeyman to master by Andrew Hunt, and David Thomas. Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK) ISO/IEC TR 19759 See also: Important publications in software engineering in CS. Related fields Computer Science Information engineering Information technology Traditional engineering Computer engineering Electrical engineering Software engineering Domain engineering Information technology engineering Knowledge engineering User interface engineering Web engineering Arts and Sciences Mathematics Computer science Information science Application software Information systems Programming Systems Engineering See also Index of software engineering articles Search-based software engineering SWEBOK Software engineering body of knowledge CCSE Computing curriculum for software engineering Computer terms etymology, the origins of computer terms Complexity or scaling Second system syndrome optimization Source code escrow Feature interaction problem Certification (software engineering) Engineering disasters#Failure due to software Outline of software development References External links ACM Computing Classification System Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK) Professional organizations British Computer Society Association for Computing Machinery IEEE Computer Society Professionalism SE Code of Ethics Professional licensing in Texas Education CCSE Undergraduate curriculum Standards IEEE Software Engineering Standards Internet Engineering Task Force ISO Government organizations European Software Institute Software Engineering Institute Agile Organization to promote Agile software development Test driven development Extreme programming Other organizations Online community for software engineers Software Engineering Society Demographics U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics on SE Surveys David Redmiles page from the University of California site Other Full text in PDF from the NATO conference in Garmisch Computer Risks Peter G. Neumann's risks column. Outlines of applied sciences Wikipedia outlines Software engineering, Outline of

357621

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon%20Territory

Oregon Territory

The Territory of Oregon was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from August 14, 1848, until February 14, 1859, when the southwestern portion of the territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Oregon. Originally claimed by several countries (see Oregon Country), the region was divided between the UK and the US in 1846. When established, the territory encompassed an area that included the current states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, as well as parts of Wyoming and Montana. The capital of the territory was first Oregon City, then Salem, followed briefly by Corvallis, then back to Salem, which became the state capital upon Oregon's admission to the Union. Background Originally inhabited by Native Americans, the region that became the Oregon Territory was explored by Europeans first by sea. The first documented voyage of exploration was made in 1777 by the Spanish, and both British and American vessels visited the region not long thereafter. Subsequent land-based exploration by Alexander Mackenzie and the Lewis and Clark Expedition and development of the fur trade in the region strengthened the competing claims of Great Britain and the United States. The competing interests of the two foremost claimants were addressed in the Treaty of 1818, which sanctioned a "joint occupation", by British and Americans, of a vast "Oregon Country" (as the American side called it) that comprised the present-day U.S. states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, parts of Montana and Wyoming, and the portion of what is now the Canadian province of British Columbia south of the parallel 54°40′ north. Formation During the period of joint occupation, most activity in the region outside of the activities of the indigenous people came from the fur trade, which was dominated by the British Hudson's Bay Company. Over time, some trappers began to settle down in the area and began farming, and missionaries started to arrive in the 1830s. Some settlers also began arriving in the late 1830s, and covered wagons crossed the Oregon Trail beginning in 1841. At that time, no government existed in the Oregon Country, as no one nation held dominion over the territory. A group of settlers in the Willamette Valley began meeting in 1841 to discuss organizing a government for the area. These earliest documented discussions, mostly concerning forming a government, were held in an early pioneer and Native American encampment and later town known as Champoeg, Oregon. These first Champoeg Meetings eventually led to further discussions, and in 1843 the creation of the Provisional Government of Oregon. In 1846, the Oregon boundary dispute between the U.S. and Britain was settled with the signing of the Oregon Treaty. The United States federal government left their part of the region unorganized for two years until news of the Whitman massacre reached the United States Congress and helped to facilitate the organization of the region into a U.S. territory. On August 14, 1848, Congress passed the Act to Establish the Territorial Government of Oregon, which created what was officially the Territory of Oregon. The Territory of Oregon originally encompassed all of the present-day states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, as well as those parts of present-day Montana and Wyoming west of the Continental Divide. Its southern border was the 42nd parallel north (the boundary of the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819), and it extended north to the 49th parallel. Oregon City, Oregon, was designated as the first capital. Government The territorial government consisted of a governor, a marshal, a secretary, an attorney, and a three-judge supreme court. Judges on the court also sat as trial level judges as they rode circuit across the territory. All of these offices were filled by appointment by the President of the United States. The two-chamber Oregon Territorial Legislature was responsible for passing laws, with seats in both the upper-chamber council and lower-chamber house of representatives filled by local elections held each year. Taxation took the form of an annual property tax of 0.25% for territorial purposes with an additional county tax not to exceed this amount. This tax was to be paid on all town lots and improvements, mills, carriages, clocks and watches, and livestock; farmland and farm products were not taxed. In addition, a poll tax of 50 cents for every qualified voter under age 60 was assessed and a graduated schedule of merchants' licenses established, ranging from the peddlar's rate of $10 per year to a $60 annual fee on firms with more than $20,000 of capital. Gaining statehood Oregon City served as the seat of government from 1848 to 1851, followed by Salem from 1851 to 1855. Corvallis served briefly as the capital in 1855, followed by a permanent return to Salem later that year. In 1853, as a result of the Monticello Convention and its approval by Congress and President Millard Fillmore, the portion of the territory north of the lower Columbia River and north of the 46th parallel east of the river was organized into the Washington Territory. The Oregon Constitutional Convention was held in 1857 to draft a constitution in preparation for becoming a state, with the convention delegates approving the document in September, and then general populace approving the document in November. In 1850, 10 years after the end of the Second Great Awakening (1790–1840), of the 9 churches with regular services in the Oregon Territory, 5 were Catholic, 1 was Baptist, 1 was Congregational, 1 was Methodist, and 1 was Presbyterian. In the 1850 United States census, 10 counties in the Oregon Territory (7 counties in contemporary Oregon and 3 in contemporary Washington) reported the following population counts: On February 14, 1859, the territory entered the Union as the U.S. state of Oregon within its current boundaries. The remaining eastern portion of the territory (the portions in present-day southern Idaho and western Wyoming) was added to the Washington Territory. See also Historic regions of the United States Territorial evolution of the United States References States and territories disestablished in 1859 History of the Northwestern United States Former organized territories of the United States History of the American West History of Oregon Pre-statehood history of Idaho Pre-statehood history of Montana Pre-statehood history of Washington (state) Pre-statehood history of Wyoming Territory 1848 establishments in the United States 1859 disestablishments in the United States

357629

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter%20of%20the%20French%20Language

Charter of the French Language

The Charter of the French Language (), (the Charter) also known in English as Bill 101 or Law 101 (), is a law in the province of Quebec in Canada defining French, the language of the majority of the population, as the official language of the provincial government. It is the central legislative piece in Quebec's language policy, and one of the three statutory documents Quebec society bases its cohesion upon, along with the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms and the Civil Code of Quebec. The Charter also protects the Indigenous languages of Quebec. Proposed by Camille Laurin, the Minister of Cultural Development under the first Parti Québécois government of Premier René Lévesque, it was passed by the National Assembly and received royal assent on August 26, 1977. The Charter's provisions expanded upon the 1974 Official Language Act (Bill 22), which was enacted during the tenure of Premier Robert Bourassa's Liberal government to make French the official language of Quebec. Prior to 1974, Quebec had no official language and was subject only to the requirements on the use of English and French contained in Article 133 of the British North America Act, 1867. The Charter has been amended more than six times since 1977. Each amendment has been controversial in Quebec. Objective The preamble of the Charter states that the National Assembly resolved "to make French the language of Government and the Law, as well as the normal and everyday language of work, instruction, communication, commerce and business". It also states that the National Assembly is to pursue this objective "in a spirit of fairness and open-mindedness", recognizes "the right of the Amerinds and the Inuit of Quebec, the first inhabitants of this land, to preserve and develop their original language and culture". Titles The Charter consists of six titles and two schedules. The nine chapters of Title I, pertaining to the status of the French language, declare French the sole official language (chapter I), define the fundamental language rights of persons (chapter II), and define the status of French in the parliament and the courts (chapter III), the civil administration (chapter IV), the semipublic agencies (chapter V), labour relations (VI), commerce and business (VII), and language of instruction (VIII). The five chapters of Title II, pertain to linguistic officialization, toponymy, and the francization of the civil service and enterprises. Title III establishes the Office québécois de la langue française (Quebec Office of the French language), defines its mission, powers, and organization. Title IV establishes the Conseil supérieur de la langue française (Superior Council of the French language). Title V and VI define penal provisions and sanctions and transitional and miscellaneous provisions. Status of the French language To achieve the goal of making French the "normal and everyday language of work, instruction, communication, commerce and business" and ensure the respect of French Quebecers' language rights, the Charter contains a number of key provisions and various regulations. Official language In the first article of the Charter, French is declared the official language of Quebec. The French language was previously declared the sole official language of Quebec with the adoption of the Official Language Act in 1974. Quebec is constitutionally obliged nonetheless to provide English services in the courts and the National Assembly of Quebec (see below). Fundamental language rights The fundamental French-language rights in Quebec are: The right to have the civil administration, the health services and social services, the public utility enterprises, the professional corporations, the associations of employees and all enterprises doing business in Quebec communicate with the public in French. (article 2) The right to speak French in deliberative assemblies. (article 3) The right of workers to carry on their activities in French. (article 4) The right of consumers to be informed and served in French. (article 5) The right of persons eligible for instruction in Quebec to receive that instruction in French. (article 6) Parliament and courts French is the declared language of the legislature and courts in Quebec. Section 133 of the Constitution Act, 1867, still in effect, nonetheless requires that bills be printed, published, passed, and assented to in French and in English in Parliaments and the legislatures of Canada and of Quebec. French or English may be used by any person before the courts of Quebec. Parties may request the translation in French or English of the judgments by the courts or decisions rendered by any "body discharging quasi-judicial functions". The French text prevails over the English one, in case of any discrepancy, for any regulation to which section 133 of the Constitution Act of 1867 does not apply. The first version of the Charter provided that laws be enacted only in French. In 1979, the related provisions (articles 7 through 13) were rendered inoperative by a ruling of the Supreme Court of Canada in Attorney General of Quebec v. Blaikie; however, Quebec responded by re-enacting in French and in English the Charter of the French Language, leaving intact articles 7 through 13. In 1993, the Charter's provisions related to the language of the legislature and courts were made compliant with the Supreme Court's ruling. Civil administration The government departments, agencies are designated by their French name alone, all administrative documents are drafted and published in the official language. All communications by the administration with other governments and legal persons, between departments and internally inside departments, are conducted in the official language. Knowledge of the official language appropriate to the office being applied for is required. A non-official language may be used on signs and posters of the administration for health or public safety reasons. Semi-public agencies Public utilities and professional orders must provide service in the official language and use it for their internal and general communications. Professional orders may issue permits only to persons who have a knowledge of the official language appropriate to the practice of their profession. Labour relations Ten articles of the Charter provide for the general goal of making French the language of labour relations. Employers are to draw up written communications to their staff and publish job offers or promotions in the official language. An employer cannot dismiss, lay off, demote or transfer a staff member on the sole account of his being exclusively French-speaking or of possessing insufficient knowledge of a non-official language, or because that member demanded the respect of his right to work in French. As a job requirement, knowledge or a specific level of knowledge of a language other than French is prohibited, unless the nature of the duties require it. The Commission des relations du travail (Commission of Labour Relations) arbitrates in case of disagreement over the necessity of knowing a non-official language to perform a given work. The burden of the proof is on the employer. Commerce and business Product labels, their instructions, manuals, warranty certificates as well as restaurant menus and wine lists must be in French. Other languages may be used, provided French's prominence is at least equivalent. Catalogues, brochures, folders, commercial directories and other such publications, must be in French. All software (for example, video games and operating systems) must be available in French unless no French version exists. Signs and posters must be in French, and they may also be in another language provided French is markedly predominant. A recognized trademark within the meaning of the Trademarks Act may appear exclusively in a language other than French unless a French version has been registered. Where a trademark is displayed outside a building exclusively in a language other than French, a sufficient presence of French must also be ensured. A number of exceptions to the general rules for commercial products, signs, and advertising: Products destined exclusively for export; Educational products for the teaching of a language other than French; Cultural and ideological companies, groups, signs, and literature (including non-French broadcasters and newspapers); Companies (usually multinational corporations) that sign an agreement with the OQLF permitting an exemption from the francization requirement. (However, the rules regarding the right of a worker to work in French still apply.) In some parts of Quebec like Montreal, signs with bilingual French and English text of equal sizes can be seen (such as in historically English educational institutions, and in federally regulated businesses), although French is sometimes predominant on these signs. For example, French is located to the left of other languages so that it is read before the non-French text when reading left to right. (Formerly, the size and colour of text in other languages were tightly regulated as well.) Application to indigenous languages Though Article 97 clarifies that while "the Indian reserves are not subject to this Act", the local indigenous language is still subject to it off-reserve. For example, the local indigenous language is not exempted from the application of Article 58, whereby "public signs, advertising and posters must be in French", and may be in the local indigenous language "provided that French is markedly predominant". Though Article 58 does allow the provincial government to "determine by regulation the places, cases, conditions or circumstances ... where French need not be predominant or where such signs, posters and advertising may be in another language only", it imposes no obligation on the government to exempt the local indigenous language. Language of instruction The language of instruction from kindergarten to secondary school is French. (The instruction language is the language in which the classes are taught. Learning of English as a second language is mandatory for all children attending French school beginning in elementary school.) Articles 87, 88 and 89 provide for the use of Amerindic languages and Inuktitut as the language of instruction. The rate of introduction of French and English as languages of instruction is left to school committees and parents' committees. At the request of parents, the following may receive instruction in English: a child whose father or mother is a Canadian citizen and received elementary instruction in English anywhere in Canada, provided that that instruction constitutes the major part of the elementary instruction he/she received in Canada; a child whose father or mother is a Canadian citizen and who has received or is receiving elementary or secondary instruction in English in Canada, and the brothers and sisters of that child, provided that that instruction constitutes the major part of the elementary or secondary instruction received by the child in Canada. The original 1977 Charter provided for the English instruction not on the basis of a parent having received his instruction in English in Canada, but in Quebec only. This came to be amended following the adoption of the Constitution Act 1982, which defined the educational right of French and English minorities in all provinces under section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Office québécois de la langue française The Office québécois de la langue française, informally known by some Anglophones as the "language police", is the commission responsible for conducting the policy pertaining to linguistic officialization, toponymy and francization of civil administration and enterprises. It also has the mission of "monitoring the linguistic situation in Québec", promoting the official language, and conducting research. In 2016–17, the budget of the OQLF was . The office is frequently accused of abusing its powers, such as occurred in 2013 during the "pastagate" affair when an Italian restaurant was cited for having pasta, antipasti, calamari, and the like on its menu, instead of using French equivalents. The office also objects to the sale of "grilled cheese sandwiches", insisting that they be called , which literally translates to "melted cheese sandwich". Likewise, the Quebec language office objects to "on/off" switches and to the sale of "steaks", insisting that they be called , "despite the fact that steak is the far more common term among Francophones." Conseil supérieur de la langue française The Conseil supérieur de la langue française (Superior Council of the French language) is an advisory council whose mission is "to advise the minister responsible for the application of the Charter of the French language on any question relative to the French language in Quebec". It works in close collaboration with equivalent bodies in France, Belgium and Switzerland. Legal dispute Language in Canada is defined federally by the Official Languages Act since 1969 and is part of the Constitution of Canada since 1982. Parts of the Charter have been amended in response to rulings by Quebec Courts which were upheld by the Supreme Court of Canada. Before 1982, the only part of the Charter of the French Language that could be challenged constitutionally was that of the language of legislation and the courts. It was challenged in 1979 by Peter Blaikie, Roland Durand and Yoine Goldstein (Attorney General of Quebec v. Blaikie). In 1982, the patriation of the Canadian Constitution occurred as the British Parliament passed the Canada Act 1982. This act enacted the Constitution Act, 1982 for Canada (including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms); section 23 introduced the notion of "minority-language education rights". This opened another door to a constitutional dispute of the Charter. Alliance Quebec, an anglophone rights lobby group, was founded in May 1982 and operated until 2005. It was mainly through this civil association that a number of lawyers have challenged the constitutionality of Quebec's territorial language policy. 2021 amendment (Bill 96) On August 26, 2020, Quebec's Minister of Justice and French Language Simon Jolin-Barrette announced plans for 2021 that he will be strengthening the charter. On May 12, 2021, The CAQ Quebec government of François Legault announced Bill 96, which will strengthen the charter. Some of the proposed measures were. Adding clauses to the Canadian Constitution, saying Quebec is a nation and that its official and common language is French. Forcing all commercial signage that includes non-French-language trademarks to include a "predominant" amount of French on all signs. Removing a municipality's bilingual status if census data shows that English is the first language for less than 50 per cent of its population, unless the municipality decides to maintain its status by passing a resolution to keep it. Creating the French Language Ministry and the position of French-language commissioner, as well as bolstering the role of the OQLF. Giving access to French language training for those who are not obligated by law to go to school in French. Applying the charter to businesses with 25-49 employees and federal workplaces. The leader of the Parti Québécois, Paul St-Pierre Plamondon, said he supported aspects of the bill, but felt it did not go far enough. Saying "Unfortunately, the CAQ gave us the absolute minimum." a few days later PQ announced their plan if elected, which would include government should also cut off funding to companies that do not respect their obligations when it comes to using the French language subjecting CEGEPs to the charter, imposing a uniform French exam on English-speaking CEGEP students immigration thresholds will be substantially lower. According to a poll by Léger published on May 22, among Francophones the approval rate for the various proposals was fluctuating between 72% and 95%. Criticism The Charter was criticised by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, who called Bourassa's Bill 22 as a "slap in the face", in his memoirs, as he saw it as contrary to the federal government's initiative to mandate bilingualism. Except for New Brunswick, most other provinces that accepted Trudeau's bilingualism initiative never fully implemented it. The most notable case was Ontario, where Premier Bill Davis did not grant full official status to the French language, despite the fact that the infrastructure was already in place. Political opposition to the Charter and earlier such language legislation has had limited success, given the support of the laws by the Parti Québécois and Quebec Liberal Party. Legislative initiatives prior to Bill 101 were often perceived by francophones as insufficient, such as An Act to promote the French language in Quebec (Bill 63). After Bourassa passed the Official Language Act, opponents turned their support to the Union Nationale in the 1976 election, but despite that short resurgence of support, the party collapsed in the subsequent election. Court challenges have been more successful: Many of the key provisions of the initial language legislation having been rewritten to comply with rulings. Despite compliance since 1993 of the Charter with the Canadian Constitution, opposition to the Charter and the government body enforcing it has continued. According to Statistics Canada, up to 244,000 English-speaking people have emigrated from Quebec to other provinces since the 1970s; those in Quebec whose sole native language was English dropped from 789,000 in 1971 to 575,555 in 2006 when they accounted for 7.6% of the population. Altogether, in 2006, 744,430 (10%) used mostly English as their home language, and 918,955 (12.2%) comprised the Official Language Minority, having English as their First Official language spoken. When many anglophones relocated outside of Quebec after the introduction of the Charter in the 1970s, several English-language schools in Montreal closed their doors. These school closures may also have been brought about by restrictions on who can attend English schools, which has been another ongoing drain on the English school system. Of the Anglophones between 25 and 44 years old who left the province between 1981 and 1986, 15,000 individuals, which was half of this group, had university degrees. The province's unemployment rate rose from 8.7 per cent in 1976 to 10.4 per cent in 1977, remaining above 10 per cent for 19 of the last 23 years of the 20th century. The language barrier has also been regarded as a "soft cap" for population growth; for instance from 2013 to 2014 while Montreal gained around 43,000 immigrants from other parts of the world it lost 10,000 residents to other provinces. Many companies, most notably Sun Life, Royal Bank and Bank of Montreal (which even considered removing "Montreal" from its name), moved their major operations to Toronto as a consequence of the adoption of the Charter. This concerted fleeing of business and subsequent loss of thousands of jobs is believed to have hindered Quebec's economy and allowed Toronto to overtake Montreal as Canada's business centre. On the other hand, Toronto's advantage had been growing since the 1930s and had become apparent in the 1950s, and is also related to the greater importance of the United States, rather than Britain, in Canada's economy. This action may have simply accelerated, rather than allowed, this change of status between the two cities. Levying fines of up to per offence, Charter enforcers were widely labelled in the English media as the "language police" or "tongue troopers". While the Office québécois de la langue française (OQLF) provides several warnings before resorting to legal sanctions, allegations that it has abused its powers has led to charges of racism and harassment. The OQLF took action against stores retailing imported kosher goods that did not meet its labelling requirements, an action perceived in the Jewish community as an unfair targeting that coincided with a high-profile case against the well-known Schwartz's delicatessen, the owner of which was subjected to failed legal action by the OQLF due to the apostrophe in his sign, which remains. In the mid-1980s, another delicatessen Dunn's got in trouble for having the English word, "Smoked Meat" on the sign out front. The manager at the time stated that Parti Québécois MNA Gérald Godin himself ordered the sandwich by its name. Dunn's also fought a ruling to change the name of "Smoked Meat" to "Boeuf Mariné" in order to conform to Quebec Language Law. They won the ruling by appeal by proving that if they didn't advertise "Smoked Meat" they would confuse and anger customers. Due to the work of Myer Dunn, under the new ruling, enacted in 1987, Smoked meat became a word in both Official languages of Canada. In 2002, there were reported cases of harassment of allophone merchants who refused to speak French. The 2004 annual report of the OQLF was criticized by a columnist of The Gazette who alleged that there was a "totalitarian mindset in the bureaucracy". The columnist complained of sections of the report which described the continued prevalence of languages other than French in two-thirds of Montreal's households as an "alarming" trend that would present a formidable challenge to francophones in Montreal. In reality, the report judged alarming the fact that adoption of English as a home language by allophones grew faster than the adoption of French as a home language. The use of the notwithstanding clause in the 1990s to circumvent the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms with regards to signage also resulted in reactions from other Canadian provinces; the syndrome de Sault Ste. Marie was a series of symbolic but divisive resolutions by some municipalities outside Quebec declaring their towns unilingually English in protest of what they saw as an infringement on the rights embodied in the charter. It is often believed that the controversy over the Charter was what influenced the Meech Lake Accord and Charlottetown Accord to fail. The Supreme Court in their ruling regarding the signs case which led to the use of the notwithstanding clause, ruled that in fact any sign law was a violation of the freedom of expression right. Aside from the civil rights infringement, the Charter has faced legal challenges because the restricted education opportunities have hindered not only unilingual but bilingual anglophones' employment. Although the Charter made French the official language of government and civil administration, the same cannot be said of the private sector. Despite over 40 years of the Charter, it has never been applied as rigorously as intended because to do so would violate civil liberties. English is still often made a requirement by employers in Montreal, including many French-Canadian owned ones, and, to a lesser extent, in Gatineau and Quebec City, with the workforce in Montreal remaining largely bilingual. On November 14, 1988, the political and human rights watchdog organization Freedom House published "The Doctrine of 'Preponderance of Blood' in South Africa, the Soviet Union and Quebec" in its journal Exchange. Introduced by Zbigniew Brzezinski (an anglophone who had once lived in Montreal) former U.S. President Jimmy Carter's National Security adviser, the essay compared the language of instruction provisions of the charter with South African apartheid statutes and jurisprudence. However, the Supreme Court of Canada disagreed with the discrimination-based-on-ancestry argument under the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms in Gosselin (Tutor of) v. Quebec (Attorney General), believing that it conflicted with section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The criteria used by Quebec to determine if parents are entitled to have their children instructed in English are the same as those found under section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Influence abroad The 2001 report of the Estates-General on the Situation and Future of the French Language in Quebec identified the negative perception of Quebec's language policy in the rest of Canada and the United States as a problem to solve. It stated: In Canada and abroad, the linguistic policy of Quebec is too often negatively perceived. The business community and the media, in particular, know it very little. For their part, the Americans remain opposed to legislation that appears to them to reduce individual liberties and limit the use of English. For them, language and culture are two separate elements, they do not see how the protection of Quebec culture also includes the protection of the French language, even though 35 American States have adopted declarations proclaiming English the official language. Thus, must be developed the perception that Quebec culture is a part of the North-American heritage and that it is necessary to preserve it. It is also important to correct the erroneous perceptions regarding the Quebec language policy and its application. Recommendation 147 of the report suggested the creation of an institutional television and radio campaign targeting both Quebec citizens and certain groups abroad to inform on the facts of the situation of French in North America and the language policy of Quebec. Recommendation 148 suggested the creation of a watchdog to correct the errors made "both in good faith and bad faith" in the media. As part of the effort to correct the errors of perception, the OQLF conducted an inquiry on the influence of Quebec's language policy abroad in countries where the fragility of certain languages prompted the use of legislative measures. It requested and published the opinions of various experts from Spain, Israel, the United States, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, Wales, Australia and Flanders in a special issue of the OQLF's Revue d'aménagement linguistique celebrating the 25th anniversary of Quebec's Charter of the French language in 2002. Jonas Žilinskas, a lecturer at University of Šiauliai, in Lithuania described the state of the Lithuanian language after a prolonged Russian rule over his country: One proclaimed a policy of bilingualism which was expressed only by the obligation made to Lithuanians to learn Russian while Russians did not bother to learn Lithuanian. If the written Lithuanian language were more or less protected by writers through newspapers and publishers, the spoken Lithuanian language was degraded. Often, in the institutions, it was only a language of oral communication, the greatest part of technical documentation and correspondence being written in Russian. This "false bilingualism" was followed by the Sąjūdis movement during which the people of Lithuania declared their language the sole official language and began working on a language policy modeled on the experience of Quebec. Mart Rannut, vice-dean of research at the Department of philology of the University of Tallinn, in Estonia, recalled the influence of Quebec's expertise in the field of linguistic human rights and language planning which helped countries that have gained independence from the former Soviet Union and concluded that "Bill 101 indirectly touched one-sixth of the planet". Ina Druviete, at the time dean of the department of sociolinguistics at the Linguistic Institute of Latvia, noted the similarities between the language policies in all three Baltic States and that of Quebec. All policies aiming "to prevent language shifts and to modify the hierarchy of languages in the public life. The principal sectors of intervention were the language used in the government agencies and the administration, in meetings and office spaces in particular, in corporate names, information and education. The principle of territorial linguistic rights was instituted." In Wales, the language policy of Quebec had a great influence, but could not be implemented as it was in the Baltic States because Welsh speakers do not form a majority in this constituent country of the United Kingdom. According to Colin H. Williams, professor and researcher at the Welsh Department of Cardiff University particular lessons followed in Wales which stem from the experience of Quebec are: The acquisition of detailed census data and explanatory facts aiming at clarifying the public discussion The linguistic legislation (official language status, right to speak Welsh before the court, Welsh Language Board responsible to administer the law) The iconography of the linguistic landscape The progress in the teaching of the Welsh language In Israel, while the "penetration of English in the sociolinguistic organization of the country" is perceived, according to Bernard Spolsky, professor emeritus of English at the Bar-Ilan University, as a threat to Hebrew, the language policy has thus far only influenced linguists and some politicians. He writes: Periodically, Israeli politicians present bills to proclaim Hebrew the sole official language of the country. Presently, Hebrew shares this title with Arabic only, because a measure was taken soon after the foundation of the State, in 1948, to modify the British policy, which imposed three languages, and gave up English. The last attempt at giving a judicial protection to Hebrew goes back to December 2000: two bills were then rejected. In Catalonia, according to Miquel Reniu i Tresserras, president of the Comissió de Lectorats and former chief executive officer of the Catalan language policy, Quebec's legislation has constituted a "reference model" and the OQLF and the equivalent body in Catalonia are in close collaboration. See also Language demographics of Quebec Language policy Minority language French language English-speaking Quebecers Children of Bill 101 Official bilingualism in Canada Toubon Law Ford v. Quebec Devine v. Quebec Notes References Law and regulations Charter of the French Language - Updated to 1 March 2018 29 regulations adopted under the Charter of the French language, Éditeur officiel du Québec, (online through the Canadian Legal Information Institute, updated on March 14, 2008) The Constitutional Act, 1867, (U.K.), 30 & 31 Victoria, c. 3. (online through the Canadian Legal Information Institute, updated December 10, 2002) The Constitutional Act, 1982, being Schedule B to the Canada Act 1982 (U.K.), 1982, c. 11 (online through the Canadian Legal Information Institute, updated December 10, 2002) Reports L'Office québécois de la langue française. (1997–2007) All reports of the OQLF and CSL from 1997 to 2007 (in French) Commission d'enquête sur la situation de la langue française et sur les droits linguistiques au Québec (1973). The Position of the French language in Québec: Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the Position of the French Language and on Language Rights in Québec, Québec: Editeur officiel du Québec Memoranda Chevrier, Marc (February 1997). Laws and languages in Québec: the principles and means of Québec's language policy , Québec: Ministère des relations internationales, 31 pages Clark, Ramsey (June 14, 1993) A legal opinion on international law, language and the future of French-speaking Canada, a legal opinion for the Mouvement Québec Français, New York, 24 p. Baum, Gregory (1991). "Ethical Reflections on Bill 101", in The Church in Quebec, p. 134–157 Kondaks, Tony. (November 14, 1988) “The Doctrine of ‘Preponderance of Blood’ in South Africa, the Soviet Union and Quebec”, Freedom House, Exchange Works John R. Edwards ed., (1998). Language in Canada, Cambridge University Press, 504 pages (online excerpt) Richard Y. Bourhis ed., (1984). Conflict and language planning in Quebec, Clevedon, Avon, England: Multilingual Matters, 304 p. (online excerpt) External links Website of the Office québécois de la langue française (English section) Educaloi – La Loi vos droits – Citizens – Charter of the French Language 1977 in Canadian law Quebec language policy Quebec provincial legislation Language legislation French language in Quebec 1977 in Quebec

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating

Mating

In biology, mating is the pairing of either opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for the purposes of sexual reproduction. Fertilization is the fusion of two gametes. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization. Mating may also lead to external fertilization, as seen in amphibians, fishes and plants. For most species, mating is between two individuals of opposite sexes. However, for some hermaphroditic species, copulation is not required because the parent organism is capable of self-fertilization (autogamy); for example, banana slugs. The term mating is also applied to related processes in bacteria, archaea and viruses. Mating in these cases involves the pairing of individuals, accompanied by the pairing of their homologous chromosomes and then exchange of genomic information leading to formation of recombinant progeny (see mating systems). Animals For animals, mating strategies include random mating, disassortative mating, assortative mating, or a mating pool. In some birds, it includes behaviors such as nest-building and feeding offspring. The human practice of mating and artificially inseminating domesticated animals is part of animal husbandry. In some terrestrial arthropods, including insects representing basal (primitive) phylogenetic clades, the male deposits spermatozoa on the substrate, sometimes stored within a special structure. Courtship involves inducing the female to take up the sperm package into her genital opening without actual copulation. Courtship is often facilitated through forming groups, called leks, in flies and many other insects. For example, male Tokunagayusurika akamusi forms swarms dancing in the air to attract females. In groups such as dragonflies and many spiders, males extrude sperm into secondary copulatory structures removed from their genital opening, which are then used to inseminate the female (in dragonflies, it is a set of modified sternites on the second abdominal segment; in spiders, it is the male pedipalps). In advanced groups of insects, the male uses its aedeagus, a structure formed from the terminal segments of the abdomen, to deposit sperm directly (though sometimes in a capsule called a "spermatophore") into the female's reproductive tract. Other animals reproduce sexually with external fertilization, including many basal vertebrates. Vertebrates (such as reptiles, some fish, and most birds) reproduce with internal fertilization through cloacal copulation (see also hemipenis), while mammals copulate vaginally. In domesticated animals there are various type of mating methods being employed to mate animals like Pen Mating (when female is moved to the desired male into a pen) or paddock mating (where one male is let loose in the paddock with several females). Plants and fungi Like in animals, mating in other Eukaryotes, such as plants and fungi, denotes . However, in vascular plants this is mostly achieved without physical contact between mating individuals (see pollination), and in some cases, e.g., in fungi no distinguishable male or female organs exist (see isogamy); however, mating types in some fungal species are somewhat analogous to sexual dimorphism in animals, and determine whether or not two individual isolates can mate. Yeasts are eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with 1,500 species currently described. In general, under high stress conditions like nutrient starvation, haploid cells will die; under the same conditions, however, diploid cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis) and produce a variety of haploid spores, which can go on to mate (conjugate) and reform the diploid. Protists Protists are a large group of diverse eukaryotic microorganisms, mainly unicellular animals and plants, that do not form tissues. Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago. The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Mating and sexual reproduction are widespread among extant eukaryotes including protists such as Paramecium and Chlamydomonas. In many eukaryotic species, mating is promoted by sex pheromones including the protist Blepharisma japonicum. Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. However, to many biologists it seemed unlikely until recently, that mating and sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that mating and sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had, the capability for meiosis and hence mating. To cite one example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia intestinalis was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. intestinalis was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes. These results suggested that G. intestinalis is capable of meiosis and thus mating and sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of mating and sexual reproduction, was also found in G. intestinalis. Other protists for which evidence of mating and sexual reproduction has recently been described are parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania, Trichomonas vaginalis, and acanthamoeba. Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock. See also Heterosexuality Animal husbandry Breeding in the wild Breeding season Evolution of sex Lordosis behavior Mate choice copying Mating system Reproduction Sex determination system Sexual conflict Sexual intercourse References External links Introduction to Animal Reproduction Advantages of Sexual Reproduction Animal developmental biology Reproduction in animals Sexology Sexuality Ethology Fertility

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Room%20on%20Fire

Room on Fire

Room on Fire is the second studio album by American rock band the Strokes, released on October 28, 2003, through RCA Records. Its title is derived from a lyric in the song, "Reptilia". Room on Fire received positive reviews upon its release, and reached number four on the US Billboard 200 (where it went on to sell 597,000 units by October 2006 and was certified gold) and number two on the UK Albums Chart. Three singles were released from the album: "12:51", "Reptilia", and "The End Has No End". Recording Immediately after touring for their debut album Is This It, the Strokes returned to the studio. They hired Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich, but fired him when, according to the band, their work together proved "soulless". Godrich said of the failed collaboration: "The problem there was that me and [singer Julian Casablancas] are just too similar, we're both control freaks. He wanted to do it his way, I wanted to do it my way, and obviously that's the point of me being there. And I'm saying 'Well, why am I here if you're not prepared to try and do it the way I want to do it?' We got on great, it was just one of those laughable things where it just doesn't work. I wanted them to change, and they didn't." Those sessions were ultimately scrapped and the band returned to their original producer, Gordon Raphael. The Strokes had exactly only three months of studio time to record the album. Guitarist Nick Valensi stated that "the album would've ended up a lot better if we'd had another couple of weeks." Critical reception While reviews for the album were mostly positive, gaining a 77 out of 100 on review aggregating site Metacritic based on 31 reviews, the general consensus on the album was that it was too similar to Is This It. Rob Mitchum of Pitchfork gave the album an 8 out of 10, but stated that the band "have all but given birth to an identical twin." A positive review from Rolling Stone said that "the Strokes have resisted the temptation to hit the brakes, grow up and screw around with a sound that doesn't need fixing — yet." The review also stated that "if you want comfort and clarity, you're definitely in the wrong room. This record was built for thrills and speed." Dan Tallis of BBC Music gave it a favorable review and said, "Bands should think themselves lucky to achieve such heights just once in their careers. However, they've done all they could have done. They've made Is This It part two. It's more of the same plus extras. And I'm more than happy to settle for that." Ben Thompson of The Observer gave it all five stars and said, "This is a feeling that can be inspired only by people making the absolute most of an opportunity to communicate: cutting through all the rubbish that surrounds them to make a clear and memorable artistic statement. And that the Strokes should have managed to do such a thing at this stage in their careers, is - I think - an achievement of real significance." Greg Milner of Spin gave it a score of eight out of ten and said that its "similarity to its predecessor ultimately bespeaks a purity of vision, not a dearth of new ideas." Jenny Tatone of Neumu gave it a score of nine stars out of ten and said, "The Strokes don't make the most original sounding music you've ever heard, but they make something that is only the Strokes." In his Consumer Guide, Robert Christgau gave the album a three-star honorable mention () while picking out two songs from the album ("Between Love and Hate" and "What Ever Happened?") and stating simply, "Narcissism repeats itself." Not all reviews were positive, however. Raoul Hernandez of The Austin Chronicle gave the album a score of two stars out of five and stated that "even the half-hearted retreads... cashing in on the notoriously unwashed NYC quintet's debut can't muster a wink." Iain Moffat of Playlouder gave the album only one star and said of the Strokes, "There's little of the pop sparkle that shone through the likes of 'The Modern Age' and 'Last Nite' even when - as with 'You Talk Way Too Much' - they're rewriting old material, and Julian's vocals are, to be blunt, awful, sounding uncomfortable to record and rather complacently nasal." In 2013, Room On Fire was listed at number 360 on NMEs list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. In 2018, the BBC included it in their list of "the acclaimed albums that nobody listens to any more". Reappraisal In 2021, Pitchfork included it on its list of album review scores they "would change if they could", upgrading its score from 8.0 out of 10 to 9.2. Lane Brown of Pitchfork praised as an album with a "different, better album with major improvements over its predecessor". Scoring a 0.1 bonus point more than Is This It, Room On Fire is commended in marking confident progress and "at least partially thwarting rock history's most inevitable backlash." Commercial performance The album peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 in the US, and was later certified Gold by the RIAA in December 2003, and platinum certification for selling over 1.000.000 units in June 2021. As of 2021, the album has sold 1.6 million units worldwide and became their second best selling album. Track listing Personnel The Strokes Julian Casablancas – vocals Albert Hammond, Jr. – guitar Nick Valensi – guitar Nikolai Fraiture – bass guitar Fabrizio Moretti – drums Production Gordon Raphael – producer Toshikazu Yoshioka – head engineer William Kelly – second engineer Greg Calbi – mastering Steve Fallone – mastering J. P. Bowersock - "sensei" Ryan Gentles - management for Wiz Kid Management Steve Ralbovsky - A&R Design Peter Phillips – cover art, ("War/Game", used with permission and courtesy of Zoe Phillips) Colin Lane – photography Brett Kilroe – art direction Singles Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications References 2003 albums Albums produced by Gordon Raphael RCA Records albums Rough Trade Records albums The Strokes albums

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay-as-you-earn%20tax

Pay-as-you-earn tax

A pay-as-you-earn tax (PAYE), or pay-as-you-go (PAYG) in Australia, is a withholding of taxes on income payments to employees. Amounts withheld are treated as advance payments of income tax due. They are refundable to the extent they exceed tax as determined on tax returns. PAYE may include withholding the employee portion of insurance contributions or similar social benefit taxes. In most countries, they are determined by employers but subject to government review. PAYE is deducted from each paycheck by the employer and must be remitted promptly to the government. Most countries refer to income tax withholding by other terms, including pay-as-you-go tax. United Kingdom Origins Devised by Sir Paul Chambers, PAYE was introduced into the UK in 1944, following trials in 1940–1941. As with many of the United Kingdom's institutional arrangements, the way in which the state collects income tax through PAYE owes much of its form and structure to the peculiarities of the era in which it was devised. The financial strain that the Second World War placed upon the country meant that the Treasury needed to collect more tax from many more people. This posed significant challenges to the government and to the many workers and employers who had previously never come into contact with the tax system. Nature PAYE is applied to sick pay, maternity pay, directors' fees and pensions (but not the state pension, although it remains taxable), as well as wages and salaries. Each person has a tax code which is used to reflect any allowances, along with other taxable income (including the state pension). This means that the PAYE system typically results in the correct amount of tax being paid on all the taxable income of a taxpayer, making a tax return unnecessary. However, if the taxpayer's affairs are complicated, a tax return may be required to determine the amount of tax payable or refundable. Reporting The employer is responsible for sending the Income Tax on to HMRC each month, along with various other employment taxes. The amounts deducted from each payment to individual employees must be reported using an electronic submission on or before the day payment is made. Ireland PAYE in Ireland includes deduction of income tax and PRSI (Pay Related Social Insurance) by employers from payments to employees. The amount is determined by employers based on a Certificate of Tax Credits and Standard Rate (Certificate) provided by Ireland Revenue (Revenue). PAYE applies to earnings of all kinds arising from your employment, including bonuses, overtime and non-cash payments known as "benefits in kind" such as the use of a company car. Forms and reporting Employees must apply to Revenue for the certificate by submitting Form 12A to Revenue. A certificate is issued at the beginning of each tax year based on the employee's personal circumstances. At the end of each tax year, the employer must give the employee a certificate of Pay, Tax and PRSI deducted during the year, Form P60. A Form P45 is a certificate given by an employer to an employee on cessation of employment. This form certifies the employee's pay, tax and PRSI contributions from the start of the tax year to date of cessation and also certifies that the deductions have been made in accordance with the instructions given by Revenue. If the PAYE is not the same as tax that would be due for the year, the employee must file Form 12, an annual tax return. New Zealand PAYE is deducted by employers from employees' salary or wages in New Zealand, and paid to the Inland Revenue Department (IRD) on their behalf. It includes income tax and ACC earners' levy. PAYE is calculated by employers based on tax codes provided by the employee and tables provided by the IRD. Employees may calculate their expected tax and tax code using the PAYE calculator. Forms and reporting Employees must provide their employer with a completed IR330 Tax code declaration form, advising their employer of their IRD number (which is one's identification number with the IRD) and the appropriate tax code for which to deduct in tax, and if required, student loan repayments. If an employer does not receive a correctly completed IR330, the employer may deduct tax at the "no-notification rate" of 45%. Employers use either the IR340 (weekly/fortnightly) or IR341 (four-weekly/monthly) PAYE deduction tables to determine the appropriate amounts to deduct from an employee's wages. Every month, an employer must file a complete IR348 Employer monthly schedule with the IRD, stating the income and deductions of each employee. Tax withheld must be paid to the IRD monthly or semi-monthly, accompanied (or sent separately in the case of electronic payment) with a completed IR345 Employer deductions form. Australia The Australian Taxation Office (ATO) administers a pay-as-you-go tax (PAYG) withholding system. Introduced in 1999, it merged 11 previous payment and reporting systems, one of which was a "PAYE" system for employee income, from which the name "PAYG" distinguishes. Employers must calculate the amount of income tax to withhold based on ATO tables, based on employee declarations. These arrangements cover payments from employment as well as under the Prescribed Payments system and the Reportable Payments system. The PAYG system involves regular payments made by employers and other payers, for example, superannuation funds. It is used to collect by instalments income tax, HELP repayments, Medicare and other payments. PAYG amounts to be withheld are determined based on the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) PAYG schedules. Discrepancies and deduction amounts are declared in the annual income tax return and will be part of the refund that follows after annual assessment or reduce the tax debt that may be payable after assessment. For an employee's primary job, the withholding tax rate is lower because of the existence of a tax-free threshold in Australia. All other work has tax withheld based on a rate that excludes the tax-free threshold. PAYG summaries Each employee who receives PAYG-type payments during a financial year would receive a PAYG payment summary from their employer at the end of the financial year - commonly known as the Group Certificate. The PAYG payment summary will include: the employee's details including the Tax File Number (TFN) the gross income earned by the employee from that payer the total PAYG amount withheld by the payer the payer's Australian Business Number or withholding payer number (WPN). The information on the PAYG payment summary is needed to enable the employee to complete his or her income tax return. The payer must send to the ATO a copy of the PAYG payment summaries as well as an annual PAYG summary. This may be sent to the ATO electronically using Standard Business Reporting enabled software, or it may be sent as a hard copy by mail. The total of the wages paid reported on the PAYG summary and the total amount withheld must agree with the totals as reported by the payer to the ATO on the Business Activity Statements (BASs) for the year. The ATO will use the information on the PAYG payment summary to match with the employee, using the employee's TFN. Similar systems Several other countries operate systems similar to PAYE that may be referred to as withholding tax or deduction of tax at source. See the articles listed below. Canada Canada requires tax deduction at source on payments of compensation by employers. The deduction is required for Federal and provincial income taxes, Canada Pension Plan contributions, and Employment Insurance. France Initially set to start in 2018, France will introduce a pay-as-you-earn scheme for the collection of its state income tax (impôt sur le revenu) in January 2019. To accommodate the progressivity of the French tax system, which considers the total income and composition of the household to set the tax rate of individuals, while preserving the privacy of employees to their employers, the administration only transmits to companies the individual tax rate to retain on their employees' paychecks, along with other payroll withholding, such as social security contributions. Morocco Employers are required to withhold income tax on salary paid to employees. The tax must be paid to the government during the month following the withholding. United States Withholding of income, Social Security and Medicare taxes is required in the United States. The plan was developed by Beardsley Ruml, Bernard Baruch, and Milton Friedman in 1942. The government forgave taxes due March 15, 1942, for tax year 1941, and started withholding from paychecks. Income tax withholding applies to federal and state income taxes. In addition, certain states impose other levies required to be withheld. In the United States, the term "Pay-as-you-earn" and PAYE typically refer to Income-based repayment of loans, not taxation. Notes and references External links PAYE for employers: the basics, on HMRC website (UK) HMRC website: PAYE taxpayers (UK) Australian Taxation Office website on PAYG withholding New Zealand: PAYE Calculatior (NZL) Personal taxes Withholding taxes

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight%20control%20surfaces

Flight control surfaces

Aircraft flight control surfaces are aerodynamic devices allowing a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's flight attitude. Development of an effective set of flight control surfaces was a critical advance in the development of aircraft. Early efforts at fixed-wing aircraft design succeeded in generating sufficient lift to get the aircraft off the ground, but once aloft, the aircraft proved uncontrollable, often with disastrous results. The development of effective flight controls is what allowed stable flight. This article describes the control surfaces used on a fixed-wing aircraft of conventional design. Other fixed-wing aircraft configurations may use different control surfaces but the basic principles remain. The controls (stick and rudder) for rotary wing aircraft (helicopter or autogyro) accomplish the same motions about the three axes of rotation, but manipulate the rotating flight controls (main rotor disk and tail rotor disk) in a completely different manner. Flight control surfaces are operated by aircraft flight control systems. Development The Wright brothers are credited with developing the first practical control surfaces. It is a main part of their patent on flying. Unlike modern control surfaces, they used wing warping. In an attempt to circumvent the Wright patent, Glenn Curtiss made hinged control surfaces, the same type of concept first patented some four decades earlier in the United Kingdom. Hinged control surfaces have the advantage of not causing stresses that are a problem of wing warping and are easier to build into structures. Axes of motion An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes that are perpendicular to each other and intersect at its center of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot must be able to control rotation about each of them. Transverse axis The transverse axis, also known as lateral axis, passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction that the aircraft's nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch. Longitudinal axis The longitudinal axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. Rotation about this axis is called roll. The angular displacement about this axis is called bank. The pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift causes rotation around the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on bank. Vertical axis The vertical axis passes through an aircraft from top to bottom. Rotation about this axis is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircraft's nose is pointing, left or right. The primary control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a secondary effect on yaw. It is important to note that these axes move with the aircraft, and change relative to the earth as the aircraft moves. For example, for an aircraft whose left wing is pointing straight down, its "vertical" axis is parallel with the ground, while its "transverse" axis is perpendicular to the ground. Main control surfaces The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on hinges or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over them. This redirection of the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the plane about the associated axis. Ailerons Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move in opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel counter-clockwise, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to rise. This causes the aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns the ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to turn until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight. Elevator The elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of the fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together. When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack, which generates more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Some aircraft, such as an MD-80, use a servo tab within the elevator surface to aerodynamically move the main surface into position. The direction of travel of the control tab will thus be in a direction opposite to the main control surface. It is for this reason that an MD-80 tail looks like it has a 'split' elevator system. In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of a foreplane and move in the opposite sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the elevators go down to increase the lift at the front and lift the nose up. Rudder The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part of the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left. Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw. Secondary effects of controls Ailerons The ailerons primarily control roll. Whenever lift is increased, induced drag is also increased. When the stick is moved left to roll the aircraft to the left, the right aileron is lowered which increases lift on the right wing and therefore increases induced drag on the right wing. Using ailerons causes adverse yaw, meaning the nose of the aircraft yaws in a direction opposite to the aileron application. When moving the stick to the left to bank the wings, adverse yaw moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. Adverse yaw is more pronounced for light aircraft with long wings, such as gliders. It is counteracted by the pilot with the rudder. Differential ailerons are ailerons which have been rigged such that the downgoing aileron deflects less than the upward-moving one, reducing adverse yaw. Rudder The rudder is a fundamental control surface which is typically controlled by pedals rather than at the stick. It is the primary means of controlling yaw—the rotation of an airplane about its vertical axis. The rudder may also be called upon to counter-act the adverse yaw produced by the roll-control surfaces. If rudder is continuously applied in level flight the aircraft will yaw initially in the direction of the applied rudder – the primary effect of rudder. After a few seconds the aircraft will tend to bank in the direction of yaw. This arises initially from the increased speed of the wing opposite to the direction of yaw and the reduced speed of the other wing. The faster wing generates more lift and so rises, while the other wing tends to go down because of generating less lift. Continued application of rudder sustains rolling tendency because the aircraft flying at an angle to the airflow - skidding towards the forward wing. When applying right rudder in an aircraft with dihedral the left hand wing will have increased angle of attack and the right hand wing will have decreased angle of attack which will result in a roll to the right. An aircraft with anhedral will show the opposite effect. This effect of the rudder is commonly used in model aircraft where if sufficient dihedral or polyhedral is included in the wing design, primary roll control such as ailerons may be omitted altogether. Turning the aircraft Unlike turning a boat, changing the direction of an aircraft normally must be done with the ailerons rather than the rudder. The rudder turns (yaws) the aircraft but has little effect on its direction of travel. With aircraft, the change in direction is caused by the horizontal component of lift, acting on the wings. The pilot tilts the lift force, which is perpendicular to the wings, in the direction of the intended turn by rolling the aircraft into the turn. As the bank angle is increased, the lifting force can be split into two components: one acting vertically and one acting horizontally. If the total lift is kept constant, the vertical component of lift will decrease. As the weight of the aircraft is unchanged, this would result in the aircraft descending if not countered. To maintain level flight requires increased positive (up) elevator to increase the angle of attack, increase the total lift generated and keep the vertical component of lift equal with the weight of the aircraft. This cannot continue indefinitely. The total load factor required to maintain level flight is directly related to the bank angle. This means that for a given airspeed, level flight can only be maintained up to a certain given angle of bank. Beyond this angle of bank, the aircraft will suffer an accelerated stall if the pilot attempts to generate enough lift to maintain level flight. Alternate main control surfaces Some aircraft configurations have non-standard primary controls. For example, instead of elevators at the back of the stabilizers, the entire tailplane may change angle. Some aircraft have a tail in the shape of a V, and the moving parts at the back of those combine the functions of elevators and rudder. Delta wing aircraft may have "elevons" at the back of the wing, which combine the functions of elevators and ailerons. Secondary control surfaces Spoilers On low drag aircraft such as sailplanes, spoilers are used to disrupt airflow over the wing and greatly reduce lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude without gaining excessive airspeed. Spoilers are sometimes called "lift dumpers". Spoilers that can be used asymmetrically are called spoilerons and can affect an aircraft's roll. Flaps Flaps are mounted on the trailing edge on the inboard section of each wing (near the wing roots). They are deflected down to increase the effective curvature of the wing. Flaps raise the maximum lift coefficient of the aircraft and therefore reduce its stalling speed. They are used during low speed, high angle of attack flight including take-off and descent for landing. Some aircraft are equipped with "flaperons", which are more commonly called "inboard ailerons". These devices function primarily as ailerons, but on some aircraft, will "droop" when the flaps are deployed, thus acting as both a flap and a roll-control inboard aileron. Slats Slats, also known as leading edge devices, are extensions to the front of a wing for lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce the stalling speed by altering the airflow over the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats (e.g. as on the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL capabilities, but compromise higher speed performance. Retractable slats, as seen on most airliners, provide reduced stalling speed for take-off and landing, but are retracted for cruising. Air brakes Air brakes are used to increase drag. Spoilers might act as air brakes, but are not pure air brakes as they also function as lift-dumpers or in some cases as roll control surfaces. Air brakes are usually surfaces that deflect outwards from the fuselage (in most cases symmetrically on opposing sides) into the airstream in order to increase form-drag. As they are in most cases located elsewhere on the aircraft, they do not directly affect the lift generated by the wing. Their purpose is to slow down the aircraft. They are particularly useful when a high rate of descent is required. They are common on high performance military aircraft as well as civilian aircraft, especially those lacking reverse thrust capability. Control trimming surfaces Trimming controls allow a pilot to balance the lift and drag being produced by the wings and control surfaces over a wide range of load and airspeed. This reduces the effort required to adjust or maintain a desired flight attitude. Elevator trim Elevator trim balances the control force necessary to maintain the correct aerodynamic force on the tail to balance the aircraft. Whilst carrying out certain flight exercises, a lot of trim could be required to maintain the desired angle of attack. This mainly applies to slow flight, where a nose-up attitude is required, in turn requiring a lot of trim causing the tailplane to exert a strong downforce. Elevator trim is correlated with the speed of the airflow over the tail, thus airspeed changes to the aircraft require re-trimming. An important design parameter for aircraft is the stability of the aircraft when trimmed for level flight. Any disturbances such as gusts or turbulence will be damped over a short period of time and the aircraft will return to its level flight trimmed airspeed. Trimming tail plane Except for very light aircraft, trim tabs on the elevators are unable to provide the force and range of motion desired. To provide the appropriate trim force the entire horizontal tail plane is made adjustable in pitch. This allows the pilot to select exactly the right amount of positive or negative lift from the tail plane while reducing drag from the elevators. Control horn A control horn is a section of control surface which projects ahead of the pivot point. It generates a force which tends to increase the surface's deflection thus reducing the control pressure experienced by the pilot. Control horns may also incorporate a counterweight which helps to balance the control and prevent it from fluttering in the airstream. Some designs feature separate anti-flutter weights. (In radio controlled model aircraft, the term "control horn" has a different meaning.) Spring trim In the simplest arrangement, trimming is done by a mechanical spring (or bungee) which adds appropriate force to augment the pilot's control input. The spring is usually connected to an elevator trim lever to allow the pilot to set the spring force applied. Rudder and aileron trim Most fixed-wing aircraft have a trimming control surface on the elevator, but larger aircraft also have a trim control for the rudder, and another for the ailerons. The rudder trim is to counter any asymmetric thrust from the engines. Aileron trim is to counter the effects of the centre of gravity being displaced from the aircraft centerline. This can be caused by fuel or an item of payload being loaded more on one side of the aircraft compared to the other, such as when one fuel tank has more fuel than the other. See also Aircraft engine controls Aircraft flight control systems Aircraft flight mechanics Flight with disabled controls Ship motions Six degrees of freedom V-tail Wing warping Notes References Private Pilot Manual; Jeppesen Sanderson; (hardcover, 1999) Airplane Flying Handbook; U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, FAA-8083-3A. (2004) Clancy, L.J. (1975) Aerodynamics Pitman Publishing Limited, London External links A clear explanation of model aircraft flight controls by BMFA See How It Flies By John S. Denker. A new spin on the perceptions, procedures, and principles of flight. Aircraft controls Attitude control de:Flugzeug#Flugsteuerung

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera%20seria

Opera seria

Opera seria (; plural: opere serie; usually called dramma per musica or melodramma serio) is an Italian musical term which refers to the noble and "serious" style of Italian opera that predominated in Europe from the 1710s to about 1770. The term itself was rarely used at the time and only attained common usage once opera seria was becoming unfashionable and beginning to be viewed as something of a historical genre. The popular rival to opera seria was opera buffa, the 'comic' opera that took its cue from the improvisatory commedia dell'arte. Italian opera seria (invariably to Italian libretti) was produced not only in Italy but almost throughout Europe, and beyond (see Opera in Latin America, Opera in Cuba e. g.). Among the main centres in Europe were the court operas based in Warsaw (since 1628), Munich (founded in 1653), London (established in 1662), Vienna (firmly established 1709; first operatic representation: Il pomo d'oro, 1668), Dresden (since 1719) as well as other German residences, Saint Petersburg (Italian opera reached Russia in 1731, first opera venues followed ), Madrid (see Spanish opera), and Lisbon. Opera seria was less popular in France, where the national genre of French opera (or tragédie en musique) was preferred. Acclaimed composers of opera seria included Antonio Caldara, Alessandro Scarlatti, George Frideric Handel, Antonio Vivaldi, Nicola Porpora, Leonardo Vinci, Johann Adolph Hasse, Leonardo Leo, Baldassare Galuppi, Francesco Feo, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and in the second half of the 18th century Christoph Willibald Gluck, Niccolò Jommelli, Tommaso Traetta, Josef Mysliveček, Joseph Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Antonio Salieri, Antonio Sacchini, Giuseppe Sarti, Niccolò Piccinni, Giovanni Paisiello, Domenico Cimarosa, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. By far the most successful librettist of the era was Metastasio, others were Apostolo Zeno, Benedetto Pamphili, Silvio Stampiglia, Antonio Salvi, Pietro Pariati, Pietro Ottoboni, Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Nicola Francesco Haym, Domenico Lalli, Paolo Antonio Rolli, Giovanni Claudio Pasquini, Ranieri de' Calzabigi and Giovanni Ambrogio Migliavacca. Structure Opera seria built upon the conventions of the High Baroque era by developing and exploiting the da capo aria, with its A–B–A form. The first section presented a theme, the second a complementary one, and the third a repeat of the first with ornamentation and elaboration of the music by the singer. As the genre developed and arias grew longer, a typical opera seria would contain not more than thirty musical movements. A typical opera would start with an instrumental overture of three movements (fast-slow-fast) and then a series of recitatives containing dialogue interspersed with arias expressing the emotions of the character, this pattern only broken by the occasional duet for the leading amatory couple. The recitative was typically secco: that is, accompanied only by continuo (usually harpsichord, theorbo, and cello, sometimes supported by further bass and chordal instruments). At moments of especially violent passion secco was replaced by stromentato (or accompagnato) recitative, where the singer was accompanied by the entire body of strings. After an aria was sung, accompanied by strings and oboe (and sometimes with horns or flutes), the character usually exited the stage, encouraging the audience to applaud. This continued for three acts before concluding with an upbeat chorus, to celebrate the jubilant climax. The leading singers each expected their fair share of arias of varied mood, be they sad, angry, heroic or meditative. The dramaturgy of opera seria largely developed as a response to French criticism of what were often viewed as impure and corrupting librettos. As response, the Rome-based Academy of Arcadia sought to return Italian opera to what they viewed as neoclassical principles, obeying the classical unities of drama, defined by Aristotle, and replacing "immoral" plots, such as Busenello's for L'incoronazione di Poppea, with highly moral narratives that aimed to instruct, as well as entertain. However, the often tragic endings of classical drama were rejected out of a sense of decorum: early writers of opera seria librettos such as Apostolo Zeno felt that virtue should be rewarded and shown triumphant, while the antagonists were to be put on their way to remorse. The spectacle and ballet, so common in French opera, were banished. Voices The age of opera seria corresponded with the rise to prominence of the castrati, often prodigiously gifted male singers who had undergone castration before puberty in order to retain a high, powerful soprano or alto voice backed by decades of rigorous musical training. They were cast in heroic male roles, alongside another new breed of operatic creature, the prima donna. The rise of these star singers with formidable technical skills spurred composers to write increasingly complex vocal music, and many operas of the time were written as vehicles for specific singers. Of these the most famous is perhaps Farinelli, whose debut in 1722 was guided by Nicola Porpora. Though Farinelli did not sing for Handel, his main rival, Senesino, did. 1720–1740 Opera seria acquired definitive form early during the 1720s. While Apostolo Zeno and Alessandro Scarlatti had paved the way, the genre only truly came to fruition due to Metastasio and later composers. Metastasio's career began with the serenata Gli orti esperidi ("The Gardens of the Hesperides"). Nicola Porpora, (much later to be Haydn's master), set the work to music, and the success was so great that the famed Roman prima donna, Marianna Bulgarelli, "La Romanina", sought out Metastasio, and took him on as her protégé. Under her wing, Metastasio produced libretto after libretto, and they were rapidly set by the greatest composers in Italy and Austria, establishing the transnational tone of opera seria: Didone abbandonata, Catone in Utica, Ezio, Alessandro nelle Indie, Semiramide riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. After 1730 he was settled in Vienna and turned out more librettos for the imperial theater, until the mid-1740s: Adriano in Siria, Demetrio, , Demofoonte, Olimpiade, La clemenza di Tito, Achille in Sciro, Temistocle, Il re pastore and what he regarded as his finest libretto, . For the librettos, Metastasio and his imitators customarily drew on dramas featuring classical characters from antiquity bestowed with princely values and morality, struggling with conflicts between love, honour and duty, in elegant and ornate language that could be performed equally well as both opera and non-musical drama. On the other hand, Handel, working far outside the mainstream genre, set only a few Metastasio libretti for his London audience, preferring a greater diversity of texts. At this time the leading Metastasian composers were Hasse, Caldara, Vinci, Porpora, and Pergolesi. Vinci's settings of Didone abbandonata and Artaserse were much praised for their stromento recitative, and he played a crucial part in establishing the new style of melody. Hasse, by contrast, indulged in stronger accompaniment and was regarded at the time as the more adventurous of the two. Pergolesi was noted for his lyricism. The main challenge for all was achieving variety, a break from the pattern of recitativo secco and aria da capo. The mutable moods of Metastasio's librettos helped, as did innovations made by the composer, such as stromento recitative or cutting a ritornello. During this period the choice of keys to reflect certain emotions became standardized: D minor became the choice key for a composer's typical "rage" aria, while D major for pomp and bravura, G minor for pastoral effect and E flat for pathetic effect, became the usual options. 1740–1770 After peaking during the 1750s, the popularity of the Metastasian model began to wane. New trends, popularized by composers such as Niccolò Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta, began to seep into opera seria. The Italianate pattern of alternating, sharply-contrasted recitative and aria began to give way to ideas from the French operatic tradition. Jommelli's works from 1740 onwards increasingly favored accompanied recitative and greater dynamic contrast, as well as a more prominent role for the orchestra while limiting virtuosic vocal displays. Traetta reintroduced the ballet in his operas and restored the tragic, melodramatic endings of classical dramas. His operas, particularly after 1760, also gave a larger role to the chorus. The culmination of these reforms arrived in the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck. Beginning with Orfeo ed Euridice (1762), Gluck drastically cut back on the possibilities for vocal virtuosity afforded to singers, abolished secco recitative (thereby heavily reducing the delineation between aria and recitative), and took great care to unify drama, dance, music, and theatrical practice in the synthesis of Italian and French traditions. He continued his reform with Alceste (1767) and Paride ed Elena (1770). Gluck paid great attention to orchestration and considerably increased the role of the chorus: he also cut back heavily on exit arias. The labyrinthine subplots that had riddled earlier baroque opera were eliminated. In 1768, the year after Gluck's Alceste, Jommelli and his librettist Verazi produced Fetonte. Ensemble and chorus are predominant: the usual number of exit arias slashed in half. For the most part, however, these trends did not become mainstream until the 1790s, and the Metastasian model continued to dominate. 1770–1800 Gluck's reforms made most of the composers of opera seria of the previous decades obsolete. The careers of Hasse, Jommelli, Galuppi, and Traetta were effectively finished. Replacing them came a new wave of composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Johann Christian Bach, Antonio Salieri (a disciple of Gluck), Antonio Sacchini, Giuseppe Sarti, Niccolò Piccinni, Giovanni Paisiello and Domenico Cimarosa. The popularity of the aria da capo began to fade, replaced by the rondò. Orchestras grew in size, arias lengthened, ensembles became more prominent, and obbligato recitative became both common and more elaborate. While throughout the 1780s Metastasio's libretti still dominated the repertory, a new group of Venetian librettists pushed opera seria in a new direction. The work of Gaetano Sertor and the group surrounding him finally broke the absolute dominance of the singers and gave opera seria a new impetus towards the spectacular and the dramatic elements of 19th-century Romantic opera. Tragic endings, on-stage death and regicide became the norm rather than the exception. By the final decade of the century opera seria as it had been traditionally defined was essentially dead, and the political upheavals that the French Revolution inspired swept it away once and for all. Social context With a few exceptions, opera seria was the opera of the court, of the monarchy and the nobility. This is not a universal picture: Handel in London composed not for the court but for a much more socially diverse audience, and in the Venetian republic composers modified their operas to suit the public taste and not that of the court. But for the most part, opera seria was synonymous with court opera. This brought with it a number of conditions: the court, and particularly the monarch, required that their own nobility be reflected on the stage. Opera seria plot-lines are heavily shaped by this criterion: Il re pastore displays the glory of Alexander the Great, while La clemenza di Tito does the same for the Roman emperor Titus. The potentate in the audience would watch his counterparts from the ancient world and see their benevolent autocracy redound to his own credit. Many aspects of the staging contributed to this effect: both the auditorium and stage were lit during performances, while the sets mirrored almost exactly the architecture of the palace hosting the opera. Sometimes the links between opera and audience were even closer: Gluck's serenata Il Parnaso confuso was first performed at Vienna with a cast consisting of members of the royal family. However, with the French Revolution came serious political upheavals across Italy, and as new, more egalitarian republics were established and old autocracies fell away, the Arcadian ideals of opera seria seemed increasingly irrelevant. Rulers were no longer free from violent deaths, and under new social ideals the hierarchy of singers broke down. Such significant socio-political change meant that opera seria, so closely allied to the ruling class, was finished. References Notes Cited sources Further reading Brown, J. Letters upon the Poetry and Music of the Italian Opera. London 1789, 21791. Burt, Nathaniel. "Opera in Arcadia", The Musical Quarterly, xli (1955), pp. 145–70. Dean, Winton Handel and the Opera Seria. Berkeley 1969. Dent, E. J. "Ensembles and Finales in 18th Century Italian Opera", Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft xi (1909–10), 543–69, xii (1910–11), pp. 112–38. Dent, E. J. "Italian Opera in the Eighteenth Century, and its Influence on the Music of the Classical Period", Sammelbände der Internationalen Musikgesellschaft, xiv (1912–13), p. 500. Downes, E. O., "The Neapolitan Tradition in Opera", International Musicological Society: Congress Report, viii New York 1961, i, pp. 277–84 Feldman, M. Opera and Sovereignty: Transforming Myths in Eighteenth Century Italy, University of Chicago Press, 2007. Heartz, Daniel. "Opera and the Periodization of 18th-century Music", International Musicological Society: Congress Report, Ljubjana 1967, pp. 160–68. Lee, V. [V. Paget], Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy, London 1880, 21907. McClymonds, Marita P. "The Venetian Role In the Transformation of Italian Opera Seria during the 1790s", I vicini di Mozart: Venice 1987, pp. 221–40. Robinson, Michael F. "The Aria in Opera Seria, 1725–1780", Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, lxxxviii (1961–2), pp. 31–43. Warrack, John & West, Ewan. The Oxford Dictionary of Opera. 1992, . European court festivities Opera genres Italian opera terminology

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist%20Union%20of%20Scotland

Baptist Union of Scotland

The Baptist Union of Scotland is a Baptist Christian denomination in Scotland. It is affiliated with the Baptist World Alliance. The headquarters is in Glasgow. History From the 1650s to 1869 Baptists first arrived in Scotland with the armies of English republican Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s, who established small churches in Leith, Perth, Cupar, Ayr and Aberdeen, but they did not survive for long, partly because of their association with Cromwell (who was generally not welcomed in Scotland), but more especially as a result of strident and often violent opposition instigated and inspired by the Church of Scotland and the Parliament of Scotland which it controlled.Baptists later emerged in the 18th century—in 1750 at Keiss, where the leader was William Sinclair and the church was established on the English Baptist pattern. The group who in Edinburgh came to Baptist convictions in 1765 under the leadership of Robert Carmichael and Archibald McLean became known as Scotch Baptists. Like other Scottish Protestant Christians of the time they were very conservative and adopted the opinions of a particularly strict form of Calvinism. Somewhat later, a different form of Baptist witness emerged, this time influenced by the Haldane brothers, James Haldane and Robert Haldane evangelical preachers who came to Baptist convictions around 1808. Along with the English Baptists, they were distinguished from the Scotch Baptists by their more moderate and less Calvinistic attitudes. After overcoming initial hostilities, all these groups were able to unite in 1869. 1869 to the present day The Baptist Union of Scotland was founded in Hope Street Chapel (later Adelaide Place Baptist Church) in 1869, with 51 churches in its membership, which represented almost 4000 members. One of its early presidents (in 1873) was the philanthropist Thomas Coats. According to a denomination census released in 2020, it claimed 158 churches and 10,248 members. The Baptist Union of Scotland is served by a team comprising Rev Martin Hodson (General Director), Rev Dr Jim Purves (Mission & Ministry Advisor), Rev Peter Dick (Finance Director), Rev Ali Laing (Next Generation Development Coordinator), Rev Professor Andrew Clarke (Continuing Ministry Development Lead). These leaders are responsible for the development of strategic initiatives and advisements, working with the Board of Ministry and the Mission Initiative Group, as well as providing administrative support to local churches. The Union's main function is to service the churches, supporting them in mission and ministry developments. The Union also accredits ministers for leadership within Union churches. The ultimate decision-making body within the Union is the annual Assembly attended by delegates from each of the member churches. The Council of the Union, normally meeting twice a year, works alongside the General Director’s Team and, in consultation with the team, shapes the policy and initiatives of the Union. The Directors of the Union oversee the workings of the Union. BUS maintains strong links with other Baptists in the British Isles, notably the Baptist Union of Great Britain (which despite the name is the association of Baptist churches in England and parts of Wales), the Baptist Union of Wales, the Irish Baptist Networks and BMS World Mission. Together, these five groups form the Fellowship of British Baptists. Additionally, BUS is in membership with the European Baptist Federation and the Baptist World Alliance. Beliefs The Convention has a Baptist confession of faith. It is a member of the Baptist World Alliance. See also Religion in Scotland Footnotes References Wardin, Albert W., ed. (1995) Baptists Around the World: a comprehensive handbook. Nashville, Tenn: Broadman & Holman McBeth, H. Leon (1987) The Baptist Heritage: Four Centuries of Baptist Witness. Nashville, Tenn: Broadman Press Murray, Derek Boyd (1969) The First Hundred Years: the Baptist Union of Scotland. Glasgow: Baptist Union of Scotland Bebbington, David W., ed. (1988) The Baptists in Scotland: a History. Glasgow: Baptist Union of Scotland Further reading McBeth, H. Leon (1990) A Sourcebook for Baptist Heritage. Nashville, Tenn: Broadman Press Talbot, Brian (2014) 'A Distinctive People', Milton Keynes, Paternoster Purves, Jim (2018) ‘Becoming Who We Are’, Glasgow, Baptist Union of Scotland External links Baptist Union of Scotland - official Web Site Scottish Baptist College - official Web Site Baptist denominations in Scotland Protestantism in Scotland Religious organizations established in 1869 1869 establishments in Scotland Christian organisations based in the United Kingdom Protestantism in the United Kingdom

357649

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang%20Thong%20province

Ang Thong province

Ang Thong (, ) is one of the central Provinces (changwat) of Thailand. The name "Ang Thong" means 'gold basin', thought to have derived from the basin-like geography of the area, and the golden color of the rice grown in the region. Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Sing Buri, Lopburi, Ayutthaya, and Suphanburi. Ang Thong native handicrafts include moulded court dolls, firebrick, and wickerwork. Ang Thong has more than 200 Buddhist temples, but there are nine distinctive temples that are promoted as "Paying Homage to Nine Auspicious Temples" consists of Wat Chaiyo Worawihan, Wat Khun Inthapramun, Wat Pa Mok Worawihan, Wat Tonson, Wat Mahanam, Wat Thasutthawat, Wat Siroi, Wat Khian and, Wat Muang where the Great Buddha of Thailand is enshrined. Geography Ang Thong occupies a low river plain, created by the Chao Phraya and the Noi Rivers. It has neither mountains nor forests, but consists of mostly agricultural land. The two rivers, together with many canals (khlongs), provide enough water for rice farming. History Ang Thong was historically known as Wiset Chai Chan, on the Noi River. It was an important border town of the Ayutthaya Kingdom during the wars with Burma, as the Noi River served as a natural obstacle for advancing troops. During the reign of King Taksin after the fall of Ayutthaya, the main city of the province was moved to the Chao Phraya River, and named Ang Thong, as the Noi River had become silted and too shallow for transportation. Ang Thong is the provenance of Li Ke, the native folk song, and the hometown of Nai Dok and Nai Thongkaeo, two heroes of the Bang Rachan Battle. Khun Rong Palat Chu is another local hero of Ang Thong. His heroism is little known when compared to the villagers of Bang Rachan because only two lines were recorded in the Thai chronicles. He grouped up and led four hundred volunteer sword fighters under the name "Kong Attamat" to accompany the royal army from the capital during the royal army's settlement at Kui Buri of Prachuap Khiri Khan. His group received a command to obstruct the Burmese army 8,000 people at Ao Wa Khao (now is in Ao Noi, Mueang Prachuap Khiri Khan) in 1759 when King Alaungpaya of Burma invaded Myeik (Burmese–Siamese War (1759–60)) which was a part of Ayutthaya Kingdom at that time. In the end, they all died of four hundred people. Nowadays, there is a monument built to commemorate his heroism at Wat Si Roi, Wiset Chai Chan. Symbols The provincial seal shows some golden ears of rice in a bowl of water. This symbolizes the fertility of province as one of the major producers of rice. The provincial tree is the gaub tree (Diospyros malabarica). The provincial fish is red tailed tinfoil (Barbonymus altus). Administrative divisions Provincial government The province is divided into seven districts (amphoes). The districts are further subdivided into 73 subdistricts (tambons) and 513 villages (mubans). Mueang Ang Thong Chaiyo Pa Mok Pho Thong Sawaeng Ha Wiset Chai Chan Samko Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Ang Thong Provincial Administration Organisation () and 21 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Ang Thong has town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 20 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 43 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. Notable people Somsak Prissanananthakul: politician Pleumjit Thinkaow: world-class volleyball player Pipob Thongchai: activist Kohtee Aramboy: comedian References External links Ang Thong provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp Flag of Ang Thong province Provinces of Thailand

357652

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pow%20wow

Pow wow

A pow wow (also powwow or pow-wow) is a sacred social gathering held by many North American indigenous communities. A modern pow wow is a specific type of event for Native American people to meet and dance, sing, socialize, and honor their cultures. Pow wows may be private or public. There is generally a dancing competition, with many types of traditional dances, often with significant prize money awarded. Pow wows vary in length from a one-day event, to major pow wows called for a special occasion which can be up to one week long. In popular culture, such as older Western movies, the term has been used to refer to any type of meeting, such as among military personnel and is rarely used to describe a gathering of Native Americans. History The word "pow wow" is derived from the Narragansett word powwaw, meaning "spiritual leader". The term itself has variants including Powaw, Pawaw, Powah, Pauwau and Pawau. A number of tribes claim to have held the "first" pow wow. Initially, public dances that most resemble what are now known as pow wows were most common in the Great Plains region of the United States during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a time when the United States government destroyed many Native communities in the hopes of acquiring land for economic exploitation. In 1923, Charles H. Burke, Commissioner of Indian Affairs in the United States, passed legislation modeled on Circular 1665, which he published in 1921, that limited the times of the year in which Native Americans could practice traditional dance, which he deemed as directly threatening the Christian religion. However, many Native communities continued to gather together in secret to practice their cultures' dance and music, in defiance of this, and other, legislation. By the mid-twentieth century, pow wows were also being held in the Great Lakes region. Organization Planning for a pow wow generally begins months, perhaps even a year, in advance of the event by a group of people usually referred to as a pow wow committee. Pow wows may be sponsored by a tribal organization, by an American Native community within an urban area, a Native American Studies program or American Native club on a college or university campus, tribe, or any other organization that can provide startup funds, insurance, and volunteer workers. Committee A pow wow committee consists of several individuals who do all the planning before the event. If a pow wow has a sponsor, such as a tribe, college, or organization, many or all members of the committee may come from that group. The committee is responsible to recruit and hire the head staff, publicize the pow wow, securing a location, and recruiting vendors who pay for the right to set up and sell food or merchandise at the pow wow. Staff The head staff of a pow-wow are the people who run the event on the day or days it occurs. They are generally hired by the pow wow committee several months in advance, as the quality of the head staff can affect attendance. To be chosen as part of the head staff is an honor, showing respect for the person's skills or dedication. Arena Director Master of Ceremonies The master of ceremonies, or MC, is the voice of the pow wow. It is his job to keep the singers, dancers, and public informed as to what is happening. The MC sets the schedule of events and maintains the drum rotation, or order of when each drum group gets to sing. The MC is also responsible for filling any dead air time that may occur during the pow wow, often with jokes. The MC often runs any raffles or other contests that may happen during the pow wow. Head dancers The head dancers consist of the Head Man Dancer and the Head Woman Dancer, and often Head Teen Dancers, Head Little Boy and Girl Dancers, Head Golden Age Dancers, and a Head Gourd Dancer if the pow wow has a Gourd Dance. The head dancers lead the other dancers in the grand entry or parade of dancers that opens a pow-wow. In many cases, the head dancers are also responsible for leading the dancers during songs, and often dancers will not enter the arena unless the head dancers are already out dancing. Host drums and drum groups The singers while singing. Host drums are responsible for singing the songs at the beginning and end of a pow-wow session, generally a starting song, the grand entry song, a flag song, and veterans or victory song to start the pow-wow, and a flag song, retreat song, and closing song to end the pow wow. Additionally, if a pow-wow has gourd dancing, the Southern Host Drum is often the drum that sings all the gourd songs, though another drum can perform them. The host drums are often called upon to sing special songs during the pow-wow. Famous host drums include Black Lodge Singers, Cozad Singers, and Yellowhammer. The event Setup A pow wow is often set up as a series of large circles. The center circle is the dance arena, outside of which is a larger circle consisting of the MC's table, drum groups, and sitting areas for dancers and their families. Beyond these two circles for participants is an area for spectators, while outside of all are designated areas with vendor's booths, where one can buy food (including frybread and Indian tacos), music, jewelry, souvenirs, arts and crafts, beadwork, leather, and regalia supplies. At outdoor pow wows, this circle is often covered by either a committee-built arbor or tent, or each group, particularly the MC and the drums, will provide their own. While most of the time, a tent provides shelter from the sun, rain can also plague outdoor events. It is particularly important to protect the drums used by the drum groups, as they are sensitive to temperature changes and, if it rains, they cannot get wet. Most vendors provide their own tents or shelters at an outdoor pow wow. Etiquette Pow wow etiquette is required; such as rules for when photography is or is not acceptable, protocol for the Grand Entry, and so on. A few guidelines are common; clothing worn by participants is known as "regalia" and not to be called a "costume." Some rules are for common sense courtesy: drums have special rules and should not be touched or played by those not a part of the drum group. People and their regalia should not be touched without permission. Photographs are also a big part of pow wow etiquette. Depending on the reservation and ceremony, viewers should ask before taking photographs or recording videos or tapes. Some tribes, such as the Pascua Yaqui and Hopi, ban photos and sketches of ceremonies. Opening A pow-wow session begins with the Grand Entry and, in most cases, a prayer. The Eagle Staff leads the Grand Entry, followed by flags, then the dancers, while one of the host drums sings an opening song. This event is sacred in nature; some pow wows do not allow filming or photography during this time, though others allow it. If military veterans or active duty soldiers are present, they often carry the flags and eagle staffs. They are followed by the head dancers, then the remaining dancers usually enter the arena in a specific order: Men's Traditional, Men's Grass Dance, Men's Fancy, Women's Traditional, Women's Jingle, and Women's Fancy. Teens and small children then follow in the same order. Following the Grand Entry, the MC will invite a respected member of the community to give an invocation. The host drum that did not sing the Grand Entry song will then sing a Flag Song, followed by a Victory or Veterans' Song, during which the flags and staffs are posted at the MC's table. Dances The styles and types of dances at a pow wow are descended from the traditions of the Great Plains nations of Canada and the United States. Besides those for the opening and closing of a pow wow session, the most common is the intertribal, where a Drum will sing a song and anyone who wants to can come and dance. Similar dances are the round dance; crow hop when performed by a northern drum or a horse stealing song by a southern drum; there is also "double beat", "sneakup" and, for Women's Traditional and Jingle, "sidestep". Each of these songs have a different step to be used during them, but are open for dancers of any style. In addition to the open dances, contest dances for a particular style and age group are often held, with the top winners receiving a cash prize. To compete in a contest, the dancer must be in regalia appropriate for the competition. Larger pow wows have more specific categories. The dance categories vary somewhat by region, but general categories are as follows: Men's Fancy Dance or Fancy Feather Dance (Northern and Southern styles): A dance featuring vivid regalia with dramatic movement, including spins and leaps. Fancy dancers are distinguished by their bright colored regalia which consists of two large bustle worn on the upper and lower back. Northern Traditional (simply "Men's Traditional" in the North): A dance featuring traditional regalia, including a single bustle, usually of eagle feathers, ribbon shirt, bone hair pipe choker and breastplate. Movements are based upon a warrior scouting before a battle or other story telling traditions tracing to when the powwow was first danced as a ceremony. The dancers carry a dance staff and a fan usually made from the wing of an eagle. Straight dance (or Southern traditional): Straight dancers usually are more neat and with more homemade features such as chokers, breastplates, etc. Their dances are like Northern, They take one foot and step on the ball of their foot and then they tap it once on the ground. Then they tap it once again but this time they put their heel a few millimeters above the ground and repeat the process with the other foot. They do this in a walking motion. it is very hard especially if you have to follow the beat of fast drums. If they catch themselves off beat they will tap their foot three times instead of two to get back with the drums' rhythm. Grass Dance: A dance featuring regalia with long, flowing fringe and designs reminiscent of grass blowing in the wind. Dance movements are more elaborate than the traditional dancers, but less flashy than the fancy dancers. Chicken dance: a recent dance originating with the Northern Plains tribes. Dancers imitate the mating dance of the prairie chicken by rocking their heads back and forth as they spin from side to side in slow majestic movements. Regalia is less elaborate than other dances. It usually includes a porcupine hair roach and two long pheasant tail feathers that curl backwards with colored plumes. Dark, snug shirts and leggings are worn, covered by a drape over the chest and back with short fringe. The bustle is small, using small pheasant or eagle feathers circling the outside of the bustle board with bunches of small loose feathers or plumes in the center. Dancers carry a mirror board or a gourd in one hand and an eagle tail feather fan in the other. Eastern War Dance: A dance from the East Coast that is a storytelling dance, Men wear no bustle however do carry a fan and dance stick. This is also called the "Eastern Strait Dance". Women's Traditional (seen at Northern pow wows): A dance featuring traditional regalia of cloth or leather, and dancers who perform with precise, highly controlled movement. Buckskin and Cloth: A traditional dance from the South. The name refers to the type of material of which the dress is made. The regalia is similar to the Northern traditional dance. However, in the South, buckskin and cloth dancers are judged in two separate categories. The dance steps are the same for both regalia categories. Fancy Shawl: A dance featuring women wearing brilliant colors, a long, usually fringed and decorated, shawl, performing rapid spins and elaborate dance steps. Jingle Dress (healing dance):The jingle dress includes a skirt with hundreds of small tin cones that make noise as the dancer moves with light footwork danced close to ground. Normal intertribal dancing is an individual activity, but there are also couples and group dances. Couples dances include the two step and owl dance. In a two step each couple follows the lead of the head dancers, forming a line behind them, whereas in an owl dance each couple dances alone. Group dances dances include the Snake and Buffalo dance, where the group dances to mimic the motions of a snake in the beginning of the dance, then change to mimic the actions of a herd of buffalo. At pow wows where there is a large Southern Plains community in the area, the Gourd Dance is often included before the start of the pow wow sessions. The gourd dance originated with the Kiowa tribe, whence it spread, and is a society dance for veterans and their families. Unlike other dances, the gourd dance is normally performed with the drum in the center of the dance arena, not on the side. Music Though there are many genres unique to different tribes pow wow music is characterized by pan or intertribalism with the Plains cultures, the originators of the modern pow wow, predominating. For information on dancing, see Dances. Drumming "Good drums get the dancers out there, good songs get them to dance well. Without drum groups there is no music. No music, no dance, no powwow." There may be many drums at a pow wow, especially weekend or week long ones, but each pow wow features a host drum which is accorded great respect. The members of drum groups are often family, extended family, or friends. Groups are then often named for families, geographic locations, tribal societies, or more colorful names. Many groups display their names on jackets, caps, vehicles, and chairs. Traditionally only men would drum and women would sit behind the men singing high harmonies. Beginning in the mid-1970s, women began drumming with men and seconding, or singing, an octave higher, the song. Today, there are mixed-gender and all-female drum groups. The supplies a drum group carries include the drum, rawhide headed, a cloth bag for padded drum sticks, the drum stand, folding chairs for sitting, and, in some cases, a public address system. The drum head, stand, microphone stands, and PA box are often decorated with paintings or eagle feathers, fur, flags, and strips of colored cloth. Readily noticeable in performances are the "hard beats" used to indicate sections of the song. The "traditional method" consists of a pronounced strike by all singers every other beat. These may appear in the first or second line of a song, the end of a section, before the repetition of a song. A cluster of three hard beats (on consecutive beats) may be used at the end of a series of hard beats, while a few beats in the first line of a song indicate performer enthusiasm. In the "Hot Five" method five beats are used, with the first hard beat four beats before the second, after which the beats alternate. Etiquette To understand drum protocol, a drum may be thought of as a person or being and is to be regarded and respected as such. Drum etiquette is highly important. There are regional variations. The drum is the central symbol of Oklahoma pow wows and is located in the center of the dance floor and pow wow (which are themselves shaped in concentric circles). Southern drums are suspended by four posts, one for each direction. Northern drums are set up on the outside of the dance area, with the host drum in the best position. Drummer-singers are expected to remain at their drum and ready to sing at any moment's notice; a dancer might approach the drum and whistle, fan or gesture his staff over a drum to indicate his request for a song even if it is not that drum group's turn to sing. In some regions it is considered disrespectful to leave a drum completely unattended. Some drum groups do not allow females to sit down at their drum but welcome them to stand behind the drummers and sing backup harmonies; the reasons for this point vaguely to a variety of tribal stories that attempt to tell the history of drumming as each group understands it. The drum is offered gifts of tobacco during giveaways and musicians acknowledge this by standing. Singing While the drum is central to pow wows, "the drum only helps them keep beat. Dancers key on the melody of the song. Rhythms, tones, pitch all help create their 'moves'." (p. 85) Note that Bill Runs Above did not mention the lyrics of the songs, and while they are no doubt important, most lyrics of most songs employ vocables, syllable sounds such as "ya", "hey", and "loi" (p. 86). This is particularly evident in intertribal songs, such as the AIM Song, which cannot be biased towards a certain language. The song structure consists of four pushups, singing the chorus and verse through four times. In each chorus the melody is introduced or led off by the lead singer whose is then seconded by another singer who begins to vary the melody before the end of the leader's first line. They are then joined by the entire chorus for the rest of the pushup. Three down strokes or hard beats mark the end of the chorus and beginning of the verse, and during these dancers will alter their dancing such as by hopping low like fancy dancers. An increase in tempo and volume on the last five beats marks the end of the final verse. The dancing stops on the final beat and then a tail, or coda, finishes the song with a shortened chorus. Sometimes a drum group will sing the song more than four times, particularly when the song feels good and the singers seize the moment for an extra pushup or two (or more), or when a dancer blows a whistle or passes his staff or fan over the drum to signal that the song is to be continued four extra pushups while he prays. Singing differs by region in that a high falsetto is used in the north while in the south a lower range is used. "To the unfamiliar listener, Indian singing sounds exotic, different, and difficult to comprehend," and the contrast in the quality or timbre of voice used in traditional Indian and European musics may have much to do with that difficulty. However, "to the trained ear, melodies flow, ascend and descend" while dancers react to changes in the structure of the melody and the song. Boye Ladd says, "If you give me a stink song, I'll dance stink. If you give me good music, I'll give you a great show," implying that one can appreciate the music through the dancing, which is readily appreciated by everyone. But others say that today's contemporary contest dancers are expected to dance their best no matter how well or poor the drum group is that is singing for their contest. Generally, Native American singing follows a pentatonic scale (as if playing only the black keys on a piano) and while, to the outsider, it may sound like people are just pounding a drum and going "Heya-heya-heya-heya", sometimes there are actual words in Cree, Pikuni, Lushuutsid, Niimipuu, Lakhota, Sahpatin, Salish, Ojibwemowin or many other Native languages. See also Potlatch Wild Westing References Works cited Hatton, O. Thomas (1974). "Performance Practices of Northern Plains Pow-Wow Singing Groups", Anuario Interamericano de Investigacion Musical, Vol. 10, pp. 123–137 . Kyi-Yo (2007). Kyi-Yo Celebration. Kyi-Yo student organization, Native American studies, University of Montana. Nettl, Bruno (1989). Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. . Roberts, Chris (1992). Powwow Country. . External links Library of Congress collection of Omaha Pow-wow music Culture of the Western United States Native American music festivals First Nations music festivals Indigenous culture of the Great Plains Folk festivals in Canada Folk festivals in the United States

357654

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%C3%ADn%20de%20las%20Flores

Fortín de las Flores

Fortín de las Flores is a city in the Mexican state of Veracruz. Fortín de las Flores is the municipal seat of Fortín municipality, which borders the municipalities of Córdoba, Naranjal and Ixtaczoquitlán. It stands on Federal Highways 190 and 180 and the Mexico City to Veracruz railway. In the 2005 INEGI Census, the city reported a total population of 18,965, with 53,311 in the surrounding municipality. The ravine of Metlac, which borders the Cañón del Río Blanco National Park, is the most famous feature of Fortín de las Flores. The residents of Fortín de las Flores are considered by freighthopping Central American migrants to be some of the most generous in Mexico. Fortín de las Flores is home to many insects due to its pleasant weather all year round, with minimal fluctuation in temperature, ranging from 20-32 °C daily. Most notably, it serves as a significant habitat for the Mexican colonial orb-weaving spider, Metepeira incrassata. References External links Municipal Official Site Municipal Official Information Populated places in Veracruz

357657

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch%27s%20theorem

Bloch's theorem

In condensed matter physics, Bloch's theorem states that solutions to the Schrödinger equation in a periodic potential take the form of a plane wave modulated by a periodic function. Mathematically, they are written: where is position, is the wave function, is a periodic function with the same periodicity as the crystal, the wave vector is the crystal momentum vector, is Euler's number, and is the imaginary unit. Functions of this form are known as Bloch functions or Bloch states, and serve as a suitable basis for the wave functions or states of electrons in crystalline solids. Named after Swiss physicist Felix Bloch, the description of electrons in terms of Bloch functions, termed Bloch electrons (or less often Bloch Waves), underlies the concept of electronic band structures. These eigenstates are written with subscripts as , where is a discrete index, called the band index, which is present because there are many different wave functions with the same (each has a different periodic component ). Within a band (i.e., for fixed ), varies continuously with , as does its energy. Also, is unique only up to a constant reciprocal lattice vector , or, . Therefore, the wave vector can be restricted to the first Brillouin zone of the reciprocal lattice without loss of generality. Applications and consequences Applicability The most common example of Bloch's theorem is describing electrons in a crystal, especially in characterizing the crystal's electronic properties, such as electronic band structure. However, a Bloch-wave description applies more generally to any wave-like phenomenon in a periodic medium. For example, a periodic dielectric structure in electromagnetism leads to photonic crystals, and a periodic acoustic medium leads to phononic crystals. It is generally treated in the various forms of the dynamical theory of diffraction. Wave vector Suppose an electron is in a Bloch state where u is periodic with the same periodicity as the crystal lattice. The actual quantum state of the electron is entirely determined by , not k or u directly. This is important because k and u are not unique. Specifically, if can be written as above using k, it can also be written using (k + K), where K is any reciprocal lattice vector (see figure at right). Therefore, wave vectors that differ by a reciprocal lattice vector are equivalent, in the sense that they characterize the same set of Bloch states. The first Brillouin zone is a restricted set of values of k with the property that no two of them are equivalent, yet every possible k is equivalent to one (and only one) vector in the first Brillouin zone. Therefore, if we restrict k to the first Brillouin zone, then every Bloch state has a unique k. Therefore, the first Brillouin zone is often used to depict all of the Bloch states without redundancy, for example in a band structure, and it is used for the same reason in many calculations. When k is multiplied by the reduced Planck's constant, it equals the electron's crystal momentum. Related to this, the group velocity of an electron can be calculated based on how the energy of a Bloch state varies with k; for more details see crystal momentum. Detailed example For a detailed example in which the consequences of Bloch's theorem are worked out in a specific situation, see the article: Particle in a one-dimensional lattice (periodic potential). Bloch's theorem Bloch's theorem is as follows: Proof of theorem {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof with lattice periodicity |- | Preliminaries: Crystal symmetries, lattice, and reciprocal lattice The defining property of a crystal is translational symmetry, which means that if the crystal is shifted an appropriate amount, it winds up with all its atoms in the same places. (A finite-size crystal cannot have perfect translational symmetry, but it is a useful approximation.) A three-dimensional crystal has three primitive lattice vectors a1, a2, a3. If the crystal is shifted by any of these three vectors, or a combination of them of the form where ni are three integers, then the atoms end up in the same set of locations as they started. Another helpful ingredient in the proof is the reciprocal lattice vectors. These are three vectors b1, b2, b3 (with units of inverse length), with the property that ai · bi = 2π, but ai · bj = 0 when i ≠ j. (For the formula for bi, see reciprocal lattice vector.) Lemma about translation operators Let denote a translation operator that shifts every wave function by the amount (as above, nj are integers). The following fact is helpful for the proof of Bloch's theorem: Lemma: If a wave function is an eigenstate of all of the translation operators (simultaneously), then is a Bloch state. Proof: Assume that we have a wave function which is an eigenstate of all the translation operators. As a special case of this, for j = 1, 2, 3, where Cj are three numbers (the eigenvalues) which do not depend on r. It is helpful to write the numbers Cj in a different form, by choosing three numbers θ1, θ2, θ3 with : Again, the θj are three numbers which do not depend on r. Define , where bj are the reciprocal lattice vectors (see above). Finally, define Then . This proves that u has the periodicity of the lattice. Since , that proves that the state is a Bloch state. Proof Finally, we are ready for the main proof of Bloch's theorem which is as follows. As above, let denote a translation operator that shifts every wave function by the amount , where ni are integers. Because the crystal has translational symmetry, this operator commutes with the Hamiltonian operator. Moreover, every such translation operator commutes with every other. Therefore, there is a simultaneous eigenbasis of the Hamiltonian operator and every possible operator. This basis is what we are looking for. The wave functions in this basis are energy eigenstates (because they are eigenstates of the Hamiltonian), and they are also Bloch states (because they are eigenstates of the translation operators; see Lemma above). |} Another proof {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof with operators |- | We define the translation operator We use the hypothesis of a mean periodic potential and the independent electron approximation with an hamiltonian Given the Hamiltonian is invariant for translations it shall commute with the translation operator and the two operators shall have a common set of eigenfunctions. Therefore we start to look at the eigen-functions of the translation operator: Given is an additive operator If we substitute here the eigenvalue equation and diving both sides for we have This is true for where if we use the normalization condition over a single primitive cell of volume V and therefore and where Finally Which is true for a bloch wave i.e. for with |} Group theory proof {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof with Character Theory |- | All Translations are unitary and Abelian. Translations can be written in terms of unit vectors We can think of these as commuting operators where The commutativity of the operators gives three commuting cyclic subgroups (given they can be generated by only one element) which are infinite, 1-dimensional and abelian. All irreducible representations of Abelian groups are one dimensional. Given they are one dimensional the matrix representation and the character are the same. The character is the representation over the complex numbers of the group or also the trace of the representation which in this case is a one dimensional matrix. All these subgroups, given they are cyclic, they have characters which are appropriate roots of unity. In fact they have one generator which shall obey to , and therefore the character . Note that this is straightforward in the finite cyclic group case but in the countable infinite case of the infinite cyclic group (i.e. the translation group here) there is a limit for where the character remains finite. Given the character is a root of unity, for each subgroup the character can be then written as If we introduce the Born–von Karman boundary condition on the potential: Where L is a macroscopic periodicity in the direction that can also be seen as a multiple of where This substituting in the time independent Schrödinger equation with a simple effective Hamiltonian induces a periodicity with the wave function: And for each dimension a translation operator with a period L From here we can see that also the character shall be invariant by a translation of : and from the last equation we get for each dimension a periodic condition: where is an integer and The wave vector identify the irreducible representation in the same manner as , and is a macroscopic periodic length of the crystal in direction . In this context, the wave vector serves as a quantum number for the translation operator. We can generalize this for 3 dimensions and the generic formula for the wave function becomes: i.e. specializing it for a translation and we have proven Bloch’s theorem. Apart from the group theory technicalities this proof is interesting because it becomes clear how to generalize the Bloch theorem for groups that are not only translations. This is typically done for Space groups which are a combination of a translation and a point group and it is used for computing the band structure, spectrum and specific heats of crystals given a specific crystal group symmetry like FCC or BCC and eventually an extra basis. In this proof it is also possible to notice how is key that the extra point group is driven by a symmetry in the effective potential but it shall commute with the Hamiltonian. In the generalized version of the Bloch theorem, the Fourier transform, i.e. the wave function expansion, gets generalized from a discrete Fourier transform which is applicable only for cyclic groups and therefore translations into a character expansion of the wave function where the characters are given from the specific finite point group. Also here is possible to see how the characters (as the invariants of the irreducible representations) can be treated as the fundamental building blocks instead of the irreducible representations themselves. |} Velocity and effective mass of Bloch electrons If we apply the time-independent Schrödinger equation to the Bloch wave function we obtain with boundary conditions Given this is defined in a finite volume we expect an infinite family of eigenvalues, here is a parameter of the Hamiltonian and therefore we arrive to a "continuous family" of eigenvalues dependent on the continuous parameter and therefore to the basic concept of an electronic band structure {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof |- | We remain with |} This shows how the effective momentum can be seen as composed by two parts A standard momentum and a crystal momentum . More precisely the crystal momentum is not a momentum but it stands to the momentum in the same way as the electromagnetic momentum in the minimal coupling, and as part of a canonical transformation of the momentum. For the effective velocity we can derive {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof |- | We evaluate the derivatives and given they are the coefficients of the following expansion in q where q is considered small with respect to k Given are eigenvalues of We can consider the following perturbation problem in q: Perturbation theory of the second order tells that: To compute to linear order in q Where the integrations are over a primitive cell or the entire crystal, given if the integral: is normalized across the cell or the crystal. We can simplify over q and remain with And we can reinsert the complete wave functions |} And for the effective mass {| class="toccolours collapsible collapsed" width="80%" style="text-align:left" !Proof |- | The second order term Again with And getting rid of and we have the theorem |} The quantity on the right multiplied by a factor is called effective mass tensor and we can use it to write a semi-classical equation for a charge carrier in a band Where is an acceleration. This equation is in close analogy with the De Broglie wave type of approximation As an intuitive interpretation, both last two equations resemble formally and are in a semi-classical analogy with the newton equation in an external Lorentz force. History and related equations The concept of the Bloch state was developed by Felix Bloch in 1928, to describe the conduction of electrons in crystalline solids. The same underlying mathematics, however, was also discovered independently several times: by George William Hill (1877), Gaston Floquet (1883), and Alexander Lyapunov (1892). As a result, a variety of nomenclatures are common: applied to ordinary differential equations, it is called Floquet theory (or occasionally the Lyapunov–Floquet theorem). The general form of a one-dimensional periodic potential equation is Hill's equation: where f(t) is a periodic potential. Specific periodic one-dimensional equations include the Kronig–Penney model and Mathieu's equation. Mathematically Bloch's theorem is interpreted in terms of unitary characters of a lattice group, and is applied to spectral geometry. See also Bloch oscillations Bloch wave – MoM method Electronic band structure Nearly free electron model Periodic boundary conditions Symmetries in quantum mechanics Tight-binding model Wannier function References Further reading Quantum states Condensed matter physics

357662

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicket%20W.%20Warrick

Wicket W. Warrick

{{Infobox character | name = Wicket W. Warrick | series = Star Wars | image = Wicket_W_Warrick.png | caption = Wicket the Ewok in Return of the Jedi | first = Return of the Jedi (1983) | last = The Rise of Skywalker (2019) | creator = | portrayer = Warwick Davis | voice = {{Plainlist| Ben Burtt (Episode VI and various media) {{show|Other:| Darryl Henriques (Caravan of Courage and The Battle for Endor) Jim Henshaw (Ewoks; season 1) Denny Delk (Ewoks; season 2) }} }} | species = Ewok | spouse = Kneesaa | gender = Male | family = | lbl21 = Homeworld | data21 = Endor }} Wicket Wystri Warrick is a fictional character from the Star Wars franchise, first introduced and portrayed by Warwick Davis in the 1983 film Return of the Jedi. Warrick appeared in two made-for-television movies, an animated series, and promotional media for Star Wars from 1983 to 1986, all of which are a part of the Star Wars Legends continuity. Davis reprised the role in the 2019 theatrical film The Rise of Skywalker, appearing in a brief cameo. Wicket is a diminutive teddy bear-like creature known as an Ewok, living on the forest moon of Endor and eventually participating in the Battle of Endor as an ally of the Rebel Alliance. Character Development In concluding his original Star Wars trilogy, George Lucas had foreseen the decisive battle in the Galactic Civil War taking place between the Wookiees and the Empire; however, he considered Chewbacca too skilled with technology, and wanted a more primitive species than the Wookiees to defeat the Empire. A few different creatures, such as the stilt-legged Yuzzums, were proposed before the diminutive bear-like design of the Ewoks was settled on. Although neither the word Ewok nor any of the Ewok names are actually mentioned in Return of the Jedi, a handful of Ewoks were named by the production, mentioned in the novelization, and first appeared in the Kenner action figure line based on the movie. The main focal point of this new Ewok species was to be Wicket Wystri Warrick, a small young male scout and warrior. Generally considered to be the most well known of the Ewoks, Wicket would be given the lead role in almost all subsequent Ewok related media released after Return of the Jedi. Casting Wicket was portrayed by Warwick Davis in 1983's Return of the Jedi. The then 11-year-old actor came to be involved in the film after his grandmother heard a radio ad calling for short actors. Davis began work on the film in January 1982. Originally cast as a generic Ewok, Davis caught the eye of George Lucas with aspects of his performance, such as his ability to stick his tongue through his Ewok mask and the inquisitive tilting of his head (which was inspired by Davis' dog). Kenny Baker was originally set to take the role of Wicket; however, Baker fell ill with food poisoning, and Davis was called in as a replacement.Empire of Dreams: The Story of the Star Wars Trilogy (2004). DVD. 20th Century Fox Television. Event occurs at 2:17:00. Appearances Film The character made his first appearance in the 1983 film Return of the Jedi. Wicket was the first Ewok to appear on screen, encountering Princess Leia Organa after she survived her speeder bike chase, bringing her to his tree-top Ewok village, and making contact with the Rebel Alliance during the Battle of Endor. Wicket was also featured in the later village scenes, as well as helping the Alliance during the Battle of Endor itself, attacking Imperial stormtroopers with his slingshot. At the end of The Rise of Skywalker, Wicket makes a brief appearance alongside Pommet Warrick, his son, celebrating the defeat of Darth Sidious and the Sith Eternal. Warwick Davis reprised his character role, alongside his real life son Harrison Davis, who played Pommet. Forces of Destiny Wicket appears in the micro-series Star Wars Forces of Destiny. Legends In April 2014 (with the sequel film The Force Awakens in production), Lucasfilm separated the Star Wars Expanded Universe (rebranded as Star Wars Legends) from official Star Wars canon. Television films Wicket was featured in the 1984 TV film The Ewok Adventure (set before Return of the Jedi), theatrically released as Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure. In the film, he accompanies stranded brother and sister Mace and Cindel Towani as he and the Ewoks help find and rescue the children's missing parents from the giant Gorax. Wicket is revealed to be the son of Deej and Shodu, and has two older brothers, Weechee and Widdle. Wicket would return the following year in a sequel, Ewoks: The Battle for Endor. In this film, Wicket helps Cindel and new allies Noa (Wilfred Brimley) and Teek defeat King Terak and his Sanyassan Marauders. This film strengthened the bonds between Wicket and Cindel, with Wicket rescuing his family and learning to speak some Galactic Basic (which he seems to have forgotten by the time of Return of the Jedi). Ewoks Wicket was the main character in the animated series Ewoks, which ran for two seasons in 1985 and 1986, consisting of 35 episodes. This children's cartoon series, set in the fictional Bright Tree Village, mostly featured the antics of Wicket and his family (in line with the TV movies). Wicket's friends Kneesaa and Latara were introduced, and further backstories for existing Ewok characters Teebo, Paploo, Chief Chirpa, and Logray were established. The series would also often showcase Wicket and the Ewoks' battles with the Duloks, Morag the witch, and other creatures on the moon of Endor. Related works and merchandising In the 1980s, Wicket was heavily featured in several promotional items, toys, children's books, read-along records and cassettes and comic books. Reception Wicket and the Ewoks are a controversial addition to Return of the Jedi'' and the Star Wars Universe in general, and are seen by some to be the weakest link of the original trilogy. According to Tami Katzoff of MTV News, "a prevailing theory among Ewok-haters is that the creatures were originally conceived as a sure way to appeal to small children and sell plush toys to their parents." The Ewoks have some defenders, and have proven to be very popular with children from their introduction in the 1980s to the present day. References External links Wicket W. Warrick on IMDb Characters created by George Lucas Film characters introduced in 1983 Fictional princes Fictional war veterans Extraterrestrial superheroes Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters Return of the Jedi

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduardo%20Mata

Eduardo Mata

Eduardo Mata (5 September 19425 January 1995) was a Mexican conductor and composer. Career Mata was born in Mexico City. He studied guitar privately for three years before enrolling in the National Conservatory of Music. From 1960 to 1963 he studied composition under Carlos Chávez, and Julián Orbón. In 1964 he received a Koussevitzky Memorial Fellowship to study at Tanglewood. There, he studied conducting with Max Rudolf and Erich Leinsdorf and composition with Gunther Schuller. He composed several works in the 1950s and 1960s, including three symphonies and chamber works, which include sonatas for piano and for cello and piano. His Third Symphony and some of his chamber works have been recorded. In 1965 he was appointed head of the Music Department of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and conductor of the Guadalajara Orchestra; He also conducted the orchestra at the university, which later became the National Autonomous University of Mexico Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1972, he left Mexico to take the position of principal conductor of the Phoenix Symphony. The next year he was appointed the Phoenix ensemble's music director, holding that position through the 1977–78 season. In 1965, he was one of the founding members and later, honorary president of the Mahler Mexico Society (Sociedad Mahler México) and together with Mexico's National Symphony Orchestra (Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional), in October 1975 he conducted the first full cycle of Gustav Mahler's symphonies in Mexico. From 1977 to 1993 he was music director of the Dallas Symphony Orchestra and guest conductor of several orchestras in the U.S., Europe and Latin America. He recorded over fifty albums, most of them with the UNAM Symphony Orchestra, the Dallas Symphony Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra. He was also appointed principal conductor of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra and was about to take up this post in January 1995 when he was killed. On the morning of 4 January 1995, Mata and a passenger were en route from Cuernavaca, Morelos, to Dallas, Texas. Mata was piloting his own Piper Aerostar. One engine failed shortly after takeoff, and the plane crashed during an emergency landing attempt. Both died in the crash, near Mexico City. Selected compositions Trio, for clarinet, drum, and cello, dedicated to Ralph Vaughan Williams (1957) Sonata, for piano (1960) Improvisaciones, for clarinet and piano (1961) Symphony No. 1 (1962) "Débora", ballet suite (1963) Los huesos secos (The Dry Bones), ballet (1963) Symphony No. 2 (1963) Aires (1964) Improvisación número 1, for string quartet and piano four-hands (1964) Improvisación número 2, for strings and two pianos (1965) Improvisación número 3, for violin and piano (1965) Sonata, for cello (1966), dedicated to Adolfo Odnoposoff Symphony No. 3, for winds and horn (1966) Selected discography Mata compositions Symphony No. 3, for wind orchestra and solo horn. Orquesta Filarmónica de la UNAM, RCA Red Seal LP recording, 1 disc: analogue, 33⅓ rpm, stereo, 12 in. RCA Red Seal. México, D.F.: RCA Red Seal, 1971. . "Improvisación No. 2," for strings and two pianos. Orquesta Filarmónica de la UNAM, LP recording, 1 disc: analogue, 33⅓ rpm, stereo, 12 in. RCA Red Seal. México, D.F.: RCA Red Seal, [1970]. References Sources Further reading Anon. 1976. Who's Who in the West, 15th edition (1976–1977). Chicago: Marquis Who's Who. . Anon. 1980. "Mata, ". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, first edition, edited by Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan. Anon. 1986. "Mata [correct title needed].The New Grove Dictionary of American Music, edited by H. Wiley Hitchcock and Stanley Sadie, 4 vols. London: Macmillan. (set); . , . Anon. 1992. Who's Who in Entertainment, second edition (1992–1993). Wilmette, Illinois: Marquis Who's Who. . Anon. 1993a. "Eduardo Mata". International Who's Who, 57th edition (1993–94). London: Europa Publications. . . Anon. 1993b. "Eduardo Mata". Who's Who in the South and Southwest, 23rd edition (1993–94). New Providence, New Jersey: Marquis Who's Who. . Anon. 1996. "Eduardo Mata". Who Was Who in America: A Companion Biographical Reference Work to Who's who in America 11 (1993–1996). Chicago: Marquis Who's Who. . Anon. 1998. Latin American Lives: Selected Biographies from the Five-Volume Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Macmillan Compendium. New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA. . . Anon. 2001. "Mata". Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 9th edition, edited by Laura Diane Kuhn, 6 vols. London: Macmillan; New York: G. Schirmer. . Cornell, Charles R., and Rene J. Montalvo (eds.). 2002. Biography Index, 27 (September 2001 – August 2002). New York: H. W. Wilson Company. . Ficher, Miguel, Martha Furman Schleifer, and John M. Furman (eds.). 2002. Latin American Classical Composers, second edition. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. . Gaster, Adrian (ed.) 1990. International Who's Who in Music and Musicians' Directory, 12th edition. Cambridge, UK: International Who's Who in Music. . Marquis, Albert Nelson, and Marquis Who's Who, Inc. 1993. "Eduardo Mata". Who's Who in America, 48th edition (1994), 3 vols. New Providence, New Jersey: Marquis Who's Who. . Slonimsky, Nicolas (ed.). 1997. Biographical Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Classical Musicians. New York: G. Schirmer. . Stevenson, Joseph. 2005a. "Dallas Symphony Orchestra". All Music Guide to Classical Music, edited by Chris Woodstra, Gerald Brennan, and Allen Schrott, 339–340. San Francisco: Backbeat Books. . . Unterburger, Amy L., and Jane L. Delgado (eds.). 1994. Who's Who among Hispanic Americans, third edition (1994–95), foreword by Ricardo R. Fernández. Detroit: Gale Research. . Vinton, John (ed.). 1974. Dictionary of Contemporary Music. New York: E. P. Dutton. . 1942 births 1995 deaths Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents Classical musicians from Texas Male conductors (music) Members of El Colegio Nacional (Mexico) Mexican composers Mexican male composers Mexican conductors (music) Musicians from Dallas People from Mexico City 20th-century conductors (music) 20th-century American composers 20th-century American male musicians Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in Mexico Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1995

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proclamation%20of%20the%20Republic

Proclamation of the Republic

Proclamation of the Republic may refer to: Proclamation of the Irish Republic, issued during the Easter Rising of 1916 Proclamation of the Republic (Brazil), celebrated by a public holiday on November 15

357668

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yax%20Nuun%20Ahiin%20I

Yax Nuun Ahiin I

Yax Nuun Ahiin I, also known as Curl Snout and Curl Nose (died 17 June 404?), was a 4th-century ruler of the Maya city of Tikal. His name when transcribed is YAX-?-AH:N, translated "First ? Crocodile". He took the throne on 12 September 379, and reigned until his death. He is referred to by the Mayan title ajaw, meaning lord. Biography Yax Nuun Ayiin I was a son of Spearthrower Owl, a lord of Teotihuacan (probably that city's king) in central Mexico. The installation of a Teotihuacano noble on the throne of Tikal marks a high point of Teotihuacan influence in the central Maya lowlands. Yax Nuun Ahiin I may have been a child or youth at the time of his coronation, and the early years of his reign seems to have been dominated by one of his father's generals, Sihyaj K'ahk', in a sort of regency. Sihyaj K'ahk' is recorded as having entered Tikal on 15 May 378, the same date as the death of the previous ruler, Chak Tok Ich'aak I; it appears that this event may have been a conquest in which Yax Nuun Ayiin I was installed by force. Two monuments at Tikal, Stela 4 and Stela 18, are associated with Yax Nuun Ahiin I. Both stelae depict him in Mexican rather than Mayan attire, demonstrating his Teotihuacano origins. He is also depicted on Stela 31, erected by his son Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II, as a Teotihuacano warrior with a plated helmet, spearthrower and square shield decorated with the face of Central Mexican deities. His wife's titles indicate that she may have been a Mayan woman, presumably chosen to integrate his bloodline with the local elites. It is unclear when Yax Nuun Ayiin I died. Stela 31's text indicates that his burial took place in 404, though the text from another sculpture known as the Hombre de Tikal suggests that he may have still been alive in November 406. On the other hand, the K'atun ceremony of May 406, which would ordinarily be presided over by the ruler, is recorded as having been presided over by an otherwise unknown individual called Sihyaj Chan K'inich. This suggests that there may have been an interregnum, possibly with Sihyaj Chan K'inich governing temporarily as a regent, before Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II was enthroned in November 411. Tomb The tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin I, known as "Burial 10", was discovered by University of Pennsylvania archaeologists in the 1950s. It was found deep within a temple built at the foot of the North Acropolis and represents one of the most spectacular and complete Mayan burials yet discovered. The ruler's body had been placed on a wooden funerary bier surrounded by the bodies of at least nine sacrificed youths ranging in age from about six years old to young adulthood. At least one of the sacrificial victims appears to have died inside the funerary chamber. A headless crocodile was also interred with the dead ruler, probably alluding to his name. Numerous offerings were deposited around the chamber, including pottery vessels decorated with Mexican motifs and images of Mexican deities. Among the artefacts were a Maya-style censer in the shape of an elderly deity seated on a stool made from human long bones, turtle carapaces that had been arranged to form a kind of xylophone and a jade ornament in the form of a curl-snouted crocodile. Notes Footnotes References External links Rulers of Tikal 4th century in the Maya civilization 5th century in the Maya civilization 4th-century monarchs in North America 5th-century monarchs in North America Year of birth unknown 404 deaths

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Kidnapping%20of%20Edgardo%20Mortara

The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara

The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara may refer to The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara, a 1997 nonfiction book by David Kertzer The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara (film), an upcoming film adaptation of the Kertzer book

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior%20probability

Posterior probability

Posterior probability is a type of conditional probability in Bayesian statistics. In common usage, the term posterior probability refers to the conditional probability of an event given which comes from an application of Bayes' theorem . Because Bayes' theorem relates the two conditional probabilities and and is symmetric in and , the term posterior is somewhat informal – for example, it may be used to emphasize which of the two conditional probabilities is known and which we are inferring. Similarly, a posterior probability distribution is a conditional probability distribution obtained by applying the distributional form of Bayes' theorem. Definition in the distributional case In variational Bayesian methods, the posterior probability is the probability of the parameters given the evidence , and is denoted . It contrasts with the likelihood function, which is the probability of the evidence given the parameters: . The two are related as follows: Given a prior belief that a probability distribution function is and that the observations have a likelihood , then the posterior probability is defined as where is the normalizing constant and is calculated as for continuous , or by summing over all possible values of for discrete . The posterior probability is therefore proportional to the product Likelihood · Prior probability. Example Suppose there is a school having 60% boys and 40% girls as students. The girls wear trousers or skirts in equal numbers; all boys wear trousers. An observer sees a (random) student from a distance; all the observer can see is that this student is wearing trousers. What is the probability this student is a girl? The correct answer can be computed using Bayes' theorem. The event is that the student observed is a girl, and the event is that the student observed is wearing trousers. To compute the posterior probability , we first need to know: , or the probability that the student is a girl regardless of any other information. Since the observer sees a random student, meaning that all students have the same probability of being observed, and the percentage of girls among the students is 40%, this probability equals 0.4. , or the probability that the student is not a girl (i.e. a boy) regardless of any other information ( is the complementary event to ). This is 60%, or 0.6. , or the probability of the student wearing trousers given that the student is a girl. As they are as likely to wear skirts as trousers, this is 0.5. , or the probability of the student wearing trousers given that the student is a boy. This is given as 1. , or the probability of a (randomly selected) student wearing trousers regardless of any other information. Since (via the law of total probability), this is . Given all this information, the posterior probability of the observer having spotted a girl given that the observed student is wearing trousers can be computed by substituting these values in the formula: An intuitive way to solve this is to assume the school has N students. Number of boys = 0.6N and number of girls = 0.4N. If N is sufficiently large, total number of trouser wearers = 0.6N+ 50% of 0.4N. And number of girl trouser wearers = 50% of 0.4N. Therefore, in the population of trousers, girls are (50% of 0.4N)/(0.6N+ 50% of 0.4N) = 25%. In other words, if you separated out the group of trouser wearers, a quarter of that group will be girls. Therefore, if you see trousers, the most you can deduce is that you are looking at a single sample from a subset of students where 25% are girls. And by definition, chance of this random student being a girl is 25%. Every Bayes theorem problem can be solved in this way. Calculation The posterior probability distribution of one random variable given the value of another can be calculated with Bayes' theorem by multiplying the prior probability distribution by the likelihood function, and then dividing by the normalizing constant, as follows: gives the posterior probability density function for a random variable given the data , where is the prior density of , is the likelihood function as a function of , is the normalizing constant, and is the posterior density of given the data . Credible interval Posterior probability is a conditional probability conditioned on randomly observed data. Hence it is a random variable. For a random variable, it is important to summarize its amount of uncertainty. One way to achieve this goal is to provide a credible interval of the posterior probability. Classification In classification, posterior probabilities reflect the uncertainty of assessing an observation to particular class, see also Class membership probabilities. While statistical classification methods by definition generate posterior probabilities, Machine Learners usually supply membership values which do not induce any probabilistic confidence. It is desirable to transform or re-scale membership values to class membership probabilities, since they are comparable and additionally more easily applicable for post-processing. See also Prediction interval Bernstein–von Mises theorem Monty Hall Problem Three Prisoners Problem Bertrand's box paradox Spike and slab variable selection Bayesian structural time series Probability of success Bayesian epistemology References Further reading Bayesian statistics

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melusine

Melusine

Mélusine () or Melusina is a figure of European folklore, a female spirit of fresh water in a holy well or river. She is usually depicted as a woman who is a serpent or fish from the waist down (much like a mermaid or a lamia). She is also sometimes illustrated with wings, two tails, or both. Her legends are especially connected with the northern and western areas of France, Luxembourg, and the Low Countries. Her name can vary depending on the areas such as Merlusse in Vosges, Merluisaine in Champagne.... The French Littré suggests the Latin melus, meaning "melodious, pleasant". The Limburg-Luxemburg dynasty, which ruled the Holy Roman Empire from 1308 to 1437 as well as Bohemia and Hungary, the House of Anjou and their descendants the House of Plantagenet (kings of England) and the French House of Lusignan (kings of Cyprus from 1205–1472, and for shorter periods over Cilician Armenia and Jerusalem) are said in folk tales and medieval literature to be descended from Melusine. This name refers to several major legendary themes, such as the water nymph, the earth being (terroir), the genie who inhabits a certain place, the succubus who comes from the diabolical world to unite carnally with a man, the harbinger of death, or even the mermaid, considering her shaping. One tale says Mélusine herself was the daughter of the fairy Pressyne and King Elinas of Albany (now Scotland). Mélusine's mother leaves her husband, taking her daughters to the isle of Avalon after he breaks an oath never to look in at her and her daughter in their bath. The same pattern appears in stories where Mélusine marries a nobleman only after he makes an oath to give her privacy in her bath; each time, she leaves the nobleman after he breaks that oath. Shapeshifting and flight on wings away from oath-breaking husbands also figure in stories about Mélusine. According to Sabine Baring-Gould in Curious Tales of the Middle Ages, the pattern of the tale is similar to the Knight of the Swan legend which inspired the character "Lohengrin" in Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival. Literary versions The most famous literary version of Melusine tales, that of Jean d'Arras, compiled about 1382–1394, was worked into a collection of "spinning yarns" as told by ladies at their spinning coudrette (coulrette (in French)). He wrote The Romans of Partenay or of Lusignen: Otherwise known as the Tale of Melusine, giving source and historical notes, dates and background of the story. He goes into detail and depth about the relationship of Melusine and Raymondin, their initial meeting and the complete story. The tale was translated into German in 1456 by Thüring von Ringoltingen, which version became popular as a chapbook. It was later translated into English, twice, around 1500, and often printed in both the 15th century and the 16th century. There is also a Castilian and a Dutch translation, both of which were printed at the end of the 15th century. A prose version is entitled the Chronique de la princesse (Chronicle of the Princess). It tells how in the time of the Crusades, Elynas, the King of Albany (an old name for Scotland or Alba), went hunting one day and came across a beautiful lady in the forest. She was Pressyne, mother of Melusine. He persuaded her to marry him but she agreed, only on the promise—for there is often a hard and fatal condition attached to any pairing of fay and mortal—that he must not enter her chamber when she birthed or bathed her children. She gave birth to triplets. When he violated this taboo, Pressyne left the kingdom, together with her three daughters, and traveled to the lost Isle of Avalon. The three girls—Melusine, Melior, and Palatyne—grew up in Avalon. On their fifteenth birthday, Melusine, the eldest, asked why they had been taken to Avalon. Upon hearing of their father's broken promise, Melusine sought revenge. She and her sisters captured Elynas and locked him, with his riches, in a mountain. Pressyne became enraged when she learned what the girls had done, and punished them for their disrespect to their father. Melusine was condemned to take the form of a serpent from the waist down every Saturday. In other stories, she takes on the form of a mermaid. Raymond of Poitou came across Melusine in a forest of Coulombiers in Poitou in France, and proposed marriage. Just as her mother had done, she laid a condition: that he must never enter her chamber on a Saturday. He broke the promise and saw her in the form of a part-woman, part-serpent, but she forgave him. When, during a disagreement, he called her a "serpent" in front of his court, she assumed the form of a dragon, provided him with two magic rings, and flew off, never to return. In The Wandering Unicorn by Manuel Mujica Láinez, Melusine tells her tale of several centuries of existence, from her original curse to the time of the Crusades. Legends In France Melusine legends are especially connected with the northern areas of France, Poitou and the Low Countries, as well as Cyprus, where the French Lusignan royal house that ruled the island from 1192 to 1489 claimed to be descended from Melusine. Oblique reference to this was made by Sir Walter Scott who told a Melusine tale in Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802–1803) stating that In Luxembourg The Counts of Luxembourg also claimed descent from Melusine through their ancestor Siegfried. When in 963 A.D. Count Siegfried of the Ardennes (Sigefroi in French; Sigfrid in Luxembourgish) bought the feudal rights to the territory on which he founded his capital city of Luxembourg, his name became connected with the local version of Melusine. This Melusina had essentially the same magic gifts as the ancestress of the Lusignans, magically making the Castle of Luxembourg on the Bock rock (the historical center point of Luxembourg City) appear the morning after their wedding. On her terms of marriage, she too required one day of absolute privacy each week. Alas, Sigfrid, as the Luxem-bourgish call him, "could not resist temptation, and on one of the forbidden days he spied on her in her bath and discovered her to be a mermaid. When he let out a surprised cry, Melusina caught sight of him, and her bath immediately sank into the solid rock, carrying her with it. Melusina surfaces briefly every seven years as a beautiful woman or as a serpent, holding a small golden key in her mouth. Whoever takes the key from her will set her free and may claim her as his bride." In 1997 Luxembourg issued a postage stamp commemorating her. In Germany Martin Luther knew and believed in the story of another version of Melusine, die Melusina zu Lucelberg (Lucelberg in Silesia), whom he referred to several times as a succubus (Works, Erlangen edition, volume 60, pp 37–42). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote the tale of Die Neue Melusine in 1807 and published it as part of Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre. The playwright Franz Grillparzer brought Goethe's tale to the stage and Felix Mendelssohn provided a concert overture "The Fair Melusina," his Opus 32. In Britain Melusine is one of the pre-Christian water-faeries who were sometimes responsible for changelings. The "Lady of the Lake", who spirited away the infant Lancelot and raised the child, was such a water nymph. Other European water sprites include Lorelei and the nixie. "Melusina" would seem to be an uneasy name for a girl-child in these areas of Europe, but Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster, mistress of George I of Great Britain, was christened Melusine in 1667. The chronicler Gerald of Wales reported that Richard I of England was fond of telling a tale according to which he was a descendant of a countess of Anjou who was in fact the fairy Melusine. The Angevin legend told of an early Count of Anjou who met a beautiful woman when in a far land, where he married her. He had not troubled to find out about her origins. However, after bearing him four sons, the behaviour of his wife began to trouble the count. She attended church infrequently, and always left before the Mass proper. One day he had four of his men forcibly restrain his wife as she rose to leave the church. Melusine evaded the men and clasped the two youngest of her sons and in full view of the congregation carried them up into the air and out of the church through its highest window. Melusine and her two sons were never seen again. One of the remaining sons was the ancestor, it was claimed, of the later Counts of Anjou and the Kings of England. Related legends The Travels of Sir John Mandeville recounts a legend about Hippocrates' daughter. She was transformed into a hundred-foot long dragon by the goddess Diane, and is the "lady of the manor" of an old castle. She emerges three times a year, and will be turned back into a woman if a knight kisses her, making the knight into her consort and ruler of the islands. Various knights try, but flee when they see the hideous dragon; they die soon thereafter. This appears to be an early version of the legend of Melusine. Structural interpretation Jacques Le Goff considered that Melusina represented a fertility figure: "she brings prosperity in a rural area...Melusina is the fairy of medieval economic growth". References in the arts and popular culture Arts Melusine is the subject of Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué's novella Undine (1811), Halévy's grand opera La magicienne (1858) and Jean Giraudoux's play Ondine (1939). Antonín Dvořák's Rusalka, Opera in three acts, Libretto by Jaroslav Kvapil, is also based on the fairy tale Undine by Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué. Felix Mendelssohn depicted the character in his concert overture The Fair Melusine (Zum Märchen von der Schönen Melusine), opus 32. Marcel Proust's main character compares Gilberte to Melusine in Within a Budding Grove. She is also compared on several occasions to the Duchesse de Guermantes who was (according to the Duc de Guermantes) directly descended from the Lusignan dynasty. In the Guermantes Way, for example, the narrator observes that the Lusignan family "was fated to become extinct on the day when the fairy Melusine should disappear" (Volume II, Page 5, Vintage Edition.). The story of Melusine (also called Melusina) was retold by Letitia Landon in the poem "The Fairy of the Fountains" in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834, and reprinted in her collection The Zenana. Here she is representative of the female poet. An analysis can be found in Anne DeLong, pages 124–131. Mélusine appears as a minor character in James Branch Cabell's Domnei: A Comedy of Woman-Worship (1913 as The Soul of Melicent, rev. 1920) and The High Place (1923). In Our Lady of the Flowers, Jean Genet twice says that Divine, the main character, is descended from "the siren Melusina" (pp. 198, 298 of the Grove Press English edition (1994)). (The conceit may have been inspired by Genet's reading of Proust.) Melusine appears to have inspired aspects of the character Mélisande, who is associated with springs and waters, in Maurice Maeterlinck's play Pelléas and Mélisande, first produced in 1893. Claude Debussy adapted it as an opera by the same name, produced in 1902. In Wilhelm Meister's Journeyman Years, Goethe re-tells the Melusine tale in a short story titled "The New Melusine". Georg Trakl wrote a poem titled "Melusine". Margaret Irwin's fantasy novel These Mortals (1925) revolves around Melusine leaving her father's palace, and having adventures in the world of humans. Charlotte Haldane wrote a study of Melusine in 1936 (which her then husband J.B.S. Haldane referred to in his children's book "My Friend Mr Leakey"). Aribert Reimann composed an opera Melusine, which premiered in 1971. The Melusine legend is featured in A. S. Byatt's late 20th century novel Possession. One of the main characters, Christabel LaMotte, writes an epic poem about Melusina. Philip the Good's 1454 Feast of the Pheasant featured as one of the lavish 'entremets' (or table decorations) a mechanical depiction of Melusine as a dragon flying around the castle of Lusignan. Rosemary Hawley Jarman used a reference from Sabine Baring-Gould's Curious Myths of the Middle Ages that the House of Luxembourg claimed descent from Melusine in her 1972 novel The King's Grey Mare, making Elizabeth Woodville's family claim descent from the water-spirit. This element is repeated in Philippa Gregory's novels The White Queen (2009) and The Lady of the Rivers (2011), but with Jacquetta of Luxembourg telling Elizabeth that their descent from Melusine comes through the Dukes of Burgundy. In his 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence the writer Michael Paraskos retells the story of Melusine by imagining her as a Turkish Cypriot girl forceably abducted from the island by a visiting Frenchman. In the movie Fantastic Beasts: The Crimes of Grindelwald actress Olwen Fouéré plays a character named "Melusine". Popular culture Games In Final Fantasy V, a video game RPG originally released by Squaresoft for the Super Famicom in 1992, Melusine appears as a boss. Her name was mistranslated as "Mellusion" in the PS1 port included as part of Final Fantasy Anthology but was correctly translated in subsequent localizations. In the video games The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt and Gwent: The Witcher Card Game, a particularly powerful siren is named Melusine. In the video game Final Fantasy XV, the sidequest "O Partner, My Partner" has the player pitted against a level 99 daemon named Melusine, depicted as a beautiful woman, wrapped in snakes. The video game Sigi - A Fart for Melusina is a parody of the legend. The player character is Siegfried, who tries to rescue his beloved Melusine. Appears as a Lancer Class Servant in the mobile game Fate/Grand Order. Other references In Czech and Slovak, the word meluzína refers to wailing wind, usually in the chimney. This is a reference to the wailing Melusine looking for her children. In June 2019, it was announced that Luxembourg's first petascale supercomputer, a part of the European High-Performance Computing Joint Undertaking (EuroHPC JU) programme, is to be named "Meluxina". The Starbucks logo is Melusine with a crown, which is commonly referred to as "the siren" or "mermaid". See also Echidna (mythology) Greek Mythological serpent woman, mother of monsters Legend of the White Snake Morgen (mythological creature) Neck (water spirit) Naiad Potamides (mythology) Partonopeus de Blois Yuki-onna Knight of the Swan References Literature Donald Maddox and Sara Sturm-Maddox, Melusine of Lusignan: foundling fiction in late medieval France. Essays on the Roman de Mélusine (1393) of Jean d'Arras. Lydia Zeldenrust, The Mélusine Romance in Medieval Europe: Translation, Circulation, and Material Contexts. (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2020) (on the many translations of the romance, covering French, German, Dutch, Castilian, and English versions) Jean d'Arras, Mélusine, roman du XIVe siècle, ed. Louis Stouff. Dijon: Bernigaud & Privat, 1932. (Scholarly edition of the important medieval French version of the legend by Jean d'Arras.) Otto j. Eckert, "Luther and the Reformation," lecture, 1955. e-text Proust, Marcel. (C. K. Scott Moncrieff, trans.) Within A Budding Grove. (Page 190) Letitia Elizabeth Landon. Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834. Anne DeLong. Mesmerism, Medusa and the Muse, The Romantic Discourse of Spontaneous Creativity, 2012. External links "Melusina", translated legends about mermaids and water sprites that marry mortal men, with sources noted, edited by D. L. Ashliman, at University of Pittsburgh Sir Walter Scott, Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (e-text) Jean D'Arras, Melusine, Archive.org European legendary creatures Fictional Scottish people Medieval legends French legendary creatures European dragons Mythological human hybrids Water spirits Mermaids