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357675

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20valleys%20on%20the%20Moon

List of valleys on the Moon

There are several large valleys that have been given names on the surface of the Moon. These are listed below. Most of these valleys are named after a nearby crater; see the list of craters on the Moon for more information. See also List of craters on the Moon List of features on the Moon List of maria on the Moon List of mountains on the Moon External links Digital Lunar Orbiter Photographic Atlas of the Moon USGS: Moon nomenclature USGS: Moon Nomenclature: Valleys Moon Astronomy-related lists Moon-related lists

357676

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearthrower%20Owl

Spearthrower Owl

"Spearthrower Owl" is the name commonly given to a Mesoamerican personage from the Early Classic period, who is identified in Maya inscriptions and iconography. Mayanist David Stuart has suggested that Spearthrower Owl was a ruler of Teotihuacan at the start of the height of its influence across Mesoamerica in the 4th and 5th century, and that he was responsible for an intense period of Teotihuacan presence in the Maya area, including the conquest of Tikal in 378 CE. Name "Spearthrower Owl" is a name invented by archaeologists to describe the Teotihuacan-originated spear-holding owl symbol, stylised as one or two Maya glyphs usually used to represent his name. One version of the ruler's name glyph shows a weapon (an atlatl or other type) combined with an owl sign. At Tikal, the name appears written once with phonetic elements, suggesting the Mayan version of the name is Jatz'om Kuy, "striker owl," or "owl that will strike". The weapon-owl version is therefore probably the logographs for JATZ' together with KUY or KUJ. Various logographs or glyphs depicting an owl and a spear-thrower are documented in Teotihuacan and in the Maya cities of Tikal, Uaxactun, Yaxchilan, and Toniná. They may or may not refer to the same individual, or have other symbolic meanings. Biography Maya inscriptions at several sites describe the arrival of strangers from the west, depicted with Teotihuacan-style garments and carrying weapons. These arrivals are connected to changes in political leadership at several of the sites. Stuart noted that the Marcador monument at the Petén Basin center of Tikal records Spearthrower Owl's ascension to the throne of an unspecified polity on a date equivalent to 4 May 374 CE. Monuments at El Perú, Tikal and/or Uaxactun describe the arrival of a personage Siyaj K'ak' somehow under the auspices of Spearthrower Owl in the month of January 378. The exact date of his arrival in Tikal is identical with the death of the Tikal ruler, Chak Tok Ich'aak I. Tikal Stela 31 describes that in 379, a year after the arrival of Siyaj K'ak' at Tikal, Yax Nuun Ayiin, described as a son of Spearthrower Owl and not of the previous ruler Chak Tok Ich'aak, was installed as king of Tikal. His rule saw the introduction of Teotihuacan-style imagery in the iconography of Tikal. Stela 31 was erected during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin's son Siyaj Chan K'awil and describes the death of that ruler's grandfather, Spearthrower Owl, in 439 CE (Maya date 9.0.3.9.18). Spearthrower Owl was mentioned in later texts; for example, on a door lintel of Temple I where the Tikal ruler Jasaw Chan K'awiil I celebrated the thirteen k'atun (13x20x360 days) anniversary (in 695 CE) of Spearthrower Owl's death by "conjuring the holy one." Interpretations The connection of Spearthrower Owl to Teotihuacan as well as the precise nature of Teotihuacan's influence on the Maya has been a hotly debated topic since the hieroglyphic texts first became fully readable in the 1990s. The controversy is related to the general discussion of central Mexican influence in the Maya area which was sparked by the findings of Teotihuacan-related objects in the early Maya site of Kaminaljuyú in the 1930s. The controversy has two sides. The internalist side argues for limited direct contact between Teotihuacan and the Maya area. This side has been represented by epigraphers such as Linda Schele and David Freidel who have argued that the Maya merely had friendly diplomatic relations with Teotihuacan which caused the Maya elite to emulate Teotihuacano culture and ideology. The externalist side argues that Teotihuacan was an important factor in the development of Maya culture and politics in the Classic period. This viewpoint was first associated with archaeologist William Sanders who argued for an extreme externalist viewpoint. But as more evidence of direct Teotihuacan influence in the Maya area surged at Copán and new hieroglyphic decipherments by epigraphers such as David Stuart interpreted Teotihuacan incursion as a military invasion, the externalist position was strengthened. In 2003, George Cowgill, an archaeologist specialising in Teotihuacan who had formerly espoused a mostly internalist perspective on Teotihuacan-Maya relations, summarised the debate, conceding that Teotihuacan had probably exercised some kind of political control in the Maya area in the early classic period and that left an important legacy into the late and epi-classic periods. In 2008 an interpretation of Spearthrower Owl-related iconography at Teotihuacan suggested that Spearthrower Owl was an important military god at Teotihuacan that had his given name to both a place known as "Spearthrower Owl Hill" and to the ruler mentioned in the Maya hieroglyphic texts. Notes References Mesoamerican people Tikal Teotihuacan 439 deaths Year of birth unknown 4th-century monarchs in North America 364 births

357685

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary%20numeral%20system

Quaternary numeral system

A quaternary numeral system is base-. It uses the digits 0, 1, 2 and 3 to represent any real number. Conversion from binary is straightforward. Four is the largest number within the subitizing range and one of two numbers that is both a square and a highly composite number (the other being 36), making quaternary a convenient choice for a base at this scale. Despite being twice as large, its radix economy is equal to that of binary. However, it fares no better in the localization of prime numbers (the smallest better base being the primorial base six, senary). Quaternary shares with all fixed-radix numeral systems many properties, such as the ability to represent any real number with a canonical representation (almost unique) and the characteristics of the representations of rational numbers and irrational numbers. See decimal and binary for a discussion of these properties. Relation to other positional number systems Relation to binary and hexadecimal As with the octal and hexadecimal numeral systems, quaternary has a special relation to the binary numeral system. Each radix 4, 8 and 16 is a power of 2, so the conversion to and from binary is implemented by matching each digit with 2, 3 or 4 binary digits, or bits. For example, in base 4, 2302104 = 10 11 00 10 01 002. Since 16 is a power of 4, conversion between these bases can be implemented by matching each hexadecimal digit with 2 quaternary digits. In the above example, 23 02 104 = B2416 Although octal and hexadecimal are widely used in computing and computer programming in the discussion and analysis of binary arithmetic and logic, quaternary does not enjoy the same status. Although quaternary has limited practical use, it can be helpful if it is ever necessary to perform hexadecimal arithmetic without a calculator. Each hexadecimal digit can be turned into a pair of quaternary digits, and then arithmetic can be performed relatively easily before converting the end result back to hexadecimal. Quaternary is convenient for this purpose, since numbers have only half the digit length compared to binary, while still having very simple multiplication and addition tables with only three unique non-trivial elements. By analogy with byte and nybble, a quaternary digit is sometimes called a crumb. Fractions Due to having only factors of two, many quaternary fractions have repeating digits, although these tend to be fairly simple: Occurrence in human languages Many or all of the Chumashan languages originally used a base 4 counting system, in which the names for numbers were structured according to multiples of 4 and 16 (not 10). There is a surviving list of Ventureño language number words up to 32 written down by a Spanish priest ca. 1819. The Kharosthi numerals have a partial base 4 counting system from 1 to decimal 10. Hilbert curves Quaternary numbers are used in the representation of 2D Hilbert curves. Here a real number between 0 and 1 is converted into the quaternary system. Every single digit now indicates in which of the respective 4 sub-quadrants the number will be projected. Genetics Parallels can be drawn between quaternary numerals and the way genetic code is represented by DNA. The four DNA nucleotides in alphabetical order, abbreviated A, C, G and T, can be taken to represent the quaternary digits in numerical order 0, 1, 2, and 3. With this encoding, the complementary digit pairs 0↔3, and 1↔2 (binary 00↔11 and 01↔10) match the complementation of the base pairs: A↔T and C↔G and can be stored as data in DNA sequence. For example, the nucleotide sequence GATTACA can be represented by the quaternary number 2033010 (= decimal 9156 or binary 10 00 11 11 00 01 00). The human genome is 3.2 billion base pairs in length. Data transmission Quaternary line codes have been used for transmission, from the invention of the telegraph to the 2B1Q code used in modern ISDN circuits. The GDDR6X standard, developed by Nvidia and Micron uses quaternary bits to transmit data Computing Some computers have used quaternary floating point arithmetic including the Illinois ILLIAC II (1962) and the Digital Field System DFS IV and DFS V high-resolution site survey systems. See also Conversion between bases Moser–de Bruijn sequence, the numbers that have only 0 or 1 as their base-4 digits References External links Quaternary Base Conversion, includes fractional part, from Math Is Fun Base42 Proposes unique symbols for Quaternary and Hexadecimal digits Power-of-two numeral systems

357686

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20Alexander%20II%20of%20Alexandria

Pope Alexander II of Alexandria

Pope Alexander II of Alexandria (Coptic: AΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟC; died 14 February 729) was the 43rd Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark. He presided over his church during an era of great hardship and oppression. Consecration There is little information available on Alexander's early life as a layman prior to becoming a monk at the monastery of the Enaton west of Alexandria. However, at the Enaton he became well known for his chastity, sanctity, and religious scholarship. Upon the death of Simeon of Alexandria in 701, the Patriarchate of Alexdandria remained vacant for approximately four years, while the members of the church sought an appropriate successor. The lack of a patriarch, though, created economic problems for the church, so the secretary of state, or mutawallī al-diwān in Alexandria, a Copt named Athanasius, asked the governor to allow the bishop of al-Qays, Anbā Gregorius, to assume authority over the church's finances until a new patriarch would be elected. The governor, Abd al-Malik agreed, which allowed the selection of a patriarch to take top priority. Athanasius gathered together all the Coptic scribes, clergy, and bishops, and the group unanimously selected Alexander based on his sterling reputation. Alexander was then taken to Alexandria to be consecrated. Patriarchate Alexander's patriarchate occurred under several Umayyad caliphs, whose positions on the Copts varied greatly. These included Abd al-Malik, Al-Walid I, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik, Umar II, Yazid II, and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. This period included the Siege of Constantinople, which had a serious economic impact on the economy of Egypt. The failure at Constantinople, coupled with the financial strains brought about by the Al-Zubayr rebellion, made the Caliphs look to Egypt as the closest source of funds from which to prop themselves up economically. Political problems The confiscatory taxing started when Abd al-Malik chose to name his son Al-Walid I as his successor. Al-Walid constantly demanded revenues from the Egyptian people. He also employed a native Copt named Benjamin who assisted him in locating where the people had hidden their wealth, which would then be confiscated by the government. He also raised the jizya well beyond any normal rates, and, for the first time in history, imposed it on the monks as well. He also imposed an additional tax of 2000 dinars above the normal rate of kharaj taxation on every bishop. The extreme financial pressures these taxes imposed on the Copts caused many to convert to Islam to escape them. These feigned converts included such figures as Buṭrus, the viceroy of Upper Egypt, Buṭrus' brother Theodosius, and son Theophanes, the governor of Mareotis. Al-Walid did not limit himself to taxing the Copts' finances; he also taxed their patience. He publicly reviled Jesus and once, during a procession, he even spat in the face of an image of the Virgin Mary. When the Copts protested to the Caliph about the level of taxation he responded with more seizure of property and higher taxes. Such behavior continued under Al-Walid's successors. He went so far as to seize gold and silver utensils used in church services, and even several pillars and carved wood sculptures, from the churches, and use them for profane purposes. Branding Things improved, if only financially, for Alexander and the Copts under Umar II, but the accession of Yazid II after him made things even worse than they had been under Al-Walid. Yazid not only reinstated all the earlier taxes, he also ordered the destruction of all crosses and sacred images in churches. He also ordered all his subjects to wear a leaden identification badge around their necks, and required that all Copts who wished to engage in business activity have the mark of a lion branded on their hands. Anyone caught without the mark would have his hand cut off. This ongoing and escalating abuse of the people by their government instilled a rebellious mood in the Copts, and several local revolts broke out against the government. When the government decided that Alexander, as patriarch, must submit to being branded with the lion as well, he protested and asked that he be allowed to plead his case before the viceroy himself. Alexander was taken to Fustat with a special military bodyguard. However, when he arrived at the capital, the viceroy refused to see him, and Alexander was forced to remain in Fustat. Death While in Fustat his health declined. With the help of Anbā Shamūl, the bishop of Awsim, Alexander determined to escape and return to Alexandria by ship. On reaching Tarnūt, with the governor's soldiers in pursuit, Alexander died. When they found the dead patriarch the soldiers seized Anbā Shamūl and took him back to Fustat, where he was found complicit in Alexander's escape and fined 1000 dinars. With the assistance of the Copts, who raised 300 dinars for him, he was able to raise the money and be released. Alexander's body was taken back to Alexandria, where he was buried with the profound grief of his people. Veneration Alexander is regarded as a saint by the Coptic Church, and also has a feast day on February 1 in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. References Year of birth unknown 730 deaths 8th-century Coptic Orthodox popes of Alexandria Christians of the Umayyad Caliphate

357688

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oekonux

Oekonux

The originally German Oekonux (pronounced "urkonooks") project was founded to research the possibilities of free software to fundamentally change the current political and economic structures. Oekonux considers that the mode of production of free software represents a new mode of production that has the potential to supersede the capitalist mode of production. See also Hipatia, a related Spanish language initiative. History of the project At the first „Wizards of OS“ conference in July 1999 a spontaneous discussion round was founded after the panel „New Economy?“. Thereupon a mailinglist was created to continue the exchange—Oekonux was founded. A website to publish texts and to access mailinglist archives, and a wiki followed soon. In April 2001 the first Oekonux conference was organized in Dortmund followed by a second conference in November 2002 in Berlin. The third conference took place in Vienna in May 2004, where Creative Commons Austria was launched. A fourth conference was held in Manchester in March 2009 in cooperation with P2P Foundation. The project launched a journal entitled „Critical Studies in Peer Production“ in 2011. After releasing one issue, the journal editors separated from Oekonux and relaunched the journal under the name „Journal of Peer Production“. External links www.oekonux.org - Oekonux Homepage (English) en.wiki.oekonux.org - Oekonux Wiki The Foundation for P2P Alternatives Journal of Peer Production Free software projects

357689

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20France%E2%80%93KLM

Air France–KLM

Air France–KLM S.A., also known as Air France–KLM Group, is a Franco-Dutch airline holding company incorporated under French law with its headquarters at Charles de Gaulle Airport in Tremblay-en-France, near Paris. The group has offices in Montreuil, Seine-Saint-Denis, Paris, and in Amstelveen, Netherlands. Air France–KLM is the result of the merger in 2004 between Air France and KLM. Both Air France and KLM are members of the SkyTeam airline alliance. The company's namesake airlines rely on two major hubs, Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol respectively. Air France–KLM Airlines transported 87.3 million passengers in 2014. History On 5 May 2004, Air France–KLM was created by the mutually agreed merger between Air France and Netherlands-based KLM. As a result of the deal, the French government's share of Air France was reduced from 54.4% (of the former Air France) to 44% (of the combined airline). Its share was subsequently reduced to 25%, and later to 17.6%. At the time of the merger in May 2004, Air France and KLM combined offered flights to 225 destinations in the world. In the year ending 21 March 2003, the two companies combined transported 66.3 million passengers. In October 2005, Air France Cargo and KLM Cargo, the two freight subsidiaries of the group, merged their commercial activities. The Joint Cargo Management Team now operates the organisation worldwide from the Netherlands. In a 2007 opening for a majority takeover of the loss-generating Alitalia, Air France–KLM was one of three bidders, and was favoured by the board of Alitalia. However, on 2 April 2008, it was reported that negotiations have been abandoned. After the acquisition of Alitalia and Air One by Compagnia Aerea Italiana on 12 December 2008, Air France–KLM was interested once again in purchasing a participation in the new merged company. On 12 January 2009, Air France–KLM bought a 25% share in this company for €323 million. In 2008, it was the largest airline company in the world in terms of total operating revenues, and also the largest in the world in terms of international passenger-kilometres. Air France–KLM, along with its partner Delta Air Lines, were in talks about investing with Japan Airlines, which is part of the Oneworld alliance (rival to SkyTeam) but was experiencing financial problems. Air France–KLM, along with Delta and Delta's rival, American Airlines (AMR Corporation, part of Oneworld), discussed investments of $200–300 million to help the financially struggling carrier, which is Asia's largest airline by revenue. The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan had recommended Air France–KLM and/or Delta for partners because of their "healthy" financial status, compared to AMR Corporation. Delta was also recommended because of its extensive Asian network, acquired through the acquisition of Northwest Airlines. Korean Air, also a SkyTeam member, was also in talks with JAL. Air France, Alitalia, China Airlines, China Southern Airlines, Korean Air, and Vietnam Airlines are SkyTeam members that currently have code-sharing with JAL. On 7 February 2010 several news outlets reported that JAL decided to keep its alliance with American Airlines and end talks with Delta. According to reports, new JAL CEO Inamori and ETIC officials, decided that switching alliances (from Oneworld to SkyTeam) would be too risky and could hinder JAL's ability to turn around the airline quickly. On 9 February 2010, JAL officially announced their decision to strengthen its partnership with American, which included the joint application of antitrust immunity approval on transpacific routes. The airline also planned to fortify its relationship with other partners in the Oneworld alliance. In February 2011, Air France–KLM and Delta Air Lines were working together to examine a bid for Virgin Atlantic as Richard Branson had a 51 percent stake and the rest is held by Delta. In August 2011, Air France–KLM was categorized as one of World's 10 safest airlines. In December 2013, Air France–KLM sold its subsidiary CityJet to Intro Aviation. In early April 2016, Alexandre de Juniac, Chairman and CEO since 1 July 2013 resigned and was replaced by Jean-Marc Janaillac on 4 July 2016. In January 2018 before the French Senate, Jean-Marc Janaillac reported for 2017 a higher revenue due to a rising fleet utilisation and a faster growth to come, and a better operating profit with 6% for the group (Air France 4%, KLM 9%) but lagging the 9% of Lufthansa and 10 to 12% of British Airways, while he deplored Paris-Charles de Gaulle luggage handling and safety waiting lines, obstructing connections, and anticipating a difficult 2018 with rising jet fuel prices and competition from Gulf carriers, Turkish Airlines, Chinese and Asian airlines, and low-cost carriers, either easyJet, Volotea, Ryanair or long haul. At the end of 2018 Air France–KLM will select its medium-haul fleet replacement for Air France, HOP!, KLM and Transavia, operating Boeing 737 NG, Airbus A320ceo family, Embraer E-Jets, Bombardier CRJ700 series and Embraer 145. After renewing its long-haul fleet with the 787 Dreamliner and the A350 XWB from 2019, specifications will be released in the first trimester, seeking proposals from Airbus, Boeing, Bombardier Aerospace and Embraer, aiming for lower aircraft noise and biofuel usage. On 4 May 2018, Jean-Marc Janaillac announced that he will be resigning as CEO of Air France–KLM, after employees rejected new salary package. On 16 August 2018, the Board of Directors of Air France–KLM announced the appointment of Benjamin Smith as new CEO. He took up his duties at Air France–KLM on 30 September 2018. On 26 February 2019, the Dutch government announced that it had "purchased 12.68 percent of shares in Air France-KLM" and "plans to build up its stake to around 14 percent". Corporate affairs Business trends In May 2010, Air France–KLM announced increased losses (€1.56 billion for the year to 31 March 2010), and warned that the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull had caused a further €160 million loss in the current financial year. Air France–KLM is one of the largest airline companies in Europe, with 204.7 billion passenger-km in the year ending 31 March 2011. Private shareholders own 81.4% of the company with 37% held by former Air France shareholders and 21% held by former KLM shareholders. The Government of France owns the remaining 15.9%. In June 2008, Air France–KLM agreed to pay $350 million to settle charges of cargo price fixing in an investigation conducted by the U.S. Justice Department. Cathay Pacific, Martinair Holland, and SAS Cargo Group also agreed to fines bringing the total to $504 million. In November 2010, the European Commission fined Air France–KLM €310 million following another price-fixing investigation. The company spends about a third of its revenue on staff, its biggest expense, while Lufthansa only spends around a quarter, so to save around 800 million euros (app. 1.04 billion US$) annually over the next three years, the company will make a recruitment freeze which will lead to 2,000 job cuts in 2012. In February 2014, Air-France KLM invested $100 million in Brazilian airline Gol Linhas Aéreas Inteligentes in advance of the 2014 football World Cup. During 2015, Air France went through a severe business crisis and a pilot's strike, which made the French airline cut almost 3,000 jobs, KLM defer some of its pending 787 deliveries, KLM's cargo subsidiary Martinair to retire six McDonnell-Douglas MD-11 airplanes, and Air France–KLM to suffer as a company. Ownership As of April 2021, the shareholding structure of the Group is: Head office Air France–KLM's head office is located in the Roissypôle complex on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport and in Tremblay-en-France, near Paris. The complex was completed in December 1995. The French firm Groupement d'Etudes et de Méthodes d'Ordonnancement (GEMO) managed the project. The architect was Valode & Pistre and the design consultants were and Sechaud-Boyssut and Trouvin. The project had a price of 137,000,000 euros. Subsidiaries Wholly owned Wholly owned subsidiaries of Air France–KLM include: Air France Air France Cargo Air France Hop Transavia France (96%) KLM KLM Cargo KLM Cityhopper KLM Asia Martinair Transavia Transavia France (4%) Until January 2017, Air France–KLM also fully owned Cobalt Ground Solutions the third largest ground handling company based at London Heathrow Airport. The company was formed on 1 April 2009 by merging the two ground services subsidiaries of Air France and KLM in the UK – formerly Air France Services Ltd (AFSL) and KLM Ground Services Ltd (KGS). Cobalt Ground Solutions was sold to Groupe CRIT, who purchased 100% of the company through its subsidiary Groupe Europe Handling. Air France Services Ltd (AFSL) was one of the major ground handling companies at Heathrow airport. AFSL was created on 15 January 1997 and was in the beginning a partnership between Air France and Servisair Ltd. Servisair then decided to pull out. The group also owns Cygnific which is one of the biggest Sales & Service Centres of Air France–KLM. Cygnific is actually a full subsidiary of KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, operating as an independent company with its own business strategy, operational processes and human resources policy. Cygnific serves passengers and travel agents on behalf of KLM, Air France and Delta Air Lines. Minority interests Airlines in which Air France–KLM owns a minority interest: Air Corsica 11.95% Air Côte d’Ivoire 20% Air Mauritius 4.89% Air Tahiti 7.48% Alitalia 7.08% Kenya Airways 7.95% Air Calédonie 2.09% Gol Transportes Aéreos 1.50% Royal Air Maroc 1.25% NS International (formerly NS Hispeed, high-speed rail connections linking Amsterdam (Schiphol) to Brussels and Paris) 10% Former subsidiaries Cityjet: Air France–KLM used to own the entire company, until the sale to Intro Aviation, a German aviation holding company. VLM Airlines: Air France–KLM merged the operations of this company with the ones from Cityjet. It was sold at the same time. Joon: Air France–KLM merged the company back into Air France in June 2019 References External links Air France–KLM Corporate Authentication & Authorization Services Air France–KLM Group Company profile from Yahoo! Airline holding companies Airlines for Europe Dutch companies established in 2004 French companies established in 2004 Holding companies of France Holding companies established in 2004 Companies listed on Euronext Government-owned companies of France CAC Mid 60

357695

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric%20Centre%20of%20Slovenia

Geometric Centre of Slovenia

The Geometric Centre of Slovenia (, GEOSS) is the geometric centre of the country. Its geographic coordinates are and its elevation is 644.842 m. It lies in the hamlet of Spodnja Slivna near Vače in the Municipality of Litija. Since 4 July 1982, it has been marked with a memorial stone designed by the architect Marjan Božič, about 50m away from the given coordinates. A plaque reading Živimo in gospodarimo na svoji zemlji ('We live and prosper upon our land') was added on 14 September 1989. In 2003, Slovenia adopted an act on GEOSS. References External links GEOSS homepage Virtual panoramas, maps and aerial photography of the location Point GEOSS (Local Landmark). Map and description. Pespoti.si. Geography of Slovenia Tourist attractions in Slovenia Slovenia Municipality of Litija

357706

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20early%20Canadian%20newspapers

List of early Canadian newspapers

This is a list of early Canadian newspapers. Canada East (Quebec) Aylmer Times Ottawa and Pontiac Advertiser Drummondville Reporter Granby Eastern Townships Gazette Montreal Argus Bank-note Reporter Canada Insurance Gazette Canada Temperance Advocate Canadian Mail Canadian Naturalist and Geologist Canadian Presbyterian Canadian Railroad and Steamboat Guide Commercial Advertiser Farmer's Journal Montreal Gazette Grande Ligne Evangelical Register Montreal Herald Journal d'Agriculture Journal de l'Instruction Publique Journal of Education C.E.;Juvenile Presbyterian La Minerve La Patrie L'Avenir Le Pays Liberal Christian Lower Canada Jurist Medical Chronicle Missionary Record Montreal Transcript Montreal Witness New Era Pilot Presbyterian Semeur Canadien True Witness Quebec City Le Canadien Quebec Chronicle-Telegraph Chronicle Colonist Courier du Canada Gazette Journal De Quebec Mercury Military Gazette of Canada Le National Sinclair's Monthly Circular Richmond County Advocate Sorel Gazette de Sorel Stanstead Stanstead Journal St. Hyacinthe Le Courier St. Johns News Frontier Advocate Trois Rivières Ère Nouvelle Inquirer Waterloo Advertiser Canada West (Ontario) Alliston Herald 1871 Arnprior Chronicle 1871 Arthur Enterprise News 1862 Ayr Observer Aurora Banner 1853 Barrie Herald Northern Advance Beaverton Weekly Post Belleville Hastings Chronicle Intelligencer Berlin (Kitchener) Chronicle Der Deutsche Canadier Berliner Journal Telegraph Blenheim Rond Eau News Blenheim News Blenheim World Blenheim Tribune Bowmanville Canadian Statesman Star Bradford Chronicle Brantford Brant County Herald Christian Messenger Courier Expositor Brampton Standard Times Brighton Christian Banner Weekly Flag Brockville Monitor Recorder Caledon Enterprise 1888 Caledonia Grand River Sachem Carleton Place Herald Canadian 1876 Cayuga Sentinel Chatham Kent Advertiser Planet Provincial Freeman Cobourg Star Sun Colborne Northumberland Pilot Transcript Collingwood Enterprise Cornwall Constitutional Freeholder Dundas Warder Star News 1883 Dunville Independent Elora Backwoodsman Embrun Le Village Fergus British Constitution Freeholder Forest Forest Free Press Forest Standard Fonthill Welland Herald Galt Dumfries Reformer Reporter Goderich Huron Signal Gravenhurst Banner 1866 Guelph Guelph Advertiser Guelph Chronicle Guelph Herald Guelph Weekly Mercury and Advertiser Guelph Advocate Guelph Daily Mercury 1867 Hamilton Banner Canada Evangelist Canada Zeitung (German) Canadian Journal of Homeopathy Christian Advocate Journal and Express Spectator c. 1846 Huntsville Forester c. 1877 Ingersoll Chronicle Kemptville Progressionist Advance Kincardine Western Canadian Commonwealth Bruce Reporter Bruce Review Kincardine Standard Kincardine Review Kingston British Whig Chronicle and News Commercial Advertiser Daily News Morning Herald Lindsay Advocate Listowel Banner c. 1866 Standard 1878 Atwood Bee 1890-1923 London Atlas Canadian Free Press Evangelical Witness Prototype Markham Economist c. 1856 - now Markham Economist & Sun Sun c. 1881 Millbrook Messenger Merrickville Chronicle Freemason's Magazine Milton Halton Journal Milverton Sun 1891-1992 Mitchell Advocate 1860 Napanee Reformer, Standard New Hamburg Neutrale Independent 1878 Newburg Index New Castle Recorder Newmarket New Era c. 1853 Niagara Gleaner and Niagara Newspaper Mail Upper Canada Guardian; or Freeman's Journal Oakville Sentinel Omemee Warder Orangeville Banner c. 1893 Orono Day Dawn Sun Oshawa Christian Offering, Vindicator Ottawa Bytown Gazette Canada Military Gazette Citizen Railway and Commercial Times Tribune Owen Sound Times Paris Star Parry Sound North Star c. 1874 Pembroke Observer Penetangore Western Canadian Commonwealth Perth Bathurst Courier c. 1834 - now Perth Courier British Standard Peterborough Examiner Review Picton Gazette Times Port DOver Express Port Hope Atlas Guide Port Perry The Star c. 1866 Prescott Conservative Messenger Telegraph Preston Zeitung Renfrew, Ontario Mercury c. 1871 Richmond Hill York Ridings Gazette Russell Russell Reader Sandwich British Canadian Voice of the Fugitive Maple Leaf Windsor Herald Sarnia CW Observer Lambton Advertiser Sherbrooke CE Canadian Times Gazette Simcoe Conservative Standard Norfolk Messenger Smith Falls Record News c. 1887 Southampton Morning Star Stayner The Sun c. 1877 Stratford CW Beacon Examiner Perth County News Weekly Herald 1863 Times 1876-1891 Streetsville Review St. Catharines CW Constitutional Journal Post St. Marys Argus c. 1857 Journal c. 1893 St. Thomas Despatch Thornhill Liberal c. 1878 Thorold Gazette Toronto Agriculturalist Canada Church Chronicle Canada Gazette Canada Sunday School Advocate Canadian Ecclesiastical Gazette Canadian Independent Canadian Journal Catholic Citizen Christian Guardian Colonial Advocate Colonist (British Colonist) Constitution Der Beobachter (The Observer) Ecclesiastical and Missionary record Echo, and Protestant Episcopal Recorder Gospel Tribune Toronto Globe Journal of Education Toronto Leader Market Review and Weekly Price Current Merchant's Magazine Toronto Mirror Toronto News (Afternoon News) Toronto Patriot Toronto Times Toronto Weekly Message Union Baptist United Presbyterian Magazine Upper Canada Law Journal Walkerton Herald-Times c. 1861 Wingham, Ontario Wingham Advance Times c. 1871 York Observer Waterloo Farmer's Friend (German) Record c. 1878 Whitby Chronicle Commonwealth Ontario Reporter Windsor Churchman's Friend Woodstock Gazetteer Sentinel Times See also History of Canadian newspapers Early Economic history of Canada History of newspapers History of mass media in Canada

357708

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janahb%20Pakal

Janahb Pakal

Janahb Pakal also known as Janaab Pakal, Pakal I or Pakal the Elder, (died 6 March 612), was a nobleman and possible ajaw of the Maya city-state of Palenque. Biography Pakal’s dynastic position is not entirely certain, though he may have been the grandfather or brother of Ajen Yohl Mat. It seems that he never ascended to the high-kingship in his own right. He was the father of Lady Sak K'uk', one of the rare queens regnant of Maya history. His wife or mother was Yohl Ik'nal. During reign of his probable brother Ajen Yohl Mat, Palenque was invaded on April 4, 611 by Scroll Serpent, ruler of the Kaan kingdom (Calakmul). They were dead c. sixteen months later. In later years, he is ascribed a full emblem glyph. He should not be confused with his grandson, K'inich Janaab Pakal I who during a long reign of some 68 years was responsible for the construction or extension of some of Palenque’s most notable surviving inscriptions and monumental architecture. Sources 610s deaths Rulers of Palenque 7th-century monarchs in North America Year of birth unknown 7th century in the Maya civilization

357712

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%20of%20Navarre

Antoine of Navarre

Antoine (in English, Anthony; 22 April 1518 – 17 November 1562) was the King of Navarre through his marriage (jure uxoris) to Queen Jeanne III, from 1555 until his death. He was the first monarch of the House of Bourbon, of which he was head from 1537. He was the father of Henry IV of France. Family Antoine was born at La Fère, Picardy, France, the second son of Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme (1489–1537), and his wife, Françoise d'Alençon (died 1550). He was the older brother of Louis, Prince of Condé (1530–1569), leader of the Huguenots. In February 1557, Antoine, Jeanne and their son Henry traveled to the French court in Paris, while there King Henry II suggested a betrothal between his daughter Margaret and Henry. Marriage and children On 20 October 1548, at Moulins, Antoine married Jeanne d'Albret, the daughter of Henry II of Navarre and his wife Marguerite de Navarre. After his father-in-law's death in May 1555, he became King of Navarre, Count of Foix, of Bigorre, of Armagnac, of Périgord, and Viscount of Béarn. It was reported that Jeanne was much in love with him. Antoine and Jeanne had: Henry (1551–1553), Duke of Beaumont Henry IV of France (1553–1610) Louis (1555–1557), Count of Marle Madeleine (1556) Catherine (1559–1604), married Henry II, Duke of Lorraine in 1599 With his mistress, Louise de La Béraudière de l'Isle Rouhet, Antoine had: Charles, Archbishop of Rouen from 1554 until 1610. Religion Antoine does not appear to have had any real religious conviction and officially changed religions several times. His reconversion to Catholicism separated him from his wife and he threatened to repudiate her. He had an affair with Louise de La Béraudière de l'Isle Rouhet, "la belle Rouet," with whom he had a son, Charles III de Bourbon (1554–1610) who became archbishop of Rouen. Wars of Religion Catherine de' Medici, governor for her son Charles IX, named him lieutenant general of the kingdom in 1561. When his wife, Jeanne d'Albret, allowed the Huguenots to sack the chapel and the churches of Vendôme in 1562, he threatened to send her to a convent. She took refuge in Béarn. Antoine was killed during the Siege of Rouen (1562) fighting for the Catholics. References Sources External links 1518 births 1562 deaths 16th-century Navarrese monarchs Converts to Roman Catholicism People from La Fère House of Bourbon-La Marche Bourbon, Antoine de Antoine de Antoine de Bourbon, Antoine de Bourbon, Antoine de Antoine de Jure uxoris kings 16th-century peers of France Court of Henry II of France Court of Francis II of France Court of Charles IX of France

357715

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20First%20%2420%20Million%20Is%20Always%20the%20Hardest

The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest

The First $20 Million Is Always the Hardest is a 2002 film based on the novel of the same name by technology-culture writer Po Bronson. The film stars Adam Garcia and Rosario Dawson. The screenplay was written by Jon Favreau and Gary Tieche. Plot Andy Kasper is a marketer who quits his job in search of something more fulfilling. He gets hired at LaHonda Research Institute, where Francis Benoit assigns him to design the PC99, a $99 PC. He moves into a run-down apartment building where he meets his neighbor Alisa, who's an artist, and puts together a team of unassigned employees. The team includes: Salman Fard, a short, foreign man with an accent who is hacking into CIA files when Andy meets him; Curtis "Tiny" Russell, a massively obese, anthropophobic man; and Darrell, a tall, blond, pierced, scary, germaphobic, deep-voiced man with personal space issues who regularly refers to himself in the third person. The team finds many non-essential parts but cannot come close to the $99 mark. It is Salman's idea to put all the software on the internet, eliminating the need for a hard drive, RAM, a CD-ROM drive, a floppy drive, and anything that holds information. The computer has been reduced to a microprocessor, a monitor, a mouse, a keyboard, and the internet, but it is still too expensive. Having seen the rest of his team watching a hologram of an attractive lady the day before, in a dream Andy is inspired to eliminate the monitor in favor of the cheaper holographic projector. The last few hundred dollars come off when Darrell suggests using virtual reality gloves in place of a mouse and keyboard. Tiny then writes a "hypnotizer" code to link the gloves, the projector, and the internet, and they're done. But immediately before he finishes, the whole team (except for Tiny, who is still writing the code) quits LaHonda after being told that there are no more funds for their project, but sign a non-exclusive patent waiver, meaning that LaHonda will share the patent rights to any technology they had developed up to that point. After leaving LaHonda, they pitch their product to numerous companies, but do not get accepted, mainly because the prototype emagi (electronic magic) was ugly, and something always seemed to go wrong during the demonstration of their product. Alisa, whose relationship with Andy has been growing steadily, helps improve the emagi's looks, which helps the team with their callback with executive. They agree to give her 51% of their company in exchange for getting their product manufactured and for getting Andy's Porsche bought back, which he had had to sell in order to raise money to build a new emagi after leaving LaHonda. Unfortunately, she then sells the patent rights to the emagi to Francis Benoit, who plans to sell the emagi at $999 a piece and reap a huge profit. The team interrupts the meeting in which Benoit is going to introduce the emagi to the world and introduces an even newer computer he and his team developed and manufactured at LaHonda, which was in a state of disaster when they arrived. It was a small silver tube that projected a hologram and lasers which would detect where the hands were, eliminating the need even for virtual reality gloves. Andy then reminds Benoit of the non-exclusive patent waiver, which had been Benoit's idea in the first place. Cast Adam Garcia as Andy Kasper Rosario Dawson as Alisa Anjul Nigam as Salman Fard Ethan Suplee as Curtis "Tiny" Russell Jake Busey as Darrell Enrico Colantoni as Francis Benoit Production The film was made by 20th Century Fox at the cost of $17 million and is sometimes shown on HBO. The video and DVD received limited release in New York and Los Angeles. Its domestic gross was just $5,491, making it one of the greatest flops in movie history. Po Bronson played a cameo role in the film as one of many tuba players living in the same building as the main character. The tentative title for this movie during test screenings was "The Big Idea". References External links 2002 films Films about computing 2002 comedy films English-language films American comedy films American films Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area Films shot in San Francisco Films directed by Mick Jackson

357716

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist%20Conference%20of%20the%20Philippines

Baptist Conference of the Philippines

The Baptist Conference of the Philippines is an association of Baptist churches in the Philippines that is affiliated with the Baptist General Conference. Work began in 1949 with five missionaries in Cebu, and on 6 June 1954 the Cebu Baptist Association was formed, later becoming the Baptist Conference of the Philippines in the 1960s. These churches are bound together by a constitution and by laws, which embodies the principles as well as the mechanics of the fellowship. Its headquarters is 910 A.S. Fortuna St., Banilad, Mandaue, Cebu 6014. History In June 1950, the Baptist General Conference (BGC) Foreign Mission Board declared Northern Cebu as the area where the BGC missionary work was to begin. BCP is the direct result of the mission endeavor of the Baptist General Conference in the United States. Agnes Erikson was the first BGC missionary to the Philippines, sailing from San Francisco, California on 9 December 1948. A year later, two missionary families headed by Andrew Nelson and Irwin Bjelland followed, sailing from San Francisco on 30 October 1949 and arriving in Manila on 20 November 1949. Initial results of their work are as follows: "At the end of February 1950, Andrew Nelson reported 5 services were being conducted on Sundays near Bogo, while Irwin Bjelland reported on May 7, 1950 letter, the first Sunday service had been held." Another group was organized in the town of Catmon marked by k.m 57. The place was situated between Cebu City and Bogo. The couples Eufrosino Ares and Paterna Comain became language teachers who could speak English very well. They assisted the Hughs, Osbrons, Chesbro's and later the Chalmers family who actually lived in the place. Mr. Ares became the first chairman of the newly formed school board of Baptist Bible School tasked to help manage the 24 hec. property for the school site situated in the northern end of Cebu. Although, he did not become a pastor upon invitation due to the large family he had to support, he became involved through his profession as a teacher and his farming skills in the conception of the early missionary endeavour." The concrete result of the mission work occurred on June 1952, when the first baptismal service was held. B-Etta Mayer gave this report of the event: "The six candidates included a promising preacher and his sister. On the shore were jeering mocking, scornful friends, relatives and casual observers." Of these six, two now are still in active service: Rev. Cresenciano Batuto, Pastor Emeritus of Grace Baptist Church of Gigatangan in Naval, Biliran; and Mrs. Jacinta Batuto Sarcos, the widow of BTC President Rev. Eliseo Sarcos. In 1954, there were small Baptist churches in Bogo with 54 baptised members, and on 6 June 1954 the three churches entered into fellowship as the Cebu Baptist Association (CBA). In 1965, the CBA constitution was amended, renaming the body to Baptist Conference of the Philippines (BCP). The change was driven by fact that mission work had expanded beyond Cebu island, as churches and mission points have already been established in neighbouring provinces in the Visayas. The creation of the BCP concretised the identity of a national organisation, which developed from a simple organization into a more complex entity. As the BCP grew in number of churches and members, its area of ministry widened. Leaders too in local churches, districts and the national organization developed. This necessitated a clarification of role in its relationship with the "mother organization", the BGCPM, resulting in a series of consultations, which gave birth to a partnership. BGCPM and BCP now became partners in working together to accomplish God's purposes. The ultimate goal is always a strong and self-propagating family of Baptist churches. Rev. Marwin Linstedt wrote: "This partnership, however, is constantly updated. Times change. So do people. The original leadership gives way to next generation. The strategies of the 1950s and 1960s serve their purposes and yield to approaches that are more relevant to the 1970s and 1980s. The Philippines is a rapidly urbanizing society. During the nearly forty years covered in this story, the population of the country more than triples. Old values give way to new ones. An entirely new generation of Filipinos moves into leadership in the nation and in the churches." The BCP and the Mission-in-Dialogue "At the end of the decade of the 1960s drew nearer, the need to evaluate the relationship between the BCP and the BGC mission became obvious to all concerned. The BCP would be making its 15th anniversary in 1969. During that year the mission would be 20 years old. By and large, both bodies had been working harmoniously over these years. However, strains and misunderstanding were beginning to appear. In a way this was to be expected. The relationship of the BCP leadership to the missionaries was cross-cultural in nature. In the formative stages of the work, the mission had naturally played a leading role, and the Filipino leadership was willing to cooperate and learn. Most of the pastors and BCP trustees had worked closely with the missionaries, and had been well trained at BTC. The ways and ideas of the missionaries were well known to them, not only strengths but also their weaknesses." The emerging leadership of the BCP feeling that it was time to do so strongly exerted its right to be heard. This resulted in a series of consultation, resulting in the creation of the Joint Work Program (JWP). "The JWP was designed to be a mechanism of coordination and administration for the common ministries of the BCP and the BGCPM. The general goals were started to be: Communicating the Gospel to as many as possible Winning souls to Jesus Christ Establishing local churches Strengthening existing churches Training Christians for leadership on all levels Developing a strong and growing BCP Five areas of cooperating ministry were agreed upon Evangelism and church planting Administration of JWP budget; revolving funds and church grant funds Christian Education Publishing and distributing Christian literature and; The Baptist Theological College The JWP was originally designed to be a 15-year program in three phases leading to a fully self-sustaining, self-propagating, and missions minded BCP: Phase 1 – was to last for 5 years, concentrating on promoting church growth Phase 2 – was to last for 7 years. The emphasis was to train and expand BCP leadership together with continuing growth. Phase 3 – was to last 3 years, which BCP leadership would be consolidated in preparation for withdrawal of the BGC Mission participation on the board. "In actual practice, the JWP was in effect only in 1971 to 1977. By 1976, the Joint Policy Council had concluded that Phase 2 and Phase 3 were not necessary as programmed (We need to implement Phase 2 and 3). BCP was growing rapidly and capable leaders were available. The probability that it had passed was considered to be excellent. On the negative side, the administrative machinery of the JWP was cumbersome and time consuming for those served on the boards. A simpler and more flexible working relationship was needed. In March 1977, a draft of the general agreement between the Baptist Conference of the Philippines and the Baptist General Conference Philippine Mission was ready for the study and action of the two organizations. In essence, this agreement laid down the guidelines by which the BCP and the Mission would "cooperate and work together for the attainment of the purposes, goals and objectives of the BCP as stated in its constitutions." The duration of the agreement came to be known throughout the BCP as "Ten Year Agreement." The Ten Year Agreement was replaced by the BGC-BGCPM new agreement of 1986. This was approved during the 29th Annual Conference (Fourth Biennial Assembly) held at First Baptist Church, Cebu City on April 15–18, 1986. The new agreement of 1986 featured for the first time all Filipino Board composed of 11 members, 8 of them representing each BCP district. Three were chosen at large. up to the present BCP has a total of 12 districts. Programs Church Planting Program The partnership between the BCP and the BGCPM resulted in the formulation of church planting strategies in order to reach the common goals of both organizations. The first church planting program launched was the . . . "Objective Ten Thousand" This program visioned a goal of 10,000 members BCP wide, from a base of 3,500 members on December 31, 1980 to December 1985. Record shows that BCP fall short of its goal; however, during this 5-year period 3,859 new members were added while the number of churches reached 126 congregations. "Double In Four" This program had a goal of doubling the number of churches in four years time, beginning in 1986 to 1990. Under the all-Filipino leadership, it was not able to take off due to non-functioning of its chairman. Handicapped by the lack of functioning ministries, the program was still implemented through the initiative of local churches, the districts and the national office through the BOT. "Operation 4-4-4" This program targets 400 churches in 4 years from 1990–1994. This program never took off due to lack of financial resources and personnel in order to implement the program. Some BCP churches are now involved in cross-cultural missions by sending and supporting 40 missionaries to 12 countries. After 50 years of BCP ministry the era has come for BCP to become a missionary sending denomination instead of being a missionary receiving denomination. "Decade of Change" BCP is aggressively implementing a church planting movement to reach out the middle class of the Philippine society from 2007–2014 with the goal to plant 60 churches. References Baptist Christianity in the Philippines Christian organizations established in 1954 Baptist denominations in Asia Baptist denominations established in the 20th century Churches in Cebu

357719

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smothered%20mate

Smothered mate

In chess, a smothered mate is a rare checkmate delivered by a knight in which the mated king is unable to move because he is surrounded (or smothered) by his own pieces. In rare situations, the surrounding pieces may include an opponent's defended piece, which the king cannot capture. The mate is usually seen in a corner of the board, since fewer pieces are needed to surround the king there. The most common form of smothered mate is seen in the adjacent diagram. The knight on f7 delivers mate to the king on h8, which is prevented from escaping the check by the rook on g8 and the pawns on g7 and h7. Similarly, White can be mated with the white king on h1 and the knight on f2. Analogous mates on a1 and a8 are rarer, because castling is more common than castling and brings the king closer to the corner. Methods For a smothered mate of this sort to occur in a game, it is usually necessary to sacrifice to compel pieces to smother the king – a player is unlikely to voluntarily surround their king with pieces in a way that makes a smothered mate possible. Philidor's mate Philidor's mate, also known as Philidor's legacy, is a checkmating pattern that ends in smothered mate. This method involves checking with the knight forcing the king to the corner of the board, moving the knight away to deliver a double check from the queen and knight, sacrificing the queen to force the rook next to the king, and mating with the knight. The technique is named after François-André Danican Philidor; this is something of a misnomer, however, as it is earlier described in Luis Ramirez Lucena's 1497 text on chess, Repetición de Amores e Arte de Axedrez, which predates Philidor by several hundred years. An example is to be found in the game Jan Timman–Nigel Short at the 1990 Tilburg tournament. From the diagrammed position, play continued 27.Nf7+ Kg8 28.Nh6+ Kh8 29.Qg8+ Rxg8 30.Nf7#. (Note that White would force mate even if his rook, and pawn on e7, were removed from the board, and Black had a knight on f6. In that case, 27.Nf7+ Kg8 28.Nh6+ Kh8 (28...Kf8 29.Qf7#) 29.Qg8+! Nxg8 (or 29...Rxg8) 30.Nf7 still mates.) Opening traps Occasionally, a smothered mate may be possible in the opening of a game. One of the most famous, and most frequently occurring, is in the Budapest Gambit. It arises after 1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 e5 3. dxe5 Ng4 4. Bf4 Nc6 5. Nf3 Bb4+ 6. Nbd2 Qe7 7. a3 Ngxe5 8. axb4?? Nd3# (final position at left). Note that the knight cannot be taken because the pawn on e2 is pinned to the white king by the black queen on e7. Another notorious example is the so-called "Blackburne Shilling Gambit" (named after the 19th century English player Joseph Henry Blackburne, supposedly because he used it to win shillings from amateurs). It goes: 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nd4?! 4. Nxe5!? Qg5! 5. Nxf7?? Qxg2 6. Rf1 Qxe4+ 7. Be2 Nf3# (final position at right). There is also a well-known trap in the Caro–Kann Defence: 1. e4 c6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 dxe4 4. Nxe4 Nd7 5. Qe2!? Ngf6?? 6. Nd6#. This trap has claimed many victims, perhaps the earliest recorded example being Alekhine–Four Amateurs, simultaneous exhibition, Palma de Mallorca 1935. Examples from games An example of a similar smothered mate in master-level play is the game Edward Lasker–Israel Horowitz, New York City 1946, which went: 1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3 d5 3. e3 c5 4. c4 cxd4 5. Nxd4 e5 6. Nf3 Nc6 7. Nc3 d4 8. exd4 exd4 9. Nb5 Bb4+ 10. Bd2 0-0 11. Bxb4 Nxb4 12. Nbxd4 Qa5 13. Nd2 Qe5+ 14. Ne2 Nd3#. Another example is the game Unzicker–Sarapu, Siegen Olympiad 1970: 1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. e5 Nd5 4. Nc3 e6 5. Nxd5 exd5 6. d4 Nc6 7. dxc5 Bxc5 8. Qxd5 Qb6 9. Bc4 Bxf2+ 10. Ke2 0-0 11. Rf1 Bc5 12. Ng5 Nd4+ 13. Kd1 Ne6 14. Ne4 d6 15. exd6 Bxd6?? 16. Nxd6 Rd8 17. Bf4! Nxf4? 18. Qxf7+ Kh8 19. Qg8+! Sarapu now resigned in light of 19...Rxg8 20.Nf7#. See also Checkmate patterns References Bibliography “The Smothered Mate” by Edward Winter Chess checkmates Chess terminology Chess tactics

357720

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristino%20Garc%C3%ADa

Cristino García

Cristino García Granda (6 March 1914 – 21 February 1946) was a fighter with the French Resistance in France during World War II. He was born in Gozón, Asturias, Spain and was executed by the Francoist regime. He took part in the Spanish Civil War as a member of the (), a special unit of the Spanish Republican Army which performed attacks behind the Nationalist lines. After the war, he escaped to France where he was part of the French Resistance as a member of the (AGE, Spanish Guerilla Group). Highly successful in fighting the German occupiers (he took part in the battle of Madeleine and in the attack of the prison in Nîmes), at the end of the War, he returned to Spain to work with Resistance groups (Spanish Maquis) to oust caudillo Francisco Franco. Captured on 15 October 1945, he was tortured and was executed on 21 February 1946. In Paris, the in Saint-Denis, next to the street of Émile Zola and the Joffre avenue in the 20th arrondissement was named for him. The in Aubervilliers, Île-de-France, was also named after him. He is buried in the , southwest of Madrid. References 1914 births 1946 deaths French Resistance members People from Asturias

357723

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20Sebastian

Joan Sebastian

José Manuel Figueroa Figueroa (April 8, 1951 – July 13, 2015), known professionally as Joan Sebastian (), was a Mexican singer-songwriter. He composed more than 1,000 songs, including compositions for artists such as Bronco, Vicente Fernández, Lucero, Pepe Aguilar, and Rocío Dúrcal. The first several years of his career were primarily focused on Latin pop songs, but later focused primarily on Regional Mexican music, specifically banda, mariachi, and norteño. Throughout his career, he also recorded various country songs in Spanish. Sebastian was awarded seven Latin Grammy Awards and five Grammy Awards, making him the most awarded Mexican performer in Grammy history. Known for composing "Así es la Vida", Sebastian also worked sporadically as an actor. In 1996, he made his acting debut in the Mexican soap opera Tú y Yo (You and I), sharing credits with Maribel Guardia, his former wife and mother to his son, Julian. In 2015, Sebastian died at the age of 64 of bone cancer. At the time of his death, Sebastian had two number-one albums on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart and seven top ten songs on the Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States. Early life Joan Sebastian was born in the rural town of Juliantla in Guerrero. He began composing at the age of seven. His mother enrolled him in a school near Guanajuato when he was eight years old, and returned to his hometown three years later. At age fourteen, his father sent him away to a monastery in Morelos where he was under the care of Father David Salgado. Due to the clergyman's influence on Sebastian, he considered becoming a priest. He enrolled in the Seminario Conciliar de San José in Cuernavaca, Morelos, but realized that he wanted to pursue a music career, and decided to leave the seminary to dedicate himself to music. Career Before embarking on a singing career, Sebastian was an administrative assistant at a vacation resort in Oaxtepec, Morelos, where he would sing through the intercom. In 1968, Sebastian met Mexican actress Angelica Maria. They stayed together and she asked him to sing some songs for her. She suggested to Sebastian that he record the songs and give them to music producer Eduardo Magallanes, though Sebastian never managed to contact him. He later moved to Mexico City and began asking Discos Capitals Records to listen to his music and produce it. In 1974, he recorded his first album, Pedro Parrandas, and received positive feedback from the public. In 1977, Sebastian decided to stop using his legal name, Jose Manuel Figueroa and took on his artistic name, Joan Sebastian, partly in tribute to San Sebastian, where he previously worked. That same year, he signed a record deal with the label Musart. Later on he would make his known hit "Juliantla" and the famous duet Maracas with Alberto Vazquéz. In 2000, he released Secreto de Amor which was certified 4× platinum in the Latin field in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album and title track won the Lo Nuestro Awards for Regional Mexican Album of the Year and Regional Mexican Song of the Year; he also received the Excellence Award for his musical contributions. In 2006, Sebastian was inducted into the Billboard Latin Music Hall of Fame for his prolific songwriting and musical arrangements. Sebastian was awarded Songwriter of the Year three times by ASCAP and received the Golden Note Award in 2007 in recognition of his songwriting career. In 2012, Joan Sebastian teamed up with American songwriter and producer Will.i.am for the song and video "Hey You." Personal life Sebastian had eight children from five different women. Their names are José Manuel Figueroa (who is also a singer and composer), Juan Sebastián Figueroa González, Trigo de Jesús Figueroa González (first three children with Teresa González, his first wife), Zarelea Figueroa Ocampo (who is also a singer and composer), Marcos Julián Figueroa Fernández (son of Maribel Guardia, who's a singer and has a son with Imelda Tuñon), Joana Marcelia Figueroa Espín, Juliana Joeri Figueroa Alonso and D'Yave Figueroa Espín. His third oldest son, Trigo, was shot in the back of the head after one of Joan Sebastian's concerts in Mission, Texas on August 27, 2006. Trigo had been trying to control the crowd after the show. He was transported to McAllen Medical Center where he was pronounced dead. On June 12, 2010, his second oldest son, Juan Sebastián was shot dead in Cuernavaca, Morelos, after arriving at a night club with some friends and being refused entrance. Joan Sebastian said his son's death had nothing to do with the Mexican drug cartels. A few months after his death Televisa announced that a series about his life would begin filming. His youngest son, Julian Figueroa, portrayed his father in his younger days while his older son, José Manuel Figueroa, portrayed his father in his later days. Livia Brito was also confirmed to portray Maribel Guardia. The series Por Siempre Joan Sebastian premiered on June 27, 2016 on Univision and concluded on July 25, 2016. On January 27, 2019, a nephew-in-law of Sebastian, Hugo Figueroa, was kidnapped before the start of a bull riding event in Tarímbaro, Michoacán. On January 31, he was found dead with multiple gunshot wounds, at kilometer 294 of the Mexico-Guadalajara highway. This marked the third violent death in the famous Mexican family. A video allegedly depicting his murder has circulated online. Figueroa was buried not far from his uncle-in-law's grave. Illness and death Sebastian was first diagnosed with bone cancer in 1999. He underwent cancer treatment and survived; however, he announced that the cancer had returned in 2007. Undergoing cancer treatment once again, he later announced he was in remission. On July 26, 2012, during one of his concerts, he announced that the cancer had returned for the third time. In 2014, he revealed that he was battling cancer for the fourth time during his performances in Zacatecas. Weeks prior to his death, he confirmed to the media that he had been hospitalized and undergoing cancer treatment under medical supervision. On July 13, 2015, Joan Sebastian died at 7:15pm (UTC-06:00) at his ranch Cruz de la Sierra, Teacalco Guerrero, Mexico, due to bone cancer. He was 64 years old. His body was buried in a cemetery in Juliantla near his son Trigo. Relatives of the late singer complained in July 2020 that Sebastian's mausoleum had been broken into and the family feared that his bones might be stolen. Security measures were increased. Discography Sebastian recorded the following studio albums during his music career: Studio albums Awards and nominations References External links www.joansebastian.com OFFICIAL website Discography at Starpulse.com Biography at Chalino.com Joan's Online Memorial Website Mexican male singer-songwriters Mexican record producers 1951 births 2015 deaths Banda musicians Ranchera singers Grammy Award winners Latin Grammy Award winners Latin music record producers Latin music songwriters Regional Mexican musicians Singers from Guerrero Writers from Guerrero Universal Music Latin Entertainment artists Deaths from bone cancer Deaths from cancer in Mexico 01 20th-century Mexican male singers 21st-century Mexican male singers

357724

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrophanes%20of%20Byzantium

Metrophanes of Byzantium

Saint Metrophanes (? – 326) was the bishop of Byzantium from 306 to 314. He may have retired from his episcopacy and died as late as 326. There is a tradition that, before his death, the Emperor Constantine I bestowed upon him the honorary title of Patriarch; however, Byzantium did not become the capital of the Empire until 330 (when it was renamed New Rome or Constantinople), and the see was not elevated to a patriarchate until 451. Metrophanes I could not partake in the first Ecumenical Council, which was held at Nicaea, due to age and ill health (he was already bedridden). He sent instead Alexander, the first among his presbyters, an honest man, whom he destined as his successor. For it is said that, when the Council had ended and the king with the god-bearing fathers returned, he was told by God that Alexander, and after him Paul, pleased God, and are good for this position. Metrophanes has been canonized a saint, and is revered in both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. His feast day is June 4. His predecessor as Bishop of Byzantium was Probus, son of Dometius, and Metrophanes may have been the son of Probus. See also Metrophanes of Smyrna References External links St Metrophanes the first Patriarch of Constantinople 4th-century Romans Saints from Constantinople Roman-era Byzantines 4th-century Byzantine bishops 4th-century Christian saints Bishops of Byzantium 326 deaths Year of birth unknown

357727

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sak%20K%CA%BCuk%CA%BC

Sak Kʼukʼ

Sak Kʼukʼ also known as Muwaan Mat, Lady Sak Kʼukʼ and Lady Beastie (died 640), was queen of the Maya city-state of Palenque. She acceded to the throne in October, 612 and ruled until 615. Biography Her father was Janahb Pakal and her mother was Yohl Ikʼnal or unknown. As Janaab Pakal seems to have had no male heirs, she ascended to the throne on 19 October 612, a few months after her father's death. After his maturity, her son Kʼinich Janaab Pakal I succeeded her as ruler on 9.9.2.4.8 5 Lamat 1 Mol. She seems to have continued to wield considerable influence over Palenque in the early decades of her son's reign. For example, Sak Kʼukʼ is recorded on Pakal's sarcophagus lid as the ruler who celebrated the sealing of the Kʼatun on 9.10.0.0.0 (25 January 633 AD). She was probably mother of Ajen Yohl Mat. Notes Sources Maya queens 7th-century monarchs in North America 7th-century women rulers 640 deaths

357736

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaido%20University

Hokkaido University

, or , is a Japanese national university in Sapporo, Hokkaido. It was the fifth Imperial University in Japan, which were established to be the nation's finest institutions of higher education or research. Hokkaido University is considered one of the top universities in Japan and was ranked 5th in THE Japan University Rankings. It was also selected as a "Top Type" university by the Japanese government's Top Global University Project. The main campus is located in downtown Sapporo, just north of Sapporo Station, and stretches approximately 2.4 kilometers northward. History The history of the university dates to the formal incorporation of Yezo as Hokkaido into the Japanese realm. Director of the Hokkaidō Development Commission Kuroda Kiyotaka, having traveled to America in 1870, looked to the American model of settling the new lands. Upon return he brought General Horace Capron, a commissioner of agriculture who pushed for the adoption of new agricultural practices and crops in Hokkaido's colder clime. To achieve this an agriculture college was proposed, leading to the founding of in 1876 by William S. Clark with the help of five faculty members and a first class size of 24 students. In September 1907, set up the faculty of Agriculture in Sapporo. Tohoku Imperial University ceded the Faculty of Agriculture to on April 1, 1918. It was one of nine Imperial Universities. The School of Medicine was established in 1919, at which time the Agricultural College became the Faculty of Agriculture. This was followed by the Faculty of Engineering, the Faculty of Science, and finally in 1947, the Faculty of Law and Literature. The current name of Hokkaido University also came into use in 1947. In 1953, the Graduate School was established. Since 2004 the university has been incorporated as a National University Corporation under a new law which applies to all national universities. Although the incorporation has led to increased financial independence and autonomy, Hokkaido University is still partially controlled by the Japanese Ministry of Education. In 2014 the university was selected under the Super Global Universities program that began as an initiative of Prime Minister Shinzō Abe who stated its aim was to help more of Japan's universities rank in the top 100 worldwide. Under the program, it is listed in the top university category or Type A—(Top Type) The Top Type is for world-class universities that have the potential to be ranked in the top 100 in world university rankings. Each Type A university will receive ¥420 million ($US 4.2 million) annually until 2023. In June 2020, Hokkaido University president Toyoharu Nawa was dismissed by Japanese education minister Koichi Hagiuda for abuse of power at the workplace, becoming the first national university president to be dismissed since national universities became independent in 2004. He was succeeded by former neurosurgeon and director of Hokkaido University Hospital Kiyohiro Houkin. Faculties and graduate schools Faculties Graduate schools Postgraduate degree programs in English The following departments offer postgraduate degrees taught entirely in English Agriculture Chemical Sciences and Engineering Engineering Environmental Science Life Sciences Science Veterinary Medicine Both international and domestic students may apply for graduate programs taught in English. Competitive scholarships are available for all graduate and undergraduate students enrolled in English degree programs, which range in amount from tuition discounts to full funding. Special degree programs for international students The university offers two programs aimed exclusively at international students: One, four-year undergraduate degree program, the Modern Japanese Studies Program (MJSP), and one, five-year degree program comprising both undergraduate- and graduate-level study, the Integrated Science Program (ISP). As with other English-based degree programs at the university, competitive scholarships are available for all graduate and undergraduate students, which range in amount from tuition discounts to full funding. Modern Japanese Studies Program (MJSP) The Modern Japanese Studies Program is a bilingual, bachelor's degree program that aims to educate students about the history, culture, society, and political economy of modern Japan while raising them to fluency in the Japanese language. The program offers two majors, one in History and Culture and one in Society and Political Economy. The majors share coursework, so whichever of the previous specializations a student does not choose as their major becomes their minor. Integrated Science Program (ISP) The Integrated Science Program is a multifaceted degree program that aims to provide students with a bachelor's degree in either biology, chemistry, or physics followed by their immediate enrollment in one of Hokkaido University's graduate schools. Through the unique, accelerated methodology of the program, students are able to graduate with a master's degree in five years (made up of three-and-a-half years of undergraduate study and one-and-a-half years of graduate study and research). It also aims to strengthen students' knowledge of English due to its importance as a scientific language. Institutes The University's Institute of Seismology and Volcanology was founded in 1998 in collaboration with several seismological observatories around Hokkaido. The institute is represented on the national Coordinating Committee for Earthquake Prediction. In 2016, the university launched the Hokkaido Summer Institute, a three-month-long program from June to August which offers a variety of classes for both undergraduate and graduate students. Guest lecturers are invited from all over the world to share their expertise for the courses, which usually run for 1–2 weeks and grant students a small amount of academic credit. Both Japanese and foreign students participate in this unique program, which is conducted entirely in English. Campus Sapporo campus The main Sapporo campus is located just north of Sapporo Station, in the heart of Sapporo City. The entirety of the campus measures approximately 180 hectares and houses academic and administrative buildings, research laboratories, student dormitories, and farmland. The main academic buildings are found along a 1.5 kilometer stretch of road that runs from the Main Gate to the Kita 18 Gate, roughly encompassing the distance between Kita-Juni-Jo and Kita 18-jo subway stations on the Namboku Subway Line. A campus-wide bus service runs regular routes between the southern and northern end of the university, although access is restricted to university staff only. The abundance of accessible green space has continued to be popular not only among students, but also the general public, who can often be seen using the campus area in a similar way to a public park. Walking tours of the campus for interested foreign and domestic tourists are provided by several businesses in Sapporo, although no tour is needed to visit the campus. Fall is an especially popular time for campus visits, with tourists and Sapporo residents flocking to get a view of the golden ginkgo trees that line Ginkgo Avenue. Hakodate campus The campus is located in Hakodate, a city located in the southern part of Hokkaidō. The Faculty and Graduate School of Fisheries Science are located there. However, students of Fisheries Science start their education at the Sapporo campus in order to complete three semesters of compulsory liberal arts education courses and move to the Hakodate campus from the second semester of their sophomore year. As the minimum requirement to study at the Hakodate campus is only one year of a four-year bachelor's program, the turn-over rate of students entering and leaving the Hakodate campus is fairly high. To provide students in the Faculty and Graduate School of Fisheries Science with practical hands-on experience, the university has two fully operational research vessels, the Oshoru Maru and the Ushio Maru, based in nearby Hakodate harbor. Graduate students and professors also use these vessels to carry out their research. Overseas satellite offices In order to raise awareness of the university internationally, as of June 2018 Hokkaido University was operating eight satellite offices worldwide. After opening its first overseas satellite office in Seoul, South Korea, Hokkaido University has also established satellite offices in Helsinki (Finland), Beijing (China), Lusaka (Zambia), Bandung (Indonesia), Quezon City (Philippines), Kamphaeng Saen (Thailand), and a special China Office in Beijing. Interested parties can not only obtain information regarding the university at these offices, but prospective students can also take university entrance exams there, a procedure which previously was only offered in Japan. Educational philosophy Academic rankings General rankings In 2017, the CWTS Leiden Ranking ranked them at 120th in the world and 6th in Japan. In 2018, QS World University Rankings ranked Hokkaido University at 122nd in the world (7th in Japan). In 2019, the Times Higher Education(THE) Japan ranked them 5th in Japan. Also in that year, they ranked as 6th or 7th in Japan according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), and between 151st and 200th in the world. In 2013, their highest score in QS Ranking was for Faculty Student Score (88 out of 100). Their lowest was for International Faculty Score (13.5 out of 100). In an effort to boost their International Faculty Score, Hokkaido has recently been selected to be part of Japan's Super Global Universities Program. This program provides special funding to hire international faculty. Research performance According to Thomson Reuters, Hokkaido is the 6th best research university in Japan. Its research standard is especially high in Materials Science (7th in Japan, 86th in the world), Chemistry (8th in Japan, 52nd in the world), and Biology & Biochemistry (6th in Japan, 104th in the world). Weekly Diamond reported that Hokkaido has the 10th highest research standard in Japan in terms of research funding per researchers in the COE Program. According to the QS World university rankings in September 2012, Hokkaido University was placed 135th (worldwide) and 6th (in Japan) for general standards in engineering and technology. It also has a good research standard in Economics, as RePec ranked Hokkaido as the 16th best Economics research university in Jan 2011. The Nobel Prize As of 2021, two alumni and faculty members have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The university received attention in 2010 when Professor Akira Suzuki won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry jointly with Richard F. Heck and Ei-ichi Negishi. Benjamin List, winner of the 2021 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, is the principal investigator at the Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery of the Hokkaido University. Also, Ei-ichi Negishi, special invited professor at the Institute for Catalysis (ICAT) of the Hokkaido University, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry as well. In addition, the Hokkaido Imperial University alumni Kōichi Ichikawa (市川 厚一) completed the first artificial induction of cancer in history in 1915 and discovered the cause of cancer, but in 1926 the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to Johannes Fibiger. A few years later, everyone discovered that Fibiger's research was completely wrong. Until the middle of the 20th century, Japanese scientists missed the Nobel Prize many times because of racial discrimination. Alumni rankings Graduate school rankings Hokkaido Law School was ranked 6th in 2010 (8th in 2009) in the passing rate of Japanese Bar Examination. Eduniversal ranked Hokkaido as 2nd in the rankings of "Excellent Business Schools nationally strong and/or with continental links " in Japan. Popularity and selectivity Hokkaido is one of the most selective universities in Japan. Its entrance difficulty is usually considered one of the top in Japan. Notable alumni Uchimura Kanzō, Christian evangelist, founder of Non-church Christianity Movement Akira Ifukube, composer Nitobe Inazō, the author of Bushido: the Soul of Japan, a Quaker Ryuzo Yanagimachi, assisted fertilization and cloning pioneer Mamoru Mohri, astronaut Takeo Arishima, novelist Riko Muranaka, medical doctor and journalist Hiroshi Ishii, computer scientist Junko Ohashi, pop singer Akira Suzuki, Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2010) Yuichiro Miura, alpinist, the oldest person to reach the summit of Mount Everest Juhn Atsushi Wada, neurologist, described the Wada test Points of interest Hokkaido University Botanical Gardens Notes References Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128 External links Hokkaido University, official website Hokkaido University Library Hokkaido University International Students Association (HUISA) Hokkaido University (March, 2005) Handbook for International Students Sapporo Educational institutions established in 1918 Japanese national universities National Seven Universities Universities and colleges in Sapporo Super Global Universities Hokkaido American Football Association 1918 establishments in Japan

357738

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Baptist%20Mission%20of%20South%20Haiti

Evangelical Baptist Mission of South Haiti

The Evangelical Baptist Mission of South Haiti () is a Baptist Christian denomination in Haiti. The headquarters is in Les Cayes, Haiti. MEBSH is a member of the Protestant Federation of Haiti, the Evangelical Council of Haitian Churches and the Baptist World Alliance. History Evangelical Baptist Mission of South Haiti (MEBSH) began with the evangelistic efforts of repatriated Haitians from Cuba in the 1920s. The organization was officially formed in 1936 in Les Cayes when the movement's leaders invited the non-denominational agency World Team (then West Indies Mission) to open a Bible school. In 1958, the Mission founded Radio Lumière in Les Cayes. In 1993, the Lumière University was founded by the Mission. Since 2012 the president of the Evangelical Baptist Mission of South Haiti is Rev. Alnève Emile, who succeeded Rev. Luders Erase for a five-year term. He was re-elected in 2017. According to a denomination census released in 2020, it claimed 488 churches and 60,000 members. Social work The MEBSH operates numerous educational, health and development institutions in Haiti. Educational 413 primary and secondary schools University Lumiere, consisting of eight colleges ("facultés" in French) in multiple locations Two seminaries: Faculté de Théologie Évangélique Lumière in Cayes and in Côte Plage Bible institute: Institut Biblique Lumière in Cayes 5 Trade Schools Deaf School in Cambry Child Care office for student sponsorship program Health Full-service hospital: Hôpital Lumière à Bonne Fin In-patient clinic: Centre de Santé Lumière aux Cayes Walk-in clinic: Dispensaire Ebenezer à Guichard Development Women's domestic training center: Centre Lumière aux Cayes Integrated Rural Development Well drilling Orphanages Youth Camp Mahanaim See also Bible Born again Baptist beliefs Worship service (evangelicalism) Jesus Christ Believers' Church References External links Official Website Evangelicalism in Haiti Christian organizations established in 1936 Baptist denominations in the Caribbean Baptist denominations established in the 20th century

357739

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20Thomas%20Church%20%28Manhattan%29

Saint Thomas Church (Manhattan)

Saint Thomas Church is an Episcopal parish church of the Episcopal Diocese of New York located at 53rd Street and Fifth Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York City. Also known as Saint Thomas Church Fifth Avenue or Saint Thomas Church in the City of New York, it was incorporated on January 9, 1824. The current structure, the congregation’s fourth church, was designed by the architects Ralph Adams Cram and Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue in the French High Gothic Revival style and completed in 1914. The church is home to the Saint Thomas Choir of Men and Boys, a choral ensemble comprising men and boys which performs music of the Anglican tradition at worship services and offers a full concert series during the course of the year. The men of the Saint Thomas Choir are professional singers and the boys are students enrolled at the Saint Thomas Choir School, the only church-affiliated residential choir school in the United States. History Four buildings, two locations On October 12, 1823, members of three Episcopal parishes in Lower Manhattan, including notably William Backhouse Astor (1792–1875), a wealthy Manhattan landowner, Charles King (1789–1867), later president of Columbia University, and jurist William Beach Lawrence, combined forces to organize a new episcopal church in New York. Saint Thomas Church was incorporated on January 9, 1824. With the cornerstone laid in July 1824 at the northwest corner of Broadway and Houston Street, the first church edifice opened in 1826 and was described as "the best specimen of Gothic in the city." The location was the northern extent of developed settlement in Manhattan during the early 19th Century. It was designed in a Gothic Revival style by architect Joseph R. Brady (1760–1832) and John McVickar (1787–1868), professor of moral philosophy at Columbia College (now Columbia University). The church was enlarged and remodeled in 1844 to accommodate a growing congregation, but destroyed by fire on March 2, 1851. The congregation built a new church at the same location, completed in 1852. The character of the neighborhood at the corner of Broadway and Houston, the southeasternmost corner of Greenwich Village, broadly speaking, had "degenerated into anchorage for cheap dance halls and 'concert salloons'" and led to the congregation seeking to relocate. The parish remained where it was until 1870, while a new church was built (from 1865–1870) at the present location on the corner of Fifty-Third Street and Fifth Avenue based upon a design by Richard Upjohn (1802–1878) and his son Richard Michell Upjohn (1828–1903) This third structure, in a neighborhood at the time dominated by the mansions of Manhattan's upper class, featured a prominent high tower and a bas-relief reredos by Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848–1907) and murals by John LaFarge (1835–1910). It was also noted as the scene of many high society weddings and funerals, including that of Consuelo Vanderbilt (1877–1964) to Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough (1871–1934), the first cousin of Winston Churchill (1874–1965). This structure was destroyed by fire in 1905, leaving only its trademark tower remaining. The fourth and current church, designed in 1906, was built from 1911 to 1913 under a design by Ralph Adams Cram (1863–1942) and Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue (1869–1924) of the architectural firm of Cram, Goodhue and Ferguson, and featuring an elaborate reredos designed by Goodhue and sculptor Lee Lawrie (1877–1963). It was consecrated on April 25, 1916. The design by Cram and Goodhue won an architectural competition to build the new Saint Thomas Church, winning over entries by George Browne Post (1837–1913) and Robert W. Gibson. Cram and Goodhue are also noted for having designed Saint Bartholomew's Church on Park Avenue and East 50th Street, the Cathedral of St. John the Divine on Amsterdam Avenue and West 110th Street, the chapel and a large portion of the campus at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York, the Princeton University Chapel at Princeton University and the Rockefeller Chapel at the University of Chicago. September 11 ministry In the wake of the September 11 attacks in 2001, Saint Thomas Church reached out to the British expatriate community in recognition of its Anglican heritage. This culminated in an interfaith service held at the church on September 20, 2001. The service was addressed by Prime Minister Tony Blair and broadcast live in its entirety throughout the United Kingdom. On October 28, 2002, the rector of Saint Thomas Church, Andrew C. Mead, was made an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) by Queen Elizabeth II. The honor was conferred at a ceremony at the British Embassy in Washington, D.C. Rectors Architecture The present church, a designated New York landmark, was built from 1911 to 1913, designed by a partnership of Ralph Adams Cram, who also designed the Princeton University chapel, and Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, who designed nearby St. Bartholomew's church. Lee Lawrie designed the many sculptures and decorations, most notably the 60 figures of the magnificent reredos, which is high. Prior to working together on Saint Thomas Church, Lawrie and Goodhue worked together on El Fureidis, an estate located in Montecito, California. First designs date from 1906, the church opened for services in 1913. Its magnificence is the happy result of a dramatic, impulsive act of compassion: The 1906 San Francisco earthquake had so shocked the rector, Rev. Ernest M. Stires, that he rushed the accumulated balance in his parish's building fund to aid the stricken city. Throughout New York and beyond, an impressed public responded in kind to his generosity with unsolicited gifts that more than replenished the fund. This masterpiece of a city church, with bold massing and a strong profile, has plain ashlar limestone exterior surfaces and sandstone interior surfaces in French High Gothic style, embellished with dense French Flamboyant Gothic detail in the window tracery, in the small arches of the triforium, and in the rich stonework of the reredos, where Bertram Goodhue's original genius in decoration, and sculpture designed, by Lee Lawrie, are inspired by the altar screen at Winchester Cathedral in England. Saint Thomas church is characterized by a high main arcade and an open triforium, and clerestory. Making the most of a restricted rectangular urban corner site with no space for transepts, St. Thomas has the scale of a large parish church (which it is), and, except for its foreshortened length, the proportions of major European and English cathedrals, with nave vaults high. The church, like New York's Cathedral of St. John the Divine, the largest Gothic church in the world, whose nave and west facade were designed by Cram, is built of stone on stone, without any steel reinforcing. The ribs of the vault are load-bearing structure. Cram's approach to a structurally authentic and a scholarly, but not imitative Gothic style, emphasized originality through logical development of the historical Gothic styles, tempered by creative scholarship and employing the use of modern machinery in the execution of stonecutting and dressing. In a letter of 1925 Cram said that he considered a rigorous modern Gothic to be "a logical continuation of the great Christian culture of the past, but also a vital contribution to modern life." However, in 1925, eleven years after completion, the north wall of the church was found to be bulging dangerously and hidden steelwork added. Subway construction on 53rd St. in the 1930s prompted additional steel under the altar and massive reredos as a precaution. Cram excelled at planning buildings and at the general massing of forms, while Goodhue had an inventive eye for appropriate decorative detail. Often each worked on separate buildings, depending on the advice and approval of the other. Sometimes they worked together on major projects, as at Saint Thomas, their final collaboration. Acoustics The architects realized that the sound associated with a Gothic look would not work for a more sermon-focused protestant service. Wallace Sabine, founder of the field of architectural acoustics, was hired to reduce reverberation in order to make the sermon more intelligible. Sabine avoided changing the church’s aesthetic by hanging panels and drapes to absorb sound. Instead he worked with Raphael Guastavino Jr. to create Rumford tile, a ceramic tile with porous surfaces that absorb sound. The church was among the first to be acoustically engineered for environmental control. Worship The style of worship at Saint Thomas Church has varied greatly over the history of the parish. Beginning with the rectorship of John Andrew in 1972, however, it has followed the Anglo-Catholic or high-church tradition within the Episcopal Church that developed out of the Oxford Movement. This was further developed under the rectorship of Andrew Mead. Sunday services include Low Mass, High Mass, and Evensong, and Solemn Mass on Christmas, Easter and major feast days. Special liturgies and processions are held for Advent, Epiphany, Candlemas and Holy Week. The Litany is sung in procession in Advent and Lent. The choir of men and boys sing most Sundays in term time and, if there are no visiting choirs during the school vacation, the gentlemen of the choir sing the services. The church uses traditional language on Sundays and for most of its weekday services and the King James Version of the Bible is used on Sundays and at Evensong during the week. Rite II of the BCP1979 is used for the 12:10 pm mass Mondays to Fridays. In Lent 2015 Shrine Prayers were started at the image of Our Lady of Fifth Avenue and intercessions are offered at noon after the Angelus Mondays to Saturdays; these intercessions may be left in the church or submitted online via the church website. Confessions are heard each Saturday from 11:00-11:45 am. The church is open every day of the year. Music Choir of Men and Boys Music is an important component of worship and liturgy at Saint Thomas Church. It follows in the Anglican tradition of the all-male choral ensemble. The choir's primary function is to provide music for five services each week, as well as an annual concert series sponsored by the church. In addition, the choir has toured throughout the United States and Europe, with performances at Westminster Abbey, St. Paul's Cathedral, London, King's College, Cambridge, and the Aldeburgh Festival. In 2004, the choir toured Italy and received a papal audience at the Vatican. In 2005, the choir toured in the southern United States, with a benefit concert in New Orleans. Upon returning to New York, they performed in Saint Matthew Passion at Carnegie Hall. Other appearances have included performances at Lincoln Center with the New York Philharmonic, the Cleveland Orchestra, and alongside artists such as Jessye Norman and Plácido Domingo. In addition, the choir gave the world-premiere performance of Andrew Lloyd Webber's Requiem, which was subsequently televised internationally by the BBC. The choir was also featured in a recording of Carly Simon's "Let the River Run". The boy choristers reside at Saint Thomas Choir School, founded in 1919 and the only church-affiliated boarding choir school in the United States. In 2007, there were three tours to Mexico City, Baton Rouge along with other domestic cities, and a tour to the United Kingdom in the early summer. The choir typically records and releases one CD a year. Organs Musical offerings at Saint Thomas Church are enhanced through three organs. The Arents Memorial Chancel Organ, which has been replaced with the Irene D. and William R. Miller Chancel Organ in Memory of John Scott, was initially built as the "Opus 205" of the Ernest M. Skinner Company of Boston, Massachusetts, in 1913. This organ, which was revised in 1945, boasted 4 manuals and 77 ranks. In 1956, the organ was rebuilt, as "Opus 205-A", by the Aeolian-Skinner Company by G. Donald Harrison (died 1956), who died before the work was completed. This rebuilding expanded the organ to comprise 172 ranks. With damage to the reredos and the organ due to construction of the Museum of Modern Art, the church's immediate neighbor on West 53rd Street, Gilbert F. Adams of Brooklyn was contracted in 1969 to repair and rebuilt the organ. This revision decreased the number of ranks to 156. Further revisions were completed in the early 1980s by Mann & Trupiano. With the exception of the Trompette-en-Chamade, located under the Rose Window above the narthex, the entire instrument of the Great Organ was located in the church's chancel. The now-dismantled Great Organ featured an Electro-pneumatic and electric-slider stop and chest action, a Solid-State combination action, 4 manuals, 158 ranks and 9,050 pipes. The Loening-Hancock Gallery Organ was built as "Opus 27" of Taylor & Boody Organbuilders of Staunton, Virginia, in 1996 to honor Gerre Hancock for 25 years of service to Saint Thomas Church. Located in the gallery beneath the church's Rose Window, this organ features a mechanical key and stop action, 2 manuals, 25 stops, and 32 ranks. Its case sports fumed white oak with pipe shades gilded in 23 carat gold. Its predecessor, the Loening Memorial Organ, dedicated in memory of Hermine Rubino Leoning, was built by Gilbert F. Adams in 1969 and featured 4 manuals, 59 stops, and 90 ranks. The Martha J. Dodge Positiv Organ was built and installed in December 2001 by Taylor & Boody Organbuilders. This organ consists of 5 ranks, and is used as a continuo organ. Miller-Scott Organ On October 3, 2008, Saint Thomas Church announced the Vestry's decision to replace the aging Arents Memorial Chancel Organ with a new instrument. The announcement noted that as part of a substantial renovation effort to the church, a new instrument from Dobson Pipe Organ Builders of Lake City, Iowa, would be installed to replace the current instrument. Plans called for the retention of the especially ornate 1913 organ case-front and console cabinetry, and the elimination of visible pipework added above the choir stall canopies in the 1956 rebuild, to better respect the church's well-developed neo-Gothic design aesthetic. The Irene D. and William R. Miller Chancel Organ in Memory of John Scott, dedicated on October 5 and 7, 2018, is one of North America's most significant new pipe organs. In addition to supporting the parish's internationally renowned liturgical and musical life, the Miller-Scott Organ serves as a showcase for recitalists from all over the world and helps Saint Thomas train the next generation of organists. The new organ contains 7,069 pipes, a number of which are from the former instrument. Fifteen sets of pipes, including some of the largest existing wooden ones, have been rebuilt and reinstated; these include the very softest sounds, several flutes and strings, and some specialty trumpet stops. Much of the design and decoration form for the new organ case are derived from precedents throughout the rest of the building, and Gothic revival style in general. In the 1913 north organ case, the imagery is taken from Psalm 150: trumpet and lyre, string and well-tuned cymbal, are now visible as never before, thanks to new lighting. The new case takes as its program the themes of Music, Ministry and Praise. Engraved texts include “Soli Deo Gloria” (to God alone the Glory), and quotations from the Psalms. There are portraits of those important in the recent life of Saint Thomas Church, including Dr. Gerre Hancock and Dr. John Scott, our Rector Emeritus, Fr. Mead, and Irene and William Miller, whose benefaction has been central to the creation of the Miller-Scott Organ. Organists George William Warren, 1870–1900 William C. Macfarlane, 1900–1912 T. Tertius Noble, 1913–1943 T. Frederick Candlyn, 1943–1953 William Self, 1954–1971 Gerre Hancock, 1971–2004 John Scott, 2004–2015 Daniel Hyde, 2016–2019 Jeremy Filsell, 2019–present Stained glass The first stained glass window placed in the fourth Saint Thomas Church structure was designed by Nicola D'Ascenzo (1871–1954), an Italian-born American stained glass artist best known for creating stained glass windows for the Washington Memorial Chapel in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania; the Nipper Building in Camden, New Jersey; and the Folger Shakespeare Library and Washington National Cathedral, both in Washington, DC. The window was designed in 1926 and completed and installed in 1927. The last window, designed and installed in 1974, came from the Willet Stained Glass Studios, E. Crosby Willet, President. The Willet Stained Glass Studios firm was founded by William Willet (1869–1921) in 1899. Willet is best known for the windows he designed for the West Point Cadet Chapel. Both those studios were located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, at the time of the fabrication of their windows for Saint Thomas Church. With regard to the remaining windows in the present church structure, it is believed that due to the location of his business office across Fifth Avenue from Saint Thomas Church and through his many meetings with Roelif Hasbrouck Brooks (1875–1960), the Rector at that time, the representative for James Powell & Sons (Whitefriars), Ltd, of London, was able to secure a contract for them all. (There is also some speculation that the fact that the windows in the third Saint Thomas Church structure were designed and fabricated by the James Powell & Sons firm may have had some bearing on the awarding of such a major commission.) The windows for the present structure were designed beginning in 1929 by the great English stained glass artist, James Humphries Hogan (1883–1948), who worked for the James Powell & Sons firm from the age of 14 until his death. He was also the main American sales agent for the firm, and was the representative who labored from 1926 to 1928 to acquire the commission for the Saint Thomas Church windows. Hogan's son, Edmond Humphries Hogan (1910–1945) designed some of the windows, including those in the Rector's office. The actual fabrication and installation of the Powell & Sons windows was not completed until 1970, but most of the windows were designed by Hogan before his death in 1948. Five windows were designed and completed after his death: one in 1950, one in 1954, two in 1959, and one in 1970. Those windows were the work of another Powell & Sons artist, Edward Liddall Armitage (1887-1967). The windows in Saint Thomas Church are considered by many authorities on stained glass to be some of the finest designs Hogan ever created. In 2007, conservation began in earnest on all the stained glass windows in the present structure. It took ten years and $20 million to renew the splendor of 33 windows, with their 9 million pieces of glass. The restoration was completed in February 2017. (From a lecture presented by stained glass conservator, Julie L. Sloan, LLC, to the members of Saint Thomas Church on February 26, 2017, after the completion of her restoration of the windows.) References Citations Sources Further reading Wright, J. Robert. Saint Thomas Church Fifth Avenue (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company; New York: Saint Thomas Church Fifth Avenue, 2001). . (no author) "St. Thomas's Church, corner of Broadway and Houston-street" New-York Mirror, and Ladies' Literary Gazette Vol. 6 No. 50 (June 20, 1829), 393. (Scroll up for engraving.) Online provider: HathiTrust. External links Saint Thomas Church Saint Thomas Choir School 1824 establishments in New York (state) 20th-century Episcopal church buildings Anglo-Catholic church buildings in the United States Bertram Goodhue church buildings Boys' and men's choirs Churches completed in 1913 Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state) Fifth Avenue Gothic Revival church buildings in New York City Midtown Manhattan New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Manhattan Ralph Adams Cram church buildings Rebuilt buildings and structures in the United States Religious organizations established in 1824 Saint Thomas Church Saint Thomas Church (New York City)

357740

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloha%20Stadium

Aloha Stadium

Aloha Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium located in Halawa, Hawaii, a western suburb of Honolulu (though with a Honolulu address). It is the largest stadium in the state of Hawaii. , the stadium ceased fan-attended operations indefinitely, and placed a moratorium on the scheduling of new events. Aloha Stadium served as home to the University of Hawaii Rainbow Warriors football team (Mountain West Conference, NCAA Division I FBS) for the 1975 through 2020 seasons. It also hosted college football's Hawaii Bowl (2002–2019) and Hula Bowl (1976–1997, 2006–2008, 2020–2021), and formerly was home to the National Football League's Pro Bowl from 1980 through 2016 (except in 2010 and 2015). It also hosted numerous high school football games, and served as a venue for large concerts and events, including high school graduation ceremonies. The stadium was home field for the AAA Hawaii Islanders of the Pacific Coast League (PCL) from 1975 to 1987, before the team moved to Colorado Springs. Frequent swap meets in the stadium's parking lot often drew large crowds. History Before 1975, Honolulu's main outdoor stadium had been Honolulu Stadium, a wooden stadium on King Street. However, it had reached the end of its useful life by the 1960s, and was well below the standards for Triple-A baseball. The need for a new stadium was hastened by the move of the Hawaii Rainbows football program to NCAA Division I. Located west of downtown Honolulu and north of Honolulu International Airport, Aloha Stadium was constructed in 1975 at a cost of $37 million. Constructed of steel, the stadium was nicknamed the "Metal Mecca". The baseball field is aligned north-northwest (home plate to centerfield), as is the football field. The first sporting event at Aloha Stadium was a college football game between Hawaii and Texas A&I (now Texas A&M-Kingsville) on September 13, 1975. Played on Saturday night, the crowd was 32,247, and the visitors prevailed, The stadium was somewhat problematic for its initial primary tenant, the minor league baseball Hawaii Islanders. Located in west-central Oahu, it was far from the team's fan base, and many were unwilling to make the drive. Additionally, while local public transportation (TheBus) stopped at the main gate of Honolulu Stadium, the stop for Aloha Stadium was located some distance from the gate. As a result, attendance plummeted and never really recovered—a major factor in the franchise's ultimate move to the mainland. Additionally, stadium management initially refused to allow the use of metal spikes on the AstroTurf. During a game in early May 1976, the starting pitcher for the Tacoma Twins, Bill Butler, wore metal spikes to comply with a directive from Tacoma's parent club. In response, stadium management turned off the center field lights, and after 35 minutes, umpires forfeited the game to the Twins. The Islanders protested, claiming they had no control over the lights. However, the Pacific Coast League (PCL) sided with the Twins, citing a league rule that the home team is responsible for providing acceptable playing facilities. After the teams ended the season in a tie for first in the PCL's Western Division, Hawaii won a one-game playoff in Tacoma. As originally built, Aloha Stadium had various configurations for different sport venues and other purposes. Four movable 7,000-seat sections, each could move using air casters into a diamond configuration for baseball (also used for soccer), an oval for football, or a triangle for concerts. In January 2007, the stadium was permanently locked into its football configuration due to cost and maintenance issues. An engineer from Rolair Systems, the NASA spin-off company that engineered the system, claims that the problem was caused by a concrete contractor that ignored specifications for the concrete pads under the stadium. Concerns There have been numerous discussions with Hawaii lawmakers who are concerned with the physical condition of the stadium. There are several issues regarding rusting of the facility, several hundred seats that need to be replaced, and restroom facilities that need to be expanded to accommodate more patrons. Much of the rust is due to building the stadium with weathering steel. It was intended to create a protective patina that would eliminate the need for painting. However, the designers did not reckon with Honolulu's ocean-salt laden climate. As a result, the steel has never stopped rusting. A 2005 study by Honolulu engineering firm Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. determined that the stadium required $99 million to be completely restored and an additional $115 million for ongoing maintenance and refurbishment over the next 20 years to extend its useful life. In early 2007, the state legislature proposed to spend $300 million to build a new facility as opposed to spending approximately $216 million to extend the life of Aloha Stadium for another years. The new stadium may also be used to attempt to lure a Super Bowl to Hawaii in the future. One council member has said that if immediate repairs are not made within the next seven years, then the stadium will probably have to be demolished due to safety concerns. In May 2007, the state allotted $12.4 million to be used towards removing corrosion and rust from the structure. Expansion and improvements In 2003, the stadium surface was changed from AstroTurf (which had been in place since the stadium opened) to FieldTurf. In July 2011, the field was replaced with an Act Global UBU Sports Speed S5-M synthetic turf system. In 2008, the state of Hawaii approved the bill of $185 million to refurbish the aging Aloha Stadium. In 2010, Aloha Stadium completely retrofitted its scoreboard and video screen to be more up to date with its high definition capability. The Aloha Stadium Authority plans to add more luxury suites, replacing all seats, rusting treatments, parking lots, more restrooms, pedestrian bridge supports, enclosed lounge, and more. There is also a proposal that would close the four openings in the corners of the stadium to add more seats. In 2011, the playing field was refurbished in part due to a naming rights sponsorship from Hawaiian Airlines. As a result of the sponsorship deal, the field was referred to as Hawaiian Airlines Field at Aloha Stadium. The airline did not renew sponsorship after the deal expired in 2016. As a result, the field went unnamed until late August, when Hawaiian Tel Federal Credit Union signed a three-year $275,000 agreement. As of 2016, the field was known as Hawaiian Tel Federal Credit Union Field at Aloha Stadium. In early 2017, there was a study in the Honolulu Star-Advertiser about replacing Aloha Stadium due to safety concerns and a liability risk. The plan is to build a smaller 30,000 seat stadium on the existing property and also build commercial development around the stadium. In theory, it would save the state millions of dollars instead of renovating and keep the existing stadium as it is. In July 2019, Governor of Hawaii David Ige signed Act 268 into law, appropriating $350 million for an Aloha Stadium redevelopment project. The funds will go toward the construction of a new stadium and land development, including a mixed-use sports and entertainment complex. Closure to new events A December 17, 2020, announcement by the Aloha Stadium Authority stated that the stadium would be ceasing fan-attended operations indefinitely. The closure was related to financial issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The stadium, built in 1975, was also plagued by maintenance issues in recent years. A 2019 story from the Honolulu Star-Advertiser noted that the stadium needed $30 million in repairs. KHON-TV reported that the stadium would be condemned and was deemed unsafe to hold any crowds at all. The scheduling of new events was also halted. In January 2021, the University of Hawaii announced that the Rainbow Warriors football team would play their home games on campus "for at least the next three years". New stadium The New Aloha Stadium is a proposed 35,000-seat multi-purpose stadium to be built in Halawa, Hawaii for the Hawaii Rainbow Warriors football program, starting in Fall 2023. The area around the stadium will also include entertainment venues, retail stores, restaurants, housing, hotels, recreational sites, cultural amenities, and green space. It will replace and be constructed on the site of the current stadium. Events American football College football Aloha Stadium served as the home field of the Hawaii Rainbow Warriors college football program, representing the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, from 1975 through 2020. The Hula Bowl, a college football all-star game, was first played at the stadium in January 1976 and returned to the stadium annually through 1997. It was again held at Aloha Stadium in 2006–2008 and 2020–2021. The 2021 Hula Bowl was the last football game held at the facility before the halting of new events. Three team-competitive college football bowl games were held annually at the stadium: the Aloha Bowl (1982–2000), Oahu Bowl (1998–2000), and Hawaii Bowl (2002–2019). The Hawaii Rainbow Warriors appeared in the Hawaii Bowl nine times and the other two bowl games once each. Professional football Starting in September 1975, the stadium was home to the World Football League's Hawaiians who played their last four home games there. The San Francisco 49ers and the San Diego Chargers played an NFL preseason game at Aloha Stadium on August 21, 1976. In August 2019, the NFL returned to the stadium with a preseason game between the Los Angeles Rams and Dallas Cowboys. The National Football League's all-star game, the Pro Bowl, was held annually at the stadium from 1980 through 2016, except in 2010 and 2015. Baseball The stadium served as the home field for the Hawaii Islanders, a Triple-A team competing in the Pacific Coast League, from 1976 to 1987. In , a three-game regular season series between St. Louis Cardinals and San Diego Padres of Major League Baseball (MLB) was held at the stadium. The series was played as a doubleheader on April 19 and a nationally broadcast (ESPN) game on April 20. In 1979, the Padres had played a three-game preseason series against the Seibu Lions of Japan's Pacific League at the stadium. Soccer On April 7, 1976, the Aloha Soccer Festival triple-header was held at the stadium. In the feature match, Pele scored four goals as his New York Cosmos defeated Japan, 5-0, in front of a crowd of 21,705. (In the other matches, the NASL's San Diego Jaws routed the Hawaii All-Stars, 6-0, while the Philippines edged Taiwan, 1-0.) Encouraged by the tournament's success, the San Antonio Thunder became Team Hawaii in 1977, bringing the NASL to the Aloha State. Pele and the Cosmos returned on April 13, 1977, as 12,877 watched New York defeat Hawaii, 2-1. (None of Team Hawaii's other twelve home games drew even half of that; they managed only 4,543 per game for the season, and moved to Tulsa in 1978.) Aloha Stadium hosted the inaugural Pan-Pacific Championship (February 20–23, 2008), a knockout soccer tournament, involving four teams from Japan's J-League, North America's Major League Soccer (MLS) and Australia/New Zealand's A-League. The 2012 Hawaiian Islands Invitational was also held at the venue. The United States women's national soccer team was scheduled play a game against Trinidad and Tobago as part of their World Cup Winning Victory Tour at the stadium on December 6, 2015; however, the game was canceled the day before gameday due to concerns over the turf being unsafe to play on. Rugby league On June 2, 2013, the stadium played host to a rugby league test match where Samoa defeated the USA 34–10. In June, the Brisbane Broncos from the Australasian-based National Rugby League (NRL) competition organized for a rugby league match to be played at Aloha Stadium against NRL rivals Penrith Panthers later in 2015. However, in September the NRL blocked the idea and the game didn't go ahead. Major League Rugby As of mid-2020, Kanaloa Hawai’i, a proposed Major League Rugby team, was planned to be based at Aloha Stadium. Graduation ceremonies Aloha Stadium is also the venue for five public high school graduation ceremonies: Radford High School, Mililani High School, Aiea High School, James Campbell High School, and Pearl City High School. Concerts See also List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums Weathering steel References External links American football venues in Hawaii Baseball venues in Hawaii College football venues Defunct minor league baseball venues Defunct baseball venues in the United States Hawaii Rainbow Warriors football High school football venues in the United States NCAA bowl game venues North American Soccer League (1968–1984) stadiums Rugby league stadiums in the United States The Hawaiians Aloha Soccer venues in Hawaii Sports in Honolulu Sports venues completed in 1975 Buildings and structures in Honolulu Tourist attractions in Honolulu 1975 establishments in Hawaii Kanaloa Hawai’i

357748

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20British%20film%20certificates

History of British film certificates

This article chronicles the history of British film certificates. Overview The UK's film ratings are decided by the British Board of Film Classification and have been since 1912. Previously, there were no agreed rating standards, and local councils imposed their ownoften differingconditions or restrictions. For cinema releases, the BBFC has no legal power (technically, films do not even have to be submitted for classification), as it falls to councils to decide who should be admitted to a certain film, but they generally apply the BBFC's certificates, effectively making them legally binding. In exceptional cases, councils may impose their own conditions, either raising or lowering the minimum entry age from the certificate, banning a certified film outright, or setting their own minimum entry age for films that have never been submitted for BBFC certification, or which have been refused a certificate by the Board. Prior to 1985, there were no legally binding ratings on video releases. The Video Recordings Act 1984 introduced new legal powers to certify video releases independently from any existing cinema certificate, with the BBFC being required to rate every new video release (except those exempted from classification) to determine the minimum age of people to whom the recording can be supplied, whether by sale or rental. In August 2009 it was discovered that the Video Recordings Act 1984 never had legal effect, due to a technical error when the terms of the act were not communicated to the European Commission. The relevant provisions were re-enacted by Parliament as the Video Recordings Act 2010. The following list chronicles the BBFC's ratings system from its inception to the present. In each section, italics indicates when a certificate has changed since the previous system. History 1912–1932 At first, there were just two advisory certificates. In Ireland, following the independence of the Irish Free State in 1922 (now the Republic of Ireland), the Irish Film Censor's Office was created in 1923 in place of the BBFC. This was renamed the Irish Film Classification Office in 2008. 1932–1951 An H (Passed as Horrific) certificate was added in 1932 to alert parents to horror-themed material. 1951–1970 For the first time, a compulsory certificate, X (Passed as Extremely Graphic), was introduced allowing only those aged 16 and older to enter. This replaced the H certificate. 1970–1982 On 1 July 1970 the A certificate was split into two: the A certificate now allowed those of all ages to be admitted, but warned parents that they may not wish children under 8 to watch the film, while the new AA allowed only those aged 14 or over to be admitted. As there was now a mandatory certificate at 14, the X certificate was modified to raise its age from 16 to 18. 1982–1985 On 1 November 1982 the ratings system was completely overhauled with only the U certificate remaining unchanged (though its description was slightly modified). The A certificate was replaced by PG, which was now completely advisory. The age of AA was raised a year and the certificate was renamed 15. The X certificate was unchanged but renamed 18 due to the lewd reputation that the letter X had acquired. A new R18 certificate was introduced for sexually explicit films. In order to show R18 films, cinemas must be licensed members-only clubs (previously, a loophole allowed these clubs to show such films unrated). 1985–1989 The Video Recordings Act 1984 gave the BBFC the legal responsibility to rate all videos. The current certificates were all used and were also modified and coloured. A new Uc certificate was introduced for videos only to indicate a recording that is especially suitable for young children to watch on their own. Those under the age of a certificate could not buy or rent a video with that certificate. Shops wishing to sell or rent R18 videos had to apply for a licence. Video releases in this period often featured unofficial logos with a plain background. 1989–2002 Due to the large gap between PG and 15 and industry pressure regarding Batman, a 12 certificate was introduced on 1 August 1989. However, it was for cinema use only and did not cover videos. From this point on video releases featured the official BBFC logos. The 12 certificate was eventually introduced for videos on 1 July 1994. As the 12 certificate did not apply to video releases before July 1994, several films which have been issued a 12 classification for cinema release, a decision had to be made regarding which rating was suitable for a video release and if a 15 certificate was deemed too high a rating for a particular film, a PG certificate was given with possible cuts to fit the rating. Films which received the 12 classification for cinema, and 15 classification for video include Uncle Buck, which later passed with 12 for video on re-submission, and Nuns on the Run, which currently remains 15, with re-submission. All of the symbols were also graphically edited. In 2002, the cinema 12 certificate was modified and renamed 12A. Those under 12 could now be admitted to 12A films, provided that they were accompanied by an adult aged at least 18 years old, although the BBFC recommends that 12A films are generally unsuitable for children under 12 years old. Contrary to popular belief, the certificate was not introduced for the film Spider-Man, the first film to receive it was actually The Bourne Identity. However, Spider-Man and other films still on general release at the time were reclassified as 12A. Introduction of the 12A followed two years of consultation and a trial period in Norwich, during which time the certificate was known as PG-12 (see below). The video 12 certificate remained unchanged. 2002–2020 In September 2002, all of the symbols were graphically modernised but retained all their main features (colour, shape, etc.). The Uc certificate was retired in 2009, and replaced with BBFCInsight which states where works are 'particularly suitable for pre-school children'; however, older DVDs may still carry the Uc certificate. The consumer advice for the U certificate was updated to advise parents to check the film in case of children under the age of 4 and PG in case of children under 8. 2019–present In October 2019, for the first time all of the symbols were redesigned for digital streaming services and theatrical releases. However, the packaged media continued to only use the previous symbols until late April 2020, although a transition period was allowed for video releases to use either the old or new symbols until 5 October 2020, after which all packaged media must by law use the new symbols. The BBFCInsight was replaced with ratings info. Non-standard certificates and ratings See also BBFC 18 certificate R18 certificate Motion picture rating systems References External links Official website British Board of Film Classification British history timelines

357750

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Love%20the%20%2780s%20Strikes%20Back

I Love the '80s Strikes Back

I Love the '80s Strikes Back is a miniseries and the third installment of the I Love the... series on VH1 in which various music and TV personalities reminisce about 1980s popular culture in a mostly humorous manner. The series premiered on October 20, 2003, and is a sequel to I Love the '80s. The sequel designation is in the reference to The Empire Strikes Back. Recurring segments Unfinished Thoughts: Donal Logue gives an unfinished thought on a pop culture event from each year. Break Up Songs: Boy George (Culture Club) presents the breakup songs for each year. Hip-Hop Jams: Doug E. Fresh presents the hip-hop jam for each year. Public Service Announcements: A public service announcement from each year is presented. Nerds: Gedde Watanabe (Sixteen Candles) presents the nerds for each year. What the F@#$! Moments: Gilbert Gottfried presents the "What the F@#$!" moment (i.e., blunder) for each year. During the credits of every episode, a clip from a popular music video was played without any type of commentary. These were usually replaced with a show promo by VH1. Topics covered by year 1980 American Gigolo Too Close For Comfort Devo's "Whip It" Richie Rich Grey Poupon Superman II The Plastic Man Comedy/Adventure Show Flash Gordon Michael Jackson's "Rock with You" Real People The Blues Brothers Eight Is Enough Solid Gold Satin jackets Stir Crazy Private Benjamin Alice Friendship bracelets and ribbon barrettes Cheap Trick's "I Want You To Want Me" Hungry Hungry Hippos Friday the 13th Break Up Songs of 1980: The Cure's "Boys Don't Cry"; KC and the Sunshine Band's "Please Don't Go"; and Hall & Oates's "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin" Unfinished Thoughts of 1980: Superman Hip-Hop Jam of 1980: "Rapper's Delight" by Sugar Hill Gang PSA of 1980: The Bod Squad's "Don't Drown Your Food" PSA (healthy eating) Nerds of 1980: Steve Jobs, Elvis Costello, and C-3PO (The Empire Strikes Back) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1980: Alvin and the Chipmunks released a punk album called, Chipmunk Punk Ending Music Video: "I Will Follow" by U2 1981 Dynasty Smurfs Journey's Escape On Golden Pond Billy Squier's "The Stroke" Endless Love Magnum, P.I. Rick James' "Super Freak" Iron-on decals The Fall Guy The Rolling Stones' Tattoo You Tour Fernando Valenzuela Hart to Hart Benetton Benson Ronald Reagan likes Jelly Belly Jelly shoes Clash of the Titans Simon and Garfunkel's concert in Central Park Mommie Dearest Unfinished Thoughts of 1981: Journey Break Up Songs of 1981: The Cars' "Since You're Gone"; The Human League's "Don't You Want Me"; and The Greg Kihn Band's "The Breakup Song (They Don't Write 'Em)" Hip-Hop Jam of 1981: "The Breaks" by Kurtis Blow PSA of 1981: Think Before You Drink (Anti-Drinking Ad starring Brooke Shields) Nerds of 1981: Prince Charles, Ric Ocasek (The Cars), and Bill Gates The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1981: The USDA proposed to cut school lunch programs by classifying ketchup as a school lunch vegetable Ending Music Video: "Bette Davis Eyes" by Kim Carnes 1982 Fame Annie Steve Miller Band's "Abracadabra" Tootsie ColecoVision John Mellencamp Wayne Gretzky Laura Branigan's "Gloria" The Toy Conan the Barbarian and The Beastmaster Men at Work KangaROOS Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior T. J. Hooker The Pointer Sisters' "I'm So Excited" An Officer and a Gentleman G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero Musical Youth's "Pass the Dutchie" Pink Floyd – The Wall Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan Break Up Songs of 1982: Culture Club's "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me"; Asia's "Only Time Will Tell"; and Quarterflash's "Harden My Heart" PSA of 1982: Alternate Escape Routes in case of a fire ("Learn not to burn") Starring Dick Van Dyke Hip-Hop Jam of 1982: "Planet Rock" by Afrika Bambaataa & the Soulsonic Force Unfinished Thoughts of 1982: The Beastmaster Nerds of 1982: Thomas Dolby ("She Blinded Me with Science"), Skippy (Family Ties), and Sarah Jessica Parker (Square Pegs) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1982: Yale University offers a 14-week course on mastering the Rubik's Cube Ending Music Video: "Heat of the Moment" by Asia 1983 Richard Simmons Lionel Richie's "All Night Long (All Night)" Staying Alive Klondike bar The Thorn Birds Risky Business Sunglasses The Day After The Outsiders Cujo and Christine Snausages (dog treats) Chicken McNuggets Stray Cats' "Rock This Town" Donkey Kong Culture Club Yentl KISS takes off their makeup Martina Navratilova Fraggle Rock V Break Up Songs of 1983: Bonnie Tyler's "Total Eclipse of the Heart"; Journey's "Separate Ways (Worlds Apart)"; and Naked Eyes' "Always Something There to Remind Me" PSA of 1983: "We're not candy!" (about kids finding pills out of the bottle and accidentally eating them) by The Poison Control Center Hip-Hop Jam of 1983: "White Lines (Don't Don't Do It)" by Grandmaster Melle Mel Unfinished Thoughts of 1983: The Day After and Snausages Nerds of 1983: Nerds Candy, LeVar Burton (Reading Rainbow), and Simon (Alvin and the Chipmunks) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1983: The Beach Boys were banned playing a July 4th celebration Ending Music Video: "The Safety Dance" by Men Without Hats 1984 The Karate Kid Van Halen's 1984 The wave The Cars' "Drive" Beverly Hills Cop Cagney & Lacey Menudo Scratch and sniff and Trapper Keeper A Nightmare on Elm Street Thompson Twins My Little Pony and Glo Worm Rockwell's "Somebody's Watching Me" Splash and Bachelor Party (both starring Tom Hanks) Gremlins The Burning Bed Tina Turner Stirrup pants Billy Idol Revenge of the Nerds Break Up Songs of 1984: Night Ranger's "Sister Christian"; Chicago's "Hard Habit to Break"; and Steve Perry's "Oh Sherrie" Unfinished Thoughts of 1984: Scratch and sniff Hip-Hop Jam of 1984: "Roxanne, Roxanne" by UTFO PSA of 1984: McGruff the Crime Dog's "Take A Bite Out of Crime" (subject: getting into cars with strangers) Nerds of 1984: Ed Grimley (SCTV and Saturday Night Live), Alex Trebek (Jeopardy!), and Long Duk Dong (Sixteen Candles) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1984: President Ronald Reagan makes a bad joke about bombing the Soviet Union Ending Music Video: "Relax" by Frankie Goes To Hollywood 1985 Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous Rambo: First Blood Part II Crack epidemic Dead or Alive's "You Spin Me Round (Like a Record)" Teen Wolf Inspector Gadget Remington Steele Falco's "Rock Me Amadeus" Jenga Tears for Fears Bobby Knight's explosive temper and getting ejected from the game vs. Purdue The People's Court Dionne Warwick's "That's What Friends Are For" 227 North and South Foreigner's "I Want to Know What Love Is" Mr. Belvedere New Coke Jem Weird Science Unfinished Thoughts of 1985: Crack cocaine Break Up Songs of 1985: Mr. Mister's "Broken Wings"; Klymaxx's "I Miss You"; and Simple Minds' "Don't You (Forget About Me)" Hip-Hop Jam of 1985: "The Show" by Doug E. Fresh PSA of 1985: Bob Barker about AIDS (debunking the misconception of getting AIDS from cats) Nerds of 1985: Crispin Glover (Back to the Future), Lukas Haas (Witness), and Larry King (Larry King Live) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1985: Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus "unicorns" were actually goats with surgically fused horns Ending Music Video: "Take On Me" by a-ha 1986 Pee-wee's Playhouse Jolt Cola Bon Jovi's Slippery When Wet L.A. Gear Paul Simon's "You Can Call Me Al" Soul Man Rainbow Brite The Bangles' "Walk Like an Egyptian" Dallas episode "Bobby Ewing Comes Back to Life" Howard the Duck About Last Night... The Mystery of Al Capone's Vault Ocean Pacific Gloria Estefan's "Conga" L.A. Law The Golden Child Double Dare Garbage Pail Kids Michael Jordan Don Johnson's "Heartbeat" Joe Isuzu The Fly Unfinished Thoughts of 1986: Bon Jovi Break Up Songs of 1986: Howard Jones' "No One Is to Blame"; Crowded House's "Don't Dream It's Over"; and Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark's "If You Leave" Hip-Hop Jam of 1986: "Walk This Way" by Run-D.M.C. and Aerosmith PSA of 1986: Rock Against Drugs (Aimee Mann of 'Til Tuesday) Nerds of 1986: Willie Tanner (ALF), Rick Moranis (Little Shop of Horrors), and Cliff Clavin (Cheers) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1986: Fred Grandy (who played "Gopher" on, The Love Boat ) runs for Congress in Iowa and wins Ending Music Video: "Dancing on the Ceiling" by Lionel Richie 1987 Beauty and the Beast Whitesnake's "Here I Go Again" Scruples The Fat Boys Flowers in the Attic LL Cool J Macho Movies (specifically Predator, RoboCop, and Over the Top) Doc Martens Michael Jackson's "Bad" Full House Less Than Zero Jody Watley Remote Control Biker shorts (Lycra) Thundercats Raising Arizona Suzanne Vega's "Luka" A Different World Genesis' "Land of Confusion" Steve Guttenberg The Princess Bride Unfinished Thoughts of 1987: Scruples Break Up Songs of 1987: U2's "With or Without You"; Whitney Houston's "Didn't We Almost Have It All"; and Poison's "I Won't Forget You" Hip-Hop Jam of 1987: "Push It" by Salt-n-Pepa & Spinderella PSA of 1987: Rock Against Drugs (Anti-Drug) Nerds of 1987: Revenge of the Nerds II: Nerds in Paradise, Bud Bundy (Married... with Children), and Gilbert Gottfried The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1987: Vanna White's autobiography book, Vanna Speaks, became a best-seller Ending Music Video: "Respect Yourself" by Bruce Willis 1988 Big Growing Pains MTV's Headbangers Ball Ripped jeans Beetlejuice Who Framed Roger Rabbit Billy Ocean's "Get Outta My Dreams, Get Into My Car" Jamaica national bobsled team My Two Dads Garfield stuffed animals Beaches Charles in Charge A Fish Called Wanda Ickey Woods (The "Ickey Shuffle") and the Bash Brothers (Jose Canseco and Mark McGwire) Hypercolor T-shirts Def Leppard's "Pour Some Sugar On Me" Young Guns Alternative rock (Specifically R.E.M., Jane's Addiction, and Sonic Youth) Vice President George H. W. Bush elected President of the United States Chia Pet Tracy Chapman Coming to America Break Up Songs of 1988: Poison's "Every Rose Has Its Thorn"; Cinderella's "Don't Know What You Got (Till It's Gone)"; and Chicago's "Look Away" Unfinished Thoughts of 1988: Garfield Hip-Hop Jam of 1988: "Mary, Mary" by Run-D.M.C. PSA of 1988: Sylvester Stallone for Give The Gift Of Literacy Nerds of 1988: Mike Mills (R.E.M.), Paul Pfeiffer (The Wonder Years), and Miles Silverberg (Murphy Brown) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1988: The last episode of St. Elsewhere reveals that the entire series has taken place inside the autistic child's mind Ending Music Video: "Loco-Motion" by Kylie Minogue 1989 Weekend at Bernie's Doogie Howser M.D. Samantha Fox's "I Wanna Have Some Fun" The Clapper Field of Dreams Pete Rose Biz Markie's "Just a Friend" Thirtysomething Yuppie Richard Marx Driving Miss Daisy Zsa Zsa Gabor slaps a cop Guns N' Roses' "Patience" Rock N Roll Flowers (sound detection dancing flowers) Beastie Boys' Paul's Boutique Bo Jackson Designing Women York Peppermint Pattie House of Style Choose Your Own Adventure books When Harry Met Sally... Break Up Songs of 1989: Michael Bolton's "How Am I Supposed to Live Without You"; Janet Jackson's "Miss You Much"; and Tom Petty's "Free Fallin'" Unfinished Thoughts of 1989: Pete Rose Hip-Hop Jam of 1989: "Don't Believe the Hype" by Public Enemy PSA of 1989: Magic Johnson on Designated Drivers Nerds of 1989: Screech Powers (Saved by the Bell), Woody Allen (New York Stories), and Steve Urkel (Family Matters) The What The F#?%!!! Moment of 1989: 87-year-old Carrie Stringfellow nearly gets embalmed at a Springfield, Ohio funeral home Ending Music Video: "Buffalo Stance" by Neneh Cherry External links I Love the '80s Strikes Back on vh1.com Nostalgia television shows Nostalgia television in the United States VH1 original programming 2000s American television miniseries 2003 American television series debuts 2003 American television series endings

357756

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliovirus

Poliovirus

A poliovirus, the causative agent of polio (also known as poliomyelitis), is a serotype of the species Enterovirus C, in the family of Picornaviridae. There are three poliovirus serotypes: types 1, 2, and 3. Poliovirus is composed of an RNA genome and a protein capsid. The genome is a single-stranded positive-sense RNA (+ssRNA) genome that is about 7500 nucleotides long. The viral particle is about 30 nm in diameter with icosahedral symmetry. Because of its short genome and its simple composition—only RNA and a nonenveloped icosahedral protein coat that encapsulates it, poliovirus is widely regarded as the simplest significant virus. Poliovirus was first isolated in 1909 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper. The structure of the virus was first elucidated in 1958 using x-ray diffraction by a team at Birkbeck College led by Rosalind Franklin, showing the polio virus to have icosahedral symmetry. In 1981, the poliovirus genome was published by two different teams of researchers: by Vincent Racaniello and David Baltimore at MIT and by Naomi Kitamura and Eckard Wimmer at Stony Brook University. The three-dimensional structure of poliovirus was determined in 1985 by James Hogle at Scripps Research Institute using X-ray crystallography. Poliovirus is one of the most well-characterized viruses, and has become a useful model system for understanding the biology of RNA viruses. Replication cycle Poliovirus infects human cells by binding to an immunoglobulin-like receptor, CD155 (also known as the poliovirus receptor or PVR) on the cell surface. Interaction of poliovirus and CD155 facilitates an irreversible conformational change of the viral particle necessary for viral entry. Following attachment to the host cell membrane, entry of the viral nucleic acid was thought to occur one of two ways: via the formation of a pore in the plasma membrane through which the RNA is then “injected” into the host cell cytoplasm, or via virus uptake by receptor-mediated endocytosis. Recent experimental evidence supports the latter hypothesis and suggests that poliovirus binds to CD155 and is taken up by endocytosis. Immediately after internalization of the particle, the viral RNA is released. Poliovirus is a positive-stranded RNA virus. Thus, the genome enclosed within the viral particle can be used as messenger RNA and immediately translated by the host cell. On entry, the virus hijacks the cell's translation machinery, causing inhibition of cellular protein synthesis in favor of virus-specific protein production. Unlike the host cell's mRNAs, the 5' end of poliovirus RNA is extremely long—over 700 nucleotides—and highly structured. This region of the viral genome is called an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). This region consists of many secondary structures and 3 or 4 domains. Domain 3 is a self folding RNA element that contains conserved structural motifs in various stable stem loops linked by two four-way junctions. As IRES consists of many domains, these domains themselves consist of many loops that contribute to modified translation without a 5’ end cap by hijacking ribosomes. The interaction loop of domain 3 is known as GNRA tetraloop. The residues of adenosines A180 and A181 in the GUAA tetraloop form hydrogen bonds via non canonical base pairing interactions with the base pairs of the receptors C230/G242 and G231/C241, respectively. Genetic mutations in this region prevent viral protein production. The first IRES to be discovered was found in poliovirus RNA. Poliovirus mRNA is translated as one long polypeptide. This polypeptide is then autocleaved by internal proteases into about 10 individual viral proteins. Not all cleavages occur with the same efficiency. Therefore, the amounts of proteins produced by the polypeptide cleavage vary: for example, smaller amounts of 3Dpol are produced than those of capsid proteins, VP1–4. These individual viral proteins are: 3Dpol, an RNA dependent RNA polymerase whose function is to make multiple copies of the viral RNA genome 2Apro and 3Cpro/3CDpro, proteases which cleave the viral polypeptide VPg (3B), a small protein that binds viral RNA and is necessary for synthesis of viral positive and negative strand RNA 2BC, 2B, 2C (an ATPase), 3AB, 3A, 3B proteins which comprise the protein complex needed for virus replication. VP0, which is further cleaved into VP2 and VP4, VP1 and VP3, proteins of the viral capsid After translation, transcription and genome replication which involve a single process, synthesis of (+) RNA) is realized. For the infecting (+)RNA to be replicated, multiple copies of (−)RNA must be transcribed and then used as templates for (+)RNA synthesis. Replicative intermediates (RIs), which are an association of RNA molecules consisting of a template RNA and several growing RNAs of varying length, are seen in both the replication complexes for (−)RNAs and (+)RNAs. For synthesis of each negative-strand and positive-strand RNAs, VPg protein in the poliovirus works as a primer. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of the poliovirus adds two uracil nucleotides (UU) to VPg protein utilizing the poly(A) tail at the 3′-end of the +ssRNA genome as a pattern for synthesis of the negative-strand antigenomic RNA. To initiate this −ssRNA synthesis, the tyrosine hydroxyl of VPg is needed. But for the initiation of positive strand RNA synthesis, CRE-dependent VPg uridylylation is needed. Which means that VPg is once more utilized as a primer however this time it adds the two uridine triphosphates using a cis-acting replication element (CRE) as a template. The CRE of poliovirus is identified as an unachieved base-paired stem and a final loop consisting of 61 nt. The CRE is found in enteroviruses. It is a highly preserved secondary RNA structural element and bedded in the genome's polyprotein-coding region. The complex can be translocated to the 5' region of the genome that have no coding activity, at least 3.7-kb distant from the initial location. This process can occurs without negatively influencing activity. CRE copies don't influence replication negatively. Uridylylation process of VPg that takes place at CRE needs the presence of 3CDpro that is an RNA binding protein. It is attached to the CRE directly and specifically. Because of its presence VPg can bind the CRE properly and primary production proceeds without problems. Some of the (+) RNA molecules are used as templates for further (−) RNA synthesis, some function as mRNA, and some are destined to be the genomes of progeny virions. In the assembly of new virus particles (i.e. the packaging of progeny genome into a procapsid which can survive outside the host cell), including, respectively: Five copies each of VP0, VP3, and VP1 whose N termini and VP4 form interior surface of capsid, assemble into a ‘pentamer’ and 12 pentamers form a procapsid. (The outer surface of capsid is consisting of VP1, VP2, VP3; C termini of VP1 and VP3 form the canyons which around each of the vertices; around this time, the 60 copies of VP0 are cleaved into VP4 and VP2.) Each procapsid acquires a copy of the virus genome, with VPg still attached at the 5' end. Fully assembled poliovirus leaves the confines of its host cell by lysis 4 to 6 hours following initiation of infection in cultured mammalian cells. The mechanism of viral release from the cell is unclear, but each dying cell can release up to 10,000 polio virions. Drake demonstrated that poliovirus is able to undergo multiplicity reactivation. That is, when polioviruses were irradiated with UV light and allowed to undergo multiple infections of host cells, viable progeny could be formed even at UV doses that inactivated the virus in single infections. Poliovirus can undergo genetic recombination when at least two viral genomes are present in the same host cell. Kirkegaard and Baltimore presented evidence that RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) catalyzes recombination by a copy choice mechanism in which the RdRP switches between (+)ssRNA templates during negative strand synthesis. Recombination in RNA viruses appears to be an adaptive mechanism for repairing genome damage. Origin and serotypes Poliovirus is structurally similar to other human enteroviruses (coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and rhinoviruses), which also use immunoglobulin-like molecules to recognize and enter host cells. Phylogenetic analysis of the RNA and protein sequences of poliovirus suggests that it may have evolved from a C-cluster Coxsackie A virus ancestor, that arose through a mutation within the capsid. The distinct speciation of poliovirus probably occurred as a result of a change in cellular receptor specificity from intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), used by C-cluster Coxsackie A viruses, to CD155; leading to a change in pathogenicity, and allowing the virus to infect nervous tissue. The mutation rate in the virus is relatively high even for an RNA virus with a synonymous substitution rate of 1.0 x 10−2 substitutions/site/year and non synonymous substitution rate of 3.0 x 10−4 substitutions/site/year. Base distribution within the genome is not random with adenosine being less common than expected at the 5' end and higher at the 3' end. Codon use is not random with codons ending in adenosine being favoured and those ending in cytosine or guanine being avoided. Codon use differs between the three genotypes and appears to be driven by mutation rather than selection. The three serotypes of poliovirus, PV-1, PV-2, and PV-3, each have a slightly different capsid protein. Capsid proteins define cellular receptor specificity and virus antigenicity. PV-1 is the most common form encountered in nature, but all three forms are extremely infectious. As of March 2020, wild PV-1 is highly localized to regions in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Certification of the eradication of indigenous transmission occurred in September 2015 for wild PV-2, after last being detected in 1999, and in October 2019 for wild PV-3, after last being detected in 2012. Specific strains of each serotype are used to prepare vaccines against polio. Inactive polio vaccine is prepared by formalin inactivation of three wild, virulent reference strains, Mahoney or Brunenders (PV-1), MEF-1/Lansing (PV-2), and Saukett/Leon (PV-3). Oral polio vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) strains of the three serotypes of poliovirus. Passaging the virus strains in monkey kidney epithelial cells introduces mutations in the viral IRES, and hinders (or attenuates) the ability of the virus to infect nervous tissue. Polioviruses were formerly classified as a distinct species belonging to the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. In 2008, the Poliovirus species was eliminated and the three serotypes were assigned to the species Human enterovirus C (later renamed Enterovirus C), in the genus Enterovirus in the family Picornaviridae. The type species of the genus Enterovirus was changed from Poliovirus to (Human) Enterovirus C. Pathogenesis The primary determinant of infection for any virus is its ability to enter a cell and produce additional infectious particles. The presence of CD155 is thought to define the animals and tissues that can be infected by poliovirus. CD155 is found (outside of laboratories) only on the cells of humans, higher primates, and Old World monkeys. Poliovirus is, however, strictly a human pathogen, and does not naturally infect any other species (although chimpanzees and Old World monkeys can be experimentally infected). The CD155 gene appears to have been subject to positive selection. The protein has several domains of which domain D1 contains the polio virus binding site. Within this domain, 37 amino acids are responsible for binding the virus. Poliovirus is an enterovirus. Infection occurs via the fecal–oral route, meaning that one ingests the virus and viral replication occurs in the alimentary tract. Virus is shed in the feces of infected individuals. In 95% of cases only a primary, transient presence of viremia (virus in the bloodstream) occurs, and the poliovirus infection is asymptomatic. In about 5% of cases, the virus spreads and replicates in other sites such as brown fat, reticuloendothelial tissue, and muscle. The sustained viral replication causes secondary viremia and leads to the development of minor symptoms such as fever, headache, and sore throat. Paralytic poliomyelitis occurs in less than 1% of poliovirus infections. Paralytic disease occurs when the virus enters the central nervous system (CNS) and replicates in motor neurons within the spinal cord, brain stem, or motor cortex, resulting in the selective destruction of motor neurons leading to temporary or permanent paralysis. This is a very rare event in babies, who still have anti-poliovirus antibodies acquired from their mothers. In rare cases, paralytic poliomyelitis leads to respiratory arrest and death. In cases of paralytic disease, muscle pain and spasms are frequently observed prior to onset of weakness and paralysis. Paralysis typically persists from days to weeks prior to recovery. In many respects, the neurological phase of infection is thought to be an accidental diversion of the normal gastrointestinal infection. The mechanisms by which poliovirus enters the CNS are poorly understood. Three nonmutually exclusive hypotheses have been suggested to explain its entry. All theories require primary viremia. The first hypothesis predicts that virions pass directly from the blood into the central nervous system by crossing the blood–brain barrier independent of CD155. A second hypothesis suggests that the virions are transported from peripheral tissues that have been bathed in the viremic blood, for example muscle tissue, to the spinal cord through nerve pathways via retrograde axonal transport. A third hypothesis is that the virus is imported into the CNS via infected monocytes or macrophages. Poliomyelitis is a disease of the central nervous system. However, CD155 is believed to be present on the surface of most or all human cells. Therefore, receptor expression does not explain why poliovirus preferentially infects certain tissues. This suggests that tissue tropism is determined after cellular infection. Recent work has suggested that the type I interferon response (specifically that of interferon alpha and beta) is an important factor that defines which types of cells support poliovirus replication. In mice expressing CD155 (through genetic engineering) but lacking the type I interferon receptor, poliovirus not only replicates in an expanded repertoire of tissue types, but these mice are also able to be infected orally with the virus. Immune system avoidance Poliovirus uses two key mechanisms to evade the immune system. First, it is capable of surviving the highly acidic conditions of the stomach, allowing the virus to infect the host and spread throughout the body via the lymphatic system. Second, because it can replicate very quickly, the virus overwhelms the host organs before an immune response can be mounted. If detail is given at the attachment phase; poliovirus with canyons on the virion surface have virus attachment sites located in pockets at the canyon bases. The canyons are too narrow for access by antibodies, so the virus attachment sites are protected from the host's immune surveillance, while the remainder of the virion surface can mutate to avoid the host's immune response. Individuals who are exposed to poliovirus, either through infection or by immunization with polio vaccine, develop immunity. In immune individuals, antibodies against poliovirus are present in the tonsils and gastrointestinal tract (specifically IgA antibodies) and are able to block poliovirus replication; IgG and IgM antibodies against poliovirus can prevent the spread of the virus to motor neurons of the central nervous system. Infection with one serotype of poliovirus does not provide immunity against the other serotypes; however, second attacks within the same individual are extremely rare. PVR transgenic mouse Although humans are the only known natural hosts of poliovirus, monkeys can be experimentally infected and they have long been used to study poliovirus. In 1990–91, a small animal model of poliomyelitis was developed by two laboratories. Mice were engineered to express a human receptor to poliovirus (hPVR). Unlike normal mice, transgenic poliovirus receptor (TgPVR) mice are susceptible to poliovirus injected intravenously or intramuscularly, and when injected directly into the spinal cord or the brain. Upon infection, TgPVR mice show signs of paralysis that resemble those of poliomyelitis in humans and monkeys, and the central nervous systems of paralyzed mice are histocytochemically similar to those of humans and monkeys. This mouse model of human poliovirus infection has proven to be an invaluable tool in understanding poliovirus biology and pathogenicity. Three distinct types of TgPVR mice have been well studied: In TgPVR1 mice, the transgene encoding the human PVR was incorporated into mouse chromosome 4. These mice express the highest levels of the transgene and the highest sensitivity to poliovirus. TgPVR1 mice are susceptible to poliovirus through the intraspinal, intracerebral, intramuscular, and intravenous pathways, but not through the oral route. TgPVR21 mice have incorporated the human PVR at chromosome 13. These mice are less susceptible to poliovirus infection through the intracerebral route, possibly because they express decreased levels of hPVR. TgPVR21 mice have been shown to be susceptible to poliovirus infection through intranasal inoculation, and may be useful as a mucosal infection model. In TgPVR5 mice, the human transgene is located on chromosome 12. These mice exhibit the lowest levels of hPVR expression and are the least susceptible to poliovirus infection. Recently, a fourth TgPVR mouse model was developed. These "cPVR" mice carry hPVR cDNA, driven by a β-actin promoter, and have proven susceptible to poliovirus through intracerebral, intramuscular, and intranasal routes. In addition, these mice are capable of developing the bulbar form of polio after intranasal inoculation. The development of the TgPVR mouse has had a profound effect on oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) production. Previously, monitoring the safety of OPV had to be performed using monkeys, because only primates are susceptible to the virus. In 1999, the World Health Organization approved the use of the TgPVR mouse as an alternative method of assessing the effectiveness of the vaccine against poliovirus type-3. In 2000, the mouse model was approved for tests of vaccines against type-1 and type-2 poliovirus. Cloning and synthesis In 1981, Racaniello and Baltimore used recombinant DNA technology to generate the first infectious clone of an animal RNA virus, poliovirus. DNA encoding the RNA genome of poliovirus was introduced into cultured mammalian cells and infectious poliovirus was produced. Creation of the infectious clone propelled understanding of poliovirus biology, and has become a standard technology used to study many other viruses. In 2002, Eckard Wimmer's group at Stony Brook University succeeded in synthesizing poliovirus from its chemical code, producing the world's first synthetic virus. Scientists first converted poliovirus's published RNA sequence, 7741 bases long, into a DNA sequence, as DNA was easier to synthesize. Short fragments of this DNA sequence were obtained by mail-order, and assembled. The complete viral genome was then assembled by a gene synthesis company. Nineteen markers were incorporated into the synthesized DNA, so that it could be distinguished from natural poliovirus. Enzymes were used to convert the DNA back into RNA, its natural state. Other enzymes were then used to translate the RNA into a polypeptide, producing functional viral particle. This whole painstaking process took two years. The newly minted synthetic virus was injected into PVR transgenic mice, to determine if the synthetic version was able to cause disease. The synthetic virus was able to replicate, infect, and cause paralysis or death in mice. However, the synthetic version was between 1,000 and 10,000 times weaker than the original virus, probably due to one of the added markers. Modification for therapies A modification of the poliovirus, called PVSRIPO, was tested in early clinical trials as a possible treatment for cancer. References External links ICTVdb virus classification 2006 Home of Picornaviruses (latest updates of species, serotypes, & proposed changes) 3D macromolecular structures of the Poliovirus archived in the EM Data Bank(EMDB) Enteroviruses Polio Infraspecific virus taxa

357757

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urticaceae

Urticaceae

The Urticaceae are a family, the nettle family, of flowering plants. The family name comes from the genus Urtica. The Urticaceae include a number of well-known and useful plants, including nettles in the genus Urtica, ramie (Boehmeria nivea), māmaki (Pipturus albidus), and ajlai (Debregeasia saeneb). The family includes about 2,625 species, grouped into 53 genera according to the database of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Christenhusz and Byng (2016). The largest genera are Pilea (500 to 715 species), Elatostema (300 species), Urtica (80 species), and Cecropia (75 species). Cecropia contains many myrmecophytes. Urticaceae species can be found worldwide, apart from the polar regions. Description Urticaceae species can be shrubs (e.g. Pilea), lianas, herbs (e.g. Urtica, Parietaria), or, rarely, trees (Dendrocnide, Cecropia). Their leaves are usually entire and bear stipules. Urticating (stinging) hairs are often present. They have usually unisexual flowers and can be both monoecious or dioecious. They are wind-pollinated. Most disperse their pollen when the stamens are mature and their filaments straighten explosively, a peculiar and conspicuously specialised mechanism. Taxonomy The APG II system puts the Urticaceae in the order Rosales, while older systems consider them part of the Urticales, along with Ulmaceae, Moraceae, and Cannabaceae. APG still considers "old" Urticales a monophyletic group, but does not recognise it as an order on its own. Fossil record The fossil record of Urticaceae is scattered and mostly based on dispersed fruits. Twelve species based on fossil achenes are known from the Late Cretaceous of Central Europe. Most were assigned to the extant genera Boehmeria (three species), Debregeasia (one species) and Pouzolzia (three species), while three species were assigned to the extinct genus Urticoidea. A Colombian fossil flora of the Maastrichtian stage has yielded leaves that resemble leaves of the tribe Ceropieae. In the Cenozoic fossil leaves from the Ypresian Allenby Formation preserve distinct trichomes, and have been attributed to the Tribe Urticeae in the fossil record. The leaves had originally been identified as Rubus by earlier workers on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands, but Devore et al (2020) interpreted the preserved hairs along the stem and major veins as stinging trichomes, rather than simple hairs or thorns. Phylogeny Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships (see also ): Tribes and genera Boehmerieae Gaudich. 1830 Archiboehmeria C.J. Chen 1980 (1 sp.) Astrothalamus C.B. Rob. 1911 (1 sp.) Boehmeria Jacq. 1760 (80 spp.) Chamabainia Wight 1853 (1–2 spp.) Cypholophus Wedd. 1854 (15 spp.) Debregeasia Gaudich. 1844 (4 spp.) Gibbsia Rendle 1917 (2 spp.) Gonostegia Turcz. 1846 (5 spp.) Hemistylus Benth. 1843 (4 spp.) Neodistemon Babu & A. N. Henry 1970 (1 sp.) Neraudia Gaudich. 1830 (5 spp.) Nothocnide Blume 1856 (4 spp.) Oreocnide Miq. 1851 (15 spp.) Phenax Wedd. 1854 (12 spp.) Pipturus Wedd. 1854 (30 spp.) Pouzolzia Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (70 spp.) Rousselia Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (3 spp.) Sarcochlamys Gaudich. 1844 (1 sp.) Cecropieae Gaudich. 1830 Cecropia Loefl. 1758 (70–80 spp.) Coussapoa Aubl. 1775 (>50 spp.) Leucosyke Zoll. & Moritzi 1845 (35 spp.) Maoutia Wedd. 1854 (15 spp.) Musanga R. Br. in Tuckey 1818 (2 spp.) Myrianthus P. Beauv. 1804 [1805] (7 spp.) Pourouma Aubl. 1775 (>50 spp.) Elatostemateae Gaudich. 1830 Aboriella Bennet (1 sp.) Achudemia Blume 1856 Elatostema J.R. Forst. & G. Forst. 1775 (300 spp.) Gyrotaenia Griseb. 1861 (4 spp.) Lecanthus Wedd. 1854 (1 sp.) Meniscogyne Gagnep. 1928 (2 spp.) Myriocarpa Benth. 1844 [1846] (18 spp.) Pellionia Gaudich. 1826 (60 spp.) Petelotiella Gagnep. in Lecomte 1929 (1 spp.) Pilea Lindl. 1821 (250 spp.) Procris Comm. ex Juss. 1789 (20 spp.) Sarcopilea Urb. 1912 (1 sp.) Forsskaoleeae Gaudich. 1830 Australina Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.) Didymodoxa E. Mey. ex Wedd. 1857 (2 spp.) Droguetia Gaudich. 1830 (7 spp.) Forsskaolea L. 1764 (6 spp.) Parietarieae Gaudich. 1830 Gesnouinia Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.) Parietaria L. 1753 (20 spp.) Soleirolia Gaudich. 1830 (1 sp.) Urticeae Lamarck & DC. 1806 Dendrocnide Miq. 1851 (27 spp.) Discocnide Chew 1965 (1 sp.) Girardinia Gaudich. 1830 (2 spp.) Hesperocnide Torr. 1857 (2 spp.) Laportea Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (21 spp.) Nanocnide Blume 1856 (2 spp.) Obetia Gaudich. 1844 (7 spp.) Poikilospermum Zipp. ex Miq. 1864 (20 spp.) Touchardia Gaudich. 1847 (1–2 spp.) Urera Gaudich. 1826 [1830] (35 spp.) Urtica L. 1753—nettle (80 spp.) Zhengyia T. Deng, D.G. Zhang & H. Sun 2013 (1 sp.) Incertae sedis Metatrophis F. Br. 1935 (1 sp.) Parsana Parsa & Maleki 1952 (1 sp.) Diseases The Urticaceae are subject to many bacterial, viral, fungal, and nematode parasitic diseases. Among them are: Bacterial leaf spot, caused by Xanthomonas campestris which affects Pellionia, Pilea, and other genera Anthracnose, a fungal disease caused by Colletotrichum capsici which affects Pilea Myrothecium leaf spot, a fungal disease caused by Myrothecium roridum which affects plants throughout the Urticaceae, as well as other angiosperms Phytophthora blight, a water mold disease caused by Phytophthora nicotianae which affects Pilea Southern blight, a fungal disease caused by Athelia rolfsii which affects both Pellionia and Pilea Image gallery References Further reading External links continuously updated. Rosid families

357760

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella%20I%20of%20Jerusalem

Isabella I of Jerusalem

Isabella I (1172 – 5 April 1205) was Queen regnant of Jerusalem from 1190 to her death. She was the daughter of Amalric I of Jerusalem and his second wife Maria Comnena. Her half-brother, Baldwin IV of Jerusalem, engaged her to Humphrey IV of Toron. Her mother's second husband, Balian of Ibelin, and his stepfather, Raynald of Châtillon, were influential members of the two baronial parties. The marriage of Isabella and Humphrey was celebrated in Kerak Castle in autumn 1183. Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria, laid siege to the fortress during the wedding, but Baldwin IV forced him to lift the siege. Baldwin IV, who suffered from lepromatous leprosy, had made his nephew (the only son of his sister, Sibylla by her first husband), Baldwin V, his heir and co-ruler, to prevent Sibylla's second husband, Guy of Lusignan, from mounting the throne. The High Court of Jerusalem stipulated that a committee of Western European rulers was entitled to choose between Sibylla and Isabella to succeed Baldwin V if he died before reaching the age of majority, but Sibylla and Guy of Lusignan were crowned soon after Baldwin V died in 1185. Guy's opponents tried to play Isabella and her husband off against him, but Humphrey did homage to the royal couple. Early life Childhood Isabella was the daughter of Amalric, King of Jerusalem, by his second wife, Maria Comnena. Maria Comnena (who was a grandniece of the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos) married Amalric on 29 August 1167. Isabella was born before September 1172. Amalric died unexpectedly on 11 July 1174. His son by his first marriage, Baldwin IV, was crowned king two weeks later. Before long, it became obvious that Baldwin suffered from lepromatous leprosy. To secure the succession of the ailing king, his sister, Sibylla, was given in marriage to William of Montferrat in November 1176, but he died seven months later. Baldwin's cousin, Philip I, Count of Flanders, who landed at Acre in August, offered Robert of Bethune for Sibylla's new husband, also proposing that Isabella (who was Baldwin's and Sibylla's half-sister) should marry Robert's younger brother, William of Bethune. The High Court of Jerusalem refused both proposals. Isabella's mother married Balian of Ibelin in autumn 1177. His brother, Baldwin of Ibelin, wanted to marry Sibylla, but the king preferred another candidate, Guy of Lusignan. After the marriage of Sibylla and Guy on Easter 1180, a division emerged between Guy of Lusignan's supporters and opponents. The first group included the mother of Baldwin IV and Sibylla, Agnes of Courtenay, her brother, Joscelin, and Raynald of Châtillon, Lord of Oultrejordain. Their opponents included Isabella's mother and stepfather, and Raymond III of Tripoli. To secure Guy's position, the king arranged the betrothal of Isabella to Raynald of Châtillon's stepson, Humphrey IV of Toron in October 1180. Isabella was sent to Kerak Castle to be educated by Humphrey's mother, Stephanie of Milly. Stephanie forbade her to pay visits to her mother and stepfather at Nablus. The relationship between Baldwin IV and Guy of Lusignan deteriorated. Baldwin IV removed Guy from the regency and denied his right of succession, making Guy's stepson (Sibylla's son from her first marriage), Baldwin V, his heir and co-ruler on 20 November 1183. A version of Ernoul's chronicle suggests that the child Baldwin V was made heir, because the ailing Baldwin IV wanted to avoid a debate between his sisters' supporters about his succession. Guy's principal supporters, Joscelin of Courtenay and Raynald of Châtillon, were not present at Baldwin V's coronation, because they attended the wedding of Isabella and Humphrey of Toron. First marriage The wedding took place in Kerak Castle. Saladin, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt and Syria laid siege to the fortress. According to Ernoul's chronicle, Stephanie of Milly sent meals to the besiegers from the feast and Saladin forbade his engineers to destroy the tower of the fortress in which Humphrey and Isabella spent the wedding night. Baldwin IV assembled a relief army and departed from Jerusalem to Kerak, although he was unable to ride a horse. Saladin lifted the siege and retreated without fight on 3 or 4 December. The dying Baldwin IV appointed Raymond of Tripoli regent for Baldwin V in April 1185. On Raymond's demand, the High Court of Jerusalem ruled that a committee consisting of the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor and the kings of France and England would be entitled to choose between Sibylla and Isabel if Baldwin V died before reaching the age of majority. Baldwin IV died on 16 March 1185. About a year and a half later (before mid-September 1186) the child Baldwin V also died. Sibylla's uncle Joscelin of Courtenay persuaded Raymond III of Tripoli and his allies to leave Jerusalem, and urged her supporters (including Raynald of Châtillon) to assemble in the town. Ignoring the 1185 ruling of the High Court, the noblemen and prelates who came to Jerusalem concluded that Sibylla was the lawful heir to her son. Those who were opposed to Sibylla (including Raymond III of Tripoli and Balian of Ibelin) assembled in Nablus. They argued that Sibylla's legitimacy was dubious, because her parents' marriage had been annulled. They also emphasized that Isabella was born after the coronation of her father. They sent envoys to Jerusalem to protest against Sibylla's coronation, but Heraclius, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, crowned her in mid-September. Heraclius also anointed Guy of Lusignan king after she placed a crown on Guy's head. On Raymond of Tripoli's proposal, the noblemen who assembled in Nablus decided that they proclaim Isabella and Humphrey of Toron queen and king. However, Humphrey (whose mother and stepfather were Sibylla's supporters) fled from Nablus to Jerusalem and did homage to Sibylla and Guy. Before long, all barons followed his example and swore fealty to the queen and her husband, with the exception of Raymond of Tripoli who left the kingdom. Saladin imposed a crushing defeat on the united army of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the Battle of Hattin on 4 July 1187. Isabella's husband was captured on the battlefield. Before long, Saladin's troops seized most towns and fortresses of the Kingdom of Jerusalem: Tiberias fell soon after the battle, Acre on 9 July, Beirut before 6 August, and Jerusalem on 2 October. Tyre was an exception, holding out for months under the command of Conrad of Montferrat who had come to the Holy Land from Italy a few weeks after the battle. Conrad regarded himself the ruler of Tyre, forbidding Guy of Lusignan to enter the town in summer 1189. Guy laid siege to Acre, but James of Avesnes, Louis III of Thuringia and other crusader commanders who came to the Holy Land also questioned his claim to leadership. Guy's wife, Sibylla, and their two daughters died in autumn 1190. Guy's opponents argued that he had only been king by marriage, and his wife's half-sister, Isabella, inherited the crown. Guy did not want to abandon his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Taking advantage of the situation, Conrad of Montferrat decided to marry Isabella. Isabella's stepfather supported Conrad's plan. Isabella resisted, but her mother put her under pressure. Maria Komnena also swore that Baldwin IV had forced the eight-year-old Isabella to marry Humphrey of Toron, whose effeminacy was well known. Before long, the papal legate, Ubaldo Lanfranchi, Archbishop of Pisa, and Philip of Dreux, Bishop of Beauvais, annulled the marriage of Isabella and Humphrey. Baldwin of Forde, Archbishop of Canterbury, forbade her to marry Conrad, stating that both Isabella and Conrad would commit adultery if they married. However, Baldwin of Forde died on 19 November 1190. Second marriage Conrad married Isabella on 24 November. Isabella returned to Humphrey the Lordship of Toron that Baldwin IV had annexed to the crown in 1180. Guy of Lusignan refused to abdicate, but most barons regarded him as the lawful monarch. Conrad and Isabella returned to Tyre. After Philip II of France, who landed at Acre on 20 April 1191, acknowledged Conrad's claim to Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan and Conrad's opponents (including Humphrey of Toron and Bohemond III of Antioch) sought assistance from Richard I of England, who decided to support them. Guy adopted the title of "king-elect of Jerusalem" in May. The crusaders captured Acre on 11 July 1191. On 28 July, Richard and Philip agreed that Guy could retain the title of king till the end of his life, but Conrad would rule Tyre, Beirut and Sidon; after Guy's death, the kingdom would be united under the rule of Conrad and Isabella or their issue. Three days later, Philip left for France and Richard became the sole supreme commander of the crusaders. The native barons remained hostile towards Guy. After Richard decided to return to England in April 1192, the barons urged him to revise the previous decision about the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Reign Election Richard held an assembly on 16 April 1192. The prelates and the noblemen who attended the meeting unanimously voted for Conrad. Richard accepted their decision, granting Cyprus to Guy in compensation for his lost kingdom. Richard dispatched his nephew Count Henry II of Champagne to inform Conrad about the barons' decision. Henry arrived at Tyre about four days later. It was agreed that Conrad and Isabella would be crowned at Acre. Isabella, who loved lingering in her bath, spent unusually much time there on 28 April. Being hungry, Conrad decided to have a dinner with Philip of Dreux, but by the time he arrived at Philip's house, the bishop had already finished his meal. Conrad wanted to return home, but two men ambushed and stabbed him in a narrow street. Most sources agree that they were sent by Rashid ad-Din Sinan, head of the Assassins. While dying, Conrad ordered Isabella not to give Tyre to anyone but Richard or to the new king of Jerusalem. When Duke Hugh III of Burgundy, the French king's lieutenant in the Holy Land, urged Isabella to deliver Tyre to him, she shut herself up in the fortress and refused to open its gates. Third marriage On learning of Conrad's assassination, Henry of Champagne, who had meanwhile returned to Acre, hurried back to Tyre. Henry, who was the nephew of both Richard of England and Philip of France, was acclaimed king by the barons and the citizens of Tyre. According to Ernoul, Henry was hesitant, because Isabella was pregnant, possibly with a son. The barons and the citizens, continued Ernoul, promised him that his children would inherit the Kingdom of Jerusalem to convince him to accept the crown. The betrothal of Henry and Isabella was announced two days after Conrad's death. The marriage was celebrated in Acre on 10 May 1192. Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, who was present for the wedding, wrote: Isabella and Conrad's child, Maria of Montferrat, was born in 1192. Henry and Isabella then had three daughters, Margaret (born 1193/1194), Alice (born 1196) and Philippa (born 1197). Henry died in 1197 when a balcony or window-trellis gave way and he fell out of a window. Fourth marriage After his death, Isabella married for a fourth time to Aimery of Cyprus, brother of Guy of Lusignan. They were crowned together as King and Queen of Jerusalem in January 1198 in Acre. They had two daughters, Sibylla (born 1198) and Melisende (born 1200), and one son, Amalric (born 1201). King Aimery died in 1205 of food poisoning caused by white mullet, four days before his wife, and shortly after their son. On her death on 5 April 1205, Isabella was succeeded as queen by her eldest daughter Maria. The legality of Isabella's divorce from Humphrey was challenged in 1213, during the dispute over the succession to Champagne between her daughters Alice and Philippa and Henry's nephew Theobald IV. However, its validity seems to have been upheld: no challenge was made to the legitimacy of Maria and her descendants to succeed to the throne of Jerusalem, and in Champagne, Theobald bought off his cousins Alice and Philippa. Family Isabella's first marriage to Humphrey IV of Toron was childless. From her second marriage to Conrad of Montferrat she had one daughter: Maria (1192–1212), succeeded Isabella as Queen of Jerusalem. From her third marriage to Henry II, Count of Champagne she had three daughters: Marguerite (1193/1194 – before 1205) betrothed to Guy of Cyprus but they both died as children. Alice (1195/1196–1246), firstly married Hugh I of Cyprus, secondly she married Bohemond V of Antioch and thirdly married Raoul de Soissons. She was a rival claimant of Champagne. Philippa (c. 1197 - 20 December 1250), married Erard de Brienne-Ramerupt and was also a claimant of Champagne. From her fourth and final marriage to Aimery of Cyprus she had the following children: Sibylle (October–November 1198 – c. 1230 or 1252), married King Leo I of Armenia Mélisende (c. 1200 – aft. 1249), married 1 January, 1218 Bohemund IV of Antioch Amalric (1201 – 2 February, 1205, Acre) In popular culture Isabella has made few fictional appearances, but she is a major character in Graham Shelby's The Knights of Dark Renown (1969) and its sequel The Kings of Vain Intent (1970). Shelby idealises her marriage to Humphrey, depicting them as his young romantic leads. He then goes on to depict her being beaten and raped by Conrad in a sadistically abusive relationship. This sensationalist depiction is not supported by any evidence. Shelby implies that Isabella plotted Conrad's murder in revenge for his abuse, and depicts her as mentally numbed and indifferent to Henry. She is the title character of Alan Gordon's mystery novel, The Widow of Jerusalem (2003), which paints a more sympathetic portrait of her marriage to Conrad. She is introduced as a spoilt, vain young woman, but she matures in the course of the story. Only when it is too late does she realise that her husband loves her. His murder, and the later death of Henry, are investigated by the hero, the fool Theophilos (Feste). She is positively portrayed as a child and young woman in Sharon Kay Penman's The Land Beyond The Sea. See also Third Crusade War of the Succession of Champagne References Sources Edbury, Peter W. (ed.) The Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade, 1998, Gilchrist, M. M. "Character-assassination: Conrad de Montferrat in English-language fiction & popular histories", Bollettino del Marchesato. Circolo Culturale I Marchesi del Monferrato, Alessandria, no. 6, Nov. 2005, pp.5–13. (external link) Ilgen, Theodor. Konrad, Markgraf von Montferrat, 1880 Nicholson, Helen J. (ed.) The Chronicle of the Third Crusade: The Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi, 1997, Usseglio, Leopoldo. I Marchesi di Monferrato in Italia ed in Oriente durante i secoli XII e XIII, 1926. |- 1172 births 1205 deaths 12th-century kings of Jerusalem 13th-century kings of Jerusalem 12th-century women rulers 13th-century women rulers 13th century in Cyprus Cypriot queens consort Queens regnant of Jerusalem Christians of the Third Crusade Women of the Crusader states Countesses of Champagne Marchionesses of Montferrat

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrist%20drop

Wrist drop

Wrist drop is a medical condition in which the wrist and the fingers cannot extend at the metacarpophalangeal joints. The wrist remains partially flexed due to an opposing action of flexor muscles of the forearm. As a result, the extensor muscles in the posterior compartment remain paralyzed. Forearm anatomy The forearm is the part of the body that extends from the elbow to the wrist and is not to be confused with the arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow. The extensor muscles in the forearm are the extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor digiti minimi, extensor digitorum, extensor indicis, extensor carpi radialis brevis, and extensor carpi radialis longus. These extensor muscles are supplied by the posterior interosseous nerve, a branch of the radial nerve. Other muscles in the forearm that are innervated by this nerve are the supinator, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus and abductor pollicis longus. All of these muscles are situated in the posterior half of the forearm (posterior is when it is in its standard anatomical position). Also, the brachioradialis, anconeus, triceps brachii and extensor carpi radialis longus are all innervated by muscular branches of the radial nerve in the arm. Causes Wrist extension is achieved by muscles in the forearm contracting, pulling on tendons that attach distal to (beyond) the wrist. If the tendons, muscles, or nerves supplying these muscles are damaged or otherwise not working as they should be, wrist drop may occur. The following situations may result in wrist drop: Stab wounds to the chest at or below the clavicle–The radial nerve is the terminal branch of the posterior cord of the brachial plexus. A stab wound may damage the posterior cord and result in neurological deficits, including an inability to abduct the shoulder beyond the first 15 degrees, an inability to extend the forearm, reduced ability to supinate the hand, reduced ability to abduct the thumb and sensory loss to the posterior surface of the arm and hand. Broken humerus–The radial nerve can be damaged if the humerus (the bone of the arm) is broken because it runs through the radial groove on the lateral border of this bone along with the deep brachial artery. Lead poisoning–Wrist drop is associated with lead poisoning due to the effect of lead on the radial nerve. Persistent injury–Persistent injury to the nerve is a common cause through either repetitive motion or by applying pressure externally along the route of the radial nerve as in the prolonged use of crutches or extended leaning on the elbows. The colloquial terms for radial nerve palsy are derived from this cause. Correcting dislocated shoulders–Radial nerve palsy can result from the now discredited practice of correcting a dislocated shoulder by putting a foot in the person's armpit and pulling on the arm in attempts to slide the humerus back into the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Neuropathy in the hands and/or arms in patients with rheumatoid arthritis may in rare cases cause wrist drop. “When a joint swells, it can pinch the nerves of sensation that pass next to it. If the swelling irritates the nerve, either because of the inflammation or simply because of pressure, the nerve can send sensations of pain, numbness, and/or tingling to the brain. This is called nerve entrapment. Nerve entrapment most frequently occurs at the wrist (carpal tunnel syndrome) and elbow (ulnar nerve entrapment). A rare form of nerve disease in patients with rheumatoid arthritis that causes numbness and/or tingling is neuropathy. Neuropathy is nerve damage that in people with rheumatoid arthritis can result from inflammation of blood vessels (vasculitis).” Types Types of wrist drop are distinguished by the nerves affected: Weakness of brachioradialis, wrist extension and finger flexion = radial nerve lesion Weakness of finger extension and radial deviation of the wrist on extension = posterior interosseous nerve lesion Weakness of triceps, finger extensors and flexors = c7,8 lesion General weakness of upper limb marked in deltoid, triceps, wrist extension and finger extension = corticospinal lesion Diagnosis The workup for wrist drop frequently includes nerve conduction velocity studies to isolate and confirm the radial nerve as the source of the problem. Other screening tests include the inability to extend the thumb into a "hitchhiker's sign". Plain films can help identify bone spurs and fractures that may have injured the nerve. Sometimes MRI imaging is required to differentiate subtle causes. Treatment Initial treatment includes splinting of the wrist for support, along with osteopathic medicine, physiotherapy and occupational therapy. In some cases, surgical removal of bone spurs or other anatomical defects that may be impinging on the nerve might be warranted. If the injury was the result of pressure from prolonged use of improperly fitted crutches or other similar mechanisms of injury, then the symptoms of wrist drop will most likely resolve spontaneously within 8–12 weeks. See also Radial neuropathy References External links Arthropathies

357776

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Gordon

Alan Gordon

Alan Gordon may refer to: Alan Gordon (actor), British actor Alan Gordon (author) (born 1959), mystery writer whose works are based on Shakespearean characters Alan Gordon (Brookside), fictional character from the defunct soap opera Brookside Alan Gordon (historian) (born 1968), Scottish-born Canadian historian Alan Gordon (Scottish footballer) (1944–2010), Scottish footballer Alan Gordon (soccer) (born 1981), American soccer player Alan Gordon (songwriter) (1944–2008), American songwriter Alan Gordon (cricketer) (1944–2007), English cricketer Al Gordon (born 1953), comic book artist Lin Gordon (1917–2011), Australian politician See also Allan Gordon, protagonist of The Surpassing Adventures of Allan Gordon by James Hogg Gordon P. Allen (1929–2010), U.S. Democratic politician

357777

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sight-reading

Sight-reading

In music, sight-reading, also called a prima vista (Italian meaning "at first sight"), is the practice of reading and performing of a piece of song in a music notation that the performer has not seen or learned before. Sight-singing is used to describe a singer who is sight-reading. Both activities require the musician to play or sing the notated rhythms and pitches. Terminology Sight-reading People in music literature commonly use the term "sight-reading" generically for "the ability to read and produce both instrumental and vocal music at first sight ... the conversion of musical information from sight to sound". Udtaisuk and some other authors prefer the use of the more specific terms "sight-playing" and "sight-singing" where applicable. This differentiation leaves a third, more restricted use of the term "sight-reading" for the silent reading of music without creating sound by instrument or voice. Highly skilled musicians can sight-read silently; that is, they can look at the printed music and hear it in their heads without playing or singing (see audiation). Less able sight-readers generally must at least hum or whistle in order to sight-read effectively. This distinction is analogous to ordinary prose reading in late antiquity, when the ability to read silently was notable enough for Augustine of Hippo to comment on it. The term a prima vista is also used, as Italian words and phrases are commonly used in music and music notation. To play a musical piece a prima vista means to play it 'at first sight'. According to Payne, "the ability to hear the notes on the page is clearly akin to music reading and should be considered a prerequisite for effective performance ... Egregious errors can occur when a student, analyzing a piece of music, makes no effort to play or hear the composition but mechanically processes the notes on the page." The ability to sight-read is important for all musicians, even amateur performers, but with professional orchestra musicians, classical musicians, choir members and session musicians, it is an essential skill. Music schools generally require sight-reading as part of an audition or an exam. Sight transposition Some musicians can transpose music during performance to suit particular instruments or vocal ranges, to make the playing of the instrument(s) or singing easier, or a number of other uses. For transposing instruments such as the clarinets, trumpets, saxophones, and others, transposing is a necessary skill; for all musicians, it is a useful one. Sight-playing According to Udtaisuk, "many [authors] use the term sight-reading for instrumental sight-reading performance". However, Udtaisuk and some other authors use the more descriptive term "sightplaying" (or "sight-playing") for instrumental sight-reading, because sight-playing combines two unique skill sets: music reading and music making. Sight-singing Some authors, according to Udtaisuk, use the term "sight-singing" for vocal sight-reading. As with sight-playing, Udtaisuk advocates and uses the more descriptive term "sightsinging" for vocal sight-reading because sight-singing combines sight-reading and singing skills. Psychology The ability to sight-read partly depends on a strong short-term musical memory. An experiment on sight reading using an eye tracker indicates that highly skilled musicians tend to look ahead further in the music, storing and processing the notes until they are played; this is referred to as the eye–hand span. Storage of notational information in working memory can be expressed in terms of the amount of information (load) and the time for which it must be held before being played (latency). The relationship between load and latency changes according to tempo, such that t = x/y, where t is the change in tempo, x is the change in load, and y is the change in latency. Some teachers and researchers have proposed that the eye–hand span can be trained to be larger than it would otherwise be under normal conditions, leading to more robust sight-reading ability. Human memory can be divided into three broad categories: long-term memory, sensory memory, and short-term (working) memory. According to the formal definition, working memory is "a system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension". The paramount feature that distinguishes the working memory from both the long-term and sensory memory is this system's ability to simultaneously process and store information. The knowledge has what is called a "limited capacity", so there is only a certain amount of information that can be stored and it is easily accessible for only a small window of time after it has been processed, with a recall time block of roughly fifteen seconds to one minute. Experiments dealing with memory span have been conducted by George Miller in 1956 that indicated, "Most common number of items that can be stored in the working memory is five plus or minus two.” However, if this information is not retained and stored (“consolidated”) in one's long-term memory, it will fade quickly. Research indicates that the main area of the brain associated with the working memory is the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe of the brain. This area deals with cognition and contains two major neural loops or pathways that are central to processing tasks via the working memory: the visual loop, which is necessary for the visual component of the task, and the phonological loop, which deals with the linguistic aspects of the task (i.e. repeating the word or phrase). Although the hippocampus, in the temporal lobe, is the brain structure most frequently paired with memories, studies have indicated that its role is more vital for consolidation of the short-term memories into long-term ones than the ability to process, carry out, and briefly recall certain tasks. This type of memory has specifically come into focus when discussing sight reading, since the process of looking at musical notes for the first time and deciphering them while playing an instrument can be considered a complex task of comprehension. The main conclusion in terms of this idea is that working memory, short-term memory capacity and mental speed are three important predictors for sight reading achievement. Although none of the studies discredits the correlation between the amount of time one spends practicing and musical ability, specifically sight-reading proficiency, more studies are pointing to the level at which one’s working memory functions as the key factor in sight-reading abilities. As stated in one such study, "Working memory capacity made a statistically significant contribution as well (about 7 percent, a medium-size effect). In other words, if you took two pianists with the same amount of practice, but different levels of working memory capacity, it's likely that the one higher in working memory capacity would have performed considerably better on the sight-reading task." Based on the research and opinions of multiple musicians and scientists, the take home message about one's sight-reading ability and working memory capacity seems to be that “The best sight-readers combined strong working memories with tens of thousands of hours of practice.” Sight-reading also depends on familiarity with the musical idiom being performed; this permits the reader to recognize and process frequently occurring patterns of notes as a single unit, rather than individual notes, thus achieving greater efficiency. This phenomenon, which also applies to the reading of language, is referred to as chunking. Errors in sight-reading tend to occur in places where the music contains unexpected or unusual sequences; these defeat the strategy of "reading by expectation" that sight-readers typically employ. Professional use Studio musicians (e.g., musicians employed to record pieces for commercials, etc.) often record pieces on the first take without having seen them before. Often, the music played on television is played by musicians who are sight-reading. This practice has developed through intense commercial competition in these industries. Kevin McNerney, jazz musician, professor, and private instructor, describes auditions for University of North Texas Jazz Lab Bands as being almost completely based on sight-reading: "you walk into a room and see three or four music stands in front of you, each with a piece of music on it (in different styles ...). You are then asked to read each piece in succession." This emphasis on sight-reading, according to McNerney, prepares musicians for studio work "playing backing tracks for pop performers or recording [commercials]". The expense of the studio, musicians, and techs makes sight-reading skills essential. Typically, a studio performance is "rehearsed" only once to check for copying errors before recording the final track. Many professional big bands also sight-read every live performance. They are known as "rehearsal bands", even though their performance is the rehearsal. According to Frazier, score reading is an important skill for those interested in the conducting profession and "Conductors such as the late Robert Shaw and Yoel Levi have incredibly strong piano skills and can read at sight full orchestral scores at the piano" (a process which requires the pianist to make an instant piano reduction of the key parts of the score). Pedagogy Although 86% of piano teachers polled rated sight-reading as the most important or a highly important skill, only 7% of them said they address it systematically. Reasons cited were a lack of knowledge of how to teach it, inadequacy of the training materials they use, and deficiency in their own sight-reading skills. Teachers also often emphasize rehearsed reading and repertoire building for successful recitals and auditions to the detriment of sight-reading and other functional skills. Hardy reviewed research on piano sight-reading pedagogy and identified a number of specific skills essential to sight-reading proficiency: Technical fundamentals in reading and fingering Visualization of keyboard topography Tactile facility (psychomotor skills) and memory Ability to read, recognize, and remember groups of notes (directions, patterns, phrases, chords, rhythmic groupings, themes, inversions, intervals, etc.) Ability to read and remember ahead of playing with more and wider progressive fixations Aural imagery (ear-playing and sight-singing improves sight-reading) Ability to keep the basic pulse, read, and remember rhythm Awareness and knowledge of the music's structure and theory Beauchamp identifies five building blocks in the development of piano sight-reading skills: Grand-staff knowledge Security within the five finger positions Security with keyboard topography Security with basic accompaniment patterns Understanding of basic fingering principles Grand-staff knowledge consists of fluency in both clefs such that reading a note evokes an automatic and immediate physical response to the appropriate position on the keyboard. Beauchamp asserts it is better to sense and know where the note is than what the note is. The performer does not have time to think of the note name and translate it to a position, and the non-scientific note name does not indicate the octave to be played. Beauchamp reports success using a Key/Note Visualizer, note-reading flashcards, and computer programs in group and individual practice to develop grand-staff fluency. Udtaisuk also reports that a sense of keyboard geography and an ability to quickly and efficiently match notes to keyboard keys is important for sight-reading. He found that "computer programs and flash cards are effective ways to teach students to identify notes [and] enhance a sense of keyboard geography by highlighting the relationships between the keyboard and the printed notation". Most students do not sight-read well because it requires specific instruction, which is seldom given. A major challenge in sight-reading instruction, according to Hardy, is obtaining enough practice material. Since practicing rehearsed reading does not help improve sight-reading, a student can only use a practice piece once. Moreover, the material must be at just the right level of difficulty for each student, and a variety of styles is preferred. Hardy suggests music teachers cooperate to build a large lending library of music and purchase inexpensive music from garage sales and store sales. Assessment and standards In some circumstances, such as examinations, the ability of a student to sight-read is assessed by presenting the student with a short piece of music, with an allotted time to peruse the music, then testing the student on the accuracy of the performance. A more challenging test requires the student to perform without any preparation at all. The Washington Assessment of Student Learning has piloted a classroom based assessment which requires 5th and higher grade students to sight-sing or perform on instruments from sheet music they have written. It is suggested that students use solfege or numbering systems or fingering without instruments as aids. 8th graders are expected to sing by sight: "Students are asked to perform a sight-singing exercise of four measures of music. Students will be assessed on their understanding of rhythm and steady beat and their ability to perform in the designated key with accurate interval changes, a cappella." Many students and adults cannot sight-sing, and even some professional singers cannot sing by sight. However, in combination with an assessment which requires composing music on a staff as early as 5th grade, it is hoped that such a requirement will raise arts achievement. Pilot data show that many students can meet or exceed such standards. The Standard Assessment of Sight Reading (SASR) is a non-subjective sight reading evaluation method. It was created with a scientific/electronic platform to insure a non-subjective approach to grading and administering that test. It consists of several thousand pieces of music over 80 graded levels of difficulty that have been reviewed by 135 teachers and students to ascertain the correct difficulty levels. Their scores were averaged electronically in order to insure a scientific approach to graduating the difficulty levels of the music. See also Count singing Ear training Eye movement in music reading Shape note Subvocalization Notes and references Notes References Sources Further reading Bower, Bruce (15 December 2011). "For Sight-Reading Music, Practice Doesn't Make Perfect : Discovery News." Discovery News: Earth, Space, Tech, Animals, History, Adventure, Human, Autos. Science News. Hambrick, David Z. and Meinz, Elizabeth J. (19 November 2001). "Sorry, Strivers: Talent Matters", The New York Times External links Interactive sight-reading software for all instruments and voice, See Music Sight reading training, crisstanza.github.io Reading (process) Musical notation