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summarize: Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne. His parents were Didier Diderot (1685–1759), a cutler, "maître coutelier", and Angélique Vigneron (1677–1748). Three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot (1715–1797) and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot (1722–1787), and finally their sister Angélique Diderot (1720–1749). According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, sometimes referring to her as "a female Socrates". Diderot began his formal education at a Jesuit college in Langres, earning a Master of Arts degree in philosophy in 1732. He then entered the Collège d'Harcourt of the University of Paris. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy in 1735, and instead decided to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived however and in the early 1740s, he decided to become a writer and translator. Because of his refusal to enter Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Temple Stanyan's "History of Greece" (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's "Medicinal Dictionary" (1746–1748). In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesbury's "Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit", to which he had added his own "reflections". In 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work: the "Philosophical Thoughts" (French:"Pensées philosophiques"). In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony. According to Diderot, without feeling there is a detrimental In 1747, Diderot wrote "The Skeptic's Walk" (French:"Promenade du sceptique") in which a deist, an atheist, and a pantheist have a dialogue on the nature of divinity. The deist gives the argument from design. The atheist says that the universe is better explained by In 1748, Diderot needed to raise money on short notice. He had become a father through his wife, and his mistress Mme. de Puisieux was making financial demands from him. At this time, Diderot had stated to Mme. de Puisieux that writing a novel was a trivial task, whereupon she challenged him to write a novel. In response, Diderot wrote his novel "The Indiscreet Jewels" (French:"Les bijoux indiscrets"). The book is about the magical ring of a Sultan which induces any woman's "discreet jewels" to confess their sexual experiences when the ring is pointed at them. In all, Diderot would keep writing on science in a desultory way all his life. The scientific work of which he was most proud was "Memoires sur differents sujets de mathematique" (1748). This work contains original ideas on acoustics, tension, air resistance, and "a project for a new organ" which could be played by all. Some of Diderot's scientific works were applauded by contemporary publications of his time like "The Gentleman's Magazine", the "Journal des savants"; and the Jesuit publication "Journal de Trevoux," which invited more such work: "on the part Diderot's celebrated "Letter on the Blind" ("Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient") (1749) introduced him to the world as an original thinker. The subject is a discussion of the relation between man's reason and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title of his book also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay, blind English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson argues that, since knowledge derives from the senses, mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree on. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch. (A later essay, "Lettre sur les sourds et muets", considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute.) According to Jonathan Israel, what makes the "Lettre sur les aveugles" so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection. This powerful essay, for which La Mettrie expressed Angered by public resentment over the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the government started incarcerating many of its critics. It was decided at this time to rein in Diderot. On 23 July 1749, the governor of the Vincennes fortress instructed the police to incarcerate Diderot, and the next day he was arrested and placed in solitary confinement in the Vincennes. It is during this time that Jean-Jacques Rousseau came to visit Diderot in prison and came out a changed man, with newfound ideas about the downsides of knowledge, civilization and Enlightenment – the so-called "illumination de Vincennes". Diderot had been permitted to retain one book that he had in his possession at the time of André le Breton, a bookseller and printer, approached Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation of Ephraim Chambers' "Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences" into French, first undertaken by the Englishman John Mills, and followed by the German Gottfried Sellius. Diderot accepted the proposal, and transformed it. He persuaded Le Breton to publish a new work, which would consolidate ideas and knowledge from the Republic of Letters. The publishers found capital for a larger enterprise than Diderot's work, however, was mired in controversy from the beginning; the project was suspended by the courts in 1752. Just as the second volume was completed accusations arose regarding seditious content, concerning the editor's entries on religion and natural law. Diderot was detained and his house was searched for manuscripts for subsequent articles: but the search proved fruitless as no manuscripts could be found. They were hidden in the house of an unlikely confederate—Chretien de Lamoignon Malesherbes, who originally ordered the search. Although Malesherbes was a staunch absolutist, and loyal to the monarchy—he was sympathetic to the literary project. Along with his support, and that of other well-placed influential confederates, the project resumed. Diderot returned to his efforts only to be constantly embroiled in controversy. These twenty years were to Diderot not merely a time of incessant drudgery, but Diderot was left to finish the task as best he could. He wrote 7,000 articles, some very slight, but many of them laborious, comprehensive, and long. He damaged his eyesight correcting proofs and editing the manuscripts of less competent contributors. He spent his days at workshops, mastering manufacturing processes, and his nights writing what he had learned during the day. He was incessantly harassed by threats of police raids. The last copies of the first volume were issued in 1765. In 1764, when his immense work was drawing to an end, he encountered a crowning mortification: he Although the "Encyclopédie" was Diderot's most monumental product, he was the author of many other works that sowed nearly every intellectual field with new and creative ideas. Diderot's writing ranges from a graceful trifle like the "Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre" ("Regrets for my Old Dressing Gown") up to the heady "D'Alembert's Dream" ("Le Rêve de d'Alembert") (composed 1769), a philosophical dialogue in which he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. "Jacques le fataliste" (written in 1773, but not published until 1792 in German and 1796 in French) is similar to "Tristram Shandy" and "The Sentimental Journey" in its challenge to the conventional novel's structure and content. "La Religieuse" was a novel that claimed to show the corruption of the Catholic Church's institutions. The novel began not as a work for literary consumption, but as an elaborate practical joke aimed at luring the Marquis de Croismare, a companion of Diderot's, back to Paris. "The Nun" is set in the Eighteenth century, that is, contemporary France. Suzanne Simonin is an intelligent and sensitive sixteen-year-old French girl who is forced against her will into a Catholic convent by her parents. Suzanne's parents initially inform her that she is being sent to the convent for financial reasons. However, while in the convent, she learns that she is actually there because she is an illegitimate child, as her mother committed adultery. By sending Suzanne to the convent, her mother thought she could make amends for her sins by using her daughter as a sacrificial offering. Diderot did not use the novel as an outlet to condemn Christianity, but as a way to criticize cloistered life. In Diderot's telling, the Church fostered a hierarchical society, prevalent in the power dynamic between the Mother Superior and the girls in the convent. Girls were forced against their will to Although "The Nun" was completed in about 1780, the work was not published until 1796, after Diderot's death. The dialogue "Rameau's Nephew" (French: "Le Neveu de Rameau") is a "farce-tragedy" reminiscent of the "Satires" of Horace, a favorite classical author of Diderot's whose lines "Vertumnis, quotquot sunt, natus iniquis" ("Born under (the influence of) the unfavorable (gods) Vertumnuses, however many they are") appear as epigraph. According to Nicholas Cronk, "Rameau's Nephew" is "arguably the greatest work of the French Enlightenment's greatest writer." The narrator in the book recounts a conversation with, nephew of the famous Jean-Philippe Rameau. The nephew composes and teaches music with some success but feels disadvantaged by his name and is jealous of his uncle. Eventually he sinks into an indolent and debauched state. After his wife's death, he loses all self-esteem and his brusque manners result in him being ostracized by former friends. A character profile of the nephew is now sketched by Diderot: a man who was once wealthy and comfortable with Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue—whether as a satire on contemporary manners, a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, a mere setting for a The publication history of the "Nephew" is circuitous. Written in 1761, Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, and apparently did not even share it with his friends. After Diderot's death, a copy of the text reached Schiller, who gave it to Goethe, who, in 1805, translated the work into German. Goethe's translation entered France, and was retranslated into French in 1821. Another copy of the text was published in 1823, but it had been expurgated by Diderot's daughter prior to publication. The original manuscript was only found in 1891. Diderot's most intimate friend was the philologist Friedrich Melchior Grimm. They were brought together by their common friend at that time, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In 1753, Grimm began writing a newsletter, the "La Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique", which he would send to various high personages in Europe. In 1759, Grimm asked Diderot to report on the biennial art exhibitions in the Louvre for the "Correspondance". Diderot reported on the Salons between 1759 and 1771 and again in 1775 and 1781. Diderot's reports would become "the most celebrated contributions to La Correspondance." According to Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Diderot's reports initiated Diderot wrote sentimental plays, "Le Fils naturel" (1757) and "Le Père de famille" (1758), accompanying them with essays on theatrical theory and practice, including "Les Entretiens sur "Le Fils Naturel"" (Conversations on "The Natural Son"), in which he announced the principles of a new When the Russian Empress Catherine the Great heard that Diderot was in need of money, she arranged to buy his library and appoint him caretaker of it until his death, at a salary of 1,000 livres per year. She even paid him 50 years salary in advance. Although Diderot hated traveling, he was obliged to visit her. On 9 October 1773, he reached St. When returning, Diderot asked the Empress for 1,500 rubles as reimbursement for his trip. She gave him 3,000 rubles, an expensive ring, and an officer to escort him back to Paris. He would write a eulogy in her honor on reaching Paris. In 1766, when Catherine heard that Diderot had not received his annual fee for editing the "Encyclopédie" (an important source of income for the philosopher), she arranged for him to receive a massive sum of 50,000 livres as an advance for his services as her librarian. In July 1784, upon hearing that Diderot was in poor health, Catherine arranged for him to move into a luxurious suite in the "Rue de Richelieu". Diderot died two weeks after moving there—on 31 July 1784. Among Diderot's last works were notes "On the Instructions of her Imperial Majesty...for the Drawing In his youth, Diderot was originally a follower of Voltaire and his deist "Anglomanie", but gradually moved away from this line of thought towards materialism and atheism, a move which was finally realised in 1747 in the philosophical debate in the second part of his "The Skeptic's Walk" (1747). Diderot opposed mysticism and occultism, which were highly prevalent in France at the time he wrote, and believed religious truth claims must fall under the domain of reason, not mystical experience or esoteric secrets. However, Diderot showed some interest in the Diderot died of pulmonary thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. He has several Marmontel and commented on the great pleasure of having intellectual conversations with Diderot. Morellet, a regular attendee at D'Holbach's salon, wrote: "It is there that I heard...Diderot treat questions of philosophy, art, or literature, and by his wealth of expression, fluency, and inspired appearance, hold our attention for a long stretch of time." Diderot's contemporary, and rival, Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his "Confessions" that after a few centuries Diderot would be accorded as much respect by posterity as was given to Plato Otis Fellows and Norman Torrey have described Diderot as "the most interesting and provocative figure of the French eighteenth century." In 1993, American writer Cathleen Schine published "Rameau's Niece", a satire of academic life in New York that took as its premise a woman's research into an (imagined) 18th-century pornographic parody of Diderot's "Rameau's Nephew". The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in the "New York Times" as "a nimble philosophical satire of the academic mind" and "an enchanting comedy of modern manners." French author Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt wrote a play titled "Le Libertin" ("The Libertine") which imagines a day in Diderot's life including a fictional sitting for a woman painter which becomes sexually charged but is interrupted by the demands of editing the "Encyclopédie". It was first staged at Paris' Théâtre Montparnasse in 1997 starring Bernard Giraudeau as Diderot and Christiane Cohendy as Madame Therbouche and was well received by critics. In 2013, the tricentennial of Diderot's birth, his hometown of Langres held a series of events in his honor and produced an audio tour of the town highlighting places that were part of Diderot's past, including the remains of the convent where his sister Angélique took her vows. On 6 October 2013, a museum of the Enlightenment focusing on Diderot's contributions to the movement, the Maison des Lumières Denis Diderot, was inaugurated in Langres.	Denis Diderot (; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the "Encyclopédie" along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. 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summarize: Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen, is highly flammable: The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol: Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74% and with chlorine at 5–95%. The explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is. Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine, compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster, which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite. The H is relatively unreactive. The thermodynamic basis this low reactivity is the very strong H-H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. The kinetic basis of the low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H and its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, respectively. Molten sodium and potassium react with the gas to give the respective hydrides NaH and KH. The reactivity of H is strongly affected by the presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while H combusts readily, mixtures of H and O do not react in the absence of a catalyst. The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are Molecular H exists a two spin isomers, i.e. compounds with two nuclear spin states. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two nuclei are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 (+); in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 (–). At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal form". The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but because the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the While H is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to a more electronegative element, particularly fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids, where it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides. Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H, which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton,, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms NASA has investigated the use of atomic hydrogen as a rocket propellant. It could be stored in liquid helium to prevent it from recombining into molecular hydrogen. When the helium is vaporized, the atomic hydrogen would be released and combine back to molecular hydrogen. The result would be an intensely hot stream of hydrogen and helium gas. The liftoff weight of rockets could be reduced by 50% by this method. Most interstellar hydrogen is in the form of atomic hydrogen because the atoms can seldom collide and combine. They are the source of the important 21 cm hydrogen line in astronomy at 1420 MHz. Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted, and. Other, highly unstable nuclei ( to ) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. Unique among the element, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead of and ) In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "inflammable air". He speculated that "inflammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- "hydro" meaning "water" and -γενής "genes" meaning "creator") when he Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s. One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and more than 90% by number of atoms. (Most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy.) This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of the Sun and the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive than our Sun. Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift "z"=4. Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions. The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given Hydrogen is often produced using natural gas, which involves the removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons at very high temperatures, with about 95% of hydrogen production coming from steam reforming around year 2000. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. This method is also known as the Bosch process and is widely used for the industrial preparation of hydrogen. At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and. This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure is the most marketable product and pressure Many metals react with water to produce, but the rate of hydrogen evolution depends on the metal, the pH, and the presence alloying agents. Most commonly, hydrogen evolution is induced by acids. The alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminium, zinc, manganese, and iron react readily with aqueous acids. This reaction is the basis of the Kipp's apparatus, which once was used as a source of laboratory: In the absence of acid, the evolution More than 200 thermochemical cycles can be used for water splitting. Many of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle In deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen () is produced during the process of serpentinization. In this process by water protons (H) Large quantities of are used in the "upgrading" of fossil fuels. Key consumers of include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and Hydrogenation, the addition of to various substrates is conducted on a large scale. The hydrogenation of N2 to give ammonia by the Haber-Bosch Process consumes a few percent of the energy budget in all of industry. The resulting ammonia is used to supply the Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable Hydrogen is not an energy resource, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development. The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources requires more energy to make than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken ("dangling") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties. Apart from its use as a reactant, has a variety of smaller applications. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Because is lighter than air, having a little more than of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. Pure or mixed H is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water. The natural cycle of hydrogen production Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form. In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids. Hydrogen dissolves in many metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement, leading to cracks and explosions. Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns. Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.	Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. 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summarize: The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It was initially developed for use by the United States military and became fully operational in 1995. Civilian use was allowed from the 1980s. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A. Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. The work of Gladys West is credited as instrumental in the development of computational techniques for detecting satellite positions with the precision needed for GPS. The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s. In 1955, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity – detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational field using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial satellites. Special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earth's observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to. This was corrected for in the design of GPS. When the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor its radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem—pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program. Satellite orbital position errors, induced by variations in the gravity field and radar refraction among others, had to be resolved. A team led by Harold L Jury of Pan Am Aerospace Division in Florida from 1970–1973, used real-time data assimilation and recursive estimation to do so, reducing systematic and residual errors to a manageable level to permit accurate navigation. During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a "Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS)". It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created. On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the US's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago." Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003: GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006. Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of GPS specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the ground clocks. Any drift from time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. In the same manner, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well, but they are less stable and less precise. Each Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier wave with modulation) that includes: Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite ranges plus time difference between the receiver and GPS satellites multiplied by speed of light, which are called as pseudo-ranges. The receiver then Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect. It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm, sometimes called a "tracker", that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times—in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses GPS requires four or more satellites to be visible for accurate navigation. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-of-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time. The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV), in medium Earth orbit, and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from everywhere on the Earth's surface (see animation at right). The result of this objective is that the The control segment (CS) is composed of: The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Space Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information The user segment (US) is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices). In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that,, receivers typically While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant civilian applications as well. GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching. Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer. The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above above sea level and, or designed or modified for use with unmanned missiles and aircraft, are classified as munitions (weapons)—which means they require State Department export licenses. This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code. Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Vendor interpretations differ. The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach. These limits only apply to units or components exported from the United States. A growing trade in various components exists, including GPS units from other countries. These are expressly sold as ITAR-free. As of 2009, military GPS applications include: GPS type navigation was first used in war in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, before GPS was fully developed in 1995, to assist Coalition Forces to navigate and perform maneuvers in the war. The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of GPS to being jammed, when Iraqi forces installed jamming devices on likely targets that emitted radio noise, disrupting reception of the weak GPS While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval Observatory). The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift that atomic clocks As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). It happened the second time at 23:59:42 UTC on April 6, 2019. To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern in the future the modernized GPS civil navigation (CNAV) message will use a 13-bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero). The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military. Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a "navigation message" on L1 (C/A and P/Y) and L2 (P/Y) frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750 seconds (12 1/2 minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite. The first subframe of each frame encodes All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver. If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The "x, y," and "z" components of satellite position and the time sent are designated as ["x, y, z, s"] where the subscript "i" denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2,..., "n", where "n" ≥ 4. When the time of message reception indicated by the on-board receiver clock is "t̃", the true reception time is, where "b" is the receiver's clock bias from the much more accurate GPS clocks employed by the satellites. The receiver clock bias is the same for all received satellite signals (assuming the satellite clocks are all perfectly synchronized). The message's transit time is, where "s" is the satellite time. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, "c", the distance traveled is. For n satellites, the The GPS equations can be solved by numerical and analytical methods. Geometrical interpretations can enhance the understanding of these solution methods. The measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors. In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of these spheres. Signals from at minimum three satellites are required, and their three spheres would typically intersect at two points. One of the points is the location of the receiver, and the other moves rapidly If the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite "i" and the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite "j" are subtracted,, the common receiver clock bias ("b") cancels out, resulting in a difference of distances. The locus of points having a constant difference in The receiver position can be interpreted as the center of an inscribed sphere (insphere) of radius "bc", given by the receiver clock bias "b" (scaled by the speed of light "c"). The insphere location The clock in the receiver is usually not of the same quality as the ones in the satellites and will not be accurately synchronised to them. This produces large errors in the computed distances to the satellites. Therefore, in practice, the time difference between the receiver clock and the satellite time is defined as an unknown clock bias "b". The equations are then solved simultaneously for the receiver position and the clock bias. The solution space ["x, y, z, b"] can be seen as a four-dimensional geometric space, and signals from at minimum four satellites are needed. In that case each of the equations describes a spherical cone, with the cusp located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the satellite. The receiver is at the intersection of four or more of such cones. When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simultaneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common One closed-form solution to the above set of equations was developed by S. Bancroft. Its properties are well known; in particular, proponents claim it is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative least squares methods. Bancroft's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical, and can be used for four or more satellites. When four satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equation. Bancroft's method provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the case), only one is a near-Earth sensible solution. When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. A case has been made that iterative methods, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm approach for solving over-determined non-linear least squares (NLLS) problems, generally provide more accurate solutions. Leick et al. (2015) states that "Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution." Other closed-form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear. GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results and the expected size of those errors. GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects, but some residual errors remain uncorrected. Error sources include signal arrival time measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy. Such augmentation systems are generally named or described based on how the information arrives. Some systems transmit additional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or ionospheric delay), Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring and measurement of existing GPS signals in additional or alternative ways. The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but some errors remain. This is one reason GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency. Military receivers can decode the P(Y) code transmitted on both L1 and L2. Without decryption keys, it is still possible to use a "codeless" technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. This technique is slow, so it is currently available only on specialized surveying equipment. In the future, Another method that is used in surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wavelength, which is about for the L1 carrier. Accuracy within 1% of wavelength in detecting the leading edge reduces this component of pseudorange error to as little as. This compares to for the C/A code and for the P code. Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another. In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation." With respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers, "must use receivers that reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum." For the last 30 years, GPS receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue. The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for satellite-to-ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mobile Satellite Service band. Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services, to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service. In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz. In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to their satellite system – known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) – "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service." This authorization was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Space Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and U.S. Department of Transportation. In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers—such as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire—to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz. In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices although the FCC's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed changes to the Other notable satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:	The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally NAVSTAR GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. 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summarize: The opening sequence is that of a spinning flywheel with shots of airplanes strafing the ground. The shots of the airplanes are from US Navy footage shot in the Pacific Theatre during World War II. The first scene shows the two main characters sitting in bathing suits. Their conversation is robotic and from that point on they decide to be bad. The next scene shows Marie I and Marie II dancing in front of a tree. The tree has many fruits and resembles the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Once Marie I eats from the tree, they both fall and appear in their apartment. Marie II attempts suicide by filling the room with gas, but fails because she left the window open. In an extended sequence of scenes, the girls go on dates with a series of older men. In each scene, the girls cavort and eat lots of food while mocking their date, who is driven to the end of his patience, at which point the girls say that they are late for a train, and then ditch the man at the train station. The girls eventually go to a nightclub with 1920s-style dancers and cause a ruckus. Marie II also goes to the apartment of a man who is a butterfly collector. In this scene, there are a lot of butterflies shown as still frames. The man repeatedly declares his love to Marie II, whom he calls Julie. At the end, she says that she wants to eat. In later scenes, the two girls lounge about in various rooms while listening to their suitors profess love for them over the phone. These scenes are accompanied by footage of the girls destroying phallic food, as well as eggs. At one point, the girls meet an older woman, who begs them to stay for a bit, and remarks on how she misses her youth. The girls wait for her to step out, then rob her and leave, after which they philosophize about their actions. Later on, they go to a factory. There are still frames of locks, and the building looks run down. They look for "nourishment" and stumble upon a feast. They eat the food, make a mess and destroy the room. They destroy a chandelier, and the film cuts to them being dunked in water like witches, as the director states how there can be no "clean resolution" to the destructive dinner. The Maries return to the dining room, and attempt to clean the room while whispering about being good and hardworking, and that this will make them happy. This is not enough, as the chandelier falls on the Maries, presumably crushing them. The film closes with war footage similar to the beginning, and ends with an epigraph that the film is "dedicated to those who get upset only over a stomped-upon bed of lettuce". Throughout the film, the two main characters muse about youth, happiness, existence, and the state of being spoiled. The film has very little in the way of plot structure, and scenes proceed from one to the next chaotically, frequently switching between black and white, color, and filter color footage. Many scenes include elements of slapstick, and the characters spend a significant amount of the film eating or playing with food. The film was positively received by Czech audience and critics. Film critic Antonín J. Liehm wrote that "Daisies" are "a remarkable film not only for the viewers that apreciate its artistic significance, but also for those who just want to be entertained and might miss its magnitude on the first viewing". Author Milan Kundera called the film "masterly made" and wrote that "monstrosity of the main characters was depicted elegantly, poetically, dreamlike and 'beautifully', but without becoming any less monstrous". It won the Trilobit Award for the Best Czechoslovak movie of 1966 by Film and TV Union. However after being criticized by the communist MP Jaroslav Pružinec during interpelations in May 1967, the film was pulled from all major cinemas and was only screened in smaller venues. The film was also very well received in Europe. French journalist Pierre Billard, writing for L'Express, compared the "Daisies" to Mack Sennett and Marx Brothers movies and called it "a grand celebration of absurdities with technical finesse and marvellous art direction so rarely achieved". In US press the reception was mostly negative. Bosley Crowther in New York Times wrote: "Pretentiously kookie and laboriously overblown mod farce about two playgirls who are thoroughly emptyheaded. Its stabs at humor and satire simply don't cut." It is the highest ranked Czech film in "They Shoot Pictures Don't They", an online aggregator of critic best-of lists.	Daisies () is a 1966 Czechoslovak comedy-drama film written and directed by Věra Chytilová. 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summarize: Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two vertical neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. Its 47 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Kr]4d5s, similarly to copper ([Ar]3d4s) and gold ([Xe]4f5d6s); group 11 is one of the few groups in the d-block which has a completely consistent set of electron configurations. This distinctive electron configuration, with a single electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell, accounts for many of the singular properties of metallic silver. Silver is an extremely soft, ductile and malleable transition metal, though it is slightly less malleable than gold. Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high polish, and which is so characteristic that the name of the metal itself has become a colour name. Unlike copper and gold, the energy required to excite an electron from the filled d band to the s-p conduction band in silver is large enough (around 385 kJ/mol) that it no longer corresponds to absorption in the visible region of the spectrum, but rather in the ultraviolet; hence silver is not a coloured metal. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm. At wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silver's reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. Very high electrical and thermal conductivity is common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, but it is not widely used for this property because of the higher cost. An exception is in radio-frequency engineering, particularly at VHF and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior. During World War II in the US, tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper. Pure silver has the highest thermal conductivity of any metal, although the conductivity of carbon (in the diamond allotrope) and superfluid helium-4 are even higher. Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver readily forms alloys with copper and gold, as well as zinc. Zinc-silver alloys with low zinc concentration may be considered as face-centred cubic solid solutions of zinc in silver, as the structure of the silver is largely unchanged while the electron concentration rises as more zinc is added. Increasing the electron concentration further leads to body-centred cubic (electron concentration 1.5), complex cubic (1.615), and hexagonal close-packed phases (1.75). Silver is a rather unreactive metal. This is because its filled 4d shell is not very effective in shielding the electrostatic forces of attraction from the nucleus to the outermost 5s electron, and hence silver is near the bottom of the electrochemical series ("E"(Ag/Ag) = +0.799 V). In group 11, silver has the lowest first ionization energy (showing the instability of the 5s orbital), but has higher second and third ionization energies than copper and gold (showing the stability of the 4d orbitals), so that the chemistry of silver is predominantly that of the +1 oxidation state, reflecting the increasingly limited range of oxidation states along the transition series as the d-orbitals fill and stabilize. Unlike copper, for which the larger hydration energy of Cu as compared to Cu is the reason why the former is the more stable in aqueous solution and solids despite lacking the stable filled d-subshell of the latter, with silver this effect is swamped by its larger second ionisation energy. Hence, Ag is the stable species in aqueous solution and solids, with Ag being much less stable as it oxidizes water. Most silver compounds have significant covalent character due to the small size and high first ionization energy (730.8 kJ/mol) of silver. Furthermore, silver's Pauling electronegativity of 1.93 is higher than that of lead (1.87), and its electron affinity of 125.6 kJ/mol is much higher than that of hydrogen (72.8 kJ/mol) and not much less than that of oxygen (141.0 kJ/mol). Due to its full d-subshell, silver in its main +1 oxidation state exhibits relatively few properties of the transition metals proper from groups 4 to 10, forming rather unstable organometallic compounds, forming linear complexes showing very low coordination numbers like 2, and forming an amphoteric oxide Silver and gold have rather low chemical affinities for oxygen, lower than copper, and it is therefore expected that silver oxides are thermally quite unstable. Soluble silver(I) salts precipitate dark-brown silver(I) oxide, AgO, upon the addition of alkali. (The hydroxide AgOH exists only in solution; otherwise it spontaneously decomposes to the oxide.) Silver(I) oxide is very easily reduced to metallic silver, and decomposes to silver and oxygen above 160 °C. This The only known dihalide of silver is the difluoride, AgF, which can be obtained from the elements under heat. A strong yet thermally stable and therefore safe fluorinating agent, silver(II) fluoride is often used to synthesize hydrofluorocarbons. In stark contrast to this, all four silver(I) halides are known. The fluoride, chloride, and bromide have the sodium chloride structure, but the iodide has three known stable forms at different temperatures; that at room temperature is the cubic zinc blende structure. They can all be obtained by the direct reaction of their respective elements. As the halogen group is descended, the White silver nitrate, AgNO, is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, especially the halides, and is much less sensitive to light. It was once called "lunar caustic" because silver was called "luna" by the ancient alchemists, who believed that silver was associated with the moon. It is often used for gravimetric analysis, exploiting the insolubility of the heavier silver halides which it is a common precursor to. Silver nitrate is used in many ways in organic synthesis, e.g. for deprotection and oxidations. Ag binds alkenes reversibly, and silver nitrate has been used to separate mixtures of alkenes by selective absorption. The resulting adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene. Yellow silver Silver complexes tend to be similar to those of its lighter homologue copper. Silver(III) complexes tend to be rare and very easily reduced to the more stable lower oxidation states, though they are slightly more stable than those of copper(III). For instance, the square planar periodate [Ag(IOOH)] and tellurate [Ag{TeO(OH)}] complexes may be prepared by oxidising silver(I) with alkaline peroxodisulfate. The yellow diamagnetic [AgF] is much less stable, fuming in moist air and reacting with glass. Silver(II) complexes are more common. Like the valence isoelectronic copper(II) complexes, they are usually square planar and paramagnetic, which is increased by the greater field splitting for 4d electrons than for 3d electrons. Aqueous Ag, produced by oxidation of Ag by ozone, is a very strong oxidising agent, even in acidic solutions: it is stabilized in phosphoric acid due to complex formation. Peroxodisulfate oxidation is generally necessary to give the more stable complexes with heterocyclic amines, such as [Ag(py)] and [Ag(bipy)]: these Under standard conditions, silver does not form simple carbonyls, due to the weakness of the Ag–C bond. A few are known at very low temperatures around 6–15 K, such as the green, planar paramagnetic Ag(CO), which dimerizes at 25–30 K, probably by forming Ag–Ag bonds. Additionally, the silver carbonyl [Ag(CO)] [B(OTeF)] is known. Polymeric AgLX complexes with alkenes and alkynes are known, but their bonds are thermodynamically weaker than even those of the platinum complexes (though they are formed more readily than those of the analogous gold complexes): they are Silver forms alloys with most other elements on the periodic table. The elements from groups 1–3, except for hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium, are very miscible with silver in the condensed phase and form intermetallic compounds; those from groups 4–9 are only poorly miscible; the elements in groups 10–14 (except boron and carbon) have very complex Ag–M phase diagrams and form the most commercially important alloys; and the remaining elements on the periodic table have no consistency in their Ag–M phase diagrams. By far the most important such alloys are those with copper: most silver used for coinage and jewellery is in reality a silver–copper alloy, and the eutectic mixture is used in The word "silver" appears in Old English in various spellings, such as "seolfor" and "siolfor". It is cognate with Old High German "silabar"; Gothic "silubr"; or Old Norse "silfr", all ultimately deriving from Proto-Germanic "*silubra". The Balto-Slavic words for silver are rather similar to the Germanic ones (e.g. Russian серебро ["serebró"], Polish "srebro", Lithuanian "sidãbras"), as Silver was one of the seven metals of antiquity that were known to prehistoric humans and whose discovery is thus lost to history. In particular, the three metals of group 11, copper, silver, and gold, occur in the elemental form in nature and were probably used as the first primitive forms of money as opposed to simple bartering. However, unlike copper, silver did not lead to the growth of metallurgy on account of its low structural strength, and was more often used ornamentally or as money. Since silver is more reactive than gold, supplies of native silver were much more limited than those of gold. For example, silver was more expensive than gold in Egypt until around the fifteenth century BC: the Egyptians are thought to have separated gold from silver by heating the metals with salt, and then reducing the silver chloride produced to the metal. The situation changed with the discovery of cupellation, a technique that allowed silver metal to be extracted from its ores. While slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC, and one of the earliest silver extraction centres in Europe was Sardinia in the early Chalcolithic period, these techniques did not spread widely until later, when it spread throughout the region and beyond. The origins of silver production in India, China, and Japan were almost certainly equally ancient, but are not well-documented due to their great age. When the Phoenicians first came to what is now Spain, they obtained so much silver that they could not fit it all on their ships, and as a result used silver to weight their anchors instead of lead. By the time of the Greek and Roman civilizations, silver coins were a staple of the economy: the Greeks were already extracting silver from galena by the 7th century BC, and the rise of Athens was partly made possible by the nearby silver mines at Laurium, from which they extracted about 30 tonnes a year from 600 to 300 BC. The stability of the Roman currency relied to a high degree on the supply Silver plays a certain role in mythology and has found various usage as a metaphor and in folklore. The Greek poet Hesiod's "Works and Days" (lines 109–201) lists different ages of man named after metals like gold, silver, bronze and iron to account for successive ages of humanity. Ovid's "Metamorphoses" contains another retelling of the story, containing an illustration of silver's metaphorical use of signifying the second-best in a series, better than bronze but worse than gold: In folklore, silver was commonly thought to have mystic powers: for example, a bullet cast from silver is often supposed in such folklore the only weapon that is effective against a werewolf, witch, or other monsters. From this the idiom of a silver bullet developed into figuratively referring to any simple solution with very high effectiveness or almost miraculous results, as in the widely discussed The abundance of silver in the Earth's crust is 0.08 parts per million, almost exactly the same as that of mercury. It mostly occurs in sulfide ores, especially acanthite and argentite, AgS. Argentite deposits sometimes also contain native silver when they occur in reducing environments, and when in contact with salt water they are converted to chlorargyrite (including horn silver), AgCl, which is prevalent in Chile and New South Wales. Most other silver minerals are silver pnictides or chalcogenides; they are generally lustrous semiconductors. Most true silver deposits, as opposed to argentiferous deposits of other metals, came from Tertiary period vulcanism. The principal sources of silver are the ores of copper, copper-nickel, lead, and lead-zinc obtained from Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, China, Australia, Chile, Poland and Serbia. Peru, Bolivia and Mexico have been mining silver since 1546, and are still major world producers. Top silver-producing mines are Cannington (Australia), Fresnillo (Mexico), San Cristóbal (Bolivia), Antamina (Peru), Rudna (Poland), and Penasquito (Mexico). Top near-term mine development projects through 2015 are Pascua Lama (Chile), Navidad (Argentina), Jaunicipio (Mexico), Malku Khota (Bolivia), and Hackett River (Canada). In Central Asia, Tajikistan is known to have some of the largest silver deposits in the The earliest known coins were minted in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor around 600 BC. The coins of Lydia were made of electrum, which is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, that was available within the territory of Lydia. Since that time, silver standards, in which the standard economic unit of account is a fixed weight of silver, have been widespread throughout the world until the 20th century. Notable silver coins through the centuries include the Greek drachma, the Roman denarius, the Islamic dirham, the karshapana from ancient India and rupee from the time of the Mughal Empire (grouped with copper and gold coins to create a trimetallic standard), and the Spanish dollar. The ratio between the amount of silver used for coinage and that used for other purposes has fluctuated greatly over time; for example, in wartime, more silver tends to have been used for coinage to finance the war. Today, silver bullion has the ISO 4217 currency code XAG, one of only four precious metals to have one (the others being palladium, platinum, and gold). Silver coins are produced from cast rods or ingots, rolled to the correct thickness, heat-treated, and then used to cut blanks from. These blanks are then milled and minted in a coining press; modern coining presses can produce 8000 silver coins per hour. Silver prices are normally quoted in troy ounces. One troy ounce is equal to. The London silver fix is published every working day at noon London The major use of silver besides coinage throughout most of history was in the manufacture of jewellery and other general-use items, and this continues to be a major use today. Examples include table silver for cutlery, for which silver is highly suited due to its antibacterial properties. Western concert flutes are usually plated with or made out of sterling silver; in fact, most silverware is only silver-plated rather than made out of pure silver; the silver is normally put in place by electroplating. Silver-plated glass (as opposed to metal) is used for mirrors, vacuum flasks, and Christmas tree decorations. Because pure silver is very soft, most silver used In medicine, silver is incorporated into wound dressings and used as an antibiotic coating in medical devices. Wound dressings containing silver sulfadiazine or silver nanomaterials are used to treat external infections. Silver is also used in some medical applications, such as urinary catheters (where tentative evidence indicates it reduces catheter-related urinary tract infections) and in endotracheal breathing tubes (where evidence suggests it reduces ventilator-associated pneumonia). The silver ion is bioactive and in sufficient concentration readily kills bacteria "in vitro". Silver ions interfere with enzymes in the bacteria Silver is very important in electronics for conductors and electrodes on account of its high electrical conductivity even when tarnished. Bulk silver and silver foils were used to make vacuum tubes, and continue to be used today in the manufacture of semiconductor devices, circuits, Silver-containing brazing alloys are used for brazing metallic materials, mostly cobalt, nickel, and copper-based alloys, tool steels, and precious metals. The basic Silver is useful in the manufacture of chemical equipment on account of its low chemical reactivity, high thermal conductivity, and being easily workable. Silver crucibles (alloyed with 0.15% nickel to avoid recrystallisation of the Silver metal is a good catalyst for oxidation reactions; in fact it is somewhat too good for most purposes, as finely divided silver tends to result in complete oxidation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and water, and hence coarser-grained silver tends to be used The photosensitivity of the silver halides allowed for their use in traditional photography, although digital photography, which does not use silver, is now dominant. The photosensitive emulsion used in black-and-white photography is a suspension of silver halide crystals in gelatin, possibly mixed in with some noble metal compounds for improved photosensitivity, developing, and tuning. Colour photography requires the Nanosilver particles, between 10 and 100 nanometres in size, are used in many applications. They are used in conductive inks for printed electronics, and have a much lower melting point than Pure silver metal is used as a food colouring. It has the E174 designation and is approved in the European Union. Traditional Pakistani and Indian dishes sometimes include decorative silver foil known as "vark", and in various other cultures, silver "dragée" are used to decorate cakes, cookies, and other dessert items. Photochromic lenses include silver halides, so that ultraviolet light in natural daylight liberates metallic silver, darkening the lenses. The silver Silver compounds have low toxicity compared to those of most other heavy metals, as they are poorly absorbed by the human body when digested, and that which does get absorbed is rapidly converted to insoluble silver compounds or complexed by metallothionein. However, silver fluoride and silver nitrate are caustic and can cause tissue damage, resulting in gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, falling blood pressure, cramps, paralysis, and respiratory arrest. Animals repeatedly dosed with silver salts have been observed to experience anaemia, slowed growth, necrosis of the liver, and fatty degeneration of the liver and kidneys; rats implanted with silver foil or injected with colloidal silver have been observed to develop localised tumours. Parenterally admistered colloidal silver causes acute silver poisoning. Some waterborne species are particularly sensitive to silver salts and those of the other precious metals; in most situations, however, silver does not pose serious environmental hazards. In large doses, silver and compounds containing it can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues, leading to argyria, which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Argyria is rare, and so far as is known, does not otherwise harm a person's health, though it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Mild forms of argyria are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis. Metallic silver, like copper, is an antibacterial agent, which was known to the ancients and first scientifically investigated and named the oligodynamic effect by Carl Nägeli. Silver ions damage the metabolism of bacteria even at such low concentrations as 0.01–0.1 milligrams per litre; metallic silver has a similar effect due to the formation of silver oxide. This effect is lost in the presence of sulfur due to the extreme insolubility of silver sulfide. Some silver compounds are very explosive, such as the nitrogen compounds silver azide, silver amide, and silver fulminate, as well as silver acetylide, silver oxalate, and silver(II) oxide. They can explode on heating, force, drying, illumination, or sometimes spontaneously. To avoid the formation of such compounds, ammonia and acetylene should be kept away from silver equipment. Salts of silver with strongly oxidising acids such as silver chlorate and silver nitrate can explode on contact with materials that can be readily oxidised, such as organic compounds, sulfur and soot.	Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin "", derived from the Proto-Indo-European "h2erǵ": "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. 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summarize: The Snowdrop Festival is a movie about a place and its inhabitants. Jiri Menzel presents us with an insight into the many ordinary and eccentric lives at the village of Kersko. The movie begins very slow. A group of men on their bicycles leaving the local pub. They are drunk and happy, singing songs as they leave together to their houses. On the road they come across the local policemen who removes the valves from their cycles and asks them to walk home as they are drunk. Their happiness disappears, the singing stops and they walk home. Morning we see a hungover guy who is bossed around by his wife and daughter. He doesn't feel like staying home and wants to go out. He never speaks against them but always murmurs when he is told to do something. There is a group of people who seem very polished and educated. They stand out from the rest of the characters with their philosophical thoughts and discussions. The local inn keepers, a couple can't seem to keep their hands off of each other. The story gains its life when two young men who work in the fields see a pig. They try to hunt it down. But the pig escapes and the chase start. The huntsmen of the village follow the pig to a school in the neighboring village and shoots it down in the classroom, they then explain the anatomy of the pig to the students. We see a very enthusiastic young gentleman taking over the class. As they are getting ready to take the pig and have a feast the huntsmen from the village show up and claim that the meat is theirs as the pig was shot in their territory. There is small brawl and with the intervention of the school teacher they decide to meet at the inn and share the spoils of the hunt. *https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/14/movies/the-screen-snowdrop-festival.html	The Snowdrop Festival () is a 1984 Czechoslovak comedy film directed by Jiří Menzel, based on the book by Bohumil Hrabal, who plays a small part in the film. The film is set in a small village called Kersko. 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summarize: He was born into the family of a furrier; his mother was a hatter. Since his childhood he was involved with the theatre and music, and after some unsuccessful attempts to study, he chose the career of an actor. He began to appear on the stage in 1939, as a member of an amateur elocution group. During the German occupation of Czechoslovakia he performed with a collective of young artists, "Tvar" (The Shape). At the end of the Second World War, he was (having one Jewish parent) interned in the labor camp in Bystřice u Benešova. His mother was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp. Following the liberation, he took up a career as a professional actor in the avant-garde studio "Větrník" (from 1945 to 1946), and afterward he was engaged in many Prague theatre scenes. A few years later, he also began to appear in films and gradually became one of the most popular actors in Czechoslovakia. In the mid-1980s Kopecký acted in a politically biased documentary film about emigrants, but, on the other side, he presented a very critical speech against the communist régime in May 1987, at the Fourth Congress of Dramatic Artists. He was married five times, once with Czech actress Stella Zázvorková. For many years Kopecký suffered from manic-depressive disease, partially caused by the death of his mother, who perished in a concentration camp. Following his engagement in "Větrník" he appeared in various theatre scenes: A turning point in his career came in 1965, when the director František Pavlíček engaged him to the "Divadlo na Vinohradech", to which he remained faithful throughout the rest of his life. Nonetheless, he acted as a guest also in other theatres, e.g. in "Semafor" Theatre, or in "Divadlo ABC" (ABC Theatre), where he cooperated with another important actor of the time, Jan Werich. Among his most valued roles were Paolino in Pirandello's "The Man, The Beast and The Virtue", Professor Higgins in G. B. Shaw's "Pygmalion", Harpagon in Molière's "The Miser", and many others. Kopecký was a passionate admirer of film from his early age, and began to appear on screen shortly after the war. His first minor role was in the historic film "Jan Roháč z Dubé" (1947), but he quickly graduated to more important characters. During his career he played mainly negative roles of bon vivants, elegant intriguers, traitors, debauchees, lechers and villains, which he managed to depict with the great elegance and esprit. Among his most valued roles in film were Chaplain Katz in "The Good Soldier Švejk" (1956), Hogofogo in "Limonádový Joe" (1964), the chief of the Czech water-goblins in "Jak utopit dr. Mráčka aneb Konec vodníků v Čechách" (1974), the villainous Count von Kratzmar in "Adéla ještě nevečeřela" (1977), and many others. He may be best known today as Dr. Štrosmajer in the Czech television series "Nemocnice na kraji města".	Miloš Kopecký (22 August 1922 in Prague – 16 February 1996 in Prague) was a Czech actor, active mainly in the second half of the 20th century.	en	en	31	[ 250004, 250054, 1529, 509, 103122, 3934, 70, 14449, 111, 10, 16387, 25388, 74, 1919, 42732, 509, 10, 10264, 42, 5, 66016, 1919, 29041, 44462, 764, 509, 75412, 678, 70, 163198, 13, 136, 19612, 4, 136, 7103, 3060, 51, 226534, 7, 7844, 81887, 7, 47, 35187, 4, 764, 19667, 70, 80997, 111, 142, 39329, 5, 1529, 80723, 47, 108975, 98, 70, 36541, 23, 34578, 4, 237, 10, 32786, 111, 142, 79775, 88, 31, 1010, 1363, 21115, 5, 133698, 70, 30839, 6, 167618, 111, 103655, 31, 89262, 15565, 764, 51339, 297, 678, 10, 143849, 111, 27150, 22104, 7, 4, 44, 618, 1961, 58, 15, 3957, 7224, 1081, 194, 1913, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 77648, 6661, 5550, 4, 764, 509, 15, 528, 6496, 1632, 845, 114686, 49129, 16, 44848, 71, 23, 70, 18940, 11491, 23, 3311, 96477, 329, 75, 30543, 84245, 11, 5, 18763, 42732, 509, 162882, 297, 23, 70, 211755, 202104, 11491, 5, 77168, 214, 70, 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summarize: Empirical evidence is information that verifies the truth (which accurately corresponds to reality) or falsity (inaccuracy) of a claim. In the empiricist view, one can claim to have knowledge only when based on empirical evidence (although some empiricists believe that there are other ways of gaining knowledge). This stands in contrast to the rationalist view under which reason or reflection alone is considered evidence for the truth or falsity of some propositions. Empirical evidence is information acquired by observation or experimentation, in the form of recorded data, which may be the subject of analysis (e.g. by scientists). This is the primary source of empirical evidence. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate someone else's original research. Empirical evidence may be synonymous with the outcome of an experiment. In this regard, an empirical result is a unified confirmation. In this context, the term "semi-empirical" is used for qualifying theoretical methods that use, in part, basic axioms or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical "ab initio" methods, which are purely deductive and based on first principles. In science, empirical evidence is required for a hypothesis to gain acceptance in the scientific community. Normally, this validation is achieved by the scientific method of forming a hypothesis, experimental design, peer review, reproduction of results, conference presentation, and journal publication. This requires rigorous communication of hypothesis (usually expressed in mathematics), experimental constraints and controls (expressed necessarily in terms of standard experimental apparatus), and a common understanding of measurement. Statements and arguments depending on empirical evidence are often referred to as "a posteriori" ("following experience") as distinguished from "a priori" (preceding it). "A priori" knowledge or justification is independent of experience (for example "All bachelors are unmarried"), whereas "a posteriori" knowledge or justification is dependent on experience or empirical evidence (for example "Some bachelors are very happy"). The notion that the distinction between "a posteriori" and "a priori" is tantamount to the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge comes from Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason." The standard positivist view of empirically acquired information has been that observation, experience, and experiment serve as neutral arbiters between competing theories. However, since the 1960s, a persistent critique most associated with Thomas Kuhn, has argued that these methods are influenced by prior beliefs and experiences. Consequently, it cannot be expected that two scientists when observing, experiencing, or experimenting on the same event will make the same theory-neutral observations. The role of observation as a theory-neutral arbiter may not be possible. Theory-dependence of observation means that, even if there were agreed methods of inference and interpretation, scientists may still disagree on the nature of empirical data.	Empirical evidence is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation. 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summarize: In the 2nd century BC, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy with various peoples including the Gauls-Celtic tribe Boii. The Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia (194 BC) and the Battle of Mutina (193 BC). Afterward, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps. Much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied (the "desert of the Boii" as Pliny and Strabo called it) as "Boiohaemum". The earliest mention was by Tacitus' "Germania" 28 (written at the end of the 1st century AD), and later mentions of the same name are in Strabo and Velleius Paterculus. The name appears to include the tribal name "Boi-" plus the Germanic element "haimaz" "home" (whence Gothic "haims", German "Heimat", English "home"), indicating a Proto-Germanic Bajōhaimaz. "Boiohaemum" was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobod's Kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII in his 10th century work "De Administrando Imperio" also mentioned the region as "Boiki" (see White Serbia). The Czech name "Čechy" is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, who settled in the area during the 6th or 7th century AD. Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, which was one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into which Suebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, were Dacian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king, Marobodus, after they had suffered defeat to Roman forces in Germany. He took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. They were able to maintain a strong alliance with neighbouring tribes including (at different times) the Lugii, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones, and Buri, which was sometimes partly controlled by the Roman Empire and sometimes in conflict with it; for example, in the 2nd century, they fought Marcus Aurelius. In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni (in the Helvetian desert), and the Bavarians (Baiuvarii). Many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, and Alans. Other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. The last known mention of the Kingdom of the Marcomanni, concerning a queen named Fritigil, is from the 4th century, and she was thought to have lived in or near Pannonia. The Suebian Langobardi, who moved over many generations from the Baltic Sea, via the Elbe and Pannonia to Italy, recorded in a tribal history a time spent in "Bainaib". After the Migration Period, Bohemia was partially repopulated around the 6th century, and eventually Slavic tribes arrived from the east, and their language began to replace the older Germanic, Celtic and Sarmatian ones. These are precursors of today's Czechs, but the exact amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves. The first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia (c. 568 AD). Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samo's tribal confederation. His death marked the end of the old "Slavonic" confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources ("Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii", Bavaria, 800–850) divide the population of Bohemia into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani) and Fraganeo. (The suffix "-ani" or "-ni" means "people of-"). Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century but became dominant only much later, in the 10th or 11th century. The 9th century was crucial for the future of Bohemia. The manorial system sharply declined, as it did in Bavaria. The influence of the central "Fraganeo-Czechs" grew, as a result of the important cultic centre in their territory. They were Slavic-speaking and thus contributed to the transformation of diverse neighbouring populations into a new nation named and led by them with a united "slavic" ethnic consciousness. Bohemia was made a part of the early Slavic state of Great Moravia, under the rule of Svatopluk I (r. 870–894). After Svatopluk's death Great Moravia was weakened by years of internal conflict and constant warfare, ultimately collapsing and fragmenting because of the continual incursions of the invading nomadic Magyars. Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensive Christianization of the population. A native monarchy arose to the throne, and Bohemia came under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty, which would rule the Czech lands for the next several hundred years. The Přemyslids secured their frontiers from the remnant Asian interlocurs, after the collapse of the Moravian state, by entering into a state of semi-vassalage to the Frankish rulers. The alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity, in the 9th century. Continuing close relations were developed with the East Frankish Kingdom, which devolved from the Carolingian Empire, into East Francia, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Empire. After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I of Bohemia was granted the Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great. Bohemia would remain a largely autonomous state under the Holy Roman Empire for several decades. The jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire was definitively reasserted when Jaromír of Bohemia was granted fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia by Emperor King Henry II of the Holy Roman Empire, with the promise that he hold it as a vassal once he re-occupied Prague with a German army in 1004, ending the rule of Boleslaw I of Poland. The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukes Vratislav II (1085) and Vladislav II (1158), but their heirs would return to the title of duke. The title of king became hereditary under Ottokar I (1198). His grandson Ottokar II (king from 1253–1278) conquered a short-lived empire which contained modern Austria and Slovenia. The mid-13th century saw the beginning of substantial German immigration as the court sought to replace losses from the brief Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241. Germans settled primarily along the northern, western, and southern borders of Bohemia, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom. The House of Luxembourg accepted the invitation to the Bohemian throne with the marriage to the Premyslid heiress, Elizabeth and the crowning subsequent of John I of Bohemia in 1310. His son, Charles IV became King of Bohemia in 1346. He founded Charles University in Prague, central Europe's first university, two years later. His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to also be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule the Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany. From the 13th century on, settlements of Germans developed throughout Bohemia, making Bohemia a bilingual country. The German settlers particularly brought mining technology to the mountainous regions of the Sudetes. In the mining town of Sankt Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov), famous coins called Joachimsthalers were coined, which gave their name to the Thaler and the dollar. Meanwhile, Prague German intermediated between Upper German and East Central German, influencing the foundations of modern standard German. At the same time and place, the teachings of Jan Hus, the rector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, influenced the rise of modern Czech. During the ecumenical Council of Constance in 1415, Jan Hus was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite the fact that Hus was granted formal protection by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg prior to the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on 6 July 1415. The execution of Hus, as well as five consecutive papal crusades against followers of Hus, forced the Bohemians to defend themselves in the Hussite Wars. The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary, Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he used innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time, and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle. After Žižka's death, Prokop the Great took over the command for the army, and under his lead the Hussites were victorious for another ten years, to the sheer terror of Europe. The Hussite cause gradually splintered into two main factions, the moderate Utraquists and the more fanatic Taborites. The Utraquists began to lay the groundwork for an agreement with the Catholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war-weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in the Battle of Lipany in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians." Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiate freedom of religion in 1436. That happened in the so-called Compacts of Basel, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It lasted for only a short period of time, as Pope Pius II declared the compacts to be invalid in 1462. In 1458, George of Podebrady was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League", which would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointed Leo of Rozmital to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. However, the negotiations were not completed because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope. After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria became the new King of Bohemia and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg Monarchy. Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period. In 1609, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, who made Prague again the capital of the Empire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish "Maiestas Rudolphina", which confirmed the older "Confessio Bohemica" of 1575. After Emperor Matthias II and then King of Bohemia Ferdinand II (later Holy Roman Emperor) began oppressing the rights of Protestants in Bohemia, the resulting Bohemian Revolt led to outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618. Elector Frederick V of the Electorate of the Palatinate, a Calvinist Protestant, was elected by the Bohemian nobility to replace Ferdinand on the Bohemian throne, and was known as the Winter King. Frederick's wife, the popular Elizabeth Stuart and subsequently Elizabeth of Bohemia, known as the Winter Queen or Queen of Hearts, was the daughter of King James VI of Scotland. After Frederick's defeat in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, 27 Bohemian estates leaders together with Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague were executed on the Prague's Old Town Square on 21 June 1621 and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin). That ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and also ended the role of Prague as ruling city of the Holy Roman Empire. In the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, the German language was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. Czech formally remained the first language in the kingdom, but both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes although German became increasingly dominant, and Czech was spoken in much of the countryside. The formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when the Bohemian Diet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule, which essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery. At the end of the 18th century, the Czech National Revival movement, in cooperation with part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the kingdom's historic rights, whereby the Czech language was to regain its historical role and replace German as the language of administration. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph II and Leopold II, who introduced minor language concessions, showed promise for the Czech movement, but many of these reforms were later rescinded. During the Revolution of 1848, many Czech nationalists called for autonomy for Bohemia from Habsburg Austria, but the revolutionaries were defeated. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although the Czech language experienced a rebirth as romantic nationalism developed among the Czechs. In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, and Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue"). After the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire. An attempt by the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. The "state rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918. Under the "state rights program", appealing to the stability of Bohemia's borders over many centuries, the Czech emancipation movement claimed the right to the whole of the Bohemian lands over the Germans right to the lands, amounting to a third of Bohemia, where they formed the majority. After World War I, Bohemia (as the largest and most populous land) became the core of the newly formed country of Czechoslovakia, which combined Bohemia, Moravia, Czech Silesia, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and Carpathian Ruthenia into one state. Under its first president, Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a liberal democratic republic but serious issues emerged regarding the Czech majority's relationship with the native German and Hungarian minorities. The German Bohemians had demanded that the regions with German speaking majority be included in a German state. Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia historically inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (the Sudetenland) were annexed to Nazi Germany. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the separate Slovak Republic, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945 Bohemia, (without the Sudetenland), together with Moravia formed the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ("Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren"). Any open opposition to German occupation was brutally suppressed by the Nazi authorities and many Czech patriots were executed as a result. In 1942, Nazi forces murdered the population of a whole village Lidice. After World War II ended in 1945, after initial plans to cede lands to Germany or to create German-speaking cantons had been abandoned, the vast majority of the Bohemian Germans were expelled by force by the order of the re-established Czechoslovak central government, based on the Potsdam Agreement that acquiesced in large-scale ethnic cleansing. The Bohemian Germans' property was confiscated by the Czech authorities and amounted, according to contemporary estimates, to a third of the Czechoslovak national income. Germans who were valued for their skills were allowed to stay to pass on their knowledge to the Czech migrants. The expulsion severely depopulated the area and from then on, locales were referred to in only their Czech equivalents regardless of their previous demographic makeup. The re-settlement of the formerly German-settled areas allowed many poorer people to acquire property, thus equalizing the Czechoslovak society. The Communist Party won the most votes in free elections but not a simple majority. Klement Gottwald, the communist leader, became Prime Minister of a coalition government. In February 1948 the non-communist members of the government resigned in protest against arbitrary measures by the communists and their Soviet protectors in many of the state's institutions. Gottwald and the communists responded with a coup d'état and installed a pro-Soviet authoritarian state. In 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions that did not follow the historical borders. In 1989, Agnes of Bohemia became the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by Pope John Paul II before the "Velvet Revolution" later that year. After the Velvet Divorce in 1993, the territory of Bohemia remained in the Czech Republic. The new Constitution of the Czech Republic provided for higher administrative units to be established, providing for the possibility of Bohemia as an administrative unit, but did not specify the form they would take. A constitutional act in 1997 rejected the restoration of self-governing historical Czech lands and decided for the regional system that has been in use since 2000. Petr Pithart, former Czech prime minister and president of the Senate at the time, remained one of the main advocates of the land system, claiming that the primary reason for its refusal was the fear of possible Moravian separatism. Bohemia thus remains a historical region, and its administration is divided between the Prague, Central Bohemia, Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Hradec Králové Regions, as well as parts of the Pardubice, Vysočina, South Bohemian, Olomouc and South Moravian Regions. In addition to their use in the names of the regions, the historical land names remain in use in names of municipalities, cadastral areas, railway stations or geographical names. The distinction and border between the Czech lands is also preserved in local dialects. The area around Kłodzko (; ; ) in south-western Poland was culturally and traditionally a part of Bohemia, and was settled by German speakers like neighboring Sudetenland. Kłodzko Land has now been a part of Lower Silesia since its conquest by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1763. Referred to as "Little Prague" (), the Kłodzko Valley region on the Nysa Kłodzka river was the focus of several attempts to reincorporate the area into Czechoslovakia, one of several Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts. The last attempt occurred in May 1945 when Czechoslovakia tried to annex the area, whose German speaking majority was being expelled by Polish authorities. The Czech argued that because of the small Czech minority present in the western part of the Kłodzko Valley, which was called the region's "Czech Corner" by the German majority, the area should go over to Czechoslovakia instead of being assigned to Poland, as no relevant Polish minority lived in the area. Pressure brought on by the Soviet Union led to a ceasing of military operations, with the Czech minority being expelled to Germany and Czechoslovakia. According to canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, the area remained part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972. Capitalizing on interest regarding the Kladsko area in the Czech national psyche, a special tourist area in the Náchod District has been designated as the "Kladsko Borderland Tourist Area" (tourism district; ). The area, entirely within the Czech Republic, was formerly known as the "Jirásek's Region" (), "Adršpach rocks" (). Kraje of Bohemia during the Kingdom of Bohemia	Bohemia ( ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic. In a broader meaning, Bohemia sometimes refers to the entire Czech territory, including Moravia and Czech Silesia, especially in a historical context, such as the Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by Bohemian kings.	en	en	61	[ 250004, 250054, 360, 70, 116, 2208, 142642, 77269, 4, 70, 12610, 7, 3542, 28813, 449, 100, 139887, 329, 23, 144477, 9022, 98848, 678, 67842, 3395, 7, 26719, 70, 26336, 8080, 9, 159360, 9523, 1927, 372, 2460, 1573, 5, 581, 12610, 7, 8, 88981, 297, 70, 2460, 1573, 99, 70, 99381, 111, 41076, 52473, 5173, 617, 77269, 16, 136, 70, 99381, 111, 2758, 5516, 5173, 363, 77269, 194, 24372, 19364, 4, 5941, 111, 70, 2460, 1573, 10267, 107, 27686, 144477, 36880, 70, 47413, 7, 5, 79616, 14432, 12610, 42179, 7, 15005, 47, 70, 16128, 1836, 1902, 24145, 95699, 34, 138518, 15, 2347, 44, 988, 2529, 111, 70, 2460, 1573, 58, 237, 63677, 299, 136, 7832, 837, 35839, 442, 16, 237, 44, 12647, 846, 528, 195, 316, 740, 581, 67896, 150, 525, 41392, 509, 390, 87524, 18031, 25, 44, 191697, 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summarize: When an object's velocity is held constant at one meter per second against a constant opposing force of one newton, the rate at which work is done is one watt. In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which electrical work is performed when a current of one ampere (A) flows across an electrical potential difference of one volt (V), meaning the watt is equivalent to the volt-ampere (the latter unit, however, is used for a different quantity from the real power of an electrical circuit). Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohm's law. Where ohm (formula_4) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance. The "watt" is named after the Scottish inventor James Watt. This unit was proposed initially by C. William Siemens in August 1882 in his President's Address to the Fifty-Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Noting that units in the practical system of units were named after leading physicists, Siemens proposed that "Watt" might be an appropriate name for a unit of power. Siemens defined the unit consistently within the then-existing system of practical units as "the power conveyed by a current of an Ampère through the difference of potential of a Volt." In October 1908, at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London, so-called "international" definitions were established for practical electrical units. Siemens' definition was adopted as the "international" watt. (Also used: 1 ampere x 1 ohm.) The watt was defined as equal to 10 units of power in the "practical system" of units. The "international units" were dominant from 1909 until 1948. After the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948, the "international" watt was redefined from practical units to absolute units (i.e., using only length, mass, and time). Concretely, this meant that 1 watt was now defined as the quantity of energy transferred in a unit of time, namely 1 J/s. In this new definition, 1 "absolute" watt = 1.00019 "international" watts. Texts written before 1948 are likely to be using the "international" watt, which implies caution when comparing numerical values from this period with the post-1948 watt. In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the "absolute" "watt" into the International System of Units (SI) as the unit of power. The attowatt (aW) is equal to one quintillionth (10) of a watt. The sound intensity in water corresponding to the international standard reference sound pressure of 1 μPa is approximately 0.65 aW/m. The femtowatt (fW) is equal to one quadrillionth (10) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in references to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise require that the RF energy applied to the antenna input be specified. These input levels are often stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load; the specification takes into account the RF input impedance of the tuner. The picowatt (pW), not to be confused with the much larger petawatt (PW), is equal to one trillionth (10) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics and in the science of radio astronomy. One picowatt is the international standard reference value of sound power when this quantity is expressed as a level in decibels. The nanowatt (nW) is equal to one billionth (10) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers. The microwatt (μW) is equal to one millionth (10) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in microwatts are typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such as the EEG and the ECG, in a wide variety of scientific and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers. Compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt (mW) is equal to one thousandth (10) of a watt. A typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are often measured in dBm, referenced to one milliwatt. The kilowatt (kW) is equal to one thousand (10) watts. This unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a common unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio and television transmitters. One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower. A small electric heater with one heating element can use 1.0 kilowatt. The average electric power consumption of a household in the United States is about one kilowatt. A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the sun (the solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the equator). The megawatt (MW) is equal to one million (10) watts. Many events or machines produce or sustain the conversion of energy on this scale, including large electric motors; large warships such as aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientific research equipment, such as supercolliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers. A large residential or commercial building may use several megawatts in electric power and heat. On railways, modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have a peak power output of 5 or 6 MW, while some produce much more. The Eurostar, for example, uses more than 12 MW, while heavy diesel-electric locomotives typically produce/use 3 to 5 MW. U.S. nuclear power plants have net summer capacities between about 500 and 1300 MW. The earliest citing of the megawatt in the "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) is a reference in the 1900 "Webster's International Dictionary of English Language". The OED also states that megawatt appeared in a 28 November 1947 article in the journal "Science" (506:2). The gigawatt (GW) is equal to one billion (10) watts or 1 gigawatt = 1000 megawatts. This unit is often used for large power plants or power grids. For example, by the end of 2010 power shortages in China's Shanxi province were expected to increase to 5–6 GW and the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 25.8 GW. The largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Doel Nuclear Power Station has a peak output of 1.04 GW. HVDC converters have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW. The terawatt (TW) is equal to one trillion (10) watts. The total power used by humans worldwide is commonly measured in terawatts. The most powerful lasers from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s produced power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames. The average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these strikes only last for 30 microseconds. The petawatt (PW) is equal to one quadrillion () watts and can be produced by the current generation of lasers for time scales on the order of picoseconds ( s). One such laser is the Lawrence Livermore's Nova laser, which achieved a power output of 1.25 PW ( W) by a process called chirped pulse amplification. The duration of the pulse was roughly 0.5 ps ( s), giving a total energy of 600 J. Another example is the Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX) at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), Osaka University, which achieved a power output of 2 PW for a duration of approximately 1 ps. Based on the average total solar irradiance of 1.366 kW/m, the total power of sunlight striking Earth's atmosphere is estimated at 174 PW. In the electric power industry, "megawatt electrical" ("MWe" or MW) refers by convention to the electric power produced by a generator, while "megawatt thermal" or "thermal megawatt" (MWt, MW, or MWth, MW) refers to thermal power produced by the plant. For example, the Embalse nuclear power plant in Argentina uses a fission reactor to generate 2109 MW (i.e. heat), which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MW (i.e. electricity). Other SI prefixes are sometimes used, for example "gigawatt electrical" (GW). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which maintains the SI-standard, states that further information about a quantity should not be attached to the unit symbol but instead to the quantity symbol (i.e., "P" = 270 W rather than "P" = 270 W) and so these units are non-SI. In compliance with SI the energy company Ørsted A/S uses the unit megawatt for produced electrical power and the equivalent unit megajoule per second for delivered heating power in a combined heat and power station such as Avedøre Power Station. When describing alternating current (AC) electricity, another distinction is made between the watt and the volt-ampere. While these units are equivalent for simple resistive circuits, they differ when loads exhibit electrical reactance. Radio stations usually report the power of their transmitters in units of watts, referring to the effective radiated power. This refers to the power that a half-wave dipole antenna would need to radiate to match the intensity of the transmitter's main lobe. The terms power and energy are frequently confused. Power is the rate at which energy is generated or consumed and hence is measured in units (e.g. watts) that represent energy "per unit time". For example, when a light bulb with a power rating of is turned on for one hour, the energy used is 100 watt hours (W·h), 0.1 kilowatt hour, or 360 kJ. This same amount of energy would light a 40-watt bulb for 2.5 hours, or a 50-watt bulb for 2 hours. Power stations are rated using units of power, typically megawatts or gigawatts (for example, the Three Gorges Dam in China, is rated at approximately 22 gigawatts). This reflects the maximum power output it can achieve at any point in time. A power station's annual energy output, however, would be recorded using units of energy (not power), typically gigawatt hours. Major energy production or consumption is often expressed as terawatt hours for a given period; often a calendar year or financial year. One terawatt hour of energy is equal to a sustained power delivery of one terawatt for one hour, or approximately 114 megawatts for a period of one year: equivalent to approximately 114 megawatts of constant power output. The watt second is a unit of energy, equal to the joule. One kilowatt hour is 3,600,000 watt seconds. While a watt per hour exists in principle (as a unit of rate of change of power with time), it is not correct to refer to a watt (or watt hour) as a "watt per hour".	The watt (symbol: W) is a unit of power. In the International System of Units (SI) it is defined as a derived unit of 1 joule per second, and is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. In SI base units, the watt is described as kg⋅m⋅s. 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summarize: During the thousand years of its existence, Prague grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, to become the capital of a modern European country. The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. Around the fifth and fourth century BC, a Celtic tribe appeared in the area, later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist, a present-day suburb of Prague, and naming the region of Bohemia, which means "home of the Boii people". In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time by the area the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople). Charles IV ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles In 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members brought them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity. These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history, Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly native German-speaking) Jewish populations. From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany—Reinhard Heydrich—during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals. In February 1945, Prague suffered several Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The largest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovak Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime. On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the "socialism with a human face". It was the Prague Spring, which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the "normalization" of the country. In 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the capital of Czechoslovakia benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the Velvet Divorce, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 high-rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, "práh", which means "ford" or "rapid", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river. The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw. Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word "práh" (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city "to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house". The Czech "práh" might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of Prague is situated on the Vltava river, at. in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany; Paris, France; and Vancouver, Canada. Prague has an oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb") with humid continental ("Dfb") influences, defined as such by the isotherm. The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic and as such is the regular seat of its central authorities. Since 24 November 1990, it is de facto again a statutory town, but has a specific status of the municipality and the region at the same time. Prague also houses the administrative institutions of the Central Bohemia Region. Until 1949, all administrative districts of Prague were formed Prague is automously administered by the Prague City Assembly, which is elected through municipal elections and consists of 55 to 70 members. Executive body of Prague, elected by the Assembly is a According to the 2011 census, about 14% of the city inhabitants were born outside the Czech Republic. That is the highest proportion in the country. However, in 2011, 64.8 per cent of the city's population self-identified themselves as Czechs, which is higher than the national average. Even though official population of Prague hovers around The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre ("Národní Divadlo") and the Estates Theatre ("Stavovské or Tylovo" or "Nosticovo divadlo"), where the premières of Mozart's "Don Giovanni" and "La clemenza di Tito" were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre. The city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. There are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival, the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows. Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include ", xXx, Blade II, Children of Dune, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, EuroTrip, Van Helsing, Red Tails," and "". Other Czech films shot in Prague include "Empties", "Amadeus" and "The Fifth Horseman is Fear". Also, the romantic music video "Never Tear Us Apart" by INXS, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other landmarks. Rihanna's "Don't Stop the Music" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film "Dungeons and Dragons" in 2000. The music video "Silver and Cold" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including "Yuvraaj", "Drona" and "Rockstar". Early 2000s europop hit "Something" by "Lasgo" was filmed at the central train station in Prague. Video games set in Prague include ", Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb,,,, Still Life, " and "". With the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its museums and cultural sites as well as try its Czech beers and cuisine. The city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel). Recent major events held in Prague: Prague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. As of 2017 its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €56,200, making it the sixth best performing region in the EU at 182.4 per cent of the EU-28 average in 2016. Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce, and its wages are significantly above average (≈+25%). In 2Q/2019, average salaries available in Prague reached CZK 42.297 (≈€1,650) per month, an annual increase of 6.3%, which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 7.2% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 2.8% in 2Q/2019 as well as with 2.8% nationally.) Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration are the most significant. Services account for around 80 per cent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters. The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, Prague has become one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region, allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form. It contains one of the Nine public universities and thirty six The region city of Prague is an important centre of research. It is the seat of 39 out of 54 institutes of the Czech Academy of Sciences, including the largest ones, the Institute of Physics, the Institute of Microbiology and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. It is also a seat of 10 public research institutes, four business incubators and large hospitals performing research and development activities such as the Motol University Hospital or Institute for Clinical and Experimental As of 2017, Prague had current transport modal share: 52% of all trips are done in public transport, 24,5% in car, 22,4% on foot, 0,4% on bike and 0,5% by airplane. The public transport infrastructure consists of a heavily used Prague Integrated Transport (PID, "Pražská integrovaná doprava") of Prague Metro (lines A, B, and C – its length is with 61 stations in total), Prague tram system, Prague buses, commuter S-trains, funiculars, and six ferries. Prague has one of the highest rates of public transport usage in the world, with 1.2 billion passenger journeys per year. Prague has about 300 bus lines (numbers 100–960) and 34 tram lines (numbers 1–26 without 19 and 91–99 ). There are also three funiculars, one on Petřín Hill, one on Mrázovka Hill and a third at the Zoo in Troja. The Prague tram system now operates various types of trams, including the Tatra T3, newer Tatra KT8D5, T6A5, Škoda 14 T (designed by Porsche), newer modern Škoda 15 T and nostalgic tram lines 23 and 41. The Metro has three major lines extending throughout the city: A (green), B (yellow) and C (red). A fourth Metro line D is planned, which would connect the city centre to southern parts of the city. The Prague Metro system served 589.2 million passengers in 2012, making it the fifth busiest metro system in Europe and the most-patronised in the world on a per capita basis. The first section of the Prague metro was put into operation in 1974. It was the stretch between stations Kačerov and Florenc on the current line C. The first part of Line A was opened in 1978 (Dejvická – Náměstí Míru), the first part of line B in 1985 (Anděl – Florenc). In April The main flow of traffic leads through the centre The city forms the hub of the Czech railway system, with services to all parts of the country and abroad. The railway system links Prague with major European cities (which can be reached without transfers), including Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Nurenberg and Dresden (Germany); Vienna, Graz and Linz (Austria); Warsaw and Cracow Prague is served by Václav Havel Airport Prague, the largest airport in the Czech Republic and one of the largest and busiest airports in central and eastern Europe. The airport is the hub of carriers Smartwings and Czech Airlines operating throughout Europe. Other airports in Prague include the city's In 2018, 2% of people commute by bike in Prague, cycling is very common as a sport or recreation. As of 2017, there were 178 km (111 mi) of protected cycle paths and routes. Also, there were 48 km (30 mi) of bike lanes and 24 km (15 mi) of specially marked bus lanes that are free to be used by cyclists. Prague is the site The city of Prague maintains its own EU delegation in Brussels called Prague House. Prague was the location of U.S. President Barack Obama's speech on 5 April 2009, which led to the New START treaty with Russia, signed in Prague on 8 April 2010. The annual conference Forum 2000, which was founded by former Czech President Václav Havel, Japanese philanthropist Yōhei Sasakawa, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel in 1996, is held in Prague. Its main objective is "to identify the key issues facing civilization and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion, culture or ethnicity as their primary components", and also intends to promote democracy in non-democratic countries and to support civil society. Conferences have attracted a number of prominent thinkers, Nobel laureates, former and acting politicians, business leaders and other individuals like: Frederik Willem de Klerk, Bill Clinton, Nicholas Winton, Oscar Arias Sánchez, Dalai Lama, Hans Küng, Shimon Peres and Madeleine Albright. Prague is A number of other settlements are derived or similar to the name of Prague. In many of these cases, Czech emigration has left a number of namesake cities	Prague (;,, ) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 13th largest city in the European Union and the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated on the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of 2.7 million. 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summarize: Since the 20th century, the "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. The three main components of a book musical are its "music", "lyrics" and "book". The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the "libretto" (Italian for "little book"). The music and lyrics together form the "score" of a Musical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. First, musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue. Some musicals, however, are entirely accompanied and sung-through, while some operas, such as "Die Zauberflöte", and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue. Second, musicals also usually include more dancing as an essential part of the storytelling, particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus. Third, musicals often use There are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese opera, Taiwanese opera, Japanese Noh and Indian musical theatre, including Sanskrit drama, Indian classical dance, Parsi theatre and Yakshagana. India has, since the 20th century, produced The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE. The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre. In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, Around 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette. The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed. Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical "A Trip to Chinatown" (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until "Irene" in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald De Koven's "Robin Hood" (1891) and John Philip Sousa's "El Capitan" (1896). "A Trip to Coontown" (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours. Meanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with "The Merry Widow", and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I. In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including "The Fortune Teller" (1898), "Babes in Toyland" (1903), "Mlle. Modiste" (1905), "The Red Mill" (1906) and "Naughty Marietta" (1910). In the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's "Show Boat" (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now... everything else was subservient to that play. The 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air. Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Oklahoma!" (1943) completed the revolution begun by "Show Boat", by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to The 1950s were crucial to the development of the American musical. Damon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' "Guys and Dolls", (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's "Paint Your Wagon" (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on "My Fair Lady" (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's "Pygmalion" starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. This surpassed the run of two hits by British creators: "The Boy Friend" In 1960, "The Fantasticks" was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as "Celebration" and "I Do! I Do!", the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like "Fiddler on the Roof" (1964; 3,242 performances), "Hello, Dolly!" (1964; 2,844 performances), "Funny Girl" (1964; 1,348 performances) and "Man of La Mancha" (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like "Cabaret", before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman. The first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum" (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include "Anyone Can Whistle" (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful "Company" (1970), "Follies" (1971) and "A Little Night Music" (1973). Later, After "Show Boat" and "Porgy and Bess", and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included "Finian's Rainbow" and "South Pacific". Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as "Fiddler on the Roof", "Milk and Honey", "Blitz!" and later "Rags". The original concept that became "West Side After the success of "Hair", rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Godspell", "The Rocky Horror Show", "Evita" and "Two Gentlemen of Verona". Some of those began as "concept albums" which were then adapted to the stage, most notably "Jesus Christ Superstar" and "Evita". Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. Shows like "Raisin", "Dreamgirls", "Purlie" and "The Wiz" brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above. In 1975, the dance musical "A Chorus Line" emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with "gypsies" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about The 1980s saw the influence of European "megamusicals" on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically feature a pop-influenced score, large casts and spectacular sets and special effects – a falling chandelier (in "The Phantom of the Opera"); a helicopter landing on stage (in "Miss Saigon") – and big budgets. Some were based on novels or other works of literature. The British team of composer Andrew Lloyd Webber and producer Cameron Mackintosh started the megamusical phenomenon with their 1981 musical "Cats", based on the poems of T. S. Eliot, which overtook "A Chorus Line" to become the longest-running Broadway show. Lloyd Webber followed up with "Starlight Express" (1984), performed on roller skates; "The Phantom of the In the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show "Rent" (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera "La bohème") about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, "Rent" was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads], camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades. Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., "The Boy from Oz" and "The Drowsy Chaperone"). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like "African Footprint" and "Umoja" and book musicals, such as "Kat and the Kings" and "Sarafina!" touring internationally. Locally, musicals like "Vere", "Love and Green Onions", "Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza" and "Bangbroek Mountain" and "In Briefs – a queer little Musical" have been produced successfully. Successful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World, François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the Savoy operas, professionals recognized that the The Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Also, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. Stephen Sondheim commented in the year 2000: However, noting the success in recent decades of original material, and creative re-imaginings of film, plays and literature, theatre historian John Kenrick countered: Is the Musical dead?... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age', with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.	Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. 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summarize: On 4 March 1947, the Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom as a "Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance" in the event of a possible attack by Germany or the Soviet Union in the aftermath of World War II. In 1948, this alliance was expanded to include the Benelux countries, in the form of the Western Union, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organization (BTO), established by the Treaty of Brussels. Talks for a new military alliance which could also include North America resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it, by means of an integrated military structure: This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted the Western Union's military structures and plans. In 1952, the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO maritime exercises, Exercise Mainbrace and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization. Following the London and Paris Conferences, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was, in turn, a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966. In 1982, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance. The collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989–1991 removed the "de facto" main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent. NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 during the break-up of Yugoslavia. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, most of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004., requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times following incidents in the Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, and annexation of Crimea. The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent. Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. Between 1999 and 2020 NATO incorporated the following Central and Eastern European countries, including several former communist states: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia, Montenegro, and North Macedonia. The Russian intervention in Crimea in 2014 led to strong condemnation by NATO nations and the creation of a new "spearhead" force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. At the subsequent 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least 2% of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline. NATO did not condemn the 2016–present purges in Turkey. NATO members have resisted the UN's Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations. No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, "Anchor Guard" in 1990 and "Ace Guard" in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area. The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the break-up of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, ordering a no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone. On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction. In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces. In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Further NATO air strikes helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995. As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea. Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations. In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević's Serbian-led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999. Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo. Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence. In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia., 4,882 KFOR soldiers, representing 31 countries, continue to operate in the area. The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management. The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history. The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001. The alliance showed unity: On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area. ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan, and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country. On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts. During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014. ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training Resolute Support Mission. In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF-I. The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011. Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria, and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity. Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. Russia, China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well. The operation seeks to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and abetting to increase the general level of security in the region. During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protesters and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on 19 March. On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1, and additional ships and submarines from NATO members. They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries". On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces. NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations, resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict. In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO. The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama. While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August. Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs. The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable. By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets. A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign. Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues. NATO has thirty members, mainly in Europe and North America. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. French Algeria was however covered until their independence on 3 July 1962. Twelve of these thirty are original members who joined in 1949, while the other eighteen joined in one of eight enlargement rounds. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism". Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance. Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defence, with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defence spending. New membership in the alliance has been largely from Central and Eastern Europe, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. Accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans, and requires approval by each current member. NATO currently has one candidate country that is in the process of joining the alliance: Bosnia and Herzegovina. North Macedonia signed an accession protocol to become a NATO member state in February 2019, and became a member state on 27 March 2020. Its accession had been blocked by Greece for many years due to the Macedonia naming dispute, which was resolved in 2018 by the Prespa agreement. In order to support each other in the process, new and potential members in the region formed the Adriatic Charter in 2003. Georgia was also named as an aspiring member, and was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest, though in 2014, US President Barack Obama said the country was not "currently on a path" to membership. Russia continues to politically oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with informal understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and US negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification. NATO's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia, though they have also been criticized in the West. A June 2016 Levada poll found that 68% of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland—former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia—is a threat to Russia. In contrast 65% of Poles surveyed in a 2017 Pew Research Center report identified Russia as a "major threat", with an average of 31% saying so across all NATO countries, and 67% of Poles surveyed in 2018 favour US forces being based in Poland. Of non-CIS Eastern European countries surveyed by Gallup in 2016, all but Serbia and Montenegro were more likely than not to view NATO as a protective alliance rather than a threat. A 2006 study in the journal "Security Studies" argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine's relationship with NATO and Europe has been politically controversial, and improvement of these relations was one of the goals of the "Euromaidan" protests that saw the ousting of pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. In March 2014, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk reiterated the government's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership. Ukraine's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership, but signalled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join. Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership. Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan. The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility of using NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "right of first refusal". For example, Article 42(7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power". The treaty applies globally to specified territories whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme. Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialogue forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council. In June 2018, Qatar expressed its wish to join NATO. However, NATO declined membership, stating that only additional European countries could join according to Article 10 of NATO's founding treaty. Qatar and NATO have previously signed a security agreement together in January 2018. Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives. In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "partners across the globe" or "global partners". Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stated that NATO needs to "address the rise of China," by closely cooperating with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and South Korea. Colombia is the NATO's latest partner and Colombia has access to the full range of cooperative activities NATO offers to partners; Colombia became the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO. All agencies and organizations of NATO are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole. The civilian structure includes: The military structure includes: The organizations and agencies of NATO include: The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.	The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ;, '), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.	en	en	99	[ 250004, 250054, 2161, 201, 11994, 40191, 4, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 27859, 8372, 92, 509, 181141, 390, 9942, 136, 70, 14098, 117604, 237, 10, 44, 62731, 67530, 111, 147724, 136, 174948, 289, 54360, 7154, 58, 23, 70, 19732, 111, 10, 7722, 52875, 390, 102126, 707, 70, 134349, 32528, 23, 70, 7103, 125458, 111, 6661, 5550, 1995, 5, 360, 31100, 4, 903, 144, 87587, 509, 71062, 297, 47, 26698, 70, 30543, 56219, 76726, 4, 23, 70, 3173, 111, 70, 65925, 32528, 4, 2843, 15005, 2822, 47, 237, 70, 80781, 7, 4804, 67530, 173101, 15, 571, 8727, 247, 170920, 390, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 80781, 7, 5, 75113, 7, 100, 10, 3525, 116338, 144, 87587, 3129, 5809, 2843, 26698, 23924, 21629, 16750, 297, 23, 70, 138256, 111, 70, 23924, 142740, 4804, 67530, 98, 201, 7071, 45604, 390, 70, 32786, 117249, 111, 70, 65925, 32528, 1001, 70, 14098, 46684, 4, 25730, 4, 15604, 4, 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summarize: Rice was born at Shardeloes, an historic English country house near Amersham, Buckinghamshire, England that was requisitioned as a maternity hospital during the Second World War. His father, Hugh Gordon Rice (d. 1988), served with the Eighth Army and reached the rank of major during the Second World War, and afterward worked for the de Havilland Aircraft Company, becoming Far East representative, and for the Diplomatic Service, including as adviser to the Ministry of Overseas Development at Amman, Jordan. Rice's mother, Joan Odette (née Bawden; 1919–2009), daughter of an entrepreneur in the London fashion trade, served in the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) as a photographic interpreter, and in her eighties became known as a writer on the publication of her wartime diaries. Rice was educated at three independent schools: Aldwickbury School in Hertfordshire, St Albans School and Lancing College. He left Lancing with GCE A-Levels in History and French and then started work as an articled clerk for a law firm in London, having decided not to apply for a university place. He later attended the Sorbonne in Paris for a year. After studying for a year in Paris at the Sorbonne, Rice joined EMI Records as a management trainee in 1966. When EMI producer Norrie Paramor left to set up his own organization in 1968, Rice joined him as an assistant producer, working with, among others, Cliff Richard, The Scaffold. Rice became famous for his collaborations with Andrew Lloyd Webber, with whom he wrote "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Evita", "Cricket", "The Likes of Us," and additional songs for the 2011 West End production of "The Wizard of Oz". "Joseph" and "Superstar" were additionally known as two of the first hit musicals that drew their sound from the rock and pop music that became embedded in culture in the 1960s. For The Walt Disney Company, Rice has collaborated individually with Alan Menken and Elton John, creating productions including "Aladdin" (winning an Academy Award, Golden Globe and Grammy Award for Song of the Year for "A Whole New World") and "The Lion King" (winning the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight"). In 1996, his collaboration with Lloyd Webber for the film version "Evita" won Rice his third Academy Award for Best Original Song with the song "You Must Love Me". Rice has also collaborated with Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson of ABBA on "Chess" and with Rick Wakeman on the albums "1984" and "Cost of Living". In 2009, he wrote the lyrics for Andrei Konchalovsky's critically panned reimagining of "The Nutcracker", set to the music of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Rice reunited with Andrew Lloyd Webber in 2011 to pen new songs for Lloyd Webber's newest production of "The Wizard of Oz" which opened in March 2011 at the London Palladium. Rice has since, however, rejected working with Lloyd Webber again, claiming their partnership has run its course, and they are "no longer relevant as a team". On 9 November 1979, Rice hosted a highly publicised edition of "Friday Night, Saturday Morning" on the BBC which had a heated debate on the newly released film "Monty Python's Life of Brian", a film that had been banned by many local councils and caused protests throughout the world with accusations that it was blasphemous (as the lyricist of "Jesus Christ Superstar", Rice himself had been accused of blasphemy a decade before). To argue in favour of this accusation were veteran broadcaster and noted Christian Malcolm Muggeridge, and Mervyn Stockwood (the Bishop of Southwark). In defence of the film were two members of the Monty Python team, John Cleese and Michael Palin. He has also been a frequent guest panellist for many years on the radio panel games "Just a Minute" and "Trivia Test Match". Rice also made an appearance in the film "About a Boy". The film includes several clips from an edition of the game show "Countdown" on which he was the guest adjudicator. His other interests include cricket (he was President of the MCC in 2002) and maths. He wrote the foreword to the book "Why Do Buses Come In Threes" by Rob Eastaway and Jeremy Wyndham, and featured prominently in Tony Hawks's "One Hit Wonderland", where he co-wrote the song which gave Hawks a top twenty hit in Albania. On 2 December 2010 he addressed the eighth Bradman Oration in Adelaide. In October 2011, November and December 2016 and January and February 2017, Rice was guest presenter for the BBC Radio 2 show "Sounds of the '60s", standing in for regular presenter Brian Matthew who was unwell. He released his autobiography "Oh What a Circus: The Autobiography of Tim Rice" in 1998, which covered his childhood and early adult life until the opening of the original London production of "Evita" in 1978. He also took part in the Bush Theatre's 2011 project "Sixty Six Books" for which he wrote a piece based upon a book of the King James Bible. Rice is the current President of The London Library, the largest independent lending library in Europe. Along with his brother Jo and the radio presenters Mike Read and Paul Gambaccini, he was a co-founder of the "Guinness Book of British Hit Singles" and served as an editor from 1977 to 1996. In September 1981, Rice, along with Colin Webb and Michael Parkinson, launched Pavilion Books, a publishing house with a publishing focus on music and the arts. He held it until 1997. Rice is patron of London-based drama school, Associated Studios. Rice was made a Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 (entitling him to the address "Sir Tim Rice" or "Sir Tim"), was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1999, and was named a Disney Legend in 2002. In 2008, Rice received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. On 19 August 1974, Rice married Jane Artereta, daughter of Colonel Alexander Henry McIntosh, OBE, and former wife of producer and talent agent Michael Whitehall. The couple having met while working at Capital Radio. The marriage unravelled in the late 1980s after the British tabloid newspapers revealed that he had been conducting an affair with the singer Elaine Paige. Jane retains the title Lady Rice as, despite obtaining a divorce decree nisi, the couple never made it absolute and therefore they remain technically married. Lady Rice manages the family's 33,000 acre Dundonnell estate which Sir Tim Rice bought in 1998 for £2 million. She has won awards for her conservation work with red squirrels. They have two children, Eva Jane Florence, a novelist and singer-songwriter, and Donald Alexander Hugh, a film director and theatre producer who also helps to run Dundonnell. Eva, who was named after Eva Perón, is the author of the novel "The Lost Art of Keeping Secrets", which was a finalist for the British Book Award Best Read of the Year. Rice has a second daughter, Zoe Joan Eleanor from a relationship with Nell Sully, an artist. He has a third daughter, Charlotte Cordelia Violet Christina from a relationship with Laura-Jane Foley, a writer. As of 2017, he has seven grandchildren. Rice was a supporter of the Conservative Party, but in 2007 stated that the Conservatives were no longer interested in him and that his relationship with the Party had "irrevocably changed." He was reported in early 2014 to be a donor for the UK Independence Party. Despite his disenchantment with the Conservative Party, Rice joined Andrew Lloyd Webber, both supporters of Margaret Thatcher, at her funeral in 2013. He also raised funds for the Euro No campaign in 2000. Describing his religion, Rice stated in a 1982 interview, "Technically I'm Church of England, which is really nothing. But I don't follow it. I wouldn't say I was a Christian. I have nothing against it." Conversely, he also stated that he adapted the biblical stories of Joseph and Jesus to musicals because "I'd always rather take a true story over an untrue one." Rice supports Sunderland association football club. He was awarded an honorary doctorate of letters by the University of Sunderland at a ceremony at the Stadium of Light in November 2006. On the Board of Trustees of the Sunderland charity, Foundation of Light, in 2011 he took part in the Foundation of Light event. Rice runs his own amateur Heartaches Cricket Club, the name inspired by an Elvis Presley song. Rice is a life member of the Odiham and Greywell Cricket Club. According to "The Sunday Times" Rich List of the UK's richest millionaires, Rice is worth £152 million as of 2017. In 2015, Rice expressed his indebtedness to the journalist Angus McGill as "the man responsible for Andrew Lloyd Webber and I having our first song recorded". Speaking at McGill's funeral, Rice told a tale from his days at EMI about trying to rig the results of the "London Evening Standard" Girl of the Year competition in 1967. As "glorified office boy", Rice was writing songs with Lloyd Webber and desperate to find anybody to record one of their songs. Rice and colleagues filled in 5,000 entry forms overnight voting for the contestant who was a singer, and delivered them to McGill, who supervised the competition. Rice said it was "a disgraceful act of dishonesty on my part... without actually breaking the rules". As a result, the Standard proclaimed two Girls of the Year and Rice's choice, Rosalind ("Ross") Hannaman, was signed to EMI where she made her first record. Rice said at the funeral: "I owe [Angus] an awful lot, which is just one of the reasons why I'm here today." In addition to adaptations of his theatrical productions, Rice has worked on several original film and television projects:	Sir Timothy Miles Bindon Rice (born 10 November 1944) is an English lyricist and author. He is best known for his collaborations with Andrew Lloyd Webber, with whom he wrote, among other shows, "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", "Jesus Christ Superstar", and "Evita"; with Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson of ABBA, with whom he wrote "Chess"; and with Disney on "Aladdin, The Lion King", the stage adaptation of "Beauty and the Beast", and the original Broadway musical "Aida". He also wrote lyrics for the Alan Menken musical "King David", and for DreamWorks Animation's "The Road to El Dorado".	en	en	135	[ 250004, 250054, 118350, 509, 103122, 99, 26520, 112, 365, 90, 4, 142, 105719, 14941, 23295, 18276, 43573, 70783, 7, 3915, 4, 667, 41324, 3915, 72567, 4, 30715, 450, 509, 87103, 1830, 297, 237, 10, 57988, 2481, 17986, 20271, 70, 77648, 6661, 5550, 5, 18763, 67373, 4, 198952, 119892, 118350, 15, 71, 5, 18592, 247, 149976, 678, 70, 241, 22553, 127, 126140, 136, 157578, 70, 30648, 111, 13036, 20271, 70, 77648, 6661, 5550, 4, 136, 7103, 19364, 79786, 100, 70, 8, 1391, 5115, 1760, 5345, 56379, 33734, 4, 141753, 7325, 24453, 99638, 13, 4, 136, 100, 70, 78702, 9523, 12349, 4, 26719, 237, 115992, 42, 47, 70, 185236, 111, 9578, 184, 162, 55441, 99, 16355, 19, 4, 44532, 5, 118350, 25, 7, 42732, 4, 17650, 2365, 8676, 15, 40062, 1853, 434, 555, 74, 45913, 1104, 15841, 247, 76849, 111, 142, 6, 98659, 23, 70, 9020, 54543, 52350, 4, 149976, 23, 70, 58373, 25, 7, 62, 6077, 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summarize: John Francis Pastorius was born December 1, 1951, in Norristown, Pennsylvania. He was the oldest of three boys born to Stephanie, his Finnish mother, and Jack Pastorius, a singer and jazz drummer who spent much of his time on the road. His family moved to Oakland Park near Fort Lauderdale when he was eight. Pastorius' nickname, "Jaco", became adopted, and was partially influenced by his love for sports as well as the umpire Jocko Conlan. In 1974, he began spelling it "Jaco" after it was misspelled by his neighbor, pianist Alex Darqui. His brother called him "Mowgli" after the wild boy in "The Jungle Book" because he was energetic and spent much of his time shirtless on the beach, climbing trees, running through the woods, and swimming in the ocean. He attended St. Clement's Catholic School in Wilton Manors and was an altar boy at St. Clement's Church. His confirmation name was Anthony, thus expanding his name to John Francis Anthony Pastorius. He was intensely competitive and excelled at baseball, basketball, and football. He played drums until he injured his wrist playing football when he was thirteen. The damage was severe enough to warrant corrective surgery and inhibited his ability to play the drums. By 1968–1969, at the age of 17, Pastorius had begun to appreciate jazz and had saved enough money to buy an upright bass. Its deep, mellow tone appealed to him, though it strained his finances. He had difficulty maintaining the instrument, which he attributed to the humidity in Florida. When he woke one day to find it had cracked, he traded it for a 1962 Fender Jazz Bass. In his teens he played bass guitar for Wayne Cochran and the C.C. Riders. In the early 1970s, Pastorius taught bass at the University of Miami, where he befriended jazz guitarist Pat Metheny, who was also on the faculty. With Paul Bley, Pastorius and Metheny recorded an album, later titled "Jaco" (Improvising Artists, 1974). Pastorius then played on Metheny's debut album, "Bright Size Life" (ECM, 1976). He recorded his debut solo album, "Jaco Pastorius" (Epic, 1976) with Michael Brecker, Randy Brecker, Herbie Hancock, Hubert Laws, Pat Metheny, Sam & Dave, David Sanborn, and Wayne Shorter. Before recording his debut album, Pastorius attended a concert in Miami by the jazz fusion band Weather Report. After the concert, he approached keyboardist Joe Zawinul, who led the band. As was his habit, he introduced himself by saying, "I'm John Francis Pastorius III. I'm the greatest bass player in the world." Zawinul admired his brashness and asked for a demo tape. After listening to the tape, Zawinul realized that Pastorius had considerable skill. They corresponded, and Pastorius sent Zawinul a rough mix of his solo album. After bassist Alphonso Johnson left Weather Report, Zawinul asked Pastorius to join the band. Pastorius made his band debut on the album "Black Market" (Columbia, 1976), in which he shared the bass chair with Johnson. Pastorius was fully established as sole band bass player for the recording of "Heavy Weather" (Columbia, 1977), which contained the Grammy-nominated hit "Birdland". During his time with Weather Report, Pastorius began abusing alcohol and illegal drugs, which exacerbated existing mental problems and led to erratic behavior. He left Weather Report in 1982 due to clashes with tour commitments for his other projects, plus a growing dissatisfaction with Zawinul's synthesized and orchestrated approach to the band's music. Warner Bros. signed Pastorius to a favorable contract in the late 1970s based on his groundbreaking skill and his star quality, which they hoped would lead to large sales. He used this contract to set up his Word of Mouth big band which consisted of Chuck Findley on trumpet, Howard Johnson on tuba, Wayne Shorter, Michael Brecker, and Tom Scott on reeds, Toots Thielemans on harmonica, Peter Erskine and Jack DeJohnette on drums, and Don Alias on percussion. This was the group that recorded his second solo album, "Word of Mouth" (Warner Bros., 1981). In 1982, Pastorius toured with Word of Mouth as a 21-piece big band. While in Japan, to the alarm of his band members, he shaved his head, painted his face black, and threw his bass guitar into Hiroshima Bay. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in late 1982 after the tour. Pastorius had shown signs of bipolar disorder before his diagnosis, but these signs were dismissed as eccentricities, character flaws, and by Pastorius himself as a normal part of his freewheeling personality. Despite attention in the press, "Word of Mouth" sold poorly. Warner Bros. was unimpressed by the demo tapes from "Holiday for Pans". Pastorius released a third album, "Invitation" (1983), a live recording from the Word of Mouth tour of Japan. As alcohol and drug problems dominated his life, he had trouble finding work, finding people who would tolerate his shenanigans, and he wound up homeless. In 1985, while filming an instructional video, Pastorius told the interviewer, Jerry Jemmott, that although he had been praised often for his ability, he wished that someone would give him a job. Pastorius developed a self-destructive habit of provoking bar fights and allowing himself to be beaten up. After sneaking onstage at a Santana concert at the Sunrise Musical Theater in Sunrise, Florida on September 11, 1987 and being ejected from the premises, he made his way to the Midnight Bottle Club in Wilton Manors, Florida. After reportedly kicking in a glass door, having been refused entrance to the club, he was in a violent confrontation with Luc Havan, the club's manager who was a martial arts expert. Pastorius was hospitalized for multiple facial fractures and injuries to his right eye and left arm, and fell into a coma. There were encouraging signs that he would come out of the coma and recover, but they soon faded. A brain hemorrhage a few days later led to brain death. He was taken off life support and died on September 21, 1987 at the age of 35 at Broward General Medical Center in Fort Lauderdale. Luc Havan faced a charge of second-degree murder. He pleaded guilty to manslaughter and was sentenced to twenty-two months in prison and five years' probation. After serving four months in prison, he was paroled for good behavior. Until about 1970, most jazz bassists played the acoustic, upright bass, also known as the double bass. With the exception of the bass players in the trios Bill Evans led, bassists remained in the background with the drummer, forming the rhythm section, while the saxophonist, trumpeter, or vocalist handled the melody and led the band. Pastorius had other ideas for the bass player. He played an electric bass from which he had removed the frets. He played fast and loud, sang, and did flips. He spread powder on the stage so he could dance like James Brown. He joked around and talked to the crowd. A self-described Florida beach bum, he often went barefoot and shirtless. He was tall, lean, and strong, and for someone who played sports the nickname "Jocko" fit. His thumbs were "double jointed" and his fingers were long and thin. After being taught about artificial harmonics, he added them to his technique and repertoire. (Natural harmonics, also known as open string harmonics, are played by lightly touching the string at a fret without pressing it to the fretboard, resulting in a note that rings somewhat like a bell. Artificial harmonics, also called false harmonics, involve lightly touching a string with one finger, then using another finger to play the note, simultaneously playing and stopping the note.) An often cited example is the introduction to "Birdland". He was noted for virtuosic bass lines which combined Afro-Cuban rhythms, inspired by the likes of Cachao Lopez, with R&B to create 16th-note funk lines syncopated with ghost notes. He played these with a "movable anchor" thumb technique on the right hand, anchoring on the bridge pickup while playing on the E and A strings and muting the E string with his thumb while playing on higher strings. Examples include "Come On, Come Over" from the album "Jaco Pastorius" and "The Chicken" from "The Birthday Concert". Pastorius played a number of Fender Jazz Bass guitars over the years, but the most famous was a 1962 Jazz Bass that he called the Bass of Doom. When he was 21, Pastorius acquired the bass, which was modified to remove the frets. It is unclear when the frets were removed, as his recollections varied over the years. A common story is that he used a common butter knife to remove the frets, and sealed the fretboard with epoxy resin. One anecdote, as recounted by Allyn Robinson in an interview with Robert Sturrken on his "Nightlife and Music with the Maestro" program on WYLK Lake 94, claimed Pastorius removed the frets only four hours before a gig with Wayne Cochran. In 1986 the bass was repaired by luthiers Kevin Kaufman and Jim Hamilton, after it had been broken into many pieces. After the repair Pastorius recorded a session with Mike Stern, then the bass was stolen from a park bench in Manhattan in 1986. It was found in a guitar shop in 2006, but the shop owner refused to give it up. The Pastorius family enlisted lawyers to help but nearly went bankrupt in 2010. Robert Trujillo, bass guitarist for Metallica, considered Jaco Pastorius to be one of his heroes, and he felt that the family ought to have the bass. Trujillo helped pay to have it returned to them. Fender began offering a fretless version of their standard Jazz Bass in the mid 1980s, and in 1999 began offering the "Fender Jaco Pastorius Jazz Bass" in their Artist series, and Custom Shop series. These instruments were modelled on the Bass of Doom, with the Custom Shop version featuring a fretboard sealed with epoxy resin. In the 2000s Fender's budget brand Squier offered the "Squier Vintage Modified Fretless Jazz Bass" which was also reminiscent of Jaco's instrument. Pastorius used the "Variamp" EQ (equalization) controls on his two Acoustic 360 amplifiers (made by the Acoustic Control Corporation of Van Nuys, California) to boost the midrange frequencies, thus accentuating the natural growling tone of his fretless passive Fender Jazz Bass and roundwound string combination. He also controlled his tone color with a rackmount MXR digital delay unit that fed a second Acoustic amp rig. During the final three years of his life he used Hartke cabinets because of the character of aluminum speaker cones (as opposed to paper speaker cones). These provided a bright, clear sound. He typically used the delay in a chorus-like mode, providing a shimmering stereo doubling effect. He often used the fuzz control built into the Acoustic 360. For the bass solo "Slang/Third Stone From the Sun" on Weather Report's live album "" (1979), Pastorius used the MXR digital delay to layer and loop a chordal figure and then soloed over it; the same technique, with a looped bass riff, can be heard during his solo on the Joni Mitchell concert video "Shadows and Light". Pastorius appeared as a guest on many albums by other artists, including Ian Hunter of Mott the Hoople, on "All American Alien Boy" in 1976. He can be heard on Airto Moreira's album "I'm Fine, How Are You?" (1977). His signature sound is prominent on Flora Purim's "Everyday Everynight" (1978), on which he played the bass melody for a Michel Colombier composition entitled "The Hope", and performed bass and vocals on one of his own compositions, entitled "Las Olas". Other recordings included Joni Mitchell's "Hejira" and Al Di Meola’s "Land of the Midnight Sun", both released in 1976. Near the end of his career, he worked often with guitarist Mike Stern, guitarist Biréli Lagrène, and drummer Brian Melvin. Pastorius received two Grammy Award nominations in 1977 for his self-titled debut album: one for Best Jazz Performance by a Group and one for Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist ("Donna Lee"). In 1978, he received a Grammy nomination for Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist for his work on Weather Report's album "Heavy Weather". "Bass Player" magazine gave him second place on a list of the one hundred greatest bass players of all time, behind James Jamerson. After his death in 1987, he was voted, by readers of "Down Beat" magazine, to its Hall of Fame, joining bassists Jimmy Blanton, Ray Brown, Ron Carter, Charles Mingus, Charlie Haden, and Milt Hinton. Many musicians have composed songs in his honour, such as Pat Metheny's "Jaco" on the album "Pat Metheny Group" (1978) and "Mr. Pastorius" by Marcus Miller on Miles Davis's album "Amandla". Others who have dedicated compositions to him include Randy Brecker, Eliane Elias, Chuck Loeb, John McLaughlin, Bob Moses, Ana Popović, Dave Samuels, and the Yellowjackets. On December 2, 2007, the day after his birthday, a concert called "20th Anniversary Tribute to Jaco Pastorius" was held at Broward Center for the Performing Arts in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with performances by the Jaco Pastorius Big Band and appearances by Randy Brecker, Dave Bargeron, Peter Erskine, Jimmy Haslip, Bob Mintzer, Gerald Veasley, Pastorius's sons John and Julius Pastorius, Pastorius's daughter Mary Pastorius, Ira Sullivan, Bobby Thomas Jr., and Dana Paul. Almost twenty years after his death, Fender released the Jaco Pastorius Jazz Bass, a fretless instrument in its Artist Series. He has been called "arguably the most important and ground-breaking electric bassist in history" and "perhaps the most influential electric bassist today". William C. Banfield, director of Africana Studies, Music and Society at Berklee College, described Pastorius as one of the few original American virtuosos who defined a musical movement, in addition to Jimi Hendrix, Louis Armstrong, Thelonious Monk, Charlie Christian, Bud Powell, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, John Coltrane, Sarah Vaughan, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus and Wes Montgomery.	John Francis Anthony "Jaco" Pastorius III (; December 1, 1951 – September 21, 1987) was an American jazz bassist who was a member of Weather Report from 1976 to 1981. He worked with Pat Metheny and Joni Mitchell, and recorded albums as a solo artist and band leader. His bass playing employed funk, lyrical solos, bass chords, and innovative harmonics. 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4, 44, 571, 54969, 80378, 16505, 58, 15, 16546, 594, 4, 28506, 194, 1529, 17164, 297, 1919, 34377, 2639, 7156, 4, 44, 6979, 587, 3805, 79269, 58, 15, 647, 18695, 4, 28506, 16, 678, 11617, 6499, 11050, 4, 39643, 53, 6499, 11050, 4, 1840, 9014, 2548, 124324, 4, 219892, 36293, 7, 4, 9876, 4146, 3220, 53, 4, 3362, 619, 103383, 4, 6765, 1735, 57332, 4, 136, 162375, 82990, 56, 5, 117371, 182304, 1919, 34377, 7156, 4, 3805, 79269, 29966, 297, 10, 20428, 23, 69563, 390, 70, 39644, 119485, 8753, 214526, 34798, 5, 24372, 70, 20428, 4, 764, 51515, 297, 149186, 1419, 40207, 825, 9494, 202, 4, 2750, 12441, 70, 8753, 5, 1301, 509, 1919, 62122, 4, 764, 65508, 71, 66570, 390, 54433, 4, 44, 568, 25, 39, 4939, 56230, 3805, 79269, 4830, 5, 87, 25, 39, 70, 158036, 4950, 7, 58585, 23, 70, 8999, 1242, 825, 9494, 202, 73275, 297, 1919, 1620, 1495, 7432, 136, 37170, 100, 10, 53397, 62690, 5, 24372, 178463, 47, 70, 62690, 4, 825, 9494, 202, 185171, 450, 3805, 79269, 1902, 150675, 112419, 5, 10660, 82122, 71, 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summarize: Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve Apostles, worries that the followers of Jesus are getting out of control and may be seen as a threat by the Roman Empire, who might harshly suppress them ("Heaven on Their Minds"). The other apostles anticipate going to Jerusalem with Jesus and ask him about his plans, but Jesus tells them not to worry about the future ("What's the Buzz"). Mary Magdalene tries to help Jesus relax. Judas tells Jesus that he should not associate with Mary, because a relationship with a prostitute could be seen as inconsistent with his own teachings and be used against him ("Strange Thing Mystifying"). Jesus tells Judas that he should not judge others unless he is without sin. Jesus then reproaches the apostles and complains that none of them truly cares about him. Mary Magdalene tries to reassure Jesus while anointing him with oil ("Everything's Alright"). Judas angrily says that the money spent on oil should have been used to help the poor. Jesus answers that they do not have the resources to end poverty, and that they should be glad for what comforts they have. Meanwhile, Caiaphas, the High Priest of Israel, assembles the Pharisees and priests. Like Judas they fear that Jesus's followers will be seen as a threat by the Romans, and that many Jews might suffer the consequences. Caiaphas concludes that for the greater good, Jesus must be killed ("This Jesus Must Die"). As Jesus and his followers arrive exultantly in Jerusalem, they are confronted by Caiaphas, who demands that Jesus disperse the crowd. Jesus instead greets the happy crowd ("Hosanna"). Then Simon the Zealot suggests that Jesus lead his mob in a war against Rome and gain absolute power. Jesus rejects this, stating that none of his followers understand what true power is ("Simon Zealotes/Poor Jerusalem"). Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judea, has a dream in which he meets a Galilean and then receives the blame for the man's violent death at the hands of a mob ("Pilate's Dream"). Jesus arrives at the Temple and finds that it is being used as a marketplace; angered by this, he drives everyone out ("The Temple"). A group of lepers ask Jesus to heal them. Their number increases, and overwhelmed, Jesus rejects them. Mary Magdalene sings him to sleep. While he sleeps, Mary acknowledges that she is in love with him, and it frightens her ("I Don't Know How to Love Him"). Conflicted, Judas seeks out the Pharisees and proposes helping them arrest Jesus, believing that Jesus is out of control and that Jesus himself would approve of his action. In exchange for his help, Judas is offered thirty pieces of silver. Judas initially refuses, then accepts when Caiaphas suggests that he can use the money to help the poor ("Damned for All Time/Blood Money"). At the Last Supper, Jesus is stung when the others get drunk and pay little attention to him. He remarks that "for all you care" the wine they are drinking could be his blood and the bread his body. He asks them to remember him, then frustrated by their lack of understanding, he predicts that Peter will deny him three times that night, and that another one of them will betray him. Judas admits that he is the one who will betray Jesus and, saying that he does not understand why Jesus did not plan things better, he leaves ("The Last Supper"). The remaining apostles fall asleep, and Jesus retreats to the Garden of Gethsemane to pray ("Gethsemane (I Only Want to Say)"). He tells God his doubts about whether his mission has had any success, and angrily demands to know why he should continue and suffer the horrible death that awaits him. Receiving no answer, he realises that he cannot defy God's will, and surrenders to God. Judas arrives with Roman soldiers and identifies Jesus by kissing him on the cheek ("The Arrest"). When Jesus is brought to trial before the Sanhedrin, Caiaphas demands to know if he calls himself the Son of God, and Jesus responds merely "That's what you say". Caiaphas says that this is sufficient evidence and sends him to Pilate. Meanwhile, Peter is confronted by three people, to whom he denies that he knows Jesus ("Peter's Denial"). Mary observes that Jesus had predicted this. Pilate asks Jesus if he is the King of the Jews. Jesus again answers "That's what you say". Since Jesus is from Galilee, Pilate says that he is not under his jurisdiction and sends him to King Herod ("Pilate and Christ"). The flamboyant King Herod asks Jesus to prove his divinity by performing miracles ("King Herod's Song"), but Jesus ignores him. Herod angrily sends him back to Pilate. Mary Magdalene, Peter, and the apostles remember when they first began following Jesus, and wish that they could return to a time of peace ("Could We Start Again, Please?"). Judas is horrified at Jesus's harsh treatment. He expresses regret to the Pharisees, fearing that he will forever be remembered as a traitor. Caiaphas and Annas assure him that he has done the right thing. Judas throws down the money he was given and storms out. He curses God for manipulating him, and commits suicide ("Judas's Death"). At Jesus's trial, Pilate attempts to interrogate Jesus, but is cut off by a bloodthirsty mob which demands that Jesus be crucified. He tells the mob that Jesus has committed no crime and does not deserve to die, but to satisfy the mob he will have Jesus flogged ("Trial Before Pilate"). Pilate pleads with Jesus to defend himself, but Jesus says weakly that everything has been determined by God. The crowd still calls for Jesus's death and finally Pilate reluctantly agrees to crucify Jesus. As Jesus awaits crucifixion, he is haunted by the ghost of Judas, who asks why Jesus chose to arrive in the manner and time that he did, and if it was all part of a divine plan ("Superstar"). Jesus is crucified, recites his final words and dies ("The Crucifixion"). 2 flutes, clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 saxophones (one tenor), 6 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, drum set, percussion set, 6 guitars (1 acoustic, 2 electric, 4 bass), 5 pianos, electric piano, 3 organs, positive organ, and strings. Additional vocals are provided by a choir, a children's choir ("Overture"), and other singers ("Superstar"). Act One Act Two The songs were first written and conceived as an album musical, before the musical was created and staged. On the original album, the part of Jesus was sung by Ian Gillan, with Murray Head as Judas, Michael d'Abo as King Herod, Yvonne Elliman as Mary Magdalene, and Barry Dennen as Pilate. In July 1971, the first authorised American concert of the rock opera took place in front of an audience of 13,000 people at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Civic Arena with Jeff Fenholt singing the role of Jesus, Carl Anderson as Judas and Elliman repeating as Mary Magdalene. The musical opened on Broadway on 12 October 1971, directed by Tom O'Horgan, at the Mark Hellinger Theatre. It starred Jeff Fenholt as Jesus, Ben Vereen as Judas and Bob Bingham as Caiaphas. Dennen and Elliman played the roles that they had sung on the album. Kurt Yaghjian was Annas. Anderson replaced Vereen when he fell ill, and the two performers later took turns playing the role. The show closed on 30 June 1973 after 711 performances. The production received mixed reviews; the bold casting of African-Americans as Judas was lauded, but reviewer Clive Barnes from "The New York Times" said, "the real disappointment was not in the music... but in the conception." The show was nominated for five Tony Awards, including Best Score, but won none. Lloyd Webber won a Drama Desk Award as "Most Promising Composer", and Vereen won a Theatre World Award. The Broadway show and subsequent productions were condemned by some religious groups. Tim Rice was quoted as saying "It happens that we don't see Christ as God but simply the right man at the right time at the right place." Some Christians considered such comments to be blasphemous, the character of Judas too sympathetic and some of his criticisms of Jesus offensive. The musical's lack of allusion to the resurrection of Jesus has resulted in criticism similar to that of fellow musical "Godspell", which also did not clearly depict the resurrection. At the same time, some Jews claimed that it bolstered the antisemitic belief that the Jews were responsible for Jesus's death by showing most of the villains as Jewish (Caiaphas and the other priests, Herod) and showing the crowd in Jerusalem calling for the crucifixion. The musical was banned in South Africa for being "irreligious". A 1972 production of the play was banned in the Hungarian People's Republic for "distribution of religious propaganda". "Superstar" opened at the Palace Theatre in London in 1972, starring Paul Nicholas as Jesus, Stephen Tate as Judas and Dana Gillespie as Mary Magdalene. It was directed by Australian Jim Sharman. This production was much more successful than the original production on Broadway, running for eight years and becoming the United Kingdom's longest-running musical at the time. Dmitri Shostakovich attended this production in London just before his death. He regretted that he could not have composed something like it; he lauded especially a rock band underpinning full symphonic strings, brass and woodwind. One of the earliest foreign productions was a five-day run in Sweden at Scandinavium in Gothenburg, opening on 18 February 1972 and playing to 74,000 people (a record at the time). Starring as Mary Magdalene was Agnetha Fältskog. On 16 March 1972 an oratorio version was performed at Memorial Drive Park in Adelaide, South Australia as part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts. This was followed in May by the first full Australian production, at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney, later moving to the Palais Theatre in Melbourne. Sharman again directed, and the cast included Trevor White as Jesus, Jon English as Judas, and Michele Fawdon (1972–1973) and Marcia Hines (1973–1974) as Mary Magdalene. Hines was the first black woman to play the role. Other cast members included Reg Livermore, John Paul Young, Stevie Wright and Rory O'Donoghue as well as Graham Russell and Russell Hitchcock who met during the production and subsequently formed the band Air Supply. The production ran until February 1974. In June 1972 the show opened in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in Atelje 212 theatre, in adaptation by Jovan Ćirilov. The role of Jesus Christ was played by Korni Grupa vocalist Zlatko Pejaković, the role of Mary Magdalene by Azra Halinović and the role of Pontius Pilate by Branko Milićević. The premiere was directly broadcast by Radio Television of Belgrade. Bora Đorđević and Srđan Marjanović, at the time little known musicians, also participated as members of the choir. The production was praised by the Yugoslav public. In 1973, the show opened in Paris at the Théâtre de Chaillot in a French adaptation by Pierre Delanoë. The title role was sung by Daniel Beretta, and Mary Magdalena was Anne-Marie David. The critics were unimpressed, and the production stopped after 30 performances. In the same year, Noel Pearson produced the show at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, Republic of Ireland, with Luke Kelly giving a critically acclaimed performance as King Herod. In 1974, first Spanish-language production ran in Mexico with the title "Jesucristo Super Estrella". Julissa played Mary Magdalen. The musical was seen in 1974 in Peru and Singapore. Robert Stigwood launched two road touring companies in 1971 to cover North America, with Robert Corff and Tom Westerman as Jesus, respectively. The first major US National Tour, however began In 1976, managed by Laura Shapiro Kramer. The tour continued until 1980. In 1977, the show had its first Broadway revival, running from 23 November 1977 to 12 February 1978. It was directed by William Daniel Grey, with choreography by Kelly Carrol and starred William Daniel Grey as Jesus, Patrick Jude as Judas, and Barbara Niles as Mary Magdalene. Regional productions followed. In 1981, Emilio de Soto directed an English-language version in Venezuela, with 163 actors. From 1982 to 1984, an Australian production toured Australia and South-East Asia, directed by Trevor White, who also reprised his role of Jesus. The cast included Doug Parkinson as Judas and Marcia Hines (reprising her role as Mary Magdalene). The North American touring revival of "Superstar" in 1992 starred Neeley and Anderson reprising their respective Broadway and 1973 film roles as Jesus and Judas, receiving positive reviews for their performances. This production also starred both Dennis DeYoung as Pilate, and Syreeta and Irene Cara sharing Mary Magdalene. Originally expected to run for three to four months, the tour ended up running for five years. Original cast replacements to this tour included Christine Rea as Mary Magdalene, Jason Raize as Pontius Pilate and Simone as the Maid by the Fire and understudy for Mary. In 1994, a New Zealand production starred Darryl Lovegrove as Jesus, Jay Laga'aia as Judas and Frankie Stevens as Caiaphas. Also in 1994, a stage version titled "Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection" was performed in Atlanta, Austin and Seattle featuring Amy Ray and Emily Saliers of the Indigo Girls as Jesus and Mary Magdalene respectively, and Michael Lorant as Judas. In 1996, the musical was revived in London at the Lyceum Theatre and ran for a year and a half. Directed by Gale Edwards, it starred Steve Balsamo and Zubin Varla as Jesus and Judas, and Joanna Ampil as Mary Magdalene and Alice Cooper as King Herod. The production was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival but did not win. It was followed by a UK tour. This production was revived on Broadway at the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in 2000, starring Glenn Carter as Jesus and Tony Vincent as Judas. It opened to mixed reviews and ran for 161 performances. It was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical but did not win. In 2002, a national tour starred Sebastian Bach as Jesus and Anderson once again as Judas. Bach received mixed reviews while Anderson was again praised. In April 2003, Bach was replaced by Eric Kunze. Anderson left the show later in 2003 after being diagnosed with leukaemia and died in 2004. The tour closed shortly after Anderson's departure. In 2004 a year-long UK tour began, directed by Bob Tomson and Bill Kenwright. Carter reprised his role as Jesus, with James Fox as Judas. In 2005, a successful Scandinavian tour starred Australian Peter Murphy (Jesus), American Kristen Cummings (Mary), Englishman Jon Boydon née Stokes (Judas), Frenchman Jérôme Pradon (King Herod) and Australian Michael-John Hurney (Pilate). A US tour starring Neeley, reprising his role as Jesus, Corey Glover as Judas, and Christine Rea as Mary, began in 2006 and played for five years. A Chilean heavy metal version has played annually in Santiago since 2004. In Boston, Gary Cherone portrayed Jesus in productions in 1994, 1996 and 2003 and Judas in 2000. A new production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" was mounted at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, in Stratford, Ontario, in 2011. Directed by Des McAnuff, the cast starred Paul Nolan as Jesus, Josh Young as Judas, Brent Carver as Pilate, Chilina Kennedy as Mary Magdalene, Bruce Dow as Herod and Melissa O'Neil as Martha. This moved to La Jolla Playhouse later in the year and transferred to the Neil Simon Theatre on Broadway in 2012, with Tom Hewitt taking over the role of Pilate. Reviews were mixed. The revival was nominated for two Tonys: Best Revival and, for Young, Best Actor. Neither award was won, but Young won a Theatre World Award. The revival closed after 116 performances and 24 previews. Through a 2012 ITV competition TV show called "Superstar", produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, the UK public chose Ben Forster for the role of Jesus in an arena tour of the musical, beginning at O2 in September 2012. The production also starred Tim Minchin as Judas, Melanie C as Mary Magdalene and Chris Moyles as King Herod. Lloyd Webber stated, "The funny thing is that "Jesus Christ Superstar" [as a rock concert] is what we actually intended it to be. When it is done in a conventional proscenium theatre production it feels shoe-horned in. That is why I wanted to do this." The tour resumed in March 2013 in the UK, and an Australian leg of the tour commenced in Perth in May 2013. Andrew O'Keefe played King Herod in Australia, with Jon Stevens as Pilate. Stevens had played Judas in an Australian arena tour in 1992. In 2016, celebrating 45 years since the musical debuted on Broadway, "Jesus Christ Superstar" returned to London at Regent's Park Open Air Theatre, directed by Timothy Sheader. The production won the BBC Radio 2 Audience Award for Best Musical at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards, and a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival. The production returned to the Open Air Theatre as part of the 2017 season, running from 11 August 2017 to 23 September. Additionally, the Lyric Opera of Chicago hosted a run of the production from late April 2018 to late May 2018. before returning to London at the Barbican Centre from 9 July to 24 August 2019 prior to a 50th anniversary US tour from October 2019. Two notable Jesuses were Takeshi Kaga, in the 1976 Japanese production, and Camilo Sesto in the 1975 Spanish production. Mary Magdalene was played by Rocío Banquells in a 1981 production in Mexico. A Czech version premiered in 1994 in Prague's Spirála Theatre and ran until 1998, with 1288 performances. In the 2000s, a Venezuelan production ran for two years (2006–2008), directed by Michel Hausmann. A Spanish production produced by Stage Entertainment ran from 2007 to 2009, followed by long-running productions in Italy and Sweden (featuring Ola Salo) and Norway. Concerts of the show have been mounted in Vienna, Austria, since 1981, including one on Easter of 2015 starring Drew Sarich in the title role. In 2010, an Australian production presented by Harvest Rain Theatre Company was directed by Tim O'Connor. Luke Kennedy appeared as Jesus, Naomi Price as Mary, Tod Strike as Judas, and Steven Tandy as Herod. A 2017 Professional Australian Production was staged at the Arts Centre Melbourne and starred Rob Mills as Jesus. A 2014 production in São Paulo, Brazil starred Igor Rickli as Jesus. Negra Li was Mary Magdalene. A 2014 production in Lima, Peru, at the Sarita Colonia prison, as part of a rehabilitation program for inmates, received some press. Eighty prisoners mounted the production, directed by inmate Freddy Battifora, who also played the role of Jesus. The Catholic Church approved of the production. In 2018 a new production, directed by Michael Hunt was premiered at the Perm Academic Theatre, Russia. Hunt worked closely with The Really Useful Group on a new translation together with the concept for a new staging. This rock opera is very popular in Russia but is the first authorised production to receive the support of the Really Useful Group. The original 1970 concept album was very popular; its 1971 release topped the US Billboard Pop Albums. The 1972 and 1992 Australian cast recordings were also both highly successful. In 1994, a studio recording under the name of "Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection" was released. A 1996 radio production for BBC Radio 2 starred Tony Hadley as Jesus, Roger Daltrey as Judas, Frances Ruffelle as Mary Magdalene and Julian Clary as King Herod; this production was re-broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra on 6 August 2016. In May 2018, Aztec Records released a 1973 live recording of the Australian production; previous recordings of that production were released as "bootleg" copies. A film adaptation of "Jesus Christ Superstar" was released in 1973 and was the eighth highest-grossing film of that year. The film, directed by Norman Jewison, was shot in Israel and other Middle Eastern locations. Ted Neeley, Carl Anderson and Yvonne Elliman were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their portrayals of Jesus, Judas and Mary Magdalene, respectively. Bob Bingham (Caiaphas) and Barry Dennen (Pilate) also reprised their roles. A new song, called "Then We Are Decided" and phrased as a dialogue between Caiaphas and Annas, was written and composed for this adaptation. A second adaptation was filmed in 1999, and released around the world on video in 2000 and 2001. It starred Glenn Carter as Jesus, Jérôme Pradon as Judas, Reneé Castle as Mary Magdalene, and Rik Mayall as Herod, and was directed by Gale Edwards and Nick Morris. It was released on video in the UK in October 2000. In the U.S. it was released on VHS and DVD in March 2001, and aired on PBS's "Great Performances" series in April 2001. It won the International Emmy Award for Best Performing Arts Film in November 2001. The style of the film is more like the stage version than the location-based 1973 adaptation, and it used many of the ideas from the 1996–1999 UK production. On Easter Sunday, April 1, 2018, NBC aired a live concert version of the show featuring John Legend as Jesus, Sara Bareilles as Mary Magdalene, Brandon Victor Dixon as Judas, Alice Cooper as King Herod, Norm Lewis as Caiaphas, Ben Daniels as Pilate, Jin Ha as Annas, Erik Grönwall as Simon Zealotes and Jason Tam as Peter. Two years later, on Easter Sunday, April 12, 2020, the show was re-broadcast on NBC, with many U.S. Households observing Easter at home while practicing social distancing due to the COVID-19 pandemic.	Jesus Christ Superstar is a 1970 rock opera with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice. It started as a rock opera album musical before its Broadway on-stage debut in 1971. The musical is sung-through, with no spoken dialogue. The story is loosely based on the Gospels' accounts of the last week of Jesus' life, beginning with the preparation for the arrival of Jesus and his disciples in Jerusalem and ending with the crucifixion. 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summarize: The daughter of university professors, Jade spent three years at Dijon's Conservatory of Dramatic Art. In 1964 she played on stage 40 times the part of Agnès in Molière's "L'école des femmes". In 1966 she won the Prix de Comédie for Jean Giraudoux's stage play "Ondine", performed at the Comédie Boulogne. She moved to Paris and became a student of Jean-Laurent Cochet at the Edouard VII theater, and began acting in television productions, including a leading role in TV series "Les oiseaux rares". While performing as Frida in Pirandello's "Henri IV", in a production by Sacha Pitoëff at the Théâtre Moderne, Jade was discovered by New Wave film director François Truffaut. He was "completely taken by her beauty, her manners, her kindness, and her "joie de vivre"", and cast her in the role of Christine Darbon in "Stolen Kisses" (1968). During the filming, Truffaut fell in love with her, and there was talk of marriage. Truffaut dubbed Claude Jade “French cinema’s little sweetheart” and the director and his muse were soon a couple in real life, although Truffaut changed his mind about marrying her the night before their wedding. American critic Pauline Kael wrote that Jade "seems a less ethereal, more practical Catherine Deneuve". When "Baisers volés" became a hit, Truffaut promised that one day he would ask Claude Jade to help him continue the series. The director's love shines through his alter-ego Doinel in Stolen Kisses (1968), "Bed and Board" (Domicile Conjugal, 1970) and "Love on the Run" (1979), as Christine puts up with Antoine's foibles and affairs. The Guardian notes "Memorable scenes pass through the mind like a montage: her teaching Antoine the best way to butter toast in the morning, their writing each other little notes, his calling her "my little mother, my little sister, my little daughter" in a taxi, and she replying she would rather be his wife; her attempts to guess Antoine's latest job, amusingly suggesting cab driver or water taster, her reaction when Antoine hangs a scissors on her ring finger, his affectionate response to her wearing glasses in bed, the medium tracking shot of her legs as she stops at a shop for tangerines then heads up the stairs, as one of the neighbourhood men longingly admires them." Playing the same character, Jade appeared in three Truffaut Movies. Truffaut uses the occasion to examine three states, three ages, of his heroine, played with the right middle-class gentility and innocence by Claude Jade: loved from a distance ("Stolen Kisses"); married and misled ("Bed and Board"); divorced but still on good terms ("Love on the Run"). Some months after Truffaut's "Stolen Kisses" Claude Jade starred in Alfred Hitchcock's "Topaz" (1969), as Michèle Picard, a secret agent's anxious daughter, married to a reporter (Michel Subor). Recommended to Hitchcock by Truffaut, she was 19 years old when cast, with Dany Robin playing her mother. Hitchcock said he chose the two actresses to provide glamor, and later quipped, "Claude Jade is a rather quiet young lady, but I wouldn't guarantee [that] about her behavior in a taxi". Jade recounted that they "talked in a Paris hotel about cooking, and I gave him my recipe for soufflé and told him I liked "Strangers on a Train", and that was that." Hitchcock said she resembled his former star Grace Kelly, and in France she was a younger Danielle Darrieux. Some of her scenes were deleted and restored for the director's cut of "Topaz" in 1999. "Topaz" was Jade's only Hollywood film. Universal Pictures offered her a seven-year contract, which she turned down reportedly because she preferred to work in French. Director Tony Richardson's film "Nijinsky" (a.k.a. "The Dancer") (1970), based on a screenplay by Edward Albee, was canceled during pre-production by producer Harry Saltzman. It was to have starred Jade as Vaslav Nijinsky's wife, alongside Rudolf Nureyev as Nijinsky and Paul Scofield as his lover Sergei Diaghilev. She had a leading role as Linda in "Sous le signe de Monte-Cristo" ("Under the Sign of Monte Cristo") by André Hunebelle, a modern version of Alexandre Dumas' novel. Here the 19 years young actress starred alongside French cinema's veterans like Pierre Brasseur and Michel Auclair. Jade starred in Édouard Molinaro's "My Uncle Benjamin" ("Mon oncle Benjamin", 1969) alongside Jacques Brel. As Manette she refuses Brel's advances until he produces a marriage contract. At the End Manette realizes she prefers happiness to a marriage contract after all. Her career continued in Belgium, where she played a young English teacher who is fatally intrigued by a murderer (Gérard Barray) in the 1969 film "The Witness". Her fiancé is this movie was played by Jean-Claude Dauphin, to whom she was engaged at this time. Also in 1969 she starred as Helena in a film adaptation of Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream" by Jean-Christophe Averty, "Le Songe d'une nuit d'été". In 1970 she reprised her part as Christine from "Stolen Kisses" in Truffaut's "Bed and Board" as a married woman. The Truffaut films influenced her type as lovingly gentle modern young woman in contemporary cinema, which she contrasted in ambivalent figures: Critic Vincent Canby praised her in work in Gérard Brach's "The Boat on the Grass" ("Le bateau sur l'herbe", 1971), in which she starred as Eleonore, a young girl between two friends (Jean-Pierre Cassel, John McEnery). She starred in "Hearth Fires" ("Les feux de la chandeleur", 1972) as Laura, a daughter who wants to reconcile her parents (Annie Girardot, Jean Rochefort) and who falls in love with her mother's best friend (Bernard Fresson). Alongside Robert Hossein she played the priest's love Françoise in "Forbidden Priests" ("Prêtres interdits", 1973). In "Home Sweet Home" (1973), she played a hardened nurse who is changed by a love affair with a social worker (Jacques Perrin). Jade played a dual role in "The Choice", 1976). She starred in three Italian films: as a private investigator in "Number One" (1973), as Tiffany, the girlfriend of a private eye (Frederick Stafford, her father from "Topaz") in "La ragazza di via Condotti" (1973), and as Maria Teresa, an unhappily married woman in Eriprando Visconti's "A Spiral of Mist" ("Una spirale di nebbia", 1977). She played a nun in "Kita No Misaki - Cap du Nord" (1976), by Japanese director Kei Kumai. In the same year she starred as Penny Vanderwood in "Thinking Robots", based on a horror novel by George Langelaan. Among other films of the 1970s were "Malicious Pleasure" ("Le malin plaisir", 1975), "Trop c'est trop" (1975) and the romantic comedy "The Pawn" ("Le Pion", 1978), in which she starred as a young widow who wins the heart of her son's teacher (Henri Guybet). One year later Claude Jade played a third time her part as Christine Doinel in Truffaut's "Love on the Run". In 1970 she starred as Orphan Françoise in mini-series "Mauregard", directed by Truffaut's co-writer Claude de Givray. Other TV roles in the decade are Sheherazade (in "Shéhérazade") and Louise de La Vallière (in "Le chateau perdu"), Lucile Desmoulins (in "La passion de Camille et Lucile Desmoulins"). She starred in such television movies as "Mamie Rose", "La Mandragore", "Monsieur Seul", "Fou comme François", "Les anneaux de Bicêtre", "Ulysse est revenu", and, in her biggest success of that decade, as heroine Veronique d'Hergemont in the series "The Island of Thirty Coffins". In the 1980s Jade moved to Moscow for three years with her husband Bernard Coste, a French diplomat, and her son Pierre Coste (born in 1976). She starred in two Soviet films. In "Teheran 43" (1981) she played the mysterious terrorist Françoise, with Alain Delon and an international cast. For Sergei Yutkevich's "Lenin in Paris" (1981), she played the French Bolshevik Inessa Armand, although without the rumored love affair with Vladimir Lenin. Among her other film roles in the 1980s were the arrested philosophy prof in "Schools Falling Apart" ("Le Bahut va craquer", 1981), the lawyer Valouin in "A Captain's Honor" ("L'honneur d'un capitaine", 1982), the Vicki Baum-heroine Evelyne Droste in "Rendezvous in Paris" (Germany, 1982) and the mysterious Alice in René Féret's thriller "The Man Who Wasn't There" ("L'homme qui n'était pas là", 1987). She also appeared in TV movies, such as the thriller "La grotte aux loups" (1980); the drama "Nous ne l'avons pas assez aimée" (1980); "Treize" (1981); a dual role in "Lise et Laura" (1982); "A Girl in the Sunflowers" (1984); the Italian miniseries "Voglia di volare" (1984); the French-Spanish-Canadian-German miniseries "Le grand secret" (1989) and in episode "L'amie d'enfance" of the series "Commissaire Moulin". During the 1990s Jade worked mainly in television, such as the TV series "La tête en l'air" and "Fleur bleue", as guest star in "Une femme d'honneur" (ep."Mémoire perdue"), "Inspecteur Moretti" (ep. "Un enfant au soleil"), "Julie Lescaut" (ep. "Rumeurs") and "Navarro" (ep. "Sentiments mortels"). TV movies included "L'Éternité devant soi", "Le bonheur des autres", "Eugénie Grandet" and "Porté disparu". From 1998 to 2000 she was the lead actress in the series "Tide of Life" ("Cap des Pins)". Her last U.S. acting part was a guest appearance on "The Hitchhiker": In Episode "Windows" she is Monique who shoot down at the end her neighbor David Marshall Grant. Jade's film roles in cinemas in 1990s included Gabrielle Martin, a mother betrayed by her husband, in "Tableau d'honneur". This was followed by her performance as shy lesbian Caroline in Jean-Pierre Mocky's "Bonsoir". In 1998, she played a governor's wife, Reine Schmaltz, who saves herself on a lifeboat in the historical movie "The Raft of the Medusa" ("Le Radeau de la Méduse", 1998). In her last decade, Jade's work included the TV movie "Sans famille" (2000); the series "La Crim" (episode "Le secret" in 2004), and "Groupe Flag" (episode "Vrai ou faux" in 2005). She also appeared in an episode of the short film series "Drug Scenes" ("Scénarios sur la drogue", episode "La rampe", 2000); and in the short "À San Remo" (2004). Jade was a member of Jean Meyer's theatre company in Lyon, appearing in plays by Jean Giraudoux (Helena in "The Trojan War Will Not Take Place", and Isabelle in "Intermezzo"); Henry de Montherlant ("Port Royal"); James Joyce ("The Exiles"); Racine ("Britannicus"); and Balzac ("Le Faiseur"). She took roles in plays by Vladimir Volkoff ("The Interrogation"); Catherine Decours ("Regulus 93"); Michel Vinaver ("Dissident il va sans dire"), Alfred de Musset ("Lorenzaccio") and others. She worked onstage in Lyon, Nantes, Dijon and Paris. Many plays were adapted for TV, such as her performances as Helena in Shakespeares "Midsummer Night's Dream"; her Sylvie in Marcel Aymés "Les oiseaux de lune"; her Colomba in Jules Romains's adaptation of Ben Johnson's "Volpone"; her Clarisse in Jacques Deval's "Il y a longtemps que je t'aime"; her title role in Jules Supervielle's "Shéhérazade"; and her Louise de La Vallière in "Le château perdu". Her last stage role was as Célimène in Jacques Rampal's "Celimene and the Cardinal". Jade published her autobiography, "Baisers envolés," in 2004. On 1 December 2006, Jade died of uveal melanoma which had metastasised to metastatic liver disease. She wore a prosthetic eye in her last stage performance, "Celimene and the Cardinal", in August 2006. Jade won an award in 1970 for "Révelation de la Nuit du cinéma", and in 1975 she received the Prix Orange at the Cannes Film Festival. Her contributions to French culture were recognised in 1998, when was named a knight in the Légion d'honneur. In 2000 she won the New Wave Award at West Palm Beach International Film Festival for her "trend-setting role in the world cinema", followed in 2002 by the "Prix Réconnaissance des Cinéphiles" in Puget-Théniers. In 2013 a street in Dijon was named after Claude Jade: Allée Claude Jade, 21000 Dijon.	Claude Marcelle Jorré, better known as Claude Jade (; 8 October 1948 – 1 December 2006), was a French actress. She is known for starring as Christine in François Truffaut's three films "Stolen Kisses" (1968), "Bed and Board" (1970) and "Love on the Run" (1979). Jade acted in theatre, film and television. 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summarize: Truffaut was born in Paris on 6 February 1932. His mother was Janine de Montferrand. His mother's future husband, Roland Truffaut, accepted him as an adopted son and gave him his surname. He was passed around to live with various nannies and his grandmother for a number of years. It was his grandmother who instilled in him her love of books and music. He lived with his grandmother until her death, when Truffaut was eight years old. It was only after his grandmother's death that he lived with his parents for the first time. The identity of Truffaut's biological father was unknown, though a private detective agency in 1968 revealed that their inquiry into the matter led to a Roland Levy, a Jewish dentist from Bayonne. Truffaut's mother's family disputed the findings but Truffaut himself believed and embraced them. Truffaut would often stay with friends and try to be out of the house as much as possible. He knew Robert Lachenay from childhood, and they would be lifelong best friends. Lachenay was the inspiration for the character René Bigey in "The 400 Blows" and would work as an assistant on some of Truffaut's films. It was the cinema that offered him the greatest escape from an unsatisfying home life. He was eight years old when he saw his first movie, Abel Gance's "Paradis Perdu" ("Paradise Lost") from 1939. It was there that his obsession began. He frequently played truant from school and would sneak into theaters because he didn't have enough money for admission. After being expelled from several schools, at the age of fourteen he decided to become self-taught. Two of his academic goals were to watch three movies a day and read three books a week. Truffaut frequented Henri Langlois' Cinémathèque Française where he was exposed to countless foreign films from around the world. It was here that he became familiar with American cinema and directors such as John Ford, Howard Hawks and Nicholas Ray, as well as those of British director Alfred Hitchcock. After starting his own film club in 1948, Truffaut met André Bazin, who would have great effect on his professional and personal life. Bazin was a critic and the head of another film society at the time. He became a personal friend of Truffaut's and helped him out of various financial and criminal situations during his formative years. Truffaut joined the French Army in 1950, aged 18, but spent the next two years trying to escape. Truffaut was arrested for attempting to desert the army and incarcerated in military prison. Bazin used his various political contacts to get Truffaut released and set him up with a job at his newly formed film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma". Over the next few years, Truffaut became a critic (and later editor) at "Cahiers", where he became notorious for his brutal, unforgiving reviews. He was called "The Gravedigger of French Cinema" and was the only French critic not invited to the Cannes Film Festival in 1958. He supported Bazin in the development of one of the most influential theories of cinema itself, the auteur theory. In 1954, Truffaut wrote an article in "Cahiers du cinéma" called "Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français" ("A Certain Trend of French Cinema"), in which he attacked the current state of French films, lambasting certain screenwriters and producers, and listing eight directors he considered incapable of devising the kinds of "vile" and "grotesque" characters and storylines that he declared were characteristic of the mainstream French film industry: Jean Renoir, Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, Jacques Becker, Abel Gance, Max Ophuls, Jacques Tati and Roger Leenhardt. The article caused a storm of controversy, and also landed Truffaut an offer to write for the nationally circulated, more widely read cultural weekly "Arts-Lettres-Spectacles". Truffaut would pen more than 500 film articles for that publication over the next four years. Truffaut later devised the auteur theory, which stated that the director was the "author" of his work; that great directors such as Renoir or Hitchcock have distinct styles and themes that permeate all of their films. Although his theory was not widely accepted then, it gained some support in the 1960s from American critic Andrew Sarris. In 1967, Truffaut published his book-length interview of Hitchcock, "Hitchcock/Truffaut" (New York: Simon and Schuster). After having been a critic, Truffaut decided to make films of his own. He started out with the short film "Une Visite" in 1955 and followed that up with "Les Mistons" in 1957. After seeing Orson Welles' "Touch of Evil" at the Expo 58, he was inspired to make his feature film directorial debut with "The 400 Blows", which was released in 1959 to much critical and commercial acclaim. Truffaut received a Best Director award from the Cannes Film Festival, the same festival that had banned him only one year earlier. The film follows the character of Antoine Doinel through his perilous misadventures in school, an unhappy home life and later reform school. The film is highly autobiographical. Both Truffaut and Doinel were only children of loveless marriages; they both committed petty crimes of theft and truancy from the military. Truffaut cast Jean-Pierre Léaud as Antoine Doinel. Léaud was seen as an ordinary boy of 14 who auditioned for the role after seeing a flyer, but interviews filmed after the film's release (one is included on the Criterion DVD of the film) reveal Léaud's natural sophistication and an instinctive understanding of acting for the camera. Léaud and Truffaut collaborated on several films over the years. Their most noteworthy collaboration was the continuation of the Antoine Doinel character in a series of films called "The Antoine Doinel Cycle". The primary focus of "The 400 Blows" is on the life of a young character by the name of Antoine Doinel. This film follows this character through his troubled adolescence. He is caught in between an unstable parental relationship and an isolated youth. The film focuses on the real life events of the director, François Truffaut. From birth Truffaut was thrown into an undesired situation. As he was born out of wedlock, his birth had to remain a secret because of the social stigma associated with illegitimacy. He was registered as "A child born to an unknown father" in the hospital records. He was looked after by a nurse for an extended period of time. His mother eventually married and her husband Roland gave his surname, Truffaut, to François. Although he was legally accepted as a legitimate child, his parents did not accept him. The Truffauts had another child who died shortly after birth. This experience saddened them greatly and as a result they despised François because of the memory of regret that he represented (Knopf 4). He was an outcast from his earliest years, dismissed as an unwanted child. François was sent to live with his grandparents. It wasn't until François's grandmother's death that his parents took him in, much to the dismay of his own mother. The experiences with his mother were harsh. He recalled being treated badly by her but he found comfort in his father's laughter and overall spirit. The relationship with Roland was more comforting than the one with his own mother. François had a very depressing childhood after moving in with his parents. They would leave him alone whenever they would go on vacations. He even recalled memories of being alone during Christmas. Being left alone forced François into a sense of independence, he would often do various tasks around the house in order to improve it such as painting or changing the electric outlets. Sadly, these kind gestures often resulted in a catastrophic event causing him to get scolded by his mother. His father would mostly laugh them off. "The 400 Blows" marked the beginning of the French New Wave movement, which gave directors such as Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol and Jacques Rivette a wider audience. The New Wave dealt with a self-conscious rejection of traditional cinema structure. This was a topic on which Truffaut had been writing for years. Following the success of "The 400 Blows", Truffaut featured disjunctive editing and seemingly random voice-overs in his next film "Shoot the Piano Player" (1960) starring Charles Aznavour. Truffaut has stated that in the middle of filming, he realized that he hated gangsters. But since gangsters were a main part of the story, he toned up the comical aspect of the characters and made the movie more attuned to his liking. Even though "Shoot the Piano Player" was much appreciated by critics, it performed poorly at the box office. While the film focused on two of the French New Wave's favorite elements, American film noir and themselves, Truffaut never again experimented as heavily. In 1962, Truffaut directed his third movie, "Jules and Jim", a romantic drama starring Jeanne Moreau. The film was very popular and highly influential. In 1963, Truffaut was approached to direct an American film called "Bonnie and Clyde", with a treatment written by "Esquire" journalists, David Newman and Robert Benton intended to introduce the French New Wave to Hollywood. Although he was interested enough to help in script development, Truffaut ultimately declined, but not before interesting Jean-Luc Godard and American actor and would be producer, Warren Beatty, the latter of whom proceeded with the film with director Arthur Penn. His fourth movie as director was "The Soft Skin" (1964) which was not well acclaimed on initial release. Truffaut's first non-French film was a 1966 adaptation of Ray Bradbury's classic science fiction novel "Fahrenheit 451", showcasing Truffaut's love of books. His only English-speaking film made on location in England was a great challenge for Truffaut, because he barely spoke English himself. This was also his first film shot in color by cinematographer Nicolas Roeg. The larger-scale production was difficult for Truffaut, who had worked only with small crews and budgets. The shoot was also strained by a conflict with lead actor Oscar Werner, who was unhappy with his character and stormed off set, leaving Truffaut to shoot scenes using a body double shot from behind. The film was a commercial failure, and Truffaut never worked outside France again. The film's cult standing has steadily grown, although some critics remain mixed on it as an adaptation. A 2014 consideration of the film by Charles Silver praises it. Truffaut worked on projects with varied subjects. "The Bride Wore Black" (1968), a brutal tale of revenge, is a stylish homage to the films of Alfred Hitchcock (once again starring Jeanne Moreau). "Stolen Kisses" (1968) was a continuation of the Antoine Doinel Cycle starring Claude Jade as Antoine's fiancée and later wife Christine Darbon. It was a big hit on the international art circuit. A short time later Claude Jade made her Hollywood debut in Hitchcock's "Topaz". "Mississippi Mermaid" (1969), with Catherine Deneuve and Jean-Paul Belmondo is an identity-bending romantic thriller. "The Wild Child" (1970) included Truffaut's acting debut in the lead role of 18th century physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard. "Bed and Board" (1970) was another Antoine Doinel film, also with Claude Jade from "Stolen kisses" who is now Léaud's on-screen-wife. "Two English Girls" (1971) is the female reflection of the same love story as "Jules et Jim". It is based on a story written by Henri-Pierre Roché, who also wrote "Jules and Jim". It is about a man who falls equally in love with two sisters, and their love affair over a period of years. "Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me" (1972) was a screwball comedy that was not well received. "Day for Night" won Truffaut a Best Foreign Film Oscar in 1973. The film is probably his most reflective work. It is the story of a film crew trying to finish their film while dealing with all of the personal and professional problems that accompany making a movie. Truffaut plays the director of the fictional film being made. This film features scenes shown in his previous films. It is considered to be his best film since his earliest work. "Time" magazine placed it on their list of 100 Best Films of the Century (along with "The 400 Blows"). In 1975, Truffaut gained more notoriety with "The Story of Adèle H." Isabelle Adjani in the title role earned a nomination for a Best Actress Oscar. Truffaut's 1976 film "Small Change" gained a Golden Globe Nomination for Best Foreign Film. "The Man Who Loved Women" (1977), a romantic drama, was a minor hit. "The Green Room" (1978) starred Truffaut himself in the lead. It was a box office flop so he made "Love on the Run" (1979) starring Jean-Pierre Léaud and Claude Jade as the final movie of the Doinel Cycle. One of Truffaut's final films gave him an international revival. In 1980, his film "The Last Metro" garnered twelve César Award nominations with ten wins, including Best Director. Truffaut's last film was shot in black and white, giving his career a sense of having bookends. "Confidentially Yours" is Truffaut's tribute to his favorite director, Alfred Hitchcock. It deals with numerous Hitchcockian themes, such as private guilt versus public innocence, a woman investigating a murder, and anonymous locations. Some of Truffaut's films feature the character Antoine Doinel, played by the actor Jean-Pierre Léaud. He began his career in "The 400 Blows" at the age of fourteen, and continued as the favorite actor and "double" of Truffaut. The series continued with "Antoine and Colette" (a short film in the anthology "Love at Twenty"), "Stolen Kisses" (in which he falls in love with Christine Darbon alias Claude Jade), "Bed and Board" about the married couple Antoine and Christine—and, finally, "Love on the Run", where the couple go through a divorce. In the last films, Léaud's girlfriend and later wife, Christine Darbon, was played by Truffaut's favorite actress, Claude Jade. During the filming of "Stolen Kisses", Truffaut himself fell in love with, and was briefly engaged to, Claude Jade. A keen reader, Truffaut adapted many literary works, including two novels by Henri-Pierre Roché, Ray Bradbury's "Fahrenheit 451", Henry James' "The Altar of the Dead", filmed as "The Green Room", and several American detective novels. Truffaut's other films were from original screenplays, often co-written by the screenwriters Suzanne Schiffman or Jean Gruault. They featured diverse subjects, the sombre "The Story of Adèle H.", inspired by the life of the daughter of Victor Hugo, with Isabelle Adjani; "Day for Night", shot at the Victorine Studios describing the ups and downs of film-making; and "The Last Metro", set during the German occupation of France, a film rewarded by ten César Awards. Known as lifelong cinephile, Truffaut once (according to the 1993 documentary film "") threw a hitchhiker he had picked up out of his car after learning that the hitchhiker didn't like films. Truffaut is admired among other filmmakers and several tributes to his work have appeared in other films such as "Almost Famous", "Face" and "The Diving Bell and the Butterfly", as well as novelist Haruki Murakami's "Kafka on the Shore". He also acted, appearing in Steven Spielberg's 1977 film "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", where he played scientist Claude Lacombe. Truffaut expressed his admiration for filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel, Ingmar Bergman, Robert Bresson, Roberto Rossellini, and Alfred Hitchcock. Truffaut wrote "Hitchcock/Truffaut", a book about Hitchcock, based on a lengthy series of interviews. On Jean Renoir, he said: "I think Renoir is the only filmmaker who's practically infallible, who has never made a mistake on film. And I think if he never made mistakes, it's because he always found solutions based on simplicity—human solutions. He's one film director who never pretended. He never tried to have a style, and if you know his work—which is very comprehensive, since he dealt with all sorts of subjects—when you get stuck, especially as a young filmmaker, you can think of how Renoir would have handled the situation, and you generally find a solution". In 1973, Jean-Luc Godard accused Truffaut of making a movie that was a "lie" ("Day For Night"), and Truffaut replied with a 20-page letter in which he accused Godard of being a radical-chic hypocrite, a man who believed everyone to be "equal" in theory only. "The Ursula Andress of militancy—like Brando—a piece of shit on a pedestal." The two never spoke or saw each other again. However, as noted by Serge Toubiana and Antoine de Baecque in their biography of Truffaut, Godard tried to reconcile their friendship later on, and after Truffaut's death wrote the introduction to a collection of his letters and a lengthy tribute in his video-essay film "Histoire(s) du cinéma". Truffaut was married to Madeleine Morgenstern from 1957 to 1965, and they had two daughters, Laura (born 1959) and Eva (born 1961). Madeleine was the daughter of Ignace Morgenstern, managing director of one of France's largest film distribution companies, and was largely responsible for securing funding for Truffaut's first films. Truffaut was an inveterate womanizer and had affairs with many of his leading ladies, including Marie-France Pisier ("Antoine and Colette", "Love on the Run"), Jeanne Moreau ("Jules and Jim", "The Bride Wore Black"), Françoise Dorléac ("The Soft Skin"), Julie Christie ("Fahrenheit 451"), Catherine Deneuve ("Mississippi Mermaid", "The Last Metro"), and Jacqueline Bisset ("Day for Night"). Truffaut also fell for Isabelle Adjani during the filming of "The Story of Adele H." but his advances were rebuffed. In 1968 Truffaut was engaged to actress Claude Jade ("Stolen Kisses", "Bed and Board", "Love on the Run"); he and Fanny Ardant ("The Woman Next Door", "Confidentially Yours") lived together from 1981 to 1984 and had a daughter, Joséphine Truffaut (born 28 September 1983). Truffaut was an atheist, although he had great respect for the Catholic Church and even requested a mass for his funeral. In July 1983, Truffaut rented France Gall's and Michel Berger's house outside Honfleur, Normandy (composing for Philippe Labro's film "Rive droite, rive gauche") when he had his first stroke and was diagnosed with a brain tumor. He was expected to attend his friend Miloš Forman's "Amadeus" premiere when he died on 21 October 1984, aged 52, at the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine in France. At the time of his death, he still had numerous films in preparation. His goal was to make 30 films and then retire to write books for his remaining days. He was five films short of his personal goal. He is buried in Paris' Montmartre Cemetery.	François Roland Truffaut (,, ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French film director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and film critic. He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave. In a film career lasting over a quarter of a century, he remains an icon of the French film industry, having worked on over 25 films. Truffaut's film "The 400 Blows" came to be a defining film of the French New Wave movement, and was followed by four sequels, "Antoine et Colette", "Stolen Kisses", "Bed and Board", and "Love on the Run", between 1958 and 1979.	en	en	133	[ 250004, 250054, 19419, 17123, 1003, 509, 103122, 23, 7270, 98, 305, 22482, 60775, 5, 18763, 42732, 509, 3342, 1212, 8, 12982, 2875, 37214, 5, 18763, 42732, 25, 7, 22690, 71390, 4, 85190, 19419, 17123, 1003, 4, 68186, 71, 4049, 237, 142, 30666, 297, 775, 136, 26038, 4049, 1919, 613, 11627, 5, 1529, 509, 115081, 10932, 47, 6867, 678, 67842, 24, 10016, 90, 136, 1919, 9963, 432, 9319, 100, 10, 14012, 111, 5369, 5, 1650, 509, 1919, 9963, 432, 9319, 2750, 23, 92450, 71, 23, 4049, 604, 5161, 111, 42840, 136, 19612, 5, 1529, 158930, 678, 1919, 9963, 432, 9319, 24189, 604, 47219, 4, 3229, 19419, 17123, 1003, 509, 136659, 5369, 10332, 5, 1650, 509, 4734, 7103, 1919, 9963, 432, 9319, 25, 7, 47219, 450, 764, 158930, 678, 1919, 27863, 100, 70, 5117, 1733, 5, 581, 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summarize: Bertie the Brain was one of the first game playing machines developed. It was built in 1950 by Josef Kates. It measured more than four meters tall, and was displayed at the Canadian National Exhibition that year. Although personal computers only became popular with the development of the microprocessor and microcomputer, computer gaming on mainframes and minicomputers had previously already existed. OXO, an adaptation of tic-tac-toe for the EDSAC, debuted in 1952. Another pioneer computer game was developed in 1961, when MIT students Martin Graetz and Alan Kotok, with MIT student Steve Russell, developed "Spacewar!" on a PDP-1 mainframe computer used for statistical calculations. The first generation of computer games were often text-based adventures or interactive fiction, in which the player communicated with the computer by entering commands through a keyboard. An early text-adventure, "Adventure", was developed for the PDP-11 minicomputer by Will Crowther in 1976, and expanded by Don Woods in 1977. By the 1980s, personal computers had become powerful enough As the video game market became flooded with poor-quality cartridge games created by numerous companies attempting to enter the market, and overproduction of high-profile releases such as the Atari 2600 adaptations of "Pac-Man" and "E.T." grossly underperformed, the popularity of personal computers for education rose dramatically. In 1983, consumer interest in console video games dwindled to historical lows, as interest in games on personal computers rose. The effects of the crash were largely limited to the console market, as established companies such as Atari posted record losses over subsequent years. Conversely, the home computer market boomed, as sales of low-cost color computers such as the Commodore 64 rose to record highs and developers such as Electronic Arts benefited from increasing interest in the platform. To enhance the immersive experience with their unrealistic graphics and electronic sound, early PC games included extras such as the peril-sensitive sunglasses that shipped with "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" or the science fiction novella included with "Elite". These extras gradually became Among launch titles for the IBM Personal Computer (PC) in 1981 was "Microsoft Adventure", which IBM described as bringing "players into a fantasy world of caves and treasures". "BYTE" that year stated that the computer's speed and sophistication made it "an excellent gaming device", and IBM and others sold games like "Microsoft Flight Simulator". The PC's CGA graphics and speaker sound were poor, however, and most customers bought the powerful but expensive computer for business. One ComputerLand owner estimated in 1983 that a quarter of corporate executives with computers "have a game hidden somewhere in their drawers", and "InfoWorld" in 1984 reported that "in offices all over America (more than anyone realizes) executives and managers are playing games on their computers", but software companies found selling games for the PC difficult; an observer said that year that "Flight Simulator" had sold hundreds of thousands of copies because customers with corporate PCs could claim that it was a "simulation". From mid-1985, however, what "Compute!" described as a "wave" of inexpensive IBM PC clones from American and Asian companies, such as the Tandy 1000, caused prices to decline; by the end of 1986, the equivalent to a $1600 real IBM PC with 256K RAM and two disk drives cost as little as $600, lower than the price of the Apple IIc. Consumers began purchasing DOS computers for the home in large numbers. While often purchased to do work in evenings and weekends, clones' popularity caused consumer-software companies to increase the number of IBM-compatible products, including those developed specifically for By 1996, the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows simplified device driver and memory management. The success of 3D console titles such as "Super Mario 64" and "Tomb Raider" increased interest in hardware accelerated 3D graphics on PCs, and soon resulted in attempts to produce affordable solutions with the ATI Rage, Matrox Mystique, S3 ViRGE, and Rendition Vérité. As 3D graphics libraries such as DirectX and OpenGL matured and knocked proprietary interfaces out of the market, these platforms gained greater acceptance in the market, particularly with their demonstrated benefits in games such as "Unreal". However, major changes to the Microsoft Windows operating system, by then the market leader, made many older DOS-based games unplayable on Windows NT, and later, Windows XP (without using an emulator, such as DOSbox). The faster graphics accelerators and improving CPU technology During the 1980s, the cheap and talented workforce of the Polish People's Republic began producing video games with Warsaw company Karen, founded by enterprising emigrant Lucjan Wencel, developing many hits that were released in the United States. The 1991 strategy game ""Solidarność"" by Przemysław Rokita, where players led a trade union to political victory, was the symbolic beginning of a new trend where interactive works applied video game conventions to local Polish culture and history, and through a distorting mirror portrayed the Eastern Bloc, local villages, and the mentality of citizens. Developers in this age struggled with minimal profits, working after hours, harsh working conditions, older computers, and an ignorance of foreign languages and sentiments. The country saw In high-end PC gaming, a PC will generally have far more processing resources at its disposal than other gaming systems. Game developers can use this to improve the visual fidelity of their game relative to other platforms, but even if they do not, games running on PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games. Better hardware The defining characteristic of the PC platform is the absence of centralized control; all other gaming platforms (except Android devices, to an extent) are owned and administered by a single group. The advantages of openness include: There are also disadvantages, including: The openness of the PC platform allows players to edit or modify their games and distribute the results over the Internet as "mods". A healthy mod community greatly increases a game's longevity and the most popular mods have driven purchases of their parent game to record heights. It is common for professional developers to release the tools they use to create their games (and sometimes even source code) in order to encourage modding, but if a game is popular enough mods generally arise even without official support. Mods can compete with official downloadable content however, or even outright redistribute it, and their ability to extend the lifespan of a game can work against its developers' plans for regular sequels. As game technology has become more complex, it has also become harder to distribute development tools to the public. Modding has a different connotation on consoles which are typically restricted much more heavily. As publicly released development tools are rare, console mods usually refer to hardware alterations designed to remove restrictions. Although the PC platform is almost completely decentralized at a hardware level, there are two dominant software forces: the Microsoft Windows operating system and the Steam distribution service. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named "Windows" on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Valve does not release any sales figures on its Steam service, instead it only provides the data to companies with games on Steam, which they cannot release without permission due to signing a non-disclosure agreement with Valve. However, Stardock, the previous owner of competing platform Impulse, estimated that, as of 2009, Steam had a 70% share of the digital distribution market for video games. In early 2011, "Forbes" reported that Steam sales constituted 50–70% of the $4 billion market for downloaded PC games and that Steam offered game producers gross margins of 70% of purchase price, compared with 30% at retail. In 2011, Steam served over 780 petabytes of information, double what it had delivered in 2010. PC games are sold predominantly through the Internet, with buyers downloading their new purchase directly to their computer. This approach allows smaller independent developers to compete with large publisher-backed games and avoids the speed and capacity limits of the optical discs which most other gaming platforms rely on. Valve released the Steam platform for Windows computers in 2003 as a means to distribute Valve-developed video games such as Half-Life 2. It would later see release on the Mac OS X operating system in 2010 and was released on Linux in 2012 as well. By 2011, it controlled 70% of the market for downloadable PC games, Modern computer games place great demand on the computer's hardware, often requiring a fast central processing unit (CPU) to function properly. CPU manufacturers historically relied mainly on increasing clock rates to improve the performance of their processors, but had begun to move steadily towards multi-core CPUs by 2005. These processors allow the computer to simultaneously process multiple tasks, called threads, allowing the use of more complex graphics, artificial intelligence and in-game physics. Similarly, 3D games often rely on a powerful graphics processing unit (GPU), which accelerates the process of drawing complex scenes in realtime. GPUs may be an integrated part of the computer's motherboard, the most common solution in laptops, or come packaged with a discrete graphics card with a supply of dedicated Video RAM, connected to the motherboard through either an AGP or PCI-Express port. It is also possible to use multiple GPUs in a single computer, using technologies such as NVidia's Scalable Link Computer games also rely on third-party software such as an operating system (OS), device drivers, libraries and more to run. Today, the vast majority of computer games are designed to run on the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. Whereas earlier games written for DOS would include code to communicate directly with hardware, today application programming interfaces (APIs) provide an interface between the game and the OS, simplifying game design. Microsoft's DirectX is an API that Multiplayer gaming was largely limited to local area networks (LANs) before cost-effective broadband Internet access became available, due to their typically higher bandwidth and lower latency than the dial-up services of the time. These advantages allowed more players to join any given computer game, but have Online multiplayer games have achieved popularity largely as a result of increasing broadband adoption among consumers. Affordable high-bandwidth Internet connections allow large numbers of players to play together, and thus have found particular use in massively multiplayer online role-playing games, "Tanarus" and persistent online games such as "World War II Online". Although it is possible to participate in online computer games using dial-up modems, broadband Internet connections are generally considered necessary in order to reduce the latency or "lag" between players. Such connections require a broadband-compatible modem connected to the personal computer through a network interface card (generally integrated onto the computer's motherboard), optionally separated by a router. Online games require a virtual environment, generally called a "game server". These virtual servers inter-connect gamers, allowing real time, and often fast-paced action. To meet this subsequent need, Game Server Providers (GSP) have become increasingly more popular over the last half decade. While not required for all gamers, these servers provide a unique "home", fully customizable, such as additional modifications, settings, etc., giving the end gamers the experience they desire. Today there are over 510,000 game servers hosted in North America alone. Emulation software, used to run software without the original hardware, are popular for their ability to play legacy video games without the platform for which they were designed. The operating system emulators include DOSBox, a DOS emulator which allows playing games developed originally for this operating system and thus not compatible with a modern-day OS. Console emulators such as Nestopia and MAME are relatively commonplace, although the complexity of modern consoles such as the Xbox or PlayStation makes them far PC games have long been a source of controversy, largely due to the depictions of violence that has become commonly associated with video games in general. The debate surrounds the influence of objectionable content on the social development of minors, with organizations such as the American Psychological Association concluding that video game violence increases children's aggression, a concern that prompted a further investigation by the Centers for Disease Control in September There are several computer games museums around the world. In 2011 one opened in Berlin, a computer game museum that documents computer games from the 1970s until today. The Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment, in Oakland, California also exhibits PC games in its general collection. The Video Game Museum in Rome is dedicated to the preservation of videogames, and includes Pss games in its collection. The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California holds a collection of PC games, and allows visitors to play "Spacewar!", the first computer game, on a restored original DEC PDP-1.	A PC game, also known as a computer game or personal computer game, is a type of video game played on a personal computer rather than a video game console or arcade machine. Its defining characteristics include: more diverse and user-determined gaming hardware and software; and generally greater capacity in input, processing, video and audio output. The uncoordinated nature of the PC game market, and now its lack of physical media, make precisely assessing its size difficult.In 2018, the global PC games market was valued at about $27.7 billion.	en	en	102	[ 250004, 250054, 2076, 2061, 70, 6163, 73, 509, 1632, 111, 70, 5117, 6712, 75169, 116491, 126809, 5, 1650, 509, 88303, 23, 27631, 390, 57995, 37958, 7, 5, 1650, 72350, 71, 1286, 3501, 22759, 11903, 7, 43156, 4, 136, 509, 44116, 297, 99, 70, 180972, 9907, 239576, 450, 6602, 5, 106073, 3357, 13909, 7, 4734, 100512, 5700, 678, 70, 34754, 111, 70, 11948, 63923, 748, 136, 11948, 164511, 4, 13909, 125907, 98, 5201, 160328, 7, 136, 7665, 164511, 7, 1902, 198395, 21771, 13835, 71, 5, 180, 61887, 4, 142, 6, 202444, 111, 96212, 9, 102, 238, 9, 51890, 100, 70, 241, 13526, 15012, 4, 34377, 297, 23, 50940, 5, 116267, 53918, 11226, 13909, 6712, 509, 126809, 23, 40418, 4, 3229, 78999, 25921, 6470, 6524, 126, 169, 136, 44576, 1204, 6448, 4, 678, 78999, 9836, 41550, 158874, 4, 126809, 44, 141012, 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summarize: Collodi was born in Florence on 24 November 1826. His mother Angiolina Orzali was a seamstress from the town of Collodi from which he took the pen name and his father Domenico Lorenzini was a cook; and both worked for the "marchese" Ginori Lisci. Carlo was the eldest child in the family and he had ten siblings but seven died at a young age. He spent most of his childhood in the town of Collodi where his mother was born. He lived there with his maternal grandmother. After attending primary school, he was sent to study at a theological seminary called Colle Val d’Elsa. An account at the seminary shows that the "marchese" had offered financial aid, but the boy found that he did not want to be a priest so he continued his education at the College of the Scolopi Fathers in Florence. In 1844 he started working at the Florentine bookstore Libreria Piatti, where he assisted Giuseppe Aiazzi, a prominent Italian manuscript specialist. During the Italian Wars of Independence in 1848 and 1860 Collodi served as a volunteer with the Tuscan army. His active interest in political matters may be seen in his earliest literary works as well as in the founding of the satirical newspaper "Il Lampione" in 1853. This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1854 he published his second newspaper, "Lo scaramuccia" ("The Controversy"). Lorenzini's first publications were in his periodicals. A debut came in 1856 with the play "Gli amici di casa" and parodic guidebook "Un romanzo in vapore", both in 1856. By 1860, he published his first notable work called "Il signor Alberi ha ragione!" (Mr. Alberi Is Right!), which outlined his political and cultural vision of Italy. This is the text where Lorenzini started using the Collodi pseudonym, which was taken from his mother's hometown. Collodi had also begun intense activity on other political newspapers such as "Il Fanfulla"; at the same time he was employed by the Censorship Commission for the Theatre. During this period he composed various satirical sketches and stories (sometimes simply by collating earlier articles), including "Macchiette" (1880), "Occhi e nasi" (1881), "Storie allegre" (1887). Collodi became disenchanted with Italian politics afterward so he turned to children's literature and his first works involved translating French fairy tales into Italian. In 1875, for instance, he completed "Racconti delle fate", a translation of French fairy tales by Charles Perrault. In 1876 Lorenzini wrote "Giannettino" (inspired by Alessandro Luigi Parravicini's "Giannetto"), the "Minuzzolo", and "Il viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino", a pedagogic series which explored the unification of Italy through the ironic thoughts and actions of the character Giannettino. Lorenzini became fascinated by the idea of using an amiable, rascally character as a means of expressing his own convictions through allegory. In 1880 he began writing "Storia di un burattino" ("Story of a Marionette"), also called "Le avventure di Pinocchio", which was published weekly in "Il Giornale per i Bambini", the first Italian newspaper for children. Pinocchio was adapted into a 1940 film by Disney that is considered to be one of Disney's greatest films ever made. Collodi died suddenly in Florence on 26 October 1890 and lies buried in Cimitero Monumentale Delle Porte Sante, Firenze, Toscana, Italy. The National Carlo Collodi Foundation was established to promote education and the works of Carlo Lorenzini, and the Park of Pinocchio attracts many visitors each year.	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summarize: Jacob Grimm was born 4 January 1785, in Hanau in Hesse-Kassel. His father, Philipp Grimm, was a lawyer who died while Jacob was a child, and his mother was left with a very small income. Her sister was lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, and she helped to support and educate the family. Jacob was sent to the public school at Kassel in 1798 with his younger brother Wilhelm. In 1802, he went to the University of Marburg where he studied law, a profession for which he had been intended by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a severe illness, and likewise began the study of law. Jacob Grimm became inspired by the lectures of Friedrich Karl von Savigny, a noted expert of Roman law; Wilhelm Grimm, in the preface to the "Deutsche Grammatik" (German Grammar), credits Savigny with giving the brothers an awareness of science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in Jacob a love for historical and antiquarian investigation, which underlies all his work. It was in Savigny's library that Grimm first saw Bodmer's edition of the Middle High German minnesingers and other early texts, which gave him a desire to study their language. In the beginning of 1805, he was invited by Savigny to Paris, to help him in his literary work. There Grimm strengthened his taste for the literature of the Middle Ages. Towards the close of the year, he returned to Kassel, where his mother and brother had settled after Wilhelm finished his studies. The following year, Jacob obtained a position in the war office with a small salary of 100 thalers. He complained that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform and pigtail, but the role gave him spare time for the pursuit of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the private library of Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Kassel had been incorporated by Napoleon. Grimm was appointed an auditor to the state council, while retaining his superintendent post. His salary rose to 4000 francs and his official duties were nominal. In 1813, after the expulsion of Bonaparte and the reinstatement of an elector, Grimm was appointed Secretary of Legation accompanying the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814, he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of books taken by the French, and he attended the Congress of Vienna as Secretary of Legation in 1814–1815. Upon his return from Vienna, he was sent to Paris again to secure book restitutions. Meanwhile, Wilhelm had obtained a job at the Kassel library, and Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel in 1816. Upon the death of Volkel in 1828, the brothers both expected promotion, and they were dissatisfied when the role of first librarian was given to Rommel, the keeper of the archives. Consequently, they moved the following year to Göttingen, where Jacob was appointed professor and librarian, and Wilhelm under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on the "Germania" of Tacitus. Grimm joined other academics, known as the Göttingen Seven, who signed a protest against the King of Hanover's abrogation of the liberal constitution which had been established some years before. As a result, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the Kingdom of Hanover in 1837. He returned to Kassel with his brother, who had also signed the protest. They remained there until 1840, when they accepted King Frederick William IV's invitation to move to Berlin, where they both received professorships and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Grimm was not under any obligation to lecture, and seldom did so; he spent his time working with his brother on their dictionary project. During their time in Kassel, he regularly attended the meetings of the academy and read papers on varied subjects, including Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann, Friedrich Schiller, old age, and the origin of language. He described his impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing more general observations with linguistic details. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. Grimm died in Berlin at the age of 78, working until the very end of his life. He describes his own work at the end of his autobiography: Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of the written monuments. Grimm's "Geschichte der deutschen Sprache" (History of the German Language) explores German history hidden in the words of the German language and is the oldest linguistic history of the Teutonic tribes. He collected scattered words and allusions from classical literature and tried to determine the relationship between the German language and those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and other nations whose languages were known only through Greek and Latin authors. Grimm's results were later greatly modified by a wider range of available comparison and improved methods of investigation. Many questions that he raised remain obscure due to the lack of surviving records of the languages, but his book's influence was profound. Grimm's famous "Deutsche Grammatik" (German Grammar) was the outcome of his purely philological work. He drew on the work of past generations, from the humanists onwards, consulting an enormous collection of materials in the form of text editions, dictionaries, and grammars, mostly uncritical and unreliable. Some work had been done in the way of comparison and determination of general laws, and the concept of a comparative Germanic grammar had been grasped by the Englishman George Hickes by the beginning of the 18th century, in his "Thesaurus". Ten Kate in the Netherlands had made valuable contributions to the history and comparison of Germanic languages. Grimm himself did not initially intend to include all the languages in his "Grammar", but he soon found that Old High German postulated Gothic, and that the later stages of German could not be understood without the help of other West Germanic varieties including English, and that the literature of Scandinavia could not be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the "Grammar", which appeared in 1819, treated the inflections of all these languages, and included a general introduction in which he vindicated the importance of an historical study of the German language against the quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue. In 1822 the book appeared in a second edition (really a new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, he had to "mow the first crop down to the ground"). The considerable gap between the two stages of Grimm's development of these editions is shown by the fact that the second volume addresses phonology in 600 pages – more than half the volume. Grimm had concluded that all philology must be based on rigorous adherence to the laws of sound change, and he subsequently never deviated from this principle. This gave to all his investigations a consistency and force of conviction that had been lacking in the study of philology before his day. His advances have been attributed mainly to the influence of his contemporary Rasmus Christian Rask. Rask was two years younger than Grimm, but the Icelandic paradigms in Grimm's first editions, his Icelandic paradigms are based entirely on Rask's grammar; in his second edition, he relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask is shown by comparing his treatment of Old English in the two editions. For example, in the first edition he declines "dæg, dæges", plural "dægas", without having observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. (The correct plural is "dagas.") The appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was probably the primary impetus for Grimm to recast his work from the beginning. Rask was also the first to clearly formulate the laws of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the vowels (previously ignored by etymologists). The "Grammar" was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation, composition and syntax, the last of which was unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The "Grammar" is noted for its comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail, with all his points illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance languages is founded entirely on Grimm's methods, which have had a profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-European languages in general. Jacob is recognized for enunciating Grimm's law, the Germanic Sound Shift, which was first observed by the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask. Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic sound change to be discovered. Grimm's law, also known as the "Rask-Grimm Rule" or the First Germanic Sound Shift, was the first law in linguistics concerning a non-trivial sound change. It was a turning point in the development of linguistics, allowing the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historic linguistic research. It concerns the correspondence of consonants between the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language and its Germanic descendants, Low Saxon and High German, and was first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first part of his "Grammar". The correspondence of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors, including Friedrich von Schlegel, Rasmus Christian Rask and Johan Ihre, the last having established a considerable number of "literarum permutationes", such as b for f, with the examples "bœra" = "ferre" ("to bear"), "befwer" = "fibra" ("fiber"). Rask, in his essay on the origin of the Icelandic language, gave the same comparisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentioned Rask's essay, there is every probability that it inspired his own investigations. But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations described by his predecessors and his own comprehensive generalizations. The extension of the law to High German in any case is entirely Grimm's work. The idea that Grimm wished to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is based on the fact that he does not expressly mention Rask's results in his second edition, but it was always his plan to refrain from all controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first edition, he calls attention to Rask's essay, and praises it ungrudgingly. Nevertheless, a certain bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, after Rask refused to consider the value of Grimm's views when they clashed with his own. Grimm's monumental dictionary of the German Language, the "Deutsches Wörterbuch", was started in 1838 and first published in 1854. The Brothers anticipated it would take 10 years and encompass some six to seven volumes. However, it was undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for them to complete it. The dictionary, as far as it was worked on by Grimm himself, has been described as a collection of disconnected antiquarian essays of high value. It was finally finished by subsequent scholars in 1961 and supplemented in 1971. At 33 volumes at some 330,000 headwords, it remains a standard work of reference to the present day. A current project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities is underway to update the "Deutsches Wörterbuch" to modern academic standards. Volumes A–F were scheduled for release in 2012. The first work Jacob Grimm published, "Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang" (1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm showed that "Minnesang" and "Meistergesang" were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of development, and also announced his important discovery of the invariable division of the "Lied" into three strophic parts. Grimm's text-editions were mostly prepared in conjunction with his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the "Hildebrandslied" and the "Weißenbrunner Gebet", Jacob having discovered what till then had never been suspected — namely the alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for text editing, and, as he himself confessed, working on a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both Brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published In 1816–1818 a collection of legends culled from diverse sources and published the two-volume "Deutsche Sagen" (German Legends). At the same time they collected all the folktales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812–1815 the first edition of those "Kinder- und Hausmärchen" (Children's and Household Tales), which has carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the western world. The closely related subject of the satirical beast epic of the Middle Ages also held great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the "Reinhart Fuchs" in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken jointly with his brother, and was published in 1815. However, this work was not followed by any others on the subject. The first edition of his "Deutsche Mythologie" (German Mythology) appeared in 1835. This work covered the whole range of the subject, attempting to trace the mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct evidence, and following their evolution to modern-day popular traditions, tales, and expressions. Grimm's work as a jurist was influential for the development of the history of law, particularly in Northern Europe. His essay "Von der Poesie im Recht" ("Poetry in Law", 1816) developed a far-reaching, suprapositivist Romantic conception of law. The "Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer" ("German Legal Antiquities", 1828) was a comprehensive compilation of sources of law from all Germanic languages, whose structure allowed an initial understanding of older German legal traditions not influenced by Roman law. Grimm's "Weisthümer" (4 vol., 1840–63), a compilation of partially oral legal traditions from rural Germany, allows research of the development of written law in Northern Europe. Jacob Grimm's work tied in strongly with his views on Germany and its culture. His work on both fairy tales and philology dealt with the country's origins. He wished for a united Germany, and, like his brother, supported the Liberal movement for a constitutional monarchy and civil liberties, as demonstrated by their involvement in the Göttingen Seven protest. In the German revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Frankfurt National Parliament. The people of Germany had demanded a constitution, so the Parliament, formed of elected members from various German states, met to form one. Grimm was selected for the office largely because of his part in the University of Goettingen's refusal to swear to the king of Hanover. He then went to Frankfurt, where he made some speeches, and was adamant that the Danish-ruled but German-speaking duchy of Holstein to be under German control. Grimm soon became disillusioned with the National Assembly and asked to be released from his duties to return to his studies. Jacob Grimm died on 20 September 1863, in Berlin, Germany from disease The following is a complete list of Grimm's separately published works. Those he published with his brother are marked with a star (*). For a list of his essays in periodicals, etc., see vol. V of his "Kleinere Schriften", from which the present list is taken. His life is best studied in his own "Selbstbiographie", in vol. I of the "Kleinere Schriften". There is also a brief memoir by Karl Goedeke in "Göttinger Professoren" (Gotha (Perthes), 1872).	Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (4 January 1785 – 20 September 1863), also known as Ludwig Karl, was a German philologist, jurist, and mythologist. He is known as the discoverer of Grimm's law of linguistics, the co-author of the monumental "Deutsches Wörterbuch", the author of "Deutsche Mythologie", and the editor of "Grimm's Fairy Tales". 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summarize: The rules of chess are published by FIDE ("Fédération Internationale des Échecs"), chess's international governing body, in its "Handbook". Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ. FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2018. By convention, chess game pieces are divided into white and black sets. Each set consists of 16 pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo. The players of the sets are referred to as "White" and "Black", respectively. The game is played on In competitive games, the colors are allocated by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by coin toss, or by one player's concealing a white and black pawn in either hand and having the opponent choose. White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn (except for castling, when two pieces are moved). A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exception Once in every game, each king can make a special move, known as "castling". Castling consists of moving the king two squares along the When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn can capture it "en passant" ("in passing"), When a pawn advances to the eighth rank, as a part of the move it is "promoted" and must be exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be "in check". A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check. This can involve capturing the checking piece; interposing a piece between the checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and Games can be There are several ways games can end in a draw: In competition, chess games are played with a time control. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate). The duration of a game ranges from long (or "classical") games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to Chess is believed to have originated in northwest India, in the Gupta Empire ( 280–550), where its early form in the 6th century was known as "chaturaṅga" (), literally "four divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Thence it spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The earliest evidence of chess is found in the nearby Sasanian Persia around 600, where the game came to be known by the name "chatrang". Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–44), where it was then named "shatranj", with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish "shatranj" was rendered as "ajedrez" ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as "xadrez", and in Greek as ζατρίκιον ("zatrikion", which comes directly from the Persian "chatrang"), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes made the game essentially as it is known today. These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in Italy and Spain. Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities. The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece towards the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834. Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major European cities like "Café de la Régence" in Paris and "Simpson's Divan" in London. The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first). Finally the rules around castling were standardized – variations in the castling rules had persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as "Western chess" or "international chess", particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes have been technical in nature, for example establishing the correct procedure for Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz beginning in 1873 described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position. The scientific approach and positional understanding of Steinitz revolutionized the game. Steinitz was the first to break a position down into its components. Before Steinitz, players brought their queen out early, did not completely their other pieces, and mounted a quick attack on the opposing king, which either succeeded or failed. The level of defense was poor and players did not form any deep plan. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then (except for one interruption), ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950 FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the titles of Grandmaster and International Master on 27 players. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim. Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game". Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's "The Book of the Courtier" (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde of During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote: The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action [...] II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations [...] III. Caution, The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities, including Jewish, Christian and Muslim. Jewish scholars Maimonides and Kalonymus ben Kalonymus both condemned chess, though the former only condemned it when played for money while the latter condemned it in all circumstances. In medieval times both the Catholic and Orthodox Chess games and positions are recorded using a system of notation, most commonly algebraic chess notation. Abbreviated algebraic (or short algebraic) notation generally records moves in the format: The pieces are identified by their initials. In English, these are "K" (king), "Q" (queen), "R" (rook), "B" (bishop), and "N" (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file, 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). Chess literature published in other languages may use different initials for pieces, or figurine algebraic notation (FAN) may be used to avoid language issues. To resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3"; R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). The letter "P" for pawn is not used; so e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4". If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destination square. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5) or exd (pawn on the e-file captures a piece somewhere on the d-file). Particularly in Germany, some publications use ":" rather than "x" to indicate capture, but this is now rare. Some publications omit the capture symbol altogether; so exd5 would be rendered A game of chess can generally be loosely subdivided into three phases or stages of play: the "opening", followed by the "middlegame", then last the "endgame". A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as "openings" and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense. They are catalogued in reference works such as the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings". There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet (for example, the Réti The middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening. There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.) Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position. The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical patterns have their own names; for The endgame (also "end game" or "ending") is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame: Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are positions Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long-term positioning advantages during the game – for example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concentrate on immediate maneuver. These two aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. A game of chess is normally divided into three phases: the opening, typically the first 10 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive. In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves. Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for the future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares). The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation) which in turn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee, but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games; chess has its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event. The current World Chess Champion is Magnus Carlsen of The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE: All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), are available. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and as of 2020, all of the top ten rated women hold the unrestricted GM title. , there are 1725 active grandmasters and 3903 international masters in the world. The top three countries with the largest numbers of grandmasters are Russia, the United States, and Germany, with 251, 98, and 96, respectively. FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers. International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (also called chess compositions). The creator is known as a chess composer. There are many types of chess problems; the two most important are: Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems. This is one of the most famous chess studies; it was published by Richard Réti 4 December 1921. It seems impossible to catch the advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. The Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000. B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess have been known for hundreds of years. The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be about 10, and has been proved to be fewer than 10, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon. He wrote: The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory. Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a draw). According to Generalized chess (played on "n"×"n" Some applications of combinatorial game theory There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much recent research. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess. Recent research indicates that factors other than practice are also important. For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Compared to general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill. A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in the literature and popular culture. Academic studies of the relationship date back at least to 1927. Academic opinion has long been split on how strong the relationship is, with some studies finding no relationship and others finding a relatively strong one. A 2016 meta-analysis There are more than two thousand published chess variants, most of them of relatively recent origin, including: Prime sources in English describing chess variants and their rules include David Pritchard's encyclopedias, the website "The Reference aids Lists	Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. Played by millions of people worldwide, chess is believed to be derived from the Indian game "chaturanga" sometime before the 7th century. Chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games "xiangqi" (Chinese chess), "janggi" (Korean chess), and shogi (Japanese chess). Chess reached Europe by the 9th century, due to the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The pieces assumed their current properties in Spain in the late 15th century, and the modern rules were standardized in the 19th century.	en	en	122	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 91736, 111, 290, 7, 7, 621, 91376, 390, 563, 36497, 24073, 919, 94627, 30494, 8357, 13, 224, 3050, 1430, 4439, 74054, 290, 7, 7, 25, 7, 21640, 23131, 214, 14361, 4, 23, 6863, 44, 135679, 14137, 740, 139118, 7, 91376, 390, 15889, 23131, 214, 337, 34204, 4, 707, 390, 51, 83820, 150, 27686, 290, 7, 7, 53702, 7, 4, 60091, 80299, 1314, 4, 3021, 5, 4, 1543, 129927, 5, 563, 36497, 25, 7, 91736, 3542, 2684, 78684, 15226, 5281, 23, 4152, 3311, 101805, 4, 290, 7, 7, 6712, 126371, 621, 101637, 71, 3934, 35011, 136, 22556, 5423, 7, 5, 98423, 5423, 58055, 7, 111, 611, 126371, 12, 1632, 60097, 4, 1632, 41, 33, 4, 6626, 167802, 7, 4, 6626, 333, 10534, 7, 4, 6626, 472, 54350, 7, 4, 136, 136659, 249, 7710, 7, 5, 581, 126371, 621, 5423, 1810, 237, 127887, 23, 70, 117233, 136, 16186, 5, 581, 92865, 111, 70, 5423, 7, 621, 15005, 2822, 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summarize: Perrault was born in Paris to a wealthy bourgeois family, the seventh child of Pierre Perrault and Paquette Le Clerc. He attended very good schools and studied law before embarking on a career in government service, following in the footsteps of his father and elder brother Jean. He took part in the creation of the Academy of Sciences as well as the restoration of the Academy of Painting. In 1654, he moved in with his brother Pierre, who had purchased the position of chief tax collector of the city of Paris. When the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres was founded in 1663, Perrault was appointed its secretary and served under Jean Baptiste Colbert, finance minister to King Louis XIV. Jean Chapelain, Amable de Bourzeys, and Jacques Cassagne (the King's librarian) were also appointed. Using his influence as Colbert's administrative aide, in April 1667 he was able to get his brother, Claude Perrault, appointed to a committee of three, the Petit Conseil, also including Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, who designed the new section of the Louvre, the Colonnade, built between 1667 and 1674, to be overseen by Colbert. The design was chosen over designs by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (with whom, as Perrault recounts in his "Memoirs," he had stormy relations while the Italian artist was in residence at Louis's court in 1665) and François Mansart. One of the factors leading to this choice included the fear of high costs, and second was the personal antagonism between Bernini and leading members of Louis' court, including Colbert and Perrault; King Louis himself maintained a public air of benevolence towards Bernini, ordering the issuing of a royal bronze portrait medal in honor of the artist in 1674. As Perrault further describes in his "Memoirs", however, the king harbored private resentment at Bernini's displays of arrogance. The king was so displeased with Bernini's equestrian statue of him that he ordered it to be destroyed; however, his courtiers prevailed upon him to have it redone instead, with a head depicting the Roman hero Marcus Curtius. In 1668, Perrault wrote "La Peinture" ("Painting") to honor the king's first painter, Charles Le Brun. He also wrote "Courses de tetes et de bague" ("Head and Ring Races", 1670), written to commemorate the 1662 celebrations staged by Louis for his mistress, Louise-Françoise de La Baume le Blanc, duchesse de La Vallière. Perrault was elected to the Académie française in 1671. He married Marie Guichon, age 19, in 1672; she died in 1678. In 1669 Perrault advised Louis XIV to include thirty-nine fountains each representing one of the fables of Aesop in the labyrinth of Versailles in the gardens of Versailles. The work was carried out between 1672 and 1677. Water jets spurting from the animals' mouths were conceived to give the impression of speech between the creatures. There was a plaque with a caption and a quatrain written by the poet Isaac de Benserade next to each fountain. Perrault produced the guidebook for the labyrinth, "Labyrinte de Versailles", printed at the royal press, Paris, in 1677, and illustrated by Sebastien le Clerc. Philippe Quinault, a longtime family friend of the Perraults, quickly gained a reputation as the librettist for the new musical genre known as opera, collaborating with composer Jean-Baptiste Lully. After "Alceste" (1674) was denounced by traditionalists who rejected it for deviating from classical theater, Perrault wrote in response "Critique de l'Opéra" (1674) in which he praised the merits of "Alceste" over the tragedy of the same name by Euripides. This treatise on "Alceste" initiated the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns ("Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes"), which pitted supporters of the literature of Antiquity (the "Ancients") against supporters of the literature from the century of Louis XIV (the "Moderns"). He was on the side of the Moderns and wrote "Le Siècle de Louis le Grand" ("The Century of Louis the Great", 1687) and "Parallèle des Anciens et des Modernes" ("Parallel between Ancients and Moderns", 1688–1692) where he attempted to prove the superiority of the literature of his century. "Le Siècle de Louis le Grand " was written in celebration of Louis XIV's recovery from a life-threatening operation. Perrault argued that because of Louis's enlightened rule, the present age was superior in every respect to ancient times. He also claimed that even modern French literature was superior to the works of antiquity, and that, after all,. In 1682, Colbert forced Perrault into retirement at the age of 56, assigning his tasks to his own son, Jules-Armand, marquis d'Ormoy. Colbert would die the next year, and Perrault stopped receiving the pension given to him as a writer. Colbert's bitter rival succeeded him, François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, and quickly removed Perrault from his other appointments. After this, in 1686, Perrault decided to write epic poetry and show his genuine devotion to Christianity, writing "Saint Paulin, évêque de Nôle" ("St. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola", about Paulinus of Nola). Just like Jean Chapelain's "La Pucelle, ou la France délivrée", an epic poem about Joan of Arc, Perrault became a target of mockery from Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux. Charles Perrault died in Paris in 1703 at the age of 75. On 12 January 2016 Google honoured him with a doodle by artist Sophie Diao depicting characters from the Tales of Mother Goose (Histoires ou contes du temps passé). In 1695, when he was 67, Perrault lost his position as secretary and decided to dedicate himself to his children. In 1697 he published "Tales and Stories of the Past with Morals" ("Histoires ou Contes du Temps passé"), subtitled "Tales of Mother Goose" ("Les Contes de ma Mère l'Oye"). (The spelling of the name is with "y" although modern French uses only an "i".) This "Mother Goose" has never been identified as a person, but used to refer to popular and rural storytelling traditions in proverbial phrases of the time. (Source : "Dictionnaire de l'Académie", 1694, quoted by Nathalie Froloff in her edition of the "Tales" (Gallimard, Folio, Paris, 1999.- p. 10).) These tales, based on French popular tradition, were very popular in sophisticated court circles. Its publication made him suddenly very widely known and he is often credited as the founder of the modern fairy tale genre. Naturally, his work reflects awareness of earlier fairy tales written in the salons, most notably by Marie-Catherine Le Jumel de Barneville, Baroness d'Aulnoy, who coined the phrase "fairy tale" and wrote tales as early as 1690. Some of his popular stories, particularly Cinderella and The Sleeping Beauty, are still commonly told similar to the way Perrault had written them, while others have been revised over the years. For example, some versions of Sleeping Beauty published today are based partially on a Brothers Grimm tale, "Little Briar Rose“, a modified version of the Perrault story, but the Disney version is true to the original Perrault tale. Perrault had written Little Red Riding Hood as a warning to readers about men preying on young girls walking through the forest. He concludes his fairy tale with a moral, cautioning women and young girls about the dangers of trusting men. He states, "Watch out if you haven’t learned that tame wolves/ Are the most dangerous of all". Perrault warns the readers about the manipulation and false appearances some men portray: "I say Wolf, for all wolves are not of the same sort; there is one kind with an amenable disposition – neither noisy, nor hateful, nor angry, but tame, obliging and gentle, following the young maids in the streets, even into their homes. Alas! Who does not know that these gentle wolves are of all such creatures the most dangerous!" Indeed, the girl gets into bed with the wolf and is devoured. There is no happy ending as in most current versions of the story. He had actually published his collection under the name of his last son (born in 1678), Pierre (Perrault) Darmancourt ("Armancourt" being the name of a property he bought for him), probably fearful of criticism from the "Ancients". In the tales, he used images from around him, such as the Chateau Ussé for "The Sleeping Beauty", and the Marquis of the Château d'Oiron as the model for the Marquis de Carabas in "Puss in Boots". He ornamented his folktale subject matter with details, asides and subtext drawn from the world of fashion. Following up on these tales, he translated the "Fabulae Centum" (100 Fables) of the Latin poet Gabriele Faerno into French verse in 1699.	Charles Perrault (,, ; 12 January 1628 – 16 May 1703) was a French author and member of the Académie Française. He laid the foundations for a new literary genre, the fairy tale, with his works derived from earlier folk tales, published in his 1697 book "Histoires ou contes du temps passé". 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summarize: Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on 4 January 1785, and his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm was born on 24 February 1786. Both were born in Hanau, in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel within the Holy Roman Empire (present-day Germany), to Philipp Wilhelm Grimm, a jurist, and Dorothea Grimm née Zimmer, daughter of a Kassel city councilman. They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, three of whom died in infancy. In 1791, the family moved to the countryside town of Steinau, when Philipp was employed there as district magistrate ("). The family became prominent members of the community, residing in a large home surrounded by fields. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy in Steinau and "clearly fond of country life". The children were educated at home by private tutors, receiving strict instruction as Lutherans that instilled After graduation from the ", the brothers attended the University of Marburg. The university was small with about 200 students and there they became painfully aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally. They were disqualified from admission because of their social standing and had to request dispensation to study law. Wealthier students received stipends, but the brothers were excluded even from tuition aid. Their poverty kept them from student activities or university social life; ironically, however, their outsider status worked in their favor, and In 1825, Wilhelm married Henriette Dorothea (Dortchen) Wild, a long-time family friend and one of a group who supplied them with stories. Jacob never married but continued to live in the household with Wilhelm and Dortchen. In 1830, both brothers were overlooked when the post of chief librarian came available, which disappointed them greatly. They moved the household to Göttingen in the Kingdom of Hanover where they took employment at the University of Göttingen, Jacob as a professor and head librarian and Wilhelm as professor. During the next seven years, the brothers continued to research, write, and publish. In 1835, Jacob published the well-regarded "German Mythology" ('); Wilhelm continued to edit and prepare the third edition of'for publication. The two brothers taught German studies at In 1840, von Savigny and Bettina von Arnim appealed successfully to Frederick William IV of Prussia on behalf of the brothers who were offered posts at the University of Berlin. In addition to teaching posts, the Academy of Sciences offered them stipends to continue their research. Once they had established their household in Berlin, they directed their efforts towards the work on the German dictionary and continued to publish their research. Jacob turned his attention to researching German legal traditions and the history of the German language, which was published in the late 1840s and early 1850s; meanwhile, Wilhelm began researching medieval The rise of romanticism, Romantic nationalism, and trends in valuing popular culture in the early 19th century revived interest in fairy tales, which had declined since their late-17th-century peak. Johann Karl August Musäus published a popular collection of tales between 1782 and 1787; the Grimms aided the revival with their folklore collection, built on the conviction that a national identity could be found in popular culture and with the common folk ("). They collected and published their tales as a reflection of German cultural identity. In the first collection, though, they included Charles Perrault's tales, published in Paris in 1697 and written for the literary salons of an aristocratic French audience. Scholar Lydie Jean says that Perrault created a myth that his tales came from the common people and reflected existing folklore to justify including them—even though many of When Jacob returned to Marburg from Paris in 1806, their friend Brentano sought the brothers' help in adding to his collection of folk tales, at which time the brothers began to gather tales in an organized fashion. By 1810, they had produced a manuscript collection of several dozen tales, written after inviting storytellers to their home and transcribing what they heard. These tales were heavily modified in transcription, and many had roots in previously written sources. At Brentano's request, they printed and sent him copies of the 53 tales that they collected for inclusion in his third volume of "". Brentano either ignored or forgot about the tales, leaving the copies in a church in Alsace where they were found in 1920 and became known as the Ölenberg manuscript. It is the earliest extant version of the Grimms' collection and has become a valuable source to scholars studying the development of the Grimms' collection from the time of its inception. The manuscript was published in 1927 and again in 1975. The From 1807 onward, the brothers added to the collection. Jacob established the framework, maintained through many iterations; from 1815 until his death, Wilhelm assumed sole responsibility for editing and rewriting the tales. He made the tales stylistically similar, added dialogue, removed pieces "that might detract from a rustic tone", improved the plots, and incorporated psychological motifs. Ronald Murphy writes in "The Owl, the Raven and the Dove" that the brothers—and in particular Wilhelm—also added religious and spiritual motifs to the tales. He believes that Wilhelm "gleaned" bits from old Germanic faiths, Norse mythology, Roman and Greek mythology, and biblical stories that he reshaped. Over the years, Wilhelm worked extensively on the prose and expanded and added detail to the stories, to the point that many grew to twice the length they were in The Grimms' legacy contains legends, novellas, and folk stories, the vast majority of which were not intended as children's tales. Von Armin was deeply concerned about the content of some of the tales, such as those that showed children being eaten, and suggested that they be removed. Instead, the brothers added an introduction with cautionary advice that parents steer children toward age-appropriate stories. Despite von Armin's unease, none of the tales were eliminated from the collection, in the brothers' belief that all the tales were of value and reflected inherent cultural qualities. Furthermore, the stories were didactic in nature at a time when discipline relied on fear, according to scholar Linda Dégh, who explains that tales such as "Little Red Riding Between 1812 and 1864,'was published 17 times: seven of the "Large edition" (') and ten of the "Small edition" ("). The Large editions contained all the tales collected to date, extensive annotations, and scholarly notes written by the brothers; the Small editions had only 50 tales and were intended for children. Jacob and Wilhelm's younger brother Emil Grimm illustrated the Small editions, adding Christian symbolism to the drawings, such as depicting Cinderella's mother as an angel, and adding a Bible to the bedside table of Little Red Riding Hood's grandmother. The first volume was published in 1812 with 86 folk tales, and a second volume with 70 additional tales was published late in 1814 (dated 1815 on the title page); together, the two volumes and their 156 tales are considered the first of the Large (annotated) editions. A second expanded edition with 170 tales was While at the University of Marburg, the brothers came to see culture as tied to language and regarded the purest cultural expression in the grammar of a language. They moved away from Brentano's practice—and that of the other romanticists—who frequently changed original oral styles of folk tale to a more literary style, which the brothers considered artificial. They thought that the style of the people (the ') reflected a natural and divinely inspired poetry (') as opposed to the "" (art poetry), which they " was not an immediate bestseller, but its popularity grew with each edition. The early editions attracted lukewarm critical reviews, generally on the basis that the stories were unappealing to children. The brothers responded with modifications and rewrites to increase the book's market appeal to that demographic. By the 1870s, the tales had increased greatly in popularity, to the point that they were added to the teaching curriculum in Prussia. In the 20th century, the work has maintained status as second only to the Bible as the most popular book in Germany. Its sales generated a mini-industry of criticism, which analyzed the tales' folkloric content in the context of literary history, socialism, and psychological elements often along Freudian and Jungian lines. In their research, the brothers made a science of the study of folklore (see folkloristics), generating a model of research that "launched general fieldwork in most European countries", and setting standards for research and analysis of stories and legends that made them pioneers in the field of folklore in the 19th century. The Third Reich used the Grimms' stories to foster nationalism. The Nazi Party decreed that every household should own a copy of "". Later, officials of the Allied-occupied Germany banned the book for a period. In the US, the 1937 release of Walt Disney's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" shows the triumph of good over evil, innocence over oppression, according to Zipes—a popular theme that Disney repeated in 1959 during the Cold War with the production of "Sleeping Beauty". The Grimms' tales have provided much of the early foundation on which Disney built an empire. In film, the Cinderella motif, the story of a poor girl finding love and success, is repeated in movies such as "Pretty Woman", "The Princess Diaries",, "Ever After", "Maid in Manhattan", and "Ella Enchanted". In 1962, the lives of both brothers were the subject of the film "The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm" featuring an all star cast, including Laurence Harvey and Karlheinz Böhm in the title roles. Twentieth-century educators debated the value and influence of teaching stories that include brutality and violence, and some of the more gruesome details were sanitized. Dégh writes that some educators believe that children should be shielded from cruelty of any form; that stories with a happy ending are fine to teach, whereas those that are darker, particularly the legends, might pose more harm. On the other hand, some educators and psychologists believe that children easily discern the difference between what is a story and what is not and that the tales continue to have value for children. The publication of Bruno Bettelheim's 1976 "The Uses of Enchantment" brought a new wave of interest in the stories as children's literature, with an emphasis on the "therapeutic value for children". More popular stories such as "Hansel and Gretel" and "Little Red Riding Hood" have become staples of modern childhood, presented in coloring books, puppet shows, and cartoons. Other stories, however, have been considered too gruesome and have not made a popular transition. Regardless of the debate, the Grimms' stories remain resilient and popular around the world, though a recent study in England suggests that some parents consider the stories overly violent and inappropriate for young children, writes Libby Copeland for "Slate". Nevertheless, children remain enamored with the Grimm fairy tales with the brothers themselves embraced as the creators of the stories and even as part of the stories themselves. The film "Brothers Grimm" imagines them as con-artists exploiting superstitious German peasants until they are asked to confront a genuine fairy tale curse that calls them to finally be heroes. The movie "Ever After" shows the Grimm Brothers in their role as collectors of fairy tales though they learn to their surprise that at least one of their stories (Cinderella) is actually true. "Grimm" follows a detective who discovers he is a Grimm, the latest in a line of guardians who are sworn to keep the balance between humanity and mythological creatures. "Ever After High" imagines Grimm Brothers (here descendants called Milton and Giles) as headmasters of Ever After High boarding school where they train the children of the previous generation of fairy tales to follow in their parents' footsteps. The "10th Kingdom" mini series states that the brothers were trapped in the fairy tale world for years where they witnessed the events of their stories before finally making it back to the real world. "The Sisters Grimm" book series follows their descendants, Sabrina and Daphne, as they adapt to life in Ferryport Landing, a town in upstate New York populated by fairy tale people. Separate from the previous series are "The Land of Stories" and "its" Sisters Grimm, a self described coven determined to track down and document creatures from the fairy tale world that cross over into the real world. Their ancestors were in fact chosen by Mother Goose and others to tell fairy tales so that they might give hope to the human race. The university library at the Humboldt University of Berlin is housed in the Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm Center ("). Among its collections is a large portion of the Grimm Brothers' private library.	The Brothers Grimm (' or ', ), Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785–1863) and Wilhelm Carl Grimm (1786–1859), were German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers and authors who together collected and published folklore during the 19th century. They were among the first and best-known collectors of German and European folk tales, and popularized traditional oral tale types such as "Cinderella" (""), "The Frog Prince" (""), "The Goose-Girl" ("Die Gänsemagd"), "Hansel and Gretel" (""), "Rapunzel", "Beauty and the Beast", "Little Red Riding Hood", "The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats", "The Three Little Pigs", "Rumpelstiltskin" (""), "Sleeping Beauty" (""), and "Snow White" (""). 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summarize: Bronson was born Charles Dennis Buchinsky, the eleventh of fifteen children, into a Roman Catholic family of Lithuanian descent in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania, in the coal region of the Allegheny Mountains north of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. His father, Valteris P. Bučinskis, who later adjusted his name to Walter Buchinsky to sound more "American", was from Druskininkai in southern Lithuania. Bronson's mother, Mary (née Valinsky), whose parents were from Lithuania, was born in the coal mining town of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania. Bronson learned to speak English when he was a teenager; before that, he spoke Lithuanian and Russian. In a 1973 interview, Bronson said that he did not know his father very well and "I'm not even sure if I loved him or hated him." He said that all he could remember was that when his mother said that his father was coming home, the children would hide. Bronson was the first member of his family to graduate from high school. When Bronson was 10 years old, his father died and he went to work in the coal mines, first in the mining office and then in the mine. He later said he earned one dollar for each ton of coal that he mined. In another interview, he said that he had to work double shifts to earn $1 a week. Bronson later recounted that he and his brother engaged in dangerous work removing "stumps" between the mines, and that cave-ins were common. The family suffered extreme poverty during the Great Depression, and Bronson recalled going hungry many times. His mother could not afford milk for his younger sister, so she was fed warm tea instead. His family was so poor that he once had to wear his sister's dress to school for lack of clothing. He worked in the mine until he entered military service during World War II. In 1943, Bronson enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces and served in the 760th Flexible Gunnery Training Squadron, and in 1945 as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress aerial gunner with the Guam-based 61st Bombardment Squadron within the 39th Bombardment Group, which conducted combat missions against the Japanese home islands. He flew 25 missions and received a Purple Heart for wounds received in battle. After the end of World War II, Bronson worked at many odd jobs until joining a theatrical group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He later shared an apartment in New York City with Jack Klugman while both were aspiring to play on the stage. In 1950, he married and moved to Hollywood, where he enrolled in acting classes and began to find small roles. Bronson's first film role — an uncredited one — was as a sailor in "You're in the Navy Now" in 1951, directed by Henry Hathaway. Other early screen appearances were in "The Mob" (1951); "The People Against O'Hara" (1951), directed by John Sturges; "Bloodhounds of Broadway" (1952); "Battle Zone" (1952); "Pat and Mike" (1952), as a boxer and mob enforcer; "Diplomatic Courier" (1952), another for Hathaway; "My Six Convicts" (1952); "The Marrying Kind" (1952); and "Red Skies of Montana" (1952). In 1952, Bronson boxed in a ring with Roy Rogers in Rogers' show "Knockout". He appeared on an episode of "The Red Skelton Show" as a boxer in a skit with Skelton playing "Cauliflower McPugg". He appeared with fellow guest star Lee Marvin in an episode of "Biff Baker, U.S.A.", an espionage series on CBS starring Alan Hale, Jr. He had small roles in "Miss Sadie Thompson" (1953); "House of Wax" (1953), directed by Andre DeToth; "The Clown" (1953); "Torpedo Alley" (1953); and "Riding Shotgun", starring Randolph Scott, directed by DeToth again. Bronson had a notable support part as an Indian in "Apache" (1954) for director Robert Aldrich who then used him again in "Vera Cruz" (1954). Bronson then made a strong impact as the main villain in the Alan Ladd western "Drum Beat" as a murderous Modoc warrior, Captain Jack (based on a real person), who relishes wearing the tunics of soldiers he has killed. He had roles in "Tennessee Champ" (1954) for MGM, and "Crime Wave" (1954) directed by de Toth. In 1954, during the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) proceedings, he changed his surname from Buchinsky to Bronson at the suggestion of his agent, who feared that an Eastern European surname might damage his career. As "Charles Bronson", he could be seen in "Target Zero" (1955), "Big House, U.S.A." (1955), and "Jubal" (1956). Bronson had the lead role of the episode "The Apache Kid" of the syndicated crime drama "Sheriff of Cochise", starring John Bromfield; Bronson was subsequently cast twice in 1959 after the series was renamed "U.S. Marshal". He guest-starred in the short-lived CBS situation comedy, "Hey, Jeannie!" and in three episodes of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents": "And So Died Riabouchinska" (1956), "There Was an Old Woman" (1956), and "The Woman Who Wanted to Live" (1962). In 1957, Bronson was cast in the Western series "Colt.45" as an outlaw named Danny Arnold in the episode "Young Gun". He had a support role in Sam Fuller's "Run of the Arrow" (1957). In 1958 Bronson appeared as Butch Cassidy on the TV western "Tales of Wells Fargo" in the episode titled "Butch Cassidy." Bronson scored the lead in his own ABC's detective series "Man with a Camera" (1958–1960), in which he portrayed Mike Kovac, a former combat photographer freelancing in New York City. He was cast in leading man roles in some low budget films, notably, "Machine-Gun Kelly" (1958), a biopic of a real life gangster directed by Roger Corman. He also starred in "Gang War" (1958), "When Hell Broke Loose" (1958), and "Showdown at Boot Hill" (1959). On television, he played Steve Ogrodowski, a naval intelligence officer, in two episodes of the CBS military sitcom/drama, "Hennesey", starring Jackie Cooper, and he played Rogue Donovan, an escaped murderer in "Yancy Derringer" (episode: "Hell and High Water"). Bronson starred alongside Elizabeth Montgomery in a "Twilight Zone" episode ("Two"; 1961). He appeared in five episodes of Richard Boone's "Have Gun – Will Travel" (1957–63). Bronson had a support role in an expensive war film, "Never So Few" (1959), directed by John Sturges. Bronson was cast in the 1960 episode "Zigzag" of "Riverboat", starring Darren McGavin. That same year, he was cast as "Dutch Malkin" in the 1960 episode "The Generous Politician" of "The Islanders". In 1960 Bronson appeared as Frank Buckley in the TV western "Laramie" in the episode titled "Street of Hate." In 1960, he garnered attention in John Sturges' "The Magnificent Seven", in which he was cast as one of seven gunfighters taking up the cause of the defenseless. During filming, Bronson was a loner who kept to himself, according to Eli Wallach. He received $50,000 for this role. This role made him a favorite actor of many in the former Soviet Union, such as Vladimir Vysotsky. AIP put Bronson in the romantic lead of "Master of the World" (1961), supporting Vincent Price. He had a support role in MGM's "A Thunder of Drums" (1961) but a bigger part in "X-15" (1961). In 1961, Bronson was nominated for an Emmy Award for his supporting role in an episode entitled "Memory in White" of CBS's "General Electric Theater", hosted by Ronald Reagan. In 1962, he appeared alongside Elvis Presley in "Kid Galahad". In 1963, he co-starred in the series "Empire". Sturges cast Bronson for another Hollywood production, "The Great Escape" (1963), as claustrophobic Polish prisoner of war Flight Lieutenant Danny Velinski, nicknamed "The Tunnel King" (coincidentally, Bronson really was claustrophobic because of his childhood work in a mine). The film was a huge hit and Bronson had one of the leads, but he still found himself playing a villain in "4 for Texas" (1963) for Robert Aldrich. During the 1963–64 television season Bronson portrayed Linc, the stubborn wagonmaster in the ABC western series, "The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters". In 1964, Bronson guest starred in an episode of the western TV series Bonanza as Harry Starr ("The Underdog"). Bronson had the lead in "Guns of Diablo" (1965), a Western. In the 1965–1966 season, he guest-starred in an episode of "The Legend of Jesse James". In 1965, Bronson was cast as Velasquez, a demolitions expert, in the third-season episode "Heritage" on ABC's WW II drama "Combat!". He had a relatively minor role in "Battle of the Bulge" (1965) and was billed fourth in MGM's "The Sandpiper" (1966), which the popularity of stars Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor propelled to a big success. He was billed third in "This Property Is Condemned" (1966). In 1967, he guest-starred as Ralph Schuyler, an undercover government agent in the episode "The One That Got Away" on ABC's "The Fugitive". That year Aldrich gave Bronson an excellent role in "The Dirty Dozen" (1967), where he played an Army death row convict conscripted into a suicide mission. It was a massive box office success but Bronson was only the third lead. He seemed unable to make the transition to star of major studio films in Hollywood. In "Villa Rides" (1968) he supported Robert Mitchum and Yul Brynner, playing the real-life Rodolfo Fierro. Bronson made a serious name for himself in European films. He was making "Villa Rides" when approached by the producers of a French film "Adieu l'ami" looking for an American co-star for Alain Delon. Bronson's agent Paul Kohner later recalled the producer pitched the actor "on the fact that in the American film industry all the money, all the publicity, goes to the pretty boy hero types. In Europe... the public is attracted by character, not face." The film was a big success in Europe. Even more popular was "Once Upon a Time in the West" (1968) where Bronson played Harmonica. The director, Sergio Leone, once called him "the greatest actor I ever worked with", and had wanted to cast Bronson for the lead in 1964's "A Fistful of Dollars". Bronson turned him down and the role launched Clint Eastwood to film stardom. The film was the biggest hit of 1969 in France. Bronson appeared in a French action film, "Guns for San Sebastian" (1968) alongside Anthony Quinn. In Britain, he was cast in the lead of "Lola" (1969), playing a middle-aged man in love with a 16-year-old girl. He then made a buddy comedy with Tony Curtis in Turkey, "You Can't Win 'Em All" (1970). Bronson then played the lead in a French thriller, "Rider on the Rain" (1970) which was a big hit in France. It won a Hollywood Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Bronson starred in some French-Italian action films, "Violent City" (1970) and "Cold Sweat" (1970), the latter directed by Terence Young. He was in a French thriller, "Someone Behind the Door" (1971) alongside Anthony Perkins, then starred in another directed by Young, the French-Spanish-Italian Western, "Red Sun" (1971). "The Valachi Papers" (1972) was a third with Young; Bronson played Joseph Valachi. That year, this overseas fame earned him a special Golden Globe Henrietta Award for "World Film Favorite - Male" together with Sean Connery. In 1972 Bronson began a string of successful action films for United Artists, beginning with "Chato's Land" (1972), although he had done several films for UA before this in the 1960s ("The Magnificent Seven", etc.). "Chato's Land" was the first film Bronson made with director Michael Winner. Winner was reunited with Bronson in "The Mechanic" (1972) and "The Stone Killer" (1973). Bronson worked with Sturges on "Chino" (1973), then did "Mr. Majestyk" (1974) with Richard Fleischer based on a book by Elmore Leonard. One film UA brought into the domestic mainstream was "Violent City", an Italian-made film originally released overseas in 1970, but not issued in the U.S. until 1974 under the title "The Family". By 1973, Bronson was considered to be the world's top box office attraction, and commanded $1 million per film. Bronson's most famous role came at age 52, in "Death Wish", his most popular film, with director Michael Winner. He played Paul Kersey, a successful New York architect who turns into a crime-fighting vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted. This movie spawned four sequels over the next two decades, all starring Bronson. Bronson starred in two films directed by Tom Gries: "Breakout" (1975), and "Breakheart Pass" (1975), a Western adapted from a novel by Alistair MacLean, which was a box office disappointment. He also starred in the directorial debut of Walter Hill, "Hard Times" (1975), playing a Depression-era street fighter making his living in illegal bare-knuckled matches in Louisiana. He earned good reviews. Bronson reached his pinnacle in box-office drawing power in 1975, when he was ranked 4th, behind only Robert Redford, Barbra Streisand, and Al Pacino. Bronson did a Western comedy for UA, "From Noon till Three" (1976) but it was not well received. At Warner Bros he made "St. Ives" (1976), his first film with director J. Lee Thompson. He played Dan Shomron in "Raid on Entebbe" (1977), then was reunited with Thompson in "The White Buffalo" (1977), produced by Dino de Laurentiis for UA. UA also released "Telefon" (1977), directed by Don Siegel. Bronson went on to make two films for ITC, "Love and Bullets" (1979) and "Borderline" (1980). He was reunited with Thompson on "Caboblanco" (1980), and played Albert Johnson in "Death Hunt" (1981), opposite Lee Marvin. In the years between 1976 and 1994, Bronson commanded high salaries to star in numerous films made by smaller production companies, most notably Cannon Films, for whom some of his last films were made. Bronson was paid $1.5 million by Cannon to star in "Death Wish II" (1982), directed by Michael Winner. In the story, architect Paul Kersey (Bronson) moves to Los Angeles with his daughter. After she is murdered at the hands of several gang members, Kersey once again becomes a vigilante. The film was a big success at the box office. Cannon Films promptly hired Bronson for "10 to Midnight" (1983), in which he played a cop chasing a serial killer. The movie marks the fourth collaboration between Bronson and director J. Lee Thompson. The supporting cast includes Lisa Eilbacher, Andrew Stevens, Gene Davis, Geoffrey Lewis, and Wilford Brimley. ITC Entertainment hired Thompson and Bronson for "The Evil That Men Do" (1984), co-starring Theresa Saldana, and Joseph Maher. The film was adapted by David Lee Henry and John Crowther from the novel of the same name by R. Lance Hill. Bronson plays a former assassin, who comes out of retirement to avenge the death of his journalist friend. Cannon reunited Bronson and Winner for "Death Wish 3" (1985). It is the last to be directed by Winner. Kersey returns to battle with New York street punk gangs while receiving tacit support from an NYPD lieutenant (Ed Lauter). In "Murphy's Law" (1986), directed by Thompson, Bronson plays Jack Murphy, a hardened, antisocial LAPD detective who turns to alcohol to numb the pain of harsh reality. His ex-wife (Angel Tompkins) has become a stripper and his career is going nowhere. His world is turned upside down when an ex-convict (Carrie Snodgress) frames him for putting her in prison earlier in his career. Bronson had a slight change of pace with a television film, "Act of Vengeance" (1986), playing real-life union worker Joseph Yablonski. It was directed by John Mackenzie. The movie is based on the book, "Act of Vengeance" by Trevor Armbrister, a story about the corruption that occurred during the United Mine Workers' presidential elections in 1969. It premiered on April 21, 1986. More typical of this period were four Cannon action films: "Assassination" (1987) directed by Peter Hunt, and three with Thompson: "" (1988), "Messenger of Death" (1989) and "" (1989). Bronson's first non action film in a long time was "The Indian Runner" (1991), directed by Sean Penn. He followed this with some TV movies, "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus" and "The Sea Wolf" (1993). Bronson's last starring role in a theatrically released film was 1994's "". His final films were a trilogy of TV movies which were "Family of Cops" (1995), "" (1997) and "Family of Cops 3" (1999). At the time of his death, film critic Stephen Hunter said that Bronson "oozed male life-force, stoic toughness, capability, strength." and "always projected the charisma of ambiguity: Was he an ugly handsome man or a handsome ugly man? You were never sure, so further study was obligatory." Hunter said, "he never became a great actor, but he knew exactly how to dominate a scene quietly." Bronson "was the man with the name ending in a vowel... who never left the position, never complained, never quit, never skulked. He simmered, he sulked, he bristled with class resentments, but he hung in there, got the job done and expected no thanks. His nobility was all the more palpable for never having to be expressed in words. Bronson told critic Roger Ebert in 1974 that "I'm only a product like a cake of soap, to be sold as well as possible." He said that in the action pictures he was producing at the time, there was not much time for acting. He said: "I supply a presence. There are never any long dialogue scenes to establish a character. He has to be completely established at the beginning of the movie, and ready to work." Director Michael Winner said that Bronson did not have to "go into any big thing about what he does or how he does it" because he had a "quality that the motion-picture camera seems to respond to. He has a great strength on the screen, even when he's standing still or in a completely passive role. There is a depth, a mystery – there is always the sense that something will happen." Sergio Leone offered Bronson the part of "Man with No Name" in "A Fistful of Dollars". Bronson declined, arguing that the script was bad. Bronson was again approached for a starring role in the sequel "For a Few Dollars More" but he passed, citing that the sequel's script was like the first film. Bronson was offered both the roles of Tuco and Angel Eyes in "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly". Bronson wanted to accept but he had to decline both, as he was in England filming "The Dirty Dozen". Bronson would later star in Leone's "Once Upon a Time in the West" (1968). Ingmar Bergman wanted to make a film with Bronson but the actor turned him down. "Everything is weakness and sickness with Bergman," he said. He was considered for the role of Snake Plissken in "Escape from New York" (1981), but director John Carpenter thought he was too tough looking and too old for the part, and decided to cast Kurt Russell instead. Bronson auditioned for the role of Superman for the 1978 film adaptation, but producer Ilya Salkind turned him down for being too earthy and decided to cast Christopher Reeve. Bronson was scarred by his early deprivation and his early struggle as an actor. A 1973 newspaper profile said that he was so shy and introverted he could not watch his own films. Bronson was described as "still suspicious, still holds grudges, still despises interviews, still hates to give anything of himself, still can't believe it has really happened to him." He was embittered that it took so long for him to be recognized in the U.S., and after achieving fame he refused to work for a noted director who had snubbed him years before. Critic Roger Ebert wrote in 1974 that Bronson does not volunteer information, does not elaborate, and has no theories about his films."He wrote that Bronson threatened to "get" Time magazine critic Jay Cocks, who had written a negative review he viewed as a personal attack, and that unlike other actors who projected violence on film, Bronson seemed violent in person. His first marriage was to Harriet Tendler, whom he met when both were fledgling actors in Philadelphia. They had two children, Suzanne and Tony, before divorcing in 1965. She wrote in her memoir that she "was an 18-year-old virgin when she met the 26-year-old Charlie Buchinsky at a Philadelphia acting school in 1947. Two years later, with the grudging consent of her father, a successful, Jewish dairy farmer, Tendler wed Buchinsky, a Catholic and a former coal miner. Tendler supported them both while she and Charlie pursued their acting dreams. On their first date, he had four cents in his pocket — and went on, now as Charles Bronson, to become one of the highest paid actors in the country." Bronson was married to English actress Jill Ireland from October 5, 1968, until her death in 1990. He had met her in 1962, when she was married to Scottish actor David McCallum. At the time, Bronson (who shared the screen with McCallum in "The Great Escape") reportedly told him, "I'm going to marry your wife". The Bronsons lived in a grand Bel Air mansion in Los Angeles with seven children: two by his previous marriage, three by hers (one of whom was adopted), and two of their own, Zuleika and Katrina, the latter of whom was also adopted. After they married, she often played his leading lady, and they starred in fifteen films together. To maintain a close family, they would load up everyone and take them to wherever filming was taking place, so that they could all be together. They spent time in a colonial farmhouse on in West Windsor, Vermont, where Ireland raised horses and provided training for their daughter Zuleika so that she could perform at the higher levels of horse showing. The Vermont farm, "Zuleika Farm", was named for the only biological child between them. During the late 1980s through the mid-1990s Bronson regularly spent winter holidays vacationing with his family in Snowmass, Colorado. On May 18, 1990, aged 54, after a long battle with breast cancer, Jill Ireland died of the disease at their home in Malibu, California. In December 1998, Bronson was married for a third time to Kim Weeks, a former employee of Dove Audio who had helped record Ireland in the production of her audiobooks. The couple were married for five years until Bronson's death in 2003. Bronson's health deteriorated in his later years, and he retired from acting after undergoing hip-replacement surgery in August 1998. Bronson died at age 81 on August 30, 2003, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Although pneumonia and/or Alzheimer's disease have been cited as his cause of death, neither appears on his death certificate, which cites "respiratory failure", "metastatic lung cancer", with, secondarily, "chronic obstructive pulmonary disease" and "congestive cardiomyopathy" as the causes of death. He was interred at Brownsville Cemetery in West Windsor, Vermont.	Charles Bronson (born Charles Dennis Buchinsky; November 3, 1921 – August 30, 2003) was an American actor. He was often cast in the role of a police officer, gunfighter, or vigilante in revenge-oriented plot lines, had long-term collaborations with film directors Michael Winner and J. 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36510, 297, 23, 34153, 5, 42911, 1681, 30745, 35778, 48861, 241, 16466, 23, 27898, 450, 44, 568, 25, 39, 4734, 10, 12996, 1884, 10, 86963, 111, 221, 2631, 4, 47, 186, 54324, 237, 5299, 237, 7722, 1242, 1529, 2804, 450, 23, 70, 22631, 75073, 764, 509, 27024, 214, 99, 70, 1733, 4, 2685, 509, 959, 5045, 1733, 100, 1030, 1916, 5, 1529, 2804, 12, 44, 568, 100677, 10, 169424, 5, 8622, 621, 8306, 2499, 4989, 144483, 28302, 7, 47, 137633, 10, 62816, 5, 1529, 1556, 47, 186, 64557, 170920, 99, 70, 86595, 111, 70, 14277, 4, 136, 43542, 47, 4488, 1242, 31068, 11617, 209447, 2804, 450, 42911, 1681, 6777, 959, 765, 47, 44, 519, 3934, 2499, 6957, 13580, 1672, 2367, 764, 14602, 707, 3642, 764, 14602, 442, 58, 6637, 764, 1902, 10, 44, 161789, 450, 70, 78112, 9, 18695, 6644, 15593, 37202, 47, 35644, 47, 5, 1529, 1556, 10, 6782, 90254, 98, 70, 49119, 4, 3853, 3229, 764, 25, 7, 135203, 7464, 707, 23, 10, 64557, 101766, 13, 31486, 5, 8622, 83, 10, 6, 168867, 4, 10, 236209, 46, 2685, 83, 11343, 70, 10422, 450, 9844, 1221, 53383, 1242, 110224, 31746, 13, 122399, 42911, 1681, 70, 2831, 111, 44, 12662, 678, 438, 15757, 58, 23, 44, 284, 563, 1419, 7844, 111, 83393, 7, 740, 42911, 1681, 206398, 71, 4, 106926, 214, 450, 70, 26499, 509, 6494, 5, 42911, 1681, 509, 13438, 51515, 297, 100, 10, 6057, 2852, 31486, 23, 70, 40, 37631, 44, 18537, 10, 4221, 434, 83393, 7, 5455, 58, 1284, 764, 115081, 4, 1059, 1916, 450, 70, 40, 37631, 25, 7, 26499, 509, 1884, 70, 5117, 1346, 5, 42911, 1681, 509, 122399, 15044, 70, 31486, 7, 111, 1371, 587, 136, 26902, 65386, 7, 23, 44, 3957, 18621, 4, 70, 12745, 136, 70, 345, 110608, 740, 42911, 1681, 36663, 47, 26946, 1284, 764, 1902, 47, 206398, 15044, 4, 237, 764, 509, 23, 30715, 1346, 214, 44, 3957, 19946, 939, 984, 3121, 740, 42911, 1681, 2806, 14432, 6057, 23, 31746, 13, 25, 7, 44, 670, 3956, 345, 5416, 10, 19055, 23, 70, 10542, 58, 5173, 90419, 5, 11614, 1727, 12439, 669, 36663, 47, 3249, 10, 1346, 678, 42911, 1681, 1284, 70, 39329, 69347, 4049, 7565, 5, 44, 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8337, 23937, 111, 66570, 4, 7464, 831, 25, 18, 18822, 442, 1556, 6183, 73659, 47, 4049, 1242, 1529, 509, 28, 6332, 3055, 297, 450, 442, 34739, 221, 4989, 100, 4049, 47, 186, 125296, 71, 23, 70, 345, 5, 294, 5, 4, 136, 7103, 10, 55391, 6496, 65536, 764, 128120, 71, 47, 4488, 100, 10, 959, 297, 14364, 2750, 1902, 54302, 5125, 297, 4049, 5369, 8108, 5, 180423, 48861, 241, 16466, 54397, 23, 27898, 450, 42911, 1681, 14602, 959, 149849, 4677, 4, 14602, 959, 121151, 13, 4, 136, 1556, 110, 3790, 10484, 1672, 1919, 54180, 1242, 13025, 54397, 450, 42911, 1681, 120332, 33, 297, 47, 44, 3794, 58, 19055, 41260, 35778, 49191, 1311, 22824, 4, 2750, 1902, 59121, 10, 40907, 8347, 764, 21455, 297, 237, 10, 3357, 52875, 4, 136, 450, 51, 5062, 3789, 39329, 7, 2750, 30378, 71, 95319, 98, 1346, 4, 42911, 1681, 115058, 48673, 23, 3445, 5, 18763, 5117, 129570, 509, 47, 138459, 126, 5531, 71, 603, 4, 136565, 764, 435, 3229, 15044, 3542, 18738, 71, 177, 2069, 39329, 7, 23, 176547, 5, 10660, 1902, 6626, 20020, 4, 179547, 86, 136, 59689, 4, 8108, 221609, 449, 23, 31017, 5, 4687, 54397, 23, 604, 7199, 17990, 450, 2412, 44, 13689, 142, 22175, 46799, 9, 18345, 107368, 3229, 2412, 435, 70, 36740, 46799, 9, 18345, 71305, 18363, 73, 4922, 99, 10, 176547, 1030, 1916, 10696, 23, 40191, 5, 32964, 5369, 14432, 4, 678, 70, 154054, 9966, 149707, 111, 604, 67373, 4, 10, 65771, 4, 845, 114686, 22886, 53, 171751, 4, 5531, 71, 603, 6, 24243, 18363, 73, 4922, 4, 10, 129574, 136, 10, 36770, 552, 289, 881, 56, 5, 5531, 71, 603, 8060, 297, 2856, 15044, 12960, 2412, 136, 71305, 237360, 71, 2363, 1030, 1916, 48869, 7, 5, 2161, 2363, 5117, 5622, 4, 764, 1902, 22759, 21126, 7, 23, 1919, 151002, 292, 136, 23409, 98, 4, 5036, 237, 28166, 42911, 1681, 4, 47, 24209, 1632, 111, 70, 167375, 72090, 39329, 7, 23, 70, 23295, 1242, 42911, 1681, 509, 139505, 47, 14941, 215542, 3291, 1181, 122963, 1295, 18374, 190, 4, 28015, 4, 24189, 604, 47219, 23, 96145, 1529, 1902, 435, 604, 23, 38576, 4, 3229, 2412, 509, 139505, 47, 50695, 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summarize: Instrumental rock was most popular during rock and roll's first decade (mid-1950s to mid-1960s), before the British Invasion. One notable early instrumental was "Honky Tonk" by the Bill Doggett Combo, with its slinky beat and sinuous saxophone-organ lead. And bluesman Jimmy Reed charted with "Boogie in the Dark" and "Roll and Rhumba". Jazz saxophonist Earl Bostic revived his career with instrumentals like "Harlem Nocturne" and "Earl's Rhumboogie"; other jazz musicians who scored pop hits include Tab Smith and Arnett Cobb. Several rhythm and blues sax players had hit instrumental songs, including Big Jay McNeeley, Red Prysock, and Lee Allen, whose "Walking with Mr. Lee" was quite popular. There were several notable blues instrumental songs during the 1950s; Little Walter's rollicking "Juke" was a #1 R&B hit. Instrumental hit songs could emphasize electronic organ (the Tornados' "Telstar", Dave "Baby" Cortez's "The Happy Organ", Johnny & the Hurricanes' "Red River Rock"), or the saxophone (the Champs' "Tequila", Bill Black's Combo's "Don't Be Cruel", the Piltdown Men's "McDonald's Cave"), but the guitar was most prominent. Duane Eddy scored several hits (his best known probably being "Rebel-'Rouser"). Eddy was the first rock & roll artist to release an album in stereo. The Fireballs, featuring the distinctive guitar work of George Tomsco, began their career in the late 1950s with instrumental hits such as "Torquay" and "Bulldog." The band pioneered the guitar/guitar/bass/drums configuration, paving the way for the Ventures, the Shadows, and the surf music scene. The Fireballs were one of a few instrumental bands that successfully transitioned into vocal music, having the biggest hit of 1963 in the US ("Sugar Shack"). The Shadows from the UK, with American Fender Stratocaster guitars with British Vox amplifiers using a (lead guitar) reverb and echo unit from 1960 onwards had several hit singles including "Apache", "Wonderful Land" and "The Rise and Fall of Flingle Bunt". The Shadows (alone, and accompanying Cliff Richard) featured heavily in the UK charts until 1963 when Beatlemania arrived combined with DJ indifference to non-vocal singles. The Ventures' precise guitar work was a major influence on many later rock guitarists; they also helped shape surf music, although their origins and first records were not surf instrumentals, per se. In the U.S. they greatly escalated the guitar instrumentals and use of the vibrato bar on the lead guitar. Surf music was quite popular in the early 1960s, and was generally rather simple and melodic—one exception being Dick Dale, who gained fame for his quick playing, often influenced by the music of the Middle East, and frequently using exotic scales. Around the time of the British Invasion, rock changed appreciably, and instrumental hits came mostly from the R&B world. Notable artists include Booker T. & the MG's and saxophonist Junior Walker. The early incarnation of Fleetwood Mac with bandleader Peter Green achieved number one chart positions with the guitar-based instrumental Albatross in February 1969. Steve Cropper of the MG's asserts: Just before the British Invasion, Lonnie Mack's version of Chuck Berry's "Memphis" reached #5 on the Billboard Pop chart in June 1963. Employing both the blues scale and distortion, it ushered in the era of blues rock guitar of Eric Clapton, Jimi Hendrix and Stevie Ray Vaughan. Previously, only three other rock guitar instrumentals had cracked Billboard's top five: the Virtues' "Guitar Boogie Shuffle" in 1959, and Duane Eddy's "Because They're Young" and the Ventures' "Walk, Don't Run" in 1960. In August 1964, Checker Records released the album "Two Great Guitars" recorded by rock and roll pioneers Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley which is one of rock music's first recorded guitar jam sessions. Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s. The Allman Brothers Band is often not considered an instrumental rock band but they play many instrumentals and include long instrumental passages in longer versions of their songs. A good example is the 22-minute version of Whipping Post in "At Fillmore East" LP. Their instrumentals, "In Memory of Elizabeth Reed" and "Jessica" are popular, with "Jessica" being featured as theme for both the 1977 and 2002 formats of "Top Gear". Jeff Beck also recorded two entirely instrumental albums in the 1970s: "Blow by Blow" and "Wired". Successful among mainstream audiences, both have strong jazz influences, the latter featuring a cover of Charles Mingus's jazz standard "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat". Progressive rock and art rock performers of the 1960s and 1970s deserve some mention. Many of these musicians featured virtuosic instrumental performances (and occasional instrumental songs), but many of their compositions also featured vocals. King Crimson gained a massive cult following in the late 1960s and 1970s with their explosive instrumental output that merged rock, jazz, classical and heavy metal styles, though their albums also included songs with vocals. "Tubular Bells" by Mike Oldfield, a progressive rock album released in 1973, was all instrumental (save for some brief spoken words) and is one of the best-selling instrumental albums ever, with 16 million copies sold. A portion of it was used in the soundtrack of the Academy Award-winning film "The Exorcist". The Dutch band Finch recorded three all-instrumental albums of progressive rock of continuing interest. One of the most acclaimed albums of the band Camel, 1975's "The Snow Goose", was entirely instrumental. Many of Pink Floyd's early compositions were largely instrumental pieces containing structured jams fusing psychedelic, progressive and space rock. Frank Zappa was known for intermixing instrumental rock tracks with his somewhat more famous novelty songs on his albums. The jazz fusion of the 1970s often had considerable stylistic cross-over with rock, and groups such as Return to Forever, the Mahavishnu Orchestra and Weather Report had sizable followings among rock fans. Surf music's "2nd Wave" began in 1979 with the release of the first Jon & the Nightriders record. During the 1980s, the instrumental rock genre was dominated by several guitar soloists. Swedish virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen made a name for himself in 1984 by playing in the popular band Alcatrazz, and then by releasing his debut solo album "Rising Force" later that year, which made it to #60 on the Billboard Charts. Joe Satriani's 1987 album "Surfing With The Alien" was a surprise hit, containing the ever-popular instrumental ballad "Always With Me, Always With You", and the blues boogie infected "Satch Boogie"—both staples for guitarists learning their craft. Two years later came Satriani's follow-up album "Flying in a Blue Dream". After Malmsteen left Alcatrazz, he was replaced by the extravagant Steve Vai, who had previously been playing with the Frank Zappa band. Continuing the tradition (and following a brief stint in David Lee Roth's band from 1986 to 1988), Vai went on to release a number of highly acclaimed solo albums. Arguably the best-known of these was his 1990 release, "Passion and Warfare". Jason Becker was also considered by many to be a great player, who released two albums with Cacophony. Cacophony were a primarily instrumental group featuring Becker and Marty Friedman (the latter of whom went on to play with the thrash metal band Megadeth). After the release of Cacophony's second album "Go Off!" in 1988, Becker released two solo albums before being diagnosed with ALS. He now uses a wheelchair and is completely unable to play. Pepeu Gomes, a Brazilian electric guitar player, was considered in 1988 by American magazine Guitar World one of the ten best guitar players in the world. Although he has pure instrumental rock songs with no Brazilian flavour, what makes his work really unique is that he mixes the Brazilian rhythms and tunes from well known popular songs, or simply composes by himself using Samba, Choro, Maracatu etc. In 1990, Steve Vai released "Passion and Warfare". A fusion of rock, jazz, classical and Eastern tonalities, "Passion and Warfare" was a technical break-through in regards to what could be achieved in the field of guitar composition and technical performance. This was followed up by the 1995 trio album "Alien Love Secrets", and what some regard as Vai's most epic and complex album to date, "Fire Garden", released a year after. In 1995, Michael Angelo Batio of Nitro fame released his CD "No Boundaries" which began his solo career. His albums predominantly feature instrumental rock, but have occasionally featured vocals by himself and other vocalists. So far Batio has released eight solo albums. During the 1990s, instrumental music flourished among indie-rock groups and with the popularity of post rock groups like Tortoise, Mogwai and Cul de Sac. Don Caballero gained notice for their instrumental math rock, as did neo-surf-rockers the Mermen and Man or Astro-man?. Quentin Tarantino's smash hit film "Pulp Fiction" made heavy use of rock instrumentals on its soundtrack, spurring some interest in classic instrumentals, and revitalizing Dick Dale's career. With the rise of grunge, guitar-orientated instrumental rock of the type popular in the 1980s became less popular, and there were few artists who continued to thrive in that style. Over the past decade there have been many new releases of instrumental rock albums. The majority of the popular guitar heroes from the 1980s have made rejuvenated and generally well-received comebacks, thanks largely to the revitalized sound apparent on their recent releases. Artists such as Steve Morse, Marty Friedman, Paul Gilbert, Ron Jarzombek, Joe Satriani and Yngwie Malmsteen have continued releasing instrumental rock music and touring with great success. However, it is still extremely rare to hear an instrumental rock tune on the radio, or see one on the music charts. Les Fradkin has popularized the Beatles' music catalog as guitar-based instrumental rock on the Apple iTunes music download service. The 2000s gave way for a new style of performer. John Lowery (a.k.a. John 5) released a solo instrumental album after leaving Marilyn Manson in 2003. "Vertigo" is composed of a fusion of metal, rockabilly, rock and roll, and bluegrass musical styles. The album was a success, and the album after that, "Songs for Sanity", which features guest appearances by Steve Vai and Albert Lee, was met with more success, becoming one of the top selling records on the record label Shrapnel. He followed this in 2007 with The Devil Knows My Name, which features Joe Satriani, Jim Root, and Eric Johnson. The 2000s have seen a rise in the popularity of bands that have been labeled post-rock; many of these bands have created instrumental rock songs. Constellation Records has released some of the best-known examples of instrumental post-rock, such as Godspeed You! Black Emperor and Do Make Say Think. Other examples include Austin TV, Mogwai, the Cancer Conspiracy, the Mercury Program, 65daysofstatic, God Is An Astronaut, Russian Circles and Explosions in the Sky. Within the indie rock label, bands such as Ratatat and Delicate Steve are popular instrumental rock acts. Guitarist Omar Rodriguez Lopez's solo albums typically are instrumental ("Old Money") or mostly instrumental ("Se Dice Bisonte, No Bufalo"). In the late 2000s a new style of heavy metal called djent emerged. Some of the leading bands in the scene such as Animals as Leaders are instrumental acts, while many others started as instrumental acts before later acquiring vocalists.	Instrumental rock is rock music that emphasizes musical instruments and features very little or no singing. Examples of instrumental rock can be found in practically every subgenre of rock, often from musicians who specialize in the style. Instrumental rock was most popular from the mid-1950s to mid-1960s, with artists such as Bill Doggett Combo, The Fireballs, The Shadows, The Ventures, Johnny and the Hurricanes and The Spotnicks. Surf music had many instrumental songs. Many instrumental hits came from the R&B world. Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s. The Allman Brothers Band feature several instrumentals. Jeff Beck also recorded two instrumental albums in the 1970s. 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summarize: The film is set in the 13th century. The lord of Vlkov marries much younger Lenora. His son Ondřej gives live bats to Lenora as a wedding gift, which enrages his father who almost kills him. He prays for the boy to survive. He promises to God that he will give Ondřej to the Teutonic Order if he survives. Ondřej is healed and sent to the Baltic Sea, where he joins the Teutonic Order. He befriends Armin who becomes his mentor and protector. Armin participated in the Crusades to the Holy Land and is a fanatic who is devoted to God. Knight Rotgier tries to leave the order and escapes. Ondřej, Armin and other members chase him. He is found by Ondřej and tries to convince Ondřej to leave the order. Ondřej hesitates to arrest him but declines. Rotgier injures him and steals his horse. Rotgier is eventually captured and executed for attacking Ondřej. Ondřej is punished by penitence for his weakness. Ondřej decides to run away. Armin decides to track him down. Armin travels to Bohemia where he hears about Ondřej from charcoal burners who wanted to steal his sword. Armin joins them and when they surprise Ondřej, he attacks the one who wanted to steal his sword which makes the other charcoal burners attack him. But Armin draws his sword and kills or scares them away saving Ondřej's life. Ondřej's sword has been broken in the fight and Armin forces him to go with him. Later, near a brook when Armin bends over to drink, Ondřej hits him with a stone which causes Armin to fall unconscious and Ondřej escapes. Ondřej returns home only to find out his father is dead. He takes care of his father's business, but feels remorse about what he did to Armin. Ondřej falls in love with Lenora and convinces a local priest to marry them. When they are getting married, Armin shows up. Ondřej invites him to the wedding but tension between them runs out. Ondřej convinces Armin to spend the night in Vlkov. During the night, Armin gets to Lenora's chambers and murders her. He gets caught and Ondřej decides to execute him in a similar manner as Rotgier was killed. Armin begs Ondřej to return to the order before his death. The film concludes with Ondřej's return to Teutonic Order. The film was produced after Vláčil's previous film "Marketa Lazarová". Marketa was very expensive and it was decided to make another film set in Middle Ages so the sets and costumes could be re-used. However by the time production started the sets from Marketa Lazarová were already destroyed. The screenplay was written by Vláčil and Vladimír Körner. Körner was doing research for his novel "Písečná kosa" about Prussian uprisings when he was contacted by Vláčil. They quickly wrote the screenplay and the film immediately went into production. Körner released Valley of the Bees as a novel in 1975. The film was eventually shot at Kuklov monastery ruins near Brloh. The Teutonic order scenes were shot at Czech castles Karlštejn and Rabí and Polish castles Malborg and Lidzbark Warmiński. Theodor Pištěk designed the costumes for the film. Vláčil was inspired by historical movies of Ingmar Bergman and Robert Bresson. Jan Kačer was originally supposed to play both Armin and Ondřej. It proved to be technically impossible so Kačer suggested Petr Čepek for the role of Ondřej. The director demanded that ascetic knight Armin needs to be slim, so Kačer was forced to lose 11 kilograms for the role. The film was shot from July to October 1967. Post-production ended in December 1967. The final budget was 4 379 000 Kčs. The film had a premiere on 17 May 1968 at Kino U Hradeb in Prague. During its theatrical run it only managed to attract 350,000 viewers. The film was re-released in theatres in 1980. The film was released on DVD in 2007 by Bonton in the Czech Republic. A Second Run DVD with English subtitles was released in 2010. The film received mixed reviews from critics. Many felt that it didn't reach the qualities of "Marketa Lazarová", which premiered just 4 months earlier. Gustav Francl criticized the casting Jan Kačer, who he felt didn't fit in the role of Armin. The film had better reviews in foreign press and today it is considered one of Vláčil's best works.	The Valley of the Bees () is a 1967 Czechoslovak historical drama film directed by František Vláčil. The film follows a young man Ondřej who's sent to join Teutonic order by his father. 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summarize: IBM used Capacitor Read Only Storage (CROS) and Transformer Read Only Storage (TROS) to store microcode for the smaller System/360 models, the 360/85 and the initial two models (370/155 and 370/165) of the S/370. On some models there was also a Writeable Control Store (WCS) for additional diagnostics and emulation support. The simplest type of solid-state ROM is as old as the semiconductor technology itself. Combinational logic gates can be joined manually to map -bit address input onto arbitrary values of -bit data output (a look-up table). With the invention of the integrated circuit came mask ROM. Mask ROM consists of a grid of word lines (the address input) and bit lines (the data output), selectively joined together with transistor switches, and can represent an arbitrary look-up table with a regular physical layout and predictable propagation delay. In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages: Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings. PROM, invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can simply order a large batch of fresh PROM chips and program them with the desired contents at its designers' convenience. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EEPROM, developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972, went a long way to solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be programmed in-place if the containing device provides a means to receive the program contents from an external source (for example, a personal computer via a serial cable). Flash memory, invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s and commercialized in the late 1980s, is a form of EEPROM that makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times without damage. It permits erasure and programming of only a specific part of the device, instead of the entire device. This can be done at high speed, hence the name "Flash" All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, so that in large quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for many years. (Decreasing cost of reprogrammable devices had almost eliminated the market for mask ROM by the year 2000.) Rewriteable technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM. The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating plainly that "the aim of NAND Flash is to replace hard disks," rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile primary storage., NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of USB flash drives and tiny microSD memory cards, for example), and much lower power consumption. Every stored-program computer may use a form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes. Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as ENIAC after 1948. (Until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks.) Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see historical examples below). With the advent of integrated circuits in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart static RAM were implemented as arrays of transistors in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter needs a latch (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a word line. Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years. Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly. For example, the Commodore 64 included 64 KB of RAM and 20 KB of ROM contained a BASIC interpreter and the "KERNAL" of its operating system. Later home or office computers such as the IBM PC XT often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and bootloader remaining in ROM (known as the BIOS in IBM-compatible computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system. In modern PCs, "ROM" (or flash) is used to store the basic bootstrapping firmware for the main processor, as well as the various firmware needed to internally control self-contained devices such as graphic cards, hard disks, DVD drives, TFT screens, etc., in the system. Today, many of these "read-only" memories – especially the BIOS – are often replaced with Flash memory (see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the integrated circuits on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or OTP (one-time programmable). ROM and successor technologies such as flash are prevalent in embedded systems. These are in everything from industrial robots to home appliances and consumer electronics (MP3 players, set-top boxes, etc.) all of which are designed for specific functions, but are based on general-purpose microprocessors. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack hard disks for reasons of cost, size, or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connecting to a PC for firmware updates; for example, a digital audio player might be updated to support a new file format. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the iPodLinux and OpenWrt projects have enabled users to run full-featured Linux distributions on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively. ROM is also useful for binary storage of cryptographic data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance information security. Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store look-up tables for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a floating-point unit might tabulate the sine function in order to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when CPUs were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM. Notably, the display adapters of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display font could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the CGA and MDA adapters available with the IBM PC XT. The use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However, Flash ROM has taken over a new role as a medium for mass storage or secondary storage of files. Classic "mask-programmed ROM" chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication. Other types of non-volatile solid-state memory permit some degree of modification: By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory. There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including: Although the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has varied over time, large RAM chips can be read faster than most ROMs. For this reason (and to allow uniform access), ROM content is sometimes copied to RAM or shadowed before its first use, and subsequently read from RAM. For those types of ROM that can be electrically modified, writing speed has traditionally been much slower than reading speed, and it may need unusually high voltage, the movement of jumper plugs to apply write-enable signals, and special lock/unlock command codes. Modern NAND Flash achieves the highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM technology, with speeds as high as 10 GB/s, this has been enabled by the increased investment in both consumer and enterprise solid state drives and flash memory products for higher end mobile devices. On a technical level the gains have been achieved by increasing parallelism both in controller design and of storage, the use of large DRAM read/write caches and the implementation of memory cells which can store more than one bit (DLC, TLC and MLC). The latter approach is more failure prone but this has been largely mitigated by overprovisioning (the inclusion of spare capacity in a product which is visible only to the drive controller) and by increasingly sophisticated read/write algorithms in drive firmware. Because they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of electrical insulation onto a floating transistor gate, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EPROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000. The limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic disk drives in the near future. The timespan over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The data retention of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash may be time-limited by charge leaking from the floating gates of the memory cell transistors. Early generation EEPROM's, in the mid 1980's generally cited 5 or 6 year data retention. A review of EEPROM's offered in the year 2020 shows manufacturers citing 100 year data retention. Adverse environments will reduce the retention time ( Leakage is accelerated by high temperatures or radiation ). Masked ROM and fuse/antifuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit, although fuse re-growth was once a problem in some systems. The contents of ROM chips can be extracted with special hardware devices and relevant controlling software. This practice is common for, as a main example, reading the contents of older video game console cartridges. Another example is making backups of firmware/OS ROMs from older computers or other devices - for archival purposes, as in many cases, the original chips are PROMs and thus at risk of exceeding their usable data lifetime. The resultant memory dump files are known as ROM images or abbreviated "ROMs", and can be used to produce duplicate ROMs - for example to produce new cartridges or as digital files for playing in console emulators. The term "ROM image" originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage that it is still applied to images of newer games distributed on CD-ROMs or other optical media. ROM images of commercial games, firmware, etc. usually contain copyrighted software. The unauthorized copying and distribution of copyrighted software is a violation of copyright laws in many jurisdictions, although duplication for backup purposes may be considered fair use depending on location. In any case, there is a thriving community engaged in the distribution and trading of such software and abandonware for preservation/sharing purposes.	Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the memory device. Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life of the system, also known as firmware. Software applications (like video games) for programmable devices can be distributed as plug-in cartridges containing read-only memory.	en	en	79	[ 250004, 250054, 90540, 11814, 14304, 14393, 1290, 4764, 87293, 208071, 15, 441, 49877, 16, 136, 11062, 82772, 4764, 87293, 208071, 15, 40718, 294, 16, 47, 4343, 11948, 40899, 100, 70, 164917, 12353, 64, 38230, 115774, 4, 70, 18139, 64, 12951, 136, 70, 61475, 6626, 115774, 15, 71025, 64, 119477, 136, 95048, 11583, 86468, 111, 70, 159, 64, 71025, 5, 2161, 3060, 115774, 2685, 509, 2843, 10, 601, 18781, 2886, 27131, 14934, 15, 75590, 294, 16, 100, 78301, 52070, 7, 136, 352, 72403, 8060, 5, 581, 30362, 18, 10644, 111, 18652, 9, 61340, 85733, 83, 237, 10332, 237, 70, 40, 46029, 12487, 18770, 55556, 68034, 5, 106935, 122772, 62775, 70836, 7, 831, 186, 33284, 297, 23009, 538, 47, 22288, 20, 3137, 29823, 107730, 98, 188, 61799, 1294, 142424, 111, 20, 3137, 2053, 140992, 15, 11, 6713, 9, 2037, 23180, 194, 17106, 70, 23, 57241, 111, 70, 78779, 297, 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summarize: Liquid Tension Experiment was formed by former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy. Portnoy first invited keyboardist Jordan Rudess and progressive rock icon Tony Levin (bass, Chapman Stick) of King Crimson and Peter Gabriel's band to join him. In his instructional video "Liquid Drum Theater", Portnoy said that his first choice for the guitar was Dimebag Darrell, but he was unable to join because of conflicting schedules. Two other primary choices, Steve Morse (Dixie Dregs, Kansas, Deep Purple) and Jim Matheos (Fates Warning) were also unavailable. Portnoy then turned to fellow Dream Theater member John Petrucci to fill the position (despite initially wanting to keep the project completely separate from Dream Theater). The combo was formed as a side project to Dream Theater in 1997. Both Mike and John confirmed on the 5 Years in a Livetime DVD commentary, that Rudess was asked to join Dream Theater largely because of the success of Liquid Tension Experiment, and the chemistry of the three working together. Rudess had previously declined to join Dream Theater in 1994 and instead became a member of the Dixie Dregs, known for complex, "Southern fusion" instrumental music. Liquid Tension Experiment released two albums, "Liquid Tension Experiment" (1998) and "Liquid Tension Experiment 2" (1999) on Magna Carta Records. They also played a few live shows in New York, Philadelphia, Los Angeles and London. Mike Portnoy had stated in numerous interviews (and on his web site FAQ) that there would not be a third LTE album, as three of the four band members were also part of Dream Theater and the material would be too similar. In 2007 however, he said that a third release is possible, but that his problems with the Magna Carta label are more of an obstacle than getting the band members together to record. A situation that had to do with the company that released the Liquid Drum Theater VHS tape using video footage of Liquid Tension Experiment in the studio without getting the required permission of Magna Carta. Mike Portnoy came back to Magna Carta in 2007 to release Liquid Trio Experiment's "Spontaneous Combustion" Sessions. Several songs and riffs from the project have been incorporated into Dream Theater's live performances, such as "Instrumedley" from "Live at Budokan", which includes excerpts of the songs "Paradigm Shift" and "Universal Mind." On October 4, 2007, it was announced that LTE would headline NEARfest 2008 in June. On March 29, 2008, six Liquid Tension Experiment tour dates in June 2008 were announced to celebrate the bands 10 year anniversary as well to create a "whole new musical experiment". Liquid Tension Experiment released a multi-disc boxed set of tour highlights from their 2008 tour, including complete shows from New York and Los Angeles on DVD and CD (the L.A. show also on Blu-ray), the Liquid Trio Experiment 2 recording from Chicago (q.v. below), and a disc of improvisations from other shows on the tour. The New York and Los Angeles shows were also released separately on CD or DVD, all through Dream Theater's official bootlegs website, YtseJam Records' subsidiary, Lazy Tomato Entertainment. On July 19th 2012, at Dream Theater's second show on Huntington NY, Tony Levin joined Petrucci, Rudess and Mike Mangini (Dream Theater's current drummer) onstage to perform "Paradigm Shift." Later in 2012, Portnoy performed "Acid Rain" live with PSMS, his band with Derek Sherinian, Tony MacAlpine and Billy Sheehan. They recorded a live DVD in Tokyo including the song. On February 10 2017, Mike Portnoy and Tony Levin reunited on stage in Tampa, FL to perform Paradigm Shift, Acid Rain and Universal Mind. They were accompanied by members of progressive metal group Haken. In April 2019, both John Petrucci and Jordan Rudess announced that a new Liquid Tension Experiment reunion is possible, once all involved musicians find time for that. In May 2020, Jordan Rudess posted a video to the website Cameo stating, in response to a fan's question, that the prospect of Liquid Tension Experiment reuniting "looks very good", with the only barrier being the band members' schedules. During the recording sessions for their second album, John Petrucci had to leave when his wife went into premature labor. During that period, the remaining members, who still had studio time booked, continued to write music in improvisation. On October 23, 2007, a compilation of jams from those sessions was released under the name of "Liquid Trio Experiment". The album, called "Spontaneous Combustion", was recorded from Mike Portnoy's DATs of the sessions because the original master tapes disappeared before the mixing stage. A few songs from Liquid Tension Experiment 2 were spawned from these jam sessions, including "914", "Chewbacca", and "Liquid Dreams". The second incarnation of Liquid Trio Experiment happened unexpectedly while playing a concert in Chicago, IL on June 25, 2008. In the beginning of their set, Jordan Rudess' keyboard started playing half steps every fourth key. At the end of playing "Universal Mind", he went off stage to talk to the tech crew to see if it could be fixed. In the meantime, the other three musicians on stage continued to play, improvising for what turned out to be the rest of the concert. Rudess was on the phone with Roland for most of the time, and finally realized the keyboard was unfixable in that time, so he came onstage and took Petrucci's guitar to jam with the band. Petrucci took Levin's bass, and Levin joined in on Chapman Stick. Toward the end of the show, Charlie Benante from the band Anthrax came and played drums while Portnoy played bass. This entire improvised concert was released in 2009 as "".	Liquid Tension Experiment (LTE) was an instrumental progressive metal band founded by Mike Portnoy, then Dream Theater's drummer, in 1997. The band has released two albums through Magna Carta Records. A third album, with the absence of John Petrucci was released in 2007 under the name "Liquid Trio Experiment". A live album with the absence of Jordan Rudess (mostly) was released in 2009 under the name "Liquid Trio Experiment 2". 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summarize: Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark on 2 April 1805. He was an only child. His father, also named Hans, considered himself related to nobility (his paternal grandmother had told his father that their family had belonged to a higher social class, but investigations have disproved these stories). A persistent speculation suggests that Andersen was an illegitimate son of King Christian VIII, but this notion has been challenged. Andersen's father, who had received an elementary school education, introduced his son to literature, reading to him the "Arabian Nights". Andersen's mother, Anne Marie Andersdatter, was an illiterate washerwoman. Following her husband's death in 1816, she remarried in 1818. Andersen was sent to a local school for poor children where he received a basic education and had to support himself, working as an apprentice to a weaver and, later, to a tailor. At fourteen, he moved to Copenhagen to seek employment as an actor. Having an excellent soprano voice, he was accepted into the Royal Danish Theatre, but his voice soon changed. A colleague at the theatre told him that he considered Andersen a poet. Taking the suggestion seriously, Andersen began to focus on writing. Jonas Collin, director of the Royal Danish Theatre, held great affection for Andersen and sent him to a grammar school in Slagelse, persuading King Frederick VI to pay part of the youth's education. Andersen had by then published his first story, "The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave" (1822). Though not a stellar pupil, he also attended school at Elsinore until 1827. He later said his years in school were the darkest and most bitter of his life. At one school, he lived at his schoolmaster's home, where he was abused, being told that it was "to improve his character". He later said the faculty had discouraged him from writing, driving him into a depression. A very early fairy tale by Andersen, "The Tallow Candle" (), was discovered in a Danish archive in October 2012. The story, written in the 1820s, was about a candle that did not feel appreciated. It was written while Andersen was still in school and dedicated to a benefactor in whose family's possession it remained until it turned up among other family papers in a local archive. In 1829, Andersen enjoyed considerable success with the short story "A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager". Its protagonist meets characters ranging from Saint Peter to a talking cat. Andersen followed this success with a theatrical piece, "Love on St. Nicholas Church Tower", and a short volume of poems. Although he made little progress writing and publishing immediately thereafter, in 1833 he received a small travel grant from the king, thus enabling him to set out on the first of many journeys through Europe. At Jura, near Le Locle, Switzerland, Andersen wrote the story "Agnete and the Merman". He spent an evening in the Italian seaside village of Sestri Levante the same year, inspiring the title of "The Bay of Fables". In October 1834, he arrived in Rome. Andersen's travels in Italy were to be reflected in his first novel, a fictionalized autobiography titled "The Improvisatore" (), published in 1835 to instant acclaim. Andersen's initial attempts at writing fairy tales were revisions of stories that he heard as a child. Initially his original fairy tales were not met with recognition, due partly to the difficulty of translating them. In 1835, Andersen published the first two installments of his "Fairy Tales" (; lit. "fantastic tales"). More stories, completing the first volume, were published in 1837. The collection comprises nine tales, including "The Tinderbox", "The Princess and the Pea", "Thumbelina", "The Little Mermaid" and "The Emperor's New Clothes". The quality of these stories was not immediately recognized, and they sold poorly. At the same time, Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels, "O.T." (1836) and "Only a Fiddler" (1837); the latter work was reviewed by a young Søren Kierkegaard. Much of his work was influenced by the Bible as when he was growing up Christianity was very important in the Danish culture. After a visit to Sweden in 1837, Andersen became inspired by Scandinavism and committed himself to writing a poem that would convey the relatedness of Swedes, Danes and Norwegians. In July 1839, during a visit to the island of Funen, Andersen wrote the text of his poem "Jeg er en Skandinav" ("I am a Scandinavian") to capture "the beauty of the Nordic spirit, the way the three sister nations have gradually grown together" as part of a Scandinavian national anthem. Composer Otto Lindblad set the poem to music, and the composition was published in January 1840. Its popularity peaked in 1845, after which it was seldom sung. Andersen returned to the fairy tale genre in 1838 with another collection, "Fairy Tales Told for Children. New Collection. First Booklet" (), which consists of "The Daisy", "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", and "The Wild Swans". He went on to publish "New Fairy Tales (1844). First Volume. First Collection", which contained "The Nightingale" and "The Ugly Duckling". After that came "New Fairy Tales (1845). First Volume. Second Collection" in which was found "The Snow Queen". "The Little Match Girl" appeared in December 1845 in the "Dansk Folkekalender (1846)" and also in "New Fairy Tales (1848). Second Volume. Second Collection". 1845 saw a breakthrough for Andersen with the publication of four translations of his fairy tales. "The Little Mermaid" appeared in the periodical "Bentley's Miscellany", followed by a second volume, "Wonderful Stories for Children". Two other volumes enthusiastically received were "A Danish Story Book" and "Danish Fairy Tales and Legends". A review that appeared in the London journal "The Athenæum" (February 1846) said of "Wonderful Stories", "This is a book full of life and fancy; a book for grandfathers no less than grandchildren, not a word of which will be skipped by those who have it once in hand." Andersen would continue to write fairy tales and published them in installments until 1872. In 1851, he published to wide acclaim "In Sweden", a volume of travel sketches. A keen traveller, Andersen published several other long travelogues: "Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc. etc. in the Summer of 1831", "A Poet's Bazaar", "In Spain" and "A Visit to Portugal in 1866". (The last describes his visit with his Portuguese friends Jorge and Jose O'Neill, who were his fellows in the mid-1820s while living in Copenhagen.) In his travelogues, Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing, but always developed the genre to suit his own purposes. Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical passages on topics such as being an author, immortality, and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report. Some of the travelogues, such as "In Sweden", even contain fairy-tales. In the 1840s, Andersen's attention returned to the stage, but with little success. He had better fortune with the publication of the "Picture-Book without Pictures" (1840). A second series of fairy tales began in 1838 and a third in 1845. Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although his native Denmark still showed some resistance to his pretensions. Between 1845 and 1864, H. C. Andersen lived at Nyhavn 67, Copenhagen, where a memorial plaque now stands. In ‘Andersen as a Novelist’, Kierkegaard remarks that Andersen is characterized as, “...a possibility of a personality, wrapped up in such a web of arbitrary moods and moving through an elegiac duo-decimal scale [i.e., a chromatic scale. Proceeding by semitones, and therefore including sharps as well as flats, such a scale is associated more with lament or elegy than is an ordinary diatonic scale] of almost echoless, dying tones just as easily roused as subdued, who, in order to become a personality, needs a strong life-development.” In June 1847, Andersen paid his first visit to England and enjoyed a triumphal social success during the summer. The Countess of Blessington invited him to her parties where intellectual people could meet, and it was at one such party that he met Charles Dickens for the first time. They shook hands and walked to the veranda, about which Andersen wrote in his diary: "We had come to the veranda, I was so happy to see and speak to England's now-living writer whom I love the most." The two authors respected each other's work and shared something important in common as writers: depictions of the poor and the underclass, who often had difficult lives affected both by the Industrial Revolution and by abject poverty. In the Victorian era there was a growing sympathy for children and an idealisation of the innocence of childhood. Ten years later, Andersen visited England again, primarily to meet Dickens. He extended a brief visit to Dickens' home at Gads Hill Place into a five-week stay, to the distress of Dickens' family. After Andersen was told to leave, Dickens gradually stopped all correspondence between them, to the great disappointment and confusion of Andersen, who had quite enjoyed the visit and never understood why his letters went unanswered. In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations. Andersen often fell in love with unattainable women, and many of his stories are interpreted as references. At one point, he wrote in his diary: "Almighty God, thee only have I; thou steerest my fate, I must give myself up to thee! Give me a livelihood! Give me a bride! My blood wants love, as my heart does!" A girl named Riborg Voigt was the unrequited love of Andersen's youth. A small pouch containing a long letter from Voigt was found on Andersen's chest when he died, several decades after he first fell in love with her, and after he presumably fell in love with others. Other disappointments in love included Sophie Ørsted, the daughter of the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted, and Louise Collin, the youngest daughter of his benefactor Jonas Collin. One of his stories, "The Nightingale", was written as an expression of his passion for Jenny Lind and became the inspiration for her nickname, the "Swedish Nightingale". Andersen was often shy around women and had extreme difficulty in proposing to Lind. When Lind was boarding a train to go to an opera concert, Andersen gave Lind a letter of proposal. Her feelings towards him were not the same; she saw him as a brother, writing to him in 1844: "farewell... God bless and protect my brother is the sincere wish of his affectionate sister, Jenny". Andersen certainly experienced same-sex attraction as well: he wrote to Edvard Collin: "I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench... my sentiments for you are those of a woman. The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery." Collin, who preferred women, wrote in his own memoir: "I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering." Likewise, the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer Harald Scharff and Carl Alexander, the young hereditary duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, did not result in any relationships. According to Anne Klara Bom and Anya Aarenstrup from the H. C. Andersen Centre of University of Southern Denmark, "To conclude, it is correct to point to the very ambivalent (and also very traumatic) elements in Andersen's emotional life concerning the sexual sphere, but it is decidedly just as wrong to describe him as homosexual and maintain that he had physical relationships with men. He did not. Indeed, that would have been entirely contrary to his moral and religious ideas, aspects that are quite outside the field of vision of Wullschlager and her like." In early 1872, Andersen fell out of his bed and was severely hurt; he never fully recovered from the resultant injuries. Soon afterward, he started to show signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875, in a house called "Rolighed" (literally: calmness), near Copenhagen, the home of his close friends, the banker Moritz Melchior and his wife. Shortly before his death, Andersen had consulted a composer about the music for his funeral, saying: "Most of the people who will walk after me will be children, so make the beat keep time with little steps." His body was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro area of Copenhagen, in the family plot of the Collins. However, in 1914 the stone was moved to another cemetery (today known as ""Frederiksbergs ældre kirkegaard""), where younger Collin family members were buried. For a period, his, Edvard Collin's and Henriette Collin's graves were unmarked. A second stone has been erected, marking H.C. Andersen's grave, now without any mention of the Collin couple, but all three still share the same plot. At the time of his death, Andersen was internationally revered, and the Danish Government paid him an annual stipend as a "national treasure". Noteworthy recordings in English include: "Tale Spinners for Children" released seven LP's of dramatizations of Andersen stories: Andersen's stories laid the groundwork for other children's classics, such as "The Wind in the Willows" (1908) by Kenneth Grahame and "Winnie-the-Pooh" (1926) by A. A. Milne. The technique of making inanimate objects, such as toys, come to life ("Little Ida's Flowers") would later also be used by Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter. In Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy Opera "Iolanthe", the Lord Chancellor mocks the Fairy Queen with a reference to Andersen, thereby implying that her claims are fictional: <poem>It seems that she's a fairy From Andersen's library, And I took her for The proprietor Of a Ladies' Seminary!</poem> In Stephen Sondheim's "A Little Night Music", the middle-aged Frederik contemplates reading erotic literature to his young, virginal bride in order to seduce her, but concludes: "Her taste is much blander / I'm sorry to say / But is Hans Christian Ander- / Sen ever risqué?" Titles like "The Ugly Duckling" and "The Emperor's New Clothes" have become idiomatic in several languages. Andersen's fairy tales include:	Hans Christian Andersen (, ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875), in Denmark usually called H.C. Andersen, was a Danish author. 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summarize: In 1950, during the Cold War, František (Franta) Sláma (Ondřej Vetchý) is incarcerated in Czechoslovakia, because of his prior service in the RAF. His recollections of the war begin in 1939, just days prior to the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the invasion, the Czechoslovak Army is disbanded and its Air Force has to surrender its aircraft. However, young pilots Franta and his friend Karel Vojtíšek (Kryštof Hádek), among others, refuse to submit to their occupiers and flee to the United Kingdom to join the RAF. The British make the Czechoslovaks retrain from the basics, which infuriates them, especially Karel, who is both impatient to fight the Germans and humiliated at being retaught what he already knows. Karel also sees the compulsory English language lessons as a pointless waste of his time. The RAF is in such a dire need of pilots during the Battle of Britain that eventually the Czechoslovak airmen are allowed to fly. After their first sortie they realise why the British have trained them so intensely: a young Czechoslovak nicknamed "Tom Tom" is shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 109. Franta becomes the unit commander, with the younger Karel under his charge. While shooting at a Heinkel He 111 bomber, the rear gunner hits Karel's Spitfire fighter aircraft. However, he manages to bail out and find his way to a farm. There he meets and falls in love with Susan (Tara Fitzgerald), although she thinks he is far too young. The next day, after returning to the aerodrome, Karel brings Franta to meet Susan. The latter begins to get on well with Susan, although Karel believes that he is still Susan's boyfriend. Following a mission to France where the squadron attacks a train, Karel is shot down, but Franta lands and rescues him, a move that shows that their friendship endures. Soon after, Karel learns a sort of love triangle has developed, with Susan being involved with Franta, which leads to a quarrel between the two friends. A few missions later, while escorting American bombers, Franta's Spitfire malfunctions and he is forced to ditch into the ocean. His life raft bursts as he tries to inflate it, so Karel decides to drop his own raft, but he flies too low and fatally crashes. The raft emerges from the water, allowing Franta to survive until he is rescued. Afterward, when the war is over, Franta drives to Susan's home, only to find her with her injured husband recently returned from fighting overseas. Knowing he has no future with Susan and wanting to preserve her honour, he pretends to have lost his way and asks directions to the next town. Disappointed by what has happened, Franta returns to Czechoslovakia and finds his old girlfriend has married the neighbourhood jobsworth, has given birth to a child, and has taken over Barča, his dog. All Franta can do is endure the situation as stoically as he can. Arrested and thrown in prison, he only has his memories of his friendship with Karel to sustain him. Principal photography for the film involved a large number of locations: Hradcany Airport, Czech Republic, Dover, England, Germany and South Africa. Dogfight footage from the 1969 film "Battle of Britain" was seamlessly integrated with contemporary film footage using computer imagery and mastering to create the aerial sequences due to the prohibitively expensive cost ($10,000 per hour) of renting a real Spitfire. The scene of a train being attacked was the most expensive scene in Czech cinema history, costing more than the entire film "Kolya". Brief scenes from the 1990 film "Memphis Belle" were also incorporated. Director Jan Svěrák played a number of roles, including practically all the crew members of an Allied North American B-25 Mitchell bomber in the scene where a damaged bomber is escorted. "Dark Blue World" opened in both the U.S. and Europe at major international film festivals in London and Toronto, to generally positive reviews, making it one of the most popular aviation war films made. Rex Reed described the film in "The New York Observer" as an "epic that blends action, romance and tragedy. Brilliantly directed and sublimely acted." However, other reviewers were not as enthused. Leonard Maltin commented that the love triangle provided a "more novel and interesting" aspect but the "surprisingly elaborate" flying scenes helped make the film less of a "capable but uninspired yarn", not much different from other World War II features. Peter Bradshaw's review in "The Guardian" echoed a similar view, "A by-the-numbers WW2 romantic tale of two Czech pilots in love with the same British woman, which plays like a mixture of "Pearl Harbor" and "Two Little Boys" by Rolf Harris." "Dark Blue World" was released in America on December 28, 2001, and grossed $258,771. The film grossed $2,300,000 worldwide. "Dark Blue World" was a major winner at the 2002 Czech Lion Awards with Box Office Award, Critics' Award Jan Svěrák for Best Director, Vladimír Smutný for Best Cinematography, Ondřej Soukup for Best Music and Alois Fišárek for Best Editing. The film was also nominated for Best Film, Ondřej Vetchý for Best Actor, Kryštof Hádek for Best Supporting Actor, Linda Rybová for Best Supporting Actress, Zbyněk Mikulík for Best Sound, Věra Mirová for Best Costumes and Jan Vlasák for Best Art Direction. "Dark Blue World" also won the 2001 National Board Review award for Best Foreign Film and the 2002 Love is Folly International Film Festival (Bulgaria), Golden Aphrodite Award (Best Film) for Jan Svěrák. Ondřej Vetchý was also nominated for the Audience Award (Best Actor) in the 2001 European Film Awards.	Dark Blue World () is a 2001 film by Czech director Jan Svěrák, the Academy Award-winning director of "Kolya", about Czech pilots who fought for the British Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. The screenplay was written by Zdeněk Svěrák, the director's father. The film stars Czech actors Ondřej Vetchý, Kryštof Hádek and Oldřich Kaiser. 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summarize: James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703–1755) and James Watt (1698–1782). His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751. Watts parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, however despite a religious upbringing he later became a deist. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642–1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Initially Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School. There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him. He is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life. After leaving school Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models. After his father suffered some unsuccessful business ventures Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker. When he was 18 his mother died and his father's health began to fail. Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755/56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow intent on setting up his own instrument-making business. He was still very young and having not had a full apprenticeship did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker. Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated. These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, became Watt's friends. At first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian,. The records from this period are lost but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership. It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys. This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. Craig died in 1765. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the twentieth century. In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr. (1769–1848) and Margaret (1767–1796). His wife died in childbirth in 1772. In 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children: Gregory (1777–1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779–1794). Ann died in 1832. Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham. There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam. This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's. Watt did not actually "invent" the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser. This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency. It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr., and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember. In this light it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity. Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact. In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam. In 1759 Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power. The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation. Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine. He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject. He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered some years before. Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years. In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university. Even after repair, the engine barely worked. After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about three-quarters of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle. This energy was wasted because later in the cycle cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure. Thus by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy. Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a "steam jacket." Thus very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work. Watt had a working model later that same year. Despite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine. This required more capital, some of which came from Black. More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership. Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house. The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear. The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder. Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision. Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention. Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for eight years. Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights. An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775. Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world. The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales. Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next twenty-five years. In 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises. These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft. The design was commercially successful, and for the next five years Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall for pumping water out of mines. These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer. The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ. These were large machines. The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of some 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it. Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to one third of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work. The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling. Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard, and associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser. Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781. Over the next six years, he made a number of other improvements and modifications to the steam engine. A double acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on the two sides of the piston was one. He described methods for working the steam "expansively" (i.e., using steam at pressures well above atmospheric). A compound engine, which connected two or more engines was described. Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782. Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented. One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret. Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc. This was patented in 1784. A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from "running away" were very important. These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to five times as efficient in its use of fuel as the Newcomen engine. Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam – all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure. Edward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781. By 1792 he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents. Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time. Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced. They started to withhold payments due to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen. Of the total £21,000 (equivalent to £ as of ) owed, only £2,500 had been received. Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims. He first sued Bull in 1793. The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial. In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow. The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases. Hornblower was soon brought to trial and the verdict of the four judges (in 1799) was decisively in favour of Watt. Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case. He had erected about twenty engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge. They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796. Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration. These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm. Before 1780 there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings. The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using linked multiple pens. Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome. He instead decided to try to physically transfer some ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original. The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly. Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer. All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later. Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co. The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years. Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794. It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the twentieth century. From an early age Watt was very interested in chemistry. In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals. When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process. He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method. He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties. He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow. Otherwise he tried to keep his method a secret. With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach 1500 yards of cloth to his satisfaction. About this time Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it so it became public knowledge. Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product. Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race. It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success. By 1794 Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatus to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol. Watt continued to experiment with various gases for several years, but by 1797 the medical uses for the "factitious airs" had come to a dead end. Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically. Humphry Davy said of him "Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application". He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were always congenial and long-lasting. Watt was a prolific correspondent. During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week. He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents. He was an excellent draughtsman. He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine. In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that "he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain." Until he retired, he was always much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier. His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression. At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customers property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory. Gradually the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines. The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines. Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr.. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered. Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement. Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions. Among other things, he invented and constructed several machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented. One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith. He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects. He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the Clyde at Glasgow. He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved. In 1816 he took a trip on the paddle-steamer "Comet", a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock. He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield Hall" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83. He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth. The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church. On 16 July 1764 married his cousin Margaret Miller ("d". 1773). They had two children, Margaret (1767–1796) and James (1769–1848). In 1791 their daughter married James Miller; their son did not marry. In September 1773 while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill. He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn. In 1775 he married Ann MacGregor (d.1832). He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No.77, in 1763. The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810. A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow – Lodge James Watt, No.1215. William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777. At first he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall. He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success. A very able man, he made several important inventions on his own. John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragment of Murdoch's work with high pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures. Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch. The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794. Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76. As one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine "converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution". The reality, however, is that Watt's improvements upon the Newcomen engine had limited, albeit popular, utility given their size and low power, and were not carried over to the designs of the high-pressure steam engines to which these authors refer regarding the revolutionary impact of the steam engine, something Watt opposed. Watt was much honoured in his own time. In 1784 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam in 1787. In 1789 he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. In 1806 he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow. The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814. The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI"). On 29 May 2009 the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note. The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory. Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: "I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER" (Boulton) and "I can think of nothing else but this machine" (Watt). The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue £20 note). In September 2011 it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November. In 2011 he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. Watt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham. Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried "inside" the church. The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J. P. Muirhead. Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine. A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing. When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety. It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed. The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, "James Watt and our world". The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue. Several locations and street names in Greenock recall him, most notably the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College). Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule. Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as several others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour. The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs. Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University. Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him. Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men. The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering. The huge painting "James Watt contemplating the steam engine" by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland. There is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds. A colossal statue of Watt by Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St. Paul's Cathedral. On the cenotaph the inscription reads, in part, "JAMES WATT... ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD." A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. Watt was the sole inventor listed on his six patents:	James Watt (; 30 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.	en	en	64	[ 250004, 250054, 14631, 130402, 509, 103122, 98, 953, 18982, 729, 8659, 23, 15497, 31, 2594, 4, 15790, 12176, 434, 72567, 4, 70, 88, 18557, 111, 70, 43606, 613, 686, 6496, 20020, 111, 165135, 2758, 481, 31251, 21067, 9513, 1104, 2489, 70265, 136, 14631, 130402, 23175, 16665, 1104, 2489, 121694, 5, 18763, 42732, 21449, 1295, 10, 157167, 67175, 14449, 4, 509, 5299, 155629, 297, 136, 2804, 47, 186, 111, 37772, 7844, 62816, 4, 12960, 1919, 67373, 509, 10, 109923, 434, 54969, 4, 109923, 101785, 136, 18264, 748, 4, 136, 149976, 237, 70, 15497, 31, 2594, 25, 7, 185256, 97910, 6387, 23, 729, 11703, 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87907, 390, 86681, 10, 311, 46401, 337, 49725, 4, 70, 2288, 302, 100, 21896, 70, 16941, 47, 6, 58944, 136, 4911, 7, 141377, 130402, 70, 14537, 111, 2288, 302, 5, 3293, 13765, 83, 30745, 23, 5941, 3173, 7, 74, 23, 3060, 130402, 83, 10, 27150, 21, 71, 4, 23, 27060, 764, 83, 114210, 4, 68018, 442, 25, 7, 1919, 42732, 25, 7, 311, 46401, 4, 68018, 1919, 10, 9109, 25, 7, 5, 130402, 6777, 959, 20653, 44, 132894, 58, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 4, 237, 70, 13765, 35388, 90, 4, 1284, 155034, 25958, 52295, 71, 70, 227066, 111, 70, 144573, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 390, 154107, 10, 84797, 158, 555, 2189, 5, 3293, 83, 34844, 47, 73342, 47, 22008, 959, 16031, 678, 23755, 7, 111, 80097, 136, 70, 42, 2749, 227066, 5, 1650, 135179, 450, 70, 13765, 509, 75935, 4, 144681, 390, 130402, 25, 7, 775, 14631, 130402, 89596, 5, 4, 136, 70560, 7, 6637, 442, 83, 23468, 100, 20020, 47, 28219, 136, 37629, 5, 360, 903, 22729, 442, 831, 186, 51592, 237, 27255, 47, 70, 13765, 111, 114636, 145076, 136, 70, 6817, 214, 108787, 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91097, 7401, 509, 115049, 297, 3934, 70, 19932, 104532, 47, 158, 118435, 70, 2288, 302, 47, 34390, 6863, 81147, 5, 12613, 7, 390, 119140, 297, 538, 80097, 214, 136, 21185, 214, 70, 19932, 104532, 4, 70, 87907, 509, 3674, 2684, 111, 6863, 70, 42, 2749, 48302, 43257, 3501, 96760, 214, 442, 3934, 135969, 289, 48302, 5, 130402, 25, 7, 130306, 149201, 4, 174920, 99, 23, 4347, 729, 12424, 4, 509, 47, 22304, 70, 2288, 302, 47, 158, 118435, 23, 10, 84797, 1608, 26278, 34955, 1295, 70, 6244, 1507, 4, 136, 47, 76104, 70, 52768, 111, 70, 19932, 104532, 99, 70, 5701, 52768, 237, 70, 115049, 297, 2288, 302, 390, 206990, 442, 678, 10, 44, 824, 302, 79, 27853, 1242, 12613, 7, 4552, 10176, 48302, 509, 57622, 297, 390, 70, 19932, 104532, 98, 12638, 105823, 4, 20662, 1286, 19882, 47, 51339, 80234, 4488, 5, 130402, 1902, 10, 20697, 3299, 14432, 450, 5701, 6602, 5, 262, 61518, 10, 38516, 538, 4488, 2886, 4331, 4, 2685, 3542, 7464, 193984, 34844, 3387, 23, 64549, 214, 10, 4393, 9, 7, 57965, 87907, 5, 3293, 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47, 5646, 1257, 188513, 2451, 13448, 271, 237, 10, 110297, 748, 4, 7068, 237, 10, 9782, 185118, 2451, 2472, 136659, 5369, 5, 2777, 13, 187470, 23409, 4620, 9167, 18, 4, 136, 115136, 2460, 202, 1507, 4, 2750, 6, 157272, 70, 1061, 497, 204914, 18770, 53, 43240, 43573, 188377, 4, 163629, 71, 1919, 33407, 38109, 5, 893, 111938, 111, 70, 33407, 47, 51374, 509, 65771, 538, 113054, 297, 23, 729, 6873, 5, 194397, 2460, 202, 1507, 4, 130402, 77681, 1902, 17203, 47, 3060, 111, 70, 2965, 193, 191, 133325, 23, 70, 8999, 5, 581, 34844, 53, 111, 70, 142901, 111, 10, 21334, 19932, 104532, 678, 10, 107137, 538, 809, 19514, 6244, 1507, 509, 86869, 71, 390, 4939, 18899, 875, 1681, 4, 2750, 1902, 126809, 22619, 1830, 3017, 214, 53088, 100, 831, 6431, 20662, 99, 2076, 7, 3915, 4, 43573, 601, 107, 425, 3915, 4, 23924, 82588, 5, 130402, 136, 2460, 202, 1507, 100, 4806, 10, 58696, 538, 65771, 165410, 4, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 4, 3129, 21, 14437, 100, 70, 11737, 214075, 9, 1029, 272, 5369, 5, 360, 729, 11835, 4, 70, 5117, 87907, 7, 3542, 20600, 297, 136, 20697, 23, 60091, 202681, 7, 5, 32255, 5117, 87907, 7, 3542, 11814, 47, 14537, 42874, 7, 136, 181653, 4734, 159826, 26518, 78112, 47, 25813, 70, 42874, 22158, 7, 99, 70, 103136, 111, 70, 91, 44645, 5, 581, 4331, 509, 60091, 538, 65771, 4, 136, 100, 70, 11737, 43606, 5369, 130402, 509, 4552, 86352, 20600, 214, 1286, 87907, 7, 4, 153161, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 100, 42874, 214, 7401, 1810, 111, 5665, 7, 5, 32255, 39395, 87907, 7, 3542, 959, 142901, 71, 390, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 4, 1284, 3542, 7228, 390, 27060, 59499, 47, 188304, 7, 7228, 390, 130402, 4, 2750, 149976, 23, 70, 31486, 111, 75463, 214, 185118, 5, 581, 72, 58994, 111, 70, 87907, 136, 6863, 174450, 34695, 509, 1601, 1824, 297, 390, 130402, 4, 99, 5117, 4, 136, 7068, 390, 453, 23, 70, 11037, 25, 7, 187016, 5, 32255, 3542, 21334, 116491, 5, 581, 5117, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 1902, 10, 19932, 104532, 678, 10, 148064, 111, 3060, 836, 23, 17007, 136, 142, 128512, 155955, 111, 1672, 744, 74261, 4, 136, 56065, 70, 50961, 111, 10, 171332, 33976, 47, 18276, 442, 5, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 25534, 71, 142, 77253, 81997, 4, 105950, 47, 1632, 50960, 111, 70, 34292, 111, 70, 552, 289, 57, 4126, 23, 225490, 47, 10, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 51339, 214, 70, 5701, 4488, 5, 581, 44457, 111, 38415, 100, 70, 23, 57241, 509, 6782, 538, 38134, 14534, 3229, 2460, 202, 1507, 104687, 71, 130402, 47, 96760, 70, 159826, 26518, 78112, 111, 70, 6244, 1507, 47, 27489, 47014, 43315, 14537, 100, 98845, 214, 4, 642, 11, 6496, 136, 8877, 449, 5, 106073, 10, 501, 36467, 115058, 70, 162520, 29806, 47, 70, 142477, 130402, 136, 2460, 202, 1507, 3542, 40536, 266, 297, 390, 10, 33407, 100, 903, 4, 124901, 26837, 4, 14631, 122554, 5861, 4, 136, 30699, 1636, 26171, 71, 47, 41421, 9, 150, 147881, 70, 173591, 158, 555, 2189, 5, 130402, 31786, 1236, 538, 233, 144429, 903, 136, 1836, 75723, 16274, 297, 70, 33407, 390, 2363, 4262, 136, 23208, 72397, 23, 729, 13556, 5, 9578, 70, 11737, 37195, 5369, 4, 764, 7228, 10, 14012, 111, 3789, 136912, 7, 136, 129344, 7, 47, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 5, 62, 41929, 1030, 1916, 87907, 4, 23, 3129, 70, 2288, 302, 10, 89829, 75939, 21286, 98, 70, 6626, 5609, 7, 111, 70, 6244, 1507, 509, 1632, 5, 1529, 151552, 150624, 100, 20697, 70, 2288, 302, 44, 83613, 66, 29888, 538, 58, 15, 14, 5, 13, 5, 4, 17368, 2288, 302, 99, 81147, 7, 5299, 36917, 99, 840, 94266, 1771, 194, 62, 217773, 87907, 4, 3129, 162711, 6626, 707, 1286, 87907, 7, 509, 151552, 5, 32964, 1286, 33407, 7, 3542, 2855, 3674, 100, 6097, 23, 729, 13556, 136, 68388, 5442, 93511, 10821, 3789, 136912, 7, 450, 7228, 100, 99156, 142901, 136, 59720, 3542, 9454, 12097, 29479, 297, 5, 6561, 111, 6097, 99201, 70, 4527, 111, 70, 2288, 302, 172075, 3129, 181653, 142, 149584, 23577, 111, 70, 81147, 23, 70, 19932, 104532, 26548, 6863, 21950, 4, 3129, 764, 93544, 237, 10, 52350, 23410, 5, 116267, 5526, 23, 57241, 4, 1632, 3129, 130402, 509, 2684, 79961, 111, 4, 509, 70, 95103, 78112, 3129, 509, 85590, 23, 41929, 9, 2263, 1916, 87907, 7, 237, 442, 181653, 70, 80560, 13315, 78112, 56065, 100, 70, 19932, 104532, 22158, 136, 42874, 4, 1295, 70, 162711, 13950, 214, 186, 302, 4, 124901, 3564, 25813, 7, 23, 10, 115339, 46552, 5, 3293, 509, 33407, 297, 23, 729, 13903, 5, 62, 6, 42294, 46401, 3502, 272, 47, 6226, 70, 14537, 111, 70, 87907, 4, 136, 10, 69514, 3125, 2870, 23607, 42, 4, 33407, 297, 23, 729, 12772, 4, 47, 13695, 442, 1295, 44, 16428, 592, 16065, 58, 3542, 4552, 5526, 5, 32255, 136912, 7, 39958, 25842, 181653, 142, 87907, 3129, 509, 1257, 47, 43606, 20028, 237, 93766, 23, 6863, 4527, 111, 160692, 237, 70, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 5, 88949, 111, 70, 77064, 111, 24649, 6238, 337, 34759, 7, 4, 3129, 3542, 23, 10, 4552, 128489, 13, 36541, 111, 34754, 4, 136, 70, 221560, 37348, 678, 95, 24251, 4, 130402, 173072, 297, 1919, 4527, 111, 11192, 81147, 2288, 302, 46, 756, 111, 1919, 87907, 7, 11814, 2288, 302, 99, 43573, 99, 840, 94266, 1771, 81147, 5, 38157, 33672, 26859, 64549, 214, 87907, 7, 100, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 23, 729, 13556, 5, 3311, 729, 12231, 764, 1902, 26859, 20662, 87907, 7, 111, 1919, 10002, 4331, 4, 1284, 3129, 70541, 297, 10, 84797, 158, 555, 2189, 4, 136, 221, 34128, 2852, 297, 130402, 25, 7, 33407, 7, 5, 32964, 82953, 7, 4, 823, 30764, 125717, 78315, 12986, 6488, 136, 86452, 78315, 12986, 6488, 821, 53313, 2843, 26859, 47, 45367, 87907, 7, 1672, 70, 5701, 1733, 5, 64511, 7, 80723, 47, 2811, 40383, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 7, 390, 154107, 10, 158, 555, 2189, 4, 136, 70, 5665, 144044, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 100512, 122991, 71, 450, 130402, 25, 7, 33407, 5809, 959, 186, 22, 50930, 71, 5, 10660, 26859, 47, 678, 16200, 81997, 7, 4743, 47, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 4, 3129, 390, 729, 8821, 1902, 91148, 5, 6619, 70, 3622, 11762, 304, 93712, 15, 13, 3181, 85540, 47, 11762, 237, 111, 1388, 36, 24243, 4, 4734, 11762, 304, 4, 4283, 1902, 2809, 75204, 5, 130402, 509, 168861, 47, 738, 47, 29685, 47, 22, 50930, 1919, 140526, 5, 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155434, 4, 13411, 510, 297, 678, 10, 86869, 660, 4, 136, 30501, 71, 47, 70, 7311, 5, 581, 17932, 155434, 1902, 47, 186, 6117, 19, 4, 221, 450, 70, 23, 92, 5809, 186, 51592, 8305, 442, 3229, 70, 43658, 509, 34658, 1257, 47, 70, 22729, 4, 4911, 7, 42238, 214, 70, 7311, 66161, 5, 130402, 26859, 47, 85493, 70, 9433, 23, 106, 104656, 4, 136, 7228, 5941, 28007, 7, 47, 26168, 67, 70, 23, 92, 4, 36849, 70, 6117, 19, 15122, 4, 47, 8, 41079, 10, 55300, 100, 642, 19514, 70, 5361, 6117, 19, 15122, 4, 136, 47, 3249, 10, 24234, 202319, 100, 59911, 214, 70, 26785, 81147, 47, 21543, 70, 12302, 5, 3164, 111, 6097, 56065, 5045, 28007, 2320, 4, 1284, 764, 33662, 1902, 20174, 36272, 47, 33407, 70, 9433, 10, 6602, 14432, 5, 130402, 100, 4806, 15700, 165410, 678, 2460, 202, 1507, 15, 434, 497, 62952, 38410, 214, 16, 136, 14631, 1345, 481, 15, 188, 111240, 70, 8063, 16, 23, 10, 11037, 35839, 14631, 130402, 136, 1311, 5, 581, 157799, 111, 70, 23, 57241, 56065, 5045, 1286, 34754, 4488, 8108, 442, 5809, 186, 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6644, 111, 28279, 4, 46337, 24366, 6, 143961, 13, 136, 2906, 63470, 12259, 43840, 5809, 27489, 170368, 1212, 4, 3129, 130402, 18822, 71, 13648, 186, 10, 64720, 56, 55300, 5, 1529, 115081, 70, 170368, 1212, 3934, 10, 642, 344, 29806, 111, 144, 9566, 4, 136, 113054, 297, 10, 2130, 34833, 29806, 450, 118775, 47, 765, 4127, 2586, 934, 214, 183871, 5, 1529, 33662, 6, 127219, 3674, 6097, 50339, 47, 14631, 157580, 416, 6504, 4, 1919, 67373, 9, 73, 9, 19729, 4, 2750, 509, 10, 2586, 934, 56, 23, 181787, 5, 64511, 90825, 764, 37842, 47, 13695, 1919, 55300, 10, 23410, 5, 17106, 157580, 416, 6504, 136, 1919, 58386, 164733, 4, 764, 26859, 47, 105994, 1257, 70, 9433, 4, 136, 23, 11994, 729, 12772, 4, 157580, 416, 6504, 509, 19048, 47, 2586, 934, 17551, 143915, 7, 111, 20450, 927, 47, 1919, 152796, 5, 56888, 903, 1733, 53598, 497, 30058, 134053, 70, 28279, 136, 2906, 63470, 12259, 43840, 9433, 4, 136, 91376, 442, 221, 442, 100512, 3835, 51359, 5, 52455, 27060, 80723, 47, 28007, 678, 224588, 70, 9433, 4, 3129, 7464, 1902, 5941, 16610, 277, 5180, 4, 959, 70, 19713, 111, 3129, 509, 70, 2967, 111, 6181, 214, 70, 41931, 12996, 5, 130402, 25, 7, 43876, 7, 33662, 645, 188, 685, 4049, 23, 168698, 70, 9433, 4, 136, 764, 36069, 20051, 1810, 111, 70, 45712, 5, 1650, 509, 959, 24189, 729, 5046, 4, 3229, 28166, 5531, 30125, 33407, 297, 10, 9433, 100, 27024, 214, 18652, 2586, 934, 214, 173169, 15, 6827, 45071, 75690, 206, 1484, 1486, 16, 450, 442, 100512, 10, 60091, 36272, 5, 3311, 729, 14889, 130402, 1902, 2809, 19667, 19, 390, 14978, 22417, 246, 90, 47, 142901, 20939, 19481, 47, 27489, 4, 46622, 136, 4343, 106500, 100, 4527, 23, 70, 3525, 436, 50901, 47148, 105251, 99, 9903, 19256, 7, 23, 194510, 5, 130402, 136475, 47, 28007, 678, 67842, 106500, 100, 40368, 5369, 4, 1284, 390, 729, 14773, 70, 29874, 4527, 7, 100, 70, 44, 114700, 1890, 10821, 1831, 7, 58, 1902, 1380, 47, 10, 103494, 3564, 5, 130402, 70163, 71, 70, 4524, 70760, 51359, 111, 41664, 678, 70, 81273, 47, 59911, 442, 138155, 538, 5, 19210, 11727, 1294, 930, 3033, 2804, 111, 4049, 44, 20800, 8364, 2750, 16916, 14631, 130402, 4734, 237, 10, 6782, 138155, 135969, 3173, 10, 4552, 70426, 86, 10821, 6528, 111, 1919, 62816, 74, 764, 509, 105950, 538, 157167, 67175, 237, 10, 6083, 6, 119598, 56, 136, 10, 290, 6133, 4, 136, 1919, 26868, 17514, 106804, 13, 1919, 502, 151645, 51359, 111, 8382, 41664, 7, 4, 136, 450, 105482, 62816, 48242, 111, 38240, 223, 4, 70, 69941, 111, 2856, 100, 138155, 38415, 740, 1529, 509, 6782, 538, 15072, 297, 390, 3789, 197097, 453, 111, 70, 81207, 135555, 5, 1529, 509, 142, 5526, 32786, 111, 70, 42873, 42, 67081, 4, 136, 509, 10, 5045, 221, 46526, 9, 11, 46327, 77104, 11, 6562, 136, 226792, 4, 11343, 60892, 23, 71062, 214, 1919, 6, 156634, 7, 5, 18763, 3357, 151618, 678, 1919, 23902, 136, 89543, 3542, 11343, 158, 33781, 289, 136, 4989, 9, 120027, 5, 130402, 509, 10, 113200, 14486, 82122, 660, 5, 133698, 1919, 5369, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 4, 764, 54397, 4989, 120820, 47, 2460, 202, 1507, 40368, 20028, 117, 5895, 5, 1529, 509, 10, 37676, 47, 80299, 214, 1919, 50339, 23, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 70, 161752, 6827, 11062, 44713, 7, 111, 70, 25674, 67081, 49903, 4, 136, 64457, 12601, 2822, 47, 6, 127219, 67, 1919, 25647, 23, 33407, 7, 5, 1529, 509, 142, 40881, 8167, 46526, 45211, 5, 1529, 509, 10, 43257, 70425, 8063, 669, 4, 136, 41866, 1256, 297, 1909, 208, 14653, 136, 9807, 118, 26518, 69407, 678, 8382, 2750, 221, 46526, 47, 4527, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 5, 360, 10, 31330, 47, 25031, 105508, 23, 729, 12825, 4, 130402, 112017, 297, 450, 44, 1106, 2806, 43257, 2577, 10, 72367, 297, 831, 6431, 3501, 9615, 133, 142, 15426, 707, 3249, 10, 1909, 208, 73, 1242, 992, 3675, 764, 90223, 71, 4, 764, 509, 11343, 5045, 142837, 1672, 1919, 53477, 103086, 7, 4, 136, 509, 9844, 111, 10, 148, 101618, 56, 5, 18763, 16227, 509, 27983, 70425, 136, 764, 134729, 297, 103351, 11066, 13048, 10336, 934, 90, 136, 105774, 5, 1913, 5117, 70, 165410, 7228, 70, 188304, 136, 71679, 5256, 100, 70, 87907, 7, 4, 136, 1601, 1824, 297, 70, 4488, 47, 72, 24762, 442, 98, 70, 59463, 57266, 5, 10660, 181653, 39555, 351, 13, 111, 70, 63920, 61261, 5, 130402, 6777, 2684, 111, 1919, 4488, 99, 1919, 5368, 23, 1950, 1264, 25, 7, 37639, 23, 188377, 4, 12960, 2460, 202, 1507, 79786, 99, 70, 1061, 497, 204914, 18770, 53, 5, 120278, 25958, 70, 89543, 80723, 47, 20653, 142901, 1286, 136, 1286, 111, 70, 63920, 4, 136, 390, 729, 8821, 1836, 59038, 71, 10, 57266, 1672, 10, 84765, 16065, 1295, 70, 1061, 497, 138461, 18770, 53, 4, 98, 70, 4620, 7, 111, 70, 188377, 73908, 4, 47, 137633, 10, 3525, 14037, 1294, 100, 70, 142901, 111, 70, 87907, 7, 5, 581, 1061, 497, 215624, 1294, 23113, 538, 142096, 23, 729, 11648, 99, 10, 1733, 3229, 130402, 25, 7, 775, 7, 4, 139256, 53, 136, 14631, 89596, 5, 3542, 17305, 5115, 53, 75412, 23, 70, 24365, 111, 70, 202681, 5, 360, 51374, 4, 70, 6602, 111, 130402, 25, 7, 90223, 674, 4, 70, 11037, 7228, 10, 3622, 111, 6478, 87907, 7, 5, 130402, 90223, 71, 23, 51374, 4, 70, 5701, 6602, 450, 1919, 20531, 33407, 136, 165410, 678, 2460, 202, 1507, 14700, 14, 2822, 5, 581, 170277, 165410, 509, 12302, 2822, 47, 70, 453, 25, 7, 775, 7, 4, 115136, 153671, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 14631, 130402, 89596, 5, 5, 14407, 6032, 11037, 185118, 25031, 10934, 246, 206, 509, 33662, 7228, 10, 4755, 136, 70, 11037, 78737, 297, 5, 130402, 136475, 47, 26868, 3789, 8966, 8108, 136, 20271, 1919, 36137, 9, 107, 2826, 5911, 5, 17106, 73, 1919, 5368, 23, 10639, 7, 93017, 4, 112006, 6651, 72567, 4, 130402, 7228, 4527, 111, 10, 3671, 2264, 17155, 237, 10, 42819, 4, 136, 442, 509, 3688, 450, 764, 79786, 98, 5941, 111, 1919, 26868, 17514, 5, 2022, 4021, 3789, 8966, 4, 764, 26868, 297, 136, 64549, 297, 40368, 116491, 100, 43658, 214, 152319, 30891, 136, 40501, 45486, 7, 3129, 79786, 4552, 5299, 4, 1284, 3129, 764, 8306, 33407, 297, 5, 6561, 111, 70, 5117, 152319, 30891, 764, 181653, 678, 70, 36279, 509, 10, 19336, 10336, 111, 1919, 10332, 16030, 34391, 16173, 37700, 5, 1529, 76104, 297, 1919, 33946, 23, 9782, 177907, 136, 509, 10, 129275, 98, 40368, 88551, 77635, 5, 1529, 26171, 71, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 10, 55300, 100, 64549, 214, 10, 110677, 137158, 47, 186, 11814, 100, 42874, 214, 7401, 1379, 70, 313, 538, 112, 99, 181787, 5, 1529, 136, 1919, 17932, 58386, 26983, 6259, 47, 9942, 136, 102126, 4, 136, 764, 59038, 71, 142, 97761, 23, 4122, 9, 97207, 90, 99, 20384, 24293, 61488, 13038, 4, 1632, 84765, 127067, 111, 51905, 5429, 927, 27751, 4, 3129, 764, 5045, 52295, 71, 5, 360, 543, 2485, 764, 34739, 10, 24745, 98, 70, 7922, 19298, 9, 824, 302, 56, 44, 10770, 126, 830, 10, 12996, 111, 1919, 26868, 17514, 4, 47, 456, 169697, 1919, 5368, 59444, 111, 15497, 31, 2594, 5, 1529, 68, 71, 98, 714, 8055, 543, 2947, 99, 1919, 5368, 44, 13025, 10519, 28394, 19449, 58, 43573, 10639, 7, 93017, 23, 112006, 6651, 72567, 15, 35613, 2831, 111, 188377, 16, 99, 70, 32070, 111, 19251, 5, 1529, 509, 373, 46572, 98, 116, 6088, 23, 70, 17202, 119300, 111, 2907, 23213, 25, 7, 84084, 4, 10639, 7, 93017, 5, 581, 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729, 13556, 136, 10, 2288, 302, 43572, 31494, 13, 23, 729, 13903, 4, 15044, 111, 3129, 765, 37515, 140526, 47, 765, 2809, 26868, 297, 390, 10934, 246, 206, 5, 581, 33407, 509, 8306, 62757, 297, 390, 10934, 246, 206, 4, 49903, 4, 136, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 25, 7, 11037, 136475, 47, 4527, 70, 4262, 136, 23208, 72397, 23, 2363, 47014, 4935, 87907, 7, 4, 3853, 4989, 7103, 70, 33407, 100, 70, 501, 36467, 14700, 14, 2822, 23, 729, 14889, 5, 10934, 246, 206, 509, 7228, 10, 4755, 111, 70, 11037, 23, 543, 963, 4, 7440, 764, 47143, 297, 24189, 1919, 90223, 674, 387, 5369, 14432, 99, 70, 32070, 111, 14810, 5, 1301, 1632, 42179, 117249, 4, 14631, 130402, 25, 7, 136912, 7, 47, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 44, 2271, 814, 3674, 442, 1295, 10, 20809, 148665, 111, 116842, 227066, 3934, 70, 135969, 289, 4488, 5922, 184, 111, 70, 81207, 135555, 740, 581, 50081, 4, 49903, 4, 83, 450, 130402, 25, 7, 136912, 7, 54799, 70, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 1902, 84046, 4, 144, 372, 217, 5700, 4, 19537, 939, 34475, 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summarize: Early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines were serial devices which could only reproduce data in the order it was written. Drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of discrete transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data; generally only a few dozen or few hundred bits of such memory could be provided. The first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube. Since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was much smaller, faster, and more power-efficient than using individual vacuum tube latches. Developed at the University of Manchester in England, the Williams tube provided the medium on which the first electronically stored program was implemented in the Manchester Baby computer, which first successfully ran a program on 21 June 1948. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the Baby, the Baby was a testbed to demonstrate the reliability of the memory. Magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a widespread form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each ring's magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring. Since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the standard form of computer memory system until displaced by solid-state MOS (metal-oxide-silicon) semiconductor memory in integrated circuits (ICs) during the early 1970s. Prior to the development of integrated read-only memory (ROM) circuits, "permanent" (or "read-only") random-access memory was often constructed using diode matrices driven by address decoders, or specially wound core rope memory planes. Semiconductor memory began in the 1960s with bipolar memory, which used bipolar transistors. While it improved performance, it could not compete with the lower price of magnetic core memory. The invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, led to the development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) memory by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory. The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s. An integrated bipolar static random-access memory (SRAM) was invented by Robert H. Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. It was followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964. SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but required six MOS transistors for each bit of data. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced the SP95 memory chip for the System/360 Model 95. Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) allowed replacement of a 4 or 6-transistor latch circuit by a single transistor for each memory bit, greatly increasing memory density at the cost of volatility. Data was stored in the tiny capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away. Toshiba's Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in 1965, used a form of capacitive bipolar DRAM, storing 180-bit data on discrete memory cells, consisting of germanium bipolar transistors and capacitors. While it offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Dr. Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was capable of building capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. In 1967, Dennard filed a patent under IBM for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell, based on MOS technology. The first commercial DRAM IC chip was the Intel 1103, which was manufactured on an 8μm MOS process with a capacity of 1Kibit, and was released in 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) was developed by Samsung Electronics. The first commercial SDRAM chip was the Samsung KM48SL2000, which had a capacity of 16Mibit. It was introduced by Samsung in 1992, and mass-produced in 1993. The first commercial DDR SDRAM (double data rate SDRAM) memory chip was Samsung's 64Mibit DDR SDRAM chip, released in June 1998. GDDR (graphics DDR) is a form of DDR SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM), which was first released by Samsung as a 16Mibit memory chip in 1998. The two widely used forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a six-transistor memory cell, typically using six MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors). This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less dynamic power than DRAM. In modern computers, SRAM is often used as cache memory for the CPU. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair (typically a MOSFET and MOS capacitor, respectively), which together comprise a DRAM cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers. Both static and dynamic RAM are considered "volatile", as their state is lost or reset when power is removed from the system. By contrast, read-only memory (ROM) stores data by permanently enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as EEPROM and flash memory) share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to persist without power and to be updated without requiring special equipment. These persistent forms of semiconductor ROM include USB flash drives, memory cards for cameras and portable devices, and solid-state drives. ECC memory (which can be either SRAM or DRAM) includes special circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults (memory errors) in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. In general, the term "RAM" refers solely to solid-state memory devices (either DRAM or SRAM), and more specifically the main memory in most computers. In optical storage, the term DVD-RAM is somewhat of a misnomer since, unlike CD-RW or DVD-RW it does not need to be erased before reuse. Nevertheless, a DVD-RAM behaves much like a hard disc drive if somewhat slower. The memory cell is the fundamental building block of computer memory. The memory cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of binary information and it must be set to store a logic 1 (high voltage level) and reset to store a logic 0 (low voltage level). Its value is maintained/stored until it is changed by the set/reset process. The value in the memory cell can be accessed by reading it. In SRAM, the memory cell is a type of flip-flop circuit, usually implemented using FETs. This means that SRAM requires very low power when not being accessed, but it is expensive and has low storage density. A second type, DRAM, is based around a capacitor. Charging and discharging this capacitor can store a "1" or a "0" in the cell. However, the charge in this capacitor slowly leaks away, and must be refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh process, DRAM uses more power, but it can achieve greater storage densities and lower unit costs compared to SRAM. To be useful, memory cells must be readable and writeable. Within the RAM device, multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry is used to select memory cells. Typically, a RAM device has a set of address lines A0... An, and for each combination of bits that may be applied to these lines, a set of memory cells are activated. Due to this addressing, RAM devices virtually always have a memory capacity that is a power of two. Usually several memory cells share the same address. For example, a 4 bit 'wide' RAM chip has 4 memory cells for each address. Often the width of the memory and that of the microprocessor are different, for a 32 bit microprocessor, eight 4 bit RAM chips would be needed. Often more addresses are needed than can be provided by a device. In that case, external multiplexors to the device are used to activate the correct device that is being accessed. One can read and over-write data in RAM. Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of processor registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the "random access" term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, rank, channel, or interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that access time to rotating storage media or a tape is variable. The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the highest possible average access performance while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system (generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom). In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or when changing needs demand more storage capacity. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the computer system. In addition to serving as temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, RAM is used in numerous other ways. Most modern operating systems employ a method of extending RAM capacity, known as "virtual memory". A portion of the computer's hard drive is set aside for a "paging file" or a "scratch partition", and the combination of physical RAM and the paging file form the system's total memory. (For example, if a computer has 2 GiB (1024 B) of RAM and a 1 GiB page file, the operating system has 3 GiB total memory available to it.) When the system runs low on physical memory, it can "swap" portions of RAM to the paging file to make room for new data, as well as to read previously swapped information back into RAM. Excessive use of this mechanism results in thrashing and generally hampers overall system performance, mainly because hard drives are far slower than RAM. Software can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a RAM disk. A RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down, unless memory is arranged to have a standby battery source. Sometimes, the contents of a relatively slow ROM chip are copied to read/write memory to allow for shorter access times. The ROM chip is then disabled while the initialized memory locations are switched in on the same block of addresses (often write-protected). This process, sometimes called "shadowing", is fairly common in both computers and embedded systems. As a common example, the BIOS in typical personal computers often has an option called “use shadow BIOS” or similar. When enabled, functions that rely on data from the BIOS's ROM instead use DRAM locations (most can also toggle shadowing of video card ROM or other ROM sections). Depending on the system, this may not result in increased performance, and may cause incompatibilities. For example, some hardware may be inaccessible to the operating system if shadow RAM is used. On some systems the benefit may be hypothetical because the BIOS is not used after booting in favor of direct hardware access. Free memory is reduced by the size of the shadowed ROMs. Several new types of "non-volatile" RAM, which preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include carbon nanotubes and approaches utilizing Tunnel magnetoresistance. Amongst the 1st generation MRAM, a 128 KiB ( bytes) chip was manufactured with 0.18 μm technology in the summer of 2003. In June 2004, Infineon Technologies unveiled a 16 MiB (16 × 2 bytes) prototype again based on 0.18 μm technology. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently in development: thermal-assisted switching (TAS) which is being developed by Crocus Technology, and spin-transfer torque (STT) on which Crocus, Hynix, IBM, and several other companies are working. Nantero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 GiB (10 × 2 bytes) array in 2004. Whether some of these technologies can eventually take significant market share from either DRAM, SRAM, or flash-memory technology, however, remains to be seen. Since 2006, "solid-state drives" (based on flash memory) with capacities exceeding 256 gigabytes and performance far exceeding traditional disks have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random-access memory and "disks", dramatically reducing the difference in performance. Some kinds of random-access memory, such as "EcoRAM", are specifically designed for server farms, where low power consumption is more important than speed. The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries, which is also referred to as "bandwidth wall". From 1986 to 2000, CPU speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottleneck in computer performance. CPU speed improvements slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in a 2005 document. First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat... Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address. The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in "Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures" which projected a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. A different concept is the processor-memory performance gap, which can be addressed by 3D integrated circuits that reduce the distance between the logic and memory aspects that are further apart in a 2D chip. Memory subsystem design requires a focus on the gap, which is widening over time. The main method of bridging the gap is the use of caches; small amounts of high-speed memory that houses recent operations and instructions nearby the processor, speeding up the execution of those operations or instructions in cases where they are called upon frequently. Multiple levels of caching have been developed to deal with the widening gap, and the performance of high-speed modern computers relies on evolving caching techniques. There can be up to a 53% difference between the growth in speed of processor speeds and the lagging speed of main memory access. Solid-state hard drives have continued to increase in speed, from ~400 Mbit/s via SATA3 in 2012 up to ~3 GB/s via NVMe/PCIe in 2018, closing the gap between RAM and hard disk speeds, although RAM continues to be an order of magnitude faster, with single-lane DDR4 3200 capable of 25 GB/s, and modern GDDR even faster. Fast, cheap, non-volatile solid state drives have replaced some functions formerly performed by RAM, such as holding certain data for immediate availability in server farms - 1 terabyte of SSD storage can be had for $200, while 1 TiB of RAM would cost thousands of dollars.	Random-access memory (RAM ) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine code. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside the memory. In contrast, with other direct-access data storage media such as hard disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older magnetic tapes and drum memory, the time required to read and write data items varies significantly depending on their physical locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as media rotation speeds and arm movement.	en	en	121	[ 250004, 250054, 241, 147, 538, 13909, 7, 11814, 15421, 4778, 4, 135969, 289, 105416, 7, 707, 8, 5259, 124519, 100, 5201, 98323, 32354, 7, 5, 35958, 1681, 1771, 8, 5259, 124519, 3542, 35686, 128779, 3129, 5809, 4734, 42238, 13, 2053, 23, 70, 12989, 442, 509, 59121, 5, 131837, 98323, 5809, 186, 71062, 297, 99, 35845, 538, 27226, 11034, 1284, 93766, 456, 97351, 1405, 111, 98323, 55769, 56065, 51359, 111, 70, 72761, 108802, 111, 70, 47617, 47, 15572, 20650, 38352, 5, 75346, 17007, 88303, 1810, 111, 241433, 43333, 104713, 988, 4, 136, 14432, 4, 1810, 111, 81604, 13, 3900, 164, 22230, 4, 3542, 11814, 100, 164917, 136, 4271, 56, 122378, 7, 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summarize: The establishment of a medieval university in Prague was inspired by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. He asked his friend and ally, Pope Clement VI, to do so. On 26 January 1347 the pope issued the bull establishing a university in Prague, modeled on the University of Paris, with the full (4) number of faculties, that is including theological. On 7 April 1348 Charles, the king of Bohemia, gave to the established university privileges and immunities from the secular power in a Golden Bull and on 14 January 1349 he repeated that as the King of the Romans. Most Czech sources since the 19th century—encyclopedias, general histories, materials of the University itself—prefer to give 1348 as the year of the founding of the university, rather than 1347 or 1349. This was caused by an anticlerical shift in the 19th century, shared by both Czechs and Germans. The university was opened in 1349. The university was sectioned into parts called "nations": the Bohemian, Bavarian, Polish and Saxon. The Bohemian "natio" included Bohemians, Moravians, southern Slavs, and Hungarians; the Bavarian included Austrians, Swabians, natives of Franconia and of the Rhine provinces; the Polish included Silesians, Poles, Ruthenians; the Saxon included inhabitants of the Margravate of Meissen, Thuringia, Upper and Lower Saxony, Denmark, and Sweden. Ethnically Czech students made 16–20% of all students. Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice took an active part in the foundation by obliging the clergy to contribute and became a chancellor of the university (i.e., director or manager). The first graduate was promoted in 1359. The lectures were held in the colleges, of which the oldest was named for the king the "Carolinum", established in 1366. In 1372 the Faculty of Law became an independent university. In 1402 Jerome of Prague in Oxford copied out the "Dialogus" and "Trialogus" of John Wycliffe. The dean of the philosophical faculty, Jan Hus, translated "Trialogus" into the Czech language. In 1403 the university forbade its members to follow the teachings of Wycliffe, but his doctrine continued to gain in popularity. In the Western Schism, the Bohemian "natio" took the side of king Wenceslaus and supported the Council of Pisa (1409). The other "nationes" of the university declared their support for the side of Pope Gregory XII, thus the vote was 1:3 against the Bohemians. Hus and other Bohemians, though, took advantage of Wenceslaus' opposition to Gregory. By the Decree of Kutná Hora () on 18 January 1409, the king subverted the university constitution by granting the Bohemian masters three votes. Only a single vote was left for all other three "nationes" combined, compared to one vote per each "natio" before. The result of this "coup" was the emigration of foreign (mostly German) professors and students, founding the University of Leipzig in May 1409. Before that, in 1408, the university had about 200 doctors and magisters, 500 bachelors, and 30,000 students; it now lost a large part of this number, accounts of the loss varying from 5000 to 20,000 including 46 professors. In the autumn of 1409, Hus was elected rector of the now Czech-dominated rump university. Thus, the Prague university lost the largest part of its students and faculty. From then on the university declined to a merely regional institution with a very low status. Soon, in 1419, the faculties of theology and law disappeared, and only the faculty of arts remained in existence. The faculty of arts became a centre of the Hussite movement, and the chief doctrinal authority of the Utraquists. No degrees were given in the years 1417–30; at times there were only eight or nine professors. Emperor Sigismund, son of Charles IV, took what was left into his personal property and some progress was made. The emperor Ferdinand I called the Jesuits to Prague and in 1562 they opened an academy—the "Clementinum". From 1541 till 1558 the Czech humanist (1516–1566) was a professor of Greek language. Some progress was made again when the emperor Rudolph II took up residence in Prague. In 1609 the obligatory celibacy of the professors was abolished. In 1616 the Jesuit Academy became a university. (It could award academic degrees.) Jesuits were expelled 1618–1621 during the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, which was started in Prague by anti-Catholic and anti-Imperial Bohemians. By 1622 the Jesuits had a predominant influence over the emperor. An Imperial decree of 19 September 1622 gave the Jesuits supreme control over the entire school system of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. The last four professors at the Carolinum resigned and all of the Carolinum and nine colleges went to the Jesuits. The right of handing out degrees, of holding chancellorships and of appointing the secular professors was also granted to the Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst Adalbert von Harrach actively opposed union of the university with another institution and the withdrawal of the archepiscopal right to the chancellorship and prevented the drawing up of the Golden Bull for the confirmation of the grant to Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst funded the "Collegium Adalbertinum" and in 1638 emperor Ferdinand III limited the teaching monopoly enjoyed by the Jesuits. He took from them the rights, properties and archives of the Carolinum making the university once more independent under an imperial protector. During the last years of the Thirty Years' War the Charles Bridge in Prague was courageously defended by students of the Carolinum and Clementinum. Since 1650 those who received any degrees took an oath to maintain the "Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin", renewed annually. On 23 February 1654 emperor Ferdinand III merged "Carolinum" and "Clementinum" and created a single university with four faculties—Charles-Ferdinand University. "Carolinum" had at that time only the faculty of arts, as the only faculty surviving the period of the Hussite Wars. Starting at this time, the university designated itself Charles-Ferdinand University (). The dilapidated Carolinum was rebuilt in 1718 at the expense of the state. The rebuilding and the bureaucratic reforms of universities in the Habsburg monarchy in 1752 and 1754 deprived the university of many of its former privileges. In 1757 a Dominican and an Augustinian were appointed to give theological instruction. However, there was a gradual introduction of enlightened reforms, and this process culminated at the end of the century when even non-Catholics were granted the right to study. On 29 July 1784, German replaced Latin as the language of instruction. For the first time Protestants were allowed, and soon after Jews. The university acknowledged the need for a Czech language and literature chair. Emperor Leopold II established it by a courtly decree on 28 October 1791. On 15 May 1792, scholar and historian was named the professor of the chair. He started his lectures on 13 March 1793. In the revolution of 1848, German and Czech students fought for the addition of the Czech language at the Charles-Ferdinand University as a language of lectures. Due to the demographic changes of the 19th century, Prague ceased to have a German-language majority around 1860. By 1863, 22 lecture courses were held in Czech, the remainder (out of 187) in German. In 1864, Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected this because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions. It soon became clear that neither the German-speaking Bohemians nor the Czechs were satisfied with the bilingual arrangement that the University arranged after the revolutions of 1848. The Czechs also refused to support the idea of the reinstitution of the 1349 student nations, instead declaring their support for the idea of keeping the university together, but dividing it into separate colleges, one German and one Czech. This would allow both Germans and Czechs to retain the collective traditions of the University. German-speakers, however, quickly vetoed this proposal, preferring a pure German university: they proposed to split Charles-Ferdinand University into two separate institutions. After long negotiations, Charles-Ferdinand was divided into a German Charles-Ferdinand University () and a Czech Charles-Ferdinand University () by an act of the Cisleithanian Imperial Council, which Emperor Franz Joseph sanctioned on 28 February 1882. Each section was entirely independent of the other, and enjoyed equal status. The two universities shared medical and scientific institutes, the old insignia, aula, library, and botanical garden, but common facilities were administrated by the German University. The first rector of the Czech University became. In 1890, the Royal and Imperial Czech Charles Ferdinand University had 112 teachers and 2,191 students and the Royal and Imperial German Charles Ferdinand University had 146 teachers and 1,483 students. Both universities had three faculties; the Theological Faculty remained the common until 1891, when it was divided as well. In the winter semester of 1909–10 the German Charles-Ferdinand University had 1,778 students; these were divided into: 58 theological students, for both the secular priesthood and religious orders; 755 law students; 376 medical; 589 philosophical. Among the students were about 80 women. The professors were divided as follows: theology, 7 regular professors, 1 assistant professor, 1 docent; law, 12 regular professors, 2 assistant professors, 4 docents; medicine, 15 regular professors, 19 assistant, 30 docents; philosophy, 30 regular professors, 8 assistant, 19 docents, 7 lecturers. The Czech Charles-Ferdinand University in the winter semester of 1909–10 included 4,319 students; of these 131 were theological students belonging both to the secular and regular clergy; 1,962 law students; 687 medical; 1,539 philosophical; 256 students were women. The professors were divided as follows: theological faculty, 8 regular professors, 2 docents; law, 12 regular, 7 assistant professors, 12 docents; medicine, 16 regular professors, 22 assistant, 24 docents; philosophy, 29 regular, 16 assistant, 35 docents, 11 lecturers. The high point of the German University was the era preceding the First World War, when it was home to world-renowned scientists such as physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, Moritz Winternitz and Albert Einstein. In addition, the German-language students included prominent individuals such as future writers Max Brod, Franz Kafka, and Johannes Urzidil. The "Lese- und Redehalle der deutschen Studenten in Prag" ("Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students in Prague"), founded in 1848, was an important social and scientific centre. Their library contained in 1885 more than 23,519 books and offered 248 scientific journals, 19 daily newspapers, 49 periodicals and 34 papers of entertainment. Regular lectures were held to scientific and political themes. Even before the Austro-Hungarian Empire was abolished in late 1918, to be succeeded by Czechoslovakia, Czech politicians demanded that the insignia of 1348 were exclusively to be kept by the Czech university. The "Act No. 197/1919 Sb. z. a n." established the Protestant Theological Faculty, but not as a part of the Charles University. That changed on 10 May 1990, when it finally became a faculty of the university. In 1920, the so-called "" (No. 135/1920 Sb. z. a n.) was issued, named for its initiator, professor of physiology František Mareš, which determined that the Czech university was to be the successor to the original university. Dropping the Habsburg name "Ferdinand", it designated itself Charles University, while the German university was not named in the document, and then became officially called the German University in Prague (). In 1921 the German-speaking Bohemians considered moving their university to Liberec (), in northern Bohemia. In 1930, about 42,000 inhabitants of Prague spoke German as their native language, while millions lived in northern, southern and western Bohemia, in Czech Silesia and parts of Moravia near the borders with Austria and Germany. In October 1932, after Naegle's death, the Czechs started again a controversy over the insignia. Ethnic tensions intensified, although some professors of the German University were members of the Czechoslovak government. Any agreement to use the insignia for both the universities was rejected. On 21 November 1934, the German University had to hand over the "insigniae" to the Czechs. The German University senate sent a delegation to Minister of Education Krčmář to protest the writ. At noon on 24 November 1934, several thousand students of the Czech University protested in front of the German university building. The Czech rector Karel Domin gave a speech urging the crowd to attack, while the outnumbered German students tried to resist. Under the threat of violence, on 25 November 1934 rector (1873–1951) handed over the "insigniae". These troubles of 1934 harmed relations between the two universities and nationalities. The tide turned in 1938 when, following the Munich Agreement, German troops entered the border areas of Czechoslovakia (the so-called Sudetenland), as did Polish and Hungarian troops elsewhere. On 15 March 1939 Germans forced Czecho-Slovakia to split apart and the Czech lands were occupied by Nazis as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. "Reichsprotektor" Konstantin von Neurath handed the historical "insigniae" to the German University, which was officially renamed "Deutsche Karls-Universität in Prag". On 1 September 1939 the German University was subordinated to the Reich Ministry of Education in Berlin and on 4 November 1939 it was proclaimed to be "Reichsuniversität". On 28 October 1939, during a demonstration, Jan Opletal was shot. His burial on 15 November 1939 became another demonstration. On 17 November 1939 (now marked as International Students' Day) the Czech University and all other Czech institutions of higher learning were closed, remaining closed until the end of the War. Nine student leaders were executed and about 1,200 Czech students were interned in Sachsenhausen and not released until 1943. About 20 or 35 interned students died in the camp. On 8 May 1940 the Czech University was officially renamed Czech Charles University () by government regulation 188/1940 Coll. World War II marks the end of the coexistence of the two universities in Prague. Although the university began to recover rapidly after 1945, it did not enjoy academic freedom for long. After the communist coup in 1948, the new regime started to arrange purges and repress all forms of disagreement with the official ideology, and continued to do so for the next four decades, with the second wave of purges during the "normalization" period in the beginning of the 1970s. Only in the late 1980s did the situation start to improve; students organized various activities and several peaceful demonstrations in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989 abroad. This initiated the "Velvet Revolution" in 1989, in which both students and faculty of the university played a large role. Václav Havel—a writer, dramatist and philosopher was recruited from the independent academic community and appointed president of the republic in December 1989. Charles University does not have one joint campus. The academic facilities occupy many locations throughout the city of Prague and three of the faculties are located in other cities (two of them in Hradec Králové, one in Pilsen). The historical main building from the 14th century called "Carolinum" is situated in the Old Town of Prague and constitutes the university's center. It is the seat of the rector and of the Academic Senate of Charles university. Carolinum is also the venue for official academic ceremonies such as matriculations or graduations. The Botanical Garden of Charles University, maintained by its Faculty of Science, is located in the New Town. Among the four original faculties of Charles University were: the faculty of law, medicine, art (philosophy) and theology (now catholic theology). Today, Charles University consists of 17 faculties, based primarily in Prague, two houses in Hradec Králové and one in Plzeň. According to Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), Charles University ranked in the upper 1.5 percent of the world’s best universities in 2011. It came 201st to 300th out of 17,000 universities worldwide. It is the best university in the Czech Republic and one of the best universities in Central and Eastern Europe only overtaken by Russian Lomonosov Moscow State University at 74th place. It was placed 31st in Times "BRICS & Emerging Economies Rankings 2014" (after 23rd University of Warsaw). It was ranked in 2013 as 201–300 best in the World among 500 universities evaluated by Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), 233rd among 500 in QS World University Rankings, 351–400 among 400 universities in Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 485th in CWTS Leiden Ranking of 500 universities. Earlier rankings are presented in following table: Rector of the University Václav Hampl said in 2008: “I am very pleased that Charles University achieved such a great success and I would like to thank to all who have contributed to it. An overwhelming majority of schools with a similar placement like Charles University have incomparably better financing and therefore this success is not only a reflection of professional qualities of our academics but also their personal efforts and dedication.“ According to the QS Subject Ranking Charles University is among the 51–100 best universities in the world in geography and linguistics. In Germany the Charles University in Prague cooperates with the Goethe-University in Frankfurt/Main. Both cities are linked by a long-lasting partnership agreement.	Charles University, known also as Charles University in Prague ( (UK); ; ) or historically as the University of Prague (), is the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic. It is one of the oldest universities in Europe in continuous operation. Today, the university consists of 17 faculties located in Prague, Hradec Králové and Pilsen. Its academic publishing house is Karolinum Press. 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summarize: Ježek was born in the Prague quarter of Žižkov to the family of a tailor. He was almost blind from a young age. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory as a pupil of Karel Boleslav Jirák (1924–1927), at the master school of composition with Josef Suk (1927–1930), and shortly also with Alois Hába (1927–1928). Ježek met the playwrights/comedians Jan Werich and Jiří Voskovec (aka George Voskovec), leaders of the "Osvobozené divadlo" (Prague Liberated Theatre) in Prague, and took up the post of main composer and conductor for the theatre. During the next decade (from 1928 to 1939), he composed incidental music, songs, dances, and ballets for the comic and satirical plays of Voskovec and Werich. In 1934 he became a member of Czech Group of Surrealists. Forced to leave Czechoslovakia following the Nazi occupation, Ježek, Voskovec and Werich went into exile in New York City. He worked as a piano teacher and choirmaster there, and continued to work with Voskovec and Werich. In 1942, the long-ill Ježek died of chronic kidney disease in New York. On December 29, 1941, three days before his death, Ježek married Frances Bečáková. He collaborated with many avant-garde artists of pre-war Czechoslovakia, such as Vítězslav Nezval and E. F. Burian. His musical output is commonly divided into two parts. The first part of his work consists of chamber, piano and concertant compositions, created first under the influence of Stravinsky, of the Parisian Les Six and of Arnold Schönberg. Later he found his own, specific and modern expression. He also became a popular jazz composer in pre-war Czechoslovakia. He composed songs and dances for the revue plays of the Prague Free Theatre (The Ass and the Shadow, Caesar, The Headsman and the Fool e.g.) and also for the films of Voskovec and Werich (Powder and Petrol, The World Is Ours, Heave Ho!). His innovative melodies are well known in the Czech Republic to this day. Ježek was also evidently fascinated by American jazz. Between 1929 and 1936, possibly earlier, he organized and conducted an orchestra featuring his original jazz compositions and arrangements. Billed variously as "Ježek's Jazz" and "Ježkův swingband" they recorded for the Czech "Ultraphon" label, making some of the most original music in Europe. A few of these recordings deserve special mention. "Bugatti Step" (1930; Ultraphone A10166) is an up-tempo number for piano and jazz orchestra, enjoying enduring popularity as a hot jazz piano solo. "Teď ještě ne" (Not Yet) (1931; Ultraphon A10217) is rousing dance music in the Jean Goldkette or Coon-Sanders' Nighthawks style. "Rubbish Heap Blues" (1937; Ultraphon A11421) shows that Ježek not only listened to Duke Ellington's records, but was keeping up with Duke's very latest work. "Rubbish Heap" features a Johnny Hodges-like alto sax and a Cootie Williams-like growl trumpet, plus a three-trombone section to complement the three trumpets. Ježek's composition titled simply "Polonaisa" (1931; Ultraphon A10355) is a traditional Polonaise clothed in modern instrumentation, harmony and textures. It is as if Chopin and Gershwin had collaborated, the Polish dance rhythms mingling easily with hot syncopation. Ježek also turned the boys loose in records of his arrangements of well-known hot jazz standards, such as "Tiger Rag," "Dinah" and "Chinatown, My Chinatown." These recordings, very few of which could have survived the Nazi occupation and World War II, are almost completely unknown, at least in the United States. A seven-volume CD retrospective of Voskovec and Werich's work for the Liberated Theater (1929–1938) containing the items mentioned above and dozens of others was issued by the Czech Supraphon label in 1994 (and reissued in 2007). 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summarize: The horror genre has ancient origins with roots in folklore and religious traditions, focusing on death, the afterlife, evil, the demonic and the principle of the thing embodied in the person. These were manifested in stories of beings such as demons, witches, vampires, werewolves and ghosts. European horror fiction became established through works of the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans. The well-known 19th-century novel about Frankenstein was greatly influenced by the story of Hippolytus, where Asclepius revives him from death. Euripides wrote plays based on the story, "Hippolytos Kalyptomenos" and "Hippolytus". In Plutarch's "The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans" focused on Cimon, the author describes the spirit of a murderer, Damon, who himself was murdered in a bathhouse in Chaeronea. Pliny the Younger tells the tale of Athenodorus Cananites who bought a haunted house in Athens. Athenodorus was cautious since the house was inexpensive. While writing a book on philosophy, he was visited by a ghostly appearing figure bound in chains. The figure disappeared in the courtyard; the following day, the magistrates dug it up to find an unmarked grave. Werewolf stories were popular in medieval French literature. One of Marie de France's twelve lais is a werewolf story titled "Bisclavret". The Countess Yolande commissioned a werewolf story titled "Guillaume de Palerme". Anonymous writers penned two werewolf stories, "Biclarel" and "Melion". Much horror fiction derives from the cruellest personages of the 15th century. Dracula can be traced to the Prince of Wallachia Vlad III, whose alleged war crimes were published in German pamphlets. A 1499 pamphlet was published by Markus Ayrer, which is most notable for its woodcut imagery. The alleged serial-killer sprees of Gilles de Rais have been seen as the inspiration for "Bluebeard". The motif of the vampiress is most notably derived from the real-life noblewoman and murderess, Elizabeth Bathory, and helped usher in the emergence of horror fiction in the 18th century, such as through László Turóczi's 1729 book "Tragica Historia". The 18th century saw the gradual development of Romanticism and the Gothic horror genre. It drew on the written and material heritage of the Late Middle Ages, finding its form with Horace Walpole's seminal and controversial 1764 novel, "The Castle of Otranto". In fact, the first edition was published disguised as an actual medieval romance from Italy, discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. Once revealed as modern, many found it anachronistic, reactionary, or simply in poor taste but it proved immediately popular. "Otranto" inspired "Vathek" (1786) by William Beckford, "A Sicilian Romance" (1790), "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794) and "The Italian" (1796) by Ann Radcliffe and "The Monk" (1797) by Matthew Lewis. A significant amount of horror fiction of this era was written by women and marketed towards a female audience, a typical scenario of the novels being a resourceful female menaced in a gloomy castle. The Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre that modern readers today call horror literature in the 19th century. Influential works and characters that continue resonating in fiction and film today saw their genesis in the Brothers Grimm's "Hänsel und Gretel" (1812), Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" (1818), John Polodori's "The Vampyre" (1819), Charles Maturin's "Melmoth the Wanderer" (1820), Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), Jane C. Loudon's "" (1827), Victor Hugo's "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" (1831), Thomas Peckett Prest's "Varney the Vampire" (1847), the works of Edgar Allan Poe, the works of Sheridan Le Fanu, Robert Louis Stevenson's "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" (1886), Oscar Wilde's "The Picture of Dorian Gray" (1890), H. G. Wells' "The Invisible Man" (1897), and Bram Stoker's "Dracula" (1897). Each of these works created an enduring icon of horror seen in later re-imaginings on the page, stage and screen. A proliferation of cheap periodicals around turn of the century led to a boom in horror writing. For example, Gaston Leroux serialized his "Le Fantôme de l'Opéra" before it became a novel in 1910. One writer who specialized in horror fiction for mainstream pulps, such as "All-Story Magazine," was Tod Robbins, whose fiction deals with themes of madness and cruelty. Later, specialist publications emerged to give horror writers an outlet, prominent among them was "Weird Tales" and "Unknown" "Worlds". Influential horror writers of the early 20th century made inroads in these mediums. Particularly, the venerated horror author H.P. Lovecraft, and his enduring Cthulhu Mythos transformed and popularized the genre of cosmic horror, and M.R. James is credited with redefining the ghost story in that era. The serial murderer became a recurring theme. Yellow journalism and sensationalism of various murderers, such as Jack the Ripper, and lesser so, Carl Panzram, Fritz Haarman, and Albert Fish, all perpetuated this phenomenon. The trend continued in the postwar era, partly renewed after the murders committed by Ed Gein. In 1959, Robert Bloch, inspired by the murders, wrote "Psycho". The crimes committed in 1969 by the Manson family influenced the slasher theme in horror fiction of the 1970s. In 1981, Thomas Harris wrote "Red Dragon", introducing Dr. Hannibal Lecter. In 1988, the sequel to that novel, "The Silence of the Lambs", was published. Early cinema was inspired by many aspects of horror literature, and started a strong tradition of horror films and subgenres that continues to this day. Up until the graphic depictions of violence and gore on the screen commonly associated with 1960s and 1970s slasher films and splatter films, comic books such as those published by EC Comics (most notably "Tales From The Crypt") in the 1950s satisfied readers' quests for horror imagery that the silver screen could not provide. This imagery made these comics controversial, and as a consequence, they were frequently censored. The modern zombie tale dealing with the motif of the living dead harks back to works including H.P. Lovecraft's stories "Cool Air" (1925), "In The Vault" (1926), and "The Outsider" (1926), and Dennis Wheatley's "Strange Conflict" (1941). Richard Matheson's novel "I Am Legend" (1954) influenced an entire genre of apocalyptic zombie fiction emblematized by the films of George A. Romero. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the enormous commercial success of three books - "Rosemary's Baby" (1967) by Ira Levin, "The Exorcist" by William Peter Blatty, and "The Other" by Thomas Tryon - encouraged publishers to begin releasing numerous other horror novels, thus creating a "horror boom". One of the best-known late-20th century horror writers is Stephen King, known for "Carrie", "The Shining", "It", "Misery" and several dozen other novels and about 200 short stories. Beginning in the 1970s, King's stories have attracted a large audience, for which he was awarded by the U.S. National Book Foundation in 2003. Other popular horror authors of the period included Anne Rice, Brian Lumley, Graham Masterton, James Herbert, Dean Koontz, Clive Barker, Ramsey Campbell, and Peter Straub. Best-selling book series of contemporary times exist in genres related to horror fiction, such as the werewolf fiction urban fantasy Kitty Norville books by Carrie Vaughn (2005 onward). Horror elements continue to expand outside the genre. The alternate history of more traditional historical horror in Dan Simmons's 2007 novel "The Terror" sits on bookstore shelves next to genre mash ups such as "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies" (2009), and historical fantasy and horror comics such as "Hellblazer" (1993 onward) and Mike Mignola's Hellboy (1993 onward). Horror also serves as one of the central genres in more complex modern works such as Mark Z. Danielewski's "House of Leaves" (2000), a finalist for the National Book Award. There are many horror novels for teens, such as "The Monstrumologist" by Rick Yancey (2009). Additionally, many movies, particularly animated ones, use a horror aesthetic. These are what can be collectively referred to as "children's horror". Although it's unknown for sure why children enjoy these movies (as it seems counter-intuitive), it is theorized that it is the grotesque monsters that fascinate kids. Tangential to this, the internalized impact of horror television programs and films on children is rather under-researched, especially when compared to the research done on the similar subject of violence in TV and film's impact on the young mind. What little research there is tends to be inconclusive on the impact that viewing such media has. One defining trait of the horror genre is that it provokes an emotional, psychological, or physical response within readers that causes them to react with fear. One of H.P. Lovecraft's most famous quotes about the genre is that: "The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the oldest and strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown." the first sentence from his seminal essay, "Supernatural Horror in Literature". Science fiction historian Darrell Schweitzer has stated "In the simplest sense, a horror story is one that scares us" and "the true horror story requires a sense of evil, not in necessarily in a theological sense; but the menaces must be truly menacing, life-destroying, and antithetical to happiness." In her essay "Elements of Aversion", Elizabeth Barrette articulates the need by some for horror tales in a modern world: In a sense similar to the reason a person seeks out the controlled thrill of a roller coaster, readers in the modern era seek out feelings of horror and terror to feel a sense of excitement. However, Barrette adds that horror fiction is one of the few mediums where readers seek out a form of art that forces themselves to confront ideas and images they "might rather ignore to challenge preconceptions of all kinds." One can see the confrontation of ideas that readers and characters would "rather ignore" throughout literature in famous moments such as Hamlet's musings about the skull of Yorick, its implications of the mortality of humanity, and the gruesome end that bodies inevitably come to. In horror fiction, the confrontation with the gruesome is often a metaphor for the problems facing the current generation of the author. There are many theories as to why people enjoy being scared. For example, "people who like horror films are more likely to score highly for openness to experience, a personality trait linked to intellect and imagination." Stephanie Demetrakopoulos illustrates a common interpretation of one of the benchmarks of the canon of horror literature. Tina Broussard in an Horror Stories - Ghost Stories of Dracula surmises Demetrakopoulos' thesis: It is a now commonly accepted viewpoint that the horror elements of Dracula's portrayal of vampirism are metaphors for sexuality in a repressed Victorian era. But this is merely one of many interpretations of the metaphor of Dracula. Judith Halberstam postulates many of these in her essay "Technologies of Monstrosity: Bram Stoker's Dracula". She writes: Halberstram articulates a view of Dracula as manifesting the growing perception of the aristocracy as an evil and outdated notion to be defeated. The depiction of a multinational band of protagonists using the latest technologies (such as a telegraph) to quickly share, collate, and act upon new information is what leads to the destruction of the vampire. This is one of many interpretations of the metaphor of only one central figure of the canon of horror fiction, as over a dozen possible metaphors are referenced in the analysis, from the religious to the anti-semitic. Noël Carroll's "Philosophy of Horror" postulates that a modern piece of horror fiction's "monster", villain, or a more inclusive menace must exhibit the following two traits: In addition to those essays and articles shown above, scholarship on horror fiction is almost as old as horror fiction itself. In 1826, the gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe published an essay distinguishing two elements of horror fiction, "terror" and "horror." Whereas terror is a feeling of dread that takes place before an event happens, horror is a feeling of revulsion or disgust after an event has happened. Radcliffe describes terror as that which "expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life," whereas horror is described as that which "freezes and nearly annihilates them." Modern scholarship on horror fiction draws upon a range of sources. In their historical studies of the gothic novel, both Devandra Varma and S.L. Varnado make reference to the theologian Rudolf Otto, whose concept of the "numinous" was originally used to describe religious experience. A recent survey reports how often horror media is consumed:To assess frequency of horror consumption, we asked respondents the following question: “In the past year, about how often have you used horror media (e.g., horror literature, film, and video games) for entertainment?” 11.3% said “Never,” 7.5% “Once,” 28.9% “Several times,” 14.1% “Once a month,” 20.8% “Several times a month,” 7.3% “Once a week,” and 10.2% “Several times a week.” Evidently, then, most respondents (81.3%) claimed to use horror media several times a year or more often. Unsurprisingly, there is a strong correlation between liking and frequency of use (r=.79, p<.0001). Achievements in horror fiction are recognized by numerous awards. The Horror Writer's Association presents the Bram Stoker Awards for Superior Achievement, named in honor of Bram Stoker, author of the seminal horror novel "Dracula". The Australian Horror Writers Association presents annual Australian Shadows Awards. The International Horror Guild Award was presented annually to works of horror and dark fantasy from 1995 to 2008. The Shirley Jackson Awards are literary awards for outstanding achievement in the literature of psychological suspense, horror, and the dark fantastic works. Other important awards for horror literature are included as subcategories within general awards for fantasy and science fiction in such awards as the Aurealis Award. Some writers of fiction normally classified as "horror" tend to dislike the term, considering it too lurid. They instead use the terms dark fantasy or Gothic fantasy for supernatural horror, or "psychological thriller" for non-supernatural horror.	Horror is a genre of speculative fiction which is intended to frighten, scare, disgust, or startle its readers by inducing feelings of horror and terror. Literary historian J. A. Cuddon defined the horror story as "a piece of fiction in prose of variable length... which shocks, or even frightens the reader, or perhaps induces a feeling of repulsion or loathing". It creates an eerie and frightening atmosphere. Horror is frequently supernatural, though it might also be non-supernatural. 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summarize: Marshall was born in Noorat, Victoria. At six years old he contracted polio, which left him with a physical disability that grew worse as he grew older. From an early age, he resolved to be a writer, and in "I Can Jump Puddles" he demonstrated an almost total recall of his childhood in Noorat. The characters and places of his book are thinly disguised from real life: "Mount Turalla" is Mount Noorat, "Lake Turalla" is Lake Keilambete, the "Curruthers" are the "Blacks", Mrs. Conlon is Mary Conlon of Dixie, Terang, and his best friend, "Joe" from the books, is Leo Carmody. Australian poet and contemporary, Hal Porter wrote in 1965 that Marshall was: "... the warmest and most centralized human being... To walk with ease and nonchalance the straight, straight line between appearing tragic and appearing willfully brave is a feat so complex I should not like to have to rake in the dark for the super-bravery to accomplish it."During the early 1930s Marshall worked as an accountant at the Trueform Boot and Shoe Company, Clifton Hill and later wrote about life in the factory in his novel "How beautiful are Thy Feet", 1949. Marshall wrote numerous short stories, mainly set in the bush. He also wrote newspaper columns and magazine articles. He traveled widely in Australia and overseas. He also collected and published Indigenous Australian stories and legends. His literary friends and associates included John Morrison and Clem Christesen. He married Olive Dulcie Dixon in May 1941 and they had 2 daughters, Katherine and Jennifer. The couple divorced in 1957. For many years he lived in Sandringham Marshall died on the 21st January 1984 in a nursing home in Brighton East Victoria where he had been a resident for the last two years.His remains are interred at Nillumbik (Diamond Creek) Cemetery, Victoria. In 1981 the Australian Broadcasting Corporation produced a nine-part mini-series of Marshall's autobiographical stories. The actor, Adam Garnett, won the 1982 Logie Awards for "Best Performance by a Juvenile", for his role as Alan Marshall in the series. In 1979 Alan Marshall unveiled a plaque on a monument to himself at his birthplace in Noorat. Marshall was made a Member of the Order of Australia in the 1981 Australia Day Honours. In 1985 the Shire of Eltham, where Marshall had lived for many years, established the annual Alan Marshall Short Story Competition for emergent writers. In 1937, he completed his first novel, "How Beautiful Are Thy Feet", which remained unpublished until 1949. There is a bronze bust of him and a plaque in the Sandringham Library, Melbourne. Sculptor Marcus Skipper created a realistic statue of Marshall cast in bronze which is located in the front of Eltham Library, a branch of Yarra Plenty Regional Library. It has been classified as significant by the National Trust. Alan Marshall Reserve, Eltham is located on the corner of Main Road and Leane Drive, and has been there since at least 2007.	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summarize: Edgar Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809, the second child of English-born actress Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe and actor David Poe Jr. He had an elder brother named William Henry Leonard Poe and a younger sister named Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather, David Poe Sr., emigrated from County Cavan, Ireland around 1750. Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeare's "King Lear", which the couple were performing in 1809. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died a year later from consumption (pulmonary tuberculosis). Poe was then taken into the home of John Allan, a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia who dealt in a variety of goods, including cloth, wheat, tombstones, tobacco, and slaves. The Allans served as a foster family and gave him the name "Edgar Allan Poe", though they never formally adopted him. The Allan family had Poe baptized into the Episcopal Church in 1812. John Allan alternately spoiled and aggressively disciplined his foster son. The family sailed to the United Kingdom in 1815, and Poe attended the grammar school for a short period in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland (where Allan was born) before rejoining the family in London in 1816. There he studied at a boarding school in Chelsea until summer 1817. He was subsequently entered at the Reverend John Bransby's Manor House School at Stoke Newington, then a suburb north of London. Poe moved with the Allans back to Richmond in 1820. In 1824, he served as the lieutenant of the Richmond youth honor guard as the city celebrated the visit of the Marquis de Lafayette. In March 1825, Allan's uncle and business benefactor William Galt died, who was said to be one of the wealthiest men in Richmond, leaving Allan several acres of real estate. The inheritance was estimated at $750,000 (). By summer 1825, Allan celebrated his expansive wealth by purchasing a two-story brick house called Moldavia. Poe may have become engaged to Sarah Elmira Royster before he registered at the University of Virginia in February 1826 to study ancient and modern languages. The university was in its infancy, established on the ideals of its founder Thomas Jefferson. It had strict rules against gambling, horses, guns, tobacco, and alcohol, but these rules were mostly ignored. Jefferson had enacted a system of student self-government, allowing students to choose their own studies, make their own arrangements for boarding, and report all wrongdoing to the faculty. The unique system was still in chaos, and there was a high dropout rate. During his time there, Poe lost touch with Royster and also became estranged from his foster father over gambling debts. He claimed that Allan had not given him sufficient money to register for classes, purchase texts, and procure and furnish a dormitory. Allan did send additional money and clothes, but Poe's debts increased. Poe gave up on the university after a year but did not feel welcome returning to Richmond, especially when he learned that his sweetheart Royster had married another man, Alexander Shelton. He traveled to Boston in April 1827, sustaining himself with odd jobs as a clerk and newspaper writer, and he started using the pseudonym Henri Le Rennet during this period. Poe was unable to support himself, so he enlisted in the United States Army as a private on May 27, 1827, using the name "Edgar A. Perry". He claimed that he was even though he was 18. He first served at Fort Independence in Boston Harbor for five dollars a month. That same year, he released his first book, a 40-page collection of poetry titled "Tamerlane and Other Poems", attributed with the byline "by a Bostonian". Only 50 copies were printed, and the book received virtually no attention. Poe's regiment was posted to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina and traveled by ship on the brig "Waltham" on November 8, 1827. Poe was promoted to "artificer", an enlisted tradesman who prepared shells for artillery, and had his monthly pay doubled. He served for two years and attained the rank of Sergeant Major for Artillery (the highest rank that a non-commissioned officer could achieve); he then sought to end his five-year enlistment early. Poe revealed his real name and his circumstances to his commanding officer, Lieutenant Howard, who would only allow Poe to be discharged if he reconciled with Allan. Poe wrote a letter to Allan, who was unsympathetic and spent several months ignoring Poe's pleas; Allan may not have written to Poe even to make him aware of his foster mother's illness. Frances Allan died on February 28, 1829, and Poe visited the day after her burial. Perhaps softened by his wife's death, Allan agreed to support Poe's attempt to be discharged in order to receive an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Poe was finally discharged on April 15, 1829, after securing a replacement to finish his enlisted term for him. Before entering West Point, he moved back to Baltimore for a time to stay with his widowed aunt Maria Clemm, her daughter Virginia Eliza Clemm (Poe's first cousin), his brother Henry, and his invalid grandmother Elizabeth Cairnes Poe. Meanwhile, Poe published his second book "Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems" in Baltimore in 1829. Poe traveled to West Point and matriculated as a cadet on July 1, 1830. In October 1830, Allan married his second wife Louisa Patterson. The marriage and bitter quarrels with Poe over the children born to Allan out of extramarital affairs led to the foster father finally disowning Poe. Poe decided to leave West Point by purposely getting court-martialed. On February 8, 1831, he was tried for gross neglect of duty and disobedience of orders for refusing to attend formations, classes, or church. He tactically pleaded not guilty to induce dismissal, knowing that he would be found guilty. Poe left for New York in February 1831 and released a third volume of poems, simply titled "Poems." The book was financed with help from his fellow cadets at West Point, many of whom donated 75 cents to the cause, raising a total of $170. They may have been expecting verses similar to the satirical ones that Poe had been writing about commanding officers. It was printed by Elam Bliss of New York, labeled as "Second Edition," and including a page saying, "To the U.S. Corps of Cadets this volume is respectfully dedicated". The book once again reprinted the long poems "Tamerlane" and "Al Aaraaf" but also six previously unpublished poems, including early versions of "To Helen", "Israfel", and "The City in the Sea". Poe returned to Baltimore to his aunt, brother, and cousin in March 1831. His elder brother Henry had been in ill health, in part due to problems with alcoholism, and he died on August 1, 1831. After his brother's death, Poe began more earnest attempts to start his career as a writer, but he chose a difficult time in American publishing to do so. He was one of the first Americans to live by writing alone and was hampered by the lack of an international copyright law. American publishers often produced unauthorized copies of British works rather than paying for new work by Americans. The industry was also particularly hurt by the Panic of 1837. There was a booming growth in American periodicals around this time, fueled in part by new technology, but many did not last beyond a few issues. Publishers often refused to pay their writers or paid them much later than they promised, and Poe repeatedly resorted to humiliating pleas for money and other assistance. After his early attempts at poetry, Poe had turned his attention to prose. He placed a few stories with a Philadelphia publication and began work on his only drama "Politian". The "Baltimore Saturday Visiter" awarded him a prize in October 1833 for his short story "MS. Found in a Bottle". The story brought him to the attention of John P. Kennedy, a Baltimorean of considerable means who helped Poe place some of his stories and introduced him to Thomas W. White, editor of the "Southern Literary Messenger" in Richmond. Poe became assistant editor of the periodical in August 1835, but White discharged him within a few weeks for being drunk on the job. Poe returned to Baltimore where he obtained a license to marry his cousin Virginia on September 22, 1835, though it is unknown if they were married at that time. He was 26 and she was 13. Poe was reinstated by White after promising good behavior, and he went back to Richmond with Virginia and her mother. He remained at the "Messenger" until January 1837. During this period, Poe claimed that its circulation increased from 700 to 3,500. He published several poems, book reviews, critiques, and stories in the paper. On May 16, 1836, he and Virginia held a Presbyterian wedding ceremony at their Richmond boarding house, with a witness falsely attesting Clemm's age as 21. Poe's novel "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" was published and widely reviewed in 1838. In the summer of 1839, Poe became assistant editor of "Burton's Gentleman's Magazine". He published numerous articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing his reputation as a trenchant critic which he had established at the "Messenger". Also in 1839, the collection "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" was published in two volumes, though he made little money from it and it received mixed reviews. Poe left "Burton's" after about a year and found a position as assistant at "Graham's Magazine". In June 1840, Poe published a prospectus announcing his intentions to start his own journal called "The Stylus", although he originally intended to call it "The Penn", as it would have been based in Philadelphia. He bought advertising space for his prospectus in the June 6, 1840 issue of Philadelphia's "Saturday Evening Post": ""Prospectus of the Penn Magazine, a Monthly Literary journal to be edited and published in the city of Philadelphia by Edgar A. Poe."" The journal was never produced before Poe's death. Around this time, Poe attempted to secure a position within the administration of President John Tyler, claiming that he was a member of the Whig Party. He hoped to be appointed to the United States Custom House in Philadelphia with help from President Tyler's son Robert, an acquaintance of Poe's friend Frederick Thomas. Poe failed to show up for a meeting with Thomas to discuss the appointment in mid-September 1842, claiming to have been sick, though Thomas believed that he had been drunk. Poe was promised an appointment, but all positions were filled by others. One evening in January 1842, Virginia showed the first signs of consumption, now known as tuberculosis, while singing and playing the piano, which Poe described as breaking a blood vessel in her throat. She only partially recovered, and Poe began to drink more heavily under the stress of her illness. He left "Graham's" and attempted to find a new position, for a time angling for a government post. He returned to New York where he worked briefly at the "Evening Mirror" before becoming editor of the "Broadway Journal", and later its owner. There Poe alienated himself from other writers by publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never responded. On January 29, 1845, his poem "The Raven" appeared in the "Evening Mirror" and became a popular sensation. It made Poe a household name almost instantly, though he was paid only $9 for its publication. It was concurrently published in "" under the pseudonym "Quarles". The "Broadway Journal" failed in 1846, and Poe moved to a cottage in Fordham, New York, in what is now the Bronx. That home is now known as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage, relocated to a park near the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road. Nearby, Poe befriended the Jesuits at St. John's College, now Fordham University. Virginia died at the cottage on January 30, 1847. Biographers and critics often suggest that Poe's frequent theme of the "death of a beautiful woman" stems from the repeated loss of women throughout his life, including his wife. Poe was increasingly unstable after his wife's death. He attempted to court poet Sarah Helen Whitman who lived in Providence, Rhode Island. Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior. There is also strong evidence that Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail their relationship. Poe then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with his childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster. On October 3, 1849, Poe was found delirious on the streets of Baltimore, "in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance", according to Joseph W. Walker, who found him. He was taken to the Washington Medical College, where he died on Sunday, October 7, 1849, at 5:00 in the morning. Poe was not coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition and, oddly, was wearing clothes that were not his own. He is said to have repeatedly called out the name "Reynolds" on the night before his death, though it is unclear to whom he was referring. Some sources say that Poe's final words were, "Lord help my poor soul". All medical records have been lost, including Poe's death certificate. Newspapers at the time reported Poe's death as "congestion of the brain" or "cerebral inflammation", common euphemisms for death from disreputable causes such as alcoholism. The actual cause of death remains a mystery. Speculation has included "delirium tremens", heart disease, epilepsy, syphilis, meningeal inflammation, cholera, and rabies. One theory dating from 1872 suggests that cooping was the cause of Poe's death, a form of electoral fraud in which citizens were forced to vote for a particular candidate, sometimes leading to violence and even murder. Immediately after Poe's death, his literary rival Rufus Wilmot Griswold wrote a slanted high-profile obituary under a pseudonym, filled with falsehoods that cast him as a lunatic and a madman, and which described him as a person who "walked the streets, in madness or melancholy, with lips moving in indistinct curses, or with eyes upturned in passionate prayers, (never for himself, for he felt, or professed to feel, that he was already damned)". The long obituary appeared in the "New York Tribune" signed "Ludwig" on the day that Poe was buried. It was soon further published throughout the country. The piece began, "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it." "Ludwig" was soon identified as Griswold, an editor, critic, and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842. Griswold somehow became Poe's literary executor and attempted to destroy his enemy's reputation after his death. Griswold wrote a biographical article of Poe called "Memoir of the Author", which he included in an 1850 volume of the collected works. There he depicted Poe as a depraved, drunken, drug-addled madman and included Poe's letters as evidence. Many of his claims were either lies or distorted half-truths. For example, it is seriously disputed that Poe really was a drug addict. Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Poe well, but it became a popularly accepted biographical source. This occurred in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by an "evil" man. Letters that Griswold presented as proof were later revealed to be forgeries. After Poe's death, Griswold convinced Poe's mother-in-law to sign away the rights to his works. Griswold went on to publish the collected works attached with his own fabricated biography of Poe that invented stories of his drunkenness, immorality and instability. Poe's best known fiction works are Gothic, adhering to the genre's conventions to appeal to the public taste. His most recurring themes deal with questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning. Many of his works are generally considered part of the dark romanticism genre, a literary reaction to transcendentalism which Poe strongly disliked. He referred to followers of the transcendental movement as "Frog-Pondians", after the pond on Boston Common, and ridiculed their writings as "metaphor—run mad," lapsing into "obscurity for obscurity's sake" or "mysticism for mysticism's sake". Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he did not dislike transcendentalists, "only the pretenders and sophists among them". Beyond horror, Poe also wrote satires, humor tales, and hoaxes. For comic effect, he used irony and ludicrous extravagance, often in an attempt to liberate the reader from cultural conformity. "Metzengerstein" is the first story that Poe is known to have published and his first foray into horror, but it was originally intended as a burlesque satirizing the popular genre. Poe also reinvented science fiction, responding in his writing to emerging technologies such as hot air balloons in "The Balloon-Hoax". Poe wrote much of his work using themes aimed specifically at mass-market tastes. To that end, his fiction often included elements of popular pseudosciences, such as phrenology and physiognomy. Poe's writing reflects his literary theories, which he presented in his criticism and also in essays such as "The Poetic Principle". He disliked didacticism and allegory, though he believed that meaning in literature should be an undercurrent just beneath the surface. Works with obvious meanings, he wrote, cease to be art. He believed that work of quality should be brief and focus on a specific single effect. To that end, he believed that the writer should carefully calculate every sentiment and idea. Poe describes his method in writing "The Raven" in the essay "The Philosophy of Composition", and he claims to have strictly followed this method. It has been questioned whether he really followed this system, however. T. S. Eliot said: "It is difficult for us to read that essay without reflecting that if Poe plotted out his poem with such calculation, he might have taken a little more pains over it: the result hardly does credit to the method." Biographer Joseph Wood Krutch described the essay as "a rather highly ingenious exercise in the art of rationalization". During his lifetime, Poe was mostly recognized as a literary critic. Fellow critic James Russell Lowell called him "the most discriminating, philosophical, and fearless critic upon imaginative works who has written in America", suggesting—rhetorically—that he occasionally used prussic acid instead of ink. Poe's caustic reviews earned him the reputation of being a "tomahawk man". A favorite target of Poe's criticism was Boston's acclaimed poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who was often defended by his literary friends in what was later called "The Longfellow War". Poe accused Longfellow of "the heresy of the didactic", writing poetry that was preachy, derivative, and thematically plagiarized. Poe correctly predicted that Longfellow's reputation and style of poetry would decline, concluding, "We grant him high qualities, but deny him the Future". Poe was also known as a writer of fiction and became one of the first American authors of the 19th century to become more popular in Europe than in the United States. Poe is particularly respected in France, in part due to early translations by Charles Baudelaire. Baudelaire's translations became definitive renditions of Poe's work throughout Europe. Poe's early detective fiction tales featuring C. Auguste Dupin laid the groundwork for future detectives in literature. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle said, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" The Mystery Writers of America have named their awards for excellence in the genre the "Edgars". Poe's work also influenced science fiction, notably Jules Verne, who wrote a sequel to Poe's novel "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" called "An Antarctic Mystery", also known as "The Sphinx of the Ice Fields". Science fiction author H. G. Wells noted, ""Pym" tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago". In 2013, "The Guardian" cited "Pym" as one of the greatest novels ever written in the English language, and noted its influence on later authors such as Doyle, Henry James, B. Traven, and David Morrell. Horror author and historian H. P. Lovecraft was heavily influenced by Poe’s horror tales, dedicating an entire section of his long essay, “Supernatural Horror in Literature”, to his influence on the genre. In his letters, Lovecraft stated, “When I write stories, Edgar Allan Poe is my model.” Alfred Hitchcock once said, "It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films". Like many famous artists, Poe's works have spawned imitators. One trend among imitators of Poe has been claims by clairvoyants or psychics to be "channeling" poems from Poe's spirit. One of the most notable of these was Lizzie Doten, who published "Poems from the Inner Life" in 1863, in which she claimed to have "received" new compositions by Poe's spirit. The compositions were re-workings of famous Poe poems such as "The Bells", but which reflected a new, positive outlook. Even so, Poe has received not only praise, but criticism as well. This is partly because of the negative perception of his personal character and its influence upon his reputation. William Butler Yeats was occasionally critical of Poe and once called him "vulgar". Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reacted to "The Raven" by saying, "I see nothing in it", and derisively referred to Poe as "the jingle man". Aldous Huxley wrote that Poe's writing "falls into vulgarity" by being "too poetical"—the equivalent of wearing a diamond ring on every finger. It is believed that only twelve copies have survived of Poe's first book "Tamerlane and Other Poems". In December 2009, one copy sold at Christie's auctioneers in New York City for $662,500, a record price paid for a work of American literature. "", an essay written in 1848, included a cosmological theory that presaged the Big Bang theory by 80 years, as well as the first plausible solution to Olbers' paradox. Poe eschewed the scientific method in "Eureka" and instead wrote from pure intuition. For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true and considered it to be his career masterpiece. Even so, "Eureka" is full of scientific errors. In particular, Poe's suggestions ignored Newtonian principles regarding the density and rotation of planets. Poe had a keen interest in cryptography. He had placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper "Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger", inviting submissions of ciphers which he proceeded to solve. In July 1841, Poe had published an essay called "A Few Words on Secret Writing" in "Graham's Magazine". Capitalizing on public interest in the topic, he wrote "The Gold-Bug" incorporating ciphers as an essential part of the story. Poe's success with cryptography relied not so much on his deep knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram) as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage. The sensation that Poe created with his cryptography stunts played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines. Two ciphers he published in 1841 under the name "W. B. Tyler" were not solved until 1992 and 2000 respectively. One was a quote from Joseph Addison's play "Cato"; the other is still unidentified. Poe had an influence on cryptography beyond increasing public interest during his lifetime. William Friedman, America's foremost cryptologist, was heavily influenced by Poe. Friedman's initial interest in cryptography came from reading "The Gold-Bug" as a child, an interest that he later put to use in deciphering Japan's PURPLE code during World War II. The historical Edgar Allan Poe has appeared as a fictionalized character, often representing the "mad genius" or "tormented artist" and exploiting his personal struggles. Many such depictions also blend in with characters from his stories, suggesting that Poe and his characters share identities. Often, fictional depictions of Poe use his mystery-solving skills in such novels as "The Poe Shadow" by Matthew Pearl. No childhood home of Poe is still standing, including the Allan family's Moldavia estate. The oldest standing home in Richmond, the Old Stone House, is in use as the Edgar Allan Poe Museum, though Poe never lived there. The collection includes many items that Poe used during his time with the Allan family, and also features several rare first printings of Poe works. 13 West Range is the dorm room that Poe is believed to have used while studying at the University of Virginia in 1826; it is preserved and available for visits. Its upkeep is now overseen by a group of students and staff known as the Raven Society. The earliest surviving home in which Poe lived is in Baltimore, preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum. Poe is believed to have lived in the home at the age of 23 when he first lived with Maria Clemm and Virginia (as well as his grandmother and possibly his brother William Henry Leonard Poe). It is open to the public and is also the home of the Edgar Allan Poe Society. Of the several homes that Poe, his wife Virginia, and his mother-in-law Maria rented in Philadelphia, only the last house has survived. The Spring Garden home, where the author lived in 1843–1844, is today preserved by the National Park Service as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site. Poe's final home is preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage in the Bronx. In Boston, a commemorative plaque on Boylston Street is several blocks away from the actual location of Poe's birth. The house which was his birthplace at 62 Carver Street no longer exists; also, the street has since been renamed "Charles Street South". A "square" at the intersection of Broadway, Fayette, and Carver Streets had once been named in his honor, but it disappeared when the streets were rearranged. In 2009, the intersection of Charles and Boylston Streets (two blocks north of his birthplace) was designated "Edgar Allan Poe Square". In March 2014, fundraising was completed for construction of a permanent memorial sculpture, known as "Poe Returning to Boston," at this location. The winning design by Stefanie Rocknak depicts a life-sized Poe striding against the wind, accompanied by a flying raven; his suitcase lid has fallen open, leaving a "paper trail" of literary works embedded in the sidewalk behind him. The public unveiling on October 5, 2014 was attended by former U.S. poet laureate Robert Pinsky. Other Poe landmarks include a building on the Upper West Side where Poe temporarily lived when he first moved to New York. A plaque suggests that Poe wrote "The Raven" here. On Sullivan's Island in Charleston, South Carolina, the setting of Poe's tale "The Gold-Bug" and where Poe served in the Army in 1827 at Fort Moultrie, there is a restaurant called Poe's Tavern. In Fell's Point, Baltimore, a bar still stands where legend says that Poe was last seen drinking before his death. Now known as "The Horse You Came in On", local lore insists that a ghost whom they call "Edgar" haunts the rooms above. Early daguerreotypes of Poe continue to arouse great interest among literary historians. Notable among them are: Between 1949 and 2009, a bottle of cognac and three roses were left at Poe's original grave marker every January 19 by an unknown visitor affectionately referred to as the "Poe Toaster". Sam Porpora was a historian at the Westminster Church in Baltimore where Poe is buried, and he claimed on August 15, 2007 that he had started the tradition in 1949. Porpora said that the tradition began in order to raise money and enhance the profile of the church. His story has not been confirmed, and some details which he gave to the press are factually inaccurate. The Poe Toaster's last appearance was on January 19, 2009, the day of Poe's bicentennial. Tales Poetry Other works	Edgar Allan Poe (; born Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and of American literature as a whole, and he was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story. He is also generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. Poe was the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.	en	en	139	[ 250004, 250054, 111954, 663, 13, 509, 103122, 23, 62704, 4, 157082, 98, 18982, 17846, 543, 6463, 4, 70, 17932, 29041, 111, 14941, 9, 57332, 215542, 72542, 126756, 230839, 663, 13, 136, 39329, 6765, 663, 13, 89596, 5, 1529, 1902, 142, 88, 820, 82953, 24, 4806, 25031, 45233, 141186, 663, 13, 136, 10, 27150, 56, 114015, 24, 4806, 29641, 6387, 663, 13, 5, 581, 481, 9963, 1021, 9319, 4, 6765, 663, 13, 34843, 5, 4, 66399, 27686, 1295, 47064, 64471, 19, 4, 122963, 10932, 729, 2525, 5, 111954, 1543, 765, 2809, 24, 4806, 7103, 10, 62816, 23, 25031, 113154, 25, 7, 44, 605, 214, 636, 147, 830, 3129, 70, 24941, 3542, 51339, 214, 23, 543, 26917, 18763, 67373, 32997, 297, 70, 14449, 23, 543, 963, 4, 136, 1919, 42732, 68, 71, 10, 6602, 14432, 1295, 18588, 254, 1363, 15, 6645, 3796, 6635, 230916, 84125, 194, 663, 13, 509, 7068, 39958, 3934, 70, 5368, 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summarize: In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and European languages. In 1583, English Jesuit missionary and Konkani scholar Thomas Stephens wrote a letter from Goa to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin. Another account was made by Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (these included "devaḥ"/"dio" "God", "sarpaḥ"/"serpe" "serpent", "sapta"/"sette" "seven", "aṣṭa"/"otto" "eight", and "nava"/"nove" "nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. In 1647, Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language which he called Scythian. He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Albanian, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, later adding Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian. Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic ("Kurlandic"), Iranian ("Medic"), Finnish, Chinese, "Hottentot" (Khoekhoe), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, to which he tentatively added Gothic, Celtic, and Persian, though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1786, conjecturing the existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name: Thomas Young first used the term "Indo-European" in 1813, deriving from the geographical extremes of the language family: from Western Europe to North India. A synonym is "Indo-Germanic" ("Idg." or "IdG."), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ("indo-germanique") in 1810 in the work of Conrad Malte-Brun; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than "Indo-European", although in German "indogermanisch" remains the standard scientific term. A number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopp wrote in 1816 "On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic" and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote "Comparative Grammar". This marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleicher's 1861 "Compendium" and up to Karl Brugmann's "Grundriss", published in the 1880s. Brugmann's neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussure's development of the laryngeal theory may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins, Jochem Schindler, and Helmut Rix) developed a better understanding of morphology and of ablaut in the wake of Kuryłowicz's 1956 "Apophony in Indo-European," who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the Hittite consonant ḫ. Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of "coefficients sonantiques", elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called laryngeal theory, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory. The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed: Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by genealogical relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European. Membership in the various branches, groups and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are "shared innovations" among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features are presumed innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages. The "tree model" is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and the "wave model" is a more accurate representation. Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to language contact. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be areal features. More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, because English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common proto-language, such as the uniform development of a high vowel ("u" in the case of Germanic, "i/u" in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants "ṛ, ḷ, ṃ, ṇ", unique to these two groups among IE languages, which is in agreement with the wave model. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence among members of very different branches. An extension to the "Ringe-Warnow model of language evolution", suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have been radically non-treelike. Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as Italo-Celtic, Graeco-Armenian, Graeco-Aryan or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree. The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by Antoine Meillet to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. The main lines of evidence included the genitive suffix "-ī"; the superlative suffix "-m̥mo"; the change of /p/ to /kw/ before another /kw/ in the same word (as in "penkwe" > "kwenkwe" > Latin "quīnque", Old Irish "cóic"); and the subjunctive morpheme "-ā-". This evidence was prominently challenged by Calvert Watkins; while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes the regular change of the second laryngeal to "a" at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, and between Thracian and Armenian. Some fundamental shared features, like the aorist (a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. The Indo-Hittite hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia and the preservation of laryngeals. However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view, the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non-satem languages in general—including Anatolian—might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. The division of the Indo-European languages into satem and centum groups was put forward by Peter von Bradke in 1890, although Karl Brugmann did propose a similar type of division in 1886. In the satem languages, which include the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian branches, as well as (in most respects) Albanian and Armenian, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European palatovelars remained distinct and were fricativized, while the labiovelars merged with the 'plain velars'. In the centum languages, the palatovelars merged with the plain velars, while the labiovelars remained distinct. The results of these alternative developments are exemplified by the words for "hundred" in Avestan ("satem") and Latin ("centum")—the initial palatovelar developed into a fricative in the former, but became an ordinary velar in the latter. Rather than being a genealogical separation, the centum–satem division is commonly seen as resulting from innovative changes that spread across PIE dialect-branches over a particular geographical area; the centum–satem isogloss intersects a number of other isoglosses that mark distinctions between features in the early IE branches. It may be that the centum branches in fact reflect the original state of affairs in PIE, and only the satem branches shared a set of innovations, which affected all but the peripheral areas of the PIE dialect continuum. Kortlandt proposes that the ancestors of Balts and Slavs took part in satemization before being drawn later into the western Indo-European sphere. Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages form part of one of several hypothetical macrofamilies. However, these theories remain highly controversial, not being accepted by most linguists in the field. Some of the smaller proposed macrofamilies include: Other, greater proposed families including Indo-European languages, include: Objections to such groupings are not based on any theoretical claim about the likely historical existence or non-existence of such macrofamilies; it is entirely reasonable to suppose that they might have existed. The serious difficulty lies in identifying the details of actual relationships between language families, because it is very hard to find concrete evidence that transcends chance resemblance, or is not equally likely explained as being due to borrowing (including Wanderwörter, which can travel very long distances). Because the signal-to-noise ratio in historical linguistics declines over time, at great enough time-depths it becomes open to reasonable doubt that one can even distinguish between signal and noise. The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction, an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. PIE was an inflected language, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of endings, these form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs). The reconstructed Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut. The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of Indo-European origins. Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Don Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches: David Anthony proposes the following sequence: From 1500 BC the following sequence may be given: In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the Proto-Indo-European language, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly linguistically conservative (most notably, Lithuanian). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid poetic meter normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. vowel length) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written manuscripts. Most noticeable of all: Other primary sources: Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to poor attestation: Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation: As the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various sound laws evidenced in the daughter languages. PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15 stop consonants, including an unusual three-way phonation (voicing) distinction between voiceless, voiced and "voiced aspirated" (i.e. breathy voiced) stops, and a three-way distinction among velar consonants ("k"-type sounds) between "palatal" "ḱ ǵ ǵh", "plain velar" "k g gh" and labiovelar "kw gw gwh". (The correctness of the terms "palatal" and "plain velar" is disputed; see Proto-Indo-European phonology.) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways. As an example, in English, one of the Germanic languages, the following are some of the major changes that happened: None of the daughter-language families (except possibly Anatolian, particularly Luvian) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between "centum" and "satem" languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars: The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of linguistic typology—particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation: Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are: The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see Indo-European sound laws. The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the thematic present indicative of the verbal root of the English verb "to bear" and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system. While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from synthetic verb systems to largely periphrastic systems. In addition, the pronouns of periphrastic forms are in brackets when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well. Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by 3.2 billion native speakers across all inhabited continents, the largest number by far for any recognised language family. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to "Ethnologue", 10 are Indo-European: Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Punjabi, German, French, and Marathi, accounting for over 1.7 billion native speakers. Additionally, hundreds of millions of persons worldwide study Indo-European languages as secondary or tertiary languages, including in cultures which have completely different language families and historical backgrounds—there are between 600 million and one billion L2 learners of English alone. The success of the language family, including the large number of speakers and the vast portions of the Earth that they inhabit, is due to several factors. The ancient Indo-European migrations and widespread dissemination of Indo-European culture throughout Eurasia, including that of the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves, and that of their daughter cultures including the Indo-Aryans, Iranian peoples, Celts, Greeks, Romans, Germanic peoples, and Slavs, led to these peoples' branches of the language family already taking a dominant foothold in virtually all of Eurasia except for swathes of the Near East, North and East Asia, replacing many (but not all) of the previously-spoken pre-Indo-European languages of this extensive area. However Semitic languages remain dominant in much of the Middle East and North Africa, and Caucasian languages in much of the Caucasus region. Similarly in Europe and the Urals the Uralic languages (such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc) remain, as does Basque, a pre-Indo-European Isolate. Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. By the beginning of the Common Era, Indo-European peoples controlled almost the entirety of this area: the Celts western and central Europe, the Romans southern Europe, the Germanic peoples northern Europe, the Slavs eastern Europe, the Iranian peoples most of western and central Asia and parts of eastern Europe, and the Indo-Aryan peoples in the Indian subcontinent, with the Tocharians inhabiting the Indo-European frontier in western China. By the medieval period, only the Semitic, Dravidian, Caucasian, and Uralic languages, and the language isolate Basque remained of the (relatively) indigenous languages of Europe and the western half of Asia. Despite medieval invasions by Eurasian nomads, a group to which the Proto-Indo-Europeans had once belonged, Indo-European expansion reached another peak in the early modern period with the dramatic increase in the population of the Indian subcontinent and European expansionism throughout the globe during the Age of Discovery, as well as the continued replacement and assimilation of surrounding non-Indo-European languages and peoples due to increased state centralization and nationalism. These trends compounded throughout the modern period due to the general global population growth and the results of European colonization of the Western Hemisphere and Oceania, leading to an explosion in the number of Indo-European speakers as well as the territories inhabited by them. Due to colonization and the modern dominance of Indo-European languages in the fields of politics, global science, technology, education, finance, and sports, even many modern countries whose populations largely speak non-Indo-European languages have Indo-European languages as official languages, and the majority of the global population speaks at least one Indo-European language. The overwhelming majority of languages used on the Internet are Indo-European, with English continuing to lead the group; English in general has in many respects become the "lingua franca" of global communication.	The Indo-European languages are a large language family native to western Eurasia. It comprises most of the languages of Europe together with those of the northern Indian Subcontinent and the Iranian Plateau. A few of these languages, such as English, have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across all continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, the largest of which are the Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Romance, and Balto-Slavic groups. The most populous individual languages within them are Spanish, English, Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Portuguese, Bengali, Punjabi, and Russian, each with over 100 million speakers. German, French, Marathi, Italian, and Persian have more than 50 million each. In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion) speaks an Indo-European language as a first language, by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to the estimate by "Ethnologue", with over two thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch.	en	en	201	[ 250004, 250054, 360, 70, 611, 927, 142642, 4, 28811, 144994, 47, 70, 42878, 1614, 216118, 80723, 47, 60322, 21373, 31075, 54940, 93951, 9, 7614, 1643, 4, 18721, 3378, 4, 136, 28811, 46876, 7, 5, 360, 423, 17168, 4, 14941, 49659, 217, 29752, 6635, 136, 3692, 55825, 191225, 14978, 56174, 7, 54397, 10, 31330, 1295, 2016, 11, 47, 1919, 82953, 15, 10869, 91376, 24189, 70, 387, 927, 142642, 16, 23, 3129, 764, 959, 297, 21373, 31075, 17721, 42878, 46876, 7, 136, 160600, 136, 42845, 5, 116267, 15426, 509, 7228, 390, 132989, 31, 199876, 15615, 4, 10, 1143, 62956, 103122, 23, 171230, 23, 423, 2839, 4, 2750, 26983, 6259, 47, 70, 42878, 1614, 216118, 5, 213185, 23, 423, 12951, 4, 764, 959, 297, 3060, 2565, 21373, 31075, 17721, 1735, 7, 31434, 136, 89176, 15, 2347, 184, 99201, 44, 18548, 55116, 58, 64, 58, 5670, 58, 44, 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summarize: The official name was "Deutsche Demokratische Republik" (German Democratic Republic), usually abbreviated to "DDR" (GDR). Both terms were used in East Germany, with increasing usage of the abbreviated form, especially since East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners to be foreigners following the promulgation of its second constitution in 1968. West Germans, the western media and statesmen initially avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like "Ostzone" (Eastern Zone), "Sowjetische Besatzungszone" (Soviet Occupation Zone; often abbreviated to "SBZ") and "sogenannte DDR" or "so-called GDR". The centre Explaining the internal impact of the GDR regime from the perspective of German history in the long term, historian Gerhard A. Ritter (2002) has argued that the East German state was defined by two dominant forcesSoviet communism on the one hand, and German traditions filtered through the interwar experiences of German communists on the other. It always was constrained by the powerful example of the increasingly prosperous West, to which East Germans compared their nation. The changes wrought by the communists were most apparent in ending capitalism and transforming industry and agriculture, in the militarization of society, and in the political thrust of the educational system and the media. On the other hand, there was relatively little change made in the historically independent domains of the sciences, the engineering professions, the Protestant churches, and in many bourgeois lifestyles. Social policy, says Ritter, became a critical legitimization tool in the last decades and mixed socialist and traditional elements about equally. At the Yalta Conference during World War II, the Allies (the US, the UK, and the Soviet Union) agreed on dividing a defeated Nazi Germany into occupation zones, The two former parties were notorious rivals when they were active before the Nazis consolidated all power and criminalised them. The unification of the two parties was symbolic of the new friendship of German socialists in defeating their common enemy; however, the communists, who held a majority, had virtually total control over policy. The SED was the ruling party for the entire duration of the East German state. It had close ties with the Soviets, which maintained military forces in East Germany until its dissolution in 1991 (the Russian Federation continued to maintain forces in what had been East Germany until 1994), with the stated purpose of countering NATO bases in West Germany. As West Germany was reorganized and gained independence from its occupiers, the GDR was established in East Germany in 1949. The creation of the two states solidified the 1945 division of Germany. On 10 March In the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Allies established their joint military occupation and administration of Germany via the Allied Control Council (ACC), a four-power (US, UK, USSR, France) military government effective until the restoration of German sovereignty. In eastern Germany, the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ"Sowjetische Besatzungszone") comprised the five states ("Länder") of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. Disagreements over the policies to be followed in the occupied zones quickly led to a breakdown in cooperation between the four powers, and the Soviets administered their zone without regard to the policies implemented in the other zones. The Soviets withdrew from the ACC in 1948; subsequently as the other three zones were increasingly unified and granted self-government, the Soviet administration instituted a separate socialist government in its zone. Yet, seven years after the Allies' Potsdam Agreement to a unified Germany, the USSR via the Stalin Note (10 March 1952) proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, which the three Western Allies (the On 21 April 1946, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the part of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet zone merged to form the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which then won the elections of 1946. The SED's government nationalised infrastructure and industrial plants. In 1948, the German Economic Commission (—DWK) under its chairman Heinrich Rau assumed administrative authority in the Soviet occupation zone, thus becoming the predecessor of an East German government. On 7 October 1949, the SED established the (German Democratic RepublicGDR), based on a socialist political constitution establishing its control of the Anti-Fascist National Front of the German Democratic Republic (NF, ), an omnibus alliance of every party and mass organisation in East Germany. The NF was established to stand for election to the (People's Chamber), the East German parliament. The first and only president of the German Democratic Republic was Wilhelm From the beginning, the newly formed GDR tried to establish its own separate identity. Because of the imperial and military legacy of Prussia, the SED repudiated continuity between Prussia and the GDR. The SED destroyed a number of symbolic relics of the former Prussian aristocracy: the Junker manor houses were torn down, the Berliner Stadtschloß was In May 1989, following widespread public anger over the faking of results of local government elections, many citizens applied for exit visas or left the country contrary to GDR laws. The impetus for this exodus of East Germans was the removal of the electrified fence along Hungary's border with Austria on 2 May. Although formally the Hungarian frontier was still closed, many East Germans took the opportunity to enter the country via Czechoslovakia, and then make the illegal crossing from Hungary into Austria and West Germany beyond. By July, 25,000 East Germans had crossed into Hungary, most of whom did not attempt the risky crossing into Austria but remained instead in Hungary or claimed asylum in West German embassies in Prague or Budapest. The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on August 19, 1989 then set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The idea of opening the border at a ceremony came from Otto von Habsburg and was brought up by There were four periods in East German political history. These included: 1949–61, which saw the building of socialism; 1961–1970 after the Berlin Wall closed off escape was a period of stability and consolidation; 1971–85 was termed the Honecker Era, and saw closer ties with West Germany; and 1985–89 saw the decline and extinction of East Germany. The ruling political party in East Germany was the "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands" (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED). It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone. However, the SED quickly transformed into a full-fledged Communist party as the more independent-minded Social Democrats were pushed out. The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to supporting a democratic form of government in Germany, though the Soviets' understanding of democracy was radically different from that of the West. As in other Soviet-bloc countries, non-communist political parties were allowed. Nevertheless, every political party in the GDR was forced to join the National Front of Democratic Germany, a broad The East German population declined by three million people throughout its forty-one year history, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990; of the 1948 population, some 4 million were deported from the lands east of the Oder-Neisse line, which made the home of millions of Germans part of Poland and the Soviet Union. This was Until 1952, East Germany comprised the capital, East Berlin (though legally it was not fully part of the GDR's territory), and the five German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (in 1947 renamed Mecklenburg), Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, and Saxony, their post-war territorial demarcations approximating the pre-war German demarcations of the Middle German "Länder" (states) and "Provinzen" (provinces of Prussia). The western parts of two provinces, Pomerania and Lower Silesia, the remainder of which were annexed by Poland, remained in the GDR and were attached to Mecklenburg and Saxony, respectively. The East German Administrative Reform of 1952 The government of East Germany had control over a large number of military and paramilitary organisations through various ministries. Chief among these was the Ministry of National Defence. Because of East Germany's proximity to the West during the Cold War (1945–92), its military forces were among the most advanced of the Warsaw Pact. Defining what was a military force and what was not is a matter of some dispute. The Nationale Volksarmee (NVA) was the largest military organisation in East Germany. It was formed in 1956 from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (Barracked People's Police), the military units of the regular police (Volkspolizei), when East Germany joined The border troops of the Eastern sector were originally organised as a police force, the Deutsche Grenzpolizei, similar to the Bundesgrenzschutz in West Germany. It was controlled by the Ministry of the Interior. Following the remilitarisation of East After the NVA was separated from the Volkspolizei in 1956, the Ministry of the Interior maintained its own The Ministry of State Security (Stasi) included the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, which was mainly involved with facilities security and plain clothes events security. The "Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse" (combat groups of the working class) numbered around 400,000 for much of their existence, and were organised around factories. The KdA was the political-military instrument of the Every man was required to serve eighteen months of compulsory military service; for the medically unqualified and conscientious objector, there were the "Baueinheiten" (construction units), established in 1964, The East German state promoted an "anti-imperialist" line that was reflected in all its media and all the schools. This line followed Lenin's theory of imperialism as the highest and last stage of capitalism, and Dimitrov's theory of fascism as the After receiving wider international diplomatic recognition in 1972–73, the GDR began active cooperation with Third World socialist governments and national liberation movements. While the USSR was in control of the overall strategy and Cuban armed forces were involved in the actual combat (mostly in the People's Republic of Angola and socialist Ethiopia), the GDR provided experts for military hardware maintenance and personnel training, and oversaw creation of secret security agencies based on its own Stasi model. East Germany pursued an anti-Zionist policy; Jeffrey Herf argues that East Germany was waging an undeclared war on Israel. According to Herf, "the Middle East was one of the crucial battlefields of the global Cold War between the Soviet Union and the West; it was also a region in which East Germany played a salient role in the Soviet bloc's antagonism toward Israel." While East Germany saw itself The East German economy began poorly because of the devastation caused by the Second World War; the loss of so many young soldiers, the disruption of business and transportation, the allied bombing campaigns that decimated cities, and reparations owed to the USSR. The Red Army dismantled and transported to Russia the infrastructure and industrial plants of the Soviet Zone of Occupation. By the early 1950s, the reparations were paid in agricultural and industrial products; and Lower Silesia, with its coal mines and Szczecin, an important natural port, were given to Poland by the decision of Stalin and in accordance with Potsdam Agreement. The socialist centrally planned economy of the German Democratic Republic was like that of the USSR. In 1950, the GDR joined the COMECON trade bloc. In 1985, collective (state) enterprises earned 96.7% of the net national income. To ensure stable prices for goods and services, the state paid 80% of basic supply costs. The estimated 1984 per capita income was $9,800 ($22,600 in 2015 dollars). In 1976, the average annual growth of the GDP was approximately five percent. This made East German economy the richest in all of the Soviet Bloc until reunification in 1990. Notable East German exports were photographic cameras, under the Praktica brand; automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg, and the IFA brands; hunting rifles, sextants, typewriters and wristwatches. Until the 1960s, East Germans endured shortages of basic foodstuffs such as sugar and coffee. East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or with any access to a hard currency) and the necessary Staatsbank foreign currency account could afford Western products and export-quality East German products via Intershop. Consumer goods also were available, by post, from the Danish Jauerfood, and Genex companies. The government used money and prices as political devices, providing highly subsidised prices for a wide range of basic goods and services, in what was known as "the second pay packet". At the production level, artificial prices made for a system of semi-barter and resource hoarding. For the consumer, it led to the substitution of GDR money with time, barter, and hard currencies. The socialist economy became steadily more dependent on financial infusions from hard-currency loans from West Germany. East Germans, meanwhile, came to see their soft currency as worthless relative to the Deutsche Mark (DM). Economic issues would also persist in the east of Germany after the reunification of the west and the east, James Hawes in his book 'the shortest history of Germany'. Quotes from the federal office of political education (23 June 2009) 'In 1991 alone, 153 billion Deutschmarks had to be transferred to eastern Germany to secure incomes, support businesses and improve infrastructure... by 1999 the total had amounted to 1.634 trillion Marks net... The sums were so large that public debt in Germany more than doubled.' Religion became contested ground in the GDR, with the governing Communists promoting state atheism, although some people remained loyal to Christian communities. In 1957 the State authorities established a State Secretariat for Church Affairs to handle the government's contact with churches and with religious groups; the SED remained officially atheist. In 1950, 85% of the GDR citizens were Protestants, while 10% were Catholics. In 1961, the renowned philosophical theologian Paul Tillich claimed that the Protestant population in East Germany had the most admirable Church in Protestantism, because the Communists there had not been able to win a spiritual victory over them. By 1989, membership in the Christian churches dropped significantly. Protestants constituted 25% of the population, Catholics 5%. The share of people who considered themselves non-religious rose from 5% in 1950 to 70% in 1989. When it first came to power, the Communist party asserted the compatibility of Christianity and Marxism and sought Christian participation in the building of socialism. At first the promotion of Marxist-Leninist atheism received little official attention. In the mid-1950s, as the Cold War heated up, atheism became a topic of major interest for the state, in both domestic and foreign contexts. University East Germany, historically, was majority Protestant (primarily Lutheran) from the early stages of the Protestant Reformation onwards. In 1948, freed from the influence of the Nazi-oriented German Christians, Lutheran, Reformed and United churches from most parts of Germany came together as the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) at the Conference of Eisenach ("Kirchenversammlung von Eisenach"). In 1969 the regional Protestant churches in East Germany and East Berlin broke away from the EKD and formed the "Federation of Protestant Churches in the German Democratic Republic" (, BEK), in 1970 also joined by the Moravian "Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine". In June 1991, following the German reunification, the BEK churches again merged with the EKD ones. Between 1956 and 1971 the leadership of the East German Lutheran churches gradually changed its relations with the state from hostility to cooperation. From the founding of the GDR in 1949, the Socialist Unity Party sought to weaken the influence of the church on the rising generation. The church adopted an attitude of confrontation and distance toward the state. Around 1956 this began to develop into a more neutral stance accommodating conditional loyalty. The government was no longer regarded as The smaller Catholic Church in eastern Germany had a fully functioning episcopal hierarchy that was in full accord with the Vatican. During the early postwar years, tensions were high. The Catholic Church as a whole (and particularly the bishops) resisted both the East German state and Marxist ideology. The state allowed the bishops to lodge protests, which they did on issues such as abortion. After 1945 the Church did fairly well in integrating Catholic exiles from lands to the east (which mostly became part of Poland) and in adjusting its institutional structures to meet the needs of East Germany's culture was strongly influenced by communist thought and was marked by an attempt to define itself in opposition to the west, particularly West Germany and the United States. Critics of the East German state have claimed that the state's commitment to Communism was a hollow and cynical tool, Machiavellian in nature, but this assertion has been challenged by studies that have found that the East German leadership was genuinely committed to the advance of scientific knowledge, economic development, and social progress. However, Pence and Betts argue, the majority of East Germans over time increasingly regarded the state's ideals to be hollow, though there was also a substantial number of East Germans who regarded their culture as having a healthier, more authentic mentality than that of West Germany. GDR culture and politics were limited by the harsh censorship. The Puhdys and Karat were some of the most popular mainstream bands in East Germany. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as "Neues Leben" and "Magazin". Other popular rock bands were, City, Silly and Pankow. Most of these artists recorded on the state-owned AMIGA label. Schlager, which was very popular in the west, also gained a foothold early on in East Germany, and numerous musicians, such as,, and gained national fame. From 1962 to 1976, an international schlager festival was held in Rostock, garnering participants from between 18 and 22 countries each year. The city of Dresden held a similar international festival for schlager musicians from 1971 until shortly before reunification. There was a national schlager contest hosted yearly in Magdeburg from 1966 to 1971 as well. Bands and singers from other Communist countries were popular, e.g. Czerwone Gitary from Poland known as the "Rote Gitarren". Czech Karel Gott, the Golden Voice from Prague, was beloved in both German states. Hungarian band Omega East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the "Theater am Schiffbauerdamm" with his Berliner Ensemble. Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a "Working Class Theatre", played for the working class by the working class. After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's legacy, including Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall. In the 1950s the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with "The Dragon" by The prolific cinema of East Germany was headed by the DEFA, "Deutsche Film AG", which was subdivided in different local groups, for example "Gruppe Berlin", "Gruppe Babelsberg" or "Gruppe Johannisthal", where the local teams shot and produced films. The East German industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies ("Das kalte Herz", film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy tales and modern productions such as "Das Schulgespenst"). Frank Beyer's "Jakob der Lügner" (Jacob the Liar), about the Holocaust, and "Fünf Patronenhülsen" (Five Cartridges), about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous. Films about daily life, such as "Die Legende von Paul und Paula", by Heiner Carow, and "Solo Sunny", directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase, were very popular. The film industry was remarkable for its production of "Ostern", or Western-like movies. Amerindians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the North American westerns of the time, where they were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed East Germany was very successful in the sports of cycling, weight-lifting, swimming, gymnastics, track and field, boxing, ice skating, and winter sports. The success is largely attributed to doping under the direction of Manfred Höppner, a sports doctor, described as the architect of East Germany's state-sponsored drug program. Anabolic steroids were the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years. The development and implementation of a state-supported sports doping program helped East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in sport during the 1970s and 1980s, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records. Another factor for success was the furtherance system for young people in GDR. Sport teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain Television and radio in East Germany were state-run industries; the "Rundfunk der DDR" was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until unification. The The sexual culture of both German districts was different. East Germany had a cultural acceptance of birth control and premarital sex, in contrast to the West. As a result of this East Germans had sex earlier and more often. Scholars such as Kristen Ghodsee have attributed the higher women orgasm rate (80%) and By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system. There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 Telex stations. Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office). East Germany was assigned telephone country code +37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code +49. An unusual feature of the telephone network Margot Honecker, former Minister for Education of East Germany, said: Many East Germans initially regarded the dissolution of the GDR positively. But this reaction soon turned sour. West Germans often acted as if they had "won" and East Germans had "lost" in unification, leading many East Germans ("Ossis") to resent West Germans ("Wessis"). In 2004, Ascher Barnstone wrote, "East Germans resent the wealth possessed by West Germans; West Germans see the East Germans as lazy opportunists who want something for nothing. East Germans find 'Wessis' arrogant and pushy, West Germans think the 'Ossis' are lazy good-for-nothings." Unification and subsequent federal policies led to serious economic hardships for many East Germans that had List of sovereign states Europe	East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR;, ), was a state that existed from 1949 to 1990, the period when the eastern portion of Germany was part of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Commonly described as a communist state in English usage, it described itself as a socialist "workers' and peasants' state". It consisted of territory that was administered and occupied by Soviet forces following the end of World War II—the Soviet occupation zone of the Potsdam Agreement, bounded on the east by the Oder–Neisse line. 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summarize: Zdeněk Liška was born on 16 March 1922 in Smečno near Kladno in central Bohemia. His father and grandfather were amateur municipal musicians. As a child he learned to play the accordion and the violin; while in high school, he composed his first song. He studied composition and conducting at Prague Conservatory under Rudolf Karel, Otakar Šín, Metod Doležil, and Karel Janeček. He graduated from the Conservatory in 1944. After a brief stint as a conductor of an amateur orchestra in Slaný and as a teacher at a Humpolec music school, he joined the Zlín Film Studios in 1945. Liška worked notably with animator Jan Švankmajer, scoring several of his earlier short films: "Punch and Judy" (1966), "Et Cetera" (1966), "Historia Naturae (Suita)" (1967), "The Flat" (1968), "Don Juan" (1969), "The Ossuary" (1970), "Jabberwocky" (1971), and "Leonardo's Diary" (1972), and later "The Castle of Otranto" (1979). Liška's music for Švankmajer's "Historia Naturae (Suita)", "The Flat", and "The Ossuary" was also featured in the 1984 short film by American animators the Brothers Quay entitled "The Cabinet of Jan Švankmajer". He also created a great number of iconic scores for important live-action films of the Czech New Wave including "The Shop on Main Street", "Marketa Lazarová", "The Valley of the Bees", "Fruit of Paradise" and "Ikarie XB-1". In addition to his feature-film work, Liška wrote music for the travel documentary films of Hanzelka and Zikmund, for Laterna Magika, for twelve of Karel Zeman's Mr. Prokouk films, and for various popular science short films. The main theme he wrote for the heavily propagandist television series "Thirty Cases of Major Zeman" is still widely remembered in the Czech Republic, where it is often played by rock bands. In the mid-twentieth century, he was among the most well-known Czech film composers and the foremost Czech composer of fantasy film scores. He was noted for his skill with musical characterizations and humor in music, as well as his creative use of electronic music techniques. His score for "Death Is Called Engelchen" won a prize in a competition for the best Czechoslovak feature-length film score of 1963.	Zdeněk Liška (16 March 1922 – 13 August 1983) was a Czech composer who produced a large number of film scores across a prolific career that started in the 1950s. He was revelatory in his contribution to the development of electronic music. 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summarize: Since the interwar period scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, West and South. (From the vantage of linguistic features alone, there are only two branches of the Slavic languages, namely North and South. These three conventional branches feature some of the following subbranches: Some linguists speculate that a North Slavic branch has existed as well. The Old Novgorod dialect may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group. Mutual intelligibility also plays a role in determining the West, East, and South branches. Speakers of languages within the same branch will in most cases be able to understand each other at least partially, but they are generally unable to across branches (which would be comparable to a native English speaker trying to understand any other Germanic language besides Scots). The most obvious differences between the East, West and South Slavic branches are in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages (and Western South Slavic languages – Croatian and Slovene) are written in the Latin script, and have had more Western European influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically Roman Catholic, whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in Cyrillic and, with Eastern Orthodox or Uniate faith, have had more Greek influence. East Slavic languages such as Russian have, however, during and after Peter the Great's Europeanization campaign, absorbed many words of Latin, French, German, and Italian origin. The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e. standard) languages. For example, Slovak (West Slavic) and Ukrainian (East Slavic) are bridged by the Rusyn language/dialect of Eastern Slovakia and Western Ukraine. Similarly, the Croatian Kajkavian dialect is more similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language. Although the Slavic languages diverged from a common proto-language later than any other group of the Indo-European language family, enough differences exist between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between speakers of different Slavic languages difficult. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, as those of Slovene. Slavic languages descend from Proto-Slavic, their immediate parent language, ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European, the ancestor language of all Indo-European languages, via a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive isoglosses in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and Baltic the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE. A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian), that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic accentology that occurred in the last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no "Proto-Baltic" language and that West Baltic and East Baltic differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic. The imposition of Old Church Slavonic on Orthodox Slavs was often at the expense of the vernacular. Says WB Lockwood, a prominent Indo-European linguist, "It (O.C.S) remained in use to modern times but was more and more influenced by the living, evolving languages, so that one distinguishes Bulgarian, Serbian, and Russian varieties. The use of such media hampered the development of the local languages for literary purposes, and when they do appear the first attempts are usually in an artificially mixed style." (148) Lockwood also notes that these languages have "enriched" themselves by drawing on Church Slavonic for the vocabulary of abstract concepts. The situation in the Catholic countries, where Latin was more important, was different. The Polish Renaissance poet Jan Kochanowski and the Croatian Baroque writers of the 16th century all wrote in their respective vernaculars (though Polish itself had drawn amply on Latin in the same way Russian would eventually draw on Church Slavonic). Although Church Slavonic hampered vernacular literatures, it fostered Slavonic literary activity and abetted linguistic independence from external influences. Only the Croatian vernacular literary tradition nearly matches Church Slavonic in age. It began with the Vinodol Codex and continued through the Renaissance until the codifications of Croatian in 1830, though much of the literature between 1300 and 1500 was written in much the same mixture of the vernacular and Church Slavonic as prevailed in Russia and elsewhere. The most important early monument of Croatian literacy is the Baška tablet from the late 11th century. It is a large stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk, containing text written mostly in Čakavian dialect in angular Croatian Glagolitic script. The independence of Dubrovnik facilitated the continuity of the tradition. More recent foreign influences follow the same general pattern in Slavic languages as elsewhere and are governed by the political relationships of the Slavs. In the 17th century, bourgeois Russian ("delovoi jazyk") absorbed German words through direct contacts between Russians and communities of German settlers in Russia. In the era of Peter the Great, close contacts with France invited countless loan words and calques from French, many of which not only survived but also replaced older Slavonic loans. In the 19th century, Russian influenced most literary Slavic languages by one means or another. The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones. There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one Old East Slavic language, which existed until at least the 12th century. Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the Freising manuscripts show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovene dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word "krilatec"). The Freising manuscripts are the first Latin-script continuous text in a Slavic language. The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine Empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in Moravia and Lower Austria (Moravians) and those in present-day Styria, Carinthia, East Tyrol in Austria, and in the provinces of modern Slovenia, where the ancestors of the Slovenes settled during first colonisation. In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and Anna Dybo published, as a part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis, a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms. The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory and already not being monolithic. Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and the Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. (the so-called Slavicization of Europe). The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages (which could possibly indicate the Western Slavic origin of Slovenian, which for a long time was being influenced on the part of the neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects. The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak who stated that in the 11th century Novgorod language differed from Kiev language as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries, meaning that there was no common Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus' from which Ukrainian, Russian and Belorusian languages diverged, but that Russian language developed as convergence of Novgorod language and other Russian dialects, whereas Ukrainian and Belorusian were continuation of developement of respective Kiev and Polotsk dialects of Kievan Rus'. Also Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects’ accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects. Zaliznyak and Nikolaev's points mean that there was a convergence stage before the divergence or simultaneously, which was not taken into consideration by Kassian-Dybo's research. Ukrainian linguists (Stepan Smal-Stotsky, Ivan Ohienko, George Shevelov, Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo) deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages. The following is a summary of the main changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) leading up to the Common Slavic (CS) period immediately following the Proto-Slavic language (PS). The Slavic languages are a relatively homogeneous family, compared with other families of Indo-European languages (e.g. Germanic, Romance, and Indo-Iranian). As late as the 10th century AD, the entire Slavic-speaking area still functioned as a single, dialectally differentiated language, termed "Common Slavic". Compared with most other Indo-European languages, the Slavic languages are quite conservative, particularly in terms of morphology (the means of inflecting nouns and verbs to indicate grammatical differences). Most Slavic languages have a rich, fusional morphology that conserves much of the inflectional morphology of Proto-Indo-European. The following table shows the inventory of consonants of Late Common Slavic: The sound did not occur in West Slavic, where it had developed to. This inventory of sounds is quite similar to what is found in most modern Slavic languages. The extensive series of palatal consonants, along with the affricates ts and dz, developed through a series of palatalizations that happened during the Proto-Slavic period, from earlier sequences either of velar consonants followed by front vowels (e.g. ke, ki, ge, gi, xe, and xi), or of various consonants followed by j (e.g. tj, dj, sj, zj, rj, lj, kj, and gj, where j is the palatal approximant (, the sound of the English letter "y" in "yes" or "you"). The biggest change in this inventory results from a further general palatalization occurring near the end of the Common Slavic period, where "all" consonants became palatalized before front vowels. This produced a large number of new palatalized (or "soft") sounds, which formed pairs with the corresponding non-palatalized (or "hard") consonants and absorbed the existing palatalized sounds. These sounds were best preserved in Russian but were lost to varying degrees in other languages (particularly Czech and Slovak). The following table shows the inventory of modern Russian: This general process of palatalization did not occur in Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. As a result, the modern consonant inventory of these languages is nearly identical to the Late Common Slavic inventory. Late Common Slavic tolerated relatively few consonant clusters. However, as a result of the loss of certain formerly present vowels (the weak yers), the modern Slavic languages allow quite complex clusters, as in the Russian word взблеск ("flash"). Also present in many Slavic languages are clusters rarely found cross-linguistically, as in Russian ртуть ("mercury") or Polish mchu ("moss", gen. sg.). The word for "mercury" with the initial "rt-" cluster, for example, is also found in the other East and West Slavic languages, although Slovak retains an epenthetic vowel ("ortuť"). A typical vowel inventory is as follows: The sound occurs only in some languages (Russian and Belarusian), and even in these languages, it is unclear whether it is its own phoneme or an allophone of /i/. Nonetheless, it is a quite prominent and noticeable characteristic of the languages in which it is present. Common Slavic also had two nasal vowels: ę and ǫ. However, these are preserved only in modern Polish (along with a few lesser-known dialects and microlanguages; see Yus for more details). Other phonemic vowels are found in certain languages (e.g. the schwa in Bulgarian and Slovenian, distinct high-mid and low-mid vowels in Slovenian, and the lax front vowel in Ukrainian). An area of great difference among Slavic languages is that of prosody (i.e. syllabic distinctions such as vowel length, accent, and tone). Common Slavic had a complex system of prosody, inherited with little change from Proto-Indo-European. This consisted of phonemic vowel length and a free, mobile pitch accent: The modern languages vary greatly in the extent to which they preserve this system. On one extreme, Serbo-Croatian preserves the system nearly unchanged (even more so in the conservative Chakavian dialect); on the other, Macedonian has basically lost the system in its entirety. Between them are found numerous variations: Similarly, Slavic languages have extensive morphophonemic alternations in their derivational and inflectional morphology, including between velar and postalveolar consonants, front and back vowels, and a vowel and no vowel. The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Slavic language family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them. Most languages of the former Soviet Union and of some neighbouring countries (for example, Mongolian) are significantly influenced by Russian, especially in vocabulary. The Romanian, Albanian, and Hungarian languages show the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in vocabulary pertaining to urban life, agriculture, and crafts and trade—the major cultural innovations at times of limited long-range cultural contact. In each one of these languages, Slavic lexical borrowings represent at least 15% of the total vocabulary. However, Romanian has much lower influence from Slavic than Albanian or Hungarian. This is potentially because Slavic tribes crossed and partially settled the territories inhabited by ancient Illyrians and Vlachs on their way to the Balkans. Although also spoken in neighbouring lands, the Germanic languages show less significant Slavic influence, partly because Slavic migrations were mostly headed south rather than west. Slavic tribes did push westwards into Germanic territory, but borrowing for the most part seems to have been from Germanic to Slavic rather than the other way: for instance, the now-extinct Polabian language was heavily influenced by German, far more than any living Slavic language today. The Slavic contributions to Germanic languages remains a moot question, though Max Vasmer, a specialist in Slavic etymology, has claimed that there were no Slavic loans into Proto-Germanic. The only Germanic languages that show significant Slavic influence are Yiddish and the historical colonial dialects of German that were spoken East of the Oder–Neisse line, such as Silesian German (formerly spoken in Silesia and South of East Prussia) and the Eastern varieties of East Low German, with the exception of Low Prussian, which had a strong Baltic substratum. Modern Dutch slang, especially the Amsterdam dialect, borrowed much from Yiddish in turn. However, there are isolated Slavic loans (mostly recent) into other Germanic languages. For example, the word for "border" (in modern German "Grenze", Dutch "grens") was borrowed from the Common Slavic "granica". There are, however, many cities and villages of Slavic origin in Eastern Germany, the largest of which are Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. English derives "quark" (a kind of cheese, not the subatomic particle) from the German "Quark", which in turn is derived from the Slavic "tvarog", which means "curd". Many German surnames, particularly in Eastern Germany and Austria, are Slavic in origin. Swedish also has "torg" (market place) from Old Russian "tъrgъ" or Polish "targ", "tolk" (interpreter) from Old Slavic "tlŭkŭ", and "pråm" (barge) from West Slavonic "pramŭ". The Czech word is now found in most languages worldwide, and the word, probably also from Czech, is found in many European languages, such as Greek "". A well-known Slavic word in almost all European languages is vodka, a borrowing from Russian "водка" ("vodka") – which itself was borrowed from Polish "wódka" (lit. "little water"), from common Slavic "voda" ("water", cognate to the English word) with the diminutive ending "-ka". Owing to the medieval fur trade with Northern Russia, Pan-European loans from Russian include such familiar words as "sable". The English word "vampire" was borrowed (perhaps via French "vampire") from German "Vampir", in turn derived from Serbian "vampir", continuing Proto-Slavic "ǫpyrь", although Polish scholar K. Stachowski has argued that the origin of the word is early Slavic "vąpěrь", going back to Turkic "oobyr". Several European languages, including English, have borrowed the word "polje" (meaning "large, flat plain") directly from the former Yugoslav languages (i.e. Slovene, Croatian, and Serbian). During the heyday of the USSR in the 20th century, many more Russian words became known worldwide: "da", "Soviet", "sputnik", "perestroika", "glasnost", "kolkhoz", etc. Also in the English language borrowed from Russian is "samovar" (lit. "self-boiling") to refer to the specific Russian tea urn. The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the Ethnologue report for Slavic languages. It includes the ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-3 codes where available. East Slavic languages: West Slavic languages: South Slavic languages: Para- and supranational languages	The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by the Slavic peoples or their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic, spoken during the Early Middle Ages, which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language, linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family.	en	en	73	[ 250004, 250054, 66016, 70, 1940, 4205, 14922, 191225, 7, 765, 101805, 25958, 101637, 71, 187414, 238, 46876, 7, 4, 98, 70, 18231, 111, 20787, 48461, 289, 136, 22293, 11, 137043, 289, 24702, 133, 4, 136, 678, 70, 4527, 111, 70, 4173, 65279, 48242, 60213, 111, 26499, 4, 3934, 17262, 5201, 90356, 7, 4, 450, 83, 4, 24453, 4, 10542, 136, 25134, 5, 15, 168407, 70, 131, 16852, 111, 147158, 9523, 66139, 75447, 4, 2685, 621, 4734, 6626, 90356, 7, 111, 70, 187414, 238, 46876, 7, 4, 24, 110987, 23924, 136, 25134, 5, 32255, 17262, 101805, 289, 90356, 7, 60213, 3060, 111, 70, 25632, 1614, 169074, 7, 12, 31384, 147158, 933, 149575, 67, 450, 10, 23924, 187414, 238, 32845, 206, 1556, 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summarize: The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus. When news of his death at the Council of Constance in 1415 arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus, prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance. His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible. The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Romanist priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement. If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church, and the Council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge. Pope Martin V as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund. Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415–1419. From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist Petr Chelčický, whose teachings would form the foundation of the Unitas Fratrum. The moderate party, who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched. The more radical party identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wycliffe, sharing his passionate hatred of the monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals preached the ""sufficientia legis Christi""—the divine law (i.e. the Bible) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession, indulgences, the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick; they admitted laymen and women to the preacher's office, and chose their own priests. But above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, denying transubstantiation, and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party. The programme of the more conservative Hussites (the moderate party) is contained in the Four Articles of Prague, which were written by Jakoubek ze Stříbra and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as: The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the University and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin "calix" chalice) or Utraquists (Latin "utraque" both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem. The radicals (the radical party) had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Lužnice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (after the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called Táborité (Taborites). They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites. Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time. The Taborites usually had the support of the Orebites (later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in Hradec Králové. Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in the Hussite Wars. Hussites can be divided into: The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility. It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. Sigismund could get possession of "his" kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and there followed twelve years of warfare. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat. Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. They invited a Bohemian embassy to appear at the Council of Basel. The discussions began on 10 January 1432, centering chiefly on the four articles of Prague. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian–Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the ""Compacta"" of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed. The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on (30 May 1434). From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki. The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the ""Compacta"" and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists, as heresy in 1444. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" () (see Unity of the Brethren; also Bohemian Brethren and Moravian Church). In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the ""Compacta"" null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church. This he refused, but his successor, King Vladislaus II, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years. It was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. The appearance of Martin Luther was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the ""Unitas Fratrum"" already in 1457. Under Emperor Maximilian II, the Bohemian state assembly established the ""Confessio Bohemica"", upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of the Czech lands. Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (Leszno) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius, fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries. A settlement of Hussites in Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church. In 1918, as a result of World War I, the Czech lands regained independence from Austria-Hungary controlled by the Habsburg monarchy as Czechoslovakia (due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops). Today, the Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to be the modern successor of the Hussite tradition.	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summarize: The film begins in 1945 and traces the seasonal or annual changes that a small Moravian village undergoes until the Epilogue, which is sometime after 1958. (1945) The first part establishes the innocence and camaraderie of a village amidst the backdrop of a post-War landscape. Children play with guns and a land mine is discovered while ploughing the fields. A group of villagers detonate it and end the night dancing and drinking in the local pub. They leave at dawn as the sun rises on a beautiful, idyllic landscape and stop to sleep beneath a tree after taking in the view. (1948) It is just months after the Communists have taken power in February. Loud speakers blare propaganda and announce rations while the farmer František works. We discover that four of the main villagers have converted, namely, the organist Očenáš, the photographer Plecmera, the postman Bertin, and Zejvala. The townspeople disdain them. A landowner must vacate his land so it can become a collective; his wife tearfully removes pictures of Jesus and the Virgin Mary from the walls as the landowner criticizes: "I hope you look after this place, your own looks like a pigsty." To which the communists respond ominously: "Don't worry! We will show you what we can do!" The communists greedily inspect their winnings (animals, house, a stockpile of wood) and begin to loot for themselves. Meanwhile, a tailor sets up shop with his wife and the help of friends, who warn him that the communists will put an end to his good fortunes. Indeed, a group of communists come and demand he turn over the property on which he has just spent his life's savings and lead a tailoring collective instead. (1949) Bertin, the postman, is shot soon after we see him and his wife-to-be, Machačová, being fitted for wedding clothes. A funeral is held after which police arrest those they deem responsible. František the noble farmer leads a mass of townspeople to demand the police turn over some of the wrongly accused perpetrators, namely the priest. The organist Očenáš, facing death threats, leaves at his wife's persistence. The photographer's wife, aspiring for status and a new house, implores her husband to fill the position left behind by Očenáš. (1951) Zášinek comes home drunk from a night at the bar. He hallucinates the ghost of his ex-wife, a Jew. He had divorced her because he feared the Germans and she had died in a concentration camp. Her ghost tells him that she has forgiven him. Nevertheless, his guilt drives him mad. He sees her again at an afternoon soiree and dances with her briefly. Meanwhile, Machačová, "the merry widow," shows up to the same soiree with the town thief, Jořka. He has been summoned to prison a few days prior and we understand that he is to report that afternoon. After dancing, he bids her farewell and walks off, presumably toward the prison. He stops and pours acid on his left foot, which starts to hiss and boil. He returns a clock he had stolen, repaired, to its rightful owner, then collapses from his wound and dies as white goose down covers him like snow. (Autumn, 1951) Zášinek is still upset about his guilt. He visits the church to confess. He is shown later at a pub amidst friends and the merry widow. They dine and soon begin to dance, all while being painted. The painting shifts from formless shapes to lackluster diners to a frenzied dance, with Zášinek soon depicted as a devil with a skull. He returns home the next morning drunk and is impaled by a loose bull and dies. (1952) František's weary father comments on how his strength is failing with age. At a townhall meeting, the communists announce they will take more loans; the panel clap for each other. The audience does not clap; František speaks against the decision and leads away the villagers. The communists seek to destroy him, for "as long as he is around, nothing will get done." He is arrested; police attempt to get others to sign statements alleging his guilt but with no immediate success—the villagers hold out until they are threatened. (1954) A communist who had stolen from the original confiscated house returns. He is called a disgrace and dismissed. František has escaped from prison but he is sick and near death. (1955) František's health rebounds. He no longer has anything but buys a horse and sets to work again. The narrator asks, "which can bear more, a man or a horse? A man, because he has to." (1957) Realizing that the village rallies around the noble František, the communists ask him to persuade the others to declare their harvests. František refuses. After being forced, all villagers sign except Frantisek. (1958) František is taken to the home originally seized from the landowner. It has been poorly taken care of; he agrees to take it on and become the collective's leader. On his way to assume the role, he and his daughter's carriage are stopped by a carnival procession of villagers masked with the heads of animals and monsters. They are gentle to him and he laughs as he continues. The mob moves next to an oncoming car. It is the photographer and his wife. They stop it, pull them out and dance. The photographer's merriment is cut short as he clutches his chest and falls to the snow with a heart attack. Later the townspeople amassed at the pub remove their animal masks and remark: "soon all the people will be gone and all that will be left are the animals." (Epilogue) Očenáš returns to the village. He runs into the now-blind and divorced photographer who has tumbled from power. Očenáš asks about František, who he discovers has recently died. The photographer remarks: "the best people go and the blackguards stay." Očenáš visits František's family and speaks with his daughters, who tell him the farmer's last words were to "listen to the workers in the fields"-- "things will be better when they begin to sing again." Očenáš departs on his bike and looks back forlornly on the countryside as he laments: "We have made our beds and now we have to lie in them. But have we made them ourselves? What have we done, rather, what have we undone, all my fellow countrymen?" In 1977 an unofficial spiritual sequel "The Moravian Land" was released. It was directed by Antonín Kachlík. The film was meant to be a counterbalance to "All My Compatriots". Many actors from All My Compatriots also starred in the "Moravian Land". It presented collectivization as a positive thing. Vojtěch Jasný directed "Return to Paradise Lost" in 1999. It is a loose continuation to All My Compatriots. It stars Vladimír Pucholt as a Czech émigrée who returns home after fall of Communist regime. He comes from the village showed in All My Compatriots. Some characters returned in this sequel.	All My Compatriots, also known as All My Countrymen (), is a 1968 Czechoslovak film directed by Vojtěch Jasný. Considered the "most Czech" of his contemporary filmmakers, Jasný's style was primarily lyricist. It took nearly 10 years to complete the script and it was his greatest work. The movie was based on real people from Jasný's hometown Kelč. The film was banned and the director went into exile rather than recant. 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summarize: The wikibooks.org domain was registered on. It was launched to host and build free textbooks on subjects such as organic chemistry and physics. Two major sub-projects, Wikijunior and Wikiversity, were created within Wikibooks before its official policy was later changed so that future incubator-type projects are started according to the Wikimedia Foundation's new project policy. In August 2006, Wikiversity became an independent Wikimedia Foundation project. Since 2008, Wikibooks is included in BASE. In June 2016, Compete.com estimated that Wikibooks had 1,478,812 unique visitors. Wikijunior is a subproject of Wikibooks that specializes in books for children. The project consists of both a magazine and a website, and is currently being developed in English, Danish, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish and Arabic. It is funded by a grant from the Beck Foundation. While some books are original, others began as text copied over from other sources of free content textbooks found on the Internet. All of the site's content is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license (or a compatible license). This means that, as with its sister project, Wikipedia, contributions remain copyrighted to their creators, while the licensing ensures that it can be freely distributed and reused subject to certain conditions. Wikibooks differs from Wikisource in that Wikisource collects exact copies and original translations of existing free content works, such as the original text of Shakespearean plays, while Wikibooks is dedicated either to original works, significantly altered versions of existing works or annotations to original works. The project is working towards completion of textbooks on numerous subjects, which founders hope will be followed by mainstream adoption and use of textbooks developed and housed there.	Wikibooks (previously called "Wikimedia Free Textbook Project" and "Wikimedia-Textbooks") is a wiki-based Wikimedia project hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation for the creation of free content e-book textbooks and annotated texts that anyone can edit.	en	en	41	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 34356, 81415, 5, 1478, 77758, 509, 189893, 98, 5, 1650, 509, 83184, 297, 47, 27980, 136, 45367, 4092, 7986, 81415, 98, 28368, 7, 6044, 237, 107554, 290, 6133, 1294, 136, 6, 34053, 27744, 7, 5, 32964, 13036, 1614, 9, 95322, 7, 4, 39418, 17043, 39674, 136, 39418, 7864, 2481, 4, 3542, 75935, 28032, 39418, 81415, 8108, 6863, 51521, 44930, 509, 14432, 98816, 221, 450, 22690, 23, 90351, 1290, 9, 50986, 77635, 621, 26859, 59499, 47, 70, 38998, 32807, 25, 7, 3525, 13452, 44930, 5, 360, 8055, 65942, 39418, 7864, 2481, 100512, 142, 41371, 38998, 32807, 13452, 5, 66016, 43304, 39418, 81415, 83, 99201, 23, 335, 76783, 5, 360, 18237, 20400, 15612, 6362, 5, 277, 25902, 3674, 450, 39418, 81415, 1902, 59084, 19051, 4, 1019, 1530, 36998, 144994, 5, 39418, 17043, 39674, 83, 10, 1614, 95322, 111, 39418, 81415, 450, 26341, 13105, 23, 42840, 100, 20020, 5, 581, 13452, 58055, 7, 111, 15044, 10, 41260, 136, 10, 4165, 4, 136, 83, 82424, 8035, 126809, 23, 14941, 4, 188676, 4, 21079, 4745, 4, 92265, 4, 30839, 4, 89176, 4, 148926, 4, 195374, 136, 197212, 5, 1650, 83, 9458, 297, 390, 10, 80731, 1295, 70, 75781, 32807, 5, 51404, 3060, 42840, 621, 7311, 4, 27060, 80723, 237, 7986, 71200, 71, 645, 1295, 3789, 97264, 111, 4092, 10941, 7986, 81415, 14037, 98, 70, 2665, 5, 3164, 111, 70, 1764, 25, 7, 10941, 83, 121447, 1379, 10, 9066, 8127, 27917, 9, 69042, 6, 129119, 86872, 15, 748, 10, 146731, 86872, 194, 3293, 26950, 450, 4, 237, 678, 6863, 114015, 13452, 4, 8162, 4, 127752, 7, 47143, 112341, 297, 47, 2363, 179505, 7, 4, 12960, 70, 400, 35481, 214, 63284, 7, 450, 442, 831, 186, 4092, 538, 15917, 3674, 136, 456, 33740, 28368, 47, 24233, 27289, 5, 39418, 81415, 129927, 7, 1295, 39418, 60427, 23, 450, 39418, 60427, 43799, 7, 24763, 71200, 7, 136, 7311, 153648, 7, 111, 144573, 4092, 10941, 43240, 4, 6044, 237, 70, 7311, 7986, 111, 113154, 66, 11301, 7, 4, 12960, 39418, 81415, 83, 171332, 40101, 47, 7311, 43240, 4, 207583, 37264, 297, 11389, 7, 111, 144573, 43240, 707, 8668, 22062, 7, 47, 7311, 43240, 5, 581, 13452, 83, 20697, 98186, 21721, 1830, 111, 7986, 81415, 98, 183851, 28368, 7, 4, 3129, 14037, 1314, 15673, 1221, 186, 134629, 390, 154909, 6, 180064, 136, 4527, 111, 7986, 81415, 126809, 136, 18276, 71, 2685, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250004, 39418, 81415, 15, 4692, 686, 79850, 35839, 44, 147822, 12333, 5153, 24129, 14137, 27331, 58, 136, 44, 147822, 12333, 9, 174379, 81415, 18939, 83, 10, 34356, 9, 77007, 38998, 13452, 27980, 297, 390, 70, 38998, 32807, 100, 70, 166635, 111, 4092, 10941, 28, 9, 14137, 7986, 81415, 136, 8668, 102, 3674, 7986, 7, 450, 35672, 831, 27211, 5, 2 ]
summarize: Wiktionary was brought online on December 12, 2002, following a proposal by Daniel Alston and an idea by Larry Sanger, co-founder of Wikipedia. On March 28, 2004, the first non-English Wiktionaries were initiated in French and Polish. Wiktionaries in numerous other languages have since been started. Wiktionary was hosted on a temporary domain name (wiktionary.wikipedia.org) until May 1, 2004, when it switched to the current domain name., Wiktionary features over 25.9 million entries across its editions. The largest of the language editions is the English Wiktionary, with over 6.3 million entries, followed by the Malagasy Wiktionary with over 6 million bot-generated entries and the French Wiktionary with over 3.7 million. Forty-one Wiktionary language editions now contain over 100,000 entries each. Most of the entries and many of the definitions at the project's largest language editions were created by bots that found creative ways to generate entries or (rarely) automatically imported thousands of entries from previously published dictionaries. Seven of the 18 bots registered at the English Wiktionary created 163,000 of the entries there. Another of these bots, "ThirdPersBot," was responsible for the addition of a number of third-person conjugations that would not have received their own entries in standard dictionaries; for instance, it defined "smoulders" as the "third-person singular simple present form of smoulder." Of the 648,970 definitions the English Wiktionary provides for 501,171 English words, 217,850 are "form of" definitions of this kind. This means its coverage of English is slightly smaller than that of major monolingual print dictionaries. The "Oxford English Dictionary", for instance, has 615,000 headwords, while "Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged" has 475,000 entries (with many additional embedded headwords). Detailed statistics exist to show how many entries of various kinds exist. The English Wiktionary does not rely on bots to the extent that some other editions do. The French and Vietnamese Wiktionaries, for example, imported large sections of the Free Vietnamese Dictionary Project (FVDP), which provides free content bilingual dictionaries to and from Vietnamese. These imported entries make up virtually all of the Vietnamese edition's contents. Almost all non-Malagasy-language entries of the Malagasy Wiktionary were copied by bot from other Wiktionaries. Like the English edition, the French Wiktionary has imported the approximately 20,000 entries from the Unihan database of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters. The French Wiktionary grew rapidly in 2006 thanks in large part to bots copying many entries from old, freely licensed dictionaries, such as the eighth edition of the "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française" (1935, around 35,000 words), and using bots to add words from other Wiktionary editions with French translations. The Russian edition grew by nearly 80,000 entries as "LXbot" added boilerplate entries (with headings, but without definitions) for words in English and German. As of December 2019, en.wiktionary has over 700,000 gloss definitions and over 1,100,000 total definitions (including different forms) for English entries alone, with a total of over 6,100,000 entries across all languages. Wiktionary has historically lacked a uniform logo across its numerous language editions. Some editions use logos that depict a dictionary entry about the term "Wiktionary", based on the previous English Wiktionary logo, which was designed by Brion Vibber, a MediaWiki developer. Because a purely textual logo must vary considerably from language to language, a four-phase contest to adopt a uniform logo was held at the Wikimedia Meta-Wiki from September to October 2006. Some communities adopted the winning entry by "Smurrayinchester", a 3×3 grid of wooden tiles, each bearing a character from a different writing system. However, the poll did not see as much participation from the Wiktionary community as some community members had hoped, and a number of the larger wikis ultimately kept their textual logos. In April 2009, the issue was resurrected with a new contest. This time, a depiction by "AAEngelman" of an open hardbound dictionary won a head-to-head vote against the 2006 logo, but the process to refine and adopt the new logo then stalled. In the following years, some wikis replaced their textual logos with one of the two newer logos. In 2012, 55 wikis that had been using the English Wiktionary logo received localized versions of the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester". In July 2016, the English Wiktionary adopted a variant of this logo., 135 wikis, representing 61% of Wiktionary's entries, use a logo based on the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester", 33 wikis (36%) use a textual logo, and three wikis (3%) use the 2009 design by "AAEngelman". To ensure accuracy, the English Wiktionary has a policy requiring that terms be "attested". Terms in major languages such as English and Chinese must be verified by: For less-documented languages such as Creek and extinct languages such as Latin, one use in a permanently recorded medium or one mention in a reference work is sufficient verification. Critical reception of Wiktionary has been mixed. In 2006 Jill Lepore wrote in the article "Noah's Ark" for "The New Yorker," There's no show of hands at "Wiktionary". There's not even an editorial staff. "Be your own lexicographer!", might be "Wiktionary's" motto. Who needs experts? Why pay good money for a dictionary written by lexicographers when we could cobble one together ourselves? "Wiktionary" isn't so much republican or democratic as Maoist. And it's only as good as the copyright-expired books from which it pilfers. Keir Graff's review for "Booklist" was less critical: Is there a place for Wiktionary? Undoubtedly. The industry and enthusiasm of its many creators are proof that there's a market. And it's wonderful to have another strong source to use when searching the odd terms that pop up in today's fast-changing world and the online environment. But as with so many Web sources (including this column), it's best used by sophisticated users in conjunction with more reputable sources. References in other publications are fleeting and part of larger discussions of Wikipedia, not progressing beyond a definition, although David Brooks in "The Nashua Telegraph" described it as "wild and woolly". One of the impediments to independent coverage of Wiktionary is the continuing confusion that it is merely an extension of Wikipedia. In 2005, "PC Magazine" rated Wiktionary as one of the Internet's "Top 101 Web Sites", although little information was given about the site. The measure of correctness of the inflections for a subset of the Polish words in the English Wiktionary showed that this grammatical data is very stable. Only 131 out of 4748 Polish words have had their inflection data corrected. Wiktionary has semi-structured data. Wiktionary lexicographic data can be converted to machine-readable format in order to be used in natural language processing tasks. Wiktionary data mining is a complex task. There are the following difficulties: (1) the constant and frequent changes to data and schemata, (2) the heterogeneity in Wiktionary language edition schemata and (3) the human-centric nature of a wiki. There are several parsers for different Wiktionary language editions: Examples of natural language processing tasks which have been solved with the help of Wiktionary data include:	Wiktionary is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary of terms (including words, phrases, proverbs, etc.) in all natural languages and a number of artificial languages. These entries may contain definitions, pronunciation guides, inflections, usage examples, related terms, images for illustration, among other features. It is collaboratively edited via a wiki. Its name is a portmanteau of the words "wiki" and "dictionary". It is available in 171 languages and in Simple English. Like its sister project Wikipedia, Wiktionary is run by the Wikimedia Foundation, and is written collaboratively by volunteers, dubbed "Wiktionarians". 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summarize: The story takes place in the town of Kostelec in 1942, during the Nazi occupation, shortly after Czech and Slovak resistance fighters assassinated Reinhard Heydrich, the Reichsprotector of Bohemia and Moravia, precipitating a vengeful Nazi crackdown. When the movie opens, the owner of the town bookstore is placing a comical maquette in his shop window, featuring photos of students who are soon to graduate from the local high school as well as a photo of their elderly Latin teacher, Professor Málek (played by František Smolík), as he points to the words "Higher Principle," the nickname that the students have given him on account of his frequent quotation of Seneca's moral precepts. A local Nazi official takes offense at the lightheartedness of the maquette, considering it out of keeping with official mourning for Heydrich, and orders it removed. Teachers at the high school and its director worry that the episode will get them in trouble with the local Gestapo, but the students don't take it seriously, and in fact, when one notices a photo of Heydrich in the newspaper that his open-faced sandwich came wrapped in, he and a friend ink a comical mustache and beard onto the portrait. A more cautious student quickly shoves the caricature into the schoolroom stove, but later we see a student named Zajíček, who is flunking most of his classes, washing soot off one of his hands. Zajíček's father, played by a young Rudolf Hrušinský, happens to be in a relationship with a secretary at the town's Gestapo headquarters, and his shoestore is going bankrupt, giving him a motive for collaboration. At a meeting of the school's teachers, Professor Málek reads aloud a passage from Seneca that seems dangerously appropriate to the times, and to the relief of his fellow teachers, he says that he won't be assigning it as the text for the students' final Latin exam, but will instead be choosing a passage in Tacitus about a man who protested injustice with a hunger strike. The exam preoccupies the students, who ask to be excused from their Czech class in order to prepare for it. Vlasta Ryšánek (Ivan Mistrík), son of a washerwoman, can translate Latin extemporaneously, but most of his classmates find it a struggle, including Jana Skálová (played by Jana Brejchová), who is in love with Vlasta, and depends on his coaching and crib sheets to pass exams. Her father is a lawyer and disapproves of her friendship with Vlasta, in part because Vlasta's mother does Jana's family's laundry. In the middle of their year-end Latin exam, Gestapo officers arrest three classmates, including Vlasta, without any explanation. Professor Málek visits Jana's father to ask him to intervene, and the lawyer eventually promises both Málek and his daughter that he will try. But as Jana discovers, while spying on her father, he is too frightened even to enter Gestapo headquarters, despite having made an acquaintance with a strangely friendly Gestapo commander—an acquaintance accidentally witnessed by a student who wasn't arrested, Honza Horák (Petr Kostka), who is trying to help Jana find out what's happening to Vlasta and his companions. After Jana tells Professor Málek of her father's loss of nerve, he visits the Gestapo commander himself at his home. To Málek's surprise, the commander says that when he was in the boy scouts, he was taught to do a good deed every day, and that he'll do one for Málek. But by the time he returns to his office, the three boys have already been sentenced and taken away to be shot. To save face, the Gestapo office reassures Málek that "the matter has been settled," and Jana carries the reassurance to Vlasta's mother, reaching her just as the Nazis are announcing her son's execution over the town's loudspeakers. In a final scene, at the school, the German teacher, eager to curry favor with the Nazis, insists that Málek deliver a lecture warning his students against the mockery of Heydrich committed by their late classmates. Instead, risking his own life, the teacher declares to the class that "From the standpoint of higher moral principles the murder of a tyrant is not a crime!"	Higher Principle () is a Czech drama film based on the eponymous short story from the book "Silent Barricade" () written by Jan Drda in 1946. 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summarize: Francesco Forgione was born to Grazio Mario Forgione (1860–1946) and Maria Giuseppa Di Nunzio (1859–1929) on May 25, 1887, in Pietrelcina, a town in the province of Benevento, in the Southern Italian region of Campania. His parents were peasant farmers. He was baptized in the nearby Santa Anna Chapel, which stands upon the walls of a castle. He later served as an altar boy in this same chapel. He had an older brother, Michele, and three younger sisters, Felicita, Pellegrina, and Grazia (who was later to become a Bridgettine nun). His parents had two other children who died in infancy. When he was baptized, he was given the name Francesco. He stated that by the time he was five years old, he had already made the decision to dedicate his entire life to God. He worked on the land up to the age of 10, looking after the small flock of sheep the family owned. Pietrelcina was a town where feast days of saints were celebrated throughout the year, and the Forgione family was deeply religious. They attended Mass daily, prayed the Rosary nightly, and abstained from meat three days a Commencing his seven-year study for the priesthood, Fra Pio travelled to the friary of Saint Francis of Assisi in Umbria. At 17, he fell ill, complaining of loss of appetite, insomnia, exhaustion, fainting spells, and migraines. He vomited frequently and could digest only milk and cheese. Religious devotees point to this time that inexplicable phenomena allegedly began to occur. During prayers for example, Pio appeared to others to be in a stupor, as if he were absent. One of Pio's fellow friars later claimed to have seen him in ecstasy, and allegedly levitating above the ground. In June 1905, Pio's health worsened to such an extent that his superiors decided to send him to a mountain convent, in the hope that the change of air would do him good. This had little impact, however, and doctors advised that he return home. Even there his health failed to improve. Despite this, On 27 January 1907, he still made his solemn profession. In 1910, Pio was subsequently ordained a priest by Archbishop Paolo Schinosi at the Cathedral of Benevento. Four days later, he offered his first Mass at the parish church of Our Lady of the Angels. His health being When World War I started, four friars from this community were selected for military service in the Italian army. At that time, Padre Pio was a teacher at the seminary and a spiritual director. When one more friar was called into service, Pio was put in charge of the community. On 15 November 1915, he was drafted and on December 6, assigned to the 10th Medical Corps in Naples. Due to poor health, he was continually discharged and recalled until on 16 March 1918, he was declared unfit for service and discharged completely. People who had started rebuilding their lives after the war began to see in Padre Pio a symbol of hope. Those close to him attest that he began to manifest several spiritual gifts, including the gifts of healing, bilocation, levitation, prophecy, miracles, extraordinary abstinence from both sleep and nourishment (one account states that Padre Agostino recorded By 1925 Pio had converted an old convent building into a medical clinic with a few beds intended primarily for people in extreme need. In 1940, a committee was set-up to establish a bigger clinic and donations started to be made. Construction began in 1947. According to Luzzatto, the bulk of the money for financing the hospital came directly from Brunatto (a keen follower of Pio but who had made his fortune in the black The Vatican initially imposed severe sanctions on Pio in the 1920s to reduce publicity about him: it forbade him from saying Mass in public, blessing people, answering letters, showing his stigmata publicly, and communicating with Padre Benedetto, his spiritual director. The Church authorities decided that Pio be relocated to another convent in northern Italy. The local people threatened to riot, and the Vatican left him where he was. A second plan for removal was also changed. Nevertheless, from 1921 to 1922 he was prevented from publicly performing his priestly duties, such as hearing confessions and saying Mass. From 1924 to 1931, the Holy See made statements denying that the events in Pio's life were due to any divine cause. The pathologist Amico Bignami conducted a medical examination of Father Pio's wounds in Festa was a physician and examined Pio in 1919 and 1920. He was obviously impressed by the fragrance of the stigmata. Festa, as Bignami before A psychiatric examination was conducted by the psychiatrist, Franciscan priest Agostino Gemelli in 1920. He came to the conclusion that Francesco Forgione was a man of "restricted field of knowledge, low psychic energy, monotonous ideas, little volition." Gemelli critically judged Pio: "The case is one of suggestion unconsciously planted by Father Benedetto in the weak mind of Padre Pio, producing those characteristic manifestations of psittacism that are intrinsic to the hysteric mind." On behalf of the Holy Office, Gemelli re-examined Father Pio in 1925, writing a report in April 1926. This time he let Pio show him the wounds. Gemelli saw as its cause the use of a corrosive substance. Pio had attached himself to these wounds. The Jesuit Festa had previously tried to question Gemelli's comments on stigmata in The Bishop of Volterra, Raffaele Rossi, Carmelite, was formally commissioned on June 11, 1921 by the Holy Office to make a canonical inquiry concerning Father Pio. Rossi began his Apostolic Visitation on June 14 in San Giovanni Rotondo with the interrogation of witnesses, two diocesan priests and seven friars. After eight days of investigation, he finally completed a benevolent report, which he sent to the Holy Office on October 4, 1921, the feast of St. Francis of Assisi. The extensive and detailed report essentially stated the following: Father Pio, of whom Rossi had a favorable impression, was a good religious and the San Giovanni Rotondo convent was a good community. Whatever is extraordinary about what Father Pio does that can not be explained, but certainly not by the intervention of the devil, or by deception or dizziness. Public exuberance has declined sharply. During the interviews John XXIII was skeptical of Padre Pio. At the beginning of his tenure, he learned that Father Pio's opponents had placed listening devices in his monastery cell and confessional, recording his confessions with tape. In a semi-official journal note, John XXIII wrote that he prayed for "PP" (Padre Pio) and the discovery by Father Carlo Maccari was Secretary-General of the Diocese of Rome and met Pio nine times altogether. Pio was very suspicious of Maccari, who wrote in his diary: "Reticence, narrowness of mind, lies - these are the weapons he uses to evade my questions... Overall impression: pitiful." Maccari demanded Father Pio's omission to practice kisses after the confession for the lay sisters. In his report, Maccari noted that Pio had inadequate religious education. He works a lot for a man of his age. He is not an ascetic and has many connections to the outside world. In general, there is too much mixing of the "sacred" and the "all too human". Maccari noted Pio was said to have had the gift of reading souls, the ability to bilocate, among other supernatural phenomena. He was said to communicate with angels and worked favors and healings before they were requested of him. The reports of supernatural phenomena surrounding Padre Pio attracted fame and legend. The Vatican was initially skeptical. Based on Pio's correspondence, even early in his priesthood he experienced less obvious indications of the visible stigmata: bodily marks, pain, and bleeding in locations supposedly corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ. In a 1911 letter, he wrote to his spiritual advisor Padre Benedetto from San Marco in Lamis, describing something he had been apparently experiencing for a year: Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain. Already in a letter dated March 21, 1912, to his spiritual companion and confessor, Father Agostino, Father Pio wrote of his devotion to the mystical body of Christ In the 1999 book, "Padre Pio: The Wonder Worker", a segment by Irish priest Malachy Gerard Carroll describes the story of Gemma de Giorgi, a Sicilian girl whose blindness was believed to have been cured during a visit to Padre Pio. Gemma, who was brought to San Giovanni Rotondo in 1947 by her grandmother, During his period of spiritual suffering, his followers believe that Padre Pio was attacked by the devil, both physically and spiritually. His followers also believe that the devil used diabolical tricks in order to increase Padre Pio's torments. These included apparitions as an "angel of light" and the alteration or destruction of letters to and from his spiritual directors. Padre Augustine confirmed this when he said: Now, twenty-two days have passed since Jesus allowed the devils to vent their anger on me. My Father, my whole body is bruised from the beatings that I have received to the present time by our enemies. Several times, they have even World War I continued and in July 1918, Pope Benedict XV, who had termed the World War "the suicide of Europe," appealed to all Christians urging them to pray for an end to the World War. On 27 July of the same year, Padre Pio offered himself as a victim for the end of the war. Days passed and between 5 and 7 August, Padre Pio had a vision in which Christ appeared and pierced his side. As a result, Padre Pio claimed to have received a physical wound in his side. This occurrence is considered as a transverberation or "piercing of the heart", indicating the union of love with God within Christian mysticism. The occasion of transverberation coincided with a seven-week-long period of spiritual unrest for Padre Pio. One of his Capuchin brothers said this of his state during that period: During this time his entire appearance looked altered as if he had died. He was constantly weeping and sighing, saying that God had forsaken him. In a letter from Padre Pio to Padre Benedetto, dated 21 August 1918, In 1947, Father Karol Józef Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II) visited Padre Pio, who heard his confession. Austrian Cardinal Alfons Stickler reported that Wojtyła confided to him that during this meeting, Padre Pio told him he would one day ascend to "the highest post in the church though further confirmation is needed." Stickler said that Wojtyła believed that By 1933, the tide began to turn. Pope Pius XI ordered a reversal of the ban on Padre Pio's public celebration of Mass, arguing, "I have not been badly disposed toward Padre Pio, but I have been badly informed." In 1934, Pio died in 1968 at the age of 81. His health deteriorated in the 1960s but he continued his spiritual works. On 21 September 1968, the day after the 50th anniversary of his receiving the stigmata, Padre Pio felt great fatigue. The next day, on September 22, 1968, he was supposed to offer a Solemn Mass, but feeling weak, he asked his superior if he might say a Low Mass instead, as he had done daily for years. Due to the large number of pilgrims present for the Mass, Padre Pio's superior decided the Solemn Mass must proceed. Padre Pio carried out his duties but appeared extremely weak and fragile. His voice was weak and, after the Mass had concluded, he nearly collapsed while walking down the altar In 1971, three years after his death, Pope Paul VI said to the superiors of the Capuchin Order about Pio: In 1982, the Holy See authorized the archbishop of Manfredonia to open an investigation to determine whether Pio should be canonized. The investigation continued for seven years. In 1990 Pio was declared a Servant of God, the first step in the process of canonization. The investigation, however, did not lead to any public factual clearance by the Church on his previous 'excommunication' or on the allegations that his stigmata were not of a supernatural kind. Moreover, Pio's stigmata were remarkably left out of the obligatory investigations for the canonization process, in order to avoid obstacles prohibiting a successful closure. Beginning in 1990, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints debated how Padre Pio had lived his life, and in 1997 Pope John Paul II declared him venerable. A discussion of the effects of his life on others followed. Cases were studied such as a reported cure of an Italian woman, Consiglia de Martino, associated with Padre Pio's intercession. In 1999, on the advice of the Congregation, John Paul II declared Padre Pio blessed. A media offensive by the Capuchins was able to realise a broad acceptation of the contested saint in society. After further consideration of Padre Pio's virtues and ability to do good even after his death, including discussion of another healing attributed to his intercession, John Paul II declared Padre Pio a saint on 16 June 2002. An estimated 300,000 people attended the canonization ceremony in Rome. On 1 July 2004, John Paul II dedicated the Sanctuary of Saint Pio of Pietrelcina (sometimes referred as "Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church"), built in the village of San Giovanni Rotondo to the memory of Saint Pio of Pietrelcina. On 3 March 2008, the body of Pio was exhumed from his crypt, forty years after his death, so that his remains could be prepared for display. A church statement described the body as being in "fair condition". Archbishop Domenico Umberto D'Ambrosio, Papal legate to the shrine in San Giovanni Rotondo, stated "the top part of the skull is partly skeletal but the chin is perfect and the rest of the body is well preserved". Archbishop D’Ambrosio also confirmed in a communiqué that “the stigmata are not visible.” He said that Pio's hands "looked like they had just undergone a manicure". It was hoped that morticians would be able to restore the face so that it will be recognizable. However, because of its deterioration, his face was covered with a lifelike silicone mask. Cardinal José Saraiva Martins, prefect for the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints, celebrated Mass for 15,000 devotees on April 24 at the Shrine of Holy Mary of Grace, San Giovanni Rotondo, before the body went on display in a crystal, marble, and silver sepulcher in the crypt of the monastery. Padre Pio is wearing his brown Capuchin habit with a white silk stole embroidered with crystals and gold thread. His hands hold a large wooden cross. 800,000 pilgrims worldwide, mostly from Italy, made reservations to view the body up to December 2008, but only 7,200 people a day were able to file past the crystal coffin. Officials extended the display through September, 2009. Pio's remains were placed in the church of Saint Pio, which is beside San Giovanni Rotondo. In April 2010 they were moved to a special golden "Cripta". A statue of Pio in Messina, Sicily attracted attention in 2002 when it supposedly wept tears of blood. Saint Pio of Pietrelcina is known as the patron saint of civil defence volunteers, after a group of 160 petitioned the Italian Bishops’ conference for this designation. The bishops forwarded the request to the Vatican, which gave its approval to the designation. He is also “less officially” known as the patron saint of stress relief and the “January blues,” after the Catholic Enquiry Office in London proclaimed him as such. They designated the most depressing day of the year, identified as January 22, as Don't Worry Be Happy Day, in honor of Padre Pio's famous advice: “Pray, hope, and don’t worry.” Padre Pio has become one of the world's most popular saints. There are more than 3,000 "Padre Pio Prayer Groups" worldwide, with three million members. The first St Padre Pio parish http://www.stpp.church/home.html in the world was established 16 June 2002 in Kleinburg, Ontario, Canada. There are parishes in Vineland and Lavallette, New Jersey, and Sydney, Australia, and shrines in Buena, New Jersey, and Santo Tomas, Batangas, Philippines, dedicated to Padre Pio. A 2006 survey by the magazine "Famiglia Cristiana" found that more Italian Catholics pray to Padre Pio for intercession than to any other figure. It was announced in 2009 that a renewable energy statue of Padre Pio was to be built on a hill near the town of San Giovanni Rotondo in the south-eastern province of Apulia, Italy, the town where he is commemorated. The project would cost several million pounds, with the money to be raised from the saint's devotees around the world. The statue would be coated in a special photovoltaic paint, enabling it to trap the sun's heat and produce solar energy, making it an "ecological" religious icon. The remains of Saint Pio were brought to the Vatican for veneration during the 2015–2016 Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy. Saint Pio and Saint Leopold Mandic were designated as saint-confessors to inspire people to become reconciled to the Church and to God, by the confession of their sins.	Padre Pio, also known as Saint Pio of Pietrelcina (), (25 May 188723 September 1968), was an Italian friar, priest, stigmatist and mystic, now venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. 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summarize: Childhood friends Bill Gates and Paul Allen sought to make a business utilizing their shared skills in computer programming. In 1972, they founded Traf-O-Data which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data. Gates enrolled at Harvard while Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out of school to work at Honeywell. The January 1975 issue of "Popular Electronics" featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems's (MITS) Altair 8800 microcomputer, which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device. Gates called MITS and claimed that he had a working interpreter, and MITS requested a demonstration. Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter, and it worked flawlessly when they demonstrated it to MITS in March 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico. MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC. Gates and Allen established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as the CEO, and Allen suggested the name "Micro-Soft", short for micro-computer software. In Microsoft released Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985 as a graphical extension for MS-DOS, despite having begun jointly developing OS/2 with IBM the previous August. Microsoft moved its headquarters from Bellevue to Redmond, Washington on February 26, 1986 and went public on March 13, with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987. In 1990, the Federal Trade Commission examined Microsoft for possible collusion due to the partnership with IBM, marking the beginning of more than a decade of legal clashes with the government. Meanwhile, the company was at work on Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code. It shipped on July 21, Following Bill Gates' internal "Internet Tidal Wave memo" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. With a few exceptions of new companies, like Netscape, Microsoft was the only major and established company that acted fast enough to be a part of the World Wide Web practically from the start. Other companies like Borland, WordPerfect, Novell, IBM and Lotus, being much slower to adapt to the new situation, would give Microsoft Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero. Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a "Ribbon" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007. The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers. Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that "these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved". 2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM. Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language. Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011. A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012, and released to the public On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division. On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor. Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft's history. On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion. This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy. On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for "Minecraft", for $2.5 billion. On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub. On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016. In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all). While a The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies. Members of the board of directors as of January 2018 are Bill Gates, Satya Nadella, Reid Hoffman, Hugh Johnston, Teri List-Stoll, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, Sandi Peterson, Penny Pritzker, Charles Scharf, Arne Sorenson, John W. Stanton, John W. Thompson and Padmasree Warrior. Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system. There are five committees within the board which oversee more specific When Microsoft went public and launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75. As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today, given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents. The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928, adjusting for splits). The company began to offer a dividend on January In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e. lower TCO). This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products. Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were "simply outdated and one-sided" and their survey In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees. Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay off ever. This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel. Previously, Microsoft had eliminated 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with the Great Recession of 2008–2017. In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle–Redmond Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix. A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U.S. government. Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft. According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007. However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: During the first six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts. In December 2013, the company made statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that "government snooping Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as "Microsoft Systems Journal" (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN). MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software. In April 2004 Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum. Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006. Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and CompuServe in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product. Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits. Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression "eating your own dog food" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in an effort In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today," and called on "Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers." In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers. Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace's "Guide to Greener Electronics" (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change. Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is The corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington. Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13. The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment. It On October 26, 2015, the company opened its retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City. The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet. As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the Microsoft adopted the so-called ""Pac-Man" Logo", designed by Scott Baker, in 1987. Baker stated "The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the "o" and "s" to emphasize the "soft" part of the name and convey motion and speed." Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter "O", nicknamed the "blibbet", but it was discarded. Microsoft's logo with the tagline ""Your potential. Our passion."" — below the main corporate name — is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008. In 2002, the company started using the The company was the official jersey During the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's president Smith announced that an initial batch of supplies,	Microsoft Corporation () is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports, and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. In 2016, it was the world's largest software maker by revenue (currently Alphabet/Google has more revenue). The word "Microsoft" is a portmanteau of "microcomputer" and "software". Microsoft is ranked No. 30 in the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. It is considered one of the Big Five technology companies alongside Amazon, Apple, Google, and Facebook.	en	en	169	[ 250004, 250054, 123829, 44462, 23902, 19893, 126507, 136, 10208, 87416, 221, 46526, 47, 3249, 10, 8063, 19537, 35401, 2363, 99764, 59376, 23, 13909, 56037, 449, 5, 360, 29172, 4, 1836, 14037, 297, 4937, 420, 9, 670, 9, 137989, 3129, 54324, 10, 6, 44720, 53470, 53, 13909, 47, 28560, 136, 7968, 53, 731, 153532, 83629, 2053, 5, 126507, 22, 27722, 297, 99, 107154, 12960, 87416, 237360, 71, 10, 79385, 23, 13909, 41664, 99, 17955, 22836, 12535, 4, 21208, 764, 14432, 36069, 20051, 1810, 111, 10696, 47, 4488, 99, 126112, 19256, 5, 581, 18982, 26527, 31089, 111, 44, 127642, 35975, 87673, 7, 58, 60213, 71, 37992, 73750, 2320, 136, 10142, 1928, 1294, 84837, 25, 7, 15, 95409, 294, 16, 44492, 481, 382, 10253, 11948, 164511, 4, 3129, 191722, 87416, 47, 42459, 450, 1836, 5809, 1528, 10, 96971, 16259, 29481, 56, 100, 70, 75186, 5, 126507, 35839, 78999, 294, 136, 63043, 297, 450, 764, 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summarize: The first law of thermodynamics was developed empirically over about half a century. A main aspect of the struggle was to deal with the previously proposed caloric theory of heat. In 1840, Germain Hess stated a conservation law for the so-called 'heat of reaction' for chemical reactions. His law was later recognized as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, but Hess's statement was not explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and work. In 1842, Julius Robert von Mayer made a statement that has been rendered by Truesdell (1980) in the words "in a process at constant pressure, the heat used to produce expansion is universally interconvertible with work", but this is not a general statement of the first law. The first full statements of the law came in 1850 from Rudolf Clausius and from William Rankine; Rankine's statement is considered less distinct relative to Clausius'. The original nineteenth century statements of the first law of thermodynamics appeared in a conceptual framework in which transfer of energy as heat was taken as a primitive notion, not defined or constructed by the theoretical development of the framework, but rather presupposed as prior to it and already accepted. The primitive notion of heat was taken as empirically established, especially through calorimetry regarded as a subject in its own right, prior to thermodynamics. Jointly primitive with this notion of heat were the notions of empirical temperature and thermal equilibrium. This framework also took as primitive the notion of transfer of energy as work. This framework did not presume a concept of energy in general, but regarded it as derived or synthesized from the prior notions of heat and work. By one author, this framework has been called the "thermodynamic" approach. The first explicit statement of the In 1907, George H. Bryan wrote about systems between which there is no transfer of matter (closed systems): "Definition. When energy flows from one system or part of a system to another otherwise than by the performance of mechanical work, the energy so transferred is called "heat"." This definition may be regarded as expressing a conceptual revision, as follows. This was systematically expounded in 1909 by Constantin Carathéodory, whose attention had been drawn to it by Max Born. Largely through Born's influence, this revised conceptual approach to the definition of heat came to be preferred by many twentieth-century writers. It might be called the "mechanical approach". Energy can also be transferred from one thermodynamic system to another in association with transfer of matter. Born points out that in general such energy transfer is not resolvable uniquely into work and heat moieties. In general, when there is transfer of energy associated with matter transfer, work and heat transfers The revised statement of the first law postulates that a change in the internal energy of a system due to any arbitrary process, that takes the system from a given initial thermodynamic state to a given final equilibrium thermodynamic state, can be determined through the physical existence, for those given states, of a reference process that occurs purely through stages of adiabatic work. The revised statement is then This statement is much less close to the empirical basis than are the original statements, but is often regarded as conceptually parsimonious in that it rests only on the concepts of adiabatic work and of non-adiabatic processes, not on the concepts of transfer of energy as heat and of The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system was expressed in two ways by Clausius. One way referred to cyclic processes and the inputs and outputs of the system, but did not refer to increments in the internal state of the system. The other way referred to an incremental change in the internal state of the system, and did not expect the process to be cyclic. A cyclic process is one that can be repeated indefinitely often, returning the system to its initial state. Of particular interest for In a non-cyclic process, the change in the internal energy of a system is equal to net energy added as heat to the system minus the net work done by the system, both being measured in mechanical units. Taking as a change in internal energy, one writes where denotes the net quantity of heat supplied to the system by its surroundings and denotes the net work done by the system. This sign convention is implicit in Clausius' statement of the law given above. It originated with the study of heat engines that produce useful work by consumption of heat. Often nowadays, however, writers use the IUPAC convention by which the first law is formulated with work done on the system by its surroundings having a positive sign. With this now often used sign convention for work, the first law for a closed system may be written: This convention follows physicists such as Max Planck, The law is of great importance and generality and is consequently thought of from several points of view. Most careful textbook statements of the law express it for closed systems. It is stated in several ways, sometimes even by the same author. For the thermodynamics of closed systems, the distinction between transfers of energy as work and as heat is central and is within the scope of the present article. For the thermodynamics of open systems, such a distinction is beyond the scope of the present article, but some limited comments are made on it in the section below headed 'First law of thermodynamics for open systems'. There are two main ways of stating a law of thermodynamics, physically or mathematically. They should be logically coherent and consistent with one another. An example of a physical statement is that of Planck (1897/1903): This physical statement is restricted neither to closed systems nor to systems with states that are strictly defined only for thermodynamic equilibrium; it has meaning also for open systems and for systems with states that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. An example of a mathematical statement is that of Crawford (1963): This statement by Crawford, for, uses the sign convention of IUPAC, not that of Clausius. Though it does not explicitly say so, this statement refers to closed systems, and to internal energy defined for bodies in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, which possess well-defined temperatures. The history of statements of the law for closed systems has two main periods, before and after the work of Bryan (1907), of Carathéodory (1909), and the approval of Carathéodory's work given by Born (1921). The earlier traditional versions of the law for closed systems are nowadays often considered to be out of date. Carathéodory's celebrated presentation of equilibrium thermodynamics refers to closed systems, which are allowed to contain several phases connected by internal walls of various kinds of impermeability and permeability (explicitly including walls that are permeable only to heat). Carathéodory's 1909 version of the first law of thermodynamics was stated in an axiom which refrained from defining or mentioning temperature or quantity of heat transferred. That axiom stated that the internal energy of a phase in equilibrium is a function of state, that the sum of the internal energies of the phases is the total internal energy of the system, and that the value of the total internal energy of the system is changed by the amount of work done adiabatically on it, considering work as a form of energy. That article considered this statement to be The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems was originally induced from empirically observed evidence, including calorimetric evidence. It is nowadays, however, taken to provide the definition of heat via the law of conservation of energy and the definition of work in terms of changes in the external parameters of a system. The original discovery of the law was gradual over a period of perhaps half a century or more, and some early studies were in terms of cyclic processes. The following is an account in terms of changes of state of a closed system through compound processes that are not necessarily cyclic. This account first considers processes for which the first law is easily verified because of their simplicity, namely adiabatic processes (in which there is no transfer as heat) and adynamic processes (in which there is no transfer as work). In an adiabatic process, there is transfer of energy as work but not as heat. For all adiabatic process that takes a system from a given initial state to a given final state, irrespective of how the work is done, the respective eventual total quantities of energy transferred as work are one and the same, determined just by the given initial and final states. The work done on the system is defined and measured by changes in mechanical or quasi-mechanical variables external to the system. Physically, adiabatic transfer of energy as work requires the existence of adiabatic enclosures. For instance, in Joule's experiment, the initial system is a tank of water with a paddle wheel inside. If we isolate the tank thermally, and move the paddle wheel with a pulley and a weight, we can relate the increase in temperature with the distance descended by the mass. A complementary observable aspect of the first law is about heat transfer. Adynamic transfer of energy as heat can be measured empirically by changes in the surroundings of the system of interest by calorimetry. This again requires the existence of adiabatic enclosure of the entire process, system and surroundings, though the separating wall between the surroundings and the system is thermally conductive or radiatively permeable, not adiabatic. A calorimeter can rely on measurement of sensible heat, which requires the existence of thermometers and measurement of temperature change in bodies of known sensible heat capacity under specified conditions; or it can rely on the measurement of latent heat, through measurement of Heat transfer is practically reversible when it is driven by practically negligibly small temperature gradients. Work transfer is practically reversible when it occurs so slowly that there are no frictional effects within the system; frictional effects outside the system should also be zero if the process is to be globally reversible. For a particular reversible process in general, the work done reversibly on the system, formula_29, and the heat transferred reversibly to the system, If, in a process of change of state of a closed system, the energy transfer is not under a practically zero temperature gradient and practically frictionless, then the process is irreversible. Then the heat and work transfers may be difficult to calculate, and irreversible thermodynamics is called for. Nevertheless, the first law still The first law of thermodynamics is so general that its predictions cannot all be directly tested. In many properly conducted experiments it has been precisely supported, and never violated. Indeed, within its scope of applicability, the law is so reliably established, that, nowadays, rather than experiment When the heat and work transfers in the equations above are infinitesimal in magnitude, they are often denoted by, rather than exact differentials denoted by, as a reminder that heat and work do not describe the "state" of any system. The integral of an inexact differential depends upon the particular path taken through the space of thermodynamic parameters while the integral of an exact differential depends only upon the initial and final states. If the initial and final states are the same, then the integral of an inexact differential may or may not be zero, but the integral of an exact differential is always zero. The path taken by a thermodynamic system through a chemical or physical change is known as a thermodynamic process. The first law for a closed homogeneous system may be stated in terms that include concepts that are established in the second law. The internal energy may then be expressed as a function of the system's defining state variables, entropy, and, volume:. In these terms,, the system's temperature, and, its pressure, are partial derivatives of with respect to and. These variables are important throughout thermodynamics, though not necessary for the statement of the first law. Rigorously, they are defined only when the system is in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. For some purposes, the concepts provide good approximations for scenarios sufficiently near to the system's internal thermodynamic equilibrium. The first law requires that: Then, for the fictive case of a reversible process, can be written in terms of exact differentials. One may imagine reversible changes, such that there is at each instant negligible departure from thermodynamic equilibrium within the system. This excludes isochoric work. Then, mechanical work is given by and the quantity of heat added can be expressed as. For these conditions While this has been shown here for reversible changes, it is valid in general, as can be considered as a thermodynamic state function of the defining state variables and : Equation (2) is known as the fundamental thermodynamic relation for a closed system in the energy representation, for which the defining state variables are and, with respect Classical thermodynamics is initially focused on closed homogeneous systems (e.g. Planck 1897/1903), which might be regarded as 'zero-dimensional' in the sense that they have no spatial variation. But it is desired to study also systems with distinct internal motion and spatial inhomogeneity. For such systems, the principle of conservation of energy is expressed in terms not only of internal energy as defined for homogeneous systems, but also in terms of kinetic energy and potential energies of parts of the inhomogeneous system with respect to each other and with respect to long-range external forces. How the total energy of a system is allocated between these three more specific kinds of energy varies according to the purposes of different writers; this is because these components of energy are to some extent mathematical artefacts rather than actually measured physical quantities. For any closed homogeneous component of an inhomogeneous closed system, if formula_45 denotes the total For the first law of thermodynamics, there is no trivial passage of physical conception from the closed system view to an open system view. For closed systems, the concepts of an adiabatic enclosure and of an adiabatic wall are fundamental. Matter and internal energy cannot permeate or penetrate such a wall. For an open system, there is a wall that allows penetration by matter. In general, matter in diffusive motion carries with it some internal energy, and some microscopic potential energy changes accompany the motion. An open system is not adiabatically enclosed. There are some cases in which a process for an open system can, for particular purposes, be considered as if it were for a closed system. In an open system, by definition hypothetically or potentially, matter can pass between the system and its surroundings. But when, in a particular case, the process of interest involves only hypothetical or potential but no actual passage of matter, the process can be considered as if it were for a closed system. Since the revised and more rigorous definition of the internal energy of a closed system rests upon the possibility of processes by which adiabatic work takes the system from one state to another, this leaves a problem for the definition of internal energy for an open system, for which adiabatic work is not in general possible. According to Max Born, the transfer of matter and energy across an open connection "cannot be reduced to mechanics". In contrast to the case of closed systems, for open systems, in the presence of diffusion, there is no unconstrained and unconditional physical distinction between convective transfer of internal energy by bulk flow of matter, the transfer of internal energy without transfer of matter (usually called heat conduction and work transfer), and change of various potential energies. The older traditional way and the conceptually revised (Carathéodory) way agree that there is no physically unique definition of heat and work transfer processes between open systems. In particular, between two otherwise isolated open systems an adiabatic wall is by definition impossible. This problem is solved by recourse to the principle of conservation of energy. This principle allows a composite isolated system to be derived from two other component non-interacting isolated systems, in such a A system connected to its surroundings only through contact by a single permeable wall, but otherwise isolated, is an open system. If it is initially in a state of contact equilibrium with a surrounding subsystem, a thermodynamic process of transfer of matter can be made to occur between them if the surrounding subsystem is subjected to some thermodynamic operation, for example, removal of a partition between it and some further surrounding subsystem. The removal of the partition in the surroundings initiates a process of exchange between the system and its contiguous surrounding subsystem. An example is evaporation. One may consider an open system consisting of a collection of liquid, enclosed except where it is allowed to evaporate into or to receive condensate from its vapor above it, which may be considered as its contiguous surrounding subsystem, and subject to control of its volume and temperature. A An open system can be in contact equilibrium with several other systems at once. This includes cases in which there is contact equilibrium between the system, and several subsystems in its surroundings, including separate connections with subsystems through walls that are permeable to the transfer of matter and internal energy as heat and allowing friction of passage of the transferred matter, but immovable, and separate connections through adiabatic walls with others, and separate connections through diathermic walls impermeable to matter with yet others. Because there are physically separate connections that are permeable to energy but impermeable to matter, between the system and its surroundings, energy transfers between them can occur with definite heat and work characters. Conceptually essential here is that the internal energy transferred with the transfer of matter is measured by a variable that is mathematically independent of the variables that measure heat and work. With such independence of variables, the total increase of internal energy in the process is then determined as the sum of the internal energy transferred from the surroundings with the transfer of matter through the walls that are permeable to it, and of the internal energy transferred to the system as heat through the diathermic walls, and of the energy transferred to the system as work through the adiabatic walls, including the energy transferred to the system by long-range forces. These simultaneously transferred quantities of energy are defined by events in the surroundings of the system. Because the internal energy transferred with matter is not in general uniquely resolvable into heat and work components, the total energy transfer cannot in general be uniquely resolved into heat and work components. Under these conditions, the following formula can describe the process in terms of externally defined thermodynamic variables, as a statement of the first law of thermodynamics: where Δ"U" denotes the change of internal energy of the system, and denotes the change of internal energy of the of the surrounding subsystems that are in open contact with the system, due to transfer between the system and that surrounding subsystem, and denotes the internal energy transferred as heat from the heat reservoir of the surroundings to the system, and denotes the energy transferred from the system to the surrounding subsystems that are in adiabatic connection with it. The case of a wall that is permeable to matter and can move so as to allow transfer of energy as work is not considered here. The transfer of energy between an open system and a single contiguous subsystem of its surroundings is considered also in non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The problem of definition arises also in this case. It may be allowed that the wall between the system and the subsystem is not only permeable to matter and to internal energy, but also may be movable so as to allow work to be done when the two systems have different pressures. In this case, the transfer of energy as heat is not defined. Methods for study of non-equilibrium processes mostly deal with spatially continuous flow systems. In this case, the open connection between system and surroundings is usually taken to fully surround the system, so that there are no separate connections impermeable to matter but permeable to heat. Except for the special case mentioned above when there is no actual transfer of matter, which can be treated as if for a closed system, in strictly defined thermodynamic terms, it follows that transfer of energy as heat is not defined. In this sense, there is no such thing as 'heat flow' for a continuous-flow open system. Properly, for closed systems, one speaks of transfer of internal energy as heat, but in general, for open systems, one can speak safely only of transfer of internal energy. A factor here is that there are often cross-effects between distinct transfers, for example that transfer of one substance may cause transfer of another even when the latter has zero chemical potential gradient. Usually transfer between a system and its surroundings applies to transfer of a state variable, and obeys a balance law, that the amount lost by the donor system is equal to the amount gained by the receptor system. Heat is not a state variable. For his 1947 definition of "heat transfer" for discrete open systems, the author Prigogine carefully explains at some length that his definition of it does not obey a balance law. He describes this as paradoxical. The situation is clarified by Gyarmati, who shows that his definition of "heat transfer", for continuous-flow systems, really refers not specifically to heat, but rather to transfer of internal energy, as follows. He considers a conceptual small cell in a situation of continuous-flow as a system defined in the so-called Lagrangian way, moving with the local center of mass. 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summarize: Accenture began as the business and technology consulting division of accounting firm Arthur Andersen in the early 1950s when it conducted a feasibility study for General Electric to install a computer at Appliance Park in Louisville, Kentucky, which led to GE's installation of a UNIVAC I computer and printer, believed to be the first commercial use of a computer in the U.S. Joseph Glickauf, an early pioneer of computer consulting, held a position as head of Arthur Andersen's administrative services division. In 1989, Arthur Andersen and Andersen Consulting became separate units of Andersen Worldwide Société Coopérative (AWSC). Throughout the 1990s, there was increasing tension between Andersen Consulting and Arthur Andersen. Andersen Consulting was paying Arthur Andersen up to 15% of its profits each year (a provision of the 1989 split was that the more profitable unit – whether AA or AC – pay the other the 15 percent), while at the same time Arthur Andersen was competing with Andersen Consulting through its own newly established business consulting service line called Arthur Andersen Business Consulting (AABC). This dispute came to a head in 1998 when Andersen Consulting put the 15% transfer payment for that year and future years into escrow and issued a claim for breach of contract against AWSC and Arthur Andersen. In August 2000, as a result of the conclusion of arbitration with the International Chamber of Commerce, Andersen Consulting broke all contractual ties with AWSC and Arthur Andersen. As part of the arbitration settlement, Andersen Consulting paid the sum held in escrow (then $1.2 billion) to Arthur Andersen, and was required to change its name, resulting in the entity being renamed Accenture. On 1 January 2001, Andersen Consulting adopted its current name, "Accenture". The word "Accenture" is derived from "Accent on the future". The name "Accenture" was submitted by Kim Petersen, a Danish employee from the company's Oslo, Norway office, as a result of an internal competition. Andersen felt that the name should represent its will to be a global consulting leader and high performer, and also intended that the name should not be offensive in any country in which Accenture operates. On 19 July 2001, Accenture's initial public offering (IPO) was priced at $14.50 per share, and the shares began trading on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE); Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley served as its lead underwriters. Accenture stock closed the day at $15.17, with the day's high at $15.25. On the first day of the IPO, Accenture raised nearly $1.7 billion. In October 2002, the Congressional General Accounting Office (GAO) identified Accenture as one of four publicly traded federal contractors that were incorporated in a tax haven. The other three, unlike Accenture, were incorporated in the United States before they re-incorporated in a tax haven, thereby lowering their US taxes. Critics, most notably former CNN journalist Lou Dobbs, have reported Accenture's decision to incorporate in Bermuda as a US tax avoidance ploy, because they viewed Accenture as having been a US-based company. The GAO itself did not characterize Accenture as having been a US-based company; it stated that "prior to incorporating in Bermuda, Accenture was operating as a series of related partnerships and corporations under the control of its partners through the mechanism of contracts with a Swiss coordinating entity." Accenture engaged in an IT overhaul project for the National Health Service (NHS) in 2003, making headlines when it withdrew from the contract in 2006 over disputes related to delays and cost overruns. The government of the United Kingdom ultimately abandoned the project five years later for the same reasons. Accenture announced on 26 May 2009 that its board of directors unanimously approved changing the company's place of incorporation from Bermuda to Ireland and would become Accenture plc. In 2012 it was revealed Accenture was paying only 3.5% in tax in the Republic of Ireland as opposed to the average rate of 24%. Accenture was chosen to replace CGI Group as the lead contractor for HealthCare.gov in January 2014. In December 2014, Accenture won a $563 million contract to provide ongoing maintenance, software development and technology support for HealthCare.gov through 2019. In July 2015, the United States Department of Defense awarded a major Electronic Health Records contract to Cerner, Leidos and Accenture. The contract valued $4.33 billion will serve 55 hospitals and 600 clinics. Accenture Federal Services and Leidos will play the role of configuration specialist, while Cerner is the prime contractor. On 29 August 2017, Apple Inc. announced a partnership with Accenture to create iOS business software. In June 2018, Accenture generated controversy over the amount the firm has been charging to recruit 7,500 Customs and Border Protection officers. Under the $297 million contract, Accenture had been charging the US Government nearly $40,000 per hire, which is more than the annual salary of the average officer. According to a report published by the DHS Office of Inspector General in December 2018, Accenture had been paid $13.6M through the first ten months of the contract. They had hired two agents against a contract goal of 7,500 hires over 5 years. The report was issued as a'management alert', indicating an issue requiring immediate attention, stating that "Accenture has already taken longer to deploy and delivered less capability than promised". In January 2019, CEO Pierre Nanterme stepped down from his position, citing health reasons. Twenty days after stepping down, he died in France at the age of 59 after being diagnosed with colon cancer. Chief Financial Officer David Rowland was named as the interim CEO. In July 2019, Julie Sweet, previously CEO of Accenture North America, was named the new chief executive officer of the firm, effective September 2019. She replaced the interim CEO, David Rowland. In February 2019, contractors from Accenture's Austin, Texas location who performed content moderation tasks for Facebook wrote an open letter to Facebook describing poor working conditions and a "Big Brother environment" that included restricted work breaks and strict non-disclosure agreements. A counselor in the Austin office stated that the content moderators could develop posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of the work, which included evaluating videos and images containing graphic violence, hate speech, animal abuse, and child abuse. On 7 January 2020, news sources reported that Accenture had agreed to acquire Symantec's 300-person cybersecurity services division from Broadcom. In February 2020, Accenture announced that it plans to shut down its media auditing by the end of August. The company also announced the appointment of Jean-Marc Ollagnier as CEO for Europe. In March 2020, Accenture announced that it has agreed to acquire Munich-based ESR Labs, a company that develops embedded software for German car brands and suppliers. In April 2020, Accenture acquired critical infrastructure protection firm Revolutionary Security for an undisclosed amount. In May 2020, Accenture announced that it had acquired Callisto Integration, a Canada-based provider of consulting and technology services and Byte Prophecy, an Ahmedabad-based data analytics company. In June 2020, Accenture finalized its acquisition of Gekko, a France-based Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud services company. The deal improved Accenture's cloud and artificial intelligence leadership position; enhanced its existing alliances with technology suppliers, including industry partners such as Amazon, Google and Microsoft; and complemented the cloud transformation experience and strategic priorities of the Accenture AWS Business Group (AABG) in France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. For the fiscal year 2019, Accenture reported earnings of US$6.305 billion, with an annual revenue of US$43.215 billion, an increase of 5.4% over the previous fiscal cycle. Accenture's shares traded at over $197 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$125.1 billion in November 2019. In 2011, Accenture launched a new campaign of results-based advertisements featuring clients such as Marriott, Unilever and the Royal Shakespeare Company alongside its slogan "High performance Delivered". As of 2019, Interbrand ranked Accenture No. 31 on its list of best global brands. The brand consultancy noted Accenture's focus on branding and marketing of its Accenture Strategy, Accenture Consulting, Accenture Digital, Accenture Technology and Accenture Operations divisions. From at least 2005 until December 2009, Accenture used Tiger Woods as a celebrity spokesperson and advertised using the service mark "Go on, be a Tiger" and the ancillary statement "We know what it takes to be a Tiger" in association with his image. On 13 December 2009 after details of Woods' extra-marital affairs were exposed, the company terminated Woods' six-year sponsorship deal. The company uses a standardised system of branding, with extensive use of the font Graphik. From 1999, the firm's culture was parodied by the webcomic "Bigtime Consulting", operated pseudonymously by its San Francisco-based employee James Sanchez. Accenture has implemented policies to reduce gendered discrimination such as gender neutral bathrooms and gender neutral dress-codes. As of 2019, Accenture is currently engaged in a lawsuit with The Hertz Corporation. Hertz sued Accenture in April over a contract where Accenture was hired to build a website and app for Hertz. On 12 September, both parties appeared before the judge and provided oral arguments on the legitimacy of Hertz's complaint and Accenture's motion to dismiss. On 15 November, fact discovery is likely to be completed according to schedule, with expert witness depositions finished by 31 January 2020, and a pre-trial conference on 21 February.	Accenture plc, stylised as accenture, is an Irish-domiciled multinational professional services company. A Fortune Global 500 company, it has been incorporated in Dublin, Ireland since 1 September 2009. In 2019, the company reported revenues of $43.2 billion, with more than 492,000 employees serving clients in more than 200 cities in 120 countries. In 2015, the company had about 150,000 employees in India, 48,000 in the US, and 50,000 in the Philippines. Accenture's current clients include 91 of the Fortune Global 100 and more than three-quarters of the Fortune Global 500.	en	en	106	[ 250004, 250054, 29899, 33, 6644, 80723, 237, 70, 8063, 136, 55556, 75463, 214, 91853, 111, 15426, 214, 11037, 79281, 78821, 23, 70, 39395, 27631, 7, 3229, 442, 55080, 297, 10, 3820, 1544, 83259, 35187, 100, 9082, 89917, 47, 20600, 10, 13909, 99, 5659, 87587, 5227, 23, 37405, 10745, 4, 229879, 4, 3129, 12441, 47, 45053, 25, 7, 59720, 111, 10, 67569, 156662, 87, 13909, 136, 110264, 4, 18822, 71, 47, 186, 70, 5117, 60091, 4527, 111, 10, 13909, 23, 70, 345, 5, 294, 5, 33876, 19059, 238, 100110, 4, 142, 39395, 53918, 11226, 111, 13909, 75463, 214, 4, 34658, 10, 19069, 237, 10336, 111, 79281, 78821, 25, 7, 86757, 11374, 91853, 5, 360, 13501, 4, 79281, 78821, 136, 78821, 149512, 100512, 84797, 25072, 7, 111, 78821, 6661, 113458, 203106, 1311, 152522, 4935, 15, 85049, 14495, 194, 194397, 6056, 70, 11704, 7, 4, 2685, 509, 118055, 63672, 17721, 78821, 149512, 136, 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summarize: One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work "Pneumatica", Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck. Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the "phlogiston theory", which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl Polish alchemist, philosopher, and physician Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój) in his work "De Lapide Philosophorum Tractatus duodecim e naturae fonte et manuali experientia depromti" (1604) described a substance contained in air, referring to it as 'cibus vitae' (food of life), and this substance is identical with oxygen. Sendivogius, during his experiments performed between 1598 and 1604, properly recognized that the substance is equivalent to the gaseous byproduct released by the thermal decomposition of potassium nitrate. In Bugaj's view, the isolation of oxygen and the proper association of the substance to that part of air which is required for life, lends sufficient weight to the discovery of oxygen by Sendivogius. This discovery of Sendivogius was however frequently denied by the generations of scientists and chemists which succeeded him. It is also commonly claimed that oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates in 1771–2. Scheele called the gas "fire air" because it was then the only Lavoisier conducted the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works. He used these and similar experiments, all started in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element. In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion were John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, leading to the conclusion that the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases. By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied and its components isolated by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on December At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas with the molecular formula, referred to as dioxygen. As "dioxygen", two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. The bond can be variously described based on level of theory, but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms, the filling of which results in a bond order of two. More specifically, the double bond is the result of sequential, low-to-high energy, or Aufbau, filling of orbitals, and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons, after sequential filling of the low σ and σ orbitals; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O-O molecular axis and overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O-O molecular axis, and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest and orbitals. This combination of cancellations and σ and overlaps results in dioxygen's double bond character The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen,, the major part of the Earth's atmospheric oxygen (see Occurrence). O has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol, which is smaller than the energy of other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in the biosphere and responsible for the exothermic reaction of O with any organic molecule. Due to its energy content, O is used by complex forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration. Other aspects of are covered in the remainder of this article. Trioxygen () is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen, and in freshwater more readily than seawater. Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved for every 2 molecules of (1:2), compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L). At 25 °C and of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, and seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter. At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes, O, O, and O, with O being the most abundant (99.762% natural abundance). Most O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in massive stars but some is made in the neon burning process. O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle, making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars. Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% by volume) and Venus have much less. The Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine the climate millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope, oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12% heavier oxygen-18, and this disparity increases at lower temperatures. During periods of lower global temperatures, snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate. Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples as old as hundreds of thousands of years. Planetary geologists have measured the relative quantities In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth's atmospheric oxygen each year. A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is: or simply Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons. Many steps are involved, but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via photophosphorylation. The remaining (after production of the water molecule) is released into the atmosphere. The chemical energy of oxygen is released in mitochondria to The free oxygen partial pressure in the body of a living vertebrate organism is highest in the respiratory Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved, probably about 3.5 billion years ago. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon (between 3.0 and 2.3 billion years ago). Even if there was much dissolved iron in the oceans when oxygenic photosynthesis was getting more common, it appears the banded iron formations were created by anoxyenic or micro-aerophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria which dominated the deeper areas of the photic zone, while oxygen-producing cyanobacteria covered the shallows. Free oxygen began to outgas from the oceans 3–2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago. The presence of large amounts One hundred million tonnes of are extracted from air for industrial uses annually by two primary methods. The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air, with distilling as a vapor while is left as a liquid. The other primary method of producing is passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90% to 93%. Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed, by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. Oxygen storage methods include high pressure oxygen tanks, cryogenics and chemical compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and. Uptake of from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient's blood, but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs, easing work load on the heart. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders (congestive heart failure), some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure, and any disease that impairs the body's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen. Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals, the patient's home, or increasingly by portable devices. Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation, but have since been replaced mostly by An application of as a low-pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits, which surround their occupant's body with the breathing gas. These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one-third normal pressure, resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of. This trade-off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain suit flexibility. Scuba and surface-supplied underwater divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered. Submarines, submersibles and atmospheric diving suits usually operate at normal atmospheric pressure. Breathing air is scrubbed of carbon dioxide by chemical extraction and oxygen is replaced to maintain a constant partial pressure. Ambient pressure divers breathe air or gas mixtures with an oxygen fraction suited to the operating depth. Pure or nearly pure use in diving at pressures higher than atmospheric is usually limited to rebreathers, or decompression at relatively shallow depths (~6 meters depth, or less), or medical treatment in recompression chambers at Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen. In this process, is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, and. The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1,700 °C. Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry. Ethylene is reacted with to create ethylene The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state −1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides. Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon: −1/2 (superoxides), −1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental, hypofluorous acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1 (dioxygen difluoride), and +2 (oxygen difluoride). Water () is an oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound. Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction (about 23.3 kJ/mol per hydrogen atom) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule. These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15% closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces. Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides. The surface of most metals, such as aluminium and titanium, are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Many oxides of the Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (). There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone () and phenol () are used as feeder materials The NFPA 704 standard rates compressed oxygen gas as nonhazardous to health, nonflammable and nonreactive, but an oxidizer. Refrigerated liquid oxygen (LOX) is given a health hazard rating of 3 (for increased risk of hyperoxia from condensed vapors, and for hazards common to cryogenic liquids such as frostbite), and all other ratings are the same as the compressed gas form. Oxygen gas () can be toxic at elevated partial pressures, leading to convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen composition at standard pressure or 2.5 times the normal sea-level partial pressure of about 21 kPa. This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators, since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30%–50% by volume (about 30 kPa at standard pressure). At one time, premature babies were placed in incubators containing -rich air, but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Oxygen is the oxidant, not the fuel, but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion. Concentrated will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. Steel pipes and	Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. After hydrogen and helium, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe by mass. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.95% of the Earth's atmosphere. 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summarize: The heat capacity of an object, denoted by formula_1, is the limit where formula_3 is the amount of heat that must be added to the object (of mass "M") in order to raise its temperature by formula_4. The value of this parameter usually varies considerably depending on the starting temperature formula_5 of the object and the pressure formula_6 applied to it. In particular, it typically varies dramatically with phase transitions such as melting or vaporization (see enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization). Therefore, it should be considered a function formula_7of those two variables. The variation can be ignored in contexts when working with objects in narrow ranges of temperature and pressure. For example, the heat capacity of a block of iron weighing one pound is about 204 J/K when measured from a starting temperature "T"=25 °C and "P"=1 atm of pressure. That approximate value is quite adequate for all temperatures between, say, 15 °C and 35 °C, and surrounding pressures from 0 to 10 atmospheres, because the exact value varies very little in those ranges. One can trust that the same heat input of 204 J will raise the temperature of the block from 15 °C to 16 °C, or from 34 °C to 35 °C, with negligible error. On the other hand, the variation cannot typically be ignored across a phase transition. For example, the heat capacity of a liter of liquid water is about 4,200 J/K, meaning it takes 4,200 J to heat a liter of water by one K/°C. However, it takes 2257,000 J to boil a liter of liquid water (that is already just below boiling point) - this is about five times as much energy as it takes to heat liquid water from 0°C to 100°C. At constant pressure, heat supplied to the system would contribute to both the work done and the change in internal energy, according to the first law of thermodynamics. The heat capacity would be called formula_8. A system undergoing a process at constant volume would imply that no work would be done, so the heat supplied would contribute only to the change in internal energy. The heat capacity obtained this way is denoted formula_9. The value of formula_9is always less than the value of formula_8. formula_14 (Mayer's relation) formula_15 where Using the above two relations, the specific heats can be deduced as follows: formula_19 formula_20 No change in internal energy (as the temperature of the system is constant throughout the process) leads to only work done of the total supplied heat, and thus infinite amount of heat is required to increase the temperature of the system by a unit temperature, leading to infinite or undefined heat capacity of the system. Heat capacity of a system undergoing phase transition is infinite, because the heat is utilized in changing the state of the material rather than raising the overall temperature. The heat capacity may be well-defined even for heterogeneous objects, with separate parts made of different materials; such as an electric motor, a crucible with some metal, or a whole building. In many cases, the (isobaric) heat capacity of such objects can be computed by simply adding together the (isobaric) heat capacities of the individual parts. However, this computation is valid only all parts of the object are at the same external pressure before and after the measurement. That may not be possible in some cases. For example, when heating an amount of gas in an elastic container, its volume "and pressure" will both increase, even if the atmospheric pressure outside the container is kept constant. Therefore, the effective heat capacity of the gas, in that situation, will have a value intermediate between its isobaric and isochoric capacities formula_21 and formula_22. For complex thermodynamic systems with several interacting parts and state variables, or for measurement conditions that are neither constant pressure nor constant volume, or for situations where the temperature is significantly non-uniform, the simple definitions of heat capacity above are not useful or even meaningful. The heat energy that is supplied may end up as kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (energy stored in force fields), both at macroscopic and atomic scales. Then the change in temperature will depends on the particular path that the system followed through its phase space between the initial and final states. Namely, one must somehow specify how the positions, velocities, pressures, volumes, etc. changed between the initial and final states; and use the general tools of thermodynamics to predict the system's reaction to a small energy input. The "constant volume" and "constant pressure" heating modes are just two among infinitely many paths that a simple homogeneous system can follow. The heat capacity can usually be measured by the method implied by its definition: start with the object at a known uniform temperature, add a known amount of heat energy to it, wait for its temperature to become uniform, and measure the change in its temperature. This method can give moderately accurate values for many solids; however, it cannot provide very precise measurements, especially for gases. The SI unit for heat capacity of an object is joule per kelvin (J/K, or J K). Since an increment of temperature of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, that is the same unit as J/°C. The heat capacity of an object is an amount of energy divided by a temperature change, which has the dimension L·M·T·Θ. Therefore, the SI unit J/K is equivalent to kilogram meter squared per second squared per kelvin (kg m s K ). Professionals in construction, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and other technical disciplines, especially in the United States, may use the so-called English Engineering units, that include the Imperial pound (lb = 0.45459237 kg) as the unit of mass, the degree Fahrenheit or Rankine (5/9 K, about 0.55556 K) as the unit of temperature increment, and the British thermal unit (BTU ≈ 1055.06 J), as the unit of heat. In those contexts, the unit of heat capacity is BTU/°F ≈ 1900 J. The BTU was in fact defined so that the average heat capacity of one pound of water would be 1 BTU/°F. In chemistry, heat amounts are often measured in calories. Confusingly, two units with that name, denoted "cal" or "Cal", have been commonly used to measure amounts of heat: With these units of heat energy, the units of heat capacity are Most physical systems exhibit a positive heat capacity. However, even though it can seem paradoxical at first, there are some systems for which the heat capacity is "negative". These are inhomogeneous systems that do not meet the strict definition of thermodynamic equilibrium. They include gravitating objects such as stars and galaxies, and also sometimes some nano-scale clusters of a few tens of atoms, close to a phase transition. A negative heat capacity can result in a negative temperature. According to the virial theorem, for a self-gravitating body like a star or an interstellar gas cloud, the average potential energy "U" and the average kinetic energy "U" are locked together in the relation The total energy "U" (= "U" + "U") therefore obeys If the system loses energy, for example, by radiating energy into space, the average kinetic energy actually increases. If a temperature is defined by the average kinetic energy, then the system therefore can be said to have a negative heat capacity. A more extreme version of this occurs with black holes. According to black-hole thermodynamics, the more mass and energy a black hole absorbs, the colder it becomes. In contrast, if it is a net emitter of energy, through Hawking radiation, it will become hotter and hotter until it boils away.	Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature. 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summarize: Points, considered within the framework of Euclidean geometry, are one of the most fundamental objects. Euclid originally defined the point as "that which has no part". In two-dimensional Euclidean space, a point is represented by an ordered pair (, ) of numbers, where the first number conventionally represents the horizontal and is often denoted by, and the second number conventionally represents the vertical and is often denoted by. This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by an ordered triplet (,, ) with the additional third number representing depth and often denoted by. Further generalizations are represented by an ordered tuplet of terms, where is the dimension of the space in which the point is located. Many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an infinite collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a set of points; As an example, a line is an infinite set of points of the form formula_1, where through and are constants and is the dimension of the space. Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment and other related concepts. A line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment. In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, that any two points can be connected by a straight line. This is easily confirmed under modern extensions of Euclidean geometry, and had lasting consequences at its introduction, allowing the construction of almost all the geometric concepts known at the time. However, Euclid's postulation of points was neither complete nor definitive, and he occasionally assumed facts about points that did not follow directly from his axioms, such as the ordering of points on the line or the existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions. There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics. In all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional. The dimension of a vector space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a single point (which must be the zero vector 0), there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero: formula_2. The topological dimension of a topological space "X" is defined to be the minimum value of "n", such that every finite open cover formula_3 of "X" admits a finite open cover formula_4 of "X" which refines formula_3 in which no point is included in more than "n"+1 elements. If no such minimal "n" exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension. A point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a single open set. Let "X" be a metric space. If "S" ⊂ "X" and "d" ∈ [0, ∞), the "d"-dimensional Hausdorff content of "S" is the infimum of the set of numbers δ ≥ 0 such that there is some (indexed) collection of balls formula_6 covering "S" with "r" > 0 for each "i" ∈ "I" that satisfies formula_7. The Hausdorff dimension of "X" is defined by A point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius. Although the notion of a point is generally considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e.g. noncommutative geometry and pointless topology. A "pointless" or "pointfree" space is defined not as a set, but via some structure (algebraic or logical respectively) which looks like a well-known function space on the set: an algebra of continuous functions or an algebra of sets respectively. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of functions in a way that the operation "take a value at this point" may not be defined. A further tradition starts from some books of A. N. Whitehead in which the notion of region is assumed as a primitive together with the one of "inclusion" or "connection". Often in physics and mathematics, it is useful to think of a point as having non-zero mass or charge (this is especially common in classical electromagnetism, where electrons are idealized as points with non-zero charge). The Dirac delta function, or function, is (informally) a generalized function on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero, with an integral of one over the entire real line. The delta function is sometimes thought of as an infinitely high, infinitely thin spike at the origin, with total area one under the spike, and physically represents an idealized point mass or point charge. It was introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac. In the context of signal processing it is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol (or function). Its discrete analog is the Kronecker delta function which is usually defined on a finite domain and takes values 0 and 1.	In modern mathematics, a point refers usually to an element of some set called a space. More specifically, in Euclidean geometry, a point is a primitive notion upon which the geometry is built, meaning that a point cannot be defined in terms of previously defined objects. That is, a point is defined only by some properties, called axioms, that it must satisfy. In particular, the geometric points do not have any length, area, volume or any other dimensional attribute. A common interpretation is that the concept of a point is meant to capture the notion of a unique location in Euclidean space.	en	en	118	[ 250004, 250054, 41097, 7, 4, 90698, 28032, 70, 170846, 111, 5177, 34937, 130265, 700, 87739, 53, 4, 621, 1632, 111, 70, 2684, 20531, 36746, 7, 5, 5177, 238, 12472, 7311, 538, 61924, 71, 70, 6275, 237, 44, 86673, 3129, 1556, 110, 2831, 740, 360, 6626, 9, 157955, 5177, 34937, 130265, 32628, 4, 10, 6275, 83, 33636, 297, 390, 142, 12989, 297, 80836, 15, 4, 1388, 111, 101935, 4, 7440, 70, 5117, 14012, 101805, 25958, 33636, 7, 70, 124001, 136, 83, 27983, 8, 157, 3674, 390, 4, 136, 70, 17932, 14012, 101805, 25958, 33636, 7, 70, 79259, 136, 83, 27983, 8, 157, 3674, 390, 5, 3293, 6528, 83, 72546, 4537, 29367, 47, 17262, 9, 157955, 5177, 34937, 130265, 32628, 4, 7440, 10, 6275, 83, 33636, 297, 390, 142, 12989, 297, 162738, 18, 15, 4, 4, 1388, 678, 70, 78301, 50960, 14012, 33636, 214, 6, 168867, 136, 27983, 8, 157, 3674, 390, 5, 27766, 9319, 4537, 47691, 7, 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summarize: Euclid set forth the first great landmark of mathematical thought, an axiomatic treatment of geometry. He selected a small core of undefined terms (called "common notions") and postulates (or axioms) which he then used to prove various geometrical statements. Although the plane in its modern sense is not directly given a definition anywhere in the "Elements", it may be thought of as part of the common notions. Euclid never used numbers to measure length, angle, or area. In this way the Euclidean plane is not quite the same as the Cartesian plane. A plane is a ruled surface. This section is solely concerned with planes embedded in three dimensions: specifically, in R. In a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, a plane is uniquely determined by any of the following: The following statements hold in three-dimensional Euclidean space but not in higher dimensions, though they have higher-dimensional analogues: In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its "inclination". Specifically, let be the position vector of some point, and let be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by the point and the vector consists of those points, with position vector, such that the vector drawn from to is perpendicular to. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points such that Expanded this becomes which is the "point-normal" form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation where Conversely, it is easily shown that if and are constants and, and are not all zero, then the graph of the equation is a plane having the vector as a normal. This familiar equation for a plane is called the "general form" of the equation of the plane. Thus for example a regression equation of the form (with ) establishes a best-fit plane in three-dimensional space when there are two explanatory variables. Alternatively, a plane may be described parametrically as the set of all points of the form where "s" and "t" range over all real numbers,'and are given linearly independent vectors defining the plane, and is the vector representing the position of an arbitrary (but fixed) point on the plane. The vectors'and can be visualized as vectors starting at and pointing in different directions along the plane. The vectors and can be perpendicular, but cannot be parallel. Let,, and be non-collinear points. The plane passing through,, and can be described as the set of all points (x,y,z) that satisfy the following determinant equations: To describe the plane by an equation of the form formula_8, solve the following system of equations: This system can be solved using Cramer's rule and basic matrix manipulations. Let If "D" is non-zero (so for planes not through the origin) the values for "a", "b" and "c" can be calculated as follows: These equations are parametric in "d". Setting "d" equal to any non-zero number and substituting it into these equations will yield one solution set. This plane can also be described by the "point and a normal vector" prescription above. A suitable normal vector is given by the cross product and the point can be taken to be any of the given points, or (or any other point in the plane). For a plane formula_17 and a point formula_18 not necessarily lying on the plane, the shortest distance from formula_19 to the plane is It follows that formula_19 lies in the plane if and only if "D=0". If formula_22 meaning that "a", "b", and "c" are normalized then the equation becomes Another vector form for the equation of a plane, known as the Hesse normal form relies on the parameter "D". This form is: where formula_25 is a unit normal vector to the plane, formula_26 a position vector of a point of the plane and "D" the distance of the plane from the origin. The general formula for higher dimensions can be quickly arrived at using vector notation. Let the hyperplane have equation formula_27, where the formula_25 is a normal vector and formula_29 is a position vector to a point in the hyperplane. We desire the perpendicular distance to the point formula_30. The hyperplane may also be represented by the scalar equation formula_31, for constants formula_32. Likewise, a corresponding formula_25 may be represented as formula_34. We desire the scalar projection of the vector formula_35 in the direction of formula_25. Noting that formula_37 (as formula_38 satisfies the equation of the hyperplane) we have The line of intersection between two planes formula_40 and formula_41 where formula_42 are normalized is given by where This is found by noticing that the line must be perpendicular to both plane normals, and so parallel to their cross product formula_46 (this cross product is zero if and only if the planes are parallel, and are therefore non-intersecting or entirely coincident). The remainder of the expression is arrived at by finding an arbitrary point on the line. To do so, consider that any point in space may be written as formula_47, since formula_48 is a basis. We wish to find a point which is on both planes (i.e. on their intersection), so insert this equation into each of the equations of the planes to get two simultaneous equations which can be solved for formula_49 and formula_50. If we further assume that formula_51 and formula_52 are orthonormal then the closest point on the line of intersection to the origin is formula_53. If that is not the case, then a more complex procedure must be used. Given two intersecting planes described by formula_54 and formula_55, the dihedral angle between them is defined to be the angle formula_56 between their normal directions: In addition to its familiar geometric structure, with isomorphisms that are isometries with respect to the usual inner product, the plane may be viewed at various other levels of abstraction. Each level of abstraction corresponds to a specific category. At one extreme, all geometrical and metric concepts may be dropped to leave the topological plane, which may be thought of as an idealized homotopically trivial infinite rubber sheet, which retains a notion of proximity, but has no distances. The topological plane has a concept of a linear path, but no concept of a straight line. The topological plane, or its equivalent the open disc, is the basic topological neighborhood used to construct surfaces (or 2-manifolds) classified in low-dimensional topology. Isomorphisms of the topological plane are all continuous bijections. The topological plane is the natural context for the branch of graph theory that deals with planar graphs, and results such as the four color theorem. The plane may also be viewed as an affine space, whose isomorphisms are combinations of translations and non-singular linear maps. From this viewpoint there are no distances, but collinearity and ratios of distances on any line are preserved. Differential geometry views a plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold, a topological plane which is provided with a differential structure. Again in this case, there is no notion of distance, but there is now a concept of smoothness of maps, for example a differentiable or smooth path (depending on the type of differential structure applied). The isomorphisms in this case are bijections with the chosen degree of differentiability. In the opposite direction of abstraction, we may apply a compatible field structure to the geometric plane, giving rise to the complex plane and the major area of complex analysis. The complex field has only two isomorphisms that leave the real line fixed, the identity and conjugation. In the same way as in the real case, the plane may also be viewed as the simplest, one-dimensional (over the complex numbers) complex manifold, sometimes called the complex line. However, this viewpoint contrasts sharply with the case of the plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold. The isomorphisms are all conformal bijections of the complex plane, but the only possibilities are maps that correspond to the composition of a multiplication by a complex number and a translation. In addition, the Euclidean geometry (which has zero curvature everywhere) is not the only geometry that the plane may have. The plane may be given a spherical geometry by using the stereographic projection. This can be thought of as placing a sphere on the plane (just like a ball on the floor), removing the top point, and projecting the sphere onto the plane from this point). This is one of the projections that may be used in making a flat map of part of the Earth's surface. The resulting geometry has constant positive curvature. Alternatively, the plane can also be given a metric which gives it constant negative curvature giving the hyperbolic plane. The latter possibility finds an application in the theory of special relativity in the simplified case where there are two spatial dimensions and one time dimension. (The hyperbolic plane is a timelike hypersurface in three-dimensional Minkowski space.) The one-point compactification of the plane is homeomorphic to a sphere (see stereographic projection); the open disk is homeomorphic to a sphere with the "north pole" missing; adding that point completes the (compact) sphere. The result of this compactification is a manifold referred to as the Riemann sphere or the complex projective line. The projection from the Euclidean plane to a sphere without a point is a diffeomorphism and even a conformal map. The plane itself is homeomorphic (and diffeomorphic) to an open disk. For the hyperbolic plane such diffeomorphism is conformal, but for the Euclidean plane it is not.	In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. A plane is the two-dimensional analogue of a point (zero dimensions), a line (one dimension) and three-dimensional space. 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summarize: The exact date of Hus's birth is disputed. Some claim he was born around 1369, while others claim he was born sometime between 1373 and 1375. Though older sources state the latter, more contemporary research states that 1372 is more likely. The belief that he was born on July 6, also his death day, has no factual basis and is likely a myth. Hus was born in Husinec, to peasant parents. We know that Hus took his name from the village where he lived (Husinec). Why Hus did not take the name of his father is up to speculation; some believe that it was because Hus did not know his father, while other say it was simply the custom at the time. Nearly all other information we have about Hus's very early life is either myth or completely unreliable. Similarly, we know little of Hus's family. His father's name was Michael; his mother's name is unknown. We know that Hus had a brother due to him expressing concerns for his nephew while awaiting execution at Constance. Whether or not Hus had any other family is unknown. At the age of roughly 10, Hus was sent away to a monastery. Again, the exact reason is not known; some claim his father had died, other say he simply went due to his devoutness. He impressed the teachers with his studies, and they recommended that he move to Prague, one of the largest cities in Bohemia at the time. Hus apparently supported himself by securing a job with someone in Prague, which allowed him access to food, shelter, clothing, and the Prague Library. 3 years later, he was admitted to the University of Prague. Though not an exceptional student, he was said to have pursued his studies with ferocity. In 1393, Hus earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Prague, and he earned his master's degree in 1396. The strongly anti-papal views that were held by many of the professors there likely influenced Hus's future work. Hus began teaching at the university in 1398 and in 1399, he first publicly defended propositions of Wycliffe. In 1401, his students and faculty promoted him to dean of the philosophical department, and a year later, he became a rector of the University of Prague. He was appointed a preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in 1402. Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs and the Realists, and he was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe. Although church authorities banned many works of Wycliffe in 1403, Hus translated "Trialogus" into Czech and helped to distribute it. Hus denounced the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc tolerated this, and even appointed Hus a preacher at the clergy's biennial synod. On June 24, 1405, Pope Innocent VII directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffe's teachings, especially the doctrine of impanation in the Eucharist. The archbishop complied by issuing a synod decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy. In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the University of Oxford and praising Wycliffe. Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit. Then, in 1408, Pope Gregory XII warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heresies and of the sympathies of King Wenceslaus IV for non-conformists. In response, the king and university ordered all of Wycliffe's writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction. Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings. In 1408, the Charles University in Prague was divided by the Western Schism, in which Gregory XII in Rome and Benedict XIII in Avignon both claimed the papacy. Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism, and said that he expected the same of the University. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian "nation" (one of the four governing sections), with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality. In January 1409, Wenceslaus summoned representatives of the four nations comprising the university to the Czech city of Kutná Hora to demand statements of allegiance. The Czech nation agreed, but the other three nations declined. The king then decreed that the Czech nation would have three votes in University affairs, while the "German nation" (composed of the former Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish nations) would have one vote in total. As a consequence of the changed voting, by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs. The Palatine Elector called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the Margrave of Meissen started a new university in Leipzig. It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague. The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy. In 1409, the Council of Pisa tried to end the schism by electing Alexander V as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit. (Alexander was declared an "antipope" by the Council of Constance in 1418.) Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from king Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then lodged an accusation of "ecclesiastical disturbances" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V. On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a papal bull that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague. All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his doctrines repudiated, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain. The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V. Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by John XXIII (also later declared an antipope). In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well. John XXIII also authorized indulgences to raise money for the war. Priests urged the people on and these crowded into churches to give their offerings. This traffic in indulgences was to some a sign of the corruption of the church needing remediation. Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411, and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase, during which the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance. Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address "Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis". It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, "De ecclesia", and his treatise, "De absolutione a pena et culpa". Hus asserted that no Pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward, some of Hus's followers, led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burnt the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists. In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles, but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling, requesting that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation; papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls, and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties. King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. It did not take place there, but in the palace of the archbishops at Prague, in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the doctrine of Wycliffe ("Sermones", iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results, but the King ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded approval of their conception of the Church, according to which the Pope is the head, the Cardinals are the body of the Church, from Hus and his followers. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others. By this time, Hus's ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia, and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the Pope and Archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus, and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the interdict was pronounced against Prague. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside, where he continued to preach and write. Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive King, a hostile Pope or an ineffective Council. On October 18, 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge. By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517. After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation on one hand, and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care on the other. Therefore, he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor. Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled "De Ecclesia", were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, and yet their first ten chapters are but an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title, and the following chapters are but an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works ("De potentate papae") on the power of the Pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek, and sent it to Prague, where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned. King Wenceslaus's brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was "King of the Romans" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire, though not then Emperor), and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end of all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe conduct. It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be, but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty, under his safe conduct from Sigismund, and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating Mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him, on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then, on 6 December 1414, into the prison of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal; however, the prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic. On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard, but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, "Gottlieben on the Rhine". Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill. On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time, and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read, and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission, but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe, and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the Council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic. At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him, twenty-six of which had been excerpted from his book on the Church ("De ecclesia"), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma ("Contra Stanislaum"). The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught; others, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke; to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted. The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415, in the presence of the assembly of the Council in the Cathedral. After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi (then Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read. An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation — he was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant; again he refused. With curses, Hus's ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed, and the sentence of the Church was pronounced, stripping him of all rights, and he was delivered to secular authorities. Then a tall paper hat was put upon his head, with the inscription ""Haeresiarcha"" (i.e., the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men. At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands, and prayed aloud. The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes, and bound his neck with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life. Hus declined, stating: Anecdotally, it has been claimed that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire. An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, ""O Sancta Simplicitas!"". The phrase's Czech equivalent, ""Svatá prostota!"" (vocative form: ""Svatá prostoto!"", Translated ""Holy simplicity!"") is still used today when commenting on a person's foolish action coming from the belief that he or she is doing something righteous. It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, ""Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!"" (a variant of the Jesus Prayer). Hus's ashes were later thrown into the Rhine River as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains. Responding with horror to the execution of Hus, the people of Bohemia moved even more rapidly away from Papal teachings, provoking Rome to pronounce a crusade against them (1 March 1420): Pope Martin V issued a Papal bull authorizing the execution of all supporters of Hus and Wycliffe. King Wenceslaus IV died in August 1419 and his brother, Sigismund of Hungary, was unable to establish a real government in Bohemia due to the Hussite revolt. The Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia, and became a major military power. Under the leadership of Jan Žižka (c. 1360 – 1424) and later of Prokop the Great (c. 1380 – 1434) – both excellent commanders – the Hussites defeated the crusade and the other three crusades that followed (1419–1434). Fighting ended after a compromise between the Utraquist Hussites and the Catholic Council of Basel in 1436. It resulted in the Basel Compacts, in which the Catholic Church officially allowed Bohemia to practice its own version of Christianity (Hussitism). A century later, as much as ninety percent of the inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands still followed Hussite teachings. Hus left only a few reformatory writings in the proper sense of the word, most of his works being polemical treatises against Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč. He translated Wycliffe's "Trialogus", and was very familiar with his works on the body of Jesus, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper (consubstantiation rather than transubstantiation had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it, although it is possible that he simply repeated it without advocating it. But the doctrine was seized eagerly by the radical party, the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. According to their book, the Church is not the clerical hierarchy which was generally accepted as ‘the Church;’ the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation. Christ, not the pope, is its head. It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved. Neither internal membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church. To some, Hus's efforts were predominantly designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses, rather than a campaign of sweeping theological change. To others, the seeds of the Reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings. In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, "One pays for confession, for mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers. The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it." (Macek, 16) After Hus's death, his followers, known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans. Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed "deep regret for the cruel death inflicted" on Hus and added "deep sorrow" for Hus's death and praised his "moral courage". Cardinal Miloslav Vlk of the Czech Republic was instrumental in crafting John Paul II's statement. Hus was also, unlike the vast majority of preachers at the time, an advocate for women and feminism. He believed women were given rights in the Bible. Hus stated that "Women were made in the image of God and should fear no man." He allowed women to preach and serve in battle, and they later fought in the Hussite wars. Jan Hus introduced reforms to medieval Czech orthography, including the "hook" (háček) diacritic which was used to form the graphemes,,, and, which replaced digraphs like,,, and ; the "dot" above letters for strong accent, as well as the acute accent to mark long vowels,,,, and, in order to represent each phoneme by a single symbol. Some sources mention documented use of the special symbols in Bible translations (1462), the Schaffhausen Bible, and handwritten notes in the bible. The symbol (instead of ) came later. The book "Orthographia Bohemica" (1406) may have been written by Jan Hus, or by another author from Charles University. A century after the Hussite Wars began, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were Hussites (although in the Utraquist tradition following a joint Utraquist—Catholic victory in the Hussite Wars). Although Bohemia was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, there are only few Protestant adherents remaining in modern times; mainly due to historical reasons such as persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, particularly after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620; restrictions during the Communist rule; and also the ongoing secularization. Jan Hus was a key contributor to Protestantism, whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther. The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts which allowed for a reformed church in the Kingdom of Bohemia—almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation. The Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) considers itself a spiritual heir to many of Hus's followers. Hus's extensive writings earn him a prominent place in Czech literary history. Professor Thomas Garrigue Masaryk used Hus' name in his speech at Geneva University on 6 July 1915, for defense against Austria and in July 1917 for the title of the first corps of troops his legions in Russia. Today, the Jan Hus Memorial is located at the Prague Old Town Square (), and there are many smaller memorials in other towns throughout the Czech Republic. In New York City, a church in Brooklyn (located at 153 Ocean Avenue), and a church and a theatre in Manhattan (located at 351 East 74th Street) are named for Hus: respectively the John Hus Moravian Church, the Jan Hus Presbyterian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse. Although the Manhattan's church and theatre share a single building and management, the Playhouse's productions are usually non-religious or non-denominational. A statue of Jan Hus was erected at the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, New York (on Long Island) by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893. In contrast to the popular perception that Hus was a proto-Protestant, some Eastern Orthodox Christians have argued that his theology was far closer to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Jan Hus is considered as a martyr saint in some jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church. The Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to trace its origin to Hus, to be "neo-Hussite", and contains mixed Eastern Orthodox and Protestant elements. Hus was voted the greatest hero of Czech nation in a 2015 survey by Czech Radio. He received 19% of votes.	Jan Hus (; ; – 6 July 1415), sometimes anglicized as John Hus or John Huss, and referred to in historical texts as "Iohannes Hus" or "Johannes Huss", was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a church reformer and an inspirer of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical reform, Hus is considered the second church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. His teachings had a strong influence on the states of Western Europe, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination, and, over a century later, on Martin Luther. 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4, 3934, 70, 101085, 111, 70, 120725, 66, 6, 124722, 53, 5, 26729, 164, 26770, 4, 237, 70, 2497, 9369, 1290, 111, 20387, 25, 7, 81900, 4, 509, 6782, 538, 27162, 2822, 136, 120332, 33, 297, 70, 479, 19309, 7, 678, 2837, 2179, 2317, 74, 49903, 4, 70, 479, 19309, 7, 122991, 71, 4049, 450, 764, 5809, 959, 186, 6, 99091, 390, 103036, 7, 47, 10, 3688, 9523, 5, 2161, 201, 14487, 616, 2592, 4, 4939, 170750, 22, 182825, 297, 10, 175352, 111, 17262, 333, 10534, 7, 678, 10, 118276, 53, 145456, 26548, 20387, 5, 1301, 509, 39210, 41361, 4, 195812, 90, 100, 70, 502, 166643, 191, 3542, 49782, 4, 1284, 20387, 509, 959, 107003, 142, 204797, 100, 1919, 165815, 5, 18763, 16648, 100512, 124632, 7103, 70, 7565, 9146, 111, 4939, 170750, 4, 2750, 1902, 25737, 1657, 116071, 47, 71864, 1563, 18601, 1916, 5, 20387, 1902, 2809, 70, 157364, 13, 111, 4939, 170750, 136, 23, 53697, 36398, 678, 1919, 23902, 4, 1284, 5036, 764, 509, 75060, 297, 47, 70, 333, 10534, 111, 1657, 116071, 136, 91048, 47, 1919, 37702, 133, 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90698, 142, 51, 126940, 289, 613, 18280, 42, 4, 136, 764, 509, 37170, 47, 112017, 12, 1529, 37170, 47, 186, 220828, 297, 1295, 58520, 19, 1916, 51584, 33310, 90, 3129, 764, 1902, 8306, 189924, 74, 27060, 4, 3129, 70, 10, 89845, 38526, 90698, 70426, 86, 10821, 4, 764, 509, 959, 109269, 47, 37868, 76328, 74, 47, 27992, 12921, 538, 2806, 186, 26548, 1919, 136477, 5, 32255, 34153, 14037, 110, 110990, 116816, 5, 24372, 70, 110324, 98, 382, 18237, 4, 40368, 3789, 81887, 7, 3542, 7398, 6982, 297, 538, 7228, 47, 135989, 13, 4049, 47, 456, 36520, 4, 3129, 764, 39746, 297, 5, 581, 158, 4545, 19, 2320, 111, 3342, 20387, 34739, 3687, 98, 305, 20414, 616, 1837, 4, 23, 70, 169424, 111, 70, 10, 89845, 38526, 111, 70, 70615, 23, 70, 234120, 5, 24372, 70, 19694, 74227, 136, 1261, 987, 3432, 4, 20387, 509, 12441, 3934, 70, 106820, 5, 581, 1843, 10534, 111, 2091, 428, 15, 92733, 31631, 52621, 21618, 11179, 64986, 519, 93, 16, 75060, 297, 142, 36, 30494, 98, 70, 115, 939, 111, 1615, 18601, 1916, 3688, 4861, 74, 67842, 6097, 7, 111, 20387, 136, 5492, 195167, 13, 136, 10, 13416, 111, 1919, 110324, 3542, 7068, 12301, 5, 893, 89176, 479, 19309, 97160, 309, 37534, 70, 149357, 111, 158, 4545, 19, 2320, 54799, 20387, 136, 1919, 32562, 7, 5, 20387, 18782, 297, 4, 54433, 450, 3853, 99, 903, 56816, 764, 6777, 959, 32599, 23937, 1284, 47, 186, 122991, 71, 1295, 84654, 3408, 5, 1529, 77736, 54799, 1919, 472, 86, 90, 136, 37170, 3430, 678, 10, 32977, 54479, 47, 100, 96259, 756, 1919, 22, 13, 32747, 5, 47009, 134629, 1919, 119542, 1363, 292, 764, 509, 40989, 297, 23, 494, 525, 538, 16420, 9035, 136, 13438, 37170, 47, 456, 36520, 74, 13438, 764, 128120, 71, 5, 17106, 22074, 90, 4, 20387, 25, 7, 122360, 7, 3542, 39958, 1295, 4049, 4, 1919, 494, 525, 538, 124062, 3408, 509, 163684, 297, 4, 136, 70, 149357, 111, 70, 84084, 509, 97160, 309, 37534, 4, 43613, 10366, 4049, 111, 756, 38109, 4, 136, 764, 509, 75060, 297, 47, 40, 25667, 207048, 5, 47009, 10, 43156, 15122, 1256, 509, 3884, 54799, 1919, 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214, 70, 140143, 1363, 111, 1919, 47143, 7, 5, 138646, 214, 678, 92973, 47, 70, 71924, 1830, 111, 20387, 4, 70, 3395, 111, 211462, 109133, 3853, 1286, 25545, 538, 16065, 1295, 17523, 141, 128169, 7, 4, 80675, 214, 51651, 47, 502, 19, 85018, 10, 22684, 60219, 26548, 2856, 2858, 11994, 616, 73419, 12, 11584, 13, 6470, 310, 31089, 71, 10, 17523, 141, 50208, 42179, 84382, 70, 71924, 1830, 111, 756, 132756, 7, 111, 20387, 136, 5492, 195167, 13, 5, 18813, 601, 69098, 26253, 7610, 68, 71, 23, 8055, 616, 2947, 136, 1919, 82953, 4, 26729, 164, 26770, 111, 175055, 4, 509, 51, 2886, 47, 137633, 10, 2773, 27759, 23, 211462, 4743, 47, 70, 20387, 11090, 52831, 18, 5, 581, 20387, 11090, 26908, 99201, 2684, 111, 70, 103655, 43904, 111, 70, 117604, 111, 211462, 4, 136, 100512, 10, 13036, 116338, 14537, 5, 9626, 70, 133465, 111, 3342, 21270, 65981, 15, 238, 5, 702, 4598, 46, 616, 82839, 136, 14432, 111, 1250, 11063, 70, 32774, 15, 238, 5, 702, 4836, 46, 616, 121763, 46, 15044, 40881, 75101, 1314, 46, 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summarize: Relative atomic mass is determined by the average atomic mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses of all the atoms of a particular chemical element found in a particular sample, which is then compared to the atomic mass of carbon-12. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless (no unit appended). This quotient also explains the word "relative": the sample mass value is considered relative to that of carbon-12. It is a synonym for atomic weight, though it is not to be confused with relative isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass is also frequently used as a synonym for standard atomic weight and these quantities may have overlapping values if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under defined conditions. However, relative atomic mass (atomic weight) is still technically distinct from standard atomic weight because of its application only to the atoms obtained from a single sample; it is also not restricted to terrestrial samples, whereas standard atomic weight averages multiple samples but only from terrestrial sources. Relative atomic mass is therefore a more general term that can more broadly refer to samples taken from non-terrestrial environments or highly specific terrestrial environments which may differ substantially from Earth-average or reflect different degrees of certainty (e.g. in number of significant figures) than those reflected in standard atomic weights. The prevailing IUPAC definitions (as taken from the "Gold Book") are: and Here the "unified atomic mass unit" refers to of the mass of an atom of C "in its ground state". The IUPAC definition of relative atomic mass is: The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight...", as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is common practice to instead substitute the tabulated values of standard atomic weights, which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories and which are revised biennially by the IUPAC's Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW). Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales based on the atomic mass unit (symbol: "a.m.u." or "amu") used either the oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass or else the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for reference. See the article on the history of the modern unified atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems. The IUPAC commission CIAAW maintains an expectation-interval value for relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) on Earth named standard atomic weight. Standard atomic weight requires the sources be terrestrial, natural, and stable with regard to radioactivity. Also, there are requirements for the research process. For 84 stable elements, CIAAW has determined this standard atomic weight. These values are widely published and referred to loosely as 'the' atomic weight of elements for real-life substances like pharmaceuticals and commercial trade. Also, CIAAW has published abridged (rounded) values and simplified values (for when the Earthly sources vary systematically). Atomic mass ("m") is the mass of a single atom, with unit "Da" or "u" (the dalton). It defines the mass of a specific isotope, which is an input value for the determination of the relative atomic mass. An example for three silicon isotopes is given below. The relative "isotopic" mass is specifically the "ratio of" the mass of a single atom "to" the mass of a unified atomic mass unit. This value, too, is relative, and therefore dimensionless. Modern relative atomic masses (a term specific to a given element sample) are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are available for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples. For this reason, the relative atomic masses of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million). The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose relative atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: Si, Si and Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However, the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table). The calculation is as follows: The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated, especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties, and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 or 10 ppm. Apart from this uncertainty by measurement, some elements have variation over sources. That is, different sources (ocean water, rocks) have a different radioactive history and so different isotopic composition. To reflect this natural variability, the IUPAC made the decision in 2010 to list the standard relative atomic masses of 10 elements as an interval rather than a fixed number.	Relative atomic mass (symbol: "A") or atomic weight is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the atomic mass constant. The atomic mass constant (symbol: "m") is defined as being of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since both quantities in the ratio are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless; hence the value is said to be "relative".	en	en	91	[ 250004, 250054, 231839, 13, 34627, 1771, 46889, 83, 83324, 71, 390, 70, 83080, 34627, 1771, 46889, 4, 707, 70, 57888, 297, 29459, 111, 70, 34627, 1771, 23860, 7, 111, 756, 70, 34627, 7, 111, 10, 17311, 165045, 12830, 14037, 23, 10, 17311, 121413, 4, 3129, 83, 7068, 154186, 47, 70, 34627, 1771, 46889, 111, 44603, 9955, 5, 3293, 225490, 83, 70, 6, 41502, 18750, 111, 70, 6626, 57888, 7, 4, 3129, 30482, 70, 34292, 6, 91403, 9393, 15, 157, 25072, 114689, 48141, 194, 3293, 6, 41502, 18750, 2843, 73342, 7, 70, 2565, 44, 25653, 4935, 58, 12, 70, 121413, 46889, 34292, 83, 90698, 35845, 47, 450, 111, 44603, 9955, 5, 1650, 83, 10, 164661, 100, 34627, 1771, 57888, 4, 21208, 442, 83, 959, 47, 186, 55681, 5281, 678, 35845, 13882, 119499, 46889, 5, 231839, 13, 34627, 1771, 46889, 83, 2843, 195409, 11814, 237, 10, 164661, 100, 5570, 34627, 1771, 57888, 136, 6097, 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summarize: Macroscopically, the ideal gas law states that, for an ideal gas, the product of pressure and volume is proportional to the product of amount of substance (in moles) and absolute temperature : where is the gas constant (). Introducing the Boltzmann constant transforms the ideal gas law into an alternative form: where is the number of molecules of gas. For, is equal to the number of particles in one mole (the Avogadro number). Given a thermodynamic system at an absolute temperature, the average thermal energy carried by each microscopic degree of freedom in the system is (i.e., about, or, at room temperature). In classical statistical mechanics, this average is predicted to hold exactly for homogeneous ideal gases. Monatomic ideal gases (the six noble gases) possess three degrees of freedom per atom, corresponding to the three spatial directions, which means a thermal energy of per atom. This corresponds very well with experimental data. The thermal energy can be used to calculate the root-mean-square speed of the atoms, which turns out to be inversely proportional to the square root of the atomic mass. The root mean square speeds found at room temperature accurately reflect this, ranging from for helium, down to for xenon. Kinetic theory gives the average pressure for an ideal gas as Combination with the ideal gas law shows that the average translational kinetic energy is Considering that the translational motion velocity vector has three degrees of freedom (one for each dimension) gives the average energy per degree of freedom equal to one third of that, i.e.. The ideal gas equation is also obeyed closely by molecular gases; but the form for the heat capacity is more complicated, because the molecules possess additional internal degrees of freedom, as well as the three degrees of freedom for movement of the molecule as a whole. Diatomic gases, for example, possess a total of six degrees of simple freedom per molecule that are related to atomic motion (three translational, two rotational, and one vibrational). At lower temperatures, not all these degrees of freedom may fully participate in the gas heat capacity, due to quantum mechanical limits on the availability of excited states at the relevant thermal energy per molecule. More generally, systems in equilibrium at temperature have probability of occupying a state with energy weighted by the corresponding Boltzmann factor: where is the partition function. Again, it is the energy-like quantity that takes central importance. Consequences of this include (in addition to the results for ideal gases above) the Arrhenius equation in chemical kinetics. In statistical mechanics, the entropy of an isolated system at thermodynamic equilibrium is defined as the natural logarithm of, the number of distinct microscopic states available to the system given the macroscopic constraints (such as a fixed total energy ): This equation, which relates the microscopic details, or microstates, of the system (via ) to its macroscopic state (via the entropy ), is the central idea of statistical mechanics. Such is its importance that it is inscribed on Boltzmann's tombstone. The constant of proportionality serves to make the statistical mechanical entropy equal to the classical thermodynamic entropy of Clausius: The use of natural units simplifies many physical relationships; in this form the definition of thermodynamic entropy coincides with the form of information entropy: where is the probability of each microstate. The value chosen for a unit of the Planck temperature is that corresponding to the energy of the Planck mass.	The Boltzmann constant ( or ) is the proportionality factor that relates the average relative kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the thermodynamic temperature of the gas. It occurs in the definitions of the kelvin and the gas constant, and in Planck's law of black-body radiation and Boltzmann's entropy formula. The Boltzmann constant has the dimension energy divided by temperature, the same as entropy. 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summarize: The atomic mass constant can also be expressed as its energy equivalent, that is "m""c". The 2018 CODATA recommended values are: The megaelectronvolt (MeV) is commonly used as a unit of mass in particle physics, and these values are also important for the practical determination of relative atomic masses. The interpretation of the law of definite proportions in terms of the atomic theory of matter implied that the masses of atoms of various elements had definite ratios that depended on the elements. While the actual masses were unknown, the relative masses could be deduced from that law. In 1803 John Dalton proposed to use the (still unknown) atomic mass of the lightest atom, that of hydrogen, as the natural unit of atomic mass. This was the basis of the atomic weight scale. For technical reasons, in 1898, chemist Wilhelm Ostwald and others proposed to redefine the unit of atomic mass as 1/16 of the mass of an oxygen atom. That proposal was formally adopted by the International Committee on Atomic Weights (ICAW) in 1903. That was approximately the mass of one hydrogen atom, but oxygen was more amenable to experimental determination. This suggestion was made before the discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which occurred in 1912. The same definition was adopted in 1909 the physicist Jean Perrin in his extensive experiments to determine the atomic masses and Avogadro's constant. This definition remained unchanged until 1961. Perrin also defined the "mole" as an amount of a compound that contained as many molecules as 32 grams of oxygen (). He called that number the Avogadro number in honor of physicist Amedeo Avogadro. The discovery of isotopes of oxygen in 1929 required a more precise definition of the unit. Unfortunately, two distinct definitions came into use. Chemists choose to define the AMU as 1/16 of the average mass of an oxygen atom as found in nature; that is, the average of the masses of the known isotopes, weighted by their natural abundance. Physicists, on the other hand, defined it as 1/16 of the mass of an atom of the isotope oxygen-16 (O). The existence of two distinct units with the same name was confusing, and the difference (about in relative terms) was large enough to affect high-precision measurements. Moreover, it was discovered that the isotopes of oxygen had different natural abundances in water and in air. For these and other reasons, in 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which had absorbed the ICAW, adopted a new definition of the atomic mass unit for use in both physics and chemistry; namely, 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. This new value was intermediate between the two earlier definitions, but closer to the one used by chemists (who would be affected the most by the change). The new unit was named the "unified atomic mass unit" and given a new symbol "u", to replace the old "amu" that had been used for the oxygen-based units. However, the old symbol "amu" has sometimes been used, after 1961, to refer to the new unit, particularly in lay and preparatory contexts. With this new definition, the standard atomic weight of carbon is approximately, and that of oxygen is approximately. These values, generally used in chemistry, are based on averages of many samples from Earth's crust, its atmosphere, and organic materials. The IUPAC 1961 definition of the unified atomic mass unit, with that name and symbol "u", was adopted by the International Bureau for Weights and Measures (BIPM) in 1971 as a "non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". In 1993, the IUPAC proposed the shorter name "dalton" (with symbol "Da") for the unified atomic mass unit. As with other unit names such as watt and newton, "dalton" is not capitalized in English, but its symbol, "Da", is capitalized. The name was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) in 2005. In 2003 the name was recommended to the BIPM by the Consultative Committee for Units, part of the CIPM, as it "is shorter and works better with [the SI] prefixes". In 2006, the BIPM included the dalton in its 8th edition of the formal definition of SI. The name was also listed as an alternative to "unified atomic mass unit" by the International Organization for Standardization in 2009. It is now recommended by several scientific publishers, and some of them consider "atomic mass unit" and "amu" deprecated. In 2019, the BIPM retained the dalton in its 9th edition of the formal definition of SI while dropping the unified atomic mass unit from its table of non-SI units accepted for use with the SI, but secondarily notes that the dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u) are alternative names (and symbols) for the same unit. A proposal was made in 2012 to redefine the dalton (and presumably the unified atomic mass unit) as being 1/"N" grams, thereby breaking the link with C. This would imply changes in the atomic masses of all elements when expressed in daltons, but the change would be too small to have practical effects. The definition of the dalton was not affected by the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, that is, 1 Da in the SI is still 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, a quantity that must be determined experimentally in terms of SI units. However, the definition of a mole was changed to be the amount of substance consisting of exactly entities and the definition of the kilogram was changed as well. As a consequence, the molar mass constant is no longer exactly 1 g/mol, meaning that the number of grams in the mass of one mole of any substance is no longer exactly equal to the number of daltons in its average molecular mass. Although relative atomic masses are defined for neutral atoms, they are measured (by mass spectrometry) for ions: hence, the measured values must be corrected for the mass of the electrons that were removed to form the ions, and also for the mass equivalent of the electron binding energy, "E"/"m""c". The total binding energy of the six electrons in a carbon-12 atom is 1030.1089 eV = : "E"/"m""c" =, or about one part in 10 million of the mass of the atom. Before the 2019 redefinition of SI units, experiments were aimed to determine the value of the Avogadro constant for finding the value of the unified atomic mass unit. A reasonably accurate value of the atomic mass unit was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. Perrin estimated the Avogadro number by a variety of methods, at the turn of the 20th century. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work. The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant, whose value had been essentially known since 1834 when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron, "e". The quotient "F"/"e" provided an estimate of Avogadro's number. The classic experiment is that of Bower and Davis at NIST, and relies on dissolving silver metal away from the anode of an electrolysis cell, while passing a constant electric current "I" for a known time "t". If "m" is the mass of silver lost from the anode and "A" the atomic weight of silver, then the Faraday constant is given by: The NIST scientists devised a method to compensate for silver lost from the anode by mechanical causes, and conducted an isotope analysis of the silver used to determine its atomic weight. Their value for the conventional Faraday constant was "F" =, which corresponds to a value for the Avogadro constant of : both values have a relative standard uncertainty of. In practice, the atomic mass constant is determined from the electron rest mass "m" and the electron relative atomic mass "A"(e) (that is, the mass of electron divided by the atomic mass constant). The relative atomic mass of the electron can be measured in cyclotron experiments, while the rest mass of the electron can be derived from other physical constants. where "c" is the speed of light, "h" is the Planck constant, "α" is the fine-structure constant, and "R" is the Rydberg constant. As may be observed from the old values (2014 CODATA) in the table below, the main limiting factor in the precision of the Avogadro constant was the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant, as all the other constants that contribute to the calculation were known more precisely. The power of the presently defined values of universal constants can be understood from the table below(2018 CODATA). Silicon single crystals may be produced today in commercial facilities with extremely high purity and with few lattice defects. This method defined the Avogadro constant as the ratio of the molar volume, "V", to the atomic volume "V": The unit cell of silicon has a cubic packing arrangement of 8 atoms, and the unit cell volume may be measured by determining a single unit cell parameter, the length "a" of one of the sides of the cube. The 2018 CODATA value of "a" for silicon is. In practice, measurements are carried out on a distance known as "d"(Si), which is the distance between the planes denoted by the Miller indices {220}, and is equal to "a"/. The isotope proportional composition of the sample used must be measured and taken into account. Silicon occurs in three stable isotopes (Si, Si, Si), and the natural variation in their proportions is greater than other uncertainties in the measurements. The atomic weight "A" for the sample crystal can be calculated, as the standard atomic weights of the three nuclides are known with great accuracy. This, together with the measured density "ρ" of the sample, allows the molar volume "V" to be determined: where "M" is the molar mass constant. The 2018 CODATA value for the molar volume of silicon is, with a relative standard uncertainty of.	The dalton or unified atomic mass unit (symbols: Da or u) is a unit of mass widely used in physics and chemistry. It is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state and at rest. The atomic mass constant, denoted "m", is defined identically, giving.	en	en	68	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 34627, 1771, 46889, 53697, 831, 2843, 186, 36510, 297, 237, 6863, 48302, 183234, 4, 450, 83, 44, 39, 58, 58, 238, 740, 581, 267, 8244, 397, 17758, 170198, 142424, 621, 12, 581, 31534, 100184, 1900, 88787, 15, 6696, 856, 16, 83, 39210, 538, 11814, 237, 10, 25072, 111, 46889, 23, 915, 26147, 6, 34053, 27744, 7, 4, 136, 6097, 142424, 621, 2843, 5526, 100, 70, 138155, 27354, 1363, 111, 35845, 34627, 1771, 23860, 7, 5, 581, 206019, 111, 70, 27165, 111, 71496, 13, 123875, 7, 23, 69407, 111, 70, 34627, 1771, 154453, 111, 26866, 35388, 297, 450, 70, 23860, 7, 111, 34627, 7, 111, 67842, 80854, 1902, 71496, 13, 70460, 7, 450, 42548, 71, 98, 70, 80854, 5, 51404, 70, 8561, 23860, 7, 3542, 51, 69723, 19, 4, 70, 35845, 23860, 7, 5809, 186, 8, 106357, 71, 1295, 450, 27165, 5, 360, 8719, 363, 4939, 10017, 1507, 26171, 71, 47, 4527, 70, 15, 89733, 51, 69723, 19, 16, 34627, 1771, 46889, 111, 70, 22729, 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summarize: All definitions are ultimately circular in nature since they depend on concepts which must themselves have definitions, a dependence which cannot be continued indefinitely without returning to the starting point. To avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts; terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive. In those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy. In a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a "description" or "mental image" of a primitive notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the (unstated) axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors, as definitions in this informal style of presentation. These are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The "definition" of line in Euclid's Elements falls into this category. Even in the case where a specific geometry is being considered (for example, Euclidean geometry), there is no generally accepted agreement among authors as to what an informal description of a line should be when the subject is not being treated formally. When geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the "Elements", he defined a general line (straight or curved) to be "breadthless length" with a straight line being a line "which lies evenly with the points on itself". These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, defined. In fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In modern geometry, a line is simply taken as an undefined object with properties given by axioms, but is sometimes defined as a set of points obeying a linear relationship when some other fundamental concept is left undefined. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert (Euclid's original axioms contained various flaws which have been corrected by modern mathematicians), a line is stated to have certain properties which relate it to other lines and points. For example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i.e., the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel. In higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of finitely many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons (possibly unbounded); this partition is known as an arrangement of lines. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by linear equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the "slope-intercept form": where: The slope of the line through points formula_2 and formula_3, when formula_4, is given by formula_5 and the equation of this line can be written formula_6. In formula_7, every line formula_8 (including vertical lines) is described by a linear equation of the form with fixed real coefficients "a", "b" and "c" such that "a" and "b" are not both zero. Using this form, vertical lines correspond to the equations with "b" = 0. There are many variant ways to write the equation of a line which can all be converted from one to another by algebraic manipulation. These forms (see Linear equation for other forms) are generally named by the type of information (data) about the line that is needed to write down the form. Some of the important data of a line is its slope, x-intercept, known points on the line and y-intercept. The equation of the line passing through two different points formula_10 and formula_11 may be written as If "x" ≠ "x", this equation may be rewritten as or In three dimensions, lines can "not" be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations: where: They may also be described as the simultaneous solutions of two linear equations such that formula_20 and formula_21 are not proportional (the relations formula_22 imply formula_23). This follows since in three dimensions a single linear equation typically describes a plane and a line is what is common to two distinct intersecting planes. The "normal form" (also called the "Hesse normal form", after the German mathematician Ludwig Otto Hesse), is based on the "normal segment" for a given line, which is defined to be the line segment drawn from the origin perpendicular to the line. This segment joins the origin with the closest point on the line to the origin. The normal form of the equation of a straight line on the plane is given by: where "θ" is the angle of inclination of the normal segment (the oriented angle from the unit vector of the "x" axis to this segment), and "p" is the (positive) length of the normal segment. The normal form can be derived from the general form formula_25 by dividing all of the coefficients by Unlike the slope-intercept and intercept forms, this form can represent any line but also requires only two finite parameters, "θ" and "p", to be specified. If "p" > 0, then "θ" is uniquely defined modulo 2. On the other hand, if the line is through the origin ("c" = 0, "p" = 0), one drops the term to compute sin"θ" and cos"θ", and "θ" is only defined modulo. In polar coordinates on the Euclidean plane the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line is expressed as: where "m" is the slope of the line and b is the "y"-intercept. When "θ" = 0 the graph will be undefined. The equation can be rewritten to eliminate discontinuities in this manner: In polar coordinates on the Euclidean plane, the intercept form of the equation of a line that is non-horizontal, non-vertical, and does not pass through pole may be expressed as, where formula_30 and formula_31 represent the "x" and "y" intercepts respectively. The above equation is not applicable for vertical and horizontal lines because in these cases one of the intercepts does not exist. Moreover, it is not applicable on lines passing through the pole since in this case, both "x" and "y" intercepts are zero (which is not allowed here since formula_30 and formula_31 are denominators). A vertical line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation Similarly, a horizontal line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation The equation of a line which passes through the pole is simply given as: where "m" is the slope of the line. The vector equation of the line through points A and B is given by formula_37 (where λ is a scalar). If a is vector OA and b is vector OB, then the equation of the line can be written: formula_38. A ray starting at point "A" is described by limiting λ. One ray is obtained if λ ≥ 0, and the opposite ray comes from λ ≤ 0. In three-dimensional space, a first degree equation in the variables "x", "y", and "z" defines a plane, so two such equations, provided the planes they give rise to are not parallel, define a line which is the intersection of the planes. More generally, in "n"-dimensional space "n"-1 first-degree equations in the "n" coordinate variables define a line under suitable conditions. In more general Euclidean space, R (and analogously in every other affine space), the line "L" passing through two different points "a" and "b" (considered as vectors) is the subset The direction of the line is from "a" ("t" = 0) to "b" ("t" = 1), or in other words, in the direction of the vector "b" − "a". Different choices of "a" and "b" can yield the same line. Three points are said to be "collinear" if they lie on the same line. Three points "usually" determine a plane, but in the case of three collinear points this does "not" happen. In affine coordinates, in "n"-dimensional space the points "X"=("x", "x",..., "x"), "Y"=("y", "y",..., "y"), and "Z"=("z", "z",..., "z") are collinear if the matrix has a rank less than 3. In particular, for three points in the plane ("n" = 2), the above matrix is square and the points are collinear if and only if its determinant is zero. Equivalently for three points in a plane, the points are collinear if and only if the slope between one pair of points equals the slope between any other pair of points (in which case the slope between the remaining pair of points will equal the other slopes). By extension, "k" points in a plane are collinear if and only if any ("k"–1) pairs of points have the same pairwise slopes. In Euclidean geometry, the Euclidean distance "d"("a","b") between two points "a" and "b" may be used to express the collinearity between three points by: However, there are other notions of distance (such as the Manhattan distance) for which this property is not true. In the geometries where the concept of a line is a primitive notion, as may be the case in some synthetic geometries, other methods of determining collinearity are needed. In a sense, all lines in Euclidean geometry are equal, in that, without coordinates, one can not tell them apart from one another. However, lines may play special roles with respect to other objects in the geometry and be divided into types according to that relationship. For instance, with respect to a conic (a circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola), lines can be: In the context of determining parallelism in Euclidean geometry, a transversal is a line that intersects two other lines that may or not be parallel to each other. For more general algebraic curves, lines could also be: With respect to triangles we have: For a convex quadrilateral with at most two parallel sides, the Newton line is the line that connects the midpoints of the two diagonals. For a hexagon with vertices lying on a conic we have the Pascal line and, in the special case where the conic is a pair of lines, we have the Pappus line. Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that never cross. Intersecting lines share a single point in common. Coincidental lines coincide with each other—every point that is on either one of them is also on the other. Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at right angles. In three-dimensional space, skew lines are lines that are not in the same plane and thus do not intersect each other. In many models of projective geometry, the representation of a line rarely conforms to the notion of the "straight curve" as it is visualised in Euclidean geometry. In elliptic geometry we see a typical example of this. In the spherical representation of elliptic geometry, lines are represented by great circles of a sphere with diametrically opposite points identified. In a different model of elliptic geometry, lines are represented by Euclidean planes passing through the origin. Even though these representations are visually distinct, they satisfy all the properties (such as, two points determining a unique line) that make them suitable representations for lines in this geometry. Given a line and any point "A" on it, we may consider "A" as decomposing this line into two parts. Each such part is called a ray (or half-line) and the point "A" is called its "initial point". The point A is considered to be a member of the ray. Intuitively, a ray consists of those points on a line passing through "A" and proceeding indefinitely, starting at "A", in one direction only along the line. However, in order to use this concept of a ray in proofs a more precise definition is required. Given distinct points "A" and "B", they determine a unique ray with initial point "A". As two points define a unique line, this ray consists of all the points between "A" and "B" (including "A" and "B") and all the points "C" on the line through "A" and "B" such that "B" is between "A" and "C". This is, at times, also expressed as the set of all points "C" such that "A" is not between "B" and "C". A point "D", on the line determined by "A" and "B" but not in the ray with initial point "A" determined by "B", will determine another ray with initial point "A". With respect to the "AB" ray, the "AD" ray is called the "opposite ray". Thus, we would say that two different points, "A" and "B", define a line and a decomposition of this line into the disjoint union of an open segment and two rays, "BC" and "AD" (the point "D" is not drawn in the diagram, but is to the left of "A" on the line "AB"). These are not opposite rays since they have different initial points. In Euclidean geometry two rays with a common endpoint form an angle. The definition of a ray depends upon the notion of betweenness for points on a line. It follows that rays exist only for geometries for which this notion exists, typically Euclidean geometry or affine geometry over an ordered field. On the other hand, rays do not exist in projective geometry nor in a geometry over a non-ordered field, like the complex numbers or any finite field. In topology, a ray in a space "X" is a continuous embedding R → "X". It is used to define the important concept of end of the space. A line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points and contains every point on the line between its end points. Depending on how the line segment is defined, either of the two end points may or may not be part of the line segment. Two or more line segments may have some of the same relationships as lines, such as being parallel, intersecting, or skew, but unlike lines they may be none of these, if they are coplanar and either do not intersect or are collinear. The "shortness" and "straightness" of a line, interpreted as the property that the distance along the line between any two of its points is minimized (see triangle inequality), can be generalized and leads to the concept of geodesics in metric spaces.	The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects (i.e., having no curvature) with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects. Until the 17th century, lines were defined as the "[...] first species of quantity, which has only one dimension, namely length, without any width nor depth, and is nothing else than the flow or run of the point which [...] will leave from its imaginary moving some vestige in length, exempt of any width. 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summarize: The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules regardless of the nature of the gas. The name "Avogadro's number" was coined in 1909 by the physicist Jean Perrin, who defined it as the number of molecules in exactly 32 grams of oxygen. The goal of this definition was to make the mass of a mole of a substance, in grams, be numerically equal to the mass of one molecule relative to the mass of the hydrogen atom; which, because of the law of definite proportions, was the natural unit of atomic mass, and was assumed to be 1/16 of the atomic mass of oxygen. The value of Avogadro's number (still not known by that name) was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. This value, the number density "n" of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honor, and is related to the Avogadro constant, "N", by where "p" is the pressure, "R" is the gas constant, and "T" is the absolute temperature. Because of this work, the symbol "L" is sometimes used for the Avogadro constant, and, in German literature, that name may be used for both constants, distinguished only by the units of measurement. (However, "N" should not to be confused with the entirely different Loschmidt constant in the English language literature.) Perrin himself determined Avogadro's number by several different experimental methods. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work. The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant and had been known since 1834 when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge on a single electron provided a more accurate estimate of the Avogadro number. In 1971 the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) decided to regard the amount of substance as an independent dimension of measurement, with the mole as its base unit in the International System of Units (SI). Specifically, the mole was defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. By this definition, the common rule of thumb "one gram of matter contains "N" nucleons" was exact for carbon-12, but slightly inexact for other elements and isotopes. On the other hand, one mole of any substance contained exactly as many molecules as one mole of any other substance. As a consequence of this definition, in the SI system the Avogadro constant "N" had the dimensionality of reciprocal of amount of substance rather than of a pure number, and had the approximate value with units of mol. By this definition, the value of "N" inherently had to be determined experimentally. The IBPM also named "N" the "Avogadro "constant"", but the term "Avogadro number" continued to be used especially in introductory works. In 2017, the IBPM decided to change the definitions of mole and amount of substance. The mole was redefined as being the amount of substance containing exactly elementary entities. One consequence of this change is that the mass of a mole of C atoms is no longer exactly 0.012 kg. On the other hand, the dalton ( universal atomic mass unit) remains unchanged as 1/12 of the mass of C. Thus, the molar mass constant is no longer exactly 1 g/mol, although the difference ( in relative terms, as of March 2019) is insignificant for practical purposes. In other measurement systems where the unit of amount of substance is not the SI mole, the Avogadro constant "N" is taken to mean the number of particles in said unit, and will have a different value. For example, if quantities of a substance are measured in pound-mole (lb-mol), then the Avogadro constant "N" is lb-mol. If the ounce-mole (oz-mol) is used instead, "N" is oz-mol. However, these units are hardly used nowadays. The Avogadro constant, "N" is related to other physical constants and properties.	The Avogadro constant ("N" or "L") is the proportionality factor that relates the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms or ions) in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. 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summarize: Doppler was born in Salzburg (today Austria) in 1803. After completing high school, Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the Imperial–Royal Polytechnic Institute (now TU Wien), where he became an assistant in 1829. In 1835 he began work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University in Prague), where he received an appointment in 1841. One year later, at the age of 38, Doppler gave a lecture to the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences and subsequently published his most notable work, "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" ("On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens"). There is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec Eden. In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he later tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. This was independently at the same time when physicist Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau () became also involved in aspects of the discovery of the Doppler effect, which is known by the French as the "Doppler-Fizeau Effect". Fizeau contributed towards understanding its effect with light rather than sound, and in doing so, corrected many of Doppler's persistent errors. He also developed the formal mathematical theorem underlying the principles of this effect. In 1848, he discovered the frequency shift of a wave when the source and receiver are moving relative to each other, therefore being the first to predict blue shifts and red shifts of light waves. Doppler continued working as a professor at the Prague Polytechnic, publishing over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy, but in 1847 he left Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and Forests (its successor is the University of Miskolc) in Selmecbánya (then Kingdom of Hungary, now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), Doppler's research was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of 1848. During the Hungarian Revolution, he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Vienna in 1850. While there, Doppler, along with Franz Unger, influenced the development of young Gregor Mendel, the founding father of genetics, who was a student at the University of Vienna from 1851 to 1853. Doppler died on 17 March 1853 at age 49 from a pulmonary disease in Venice (at that time part of the Austrian Empire). His tomb, found by Dr. Peter M. Schuster, is just inside the entrance of the Venetian island cemetery of San Michele. Some confusion exists about Doppler's full name. Doppler referred to himself as Christian Doppler. The records of his birth and baptism stated Christian "Andreas" Doppler. Forty years after Doppler's death the misnomer "Johann" Christian Doppler was introduced by the astronomer Julius Scheiner. Scheiner's mistake has since been copied by many. On 29 November 2017, Google celebrated his 214th birthday with a Google Doodle.	Christian Andreas Doppler (; 29 November 1803 – 17 March 1853) was an Austrian mathematician and physicist. He is celebrated for his principle – known as the Doppler effect – that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer. 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summarize: To avoid ambiguity, the nature of the particles should be specified in any measurement of the amount of substance: thus, 1 mol "of molecules" of oxygen () is about 32 grams, whereas 1 mol "of atoms" of oxygen () is about 16 grams. When not specified, the amount of a substance with discrete covalently bonded molecules of definite size, like water or ethylene (), usually means the number of such molecules. For metallic elements, and some non-metallic elements like carbon and silicon which have molecules of indefinite size, it usually refers to atoms instead. For element allotropes with discrete molecules – like iodine,, chlorine,, white phosphorus, and octasulfur – the term is ambiguous, and should be clarified. For salts (ionic solids) and for polymers of indeterminate molecular size, the term usually refers to the number of instances of the conventional chemical formula of the substance. Thus, for example, 1 mol of calcium chloride () is understood to contain one mole of calcium cations and two moles of chloride anions, even though the ions are not bound into separate three-atom molecules. Likewise, 1 mol of solid silicon dioxide (), which has a three-dimensional covalent lattice structure, is understood to contain one mole of silicon atoms and two moles of oxygen atoms. For substances that normally exist in partially dissociated or polymerized form, the amount of substance usually refers to its nominal formula, without taking those changes into account. For example, "a solution of 1 mol of formaldehyde () in water" is generally understood to contain one mole of carbon atoms, even though some of the formaldehyde may be in the form of methanediol or oligomers like paraformaldehyde and metaformaldehyde. Note that, because of the latter, the number of carbon-containing "molecules" in the solution may be substantially less than one mole. The quotient of some extensive physical quantity of a homogeneous sample by its amount of substance is an intensive property of the substance, usually named by the prefix molar. For example, the ratio of the mass of a sample by its amount of substance is the molar mass, whose SI unit is kilograms (or, more usually, grams) per mole; which is about 18.015 g/mol for water, and 55.845 g/mol for iron. From the volume, one gets the molar volume, which is about 17.962 milliliter/mol for liquid water and 7.092 mL/mol for iron at room temperature. From the heat capacity, one gets the molar heat capacity, which is about 75.385 J/K/mol for water and about 25.10 J/K/mol for iron. Another important derived quantity is the amount of substance concentration (also called "amount concentration", or "substance concentration" in clinical chemistry; which is defined as the amount of a specific substance in a sample of a solution (or some other mixture), divided by the volume of the sample. The SI unit of this quantity is the mole (of the substance) per liter (of the solution). Thus, for example, the amount concentration of sodium chloride in ocean water is typically about 0.599 mol/L. The denominator is the volume of the solution, not of the solvent. Thus, for example, one liter of standard vodka contains about 0.40 L of ethanol (315 g, 6.85 mol) and 0.60 L of water. The amount concentration of ethanol is therefore (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(1 L of vodka) = 6.85 mol/L, not (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(0.60 L of water), which would be 11.4 mol/L. In chemistry, it is customary to read the unit "mol/L" as molar, and denote it by the symbol "M" (both following the numeric value). Thus, for example, each liter of a "0.5 molar" or "0.5 M" solution of urea () in water contains 0.5 moles of that molecule. By extension, the amount concentration is also commonly called the molarity of the substance of interest in the solution. However, as of May 2007, these terms and symbols are not condoned by IUPAC. This quantity should not be confused with the mass concentration, which is the mass of the substance of interest divided by the volume of the solution (about 35 g/L for sodium chloride in ocean water). Confusingly, the amount concentration, or "molarity", should also be distinguished from "molar concentration", which should be the number of moles (molecules) of the substance of interest divided by the total number of moles (molecules) in the solution sample. This quantity is more properly called the amount fraction. The alchemists, and especially the early metallurgists, probably had some notion of amount of substance, but there are no surviving records of any generalization of the idea beyond a set of recipes. In 1758, Mikhail Lomonosov questioned the idea that mass was the only measure of the quantity of matter, but he did so only in relation to his theories on gravitation. The development of the concept of amount of substance was coincidental with, and vital to, the birth of modern chemistry.	In chemistry, the amount of substance in a given sample of matter is defined as the number of discrete atomic-scale particles in it divided by the Avogadro constant "N". In a truly atomistic view, the amount of substance is simply the number of particles that constitute the substance. The particles or entities may be molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, or other, depending on the context. The value of the Avogadro constant "N" has been defined as. In the truly atomistic view, 1 mol = particles (the Avogadro number) and therefore the conversion constant is simply "N" = 1. 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summarize: Bolzano was the son of two pious Catholics. His father, Bernard Pompeius Bolzano, was an Italian who had moved to Prague, where he married Maria Cecilia Maurer who came from Prague's German-speaking family Maurer. Only two of their twelve children lived to adulthood. Bolzano entered the University of Prague in 1796 and studied mathematics, philosophy and physics. Starting in 1800, he also began studying theology, becoming a Catholic priest in 1804. He was appointed to the new chair of philosophy of religion at Prague University in 1805. He proved to be a popular lecturer not only in religion but also in philosophy, and he was elected Dean of the Philosophical Faculty in 1818. Bolzano alienated many faculty and church leaders with his teachings of the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations. Upon his refusal to recant his beliefs, Bolzano was dismissed from the university in 1819. His political convictions, which he was inclined to share with others with some frequency, eventually proved to be too liberal for the Austrian authorities. He was exiled to the countryside and then devoted his energies to his writings on social, religious, philosophical, and mathematical matters. Although forbidden to publish in mainstream journals as a condition of his exile, Bolzano continued to develop his ideas and publish them either on his own or in obscure Eastern European journals. In 1842 he moved back to Prague, where he died in 1848. Bolzano made several original contributions to mathematics. His overall philosophical stance was that, contrary to much of the prevailing mathematics of the era, it was better not to introduce intuitive ideas such as time and motion into mathematics. To this end, he was one of the earliest mathematicians to begin instilling rigor into mathematical analysis with his three chief mathematical works "Beyträge zu einer begründeteren Darstellung der Mathematik" (1810), "Der binomische Lehrsatz" (1816) and "Rein analytischer Beweis" (1817). These works presented "...a sample of a new way of developing analysis", whose ultimate goal would not be realized until some fifty years later when they came to the attention of Karl Weierstrass. To the foundations of mathematical analysis he contributed the introduction of a fully rigorous ε–δ definition of a mathematical limit. Bolzano was the first to recognize the greatest lower bound property of the real numbers. Like several others of his day, he was skeptical of the possibility of Gottfried Leibniz's infinitesimals, that had been the earliest putative foundation for differential calculus. Bolzano's notion of a limit was similar to the modern one: that a limit, rather than being a relation among infinitesimals, must instead be cast in terms of how the dependent variable approaches a definite quantity as the independent variable approaches some other definite quantity. Bolzano also gave the first purely analytic proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra, which had originally been proven by Gauss from geometrical considerations. He also gave the first purely analytic proof of the intermediate value theorem (also known as Bolzano's theorem). Today he is mostly remembered for the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, which Karl Weierstrass developed independently and published years after Bolzano's first proof and which was initially called the Weierstrass theorem until Bolzano's earlier work was rediscovered. Bolzano's posthumously published work "Paradoxien des Unendlichen (The Paradoxes of the Infinite)" (1851) was greatly admired by many of the eminent logicians who came after him, including Charles Sanders Peirce, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind. Bolzano's main claim to fame, however, is his 1837 "Wissenschaftslehre" ("Theory of Science"), a work in four volumes that covered not only philosophy of science in the modern sense but also logic, epistemology and scientific pedagogy. The logical theory that Bolzano developed in this work has come to be acknowledged as ground-breaking. Other works are a four-volume "Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft" ("Textbook of the Science of Religion") and the metaphysical work "Athanasia", a defense of the immortality of the soul. Bolzano also did valuable work in mathematics, which remained virtually unknown until Otto Stolz rediscovered many of his lost journal articles and republished them in 1881. In his 1837 "Wissenschaftslehre" Bolzano attempted to provide logical foundations for all sciences, building on abstractions like part-relation, abstract objects, attributes, sentence-shapes, ideas and propositions in themselves, sums and sets, collections, substances, adherences, subjective ideas, judgments, and sentence-occurrences. These attempts were basically an extension of his earlier thoughts in the philosophy of mathematics, for example his 1810 "Beiträge" where he emphasized the distinction between the objective relationship between logical consequences and our subjective recognition of these connections. For Bolzano, it was not enough that we merely have "confirmation" of natural or mathematical truths, but rather it was the proper role of the sciences (both pure and applied) to seek out "justification" in terms of the fundamental truths that may or may not appear to be obvious to our intuitions. Bolzano begins his work by explaining what he means by "theory of science", and the relation between our knowledge, truths and sciences. Human knowledge, he states, is made of all truths (or true propositions) that men know or have known. This is, however, only a very small fraction of all the truths that exist, although still too much for one human being to comprehend. Therefore, our knowledge is divided into more accessible parts. Such a collection of truths is what Bolzano calls a science ("Wissenschaft"). It is important to note that not all true propositions of a science have to be known to men; hence, this is how we can make discoveries in a science. To better understand and comprehend the truths of a science, men have created textbooks ("Lehrbuch"), which of course contain only the true propositions of the science known to men. But how to know where to divide our knowledge, that is, which truths belong together? Bolzano explains that we will ultimately know this through some reflection, but that the resulting rules of how to divide our knowledge into sciences will be a science in itself. This science, that tells us which truths belong together and should be explained in a textbook, is the "Theory of Science" ("Wissenschaftslehre"). In the "Wissenschaftslehre", Bolzano is mainly concerned with three realms: (1) The realm of language, consisting in words and sentences. <br> (2) The realm of thought, consisting in subjective ideas and judgements. <br> (3) The realm of logic, consisting in objective ideas (or ideas in themselves) and propositions in themselves. Bolzano devotes a great part of the "Wissenschaftslehre" to an explanation of these realms and their relations. Two distinctions play a prominent role in his system. Firstly, the distinction between parts and wholes. For instance, words are parts of sentences, subjective ideas are parts of judgments, objective ideas are parts of propositions in themselves. Secondly, all objects divide into those that exist, which means that they are causally connected and located in time and/or space, and those that do not exist. Bolzano's original claim is that the logical realm is populated by objects of the latter kind. "Satz an Sich" is a basic notion in Bolzano's "Wissenschaftslehre". It is introduced at the very beginning, in section 19. Bolzano first introduces the notions of proposition (spoken or written or thought or in itself) and idea (spoken or written or thought or in itself). "The grass is green" is a proposition ("Satz"): in this connection of words, something is said or asserted. "Grass", however, is only an idea ("Vorstellung"). Something is represented by it, but it does not assert anything. Bolzano's notion of proposition is fairly broad: "A rectangle is round" is a proposition — even though it is false by virtue of self-contradiction — because it is composed in an intelligible manner out of intelligible parts. Bolzano does not give a complete definition of a "Satz an Sich" (i.e. proposition in itself) but he gives us just enough information to understand what he means by it. A proposition in itself (i) has no existence (that is: it has no position in time or place), (ii) is either true or false, independent of anyone knowing or thinking that it is true or false, and (iii) is what is 'grasped' by thinking beings. So a written sentence ('Socrates has wisdom') grasps a proposition in itself, namely the proposition [Socrates has wisdom]. The written sentence does have existence (it has a certain location at a certain time, say it is on your computer screen at this very moment) and expresses the proposition in itself which is in the realm of in itself (i.e. "an sich"). (Bolzano's use of the term "an sich" differs greatly from that of Kant; for Kant's use of the term see "an sich".) Every proposition in itself is composed out of ideas in themselves (for simplicity, we will use "proposition" to mean "proposition in itself" and "idea" to refer to an objective idea or idea in itself. Ideas are negatively defined as those parts of a proposition that are themselves not propositions. A proposition consists of at least three ideas, namely: a subject idea, a predicate idea and the copula (i.e. 'has', or another form of "to have"). (Though there are propositions which contain propositions, but we won't take them into consideration right now.) Bolzano identifies certain types of ideas. There are simple ideas that have no parts (as an example Bolzano uses [something]), but there are also complex ideas that consist of other ideas (Bolzano uses the example of [nothing], which consists of the ideas [not] and [something]). Complex ideas can have the same content (i.e. the same parts) without being the same — because their components are differently connected. The idea [A black pen with blue ink] is different from the idea [A blue pen with black ink] though the parts of both ideas are the same. It is important to understand that an idea does not need to have an object. Bolzano uses "object" to denote something that is represented by an idea. An idea that has an object, represents that object. But an idea that does not have an object represents nothing. (Don't get confused here by terminology: an objectless idea is an idea without a representation.) Consider, for further explanation, an example used by Bolzano. The idea [a round square], does not have an object, because the object that ought to be represented is self-contrary. A different example is the idea [nothing] which certainly does not have an object. However, the proposition [the idea of a round square has complexity] has as its subject-idea [the idea of a round square]. This subject-idea does have an object, namely the idea [a round square]. But, that idea does not have an object. Besides objectless ideas, there are ideas that have only one object, e.g. the idea [the first man on the moon] represents only one object. Bolzano calls these ideas'singular ideas'. Obviously there are also ideas that have many objects (e.g. [the citizens of Amsterdam]) and even infinitely many objects (e.g. [a prime number]). Bolzano has a complex theory of how we are able to sense things. He explains sensation by means of the term intuition, in German called "Anschauung". An intuition is a simple idea, it has only one object ("Einzelvorstellung"), but besides that, it is also unique (Bolzano needs this to explain sensation). Intuitions ("Anschauungen") are objective ideas, they belong to the "an sich" realm, which means that they don’t have existence. As said, Bolzano’s argumentation for intuitions is by an explanation of sensation. What happens when you sense a real existing object, for instance a rose, is this: the different aspects of the rose, like its scent and its color, cause in you a change. That change means that before and after sensing the rose, your mind is in a different state. So sensation is in fact a change in your mental state. How is this related to objects and ideas? Bolzano explains that this change, in your mind, is essentially a simple idea ("Vorstellung"), like, ‘this smell’ (of this particular rose). This idea represents; it has as its object the change. Besides being simple, this change must also be unique. This is because literally you can’t have the same experience twice, nor can two people, who smell the same rose at the same time, have exactly the same experience of that smell (although they will be quite alike). So each single sensation causes a single (new) unique and simple idea with a particular change as its object. Now, this idea in your mind is a subjective idea, meaning that it is in you at a particular time. It has existence. But this subjective idea must correspond to, or has as a content, an objective idea. This is where Bolzano brings in intuitions ("Anschauungen"); they are the simple, unique and objective ideas that correspond to our subjective ideas of changes caused by sensation. So for each single possible sensation, there is a corresponding objective idea. Schematically the whole process is like this: whenever you smell a rose, its scent causes a change in you. This change is the object of your subjective idea of that particular smell. That subjective idea corresponds to the intuition or "Anschauung". According to Bolzano, all propositions are composed out of three (simple or complex) elements: a subject, a predicate and a copula. Instead of the more traditional copulative term 'is', Bolzano prefers 'has'. The reason for this is that 'has', unlike 'is', can connect a concrete term, such as 'Socrates', to an abstract term such as 'baldness'. "Socrates has baldness" is, according to Bolzano, preferable to "Socrates is bald" because the latter form is less basic: 'bald' is itself composed of the elements'something', 'that', 'has' and 'baldness'. Bolzano also reduces existential propositions to this form: "Socrates exists" would simply become "Socrates has existence ("Dasein")". A major role in Bolzano’s logical theory is played by the notion of "variations": various logical relations are defined in terms of the changes in truth value that propositions incur when their non-logical parts are replaced by others. Logically analytical propositions, for instance, are those in which all the non-logical parts can be replaced without change of truth value. Two propositions are 'compatible' ("verträglich") with respect to one of their component parts x if there is at least one term that can be inserted that would make both true. A proposition Q is 'deducible' ("ableitbar") from a proposition P, with respect to certain of their non-logical parts, if any replacement of those parts that makes P true also makes Q true. If a proposition is deducible from another with respect to all its non-logical parts, it is said to be 'logically deducible'. Besides the relation of deducibility, Bolzano also has a stricter relation of 'consequentiality' ("Abfolge"). This is an asymmetric relation that obtains between true propositions, when one of the propositions is not only deducible from, but also explained by the other. Bolzano distinguishes five meanings the words "true" and "truth" have in common usage, all of which Bolzano takes to be unproblematic. The meanings are listed in order of properness: I. Abstract objective meaning: "Truth" signifies an attribute that may apply to a proposition, primarily to a proposition in itself, namely the attribute on the basis of which the proposition expresses something that in reality is as is expressed. Antonyms: "falsity, falseness, falsehood". II. Concrete objective meaning: (a) "Truth" signifies a proposition that has the attribute "truth" in the abstract objective meaning. Antonym: (a) "falsehood". III. Subjective meaning: (a) "Truth" signifies a correct judgment. Antonym: (a) "mistake". IV. Collective meaning: "Truth" signifies a body or multiplicity true propositions or judgments (e.g. the biblical truth). V. Improper meaning: "True" signifies that some object is in reality what some denomination states it to be. (e.g. the true God). Antonyms: "false, unreal, illusory". Bolzano's primary concern is with the concrete objective meaning: with concrete objective truths or truths in themselves. All truths in themselves are a kind of propositions in themselves. They do not exist, i.e. they are not spatiotemporally located as thought and spoken propositions are. However, certain propositions have the attribute of being a truth in itself. Being a thought proposition is not a part of the concept of a truth in itself, notwithstanding the fact that, given God’s omniscience, all truths in themselves are also thought truths. The concepts ‘truth in itself’ and ‘thought truth’ are interchangeable, as they apply to the same objects, but they are not identical. Bolzano offers as the correct definition of (abstract objective) truth: a proposition is true if it expresses something that applies to its object. The correct definition of a (concrete objective) truth must thus be: a truth is a proposition that expresses something that applies to its object. This definition applies to truths in themselves, rather than to thought or known truths, as none of the concepts figuring in this definition are subordinate to a concept of something mental or known. Bolzano proves in §§31–32 of his "Wissenschaftslehre" three things: A There is at least one truth in itself (concrete objective meaning): B. There is more than one truth in itself: C. There are infinitely many truths in themselves: A known truth has as its parts ("Bestandteile") a truth in itself and a judgment (Bolzano, "Wissenschaftslehre" §26). A judgment is a thought which states a true proposition. In judging (at least when the matter of the judgment is a true proposition), the idea of an object is being connected in a certain way with the idea of a characteristic (§ 23). In true judgments, the relation between the idea of the object and the idea of the characteristic is an actual/existent relation (§28). Every judgment has as its matter a proposition, which is either true or false. Every judgment exists, but not "für sich". Judgments, namely, in contrast with propositions in themselves, are dependent on subjective mental activity. Not every mental activity, though, has to be a judgment; recall that all judgments have as matter propositions, and hence all judgments need to be either true or false. Mere presentations or thoughts are examples of mental activities which do not necessarily need to be stated (behaupten), and so are not judgments (§ 34). Judgments that have as its matter true propositions can be called cognitions (§36). Cognitions are also dependent on the subject, and so, opposed to truths in themselves, cognitions do permit degrees; a proposition can be more or less known, but it cannot be more or less true. Every cognition implies necessarily a judgment, but not every judgment is necessarily cognition, because there are also judgments that are not true. Bolzano maintains that there are no such things as false cognitions, only false judgments (§34). Bolzano came to be surrounded by a circle of friends and pupils who spread his thoughts about (the so-called Bolzano Circle), but the effect of his thought on philosophy initially seemed destined to be slight. His work was rediscovered, however, by Edmund Husserl and Kazimierz Twardowski, both students of Franz Brentano. Through them, Bolzano became a formative influence on both phenomenology and analytic philosophy.	Bernard Bolzano (, ; ; ; born Bernardus Placidus Johann Nepomuk Bolzano; 5 October 1781 – 18 December 1848) was a Bohemian mathematician, logician, philosopher, theologian and Catholic priest of Italian extraction, also known for his antimilitarist views.	en	en	46	[ 250004, 250054, 12981, 70386, 509, 70, 775, 111, 6626, 2147, 10821, 129574, 7, 5, 18763, 67373, 4, 56159, 189462, 223, 12981, 70386, 4, 509, 142, 89176, 2750, 1902, 109133, 47, 210721, 4, 7440, 764, 139505, 5379, 203986, 23788, 7966, 2750, 21449, 1295, 210721, 25, 7, 30839, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 14449, 23788, 7966, 5, 87293, 6626, 111, 2363, 77488, 76456, 20020, 158930, 47, 25171, 44462, 5, 12981, 70386, 30957, 297, 70, 12535, 111, 210721, 23, 729, 11648, 136, 22282, 71, 291, 140363, 41637, 4, 6, 119598, 53, 136, 6, 34053, 27744, 7, 5, 13794, 214, 23, 51374, 4, 764, 2843, 80723, 35187, 214, 70, 25443, 4, 141753, 10, 129574, 494, 525, 23, 543, 39876, 1529, 509, 6, 140545, 297, 47, 70, 3525, 80923, 111, 6, 119598, 53, 111, 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summarize: The mole is essentially a count of particles. Usually the particles counted are chemically identical entities, individually distinct. For example, a solution may contain a certain number of dissolved molecules that are more or less independent of each other. However, in a solid the constituent particles are fixed and bound in a lattice arrangement, yet they may be separable without losing their chemical identity. Thus the solid is composed of a certain number of moles of such particles. In yet other cases, such as diamond, where the entire crystal is essentially a single molecule, the mole is still used to express the number of atoms bound together, rather than a count of multiple molecules. Thus, common chemical conventions apply to the definition of the constituent particles of a substance, in other cases exact definitions may be specified. The molar mass of a substance is the mass of a sample, in multiples of the gram, divided by the amount of substance in that sample. The amount of substance is the number of moles in the sample. It is a characteristic property of the substance. For most practical purposes, its magnitude is numerically the same as that of the mean mass of one molecule, expressed in daltons. For example, the molar mass of water is 18.015 g/mol. Other methods include the use of the molar volume or the measurement of electric charge. The number of moles of a substance in a sample is obtained by dividing the mass of the sample by the molar mass of the compound. For example, 100 g of water is about 5.551 mol of water. The molar mass of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the distribution of isotopes of each chemical element present in it. For example, the mass of one mole of calcium-40 is, whereas the mass of one mole of calcium-42 is, and of one mole of calcium with the normal isotopic mix is. The molar concentration, also called "molarity", of a solution of some substance is the number of moles per unit of volume of the final solution. In the SI its standard unit is mol/m, although more practical units, such as mole per litre (mol/L) are used. The molar fraction or mole fraction of a substance in a mixture (such as a solution) is the number of moles of the compound in one sample of the mixture, divided by the total number of moles of all components. For example, if 20 g of is dissolved in 100 g of water, the amounts of the two substances in the solution will be (20 g)/(58.443 g/mol) = 0.34221 mol and (100 g)/(18.015 g/mol) = 5.5509 mol, respectively; and the molar fraction of will be 0.34221/(0.34221 + 5.5509) = 0.05807. In a mixture of gases, the partial pressure of each component is proportional to its molar ratio. The history of the mole is intertwined with that of molecular mass, atomic mass units, and the Avogadro number. The first table of standard atomic weight (atomic mass) was published by John Dalton (1766–1844) in 1805, based on a system in which the relative atomic mass of hydrogen was defined as 1. These relative atomic masses were based on the stoichiometric proportions of chemical reaction and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their acceptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe to atomic theory (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some confusion between atomic masses (promoted by proponents of atomic theory) and equivalent weights (promoted by its opponents and which sometimes differed from relative atomic masses by an integer factor), which would last throughout much of the nineteenth century. Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) was instrumental in the determination of relative atomic masses to ever-increasing accuracy. He was also the first chemist to use oxygen as the standard to which other masses were referred. Oxygen is a useful standard, as, unlike hydrogen, it forms compounds with most other elements, especially metals. However, he chose to fix the atomic mass of oxygen as 100, which did not catch on. Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–56), Henri Victor Regnault (1810–78) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910) expanded on Berzelius' works, resolving many of the problems of unknown stoichiometry of compounds, and the use of atomic masses attracted a large consensus by the time of the Karlsruhe Congress (1860). The convention had reverted to defining the atomic mass of hydrogen as 1, although at the level of precision of measurements at that time – relative uncertainties of around 1% – this was numerically equivalent to the later standard of oxygen = 16. However the chemical convenience of having oxygen as the primary atomic mass standard became ever more evident with advances in analytical chemistry and the need for ever more accurate atomic mass determinations. The name "mole" is an 1897 translation of the German unit "Mol", coined by the chemist Wilhelm Ostwald in 1894 from the German word "Molekül" (molecule). However, the related concept of equivalent mass had been in use at least a century earlier. Developments in mass spectrometry led to the adoption of oxygen-16 as the standard substance, in lieu of natural oxygen. The oxygen-16 definition was replaced with one based on carbon-12 during the 1960s. The mole was defined by International Bureau of Weights and Measures as "the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12." Thus, by that definition, one mole of pure C had a mass of "exactly" 12 g. The four different definitions were equivalent to within 1%. Since the definition of the gram was not mathematically tied to that of the dalton, the number of molecules per mole "N" (the Avogadro constant) had to be determined experimentally. The experimental value adopted by CODATA in 2010 is. In 2011 the measurement was refined to. The mole was made the seventh SI base unit in 1971 by the 14th CGPM. In 2011, the 24th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed to a plan for a possible revision of the SI base unit definitions at an undetermined date. On 16 November 2018, after a meeting of scientists from more than 60 countries at the CGPM in Versailles, France, all SI base units were defined in terms of physical constants. This meant that each SI unit, including the mole, would not be defined in terms of any physical objects but rather they would be defined by constants that are, in their nature, exact. Such changes officially came into effect on 20 May 2019. Following such changes, "one mole" of a substance was redefined as "exactly elementary entities" of that substance. Since its adoption into the International System of Units in 1971, numerous criticisms of the concept of the mole as a unit like the metre or the second have arisen: In chemistry, it has been known since Proust's law of definite proportions (1794) that knowledge of the mass of each of the components in a chemical system is not sufficient to define the system. Amount of substance can be described as mass divided by Proust's "definite proportions", and contains information that is missing from the measurement of mass alone. As demonstrated by Dalton's law of partial pressures (1803), a measurement of mass is not even necessary to measure the amount of substance (although in practice it is usual). There are many physical relationships between amount of substance and other physical quantities, the most notable one being the ideal gas law (where the relationship was first demonstrated in 1857). The term "mole" was first used in a textbook describing these colligative properties. Like chemists, chemical engineers use the unit mole extensively, but different unit multiples may be more suitable for industrial use. For example, the SI unit for volume is the cubic metre, a much larger unit than the commonly used litre in the chemical laboratory. When amount of substance is also expressed in kmol (1000 mol) in industrial-scaled processes, the numerical value of molarity remains the same. For convenience in avoiding conversions in the imperial (or American customary units), some engineers adopted the "pound-mole" (notation "lb-mol" or "lbmol"), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 lb of C. One lb-mol is equal to, which value is the same as the number of grams in an international avoirdupois pound. In the metric system, chemical engineers once used the "kilogram-mole" (notation "kg-mol"), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 kg of C, and often referred to the mole as the "gram-mole" (notation "g-mol"), when dealing with laboratory data. Late 20th-century chemical engineering practice came to use the "kilomole" (kmol), which is numerically identical to the kilogram-mole, but whose name and symbol adopt the SI convention for standard multiples of metric units – thus, kmol means 1000 mol. This is analogous to the use of kg instead of g. The use of kmol is not only for "magnitude convenience" but also makes the equations used for modelling chemical engineering systems coherent. For example, the conversion of a flowrate of kg/s to kmol/s only requires the molecular mass without the factor 1000 unless the basic SI unit of mol/s were to be used. Greenhouse and growth chamber lighting for plants is sometimes expressed in micromoles per square metre per second, where 1 mol photons = photons. October 23, denoted 10/23 in the US, is recognized by some as Mole Day. It is an informal holiday in honor of the unit among chemists. The date is derived from the Avogadro number, which is approximately. It starts at 6:02 a.m. and ends at 6:02 p.m. Alternatively, some chemists celebrate June 2 (), June 22 (), or 6 February (), a reference to the 6.02 or 6.022 part of the constant.	The mole (symbol: mol) is the unit of measurement for amount of substance in the International System of Units (SI). A mole of a substance or a mole of particles is defined as exactly particles, which may be atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons. In short, for particles 1 mol =.	en	en	63	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 49711, 83, 85590, 538, 10, 54529, 111, 2878, 66695, 5, 62544, 25958, 70, 2878, 66695, 54529, 297, 621, 165045, 538, 31943, 6827, 77630, 2449, 4, 11651, 538, 117781, 5, 1326, 27781, 4, 10, 29806, 1543, 70541, 10, 24233, 14012, 111, 26725, 141, 4126, 49711, 70838, 450, 621, 1286, 707, 40715, 41371, 111, 12638, 3789, 5, 33306, 4, 23, 10, 18652, 70, 209716, 2878, 66695, 621, 188347, 136, 6, 99091, 23, 10, 10495, 24494, 70767, 4, 14373, 1836, 1543, 186, 37451, 2661, 15490, 388, 214, 2363, 165045, 182324, 5, 12613, 7, 70, 18652, 83, 150350, 71, 111, 10, 24233, 14012, 111, 49711, 7, 111, 6044, 2878, 66695, 5, 360, 14373, 3789, 50218, 4, 6044, 237, 879, 15882, 4, 7440, 70, 64194, 224128, 83, 85590, 538, 10, 11001, 49711, 75449, 4, 70, 49711, 83, 7464, 11814, 47, 36510, 70, 14012, 111, 34627, 7, 6, 99091, 25842, 4, 43257, 3501, 10, 54529, 111, 48716, 49711, 70838, 5, 12613, 7, 4, 39210, 165045, 101805, 7, 59911, 47, 70, 80934, 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summarize: Fiedler was the son of a shoemaker. He went to the Royal Mercantile College in Chemnitz and in 1849 to the Bergakademie Freiberg as an external student. In 1852 he became a mathematics teacher at the "Werkmeisterschule" in Freiberg and 1853 at the "Gewerbeschule" in Chemnitz. He had to take care of his widowed mother and his siblings, and educated himself without directly attending a university. In 1858 he obtained the doctorate in mathematics at the University of Leipzig under August Ferdinand Möbius ("Die Zentralprojektion als geometrische Wissenschaft"). Fiedler made himself known by editing the translation of the textbooks of analytic, projective, and algebraic geometry by George Salmon (in the 19th century known in Germany as "Salmon-Fiedler"). He was a friend of Salmon and studied his theological works after he retired. In 1864 he became professor for descriptive geometry at the Technical University in Prag and 1867 professor at the Federal polytechnic school in Zurich (by the mediation of Karl Culmann). In 1907 he retired. Among his students were Marcel Grossmann and Emil Weyr. Hendrik de Vries was his assistant. He was a member of the Leopoldina (1889) and the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities (1906). He obtained in 1884 the Steiner price of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and in 1907 the Honorary degree of the Vienna University of Technology was awarded to him. In 1860 he married Line Elise née Springer. In 1875, he was naturalized in Zurich. His son Ernst (1861–1954) was professor of mathematics and rector of the "Oberrealschule" (today Kantonsschule Rämibühl) in Zurich. His son Karl (1863–1894) was Privatdozent for zoology in Zurich.	Otto Wilhelm Fiedler (3 April 1832 in Chemnitz – 19 November 1912 in Zurich) was a German-Swiss mathematician, known for his textbooks of geometry and his contributions to descriptive geometry.	en	en	34	[ 250004, 250054, 3698, 297, 603, 509, 70, 775, 111, 10, 15756, 13, 55474, 5, 1529, 23409, 47, 70, 25674, 45764, 5772, 133, 29693, 23, 5024, 39, 133936, 136, 23, 543, 12977, 47, 70, 12439, 153803, 13, 36443, 4969, 237, 142, 173591, 9836, 5, 360, 543, 12744, 764, 100512, 10, 291, 140363, 41637, 117914, 99, 70, 44, 126196, 92, 52135, 72460, 58, 23, 36443, 4969, 136, 543, 14226, 99, 70, 44, 10429, 6488, 372, 72460, 58, 23, 5024, 39, 133936, 5, 1529, 1902, 47, 5646, 517, 111, 1919, 64685, 2600, 71, 42732, 136, 1919, 78, 79298, 7, 4, 136, 155629, 297, 66570, 15490, 105237, 29966, 214, 10, 152363, 5, 360, 543, 10057, 764, 113054, 297, 70, 22072, 2182, 23, 291, 140363, 41637, 99, 70, 12535, 111, 108089, 1379, 8055, 123693, 51175, 964, 223, 24073, 17048, 165743, 132302, 191, 737, 84183, 7560, 120187, 51029, 3698, 297, 603, 7228, 66570, 51529, 390, 27211, 214, 70, 153648, 111, 70, 7986, 81415, 111, 6, 140815, 4, 13452, 5844, 4, 136, 144, 429, 2844, 1771, 700, 87739, 53, 390, 14787, 6565, 3796, 15, 73, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 51529, 23, 102126, 237, 44, 52779, 3796, 9, 6159, 297, 603, 51029, 1529, 509, 10, 34391, 111, 6565, 3796, 136, 22282, 71, 1919, 70, 109622, 43240, 7103, 764, 90223, 71, 5, 360, 159992, 764, 100512, 16030, 100, 8, 32032, 5844, 700, 87739, 53, 99, 70, 101044, 289, 12535, 23, 76145, 136, 171512, 16030, 99, 70, 18767, 35874, 55875, 10696, 23, 6900, 26932, 15, 1272, 70, 2450, 1363, 111, 17038, 41117, 5761, 194, 360, 91234, 764, 90223, 71, 5, 2022, 4021, 1919, 25921, 3542, 76012, 78822, 5761, 136, 55598, 1401, 12271, 5, 166866, 8, 310, 10484, 509, 1919, 195644, 5, 1529, 509, 10, 32786, 111, 70, 151992, 885, 7435, 122705, 136, 70, 1853, 21690, 66, 62903, 111, 28745, 7, 136, 135493, 3387, 5173, 110156, 5, 1529, 113054, 297, 23, 166555, 70, 27822, 56, 27167, 111, 70, 55386, 7, 39209, 62903, 111, 28745, 7, 4, 136, 23, 91234, 70, 58744, 6635, 79385, 111, 70, 181103, 12535, 111, 46473, 509, 70318, 297, 47, 4049, 5, 360, 128136, 764, 139505, 16777, 181674, 6, 40062, 38026, 56, 5, 360, 168707, 4, 764, 509, 6083, 29367, 23, 6900, 26932, 5, 18763, 775, 108890, 7435, 11540, 74668, 134463, 509, 16030, 111, 291, 140363, 41637, 136, 184028, 111, 70, 44, 670, 1297, 30544, 72460, 58, 15, 160351, 79706, 7, 72460, 57524, 266, 275, 109833, 16, 23, 6900, 26932, 5, 18763, 775, 17038, 7435, 15748, 132869, 117942, 509, 38150, 246, 3121, 18, 100, 1602, 25443, 23, 6900, 26932, 5, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250004, 71047, 96513, 3698, 297, 603, 6896, 7071, 543, 6460, 23, 5024, 39, 133936, 46, 953, 7582, 62977, 23, 6900, 26932, 16, 509, 10, 30839, 9, 294, 16196, 7, 48909, 13, 47148, 3378, 4, 51529, 100, 1919, 7986, 81415, 111, 700, 87739, 53, 136, 1919, 127752, 7, 47, 8, 32032, 5844, 700, 87739, 53, 5, 2 ]
summarize: From the ideal gas law "PV" = "nRT" we get: where "P" is pressure, "V" is volume, "n" is number of moles of a given substance, and "T" is temperature. As pressure is defined as force per unit area, the gas equation can also be written as: Area and volume are (length) and (length) respectively. Therefore: Since force × length = work: The physical significance of "R" is work per degree per mole. It may be expressed in any set of units representing work or energy (such as joules), units representing degrees of temperature on an absolute scale (such as Kelvin or Rankine), and any system of units designating a mole or a similar pure number that allows an equation of macroscopic mass and fundamental particle numbers in a system, such as an ideal gas (see "Avogadro constant"). Instead of a mole the constant can be expressed by considering the normal cubic meter. Otherwise, we can also say that: Therefore, we can write "R" as: And so, in SI base units: The Boltzmann constant "k" (often abbreviated "k") may be used in place of the gas constant by working in pure particle count, "N", rather than amount of substance, "n", since where "N" is the Avogadro constant. For example, the ideal gas law in terms of Boltzmann's constant is where "N" is the number of particles (molecules in this case), or to generalize to an inhomogeneous system the local form holds: where "n" is the number density. As of 2006, the most precise measurement of "R" had been obtained by measuring the speed of sound "c"("P", "T") in argon at the temperature "T" of the triple point of water at different pressures "P", and extrapolating to the zero-pressure limit "c"(0, "T"). The value of "R" is then obtained from the relation where: However, following the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, "R" now has an exact value defined in terms of other precisely defined physical constants. The specific gas constant of a gas or a mixture of gases ("R") is given by the molar gas constant divided by the molar mass ("M") of the gas or mixture. Just as the ideal gas constant can be related to the Boltzmann constant, so can the specific gas constant by dividing the Boltzmann constant by the molecular mass of the gas. Another important relationship comes from thermodynamics. Mayer's relation relates the specific gas constant to the specific heats for a calorically perfect gas and a thermally perfect gas. where "c" is the specific heat for a constant pressure and "c" is the specific heat for a constant volume. It is common, especially in engineering applications, to represent the specific gas constant by the symbol "R". In such cases, the universal gas constant is usually given a different symbol such as "" to distinguish it. In any case, the context and/or units of the gas constant should make it clear as to whether the universal or specific gas constant is being referred to. The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (USSA1976) defines the gas constant "R" as: Note the use of kilomole units resulting in the factor of 1,000 in the constant. The USSA1976 acknowledges that this value is not consistent with the cited values for the Avogadro constant and the Boltzmann constant. This disparity is not a significant departure from accuracy, and USSA1976 uses this value of "R" for all the calculations of the standard atmosphere. When using the ISO value of "R", the calculated pressure increases by only 0.62 pascal at 11 kilometers (the equivalent of a difference of only 17.4 centimeters or 6.8 inches) and an increase of 0.292 Pa at 20 km (the equivalent of a difference of only 33.8 cm or 13.2 in). Also note that this was well before the 2019 SI redefinition which gave the constant an exact value.	The gas constant (also known as the molar, universal, or ideal gas constant) is denoted by the symbol or. It is equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, but expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per "mole", i.e. the pressure–volume product, rather than energy per temperature increment per "particle". The constant is also a combination of the constants from Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. It is a physical constant that is featured in many fundamental equations in the physical sciences, such as the ideal gas law, the Arrhenius equation, and the Nernst equation.	en	en	123	[ 250004, 250054, 28090, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 44, 62655, 58, 2203, 44, 19, 20503, 58, 642, 2046, 12, 7440, 44, 683, 58, 83, 81147, 4, 44, 856, 58, 83, 21950, 4, 44, 19, 58, 83, 14012, 111, 49711, 7, 111, 10, 34475, 161451, 4, 136, 44, 618, 58, 83, 52768, 5, 1301, 81147, 83, 61924, 71, 237, 37772, 117, 25072, 16128, 4, 70, 9060, 28, 5490, 2320, 831, 2843, 186, 59121, 237, 12, 79200, 136, 21950, 621, 15, 23986, 927, 16, 136, 15, 23986, 927, 16, 107013, 538, 5, 228072, 12, 66016, 37772, 34070, 140909, 2203, 4488, 12, 581, 72761, 12330, 3956, 111, 44, 1052, 58, 83, 4488, 117, 79385, 117, 49711, 5, 1650, 1543, 186, 36510, 297, 23, 2499, 5423, 111, 25072, 7, 33636, 214, 4488, 707, 48302, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 2219, 1577, 247, 25072, 7, 33636, 214, 79385, 7, 111, 52768, 98, 142, 89931, 105994, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 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summarize: The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts. The earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian "Rhind Papyrus" (2000–1800 BC) and "Moscow Papyrus" (c. 1890 BC), the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322 (1900 BC). For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, or frustum. Later clay tablets (350–50 BC) demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiter's position and motion within time-velocity space. These geometric procedures anticipated the Oxford Calculators, including the mean speed theorem, by 14 centuries. South of Egypt the ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks. In the 7th century BC, the Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, which is credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history. Eudoxus (408–c. 355 BC) developed the method of exhaustion, which allowed the calculation of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures, as well as a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes, which enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances. Around 300 BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, whose "Elements", widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time, introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof. Although most of the contents of the "Elements" were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework. The "Elements" was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry classes today. Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave remarkably accurate approximations of Pi. He also studied the spiral bearing his name and obtained formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution. Indian mathematicians also made many important contributions in geometry. The "Satapatha Brahmana" (3rd century BC) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the "Sulba Sutras". According to, the "Śulba Sūtras" contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, which are particular cases of Diophantine equations. In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero." Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya" (499) includes the computation of areas and volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work "" in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles ("i.e." triangles with rational sides and rational areas). In the Middle Ages, mathematics in medieval Islam contributed to the development of geometry, especially algebraic geometry. Al-Mahani (b. 853) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (836–901) dealt with arithmetic operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities, and contributed to the development of analytic geometry. Omar Khayyám (1048–1131) found geometric solutions to cubic equations. The theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral and Saccheri quadrilateral, were early results in hyperbolic geometry, and along with their alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, these works had a considerable influence on the development of non-Euclidean geometry among later European geometers, including Witelo (c. 1230–c. 1314), Gersonides (1288–1344), Alfonso, John Wallis, and Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri. In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first was the creation of analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise quantitative science of physics. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591–1661). Projective geometry studies properties of shapes which are unchanged under projections and sections, especially as they relate to artistic perspective. Two developments in geometry in the 19th century changed the way it had been studied previously. These were the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, János Bolyai and Carl Friedrich Gauss and of the formulation of symmetry as the central consideration in the Erlangen Programme of Felix Klein (which generalized the Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries). Two of the master geometers of the time were Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), working primarily with tools from mathematical analysis, and introducing the Riemann surface, and Henri Poincaré, the founder of algebraic topology and the geometric theory of dynamical systems. As a consequence of these major changes in the conception of geometry, the concept of "space" became something rich and varied, and the natural background for theories as different as complex analysis and classical mechanics. The following are some of the most important concepts in geometry. Euclid took an abstract approach to geometry in his Elements, one of the most influential books ever written. Euclid introduced certain axioms, or postulates, expressing primary or self-evident properties of points, lines, and planes. He proceeded to rigorously deduce other properties by mathematical reasoning. The characteristic feature of Euclid's approach to geometry was its rigor, and it has come to be known as "axiomatic" or "synthetic" geometry. At the start of the 19th century, the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856), János Bolyai (1802–1860), Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and others led to a revival of interest in this discipline, and in the 20th century, David Hilbert (1862–1943) employed axiomatic reasoning in an attempt to provide a modern foundation of geometry. Points are considered fundamental objects in Euclidean geometry. They have been defined in a variety of ways, including Euclid's definition as 'that which has no part' and through the use of algebra or nested sets. In many areas of geometry, such as analytic geometry, differential geometry, and topology, all objects are considered to be built up from points. However, there has been some study of geometry without reference to points. Euclid described a line as "breadthless length" which "lies equally with respect to the points on itself". In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is closely tied to the way the geometry is described. For instance, in analytic geometry, a line in the plane is often defined as the set of points whose coordinates satisfy a given linear equation, but in a more abstract setting, such as incidence geometry, a line may be an independent object, distinct from the set of points which lie on it. In differential geometry, a geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a line to curved spaces. A plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. Planes are used in every area of geometry. For instance, planes can be studied as a topological surface without reference to distances or angles; it can be studied as an affine space, where collinearity and ratios can be studied but not distances; it can be studied as the complex plane using techniques of complex analysis; and so on. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. In modern terms, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the "sides" of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the "vertex" of the angle. In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to study polygons and triangles, as well as forming an object of study in their own right. The study of the angles of a triangle or of angles in a unit circle forms the basis of trigonometry. In differential geometry and calculus, the angles between plane curves or space curves or surfaces can be calculated using the derivative. A curve is a 1-dimensional object that may be straight (like a line) or not; curves in 2-dimensional space are called plane curves and those in 3-dimensional space are called space curves. In topology, a curve is defined by a function from an interval of the real numbers to another space. In differential geometry, the same definition is used, but the defining function is required to be differentiable Algebraic geometry studies algebraic curves, which are defined as algebraic varieties of dimension one. A surface is a two-dimensional object, such as a sphere or paraboloid. In differential geometry and topology, surfaces are described by two-dimensional 'patches' (or neighborhoods) that are assembled by diffeomorphisms or homeomorphisms, respectively. In algebraic geometry, surfaces are described by polynomial equations. A manifold is a generalization of the concepts of curve and surface. In topology, a manifold is a topological space where every point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to Euclidean space. In differential geometry, a differentiable manifold is a space where each neighborhood is diffeomorphic to Euclidean space. Manifolds are used extensively in physics, including in general relativity and string theory. Length, area, and volume describe the size or extant of an object in one dimension, two dimension, and three dimensions respectively. In Euclidean geometry and analytic geometry, the length of a line segment can often be calculated by the Pythagorean theorem. Area and volume can be defined as fundamental quantities separate from length, or they can be described and calculated in terms of lengths in a plane or 3-dimensional space. Mathematicians have found many explicit formulas for area and formulas for volume of various geometric objects. In calculus, area and volume can be defined in terms of integrals, such as the Riemann integral or the Lebesgue integral. The concept of length or distance can be generalized, leading to the idea of metrics. For instance, the Euclidean metric measures the distance between points in the Euclidean plane, while the hyperbolic metric measures the distance in the hyperbolic plane. Other important examples of metrics include the Lorentz metric of special relativity and the semi-Riemannian metrics of general relativity. In a different direction, the concepts of length, area and volume are extended by measure theory, which studies methods of assigning a size or "measure" to sets, where the measures follow rules similar to those of classical area and volume. Congruence and similarity are concepts that describe when two shapes have similar characteristics. In Euclidean geometry, similarity is used to describe objects that have the same shape, while congruence is used to describe objects that are the same in both size and shape. Hilbert, in his work on creating a more rigorous foundation for geometry, treated congruence as an undefined term whose properties are defined by axioms. Congruence and similarity are generalized in transformation geometry, which studies the properties of geometric objects that are preserved by different kinds of transformations. Classical geometers paid special attention to constructing geometric objects that had been described in some other way. Classically, the only instruments allowed in geometric constructions are the compass and straightedge. Also, every construction had to be complete in a finite number of steps. However, some problems turned out to be difficult or impossible to solve by these means alone, and ingenious constructions using parabolas and other curves, as well as mechanical devices, were found. Where the traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3 (our ambient world conceived of as three-dimensional space), mathematicians and physicists have used higher dimensions for nearly two centuries. One example of a mathematical use for higher dimensions is the configuration space of a physical system, which has a dimension equal to the system's degrees of freedom. For instance, the configuration of a screw can be described by five coordinates. In general topology, the concept of dimension has been extended from natural numbers, to infinite dimension (Hilbert spaces, for example) and positive real numbers (in fractal geometry). In algebraic geometry, the dimension of an algebraic variety has received a number of apparently different definitions, which are all equivalent in the most common cases. The theme of symmetry in geometry is nearly as old as the science of geometry itself. Symmetric shapes such as the circle, regular polygons and platonic solids held deep significance for many ancient philosophers and were investigated in detail before the time of Euclid. Symmetric patterns occur in nature and were artistically rendered in a multitude of forms, including the graphics of da Vinci, M.C. Escher, and others. In the second half of the 19th century, the relationship between symmetry and geometry came under intense scrutiny. Felix Klein's Erlangen program proclaimed that, in a very precise sense, symmetry, expressed via the notion of a transformation group, determines what geometry "is". Symmetry in classical Euclidean geometry is represented by congruences and rigid motions, whereas in projective geometry an analogous role is played by collineations, geometric transformations that take straight lines into straight lines. However it was in the new geometries of Bolyai and Lobachevsky, Riemann, Clifford and Klein, and Sophus Lie that Klein's idea to 'define a geometry via its symmetry group' found its inspiration. Both discrete and continuous symmetries play prominent roles in geometry, the former in topology and geometric group theory, the latter in Lie theory and Riemannian geometry. A different type of symmetry is the principle of duality in projective geometry, among other fields. This meta-phenomenon can roughly be described as follows: in any theorem, exchange "point" with "plane", "join" with "meet", "lies in" with "contains", and the result is an equally true theorem. A similar and closely related form of duality exists between a vector space and its dual space. Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. As it models the space of the physical world, it is used in many scientific areas, such as mechanics, astronomy, crystallography, and many technical fields, such as engineering, architecture, geodesy, aerodynamics, and navigation. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of Euclidean concepts such as points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, and analytic geometry. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to study problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, econometrics, and bioinformatics, among others. In particular, differential geometry is of importance to mathematical physics due to Albert Einstein's general relativity postulation that the universe is curved. Differential geometry can either be "intrinsic" (meaning that the spaces it considers are smooth manifolds whose geometric structure is governed by a Riemannian metric, which determines how distances are measured near each point) or "extrinsic" (where the object under study is a part of some ambient flat Euclidean space). Euclidean geometry was not the only historical form of geometry studied. Spherical geometry has long been used by astronomers, astrologers, and navigators. Immanuel Kant argued that there is only one, "absolute", geometry, which is known to be true "a priori" by an inner faculty of mind: Euclidean geometry was synthetic a priori. This view was at first somewhat challenged by thinkers such as Saccheri, then finally overturned by the revolutionary discovery of non-Euclidean geometry in the works of Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and Gauss (who never published his theory). They demonstrated that ordinary Euclidean space is only one possibility for development of geometry. A broad vision of the subject of geometry was then expressed by Riemann in his 1867 inauguration lecture "Über die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen" ("On the hypotheses on which geometry is based"), published only after his death. Riemann's new idea of space proved crucial in Albert Einstein's general relativity theory. Riemannian geometry, which considers very general spaces in which the notion of length is defined, is a mainstay of modern geometry. Topology is the field concerned with the properties of continuous mappings, and can be considered a generalization of Euclidean geometry. In practice, topology often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness. The field of topology, which saw massive development in the 20th century, is in a technical sense a type of transformation geometry, in which transformations are homeomorphisms. This has often been expressed in the form of the saying 'topology is rubber-sheet geometry'. Subfields of topology include geometric topology, differential topology, algebraic topology and general topology. The field of algebraic geometry developed from the Cartesian geometry of co-ordinates. It underwent periodic periods of growth, accompanied by the creation and study of projective geometry, birational geometry, algebraic varieties, and commutative algebra, among other topics. From the late 1950s through the mid-1970s it had undergone major foundational development, largely due to work of Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck. This led to the introduction of schemes and greater emphasis on topological methods, including various cohomology theories. One of seven Millennium Prize problems, the Hodge conjecture, is a question in algebraic geometry. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem uses advanced methods of algebraic geometry for solving a long-standing problem of number theory. In general, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of concepts in commutative algebra such as multivariate polynomials. It has applications in many areas, including cryptography and string theory. Complex geometry studies the nature of geometric structures modelled on, or arising out of, the complex plane. Complex geometry lies at the intersection of differential geometry, algebraic geometry, and analysis of several complex variables, and has found applications to string theory and mirror symmetry. Complex geometry first appeared as a distinct area of study in the work of Bernhard Riemann in his study of Riemann surfaces. Work in the spirit of Riemann was carried out by the Italian school of algebraic geometry in the early 1900s. Contemporary treatment of complex geometry began with the work of Jean-Pierre Serre, who introduced the concept of sheaves to the subject, and illuminated the relations between complex geometry and algebraic geometry. The primary objects of study in complex geometry are complex manifolds, complex algebraic varieties, and complex analytic varieties, and holomorphic vector bundles and coherent sheaves over these spaces. Special examples of spaces studied in complex geometry include Riemann surfaces, and Calabi-Yau manifolds, and these spaces find uses in string theory. In particular, worldsheets of strings are modelled by Riemann surfaces, and superstring theory predicts that the extra 6 dimensions of 10 dimensional spacetime may be modelled by Calabi-Yau manifolds. Discrete geometry is a subject that has close connections with convex geometry. It is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple geometric objects, such as points, lines and circles. Examples include the study of sphere packings, triangulations, the Kneser-Poulsen conjecture, etc. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics. Computational geometry deals with algorithms and their implementations for manipulating geometrical objects. Important problems historically have included the travelling salesman problem, minimum spanning trees, hidden-line removal, and linear programming. Although being a young area of geometry, it has many applications in computer vision, image processing, computer-aided design, medical imaging, etc. Geometric group theory uses large-scale geometric techniques to study finitely generated groups. It is closely connected to low-dimensional topology, such as in Grigori Perelman's proof of the Geometrization conjecture, which included the proof of the Poincaré conjecture, a Millennium Prize Problem. Geometric group theory often revolves around the Cayley graph, which is a geometric representation of a group. Other important topics include quasi-isometries, Gromov-hyperbolic groups, and right angled Artin groups. Convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis and discrete mathematics. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis and important applications in number theory. Convex geometry dates back to antiquity. Archimedes gave the first known precise definition of convexity. The isoperimetric problem, a recurring concept in convex geometry, was studied by the Greeks as well, including Zenodorus. Archimedes, Plato, Euclid, and later Kepler and Coxeter all studied convex polytopes and their properties. From the 19th century on, mathematicians have studied other areas of convex mathematics, including higher-dimensional polytopes, volume and surface area of convex bodies, Gaussian curvature, algorithms, tilings and lattices. Geometry has found applications in many fields, some of which are described below. Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. For instance, the theory of perspective showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the origin of projective geometry. Artists have long used concepts of proportion in design. Vitruvius developed a complicated theory of "ideal proportions" for the human figure. These concepts have been used and adapted by artists from Michelangelo to modern comic book artists. The golden ratio is a particular proportion that has had a controversial role in art. Often claimed to be the most aesthetically pleasing ratio of lengths, it is frequently stated to be incorporated into famous works of art, though the most reliable and unambiguous examples were made deliberately by artists aware of this legend. Tilings, or tessellations, have been used in art throughout history. Islamic art makes frequent use of tessellations, as did the art of Escher. Escher's work also made use of hyperbolic geometry. Cézanne advanced the theory that all images can be built up from the sphere, the cone, and the cylinder. This is still used in art theory today, although the exact list of shapes varies from author to author. Geometry has many applications in architecture. In fact, it has been said that geometry lies at the core of architectural design. Applications of geometry to architecture include the use of projective geometry to create forced perspective, the use of conic sections in constructing domes and similar objects, the use of tessellations, and the use of symmetry. The field of astronomy, especially as it relates to mapping the positions of stars and planets on the celestial sphere and describing the relationship between movements of celestial bodies, have served as an important source of geometric problems throughout history. Riemannian geometry and pseudo-Riemannian geometry are used in general relativity. String theory makes use of several variants of geometry, as does quantum information theory. Calculus was strongly influenced by geometry. For instance, the introduction of coordinates by René Descartes and the concurrent developments of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since geometric figures such as plane curves could now be represented analytically in the form of functions and equations. This played a key role in the emergence of infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century. Analytic geometry continues to be a mainstay of pre-calculus and calculus curriculum. Another important area of application is number theory. In ancient Greece the Pythagoreans considered the role of numbers in geometry. However, the discovery of incommensurable lengths contradicted their philosophical views. Since the 19th century, geometry has been used for solving problems in number theory, for example through the geometry of numbers or, more recently, scheme theory, which is used in Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.	Geometry (from the ; "geo-" "earth", "-metron" "measurement") is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. 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summarize: "Hour" is a development of the Anglo-Norman'and Middle English ', first attested in the 13th century. It displaced tide tīd, "time" and stound stund, "span of time". The Anglo-Norman term was a borrowing of Old French ', a variant of ', which derived from Latin "" and Greek "hṓrā" (). Like Old English'and ', "hṓrā" was originally a vaguer word for any span of time, including seasons and years. Its Proto-Indo-European root has been reconstructed as "" ("year, summer"), making "hour" distantly cognate with "year". The time of day is typically expressed in English in terms of hours. Whole hours on a 12-hour clock are expressed using the contracted phrase "o'clock", from the older "of clock". (10 am and 10 pm are both read as "ten o'clock".) Hours on a 24-hour clock ("military time") are expressed as "hundred" or "hundred hours". (1000 is read "ten hundred" or "ten hundred hours"; 10 pm would be "twenty-two hundred".) Fifteen and thirty minutes past the hour is expressed as "a quarter past" or "after" and "half past", respectively, from their fraction of the hour. Fifteen minutes before the hour may be expressed as "a quarter to", "of", "till", or "before" the hour. (9:45 may be read "nine forty-five" or "a quarter till ten".) The ancient Greeks and Romans originally divided the day into 12 hours and the night into 3 or 4 night watches. The Greek astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus oversaw the construction of a horologion called the Tower of the Winds in Athens during the first century. This structure tracked a 24-hour day using both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. The night was eventually also divided into 12 hours. The canonical hours were introduced to early Christianity from Second Temple Judaism. By AD 60, the Didache, recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours. In the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept. The word "Vigils", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the "Vigiliae" or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers. The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil. The "Horae" were originally personifications of seasonal aspects of nature, not of the time of day. The list of twelve "Horae" representing the twelve hours of the day is recorded only in Late Antiquity, by Nonnus. The first and twelfth of the "Horae" were added to the original set of ten: Medieval astronomers such as al-Biruni and Sacrobosco, divided the hour into 60 minutes, each of 60 seconds; this derives from Babylonian astronomy, where the corresponding terms denoted the time required for the Sun's apparent motion through the ecliptic to describe one minute or second of arc, respectively. In present terms, the Babylonian degree of time was thus four minutes long, the "minute" of time was thus four seconds long and the "second" 1/15 of a second.) In medieval Europe, the Roman hours continued to be marked on sundials but the more important units of time were the canonical hours of the Orthodox and Catholic Church. During daylight, these followed the pattern set by the three-hour bells of the Roman markets, which were succeeded by the bells of local churches. They rang prime at about 6am, terce at about 9am, sext at noon, nones at about 3pm, and vespers at either 6pm or sunset. Matins and lauds precede these irregularly in the morning hours; compline follows them irregularly before sleep; and the midnight office follows that. Vatican II ordered their reformation for the Catholic Church in 1963, though they continue to be observed in the Orthodox churches. When mechanical clocks began to be used to show hours of daylight or nighttime, their period needed to be changed every morning and evening (for example, by changing the length of their pendula). The use of 24 hours for the entire day meant hours varied much less and the clocks needed to be adjusted only a few times a month. The minor irregularities of the apparent solar day were smoothed by measuring time using the mean solar day, using the Sun's movement along the celestial equator rather than along the ecliptic. The irregularities of this time system were so minor that most clocks reckoning such hours did not need adjustment. However, scientific measurements eventually became precise enough to note the effect of tidal deceleration of the Earth by the Moon, which gradually lengthens the Earth's days. During the French Revolution, a general decimalization of measures was enacted, including decimal time between 1793 and 1795. Under its provisions, the French hour () was of the day and divided formally into 100 decimal minutes (') and informally into 10 tenths ('). This hour was only briefly in official use, being repealed by the same 1795 legislation that first established the metric system. The metric system bases its measurements of time upon the second, defined since 1952 in terms of the Earth's rotation in 1900. Its hours are a secondary unit computed as precisely 3,600 seconds. However, an hour of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used as the basis of most civil time, has lasted 3,601 seconds 27 times since 1972 in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of universal time, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day at 0° longitude. The addition of these seconds accommodates the very gradual slowing of the rotation of the Earth. In modern life, the ubiquity of clocks and other timekeeping devices means that segmentation of days according to their hours is commonplace. Most forms of employment, whether wage or salaried labour, involve compensation based upon measured or expected hours worked. The fight for an eight-hour day was a part of labour movements around the world. Informal rush hours and happy hours cover the times of day when commuting slows down due to congestion or alcoholic drinks being available at discounted prices. The hour record for the greatest distance travelled by a cyclist within the span of an hour is one of cycling's greatest honours. Many different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant. Astrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods. In ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient. "Babylonian hours" divide the day and night into 24 equal hours, reckoned from the time of sunrise. They are so named from the false belief of ancient authors that the Babylonians divided the day into 24 parts, beginning at sunrise. In fact, they divided the day into 12 parts (called "kaspu" or "double hours") or into 60 equal parts. Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours. This is also the system used in Jewish law and frequently called "Talmudic hour" ("Sha'a Zemanit") in a variety of texts. The Talmudic hour is one twelfth of time elapsed from sunrise to sunset, day hours therefore being longer than night hours in the summer; in winter they reverse. The Indic day began at sunrise. The term "hora" was used to indicate an hour. The time was measured based on the length of the shadow at day time. A "hora" translated to 2.5 "pe". There are 60 "pe" per day, 60 minutes per "pe" and 60 "kshana" (snap of a finger or instant) per minute. "Pe" was measured with a bowl with a hole placed in still water. Time taken for this graduated bowl was one "pe". Kings usually had an officer in charge of this clock. In so-called "Italian time", "Italian hours", or "old Czech time", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude). The hours were numbered from 1 to 24. For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour. Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour. The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours. This manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily know how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light. It was already widely used in Italy by the 14th century and lasted until the mid-18th century; it was officially abolished in 1755, or in some regions customary until the mid-19th century. The system of Italian hours can be seen on a number of clocks in Europe, where the dial is numbered from 1 to 24 in either Roman or Arabic numerals. The St Mark's Clock in Venice, and the Orloj in Prague are famous examples. It was also used in Poland and Bohemia until the 17th century. The Islamic day begins at sunset. The first prayer of the day (maghrib) is to be performed between just after sunset and the end of twilight. Until 1968 Saudi Arabia used the system of counting 24 equal hours with the first hour starting at sunset. For many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately. An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing. In the modern 12-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2,..., 11. Solar noon is always close to 12 noon (ignoring artificial adjustments due to time zones and daylight saving time), differing according to the equation of time by as much as fifteen minutes either way. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 6 a.m. (, before noon), and sunset around 6 p.m. (, after noon). In the modern 24-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight, and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00, again differing according to the equation of time. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00, and sunset around 18:00. The ancient Egyptians began dividing the night into "" at some time before the compilation of the Dynasty V Pyramid Texts in the 24thcentury. By 2150 (Dynasty IX), diagrams of stars inside Egyptian coffin lids—variously known as "diagonal calendars" or "star clocks"—attest that there were exactly 12 of these. Clagett writes that it is "certain" this duodecimal division of the night followed the adoption of the Egyptian civil calendar, usually placed on the basis of analyses of the Sothic cycle, but a lunar calendar presumably long predated this and also would have had twelve months in each of its years. The coffin diagrams show that the Egyptians took note of the heliacal risings of 36 stars or constellations (now known as "decans"), one for each of the ten-day "weeks" of their civil calendar. (12 sets of alternate "triangle decans" were used for the 5 epagomenal days between years.) Each night, the rising of eleven of these decans were noted, separating the night into twelve divisions whose middle terms would have lasted about 40minutes each. (Another seven stars were noted by the Egyptians during the twilight and predawn periods, although they were not important for the hour divisions.) The original decans used by the Egyptians would have fallen noticeably out of their proper places over a span of several centuries. By the time of (), the priests at Karnak were using water clocks to determine the hours. These were filled to the brim at sunset and the hour determined by comparing the water level against one of its twelve gauges, one for each month of the year. During the New Kingdom, another system of decans was used, made up of 24 stars over the course of the year and 12 within any one night. The later division of the day into 12 hours was accomplished by sundials marked with ten equal divisions. The morning and evening periods when the sundials failed to note time were observed as the first and last hours. The Egyptian hours were closely connected both with the priesthood of the gods and with their divine services. By the New Kingdom, each hour was conceived as a specific region of the sky or underworld through which Ra's solar barge travelled. Protective deities were assigned to each and were used as the names of the hours. As the protectors and resurrectors of the sun, the goddesses of the night hours were considered to hold power over all lifespans and thus became part of Egyptian funerary rituals. Two fire-spitting cobras were said to guard the gates of each hour of the underworld, and Wadjet and the rearing cobra (uraeus) were also sometimes referenced as'from their role protecting the dead through these gates. The Egyptian word for astronomer, used as a synonym for priest, was ', "one of the "wnwt"", as it were "one of the hours". The earliest forms of "" include one or three stars, with the later solar hours including the determinative hieroglyph for "sun". Ancient China divided its day into 100 "marks" running from midnight to midnight. The system is said to have been used since remote antiquity, credited to the legendary Yellow Emperor, but is first attested in Han-era water clocks and in the 2nd-century history of that dynasty. It was measured with sundials and water clocks. Into the Eastern Han, the Chinese measured their day schematically, adding the 20-"ke" difference between the solstices evenly throughout the year, one every nine days. During the night, time was more commonly reckoned during the night by the "watches" of the guard, which were reckoned as a fifth of the time from sunset to sunrise. Imperial China continued to use "ke" and "geng" but also began to divide the day into 12 "double hours" named after the earthly branches and sometimes also known by the name of the corresponding animal of the Chinese zodiac. The first "shi" originally ran from 11pm to 1am but was reckoned as starting at midnight by the time of the History of Song, compiled during the early Yuan. These apparently began to be used during the Eastern Han that preceded the Three Kingdoms era, but the sections that would have covered them are missing from their official histories; they first appear in official use in the Tang-era Book of Sui. Variations of all these units were subsequently adopted by Japan and the other countries of the Sinosphere. The 12 "shi" supposedly began to be divided into 24 hours under the Tang, although they are first attested in the Ming-era Book of Yuan. In that work, the hours were known by the same earthly branches as the "shi", with the first half noted as its "starting" and the second as "completed" or "proper" "shi". In modern China, these are instead simply numbered and described as "little "shi"". The modern "ke" is now used to count quarter-hours, rather than a separate unit. As with the Egyptian night and daytime hours, the division of the day into twelve "shi" has been credited to the example set by the rough number of lunar cycles in a solar year, although the 12-year Jovian orbital cycle was more important to traditional Chinese and Babylonian reckoning of the zodiac. In Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, the traditional system of noting hours is the six-hour clock. This reckons each of a day's 24 hours apart from noon as part of a fourth of the day. 7 am was the first hour of the first half of daytime; 1 pm the first hour of the latter half of daytime; 7 pm the first hour of the first half of nighttime; and 1 am the first hour of the latter half of nighttime. This system existed in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, deriving its current phrasing from the practice of publicly announcing the daytime hours with a gong and the nighttime hours with a drum. It was abolished in Laos and Cambodia during their French occupation and is uncommon there now. The Thai system remains in informal use in the form codified in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn. The Vedas and Puranas employed units of time based on the sidereal day ("nakṣatra ahorātram"). This was variously divided into 30 "muhūtras" of 48 minutes each or 60 "dandas" or "nadís" of 24 minutes each. The solar day was later similarly divided into 60 "ghaṭikás" of about the same duration, each divided in turn into 60 "vinadis". The Sinhalese followed a similar system but called their sixtieth of a day a "peya".	An hour (symbol: h; also abbreviated hr) is a unit of time conventionally reckoned as of a day and scientifically reckoned as 3,599–3,601 seconds, depending on conditions. 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summarize: At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions. An example of an equation of state correlates densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and pressures, known as the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate for weakly polar gases at low pressures and moderate temperatures. This equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. Another common use is in modeling the interior of stars, including neutron stars, dense matter (quark–gluon plasmas) and radiation fields. A related concept is the perfect fluid equation of state used in cosmology. Equations of state can also describe solids, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. In a practical context, equations of state are instrumental for PVT calculations in process engineering problems, such as petroleum gas/liquid equilibrium calculations. A successful PVT model based on a fitted equation of state can be helpful to determine the state of the flow regime, the parameters for handling the reservoir fluids, and pipe sizing. Measurements of equation-of-state parameters, especially at high pressures, can be made using lasers. Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662, the Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as: The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariotte's law. However, Mariotte's work was not published until 1676. In 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to roughly the same extent over the same 80-kelvin interval. Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature: Dalton's Law of partial pressure states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for "n" species as: In 1834, Émile Clapeyron combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the "ideal gas law". Initially, the law was formulated as "pV" = "R"("T" + 267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where "R" is the gas constant. However, later work revealed that the number should actually be closer to 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with 0°C = 273.15K, giving: In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the Redlich–Kwong equation of state and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. For a given amount of substance contained in a system, the temperature, volume, and pressure are not independent quantities; they are connected by a relationship of the general form An equation used to model this relationship is called an equation of state. In the following sections major equations of state are described, and the variables used here are defined as follows. Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI units are preferred. Absolute temperature refers to use of the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (°R) temperature scales, with zero being absolute zero. The classical ideal gas law may be written In the form shown above, the equation of state is thus If the calorically perfect gas approximation is used, then the ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows where formula_19 is the density, formula_20 is the adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), formula_21 is the internal energy per unit mass (the "specific internal energy"), formula_22 is the specific heat at constant volume, and formula_23 is the specific heat at constant pressure. Cubic equations of state are called such because they can be rewritten as a cubic function of V. The Van der Waals equation of state may be written: where formula_25 is molar volume. The substance-specific constants formula_26 and formula_27 can be calculated from the critical properties formula_28 and formula_29 (noting that formula_29 is the molar volume at the critical point) as: Also written as Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state was one of the first to perform markedly better than the ideal gas law. In this landmark equation formula_26 is called the attraction parameter and formula_27 the repulsion parameter or the effective molecular volume. While the equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly referenced in text-books and papers for historical reasons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only slightly greater complexity are much more accurate. The van der Waals equation may be considered as the ideal gas law, "improved" due to two independent reasons: With the reduced state variables, i.e. V=V/V, P=P/P and T=T/T, the reduced form of the Van der Waals equation can be formulated: The benefit of this form is that for given T and P, the reduced volume of the liquid and gas can be calculated directly using Cardano's method for the reduced cubic form: For P<1 and T<1, the system is in a state of vapor–liquid equilibrium. The reduced cubic equation of state yields in that case 3 solutions. The largest and the lowest solution are the gas and liquid reduced volume. Introduced in 1949, the Redlich-Kwong equation of state was a considerable improvement over other equations of the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor–liquid equilibria. However, it can be used in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose. The Redlich-Kwong equation is adequate for calculation of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to the critical pressure (reduced pressure) is less than about one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the critical temperature (reduced temperature): Where ω is the acentric factor for the species. This formulation for formula_54 is due to Graboski and Daubert. The original formulation from Soave is: for hydrogen: We can also write it in the polynomial form, with: then we have: where formula_60 is the universal gas constant and Z=PV/(RT) is the compressibility factor. In 1972 G. Soave replaced the 1/ term of the Redlich-Kwong equation with a function α(T,ω) involving the temperature and the acentric factor (the resulting equation is also known as the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state; SRK EOS). The α function was devised to fit the vapor pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does fairly well for these materials. Note especially that this replacement changes the definition of "a" slightly, as the formula_61 is now to the second power. The SRK EOS may be written as where where formula_54 and other parts of the SRK EOS is defined in the SRK EOS section. A downside of the SRK EOS, and other cubic EOS, is that the liquid molar volume is significantly less accurate than the gas molar volume. Peneloux et alios (1982) proposed a simple correction for this by introducing a volume translation where formula_66 is an additional fluid component parameter that translates the molar volume slightly. On the liquid branch of the EOS, a small change in molar volume corresponds to a large change in pressure. On the gas branch of the EOS, a small change in molar volume corresponds to a much smaller change in pressure than for the liquid branch. Thus, the perturbation of the molar gas volume is small. Unfortunately, there are two versions that occur in science and industry. In the first version only formula_67 is translated, In the second version both formula_67 and formula_70 are translated, or the translation of formula_67 is followed by a renaming of the composite parameter. This gives The c-parameter of a fluid mixture is calculated by The c-parameter of the individual fluid components in a petroleum gas and oil can be estimated by the correlation where the Rackett compressibility factor formula_75 can be estimated by A nice feature with the volume translation method of Peneloux et al. (1982) is that it does not affect the vapor-liquid equilibrium calculations. This method of volume translation can also be applied to other cubic EOSs if the c-parameter correlation is adjusted to match the selected EOS. In polynomial form: where formula_81 is the acentric factor of the species, formula_60 is the universal gas constant and formula_83 is compressibility factor. The Peng–Robinson equation of state (PR EOS) was developed in 1976 at The University of Alberta by Ding-Yu Peng and Donald Robinson in order to satisfy the following goals: For the most part the Peng–Robinson equation exhibits performance similar to the Soave equation, although it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densities of many materials, especially nonpolar ones. The departure functions of the Peng–Robinson equation are given on a separate article. The analytic values of its characteristic constants are: A modification to the attraction term in the Peng–Robinson equation of state published by Stryjek and Vera in 1986 (PRSV) significantly improved the model's accuracy by introducing an adjustable pure component parameter and by modifying the polynomial fit of the acentric factor. The modification is: where formula_88 is an adjustable pure component parameter. Stryjek and Vera published pure component parameters for many compounds of industrial interest in their original journal article. At reduced temperatures above 0.7, they recommend to set formula_89 and simply use formula_90. For alcohols and water the value of formula_91 may be used up to the critical temperature and set to zero at higher temperatures. A subsequent modification published in 1986 (PRSV2) further improved the model's accuracy by introducing two additional pure component parameters to the previous attraction term modification. The modification is: where formula_88, formula_94, and formula_95 are adjustable pure component parameters. PRSV2 is particularly advantageous for VLE calculations. While PRSV1 does offer an advantage over the Peng–Robinson model for describing thermodynamic behavior, it is still not accurate enough, in general, for phase equilibrium calculations. The highly non-linear behavior of phase-equilibrium calculation methods tends to amplify what would otherwise be acceptably small errors. It is therefore recommended that PRSV2 be used for equilibrium calculations when applying these models to a design. However, once the equilibrium state has been determined, the phase specific thermodynamic values at equilibrium may be determined by one of several simpler models with a reasonable degree of accuracy. One thing to note is that in the PRSV equation, the parameter fit is done in a particular temperature range which is usually below the critical temperature. Above the critical temperature, the PRSV alpha function tends to diverge and become arbitrarily large instead of tending towards 0. Because of this, alternate equations for alpha should be employed above the critical point. This is especially important for systems containing hydrogen which is often found at temperatures far above its critical point. Several alternate formulations have been proposed. Some well known ones are by Twu et all or by Mathias and Copeman. Peng,-Robinson-Babalola equation of state: (PRB) Babalola [ ] modified the Peng–Robinson Equation of state as: formula_96 The attractive force parameter ‘a’, which was considered to be a constant with respect to pressure in Peng–Robinson EOS as well as in other EOS was modified by Babalola. The modification, in which parameter ‘a’ was treated as a variable with respect to pressure for multi component multi-phase high density reservoir systems was to improve accuracy in the prediction of properties of complex reservoir fluids for PVT modeling. The variation was represented with a linear equation: a = aP + a where a and a represent the slope and the intercept respectively of the straight line obtained when values of parameter ‘a’ are plotted against pressure. This modification increases the accuracy of Peng–Robinson equation of state for heavier fluids particularly at pressure ranges (>30MPa) and eliminates the need for tuning the equation of state before use thereby minimizing the cost of using the EOS in the oil industry. The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state was proposed in 1990. The equation seeks to correct a shortcoming in the Peng–Robinson EOS in that there was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term. The EOS accounts for the effect of the shape of a non-polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the addition of an extra term (not shown). The EOS itself was developed through modeling computer simulations and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, and hydrogen bonding. where: and where The characteristic size parameter is related to the shape parameter formula_66 through where Noting the relationships between Boltzmann's constant and the Universal gas constant, and observing that the number of molecules can be expressed in terms of Avogadro's number and the molar mass, the reduced number density formula_104 can be expressed in terms of the molar volume as The shape parameter formula_115 appearing in the Attraction term and the term formula_116 are given by where formula_119 is the depth of the square-well potential and is given by The model can be extended to associating components and mixtures of nonassociating components. Details are in the paper by J.R. Elliott, Jr. "et al." (1990). The Cubic-Plus-Association (CPA) equation of state combines the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation with an association term from Wertheim theory. The development of the equation began in 1995 as a research project that was funded by Shell, and in 1996 an article was published which presented the CPA equation of state. In the association term formula_130 is the mole fraction of molecules not bonded at site A. where "a" is associated with the interaction between molecules and "b" takes into account the finite size of the molecules, similar to the Van der Waals equation. The reduced coordinates are: Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from statistical mechanics. This equation is also called the Kamerlingh Onnes equation. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. "A" is the first virial coefficient, which has a constant value of 1 and makes the statement that when volume is large, all fluids behave like ideal gases. The second virial coefficient "B" corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, "C" to triplets, and so on. Accuracy can be increased indefinitely by considering higher order terms. The coefficients "B", "C", "D", etc. are functions of temperature only. One of the most accurate equations of state is that from Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling shown next. It was very close to a virial equation of state. If the exponential term in it is expanded to two Taylor terms, a virial equation can be derived: Note that in this virial equation, the fourth and fifth virial terms are zero. The second virial coefficient is monotonically decreasing as temperature is lowered. The third virial coefficient is monotonically increasing as temperature is lowered. where Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be found in The Lee-Kesler equation of state is based on the corresponding states principle, and is a modification of the BWR equation of state. Statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT) equations of state use statistical mechanical methods (in particular perturbation theory) to describe the interactions between molecules in a system. The idea of a SAFT equation of state was first proposed by Chapman et al. in 1989, but since then many different SAFT equations of state have been proposed. Often SAFT equations represent molecules as collections of spherical particles that interact with one another. One popular SAFT equation represents molecules as chains composed of spherical segments (PC-SAFT). In general, SAFT equations give more accurate results than traditional cubic equations of state, especially for systems containing liquids or solids. Multiparameter equations of state (MEOS) can be used to represent pure fluids with high accuracy, in both the liquid and gaseous states. MEOS's represent the Helmholtz function of the fluid as the sum of ideal gas and residual terms. Both terms are explicit in reduced temperature and reduced density - thus: where: The reduced density and temperature are typically, though not always, the critical values for the pure fluid. Other thermodynamic functions can be derived from the MEOS by using appropriate derivatives of the Helmholtz function; hence, because integration of the MEOS is not required, there are few restrictions as to the functional form of the ideal or residual terms. Typical MEOS use upwards of 50 fluid specific parameters, but are able to represent the fluid's properties with high accuracy. MEOS are available currently for about 50 of the most common industrial fluids including refrigerants. Mixture models also exist. When considering water under very high pressures, in situations such as underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and sonoluminescence, the stiffened equation of state is often used: where formula_139 is the internal energy per unit mass, formula_140 is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and formula_141 is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules. The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20,000 atmospheres). The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by formula_142. Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is "already" under about 20,000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would when changing from 20,001 to 20,002 atmospheres (2000.1 MPa to 2000.2 MPa). This equation mispredicts the specific heat capacity of water but few simple alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks. An ultrarelativistic fluid has equation of state where formula_41 is the pressure, formula_145 is the mass density, and formula_146 is the speed of sound. The equation of state for an ideal Bose gas is where α is an exponent specific to the system (e.g. in the absence of a potential field, α = 3/2), "z" is exp("μ"/"kT") where "μ" is the chemical potential, Li is the polylogarithm, ζ is the Riemann zeta function, and "T" is the critical temperature at which a Bose–Einstein condensate begins to form. The equation of state from Jones–Wilkins–Lee is used to describe the detonation products of explosives. The ratio formula_149 is defined by using formula_150 = density of the explosive (solid part) and formula_151 = density of the detonation products. The parameters formula_152, formula_153, formula_154, formula_155 and formula_156 are given by several references. In addition, the initial density (solid part) formula_157, speed of detonation formula_158, Chapman–Jouguet pressure formula_159 and the chemical energy of the explosive formula_160 are given in such references. These parameters are obtained by fitting the JWL-EOS to experimental results. Typical parameters for some explosives are listed in the table below. Common abbreviations: formula_161	In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature (PVT), or internal energy. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of fluids, mixtures of fluids, solids, and the interior of stars.	en	en	69	[ 250004, 250054, 1913, 13379, 4, 2685, 83, 110, 11001, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 450, 152018, 538, 92054, 7, 70, 183871, 111, 756, 161451, 7, 1379, 756, 27289, 5, 893, 27781, 111, 142, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 16106, 19309, 7, 168, 7, 31075, 111, 106500, 136, 41931, 7, 47, 52768, 7, 136, 81147, 7, 4, 51529, 237, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 4, 3129, 83, 166904, 538, 152018, 100, 642, 344, 538, 160, 320, 106500, 99, 27226, 81147, 7, 136, 71644, 13, 52768, 7, 5, 3293, 28, 5490, 2320, 24209, 7, 118055, 538, 23, 2263, 27315, 67, 99, 77546, 81147, 7, 136, 92319, 52768, 7, 4, 136, 35782, 7, 47, 92054, 188171, 1363, 1295, 10, 9060, 47, 10, 41931, 5, 116267, 39210, 4527, 83, 23, 3299, 214, 70, 14566, 111, 6057, 7, 4, 26719, 183693, 19, 6057, 7, 4, 168, 184, 26866, 15, 94727, 92, 1104, 39529, 191, 80796, 7, 16, 136, 4567, 2320, 44457, 7, 5, 62, 62548, 23755, 83, 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297, 10, 36549, 111, 28007, 7, 187016, 214, 10, 821, 9, 2420, 20051, 47589, 43333, 4, 3129, 509, 28704, 297, 98, 1632, 3564, 5, 123106, 53, 509, 49814, 47, 70, 43333, 4, 87631, 214, 10, 188347, 102134, 939, 111, 1831, 23, 70, 16610, 4, 28704, 297, 3564, 111, 70, 43333, 5, 47009, 70, 21950, 111, 9060, 509, 72350, 71, 237, 78301, 1143, 16820, 53, 509, 49814, 47, 70, 43333, 5, 581, 81147, 111, 70, 9060, 5809, 186, 83324, 71, 390, 70, 60212, 17721, 70, 1143, 16820, 53, 17366, 23, 70, 16610, 3564, 111, 70, 43333, 136, 450, 23, 70, 4989, 4, 9803, 3564, 5, 194397, 6097, 28007, 7, 4, 29642, 133, 959, 297, 450, 70, 9060, 21950, 10861, 297, 95029, 21286, 678, 70, 81147, 5, 360, 291, 140363, 70760, 3173, 4, 903, 831, 186, 11341, 71, 237, 12, 581, 36917, 76755, 1556, 2843, 2809, 150380, 297, 47, 10462, 282, 30883, 3135, 136, 83, 68018, 15005, 2822, 47, 237, 30883, 3135, 25, 7, 27165, 5, 33306, 4, 30883, 3135, 25, 7, 4488, 509, 959, 91376, 24189, 611, 11835, 5, 360, 729, 19308, 70, 92265, 6, 34053, 27744, 1419, 117085, 28166, 14037, 450, 230044, 4, 31355, 79556, 4, 64707, 1409, 4, 44603, 6, 143961, 13, 4, 136, 1831, 71062, 47, 166904, 538, 70, 5701, 192961, 645, 70, 5701, 39955, 2590, 2082, 51514, 5, 147466, 4, 23, 8719, 304, 4, 33876, 37405, 33351, 9, 866, 25628, 238, 91376, 50339, 111, 21373, 28007, 7, 4, 114141, 214, 10, 192617, 76755, 17721, 21950, 136, 52768, 12, 10017, 1507, 25, 7, 36293, 111, 2878, 289, 81147, 117249, 450, 70, 81147, 111, 10, 17664, 6644, 111, 106500, 83, 105950, 47, 70, 10554, 111, 70, 81147, 7, 111, 756, 111, 70, 209716, 106500, 75447, 5, 123426, 2227, 71407, 4, 903, 831, 186, 33636, 297, 100, 44, 19, 58, 114149, 237, 12, 360, 543, 10289, 4, 3050, 45207, 33198, 122979, 1900, 70163, 71, 29642, 133, 25, 7, 36293, 136, 28166, 25, 27165, 3934, 70, 5117, 63805, 111, 70, 44, 122131, 9060, 27165, 740, 360, 1890, 25958, 4, 70, 27165, 509, 26168, 3674, 237, 44, 254, 856, 58, 2203, 44, 1052, 58, 132, 58, 618, 58, 997, 116, 87053, 15, 76228, 52768, 36510, 297, 23, 79385, 7, 166793, 247, 7440, 44, 1052, 58, 83, 70, 9060, 53697, 5, 33306, 4, 14432, 4488, 122273, 297, 450, 70, 14012, 5608, 20653, 186, 20903, 42, 47, 1438, 107033, 4, 136, 7068, 70, 166793, 105994, 509, 61924, 71, 678, 6, 76748, 441, 2203, 1438, 363, 5, 1837, 605, 4, 68772, 12, 360, 172457, 4, 821, 5, 391, 5, 131, 122, 3316, 16765, 65508, 71, 70, 5117, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 16406, 4126, 390, 70, 237259, 111, 10, 94418, 13, 21950, 95699, 34, 138518, 390, 70, 209716, 49711, 70838, 5, 18763, 3525, 26168, 98834, 29367, 70, 35187, 111, 28, 13722, 5256, 111, 11341, 4, 136, 509, 2684, 170277, 538, 136475, 1829, 70, 6096, 5486, 1104, 605, 111868, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 136, 70, 1061, 8216, 129344, 111, 6096, 5486, 9, 605, 111868, 5, 1326, 10, 34475, 41170, 111, 161451, 70541, 297, 23, 10, 5426, 4, 70, 52768, 4, 21950, 4, 136, 81147, 621, 959, 41371, 102134, 2449, 74, 1836, 621, 162711, 390, 10, 76755, 111, 70, 4537, 3173, 893, 28, 5490, 2320, 11814, 47, 3299, 903, 76755, 83, 35839, 142, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 5, 360, 70, 25632, 40059, 7, 13036, 28, 13722, 5256, 111, 11341, 621, 151552, 4, 136, 70, 77336, 7, 11814, 3688, 621, 61924, 71, 237, 28960, 7, 5, 28541, 74729, 5423, 111, 25072, 7, 1543, 186, 11814, 4, 102971, 10000, 25072, 7, 621, 12601, 2822, 5, 101397, 13, 52768, 15005, 7, 47, 4527, 111, 70, 23203, 2082, 15, 605, 16, 707, 134405, 1212, 15, 7236, 1052, 16, 52768, 105994, 7, 4, 678, 45234, 8035, 89931, 45234, 5, 581, 54704, 289, 6397, 9060, 27165, 1543, 186, 59121, 360, 70, 3173, 127887, 36917, 4, 70, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 83, 4911, 7, 4263, 70, 30713, 71407, 15787, 9060, 35707, 53950, 2320, 83, 11814, 4, 7068, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 1543, 2843, 186, 36510, 297, 237, 28960, 7, 7440, 26168, 454, 2947, 83, 70, 168, 7, 2481, 4, 26168, 454, 1549, 83, 70, 20655, 8474, 9523, 63262, 15, 17131, 31, 111, 29458, 80097, 7, 247, 26168, 454, 3117, 83, 70, 70796, 48302, 117, 25072, 46889, 15, 2347, 44, 159975, 70796, 48302, 74054, 26168, 454, 4015, 83, 70, 29458, 80097, 99, 53697, 21950, 4, 136, 26168, 454, 3742, 83, 70, 29458, 80097, 99, 53697, 81147, 5, 3003, 45966, 28, 13722, 5256, 111, 11341, 621, 35839, 6044, 6637, 1836, 831, 186, 456, 5429, 75639, 237, 10, 314, 45966, 32354, 111, 310, 5, 581, 3000, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 1543, 186, 59121, 12, 7440, 26168, 454, 2588, 83, 931, 320, 21950, 5, 581, 161451, 9, 159975, 53697, 7, 26168, 454, 4046, 136, 26168, 454, 3768, 831, 186, 74481, 3674, 1295, 70, 130306, 183871, 26168, 454, 3882, 136, 26168, 454, 4235, 15, 157, 1916, 450, 26168, 454, 4235, 83, 70, 931, 320, 21950, 99, 70, 130306, 6275, 16, 237, 12, 22376, 59121, 237, 1250, 144429, 23, 172457, 4, 70, 131, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 509, 1632, 111, 70, 5117, 47, 51339, 94419, 538, 11522, 3501, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 5, 360, 903, 3551, 10015, 28, 5490, 2320, 26168, 454, 4046, 83, 35839, 70, 99, 117474, 171859, 136, 26168, 454, 3768, 70, 10958, 202, 6889, 171859, 707, 70, 60266, 233239, 21950, 5, 51404, 70, 28, 5490, 2320, 83, 58621, 14597, 47, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 136, 14602, 92054, 70, 27643, 111, 10, 41931, 93402, 4, 70, 106689, 678, 195935, 2053, 83, 84046, 100, 27289, 7440, 70, 41931, 3173, 7, 5, 51404, 70, 131, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 83, 39210, 538, 91067, 71, 23, 7986, 9, 81415, 136, 15122, 7, 100, 186768, 89397, 4, 442, 83, 5036, 228908, 13, 5, 64511, 5744, 28, 13722, 5256, 111, 4734, 161549, 117396, 27140, 2481, 621, 5045, 1286, 152018, 5, 581, 131, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 1543, 186, 90698, 237, 70, 6397, 9060, 27165, 4, 44, 128659, 297, 58, 4743, 47, 6626, 41371, 89397, 12, 17106, 70, 34390, 71, 11341, 77336, 7, 4, 17, 5, 13, 5, 310, 1369, 856, 64, 856, 4, 436, 1369, 683, 64, 683, 136, 384, 1369, 618, 64, 618, 4, 70, 34390, 71, 3173, 111, 70, 3000, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 831, 186, 26168, 3674, 12, 581, 68073, 111, 903, 3173, 83, 450, 100, 34475, 384, 136, 436, 4, 70, 34390, 71, 21950, 111, 70, 41931, 136, 9060, 831, 186, 74481, 3674, 105237, 17368, 23660, 3922, 25, 7, 55300, 100, 70, 34390, 71, 314, 45966, 3173, 12, 1326, 436, 16093, 418, 136, 384, 16093, 418, 4, 70, 5426, 83, 23, 10, 11341, 111, 101319, 1104, 150, 94385, 6, 155159, 316, 5, 581, 34390, 71, 314, 45966, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 11180, 19388, 7, 23, 450, 7225, 138, 51347, 5, 581, 142105, 136, 70, 459, 25617, 29806, 621, 70, 9060, 136, 41931, 34390, 71, 21950, 5, 44891, 37534, 23, 45604, 4, 70, 6096, 5486, 9, 605, 111868, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 509, 10, 150675, 136912, 645, 3789, 28, 13722, 5256, 111, 70, 1733, 5, 1650, 83, 7464, 111, 33946, 102917, 538, 4743, 47, 6863, 35845, 538, 8781, 3173, 5, 51404, 14597, 47, 70, 131, 122, 3316, 16765, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 4, 442, 51339, 7, 70425, 538, 678, 15072, 47, 70, 41931, 93402, 136, 4911, 7, 53418, 186, 11814, 100, 152018, 538, 74481, 1916, 101319, 1104, 150, 94385, 6, 155159, 11, 5, 33306, 4, 442, 831, 186, 11814, 23, 158, 17043, 10763, 678, 84797, 41931, 9, 153213, 16106, 57860, 7, 100, 903, 60042, 5, 581, 6096, 5486, 9, 605, 111868, 28, 5490, 2320, 83, 160370, 13, 100, 74481, 1363, 111, 9060, 93402, 183871, 3229, 70, 70460, 111, 70, 81147, 47, 70, 130306, 81147, 15, 107, 106357, 71, 81147, 16, 83, 40715, 3501, 1672, 1632, 9, 4200, 420, 111, 70, 70460, 111, 70, 52768, 47, 70, 130306, 52768, 15, 107, 106357, 71, 52768, 2077, 78662, 6, 2778, 83, 70, 10, 46899, 1771, 31461, 100, 70, 114149, 5, 3293, 26168, 1363, 100, 26168, 454, 12338, 83, 4743, 47, 78922, 31, 1336, 136, 930, 34, 16466, 5, 581, 7311, 26168, 1363, 1295, 1061, 8216, 83, 12, 100, 64707, 1409, 12, 1401, 831, 2843, 33022, 442, 23, 70, 35874, 1687, 15403, 3173, 4, 678, 12, 7068, 642, 765, 12, 7440, 26168, 454, 4598, 83, 70, 32813, 9060, 53697, 136, 567, 1369, 62655, 64, 132, 20503, 16, 83, 70, 46683, 12551, 83259, 31461, 5, 360, 29172, 527, 5, 1061, 8216, 91995, 71, 70, 106, 64, 13579, 111, 70, 6096, 5486, 9, 605, 111868, 28, 5490, 2320, 678, 10, 32354, 5961, 132, 618, 4, 2778, 16, 23, 3784, 6496, 70, 52768, 136, 70, 10, 46899, 1771, 31461, 15, 2347, 16750, 214, 28, 5490, 2320, 83, 2843, 51529, 237, 70, 1061, 8216, 9, 80852, 5486, 9, 605, 111868, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 74, 159, 31875, 163795, 194, 581, 5961, 32354, 509, 97025, 297, 47, 11177, 70, 101319, 81147, 2053, 111, 64707, 3284, 8345, 7, 136, 70, 28, 5490, 2320, 14602, 180663, 5299, 100, 6097, 76319, 5, 18622, 41866, 450, 903, 91995, 674, 65572, 70, 80934, 111, 44, 11, 58, 161549, 4, 237, 70, 26168, 454, 11540, 83, 5036, 47, 70, 17932, 14537, 5, 581, 159, 31875, 163795, 1543, 186, 59121, 237, 7440, 7440, 26168, 454, 12338, 136, 3789, 63920, 111, 70, 159, 31875, 163795, 83, 61924, 71, 23, 70, 159, 31875, 163795, 40059, 5, 62, 7565, 8752, 111, 70, 159, 31875, 163795, 4, 136, 3789, 314, 45966, 163795, 4, 83, 450, 70, 41931, 931, 320, 21950, 83, 207583, 40715, 152018, 3501, 70, 9060, 931, 320, 21950, 5, 97892, 365, 6077, 82, 923, 232, 226861, 26171, 71, 10, 8781, 26785, 1830, 100, 903, 390, 39864, 214, 10, 21950, 153648, 7440, 26168, 454, 14604, 83, 142, 78301, 79552, 82761, 171859, 450, 3900, 19309, 7, 70, 931, 320, 21950, 161549, 5, 2161, 70, 41931, 32845, 206, 111, 70, 163795, 4, 10, 19336, 15549, 23, 931, 320, 21950, 42518, 7, 47, 10, 21334, 15549, 23, 81147, 5, 2161, 70, 9060, 32845, 206, 111, 70, 163795, 4, 10, 19336, 15549, 23, 931, 320, 21950, 42518, 7, 47, 10, 5045, 164917, 15549, 23, 81147, 3501, 100, 70, 41931, 32845, 206, 5, 12613, 7, 4, 70, 170950, 1363, 111, 70, 931, 320, 9060, 21950, 83, 19336, 5, 185397, 4, 2685, 621, 6626, 11389, 7, 450, 74918, 23, 41664, 136, 53099, 5, 360, 70, 5117, 11389, 4734, 26168, 454, 18197, 83, 3900, 143, 3674, 4, 360, 70, 17932, 11389, 15044, 26168, 454, 18197, 136, 26168, 454, 5757, 621, 3900, 143, 3674, 4, 707, 70, 153648, 111, 26168, 454, 18197, 83, 134629, 390, 10, 120514, 14578, 111, 70, 375, 77087, 13, 171859, 5, 3293, 76199, 581, 501, 9, 6276, 29089, 111, 10, 79552, 17664, 6644, 83, 74481, 3674, 390, 581, 501, 9, 6276, 29089, 111, 70, 11651, 79552, 82761, 7, 23, 10, 42628, 13, 316, 9060, 136, 29700, 831, 186, 25902, 3674, 390, 70, 16106, 57860, 7440, 70, 2552, 27853, 18, 46683, 12551, 83259, 31461, 26168, 454, 6873, 831, 186, 25902, 3674, 390, 62, 26267, 60213, 678, 70, 21950, 153648, 55300, 111, 97892, 365, 6077, 82, 144, 5, 226861, 83, 450, 442, 14602, 959, 52490, 70, 101319, 9, 150, 94385, 6, 155159, 316, 74481, 5256, 5, 3293, 55300, 111, 21950, 153648, 831, 2843, 186, 190659, 47, 3789, 314, 45966, 163795, 7, 2174, 70, 501, 9, 6276, 29089, 16106, 57860, 83, 126596, 297, 47, 14858, 70, 133291, 163795, 5, 360, 35874, 1687, 15403, 3173, 12, 7440, 26168, 454, 13556, 83, 70, 10, 46899, 1771, 31461, 111, 70, 114149, 4, 26168, 454, 4598, 83, 70, 32813, 9060, 53697, 136, 26168, 454, 17168, 83, 46683, 12551, 83259, 31461, 5, 581, 27691, 1104, 12724, 7568, 1681, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 15, 17255, 163795, 16, 509, 126809, 23, 28506, 99, 581, 12535, 111, 24748, 11, 390, 134533, 9, 95950, 27691, 136, 16692, 153671, 23, 12989, 47, 40407, 53, 70, 25632, 109458, 12, 1326, 70, 2684, 2831, 70, 27691, 1104, 12724, 7568, 1681, 28, 5490, 2320, 80788, 933, 23718, 21373, 47, 70, 1061, 8216, 28, 5490, 2320, 4, 102971, 442, 83, 137567, 14597, 23, 92054, 214, 70, 41931, 168, 7, 31075, 111, 5941, 76319, 4, 41866, 351, 771, 320, 64333, 5, 581, 8, 2500, 6644, 32354, 7, 111, 70, 27691, 1104, 12724, 7568, 1681, 28, 5490, 2320, 621, 34475, 98, 10, 84797, 5582, 5, 581, 6, 140815, 142424, 111, 6863, 62816, 48242, 53697, 7, 621, 12, 62, 129344, 47, 70, 99, 117474, 13579, 23, 70, 27691, 1104, 12724, 7568, 1681, 28, 5490, 2320, 111, 11341, 91376, 390, 23351, 53, 17379, 136, 65067, 23, 21735, 15, 17255, 43486, 16, 207583, 52295, 71, 70, 3299, 25, 7, 61689, 219, 2408, 390, 39864, 214, 142, 126596, 2886, 34166, 82761, 171859, 136, 390, 2811, 151138, 70, 35874, 1687, 15403, 11177, 111, 70, 10, 46899, 1771, 31461, 5, 581, 129344, 83, 12, 7440, 26168, 454, 12772, 83, 142, 126596, 2886, 34166, 82761, 171859, 5, 23351, 53, 17379, 136, 65067, 91376, 34166, 82761, 171859, 7, 100, 5941, 217773, 7, 111, 25297, 33946, 23, 2363, 7311, 68828, 5582, 5, 1913, 34390, 71, 52768, 7, 36917, 6, 134926, 4, 1836, 67330, 47, 5423, 26168, 454, 18949, 136, 42856, 4527, 26168, 454, 5039, 5, 1326, 57913, 7, 136, 7401, 70, 34292, 111, 26168, 454, 12183, 1543, 186, 11814, 1257, 47, 70, 130306, 52768, 136, 5423, 47, 45234, 99, 77546, 52768, 7, 5, 62, 221419, 129344, 91376, 23, 21735, 15, 17255, 43486, 10461, 53333, 52295, 71, 70, 3299, 25, 7, 61689, 219, 2408, 390, 39864, 214, 6626, 78301, 34166, 82761, 171859, 7, 47, 70, 96362, 99, 117474, 13579, 129344, 5, 581, 129344, 83, 12, 7440, 26168, 454, 12772, 4, 26168, 454, 14889, 4, 136, 26168, 454, 8821, 621, 126596, 2886, 34166, 82761, 171859, 7, 5, 10865, 43486, 304, 83, 106480, 92940, 10821, 100, 310, 15300, 74481, 5256, 5, 51404, 10865, 43486, 418, 14602, 18645, 142, 92940, 645, 70, 27691, 1104, 12724, 7568, 1681, 3299, 100, 28852, 23709, 182342, 242554, 123166, 4, 442, 83, 7464, 959, 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summarize: Contemporary illustration uses a wide range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia, 3D modelling. Depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. Specialist areas include: Technical and scientific illustration communicates information of a technical or scientific nature. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, diagrams. The aim is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer". Technical and scientific illustration is generally designed to describe or explain subjects to a nontechnical audience, so must provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding". In contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design and fine art. Today, however, due in part to the growth of graphic novel and video game industries, as well as increased use of illustration in magazines and other publications, illustration is now becoming a valued art form, capable of engaging a global market. Original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwell's painting "Breaking Home Ties" sold in a 2006 Sotheby's auction for USD15.4 million. Many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the industrial processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were individually hand drawn and painted. With the invention of the printing press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed, often illustrated with woodcuts. Some of the earliest illustrations come from the time of ancient Egypt (Khemet) often as hieroglyph. A classic example of illustrations exists from the time of The Tomb of Pharaoh Seti I, circa 1294 BC to 1279 BC,who was father of Ramses II, born 1303 BC. 1600s Japan saw the origination of Ukiyo-e, an influential illustration style characterised by expressive line, vivid colour and subtle tones, resulting from the ink-brushed wood block printing technique. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life. Hokusai’s "The Great Wave of Kanazawa" is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching. In 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake (1757–827), who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality. In Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications. At this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. The British humorous magazine Punch (1841–2002) built on the success of Cruikshank's Comic Almanac (1827–1840) and employed many well-regarded illustrators, including Sir John Tenniel, the Dalziel Brothers, and Georges du Maurier. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators. Historically, Punch was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s. The magazine was the first to use the term "cartoon" to describe a humorous illustration and its widespread use led to John Leech being known as the world's first "cartoonist". In common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from reliance on caricature to sophisticated topical observation. From the early 1800s newspapers, mass-market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color and rendering techniques. These developments in printing effected all areas of literature from cookbooks, photography and travel guides, as well as children's books. Also, due to advances in printing, it became more affordable to produce color photographs within books and other materials. By 1900, almost 100 percent of paper was machine-made, and while a person working by hand could produce 60-100lbs of paper per day, mechanization yielded around 1,000lbs per day. Additionally, in the 50 year period between 1846 and 1916, book production increased 400% and the price of books was cut in half. In America, this led to a "golden age of illustration" from before the 1880s until the early 20th century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time. Among the best-known illustrators of that period were N.C. Wyeth and Howard Pyle of the Brandywine School, James Montgomery Flagg, Elizabeth Shippen Green, J. C. Leyendecker, Violet Oakley, Maxfield Parrish, Jessie Willcox Smith, and John Rea Neill.	An illustration is a decoration, interpretation or visual explanation of a text, concept or process, designed for integration in published media, such as posters, flyers, magazines, books, teaching materials, animations, video games and films. An illustration is typically created by an illustrator. 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summarize: The definitions given above are only valid for circles, spheres and convex shapes. However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of "n"-dimensional convex or non-convex object, such as a hypercube or a set of scattered points. The diameter of a subset of a metric space is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset. So, if "A" is the subset, the diameter is If the distance function d is viewed here as having codomain R (the set of all real numbers), this implies that the diameter of the empty set (the case ) equals −∞ (negative infinity). Some authors prefer to treat the empty set as a special case, assigning it a diameter equal to 0, which corresponds to taking the codomain of d to be the set of nonnegative reals. For any solid object or set of scattered points in n-dimensional Euclidean space, the diameter of the object or set is the same as the diameter of its convex hull. In medical parlance concerning a lesion or in geology concerning a rock, the diameter of an object is the supremum of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the object. In differential geometry, the diameter is an important global Riemannian invariant. In plane geometry, a diameter of a conic section is typically defined as any chord which passes through the conic's centre; such diameters are not necessarily of uniform length, except in the case of the circle, which has eccentricity "e" = 0. The symbol or variable for diameter,, is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g. "⌀ 55 mm", indicating that it represents diameter. For example, photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way. In German, the diameter symbol (German "") is also used as an average symbol ("Durchschnittszeichen"). It is similar in size and design to, the Latin small letter o with stroke. The diameter symbol ⌀ is distinct from the empty set symbol, from an (italic) uppercase phi, and from the Nordic vowel (Latin capital letter O with stroke). See also slashed zero. The symbol has a Unicode code point at, in the Miscellaneous Technical set. On an Apple Macintosh, the diameter symbol can be entered via the character palette (this is opened by pressing in most applications), where it can be found in the Technical Symbols category. In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using It can be obtained in UNIX-like operating systems using a Compose key by pressing, in sequence, The character will sometimes not display correctly, however, since many fonts do not include it. In many situations the letter ø (the Latin small letter o with stroke) is an acceptable substitute, which in Unicode is. and on a Macintosh by pressing (the letter o, not the number 0). In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using or. AutoCAD uses available as a shortcut string. In Microsoft Word the diameter symbol can be acquired by typing 2300 and then pressing Alt+X. In LaTeX the diameter symbol can be obtained with the command codice_1 from the wasysym package.	In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. 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summarize: An isochoric thermodynamic quasi-static process is characterized by constant volume, i.e., Δ"V" = 0. The process does no pressure-volume work, since such work is defined by where "P" is pressure. The sign convention is such that positive work is performed by the system on the environment. If the process is not quasi-static, the work can perhaps be done in a volume constant thermodynamic process. For a reversible process, the first law of thermodynamics gives the change in the system's internal energy: Replacing work with a change in volume gives Since the process is isochoric, "dV" = 0, the previous equation now gives Using the definition of specific heat capacity at constant volume, Integrating both sides yields Where "c" is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, "T" is the initial temperature and "T" is the final temperature. We conclude with: On a pressure volume diagram, an isochoric process appears as a straight vertical line. Its thermodynamic conjugate, an isobaric process would appear as a straight horizontal line. If an ideal gas is used in an isochoric process, and the quantity of gas stays constant, then the increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature and pressure. Take for example a gas heated in a rigid container: the pressure and temperature of the gas will increase, but the volume will remain the same. The ideal Otto cycle is an example of an isochoric process when it is assumed that the burning of the gasoline-air mixture in an internal combustion engine car is instantaneous. There is an increase in the temperature and the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder while the volume remains the same. The noun "isochor" and the adjective "isochoric" are derived from the Greek words ἴσος ("isos") meaning "equal", and χώρα ("khṓra") meaning "space."	An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains constant. An isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed, inelastic container: The thermodynamic process is the addition or removal of heat; the isolation of the contents of the container establishes the closed system; and the inability of the container to deform imposes the constant-volume condition. The isochoric process here should be a quasi-static process.	en	en	106	[ 250004, 250054, 893, 13882, 3089, 12259, 182342, 242554, 12404, 9, 201939, 9433, 83, 62816, 29367, 390, 53697, 21950, 4, 17, 5, 13, 5, 4, 6732, 58, 856, 58, 2203, 757, 5, 581, 9433, 14602, 110, 81147, 9, 23232, 282, 4488, 4, 16792, 6044, 4488, 83, 61924, 71, 390, 7440, 44, 683, 58, 83, 81147, 5, 581, 24092, 101805, 83, 6044, 450, 24491, 4488, 83, 51339, 297, 390, 70, 5426, 98, 70, 65998, 5, 4263, 70, 9433, 83, 959, 12404, 9, 201939, 4, 70, 4488, 831, 95134, 186, 16940, 23, 10, 21950, 53697, 182342, 242554, 9433, 5, 1326, 10, 39531, 55356, 9433, 4, 70, 5117, 27165, 111, 182342, 242554, 7, 76199, 70, 15549, 23, 70, 5426, 25, 7, 70796, 48302, 12, 853, 133266, 214, 4488, 678, 10, 15549, 23, 21950, 76199, 66016, 70, 9433, 83, 13882, 3089, 12259, 4, 44, 71, 856, 58, 2203, 757, 4, 70, 96362, 28, 5490, 2320, 5036, 76199, 345, 6953, 70, 80934, 111, 29458, 80097, 177399, 99, 53697, 21950, 4, 91969, 1916, 15044, 5609, 7, 11180, 19388, 7, 78662, 44, 238, 58, 83, 70, 29458, 80097, 177399, 99, 53697, 21950, 4, 44, 618, 58, 83, 70, 61475, 52768, 136, 44, 618, 58, 83, 70, 2704, 52768, 5, 1401, 103876, 678, 12, 2161, 10, 81147, 21950, 117233, 4, 142, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 135179, 237, 10, 80560, 79259, 13315, 5, 1650, 7, 182342, 242554, 228186, 67, 4, 142, 83, 16159, 12259, 9433, 2806, 108975, 237, 10, 80560, 124001, 13315, 5, 4263, 142, 6397, 9060, 83, 11814, 23, 142, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 4, 136, 70, 102134, 939, 111, 9060, 24765, 7, 53697, 4, 7068, 70, 51312, 23, 48302, 83, 123875, 289, 47, 142, 51312, 23, 52768, 136, 81147, 5, 46673, 100, 27781, 10, 9060, 764, 27686, 23, 10, 128652, 116419, 12, 70, 81147, 136, 52768, 111, 70, 9060, 1221, 51312, 4, 1284, 70, 21950, 1221, 47143, 70, 5701, 5, 581, 6397, 71047, 105823, 83, 142, 27781, 111, 142, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 3229, 442, 83, 41591, 71, 450, 70, 6818, 592, 111, 70, 9060, 31, 2256, 9, 7341, 17664, 6644, 23, 142, 70796, 375, 4223, 1363, 87907, 2258, 83, 34648, 6130, 10821, 5, 8622, 83, 142, 51312, 23, 70, 52768, 136, 70, 81147, 111, 70, 9060, 46132, 70, 19932, 104532, 12960, 70, 21950, 47143, 7, 70, 5701, 5, 581, 110, 309, 44, 16369, 72988, 58, 136, 70, 606, 170, 100034, 44, 16369, 3089, 12259, 58, 621, 16406, 4126, 1295, 70, 160600, 34153, 6, 245645, 111415, 24073, 164, 232, 18939, 91084, 44, 13, 71723, 830, 136, 30754, 24073, 10684, 3, 219, 18939, 91084, 44, 65421, 1242, 2 ]	[ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]	[ 250004, 893, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 4, 2843, 35839, 10, 53697, 9, 23232, 282, 9433, 4, 142, 13882, 23232, 186518, 9433, 4, 707, 142, 13882, 186518, 9433, 4, 83, 10, 182342, 242554, 9433, 20271, 3129, 70, 21950, 111, 70, 155738, 5426, 1379, 519, 214, 6044, 10, 9433, 47143, 7, 53697, 5, 893, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 83, 218094, 1029, 297, 390, 70, 80097, 214, 707, 70, 21185, 214, 111, 70, 10941, 7, 111, 10, 28704, 297, 4, 23, 3597, 28692, 116419, 12, 581, 182342, 242554, 9433, 83, 70, 66044, 707, 49146, 1405, 111, 80097, 74, 70, 6, 219488, 111, 70, 10941, 7, 111, 70, 116419, 137633, 90, 70, 155738, 5426, 74, 136, 70, 23, 41159, 111, 70, 116419, 47, 8, 5037, 6, 178451, 7, 70, 53697, 9, 23232, 282, 35431, 5, 581, 13882, 3089, 12259, 9433, 3688, 5608, 186, 10, 12404, 9, 201939, 9433, 5, 2 ]
summarize: Isothermal processes can occur in any kind of system that has some means of regulating the temperature, including highly structured machines, and even living cells. Some parts of the cycles of some heat engines are carried out isothermally (for example, in the Carnot cycle). In the thermodynamic analysis of chemical reactions, it is usual to first analyze what happens under isothermal conditions and then consider the effect of temperature. Phase changes, such as melting or evaporation, are also isothermal processes when, as is usually the case, they occur at constant pressure. Isothermal processes are often used and a starting point in analyzing more complex, non-isothermal processes. Isothermal processes are of special interest for ideal gases. This is a consequence of Joule's second law which states that the internal energy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. Thus, in an isothermal process the internal energy of an ideal gas is constant. This is a result of the fact that in an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces. Note that this is true only for ideal gases; the internal energy depends on pressure as well as on temperature for liquids, solids, and real gases. In the isothermal compression of a gas there is work done on the system to decrease the volume and increase the pressure. Doing work on the gas increases the internal energy and will tend to increase the temperature. To maintain the constant temperature energy must leave the system as heat and enter the environment. If the gas is ideal, the amount of energy entering the environment is equal to the work done on the gas, because internal energy does not change. For isothermal expansion, the energy supplied to the system does work on the surroundings. In either case, with the aid of a suitable linkage the change in gas volume can perform useful mechanical work. For details of the calculations, see calculation of work. For an adiabatic process, in which no heat flows into or out of the gas because its container is well insulated, "Q" = 0. If there is also no work done, i.e. a free expansion, there is no change in internal energy. For an ideal gas, this means that the process is also isothermal. Thus, specifying that a process is isothermal is not sufficient to specify a unique process. For the special case of a gas to which Boyle's law applies, the product "pV" is a constant if the gas is kept at isothermal conditions. The value of the constant is "nRT", where "n" is the number of moles of gas present and "R" is the ideal gas constant. In other words, the ideal gas law "pV" = "nRT" applies. Therefore: holds. The family of curves generated by this equation is shown in the graph in Figure 1. Each curve is called an isotherm. Such graphs are termed indicator diagrams and were first used by James Watt and others to monitor the efficiency of engines. The temperature corresponding to each curve in the figure increases from the lower left to the upper right. Log(p1v1) In thermodynamics, the reversible work involved when a gas changes from state "A" to state "B" is For an isothermal, reversible process, this integral equals the area under the relevant pressure-volume isotherm, and is indicated in purple in Figure 2 for an ideal gas. Again, "p" = applies and with "T" being constant (as this is an isothermal process), the expression for work becomes: By convention, work is defined as the work on the system by its surroundings. If, for example, the system is compressed, then the work is positive and the internal energy of the system increases. Conversely, if the system expands, it does work on the surroundings and the internal energy of the system decreases. It is also worth noting that for ideal gases, if the temperature is held constant, the internal energy of the system also is constant, and so Δ"U" = 0. Since the First Law of Thermodynamics states that Δ"U" = "Q" + "W" (IUPAC convention), it follows that "Q" = −"W" for the isothermal compression or expansion of ideal gases. The reversible expansion of an ideal gas can be used as an example of work produced by an isothermal process. Of particular interest is the extent to which heat is converted to usable work, and the relationship between the confining force and the extent of expansion. During isothermal expansion, both and change along an isotherm with a constant product. Consider a working gas in a cylindrical chamber 1 m high and 1 m area at 400 K in static equilibrium. The surroundings consist of air at 300 K and 1 atm pressure (designated as ). The working gas is confined by a piston connected to a mechanical device that exerts a force sufficient to create a pressure of 2 atm (state ). For any change in state that causes a force decrease, the gas will expand and perform work on the surroundings. Isothermal expansion continues as long as the applied force decreases and appropriate heat is added to keep = 2. The expansion is reversible if the piston motion is sufficiently slow such that at each instant the gas temperature and pressure is uniform and conforms to the ideal gas law. Figure 3 shows the relationship for = 2 for isothermal expansion from 2 atm (state ) to 1 atm (state ). The work done (designated formula_8) has two components. First, "expansion" work against the surrounding atmosphere pressure (designated as ), and second, usable "mechanical" work (designated as ). The output here could be movement of the piston used to turn a crank-arm, which would then turn a pulley capable of lifting water out of flooded salt mines. The system attains state ( = 1 atm and = 2 m) when the applied force reaches zero. At that point, formula_8 equals –140.5 kJ, and is –101.3 kJ. By difference, = –39.1 kJ, which is 27.9% of the heat supplied to the process. This is the maximum amount of usable mechanical work obtainable from the process at the stated conditions. The percentage of is a function of and, and approaches 100% as approaches zero. To pursue the nature of isothermal expansion further, note the red line on Figure 3. The fixed value of causes an exponential increase in piston rise vs. pressure decrease. For example, a pressure decrease from 2 to 1.9 atm causes a piston rise of 0.0526 m. In comparison, a pressure decrease from 1.1 to 1 atm causes a piston rise of 0.1818 m. Isothermal processes are especially convenient for calculating changes in entropy since, in this case, the formula for the entropy change, Δ"S", is simply where "Q" is the heat transferred reversibly to the system and "T" is absolute temperature. This formula is valid only for a hypothetical reversible process; that is, a process in which equilibrium is maintained at all times. A simple example is an equilibrium phase transition (such as melting or evaporation) taking place at constant temperature and pressure. For a phase transition at constant pressure, the heat transferred to the system is equal to the enthalpy of transformation, Δ"H", thus "Q" = Δ"H". At any given pressure, there will be a transition temperature, "T", for which the two phases are in equilibrium (for example, the normal boiling point for vaporization of a liquid at one atmosphere pressure). If the transition takes place under such equilibrium conditions, the formula above may be used to directly calculate the entropy change Another example is the reversible isothermal expansion (or compression) of an ideal gas from an initial volume "V" and pressure "P" to a final volume "V" and pressure "P". As shown in Calculation of work, the heat transferred to the gas is This result is for a reversible process, so it may be substituted in the formula for the entropy change to obtain Since an ideal gas obeys Boyle's Law, this can be rewritten, if desired, as Once obtained, these formulas can be applied to an irreversible process, such as the free expansion of an ideal gas. Such an expansion is also isothermal and may have the same initial and final states as in the reversible expansion. Since entropy is a state function, the change in entropy of the system is the same as in the reversible process and is given by the formulas above. Note that the result "Q" = 0 for the free expansion can not be used in the formula for the entropy change since the process is not reversible. The difference between the reversible and free expansions is found in the entropy of the surroundings. In both cases, the surroundings are at a constant temperature, "T", so that Δ"S" = −; the minus sign is used since the heat transferred to the surroundings is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the heat, "Q", transferred to the system. In the reversible case, the change in entropy of the surroundings is equal and opposite to the change in the system, so the change in entropy of the universe is zero. In the free expansion, "Q" = 0, so the entropy of the surroundings does not change and the change in entropy of the universe is equal to ΔS for the system. The adjective "isothermal" is derived from the Greek words ἴσος" ("isos") meaning "equal", and θέρμη ("therme") meaning "heat."	An isothermal process is a change of a "system", in which the temperature remains constant: Δ"T" =0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the change in the system will occur slowly enough to allow the system to continue to adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast, an "adiabatic process" is where a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings ("Q" = 0). 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summarize: Hrozný was born in Lysá nad Labem, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. In the town of Kolín he learned Hebrew and Arabic. At the University of Vienna, he studied Akkadian, Aramaic, Ethiopian, Sumerian and Sanskrit, as well as the cuneiform used in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Persia. He also studied orientalism at Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1905, following excavations in Palestine, he became Professor at the University of Vienna. In 1906, at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale, about 200 km east of Ankara) a German expedition found the archives of the Hittite kings in cuneiform, but in an unknown language. While on active duty in the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I, Hrozný published in 1917 a description of the language showing that it belonged to the Indo-European family. In 1925 Hrozný led a Czech archaeological team that discovered 1000 cuneiform tablets containing contracts and letters of Assyrian merchants in the Turkish village of Kültepe, and excavated the nearby ancient Hittite city of Kanesh. In 1929, Hrozný founded "Archiv Orientální", which became one of the leading journals for Oriental Studies. Later in his life, he tried to decipher the hieroglyphic script used by the Hittites and scripts used in ancient India and Crete, but failed in his effort. From 1919 to 1952, he was a Professor of cuneiform research and ancient Oriental history at the Charles University in Prague. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia he was made rector of the Charles University, holding that post in 19391940. In that capacity, he helped some students escape arrest during an incident in 1939, stating to the German officer in charge that the Germans had no legal right to pursue students on the independent university's territory. A heart attack in 1944 ended his scientific work. To solve the mystery about the Hittite language, Bedřich Hrozný used two sentences that appeared in a text that reads: nu NINDA-an ezzatteni watar-ma ekutteni. It was known at that time that the ideogram for NINDA meant bread in Sumerian. Hrozný thought that the suffix "-an" was perhaps the Hittite accusative. Then, he assumed that the second word, "ed-/-ezza", had something to do with the bread and assumed that it could be the verb "to eat". The comparison with the Latin "edo", the English "eat" and the German "essen" led to the assumption that NINDA-an ezzatteni means "you will eat bread". In the second sentence, Hrozný was struck by the word "watar" that has similarities to the English "water" and German "Wasser". The last word of the second sentence, "ekutteni", had the stem "eku-", which seemed to resemble the Latin "aqua" (water). So, he translated the second sentence as "you will drink water". Hrozny soon realized that the Hittites were speaking an Indo-European language, making it much easier to decipher and read their cuneiform tablets. Using these insights, Hrozný continued his work and was able to publish the Hittite grammar in 1917.	Bedřich (Friedrich) Hrozný (; May 6, 1879 – December 12, 1952) was a Czech orientalist and linguist. 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summarize: Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perspective (general usage). According to the strict construction of the Gregorian calendar, the 1st century AD began with 1 AD and ended with 100 AD, with the same pattern continuing onward. In this model, the "n"-th century started/will start on the year "(100 × n) − 99" and ends in "100 × n". Because of this, a century will only include one year, the centennial year, that starts with the century's number (e.g. 1900 was the last year of the 19th century). In general usage, centuries are built by grouping years based on their shared digits. In this model, the 'n' -th century started/will start on the year "(100 x n) - 100" and ends in "(100 x n) - 1". For example, the 20th century is generally regarded as from 1900 to 1999, inclusive. This is sometimes known as the odometer effect. The astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, so the first century begins with the year zero, rather than the year one. Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the "nineteen hundreds" ("1900s"). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Finnish and Hungarian. The Swedish "nittonhundratalet" (or "1900-talet"), Danish "nittenhundredetallet" (or "1900-tallet"), Norwegian "nittenhundretallet" (or " 1900-tallet"), Finnish "tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku" (or "1900-luku") and Hungarian "ezerkilencszázas évek" (or "1900-as évek") refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999. Italian also has a quite similar alternative naming system but it only expresses the hundreds and omits the word for “thousand”. This system mainly functions from the 11th to the 20th century: Such Italian namings are borrowed in many other languages when referring to the history of Italy. While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner. The Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52.	A century is a period of 100 years. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word "century" comes from the Latin "centum", meaning "one hundred". 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summarize: In European history, the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the High Middle Ages, an age subsequent to the Early Middle Ages. The century began while the "translatio imperii" of 962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the Investiture Controversy. It saw the final Christianisation of Scandinavia and the emergence of the Peace and Truce of God movements, the Gregorian Reforms, and the Crusades which revitalised a church and a papacy that had survived tarnished by the tumultuous 10th century. In 1054, the Great Schism rent the church in two, however. In Germany, the century was marked by the ascendancy of the Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high-water mark under the Salians. In Italy, it opened with the integration of the kingdom into the empire and the royal palace at Pavia was summoned in 1024. By the end of the century, Lombard and Byzantine rule in the Mezzogiorno had been usurped by the Normans and the power of the territorial magnates was being replaced by that of the citizens of the cities in the north. In Britain, it saw the transformation of Scotland into a single, more unified and centralised kingdom and the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the fuller orbit of European feudal politics. In France, it saw the nadir of the monarchy and the zenith of the great magnates, especially the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, who could thus foster such distinctive contributions of their lands as the pious warrior who conquered Britain, Italy, and the East and the impious peacelover, the troubadour, who crafted out of the European vernacular its first great literary themes. There were also the first figures of the intellectual movement known as Scholasticism, which emphasized dialectic arguments in disputes of Christian theology as well as classical philosophy. In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last caliphs of Córdoba and ended in the successes of the Almoravids. In between was a period of Christian unification under Navarrese hegemony and success in the Reconquista against the taifa kingdoms that replaced the fallen caliphate. In China, there was a triangular affair of continued war and peace settlements between the Song dynasty, the Tanguts-led Western Xia in the northwest, and the Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast. Meanwhile, opposing political factions evolved at the Song imperial court of Kaifeng. The political reformers at court, called the New Policies Group (新法, Xin Fa), were led by Emperor Shenzong of Song and the Chancellors Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi, while the political conservatives were led by Chancellor Sima Guang and Empress Dowager Gao, regent of the young Emperor Zhezong of Song. Heated political debate and sectarian intrigue followed, while political enemies were often dismissed from the capital to govern frontier regions in the deep south where malaria was known to be very fatal to northern Chinese people (see History of the Song dynasty). This period also represents a high point in classical Chinese science and technology, with figures such as Su Song and Shen Kuo, as well as the age where the matured form of the Chinese pagoda was accomplished in Chinese architecture. In India, the Chola Dynasty reached its height of naval power under leaders such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, dominating southern India (Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka, and regions of South East Asia. They also sent raids into what is now Thailand. In Japan, the Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a 'puppet monarch' during the Heian period. In the Middle East, the Fatimid Empire of Egypt reached its zenith only to face steep decline, much like the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the century. The Seljuks came to prominence while the Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, tangible authority in state affairs. In Nigeria, formation of city states, kingdoms and empires, including Hausa kingdoms and Borno dynasty in north, Oyo and Benin kingdoms in south. In Korea, the rulers of the Goryeo Kingdom were able to concentrate more central authority into their own hands than in that of the nobles, and were able to fend off two Khitan invasions with their armies.	The 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the 1st century of the 2nd millennium.	en	en	26	[ 250004, 250054, 360, 28811, 32692, 4, 70, 534, 927, 142642, 83, 28601, 297, 237, 70, 86595, 111, 70, 19694, 102256, 62, 4188, 4, 142, 32070, 221419, 47, 70, 241, 147, 538, 102256, 62, 4188, 5, 581, 142642, 80723, 12960, 70, 44, 30145, 143, 5565, 68563, 14, 58, 111, 13549, 304, 509, 7464, 208806, 21261, 136, 134620, 23, 70, 4122, 271, 111, 70, 113419, 6644, 111809, 5465, 4861, 5, 1650, 24124, 70, 2704, 14949, 15032, 111, 192286, 399, 136, 70, 74216, 3956, 111, 70, 126609, 136, 19419, 329, 111, 3430, 112664, 7, 4, 70, 121181, 66, 72159, 7, 4, 136, 70, 41649, 7, 12649, 3129, 15226, 102, 48353, 10, 106820, 136, 10, 14726, 2408, 450, 1902, 188545, 71, 2405, 93, 67175, 390, 70, 370, 81944, 34, 10821, 209, 927, 142642, 5, 360, 209, 12338, 4, 70, 32774, 8643, 8780, 14457, 70, 106820, 23, 6626, 4, 49903, 5, 360, 102126, 4, 70, 142642, 509, 94419, 390, 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summarize: Around the 9th century the Edo people of what is now southeastern Nigeria developed bronze casts of humans, animals, and legendary creatures. These bronzes, which were used as vessels, amulets, pendants, and sacrificial tools, are among the earliest made bronzes ever found in Nigeria. Most items were part of a burial of a nobleman culture in the northern part of benin empire. Evidence of long distance trade between Benin and Portugal was also discovered through the thousands of glass beads found at Old Cairo at the workshops of Fustat. The development of the Benin Kingdom can be attributed to the proficiency at advanced metallurgy seen in the bronze jewellery crafted by local artisans. The Ghana (Wagadu) Empire (before c. 830 until c. 1235) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. It is considered the first of the Sahelian Kingdoms, which would exist in some form until the early 20th century. Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the 9th century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually conquered by the Danes, who set up Anglo-Saxon puppet rulers in each kingdom. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the Great Heathen Army, which was supposedly led by Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, and Guthrum. This Danish army first arrived in Britain in 865 in East Anglia. After conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city of York (Jorvik) and establish the kingdom of Jorvik. The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of Northumbria and to take all but the western portion of Mercia. The remaining kingdom of Wessex was the only kingdom of the Heptarchy left. Alfred the Great managed to maintain his kingdom of Wessex and push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the threat of the Danes following his famous victory over them at the Battle of Ethandun in 878. Alfred re-established Anglo-Saxon rule over the western half of Mercia, and the Danelaw was established which separated Mercia into halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes. Ireland was also affected by the Viking expansion across the North Sea. Extensive raids were carried out all along the coast and eventually permanent settlements were established, such as that of Dublin in 841. Particular targets for these raids were the monasteries on the western coast of Ireland, as they provided a rich source for loot. On such raids the Vikings set up impermanent camps, which were called longphorts by the Irish—this period of Viking raids on the coasts of Ireland has been named the longphort phase after these types of settlements. Ireland in the 9th century was organised into an amalgam of small kingdoms, called tuatha. These kingdoms were sometimes grouped together and ruled by a single, provincial ruler. If such a ruler could establish and maintain authority over a portion of these tuatha, he was sometimes granted the title of High King. Scotland also experienced significant Viking incursions during the 9th century. The Vikings established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern islands such as Orkney and Shetland. The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Picts, who inhabited most of Scotland at the time. Not only were the Pictish realms either destroyed or severely weakened, the Viking invasion and settlement may have been the reason for the movement of Kenneth MacAlpin, the king of Dál Riata at that time. The kingdom of Dál Riata was located on the western coast of Scotland, and Viking incursions destroyed it after the death of its previous king, Áed mac Boanta in 839, according to the Annals of Ulster. This may have caused the new king, MacAlpin, to move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. MacAlpin became king of the Picts in 843 and later kings would be titled as the King of Alba or King of Scots.	The 9th century was a period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar. The field of algebra was founded by the Muslim polymath Al-Khwarizmi. The battle between the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun and Islamic Scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal occurred.	en	en	44	[ 250004, 250054, 62, 67688, 70, 483, 927, 142642, 70, 241, 246, 3395, 111, 2367, 83, 5036, 127067, 13, 11, 48850, 72620, 126809, 52656, 13, 37702, 7, 111, 118103, 4, 85825, 4, 136, 62673, 1294, 195629, 7, 5, 32255, 52656, 90, 4, 3129, 3542, 11814, 237, 53678, 41204, 4, 444, 113647, 7, 4, 24320, 7, 4, 136, 110064, 289, 72977, 4, 621, 54940, 70, 67896, 150, 525, 7228, 52656, 90, 17669, 14037, 23, 72620, 5, 17006, 55769, 3542, 2831, 111, 10, 373, 51626, 111, 10, 110, 2661, 669, 29394, 23, 70, 144477, 9022, 2831, 111, 186, 694, 352, 95972, 5, 241, 58557, 329, 111, 4989, 62488, 52350, 17721, 3419, 73, 136, 15604, 509, 2843, 134053, 8305, 70, 137107, 111, 47589, 186, 712, 7, 14037, 99, 25074, 149109, 31, 99, 70, 117528, 111, 7680, 17346, 5, 581, 34754, 111, 70, 3419, 73, 117604, 831, 186, 150380, 297, 47, 70, 46902, 1474, 27771, 99, 175961, 68259, 474, 3432, 51592, 23, 70, 52656, 13, 55, 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summarize: The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional light bulb in 1878. The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see Abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861. The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States. The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous. It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War. The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French. In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact. Most countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808–1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal. The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place. The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces. The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888. Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Among others Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman, were two of many American Abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer; while Tubman's efforts was by using a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. The American Civil War took place from 1861–1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth. In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Great Bosnian uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a Constitution which defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigate the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous. The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of 20 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion. During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the "daimyō" system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models. In 1862, France gained its first foothold in Southeast Asia, and in 1863 France annexes Cambodia. In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native population. In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes. The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book "The Origin of Species", which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about: Thomas Alva Edison gave the world a practical everyday lightbulb. Nikola Tesla pioneered the induction motor, high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Other new inventions were electrical telegraphy and the telephone. On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German "Sturm und Drang" spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began. The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott; the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire. Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few. The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included: Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes: The 19th century was host to a variety of religious and philosophical thinkers, including:	The 19th (nineteenth) century was a century that began on January 1, 1801, and ended on December 31, 1900. The 19th century saw large amounts of social change; slavery was abolished, and the First and Second Industrial Revolutions (which also overlap with the 18th and 20th centuries, respectively) led to massive urbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit and prosperity. 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summarize: A process without transfer of heat or matter to or from a system, so that, is called adiabatic, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated. The assumption that a process is adiabatic is a frequently made simplifying assumption. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system. The assumption of adiabatic isolation is useful and often combined with other such idealizations to calculate a good first approximation of a system's behaviour. For example, according to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium, and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as, where is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume ( ) and is the pressure of the gas. For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as :, where denotes the change of the system's internal energy, the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and the work done by the system on its surroundings. Naturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced). The transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, no entropy is produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by ). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation. The other extreme kind of work is isochoric work (), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with, as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent. The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased from work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it. Adiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Due to this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds. Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically cooling fluid. (See heat death of the universe.) Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic cooling before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites. In the Earth's convecting mantle (the asthenosphere) beneath the lithosphere, the mantle temperature is approximately an adiabat. The slight decrease in temperature with shallowing depth is due to the decrease in pressure the shallower the material is in the Earth. Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes. In practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist. The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation where is pressure, is volume, and for this case, where For a monatomic ideal gas,, and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air). Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases. For reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that where "T" is an absolute temperature. This can also be written as The compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1 L = 1000 cm = 0.001 m); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with 5 degrees of freedom, and so ); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1 L volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1 L by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27 °C, or 300 K, and a pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure). so our adiabatic constant for this example is about 6.31 Pa m. The gas is now compressed to a 0.1 L (0.0001 m) volume (we will assume this happens quickly enough that no heat can enter or leave the gas through the walls). The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown so solving for "P": or 25.1 bar. Note that this pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure. We can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, "PV" = "nRT" ("n" is amount of gas in moles and "R" the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100 kPa of pressure, 1 L volume, and 300 K of temperature, our experimental constant ("nR") is: We know the compressed gas has = 0.1 L and =, so we can solve for temperature: That is a final temperature of 753 K, or 479 °C, or 896 °F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 16:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas temperature, which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel. For an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible. The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero,. Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics, where is the change in the internal energy of the system and is work done "by" the system. Any work () done must be done at the expense of internal energy, since no heat is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work done "by" the system is defined as However, does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with. It is desired to know how the values of and relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas ( recall ideal gas law ) the internal energy is given by where is the number of degrees of freedom divided by two, is the universal gas constant and is the number of moles in the system (a constant). Differentiating equation (3) yields Equation (4) is often expressed as because. Now substitute equations (2) and (4) into equation (1) to obtain factorize : and divide both sides by : After integrating the left and right sides from to and from to and changing the sides respectively, Exponentiate both sides, substitute with, the heat capacity ratio and eliminate the negative sign to obtain Therefore, and Substituting the ideal gas law into the above, we obtain which simplifies to The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true By the previous derivation, Rearranging (4) gives Substituting this into (2) gives Integrating we obtain the expression for work, Substituting in second term, Rearranging, Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases), By the continuous formula, or Substituting into the previous expression for, Substituting this expression and (1) in (3) gives Simplifying, An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a "P"–"V" diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where "PV" becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important. The right diagram is a "P"–"V" diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms: The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. The adiabats are isentropic. Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis. The term "adiabatic" () is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος "impassable" (used by Xenophon of rivers). It is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866), and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine). The etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall. The Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- ("not") and διαβατός, "passable", in turn deriving from διά ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to walk, go, come"). The adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work. Energy can enter or leave a thermodynamic system enclosed by walls that prevent mass transfer only as heat or work. Therefore, a quantity of work in such a system can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first limb is an isochoric adiabatic work process increasing the system's internal energy; the second, an isochoric and workless heat transfer returning the system to its original state. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity. In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat", which he later called an adiabatic curve. Besides its two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs. For the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan, by Carathéodory, and by Born. The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis. In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was not yet fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable but, rather, a variable that describes a transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view. This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word "adiabatic" is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be "adiabatic", though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. Quantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word "adiabatic" in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word "adiabatic" can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines. On the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done "adiabatically". The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes "Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation that is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically." On the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it randomly changes the occupation numbers of the eigenstates, as well as changing their shapes. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be "adiabatic", and the contrary word "diabatic" is applied to it. One might guess that perhaps Clausius, if he were confronted with this, in the now-obsolete language he used in his day, would have said that "internal work" was done and that 'heat was generated though not transferred'. In classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage. Thus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above.	An adiabatic process occurs without transferring heat or mass between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. Unlike an isothermal process, an adiabatic process transfers energy to the surroundings only as work. 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summarize: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages. Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants () and aspirated plosives () in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (), there is also, and, pronounced. The Ancient Greek diphthongs, and are pronounced, and in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to, and respectively. The Modern Greek consonant combinations and stand for and (or and ) respectively; stands for and stands for. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal ; thus and are pronounced like English. In analogy to and, is also used to stand for. There are also the combinations and. In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (), the grave accent (), or the circumflex accent ( or ). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (), marking an sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh. The vowel letters carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, (i.e. ), which became monophthongized during antiquity. Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (), indicating a hiatus. This system of diacritics was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium ( 257 – 185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as "tonos", i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ("ó,ti", "whatever") from ("óti", "that"). There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, is replaced with, the diphthongs and are rendered as and (or ) respectively; and and are simplified to and respectively. Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, will usually be rendered as, and the vowel combinations as respectively. The letters and are generally rendered as and ; as either or ; and word-initial as. Multiple different transcription conventions exist for Modern Greek. These differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically-based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, by the Library of Congress, and others. During the Mycenaean period, from around the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the thirteenth century BC. In the late ninth century BC or early eighth century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged. The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages, calling it Φοινικήια γράμματα 'Phoenician letters'. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants. Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants ("yodh") and ("waw") were used for [i] (Ι, "iota") and [u] (Υ, "upsilon") respectively; the glottal stop consonant ("aleph") was used for [a] (Α, "alpha"); the pharyngeal ("ʿayin") was turned into [o] (Ο, "omicron"); and the letter for ("he") was turned into [e] (Ε, "epsilon"). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal ("heth") was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long (Ω, omega) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ ("phi") for, Χ ("chi") for and Ψ ("psi") for. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for and Ψ for. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate. Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ ("san"), which had been in competition with Σ ("sigma") denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ ("qoppa"), which was redundant with Κ ("kappa") for /k/, and Ϝ ("digamma"), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period. Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called "boustrophedon", literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line. There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/ph, kh/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek. These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on a colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, "Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets" by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867). The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet, and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development. The "blue" (or eastern) type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged. Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. In the Old Attic alphabet, stood for and for. was used for all three sounds (correspondinɡ to classical respectively), and was used for all of (corresponding to classical respectively). The letter (heta) was used for the consonant. Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia: a form of that resembled a Latin "L" () and a form of that resembled a Latin "S" (). <nowiki>*</nowiki>Upsilon is also derived from waw (). The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia. By the late fifth century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians. In 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides, the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned the Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of the democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants. Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet". Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted a few years previously in Macedonia. By the end of the fourth century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet. When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus "ʾaleph", the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop, "bet", or "house", for the sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, "ʾaleph, bet, gimel" became "alpha, beta, gamma". The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of "beta", ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation "vita"). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as besides ; in Modern Greek the spelling is often, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled in Modern Greek ( is conventionally transcribed word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and ). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system. In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular. In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with, indicating an original pronunciation with "-ē". In Modern Greek these names are spelled with. The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters and, pronounced identically by this time, were called "o mikron" ("small o") and "o mega" ("big o") respectively. The letter was called "e psilon" ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph, while, similarly,, which at this time was pronounced, was called "y psilon" ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph. Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce and ; also, has come to be pronounced in Cypriot. Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters. In the ninth and tenth century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive. This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages. The Greek alphabet was the model for various others: The Armenian and Georgian alphabets are almost certainly modeled on the Greek alphabet, but their graphic forms are quite different. Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages. For some of them, additional letters were introduced. Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation. Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter. Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones. The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda, but in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase "y". Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma for 6, koppa for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as, and respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called "keraia" is added to the right of it. In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society at the College of William and Mary in 1776. The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης ("Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs"), which means "Love of wisdom, the guide of life" and serves as the organization's motto. Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by their Greek letter names because the mottos that these names stood for were secret and revealed only to members of the fraternity. The Greek letter names of most fraternal organizations today are meaningless and do not stand for anything, which Caroline Winterer states is "understandable, considering that general knowledge of the ancient Greek alphabet and language has almost entirely vanished." Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) designated using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B chapter, a Γ chapter, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω chapter is AA chapter, followed by AB chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "chapter Letter", albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization. Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode. For computer usage, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in. The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies. For the range A0–FF (hex), it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, 1⁄2, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings, it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex). Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be "represented" as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well:. There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols. This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly, most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF). To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF). Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternative interpretation for ß).	The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late ninth or early eighth century BC. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the first alphabetic script in history to have distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants. In Archaic and early Classical times, the Greek alphabet existed in many different local variants, but, by the end of the fourth century BC, the Euclidean alphabet, with twenty-four letters, ordered from alpha to omega, had become standard and it is this version that is still used to write Greek today. These twenty-four letters (each in uppercase and lowercase forms) are:,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, /ς,,,,,, and.	en	en	147	[ 250004, 250054, 360, 15044, 893, 45964, 136, 18799, 160600, 4, 70, 120820, 111, 70, 160600, 6, 229231, 765, 180663, 144142, 136, 74729, 26582, 9, 188, 9, 165207, 291, 26783, 7, 4, 20662, 92217, 1363, 111, 34153, 21334, 538, 92054, 2886, 5, 893, 45964, 160600, 10010, 2069, 509, 137567, 43573, 9, 26551, 21068, 5, 1326, 10, 14012, 111, 120820, 4, 45730, 142424, 129927, 15286, 38526, 17721, 893, 45964, 136, 18799, 160600, 4, 6637, 2363, 92217, 1363, 1556, 134629, 10, 5423, 111, 242161, 6, 75189, 109622, 122925, 7, 450, 195052, 70, 46876, 23, 6863, 1305, 9, 67413, 21533, 36541, 7, 5, 2022, 4021, 158, 1681, 1236, 120820, 4, 756, 120820, 450, 8, 157, 3674, 54479, 71, 17179, 29888, 158, 1681, 10840, 15, 16, 136, 44654, 3674, 17179, 29888, 7, 15, 16, 23, 893, 45964, 160600, 9157, 100, 42518, 214, 6, 72428, 4935, 102678, 23, 18799, 160600, 5, 581, 42518, 69098, 621, 237, 28960, 7, 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summarize: Tadeáš Hájek was the son of Šimon Hájek (ca. 1485–1551) from an old Prague family. He was ennobled in 1554 by Ferdinand I of Germany, knighted in 1571 by Maximilian II, later made knight of the Holy Roman Empire by Rudolf II. He had three wives, three sons, and one daughter. In 1548–1549, he studied medicine and astronomy in Vienna and graduated in 1550, receiving his Masters ""in artibus"" in 1551. In 1554 he studied medicine in Bologna and went to Milan the same year to listen to lectures by Girolamo Cardano, but he soon returned to Prague, where he became a professor of mathematics at the Charles University of Prague in 1555. He published the "Aphorismi Metoposcopici" in 1561, dealing with divination and diagnosis by interpreting lines on the forehead. He triangulated the area around Prague and co-authored a map of it in 1563; the map is unfortunately lost now. In 1564 he received the Emperor's privilege stating that no astrological prognostication could be printed in Prague before he had seen and approved it. In 1566–1570, he served as an army doctor in Austria and Hungary during the war with the Ottoman Empire. He published his studies of a supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia in 1572. Tadeáš Hájek was in frequent scientific correspondence with the recognized astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) and played an important role in persuading Rudolph II to invite Brahe (and later Kepler) to Prague. His voluminous writings in Latin were mostly concerned with astronomy and many regarded him as the greatest astronomer of his time. Besides his work, Tadeáš Hájek eagerly collected manuscripts, especially those by Copernicus. Throughout his life he also published numerous astrological prognostics in Czech language and that is why he was until recently viewed as an "occultist" rather than a great scientist. He corresponded with John Dee as a result of their common interest in Euclid and geometry. The lunar crater "Hagecius" and the asteroid "1995 Hajek" are named in his honour.	Tadeáš Hájek z Hájku () (1 December 1525 in Prague – 1 September 1600 in Prague), also known as Tadeáš Hájek of Hájek, Thaddaeus Hagecius ab Hayek or Thaddeus Nemicus, was a Czech naturalist, personal physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II and an astronomer in the Kingdom of Bohemia.	en	en	59	[ 250004, 250054, 1218, 112, 77588, 29099, 17379, 509, 70, 775, 111, 160027, 191, 29099, 17379, 15, 408, 5, 616, 12951, 1104, 1837, 62634, 1295, 142, 10332, 210721, 14449, 5, 1529, 509, 22, 157, 2661, 71, 23, 423, 12338, 390, 123693, 87, 111, 102126, 4, 472, 54350, 297, 23, 423, 15770, 390, 46540, 2104, 66, 1995, 4, 14432, 7228, 472, 54350, 111, 70, 152239, 12610, 145359, 390, 126741, 1995, 5, 1529, 1902, 17262, 148, 60877, 4, 17262, 775, 7, 4, 136, 1632, 76849, 5, 360, 423, 9285, 104279, 163170, 4, 764, 22282, 71, 54411, 136, 124931, 53, 23, 181103, 136, 150180, 71, 23, 423, 2525, 4, 217063, 1919, 18897, 7, 44, 58, 73, 187, 42301, 58, 58, 23, 423, 11703, 5, 360, 423, 12338, 764, 22282, 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summarize: To find the molar specific heat capacity of the gas involved, the following equations apply for any general gas that is calorically perfect. The property "γ" is either called the adiabatic index or the heat capacity ratio. Some published sources might use "k" instead of "γ". Molar isochoric specific heat: Molar isobaric specific heat: The values for "γ" are "γ" = for diatomic gases like air and its major components, and "γ" = for monatomic gases like the noble gases. The formulas for specific heats would reduce in these special cases: Monatomic: Diatomic: An isobaric process is shown on a "P"–"V" diagram as a straight horizontal line, connecting the initial and final thermostatic states. If the process moves towards the right, then it is an expansion. If the process moves towards the left, then it is a compression. The motivation for the specific sign conventions of thermodynamics comes from early development of heat engines. When designing a heat engine, the goal is to have the system produce and deliver work output. The source of energy in a heat engine, is a heat input. If the volume compresses (Δ"V" = final volume − initial volume < 0), then "W" < 0. That is, during isobaric compression the gas does negative work, or the environment does positive work. Restated, the environment does positive work on the gas. If the volume expands (Δ"V" = final volume − initial volume > 0), then "W" > 0. That is, during isobaric expansion the gas does positive work, or equivalently, the environment does negative work. Restated, the gas does positive work on the environment. If heat is added to the system, then "Q" > 0. That is, during isobaric expansion/heating, positive heat is added to the gas, or equivalently, the environment receives negative heat. Restated, the gas receives positive heat from the environment. If the system rejects heat, then "Q" < 0. That is, during isobaric compression/cooling, negative heat is added to the gas, or equivalently, the environment receives positive heat. Restated, the environment receives positive heat from the gas. An isochoric process is described by the equation "Q" = Δ"U". It would be convenient to have a similar equation for isobaric processes. Substituting the second equation into the first yields The quantity "U" + "pV" is a state function so that it can be given a name. It is called enthalpy, and is denoted as "H". Therefore, an isobaric process can be more succinctly described as Enthalpy and isochoric specific heat capacity are very useful mathematical constructs, since when analyzing a process in an open system, the situation of zero work occurs when the fluid flows at constant pressure. In an open system, enthalpy is the quantity which is useful to use to keep track of energy content of the fluid. The reversible expansion of an ideal gas can be used as an example of an isobaric process. Of particular interest is the way heat is converted to work when expansion is carried out at different working gas/surrounding gas pressures. In the first process example, a cylindrical chamber 1 m in area encloses 81.2438 mol of an ideal diatomic gas of molecular mass 29 g mol at 300 K. The surrounding gas is at 1 atm and 300 K, and separated from the cylinder gas by a thin piston. For the limiting case of a massless piston, the cylinder gas is also at 1 atm pressure, with an initial volume of 2 m. Heat is added slowly until the gas temperature is uniformly 600 K, after which the gas volume is 4 m and the piston is 2 m above its initial position. If the piston motion is sufficiently slow, the gas pressure at each instant will have practically the same value ("p" = 1 atm) throughout. For a thermally perfect diatomic gas, the molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure ("c") is / or 29.1006 J mol deg. The molar heat capacity at constant volume ("c") is / or 20.7862 J mol deg. The ratio formula_15 of the two heat capacities is 1.4. The heat "Q" required to bring the gas from 300 to 600 K is The increase in internal energy is Therefore, formula_18 Also formula_19, which of course is identical to the difference between Δ"H" and Δ"U". Here, work is entirely consumed by expansion against the surroundings. Of the total heat applied (709.3 kJ), the work performed (202.7 kJ) is about 28.6% of the supplied heat. The second process example is similar to the first, except that the massless piston is replaced by one having a mass of 10,332.2 kg, which doubles the pressure of the cylinder gas to 2 atm. The cylinder gas volume is then 1 m at the initial 300 K temperature. Heat is added slowly until the gas temperature is uniformly 600 K, after which the gas volume is 2 m and the piston is 1 m above its initial position. If the piston motion is sufficiently slow, the gas pressure at each instant will have practically the same value ("p" = 2 atm) throughout. Since enthalpy and internal energy are independent of pressure, As in the first example, about 28.6% of the supplied heat is converted to work. But here, work is applied in two different ways: partly by expanding the surrounding atmosphere and partly by lifting 10,332.2 kg a distance "h" of 1 m. Thus half the work lifts the piston mass (work of gravity, or “useable” work), while the other half expands the surroundings. The results of these two process examples illustrate the difference between the fraction of heat converted to usable work ("mg"Δ"h)" vs. the fraction converted to pressure-volume work done against the surrounding atmosphere. The usable work approaches zero as the working gas pressure approaches that of the surroundings, while maximum usable work is obtained when there is no surrounding gas pressure. The ratio of all work performed to the heat input for ideal isobaric gas expansion is A given quantity (mass "m") of gas in a changing volume produces a change in density "ρ". In this context the ideal gas law is written where "T" is thermodynamic temperature and "M" is molar mass. When R and M are taken as constant, then pressure "P" can stay constant as the density-temperature quadrant undergoes a squeeze mapping. The adjective "isobaric" is derived from the Greek words ἴσος" ("isos") meaning "equal", and βάρος ("baros") meaning "weight."	An Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure stays constant: Δ"P" = 0. The heat transferred to the system does work, but also changes the internal energy of the system. This article uses the physics sign convention for work, where positive work is work done by the system. 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summarize: The name of the city is derived from the name of the creek Trnava. It comes from the Old Slavic/Slovak word "tŕň" ("thornbush") which characterized the river banks in the region. Many towns in Central Europe have a similar etymology including Trnovo in Slovakia as well as Tarnów (Poland), Tarnow (Germany), Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria), Trnavac (Serbia), and Tyrnavos (Greece) among others. In the Hungarian language, the original name had gradually evolved into "Tyrna" which influenced also later German and Latin forms. When it developed into an important market town, it received the Hungarian name of "Szombathely" ("Sumbot" 1211) referring to the weekly market fairs held on Saturdays (). However, this name was only used by the royal chamber, as is indicated by the adoption of the Slovak name rather than the Hungarian name by German newcomers after the Mongol invasion. The varieties of the name in different languages include ; (from the 14th century onward) and. Permanent settlements on the city's territory are known from the Neolithic period onwards. During the Middle Ages, an important market settlement arose here at the junction of two important roads – from Bohemia to Hungary and from the Mediterranean to Poland. The first written reference to Trnava dates from 1211. In 1238, Trnava was the first town in (present-day) Slovakia to be granted a town charter (civic privileges) by the king. The former agricultural center gradually became a center of manufacture, trade, and crafts. By the early 13th century, the king of Hungary had invited numerous Germans to settle in Trnava; this settlement increased after the Tatar invasion in 1242. At the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, a part of Trnava was enclosed by very long city walls. The original Slovak market settlement and the Germans stayed behind this wall. Trnava was also the place of many important negotiations: Charles I, the king of Hungary, signed here a currency agreement with the Czech King John of Luxemburg in 1327, and King Louis I (who often stayed in the town and died there in 1380) signed a friendship agreement with Emperor Charles IV there in 1360. The temporary German majority in Trnava's population yielded in favour of the Slovaks during the campaigns undertaken by the Czech Hussites in the 15th century. In April 1430, the Hussites penetrated close to the town and defeated the Hungarian army in the Battle of Trnava. However, they suffered heavy losses and withdrew to Moravia. On 24 Jun 1432 a small group of Hussites masked as tradesmen entered the town, overcame the guards in the night and captured the town without a fight. Then, they made Trnava the center of their campaigns in northwestern Kingdom of Hungary from 1432 to 1435. The town, along with the rest of the territory of present-day Slovakia, gained importance after the conquest of most of what is today Hungary by the Ottoman Empire in 1541, when Trnava became the see (1541–1820) of the Archbishopric of Esztergom (before 1541 and after 1820 the see was the town of Esztergom, which was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1543). The cathedrals of the archbishopric were the Saint John the Baptist Cathedral and the Saint Nicholas Cathedral in the town. Many ethnic Hungarians fleeing from the Turks moved to the town after 1541 from present-day Hungary. In the 16th and especially the 17th century, Trnava was an important center of the Counter-Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary (at the time largely identical with the territory of present-day Slovakia and a strip of western Hungary). The Archbishop Nicolas Oláh invited the Jesuits to Trnava in 1561 in order to develop the municipal school system. Subsequently, he had a seminary opened in 1566 and in 1577 Trnava's priest Nicolas Telegdi founded a book-printing house in the town. The first Catholic Bible translation into Hungarian (based on the Latin Vulgate) was also completed in the town by the Jesuit György Káldi who was born there in 1573. The 17th century was also characterized by many anti-Habsburg uprisings in the country – these revolts of Stephen Bocskay, Gabriel Bethlen, George I Rákóczi, and Imre Thököly negatively affected Trnava's life. On 26 December 1704 Francis II Rákóczi's army suffered a decisive defeat against the Imperial Army, led by Sigbert Heister, near Trnava. The Jesuit Trnava University (1635–1777), the only university of the Kingdom of Hungary at that time, was founded by Archbishop Péter Pázmány. Founded to support the Counter-Reformation, Trnava University soon became a center of Slovak education and literature, since most of the teachers, one half of the students and the majority of the town's inhabitants were Slovaks. Pázmány himself was instrumental in promoting the usage of the Slovak language instead of the Czech language and had his work ""Isteni igazságra vezető kalauz"" (Guide to the Truth of God) and several of his sermons translated into Slovak. From the late 18th century Trnava became a center of the literary and artistic Slovak National Revival. The first standard codification of the Slovak language (by the priest Anton Bernolák in 1787) was based on the Slovak dialect used in the region of Trnava. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Richard Guyon's army fought here with an Austrian army on 14 December, in 1848. The importance of the town decreased in the early 19th century, when the university was moved to Buda (today: Eötvös Loránd University) and the see of the archbishopric moved back to Esztergom. It increased however partly again after 1844, when Trnava was connected with Bratislava through the first railway line in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was a horse railway (steam engines were used since 1872). The railway connection launched a modernization of the town, which started with the erection of a big sugar factory, a malt-house and of the Coburgh's factory (later referred to as "Trnavské automobilové závody", i.e. "Trnava Car Factory"). The ("Spolok sv. Vojtecha"), founded in 1870 when the Slovak foundation (Matica slovenská) was prohibited by the Hungarian authorities, kept up the Slovak national conscience at a time of strong Magyarisation in Hungary. In the 19th but mainly in the early 20th century the town grew behind its city walls and a part of the wall was demolished in the 19th century, but most of it is still well-preserved. Until World War II, Trnava was also home to a sizable Jewish minority. Their freedom to move was restricted as early as in 1495 and from 1539 to 1800. After the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Trnava was one of the most industrialized cities of Slovakia. During World War II, Trnava was liberated on 1 April 1945 by troops of the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front. In 1977, by a decision of Pope Paul VI, Trnava became the see of a separate Slovak archbishopric (although the seat moved to Bratislava in 2008, the city still remains a seat of its own archbishopric). With the establishment of this archbishopric, Slovakia became independent of Hungary again also in terms of church administration for the first time in centuries. After the establishment of Slovakia (1993), Trnava became the capital of the newly created Trnava Region in 1996. The French car manufacturer PSA Peugeot Citroën began construction of a large automobile plant in Trnava in 2003. Trnava lies at an altitude of above sea level and covers an area of. It is located in the Danubian Lowland on the Trnávka river, around north-east of Bratislava, west of Nitra and around from the Czech border. The closest mountain ranges are the Little Carpathians to the west and the Považský Inovec to the north-east of the city. Trnava lies in the north temperate zone and has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. It is characterized by a significant variation between hot summers and cold winters. As early as in the Middle Ages, Trnava was an important centre of Gothic religious and lay architecture – St. Nicolas's Church, St. Helen's Church and several church monastery complexes (Clarist, Franciscan and Dominican) were built in this period. The Renaissance (16th century) added a town tower to Trnava's silhouette. Nicolas Oláh ordered the erection of the Seminary and Archbishop's Palace. Péter Bornemisza and, the leading personalities of the Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary, were active in Trnava for a short time. The town ramparts were rebuilt to a Renaissance fortification as a reaction to the approaching Turkish danger from the south. The 17th century was characterized by the construction of the Paulinian Church that bears badges of Silesian Renaissance. Trnava was gradually redesigned to Baroque. The erection of the St. John the Baptist Church and of the university campus launched a building rush that continued with the reconstruction of the Franciscan and Clarist's complexes. Builders and artists called to build the university also participated in improvements of the burgher architecture. The Holy Trinity Statue and the group of statues of St. Joseph, the Ursulinian and Trinitarian Church and Monastery are of recent construction. The District hospital was built 1824. The building of the theatre started in May 1831 and the first performance was played at Christmas. Both of the Trnava synagogues, historical structures with oriental motifs, date back to the 19th century. The Synagogue Status Quo Ante currently houses the Jána Koniareka art gallery. In 2016, Robert Sajtlava, a local resident, renovated a 19th-century Orthodox Synagogue which was falling into disrepair into a chic, modern cafe named Synagoga Cafe. Critics view the business as an example of exploitative cultural appropriation in the wake of the Holocaust, where the former occupants were sent to concentration camps. Whereas, advocates argue that it reflects respect and nostalgia for Jews in addition to providing a vehicle for at least some preservation of the heritage site. The rise of Trnava is closely related to "Latin Guests", the romance newcomers probably from present-day Belgium (Walloons). In 1238, the expansion of the town was supported by the decree about a free movement to Trnava. In the Middle Ages, "German Guests" played a main role in the social composition of the town and they dominated also in trade and town administration. The decline of the German population and a permanent change of the ethnic composition dates back to the occupation of the town by the Hussite army (1432-1435). Nevertheless, the continuity of the original Slovak population was not interrupted and the Slovaks have intensively tried to achieve representation in the town council. Repeated conflicts between Germans and Slovaks were resolved in 1486 by the king Matthias Corvinus. In this time, the dominant language in the town was already Slovak. A presence of the Jewish community is well documented from the 14th century. The medieval Hungarian population was represented only by several families, more Hungarians settled in town after the Battle of Mohács (1526). The ethnic tension had to be again resolved by the king. The Hungarians were made equal to the Slovaks and the Germans by Ferdinand I, who also ordered parity representation of all three nationalities in the administration (4 April 1551). The estimated size of the population in the 16th century was 2,000-3,000 citizens. At the end of the Middle Ages, the town was inhabited by cca 5,000 people including those living in suburbs behind the city walls. According to the last census from 2001, Trnava had 70,286 inhabitants, while according to the estimate from 2006, Trnava had 68,466 inhabitants with an average age of 37.3 years. In 2018, it had 65,207 inhabitants. Nationality (2001 census): Age: The current government structure has been in place since 1990, and is composed of a mayor ("primátor") and of a city council ("Mestské zastupiteľstvo"), which in turn leads a city board ("Mestská rada") and city commissions ("Komisie mestského zastupiteľstva"). The mayor is the city's top executive officer, elected for a four-year term; the current mayor is Peter Brocka, who is serving his first term and was inaugurated to function on 12 December 2014. The city council is the highest legislative body of the city, represented by 31 councillors, elected to a concurrent term with the mayor's. Since 2002, Trnava is divided into six urban districts, with area and further sub-units in parentheses: However, compared to the present-day total area of 71.53 km, the city used to have a larger area. Its height was in the 1970s, when it annexed villages of Modranka, Biely Kostol and Hrnčiarovce nad Parnou, reaching an area of almost 90 km. The latter two separated in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Trnava is the seat of two universities: University of Trnava (present) with 7,159 students, including 446 doctoral students. and of the University of St. Cyril and Methodius, with 6,833 students. The city's system of primary education consists of nine public schools and one religious primary school with a total of 5,422 pupils enrolled in 2006. Secondary education is represented by four gymnasia with 2,099 students, 7 specialized high schools with 3,212 students, and 6 vocational schools with 3,697 students. The city lies at the crossroads of two roads of international importance; from the Czech Republic to southern Slovakia and from Bratislava to northern Slovakia. The D1 motorway connects the city to Bratislava, Trenčín and Žilina and the R1 expressway connects it to Nitra. A part of a planned bypass is currently under construction. The city also has an important station on the Bratislava–Žilina railway, with two tracks from Sereď and Kúty (near the Czech border) ending in the city. Although there is a small airstrip at the north-eastern edge, the closest international airports are in Bratislava and Vienna. The city also operates a public transport service, currently with 16 lines. Trnava is twinned with:	Trnava (, ;, also known by other alternative names) is a city in western Slovakia, to the north-east of Bratislava, on the Trnávka river. It is the capital of a "kraj" (Trnava Region) and of an "okres" (Trnava District). It is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric (1541–1820 and then again since 1977). The city has a historic center. 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summarize: The BIPM specifies twenty prefixes for the International System of Units (SI). Each prefix name has a symbol that is used in combination with the symbols for units of measure. For example, the symbol for "kilo-" is k, and is used to produce km, kg, and kW, which are the SI symbols for kilometre, kilogram, and kilowatt, respectively. Except for the early prefixes of "kilo-", "hecto-", and "deca-", the symbols for the multiplicative prefixes are uppercase letters, and those for the fractional prefixes are lowercase letters. There is a Unicode symbol for micro "μ" for use if the Greek letter "μ" is unavailable. When both are unavailable, the visually similar lowercase Latin letter "u" is commonly used instead. SI unit symbols are never in italics. Prefixes corresponding to an integer power of one thousand are generally preferred. Hence 100 m is preferred over 1 hm (hectometre) or 10 dam (decametres). The prefixes "hecto-", "deca-", "deci-", and "centi-" are commonly used for everyday purposes, and the centimetre (cm) is especially common. However, some modern building codes require that the millimetre be used in preference to the centimetre, because "use of centimetres leads to extensive usage of decimal points and confusion". Prefixes may not be used in combination. This also applies to mass, for which the SI base unit (kilogram) already contains a prefix. For example, milligram (mg) is used instead of microkilogram (μkg). In the arithmetic of measurements having units, the units are treated as multiplicative factors to values. If they have prefixes, all but one of the prefixes must be expanded to their numeric multiplier, except when combining values with identical units. Hence: When powers of units occur, for example, squared or cubed, the multiplicative prefix must be considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation: The use of prefixes can be traced back to the introduction of the metric system in the 1790s, long before the 1960 introduction of the SI. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, whether officially included in the SI or not (e.g., millidynes and milligauss). Metric prefixes may also be used with non-metric units. The choice of prefixes with a given unit is usually dictated by convenience of use. Unit prefixes for amounts that are much larger or smaller than those actually encountered are seldom used. The units kilogram, gram, milligram, microgram, and smaller are commonly used for measurement of mass. However, megagram, gigagram, and larger are rarely used; tonnes (and kilotonnes, megatonnes, etc.) or scientific notation are used instead. Megagram and teragram are occasionally used to disambiguate the metric tonne from other units with the name "ton". The kilogram is the only base unit of the International System of Units that includes a metric prefix. The litre (equal to a cubic decimetre), millilitre (equal to a cubic centimetre), microlitre, and smaller are common. In Europe, the centilitre is often used for packaged products such as wine and the decilitre is used less frequently. Larger volumes are usually denoted in kilolitres, megalitres or gigalitres, or else in cubic metres (1 cubic metre = 1 kilolitre) or cubic kilometres (1 cubic kilometre = 1 teralitre). For scientific purposes, the cubic metre is usually used. The kilometre, metre, centimetre, millimetre, and smaller are common. (However, the decimetre is rarely used.) The micrometre is often referred to by the non-SI term "micron". In some fields, such as chemistry, the ångström (equal to 0.1 nm) historically competed with the nanometre. The femtometre, used mainly in particle physics, is sometimes called a fermi. For large scales, megametre, gigametre, and larger are rarely used. Instead, non-metric units are used, such as the solar radius, astronomical units, light years, and parsecs; the astronomical unit is mentioned in the SI standards as an accepted non-SI unit. Prefixes for the SI standard unit second are most commonly encountered for quantities less than one second. For larger quantities, the system of minutes (60 seconds), hours (60 minutes) and days (24 hours) is accepted for use with the SI and more commonly used. When speaking of spans of time, the length of the day is usually standardized to seconds so as not to create issues with the irregular leap second. Larger multiples of the second such as kiloseconds and megaseconds are occasionally encountered in scientific contexts, but are seldom used in common parlance. For long-scale scientific work, particularly in astronomy, the Julian year or "annum" is a standardized variant of the year, equal to exactly SI seconds (365 days, 6 hours). The unit is so named because it was the average length of a year in the Julian calendar. Long time periods are then expressed by using metric prefixes with the annum, such as megaannum or gigaannum. The SI unit of angle is the radian, but degrees, minutes, and seconds see some scientific use. Official policy also varies from common practice for the degree Celsius (°C). NIST states: "Prefix symbols may be used with the unit symbol °C and prefix names may be used with the unit name "degree Celsius". For example, 12 m°C (12 millidegrees Celsius) is acceptable." In practice, it is more common for prefixes to be used with the kelvin when it is desirable to denote extremely large or small absolute temperatures or temperature differences. Thus, temperatures of star interiors may be given in units of MK (megakelvins), and molecular cooling may be described in mK (millikelvins). In use the joule and kilojoule are common, with larger multiples seen in limited contexts. In addition, the kilowatt hour, a composite unit formed from the kilowatt and hour, is often used for electrical energy; other multiples can be formed by modifying the prefix of watt (e.g. terawatt hour). There exist a number of definitions for the non-SI unit, the calorie. There are gram calories and kilogram calories. One kilogram calorie, which equals one thousand gram calories, often appears capitalized and without a prefix (i.e. "Cal") when referring to "dietary calories" in food. It is common to apply metric prefixes to the gram calorie, but not to the kilogram calorie: thus, 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal. Metric prefixes are widely used outside the system of metric units. Common examples include the megabyte and the decibel. Metric prefixes rarely appear with imperial or US units except in some special cases (e.g., microinch, kilofoot, kilopound). They are also used with other specialized units used in particular fields (e.g., megaelectronvolt, gigaparsec, millibarn). They are also occasionally used with currency units (e.g., gigadollar), mainly by people who are familiar with the prefixes from scientific usage. In astronomy, geology, and paleontology, the year, with symbol a (from the Latin "annus"), is commonly used with metric prefixes: ka, Ma, and Ga. Official policies about the use of SI prefixes with non-SI units vary slightly between the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). For instance, the NIST advises that 'to avoid confusion, prefix symbols (and prefix names) are not used with the time-related unit symbols (names) min (minute), h (hour), d (day); nor with the angle-related symbols (names) ° (degree), ′ (minute), and ′′ (second)', whereas the BIPM adds information about the use of prefixes with the symbol "as" for arcsecond when they state: 'However astronomers use milliarcsecond, which they denote mas, and microarcsecond, μas, which they use as units for measuring very small angles.' When a metric prefix is affixed to a root word, the prefix carries the stress, while the root drops its stress but retains a full vowel in the syllable that is stressed when the root word stands alone. For example, "kilobyte" is, with stress on the first syllable. However, units in common use outside the scientific community may be stressed idiosyncratically. In English-speaking countries, "kilometre" is the most conspicuous example. It is often pronounced, with reduced vowels on both syllables of "metre". This stress is not applied to other multiples or sub-multiples of metre, or to other units prefixed with "kilo-". The prefix "giga" is usually pronounced in English as, with hard ⟨g⟩ as in "get", but sometimes, with soft ⟨g⟩ as in "gin". The LaTeX typesetting system features an "SIunitx" package in which the units of measurement are spelled out, for example, codice_1 formats as "3 THz". Some of the prefixes formerly used in the metric system have fallen into disuse and were not adopted into the SI. The decimal prefix "myria-" (sometimes also written as "myrio-") (ten thousand) as well as the binary prefixes "double-" and "demi-", denoting a factor of 2 and (one half), respectively, were parts of the original metric system adopted by France in 1795. These were not retained when the SI prefixes were internationally adopted by the 11th CGPM conference in 1960. Other metric prefixes used historically include hebdo- (10) and micri- (10). Double prefixes have been used in the past, such as "micromillimetres" or'millimicrons' (now nanometres), "micromicrofarads" (now picofarads), "kilomegatons" (now gigatons), "hectokilometres" (now 100 kilometres) and the derived adjective "hectokilometric" (typically used for qualifying the fuel consumption measures). These are not compatible with the SI. Other obsolete double prefixes included "decimilli-" (10), which was contracted to "dimi-" and standardized in France up to 1961. Although the "yotta-" prefix is large, the field of computer data is likely to approach values reaching or exceeding yottabytes in the future. Thus, various proposals for a prefix beyond "yotta-" have been put forth. In 2010, UC Davis student Austin Sendek started a petition to designate "hella" as the SI prefix for one octillion (short scale; long scale: quadrilliard; 10). The petition gathered over supporters by circulating through Facebook and media coverage. It was also adopted by Google and Wolfram Alpha. A proposal made to the BIPM is ronna (R) for, quecca (Q) for, ronto (r) for and quecto (q) for. In written English, the symbol "K" is often used informally to indicate a multiple of thousand in many contexts. For example, one may talk of a "40K salary" (), or call the Year 2000 problem the "Y2K problem". In these cases, an uppercase K is often used with an implied unit (although it could then be confused with the symbol for the kelvin temperature unit if the context is unclear). This informal postfix is read or spoken as "thousand" or "grand", or just "k". The financial and general news media mostly use m/M, b/B and t/T as abbreviations for million, billion (10) and trillion (10), respectively, for large quantities, typically currency and population. The medical and automotive fields in the United States use the abbreviations "cc" or "ccm" for cubic centimetres. 1 cubic centimetre is equivalent to 1 millilitre. For nearly a century, engineers used the abbreviation "MCM" to designate a "thousand circular mils" in specifying the cross-sectional area of large electrical cables. Since the mid-1990s, "kcmil" has been adopted as the official designation of a thousand circular mils, but the designation "MCM" still remains in wide use. A similar system is used in natural gas sales in the United States: "m" (or "M") for thousands and "mm" (or "MM") for millions of British thermal units or therms, and in the oil industry, where "MMbbl" is the symbol for "millions of barrels". This usage of the capital letter "M" for "thousand" is from Roman numerals, in which "M" means 1000. In some fields of information technology, it has been common to designate non-decimal multiples based on powers of 1024, rather than 1000, for some SI prefixes ("kilo-", "mega-", "giga-"), contrary to the definitions in the International System of Units (SI). This practice was once sanctioned by some industry associations, including JEDEC. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the system of binary prefixes ("kibi-", "mebi-", "gibi-", etc.) for this purpose.	A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. While all metric prefixes in common use today are decadic, historically there have been a number of binary metric prefixes as well. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix "kilo-", for example, may be added to "gram" to indicate "multiplication" by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix "milli-", likewise, may be added to "metre" to indicate "division" by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre.	en	en	131	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 17234, 20266, 58735, 90, 214075, 183114, 90, 100, 70, 8357, 12353, 111, 46640, 7, 15, 9902, 194, 98423, 183114, 9351, 1556, 10, 26582, 450, 83, 11814, 23, 162515, 678, 70, 26582, 7, 100, 25072, 7, 111, 72350, 5, 1326, 27781, 4, 70, 26582, 100, 44, 120190, 9, 58, 83, 472, 4, 136, 83, 11814, 47, 27489, 1785, 4, 5279, 4, 136, 57875, 4, 3129, 621, 70, 10000, 26582, 7, 100, 140635, 4, 39012, 4, 136, 14251, 10686, 18, 4, 107013, 538, 5, 218288, 100, 70, 39395, 183114, 90, 111, 44, 120190, 9, 830, 44, 127, 60751, 9, 830, 136, 44, 112, 408, 9, 830, 70, 26582, 7, 100, 70, 127664, 4935, 183114, 90, 621, 1407, 56, 58437, 120820, 4, 136, 8382, 100, 70, 6, 175921, 289, 183114, 90, 621, 92319, 58437, 120820, 5, 8622, 83, 10, 219778, 26582, 100, 11948, 44, 2779, 58, 100, 4527, 2174, 70, 160600, 31330, 44, 2779, 58, 83, 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summarize: The word "polygon" derives from the Greek adjective πολύς ("polús") "much", "many" and γωνία ("gōnía") "corner" or "angle". It has been suggested that γόνυ ("gónu") "knee" may be the origin of "gon". Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides. See the table below. Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity: Euclidean geometry is assumed throughout. Any polygon has as many corners as it has sides. Each corner has several angles. The two most important ones are: In this section, the vertices of the polygon under consideration are taken to be formula_6 in order. For convenience in some formulas, the notation will also be used. If the polygon is non-self-intersecting (that is, simple), the signed area is or, using determinants where formula_9 is the squared distance between formula_10 and formula_11 The signed area depends on the ordering of the vertices and of the orientation of the plane. Commonly, the positive orientation is defined by the (counterclockwise) rotation that maps the positive -axis to the positive -axis. If the vertices are ordered counterclockwise (that is, according to positive orientation), the signed area is positive; otherwise, it is negative. In either case, the area formula is correct in absolute value. This is commonly called the shoelace formula or Surveyor's formula. The area "A" of a simple polygon can also be computed if the lengths of the sides, "a", "a",..., "a" and the exterior angles, "θ", "θ",..., "θ" are known, from: The formula was described by Lopshits in 1963. If the polygon can be drawn on an equally spaced grid such that all its vertices are grid points, Pick's theorem gives a simple formula for the polygon's area based on the numbers of interior and boundary grid points: the former number plus one-half the latter number, minus 1. In every polygon with perimeter "p" and area "A ", the isoperimetric inequality formula_13 holds. For any two simple polygons of equal area, the Bolyai–Gerwien theorem asserts that the first can be cut into polygonal pieces which can be reassembled to form the second polygon. The lengths of the sides of a polygon do not in general determine its area. However, if the polygon is cyclic then the sides "do" determine the area. Of all "n"-gons with given side lengths, the one with the largest area is cyclic. Of all "n"-gons with a given perimeter, the one with the largest area is regular (and therefore cyclic). Many specialized formulas apply to the areas of regular polygons. The area of a regular polygon is given in terms of the radius "r" of its inscribed circle and its perimeter "p" by This radius is also termed its apothem and is often represented as "a". The area of a regular "n"-gon with side "s" inscribed in a unit circle is The area of a regular "n"-gon in terms of the radius "R" of its circumscribed circle and its perimeter "p" is given by The area of a regular "n"-gon inscribed in a unit-radius circle, with side "s" and interior angle formula_17 can also be expressed trigonometrically as The area of a self-intersecting polygon can be defined in two different ways, giving different answers: Using the same convention for vertex coordinates as in the previous section, the coordinates of the centroid of a solid simple polygon are In these formulas, the signed value of area formula_21 must be used. For triangles (), the centroids of the vertices and of the solid shape are the same, but, in general, this is not true for. The centroid of the vertex set of a polygon with vertices has the coordinates The idea of a polygon has been generalized in various ways. Some of the more important include: The word "polygon" comes from Late Latin "polygōnum" (a noun), from Greek πολύγωνον ("polygōnon/polugōnon"), noun use of neuter of πολύγωνος ("polygōnos/polugōnos", the masculine adjective), meaning "many-angled". Individual polygons are named (and sometimes classified) according to the number of sides, combining a Greek-derived numerical prefix with the suffix "-gon", e.g. "pentagon", "dodecagon". The triangle, quadrilateral and nonagon are exceptions. Beyond decagons (10-sided) and dodecagons (12-sided), mathematicians generally use numerical notation, for example 17-gon and 257-gon. Exceptions exist for side counts that are more easily expressed in verbal form (e.g. 20 and 30), or are used by non-mathematicians. Some special polygons also have their own names; for example the regular star pentagon is also known as the pentagram. To construct the name of a polygon with more than 20 and less than 100 edges, combine the prefixes as follows. The "kai" term applies to 13-gons and higher and was used by Kepler, and advocated by John H. Conway for clarity to concatenated prefix numbers in the naming of quasiregular polyhedra. Polygons have been known since ancient times. The regular polygons were known to the ancient Greeks, with the pentagram, a non-convex regular polygon (star polygon), appearing as early as the 7th century B.C. on a krater by Aristophanes, found at Caere and now in the Capitoline Museum. The first known systematic study of non-convex polygons in general was made by Thomas Bradwardine in the 14th century. In 1952, Geoffrey Colin Shephard generalized the idea of polygons to the complex plane, where each real dimension is accompanied by an imaginary one, to create complex polygons. Polygons appear in rock formations, most commonly as the flat facets of crystals, where the angles between the sides depend on the type of mineral from which the crystal is made. Regular hexagons can occur when the cooling of lava forms areas of tightly packed columns of basalt, which may be seen at the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, or at the Devil's Postpile in California. In biology, the surface of the wax honeycomb made by bees is an array of hexagons, and the sides and base of each cell are also polygons. In computer graphics, a polygon is a primitive used in modelling and rendering. They are defined in a database, containing arrays of vertices (the coordinates of the geometrical vertices, as well as other attributes of the polygon, such as color, shading and texture), connectivity information, and materials. Any surface is modelled as a tessellation called polygon mesh. If a square mesh has points (vertices) per side, there are "n" squared squares in the mesh, or 2"n" squared triangles since there are two triangles in a square. There are vertices per triangle. Where "n" is large, this approaches one half. Or, each vertex inside the square mesh connects four edges (lines). The imaging system calls up the structure of polygons needed for the scene to be created from the database. This is transferred to active memory and finally, to the display system (screen, TV monitors etc.) so that the scene can be viewed. During this process, the imaging system renders polygons in correct perspective ready for transmission of the processed data to the display system. Although polygons are two-dimensional, through the system computer they are placed in a visual scene in the correct three-dimensional orientation. In computer graphics and computational geometry, it is often necessary to determine whether a given point "P" = ("x","y") lies inside a simple polygon given by a sequence of line segments. This is called the point in polygon test.	In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed polygonal chain or "polygonal circuit". 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summarize: The word "sport" comes from the Old French "desport" meaning "leisure", with the oldest definition in English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining". Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Roget's defines the noun sport as an "activity engaged in for relaxation and amusement" with synonyms including diversion and recreation. The singular term "sport" is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept (e.g. "children taking part in sport"), with "sports" used to describe multiple activities (e.g. "football and rugby are the most popular sports in England"). American English uses "sports" for both terms. The precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. The closest to an international agreement on a definition is provided by SportAccord, which is the association for all the largest international sports federations (including association football, athletics, cycling, tennis, equestrian sports, and more), and is therefore the "de facto" representative of international sport. SportAccord uses the following criteria, determining that a sport should: They also recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby or athletics), primarily mind (such as chess or Go), predominantly motorised (such as Formula 1 or powerboating), primarily co-ordination (such as billiard sports), or primarily animal-supported (such as equestrian sport). The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to being denied funding available to sports. Whilst SportAccord recognises a small number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports. There has been an increase in the application of the term "sport" to a wider set of non-physical challenges such as video games, also called esports, especially due to the large scale of participation and organised competition, but these are not widely recognised by mainstream sports organisations. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2.i, Sport' means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels." There are opposing views on the necessity of competition as a defining element of a sport, with almost all professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or SportAccord. Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, including those competed just for fun. In order to widen participation, and reduce the impact of losing on less able participants, there has been an introduction of non-competitive physical activity to traditionally competitive events such as school sports days, although moves like this are often controversial. In competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their "result" and often divided into groups of comparable performance, (e.g. gender, weight and age). The measurement of the result may be objective or subjective, and corrected with "handicaps" or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the result is decided by a panel of judges, and therefore subjective. There are many shades of judging between boxing and mixed martial arts, where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at the end of the match time. Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China as early as 2000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been popular in China's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt. Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh had a close connection to warfare skills. Among other sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting. A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sport in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sport became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia. Sports have been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the ancient Olympics up to the present century. Industrialisation has brought increased leisure time, letting people attend and follow spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans followed the exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been increasing debate about whether transgender sportspersons should be able to participate in sport events that conform with their post-transition gender identity. Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, ethical behaviour and integrity, and grace in victory or defeat. Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it's "not that you won or lost but how you played the game", and the modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: "The most important thing... is not winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment. Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should have equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in order to gain advantage. Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on the results of sports fixtures creates a motivation for match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win. The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance through the use of medicines, or through other means such as increasing the volume of blood in their bodies through artificial means. All sports recognised by the IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing programme, looking for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for banned substances. Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular is a problem at some national and international sporting contests. Female participation in sports continues to rise alongside the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports for child development and physical fitness. Despite gains during the last three decades, a gap persists in the enrollment figures between male and female players. Female players account for 39% of the total participation in US interscholastic athletics. Gender balance has been accelerating from a 32% increase in 1973–74 to a 63% increase in 1994–95. Hessel (2000). Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness, and athletic scholarships. Activists for education and the war on drugs encourage youth sport as a means to increase educational participation and to fight the illegal drug trade. According to the Center for Injury Research and Policy at Nationwide Children's Hospital, the biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion. These risks come from running, basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey. Youth sport in the US is a $15 billion industry including equipment up to private coaching. Disabled sports also adaptive sports or parasports, are sports played by persons with a disability, including physical and intellectual disabilities. As many of these are based on existing sports modified to meet the needs of persons with a disability, they are sometimes referred to as "adapted sports". However, not all disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been specifically created for persons with a disability have no equivalent in able-bodied sports. The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to watch sport being played. This has led to the specific phenomenon of spectator sport. Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio, television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast. It is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain fixtures. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final attracted an estimated audience of 135 million in India alone. In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year. Super Bowl Sunday is a "de facto" national holiday in America; the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at $4.5m for a 30-second slot. Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional or semi-professional basis, depending on whether participants are incentivised for participation (usually through payment of a wage or salary). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often called "grassroots sport". The popularity of spectator sport as a recreation for non-participants has led to sport becoming a major business in its own right, and this has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in excess of average wages, which can run into millions of dollars. Some sports, or individual competitions within a sport, retain a policy of allowing only amateur sport. The Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby. From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive compensation and sponsorship, and from 1986, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, with the exceptions of boxing, and wrestling. Technology plays an important part in modern sport. With it being a necessary part of some sports (such as motorsport), it is used in others to improve performance. Some sports also use it to allow off-field decision making. Sports science is a widespread academic discipline, and can be applied to areas including athlete performance, such as the use of video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such as improved running shoes or competitive swimwear. Sports engineering emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing focus not just on materials design but also the use of technology in sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology. In order to control the impact of technology on fair play, governing bodies frequently have specific rules that are set to control the impact of technical advantage between participants. For example, in 2010, full-body, non-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA, as they were enhancing swimmers' performances. The increase in technology has also allowed many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed, off-field, with another official using instant replays to make decisions. In some sports, players can now challenge decisions made by officials. In Association football, goal-line technology makes decisions on whether a ball has crossed the goal line or not. The technology is not compulsory, but was used in the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, as well as in the Premier League from 2013–14, and the Bundesliga from 2015–16. In the NFL, a referee can ask for a review from the replay booth, or a head coach can issue a challenge to review the play using replays. The final decision rests with the referee. A video referee (commonly known as a Television Match Official or TMO) can also use replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and union). In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a decision, and the third umpire makes the final decision. Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review decisions has been introduced and used in ICC-run tournaments, and optionally in other matches. Depending on the host broadcaster, a number of different technologies are used during an umpire or player review, including instant replays, Hawk-Eye, Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer. Hawk-Eye is also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions. Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive adult role models and provide positive development opportunities, as well as promote the learning and application of life skills. In recent years the use of sport to reduce crime, as well as to prevent violent extremism and radicalization, has become more widespread, especially as a tool to improve self-esteem, enhance social bonds and provide participants with a feeling of purpose. There is no high-quality evidence that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports participation of the community in sports such as mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy changes. There is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in promoting healthy behavior change in the community. Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Italy, to showcase Fascist Italy. Adolf Hitler also used the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, and the 1936 Winter Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan race, and inferiority of the Jews and other "undesirables". Germany used the Olympics to give of itself a peaceful image while it was very actively preparing the war. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid-20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban, also known as Rule 42, is still enforced, but was modified to allow football and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban. Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants. Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli Olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre. A study of US elections has shown that the result of sports events can affect the results. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game before the election, the incumbent candidates can increase their share of the vote by 1.5 percent. A loss had the opposite effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses. Also, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then the incumbent President is more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has become known as the Redskins Rule. Étienne de La Boétie, in his essay "Discourse on Voluntary Servitude" describes athletic spectacles as means for tyrants to control their subjects by distracting them. Do not imagine that there is any bird more easily caught by decoy, nor any fish sooner fixed on the hook by wormy bait, than are all these poor fools neatly tricked into servitude by the slightest feather passed, so to speak, before their mouths. Truly it is a marvelous thing that they let themselves be caught so quickly at the slightest tickling of their fancy. Plays, farces, spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, pictures, and other such opiates, these were for ancient peoples the bait toward slavery, the price of their liberty, the instruments of tyranny. By these practices and enticements the ancient dictators so successfully lulled their subjects under the yoke, that the stupefied peoples, fascinated by the pastimes and vain pleasures flashed before their eyes, learned subservience as naïvely, but not so creditably, as little children learn to read by looking at bright picture books. Sport was an important form of worship in Ancient Greek religion. The ancient Olympic Games, called the Olympiad, were held in honour of the head deity, Zeus, and featured various forms of religious dedication to him and other gods. As many Greeks travelled to see the games, this combination of religion and sport also served as a way of uniting them. The practice of athletic competitions has been criticised by some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in which "human beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves." Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of "collective pride" and "national self-deification" in which feats of human power are idolized at the expense of divine worship. Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting "the entire apparatus of the shows is based upon idolatry." The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament cultivated by the Christian: God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly, and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these things are alone in keeping with the goodness of His nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness.... Well, how shall this be made to accord with the shows? For the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since where there is pleasure, there is keenness of feeling giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of feeling, there is rivalry giving in turn its zest to that. Then, too, where you have rivalry, you have rage, bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which flow from them – the whole entirely out of keeping with the religion of Christ. Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base: Related topics	Sport includes all forms of competitive physical activity or games which, through casual or organized participation, at least in part aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators. Sports can bring positive results to one's physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a "match") is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a "tie" or "draw", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. 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summarize: In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was ("Athênai", in Classical Attic) a plural. In earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as ("Athḗnē"). It was possibly rendered in the plural later on, like those of ("Thêbai") and ("Μukênai"). The root of the word is probably not of Greek or Indo-European origin, and is possibly a remnant of the Pre-Greek substrate of Attica. In antiquity, it was debated whether Athens took its name from its patron goddess Athena (Attic, "Athēnâ", Ionic, "Athḗnē", and Doric, "Athā́nā") or Athena took her name from the city. Modern scholars now generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city, because the ending -"ene" is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. During the medieval period, the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as. However, after the establishment of the modern Greek state, and partly due to the conservatism of the written language, became again the official name of the city and remained so until the abandonment of Katharevousa in the 1970s, when Ἀθήνα, "Athína", became the official name. According The oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist, which has been dated to between the 11th and 7th millennia BC. Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 5,000 years. By 1400 BC the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress, whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls. Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were pure Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years afterwards. Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region. The leading position of Athens may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta. By the 6th century BC, widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon. These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in 508 BC. Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet, and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule. In the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars Athens, together with Sparta, led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians, defeating them decisively at Marathon in 490 BC, and crucially at Salamis in 480 BC. However, this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year, after a heroic but ultimately failed resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians. The decades that followed became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy, during which time Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece, with its cultural achievements laying the foundations for Western civilization. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished in Athens during this time, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates. Athens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the Athens Basin or the Attica Basin (). The basin is bounded by four large mountains: Mount Aigaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Pentelicus to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east. Beyond Mount Aegaleo lies the Thriasian plain, which forms an extension of the central plain to the west. The Saronic Gulf lies to the southwest. Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains (), and has been declared a national park. Athens is built around a number of hills. Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin. The meteorology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon which, along with the Greek Government's difficulties controlling industrial pollution, was responsible for the air pollution problems the city has faced. This issue is not unique to Athens; for instance, Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer from similar atmospheric inversion problems. The Cephissus river, the Ilisos and the Eridanos stream are the historical rivers of Athens. By the late 1970s, the pollution of Athens had become so destructive that according to the then Greek Minister of Culture, Constantine Trypanis, "...the carved details on the five the caryatids of the Erechtheum had seriously degenerated, while the face of the horseman on the Parthenon's west side was all but obliterated." A series of measures taken by the authorities of the city throughout the 1990s resulted in the improvement of air quality; the appearance of smog (or "nefos" as the Athenians used to call it) has become less common. Measures taken by the Greek authorities throughout the 1990s have improved the quality of air Athens ranks in the lowest percentage for the risk on frequency and severity of terrorist attacks according to the EU Global Terrorism Database (EIU 2007-2016 calculations). The city also ranked 35th in Digital Security, 21st on Health Security, 29th on Infrastructure Security and 41st on Personal Security globally Athens has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: "Csa"). The dominant feature of Athens' climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall. With an average of of yearly precipitation, rainfall occurs largely between the months of October and April. July and August are the driest months when thunderstorms occur sparsely. Furthermore, some coastal areas of Athens, known as the Athens Riviera have a hot semi-arid climate ("BSh") according to the climate atlas published by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (H.N.M.S). Owing to the rain shadow of the Pindus Mountains, annual precipitation of Athens is lower than most other parts of Greece, especially western Greece. As an example, Ioannina receives around per year, and Agrinio around per year. Daily average highs for July The Municipality of Athens, the City Centre of the Athens Urban Area, is divided into several districts: Omonoia, Syntagma, Exarcheia, Agios Nikolaos, Neapolis, Lykavittos, Lofos Strefi, Lofos Finopoulou, Lofos Filopappou, Pedion Areos, Metaxourgeio, Aghios Kostantinos, Larissa Station, Kerameikos, Psiri, Monastiraki, Gazi, Thission, Kapnikarea, Aghia Irini, Aerides, Anafiotika, Plaka, Acropolis, Pnyka, Parnitha National Park is punctuated by well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves dotting the protected area. Hiking and mountain-biking in all four mountains are popular outdoor activities for residents of the city. The National Garden of Athens was completed in 1840 and is a green refuge of 15.5 hectares in the centre of the Greek capital. It is to be found between the Parliament and Zappeion buildings, the latter of which maintains its own garden of seven hectares. Parts of the City Centre have been redeveloped under a masterplan called the "Unification of Archeological Sites of Athens", which has also gathered funding from the EU to help enhance the project. The landmark Dionysiou Areopagitou Street has been pedestrianised, The Athens Metropolitan Area consists of 58 densely populated municipalities, sprawling around the Municipality of Athens (the City Centre) in virtually all directions. For the Athenians, all the urban municipalities surrounding the City Centre are called suburbs. According to their geographic location in relation to the City of Athens, the suburbs are divided into four zones; the northern suburbs (including Agios Stefanos, Dionysos, Ekali, Nea Erythraia, Kifissia, Kryoneri, Maroussi, Pefki, Lykovrysi, Metamorfosi, Nea Ionia, Nea Filadelfeia, Irakleio, Vrilissia, Melissia, Penteli, Chalandri, Agia Paraskevi, Gerakas, Pallini, Galatsi, Psychiko and Filothei); the southern suburbs (including Alimos, Nea Smyrni, Moschato, Tavros, Agios Ioannis Rentis, Kallithea, Piraeus, Agios Dimitrios, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Lagonisi, Saronida, Argyroupoli, Ilioupoli, Varkiza, Voula, Vari and Vouliagmeni); the eastern suburbs (including Zografou, Dafni, Vyronas, Kaisariani, Cholargos and Papagou); and the western suburbs (including Peristeri, Ilion, Egaleo, Koridallos, Agia Varvara, Keratsini, Perama, Nikaia, Drapetsona, Chaidari, Petroupoli, Agioi Anargyroi, Ano Liosia, Aspropyrgos, Eleusina, Acharnes and The large City Centre () of the Greek capital falls directly within the Municipality of Athens or Athens Municipality ()—also City of Athens. Athens Municipality is the largest in population size in Greece. Piraeus also forms a significant city centre on its own, within the Athens Urban Area and it is the second largest in population size within it, with Peristeri, Kallithea and Kypseli following. The Athens Urban Area (), also known as Urban Area of the Capital (), today consists of 40 municipalities, 35 of which make up what is referred to as the Greater Athens municipalities, located within 4 regional units (North Athens, West Athens, Central Athens, South Athens); and a further 5, which make up the Greater Piraeus municipalities, located within the regional unit of Piraeus as mentioned above. The densely built up urban area of the Greek capital sprawls across throughout the Attica Basin and has a total population of 3,074,160 (in 2011). The Athens Municipality forms the core and center of Greater Athens, which in its The Athens Metropolitan Area (), also commonly known in English as Greater Athens, spans within the Attica region and includes a total of 58 municipalities, which are organized in seven regional units (those outlined above, along with East The Municipality of Athens has an official population of 664,046 people. The four regional units that make up what is referred to as Greater Athens have a combined population of 2,640,701. They together with the regional unit of Piraeus (Greater Piraeus) make up the dense Athens Urban Area which reaches a total population of 3,090,508 inhabitants (in 2011). As Eurostat the FUA of Athens had in 2013 3,828,434 inhabitants, being apparently decreasing compared with the pre-economic crisis date of 2009 (4,164,175) The Athens Metropolitan Area, with an area of and inhabited by 3,753,783 people in 2011, consists of the Athens Urban Area with the addition of the Mycenean Athens in 1600–1100 BC could have reached the size of Tiryns; that would put the population at the range of 10,000–15,000. During the Greek Dark Ages the population of Athens was around 4,000 people. In 700 BC the population grew to 10,000. In 500 BC the area probably contained 200,000 people. During the classical period the city's population is estimated from 150,000–350,000 and up to 610,000 according to Thucydides. When Demetrius of Phalerum conducted a population census in 317 BC the population was 21,000 free citizens, plus 10,000 resident aliens and 400,000 slaves. This suggests a total population of 431,000. This figure is highly suspect because of the lopsided number of slaves and does not include free women and children and resident foreigners: an estimated based on Thucydides is: 40,000 male citizens, 100,000 family members, 70,000 metics (resident foreigners) and 150,000-400,000 slaves. However the numbers would include all of Athenian territory which consisted Athens became the capital of Greece in 1834, following Nafplion, which was the provisional capital from 1829. The municipality (City) of Athens is also the capital of the Attica region. The term "Athens" can refer either to the Municipality of Athens, to Greater Athens, or to the entire Athens Urban Area. Athens is twinned with: Athens is the financial capital of Greece. According to data from 2014, Athens as a metropolitan economic area produced 130 billion US-dollars as GDP in PPP, which consists nearly a half of the production for the whole country. In the list with the strongest economic metropoles of the world Athens was ranked that year 102nd, while the GDP per capita for the same year was 32,000 US-dollars. Athens is one of the major economic centres in south-eastern Europe and is considered as a regional economic power in Europe generally. The port of Piraeus, where big investments by COSCO have already been delivered during the recent decade, the completion of the new Cargo Centre in Thriasion, the expansion of the Athens Metro and the Athens Tram, as well as the projected metropolitan park in Elliniko and other economic projects are the economic landmarks of the upcoming years. Important Greek companies such as Hellenic Aerospace Industry, Mytilineos Holdings, Titan Cement, Hellenic Petroleum, Papadopoulos E.J., Folli Follie, Jumbo S.A., OPAP, and COSMOTE have their headquarters in the metropolitan area of Athens. Multinational companies such as Ericsson, Sony, Siemens, Motorola, Samsung, Microsoft, Novartis, Mondelez, Coca-Cola, etc. have their regional research and development headquarters also there. The banking sector is represented by National Bank of Greece, Alpha Bank, Eurobank, and Piraeus Bank, while the Bank of Greece is also situated in the City Centre. The Athens Stock Exchange, the only in Greece, has been severely hit by the Greek government-debt crisis and the decision of the government to proceed into capital controls during summer 2015. As a whole the economy of Athens and Greece has been severely hit with today's data showing a change from long recession to growth of 1.4% in 2017. Tourism is also a great contributor for the economy of the city, which is considered as one of the top destinations in Europe for city-break tourism and is also the gateway for excursions to the islands or the mainland. Greece attracted 26.5 million visitors in 2015, 30.1 million visitors in 2017 and over 33 million in 2018, making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world, and contributing 18% to the nation's Gross Domestic Product. Athens welcomed more than 5 million tourists in 2018 and 1,4 million of them were "city-breakers" (in 2013 the city-breakers were only 220.000). Athens is serviced by a variety of transportation means, forming the largest mass transit system of Greece. The Athens Mass Transit System consists of a large bus fleet, a trolleybus fleet that mainly serves Athens's city center, the city's Metro, a Proastiakos service and a tram network, connecting the southern suburbs to the City Centre. OSY () (Odikes Sygkoinonies S.A.) which is subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation), is the main operator of buses and trolleybusses in Athens. Its network consists of about 300 bus lines and 22 trolleybus lines which span the Athens Metropolitan Area, with a fleet of 1,839 buses and 366 trolleybuses. Of those 1,839 buses 416 run on compressed natural gas, The Athens Metro is operated by STASY S.A () (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation) and provides public transport throughout the Athens Urban Area. While its main purpose is transport, it also houses Greek artifacts found during construction of the system. The Athens Metro has an operating staff of 387 and runs three metro lines, namely the line 1 (Green Line), line 2 (Red Line) and line 3 (Blue Line) lines, of which the first was constructed in 1869, and the other two largely during the 1990s, with the initial new sections opened in January 2000. Line 1 mostly runs at ground level and the other two (Line 2 & 3) routes run entirely underground. A fleet of 42 trains, using 252 carriages, operates on the network, with a daily occupancy of 1,353,000 passengers. The "line 1" (Green Line) serves 24 stations, and is the oldest line of the Athens metro network. It runs from Piraeus station to Kifissia station and covers a distance of 25.6-kilometre (15.9 The Athens commuter rail service, referred to as the "Proastiakós", connects Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport to the city of Kiato, west of Athens tram is operated by STASY S.A (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation). It has a fleet of 35 Sirio type vehicles which serve 48 stations, employ 345 people with an average daily occupancy of 65,000 passengers. The tram network spans a total length of and covers ten Athenian Athens is served by the Athens International Airport (ATH), located near the town of Spata, in the eastern Messoghia plain, some east of center of Athens. The airport, awarded the "European Airport of the Year 2004" Award, is intended as an expandable hub for air travel in southeastern Europe and was constructed in 51 months, costing 2.2 billion euros. It employs a staff of 14,000. The airport is served by the Metro, the suburban rail, buses to Piraeus port, Athens' City Athens is the hub of the country's national railway system (OSE), connecting the capital with major cities across Greece and abroad (Istanbul, Sofia, Belgrade and Bucharest). The Port of Piraeus is the largest port in Greece and one of the largest in Europe. It is the largest container port in East Two main motorways of Greece begin in Athens, namely the A1/E75, heading north towards Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki; and the border crossing of Evzones and the A8/E94 heading west, towards Greece's third largest city, Patras, which incorporated the GR-8A. Before their completion much of the road traffic used the GR-1 and the GR-8. Athens' Metropolitan Area is served by the motorway network of the Attiki Odos toll-motorway (code: A6). Its main section extends from the western industrial suburb of Elefsina to Athens International Airport; while two beltways, namely the Aigaleo Beltway (A65) and the Hymettus Beltway (A64) serve parts of western and eastern Athens respectively. The span of the Attiki Odos in all its length is, making it the largest metropolitan motorway network in all of Greece. Located on Panepistimiou Street, the old campus of the University of Athens, the National Library, and the Athens Academy form the "Athens Trilogy" built in the mid-19th century. Most of the university's workings have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of Zografou. The second higher education institution in the city is the Athens Polytechnic School, found in Patission Street. This was the location where on 17 November 1973, more than 13 students were killed and hundreds injured inside the university during the Athens Polytechnic uprising, against the military junta that ruled the nation from 21 April 1967 until 23 July 1974. The city is a world centre of archaeological research. Along with national institutions, such as the Athens University and the Archaeological Society, there are multiple archaeological Museums including the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine & Christian Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos, and the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum. The city is also home to Athens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco-Roman and Neoclassical to modern times. They are often to be found in the same areas, as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style. A visitor will quickly notice the absence of tall buildings: Athens has very strict height restriction laws in order to ensure the Acropolis hill is visible throughout the city. For the greatest part of the 19th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens, as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism, especially in the early 20th century. Thus, the Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later in the mid and late 19th century, Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings All over the city can be found several statues or busts. Apart from the neoclassicals by Leonidas Drosis at the Academy of Athens (Plato, Socrates, Apollo, Athena), other notable include the statue of Theseus by Georgios Fytalis at Thiseion, of philhellenes like Lord Byron, George Canning and William Gladstone, the equestrian statue Athens' most Athens has been a destination for travellers since antiquity. Over the past decade, the city's infrastructure and social amenities have improved, in part because of its successful bid to stage the 2004 Olympic Games. The Greek Athens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the ancient Odeon of Herodes Atticus, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year. In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to open air garden cinemas. The city also supports music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall ("Megaro Moussikis"), which attracts world class artists. The Athens Planetarium, located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, in Palaio Faliro is one of the largest and best equipped digital planetaria in the world. The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, inaugurated in 2016, will house the National Library of Greece and the Greek National Opera. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades (Αθηναϊκές καντάδες), based on the Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theatre scene. Notable composers of operettas or nocturnes were Kostas Giannidis, Dionysios Lavrangas, Nikos Hatziapostolou, while Theophrastos Sakellaridis' "The Godson" remains probably the most popular operetta. Despite the fact that the Athenian songs were not autonomous artistic creations (in contrast with the serenades) and despite their original connection with mainly dramatic forms of Art, they eventually became hits as independent songs. Notable actors of Greek operettas, who made also a series of melodies Athens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, serving as home to the most important clubs in Greek sport and housing a large number of sports facilities. The city has also been host to sports events of international importance. Athens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics required the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has since gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadiums in the world, and one of its most interesting modern monuments. The biggest stadium in the country, it hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. Athens' other major stadium, located in the Piraeus area, is the Karaiskakis Stadium, a sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. Athens has hosted the EuroLeague final three times, the first in 1985 and second in 1993, both at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, a large Beside the above clubs, inside the boundaries of Athens Municipality there are some more clubs with presence in national divisions or notable action for short periods. Some of them are PAO Rouf (Rouf) with earlier presence in Gamma Ethniki, Petralona F.C.() (Petralona), football club founded in 1963, with earlier presence in Beta	Athens ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city in Greece. 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summarize: Triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides: Hatch marks, also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles and other geometric figures to identify sides of equal lengths. A side can be marked with a pattern of "ticks", short line segments in the form of tally marks; two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern. In a Triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees. A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has Triangles are assumed to be two-dimensional plane figures, unless the context provides otherwise (see Non-planar triangles, below). In rigorous treatments, a triangle is therefore called a "2-simplex" (see also Polytope). Elementary facts about triangles were presented by Euclid in books 1–4 of his "Elements", around 300 BC. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle in Euclidean space is always 180 degrees. This fact is equivalent to Euclid's parallel postulate. This allows determination of the measure of the third angle of any triangle given the measure of two angles. An "exterior angle" of a triangle is an angle that is a linear pair (and hence supplementary) to an interior angle. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles that are not adjacent to it; this is the exterior angle theorem. The sum of the measures of the three exterior angles (one for each vertex) of any triangle is 360 degrees. Two triangles are said to be "similar" if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle. The corresponding sides of similar triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion, and this property is also sufficient to establish similarity. Some basic theorems about similar triangles are: Two triangles that are congruent have exactly A central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem, which states in any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other sides. If the hypotenuse has length "c", and the legs have lengths The triangle inequality states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than or equal to the length of the third side. That sum can equal the length Three given angles form a non-degenerate triangle (and indeed an infinitude of them) if and only if both of these conditions hold: (a) each of the angles is positive, and (b) the angles sum to 180°. If degenerate triangles are permitted, angles of 0° are permitted. Three positive angles "α", "β", and "γ", each of them less than 180°, are the angles of a triangle if and only if any one of the following conditions holds: the last equality applying only if none of the angles is 90° (so the tangent function's value is always finite). There are thousands of different constructions that find a special point associated with (and often inside) a triangle, satisfying some unique property: see the article Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers for a catalogue of them. Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva's theorem, which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent. Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear: here Menelaus' theorem gives a useful general criterion. In this section just a few of the most commonly encountered constructions are explained. A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of the side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter, usually denoted by O; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. The diameter of this circle, called the "circumdiameter", can be found from the law of sines stated above. The circumcircle's radius is called the "circumradius". Thales' theorem implies that if the circumcenter is located on a side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse. An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the "base" of the altitude, and the There are various standard methods for calculating the length of a side or the measure of an angle. Certain methods are suited to calculating values in a right-angled triangle; more complex methods may be required in other situations. In right triangles, the trigonometric ratios of sine, cosine and tangent can be used to find unknown angles and the lengths of unknown sides. The sides of the triangle are known as follows: The "sine" of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case This ratio does not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, as long as it contains the angle "A", since The inverse trigonometric functions can be used to calculate the internal angles for a right angled triangle with the length of any two sides. Arcsin can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the hypotenuse. Arccos can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypotenuse. Arctan can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the adjacent side. In introductory geometry and trigonometry courses, the notation sin, cos, etc., are often used in place of arcsin, arccos, etc. However, the arcsin, arccos, etc., notation is standard in higher mathematics where trigonometric functions are commonly raised to powers, as this avoids confusion between multiplicative inverse and compositional inverse. The law of sines, or sine rule, states that the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of its corresponding opposite angle is constant, that is This ratio is equal to the diameter of the circumscribed circle of the given triangle. Another interpretation of this theorem is that every triangle with angles α, β and γ is similar to a triangle with side lengths equal to sin α, sin β and sin γ. This triangle can be constructed by first constructing a circle of diameter 1, and inscribing in it two of the angles of the triangle. The length of the sides of that triangle will be sin α, sin "Solution of triangles" is the main trigonometric problem: to find missing characteristics of a triangle (three angles, the lengths of the three sides etc.) Calculating the area "T" of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations. The best known and simplest formula is: where "b" is the length of the base of the triangle, and "h" is the height or altitude of the triangle. The term "base" denotes any side, and "height" denotes the length of a perpendicular from the vertex opposite the base onto the line containing the base. In 499 CE Aryabhata, used this illustrated method in the "Aryabhatiya" (section 2.6). Although simple, this formula is only useful if the height can be readily found, which is not always the case. For example, the surveyor of a triangular field might find it relatively easy to measure the length of each side, but relatively difficult to construct a 'height'. Various methods may be used in practice, depending on what is known about the triangle. The following is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle. The height of a triangle can be found through the application of trigonometry. "Knowing SAS": Using the labels in the image on the right, the altitude is. Substituting this in the formula formula_26 derived above, the area of the triangle can be expressed as: (where α is The shape of the triangle is determined by the lengths of the sides. Therefore, the area can also be derived The area of a parallelogram embedded in a three-dimensional Euclidean space can be calculated using vectors. Let vectors AB and AC point respectively from "A" to "B" and from "A" to "C". The area of parallelogram "ABDC" is then which is If vertex "A" is located at the origin (0, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system and the coordinates of the other two vertices are given by and, then the area can be computed as times the absolute value of the determinant For three general vertices, the equation is: which can be written as If the points are labeled sequentially in the counterclockwise direction, the above determinant The area within any closed curve, such as a triangle, is given by the line integral around the curve of the algebraic or signed distance of a point on the curve from an arbitrary oriented straight line "L". Points to the right of "L" as oriented are taken to be at negative distance from "L", while the weight for the integral is taken to be the component of arc length parallel to "L" rather than arc length itself. This method is well suited to computation of the area of an arbitrary polygon. Taking "L" to be the "x"-axis, the line integral between consecutive vertices ("x","y") and ("x","y") is given by the base times the mean height, namely. The sign of the area is an overall indicator of the direction of traversal, with negative area indicating counterclockwise Three formulas have the same structure as Heron's formula but are expressed in terms of different variables. First, denoting the medians from sides "a", "b", and "c" respectively as "m", "m", and "m" and their semi-sum as σ, See Pick's theorem for a technique for finding the area of any arbitrary lattice polygon (one drawn on a grid with vertically and horizontally adjacent lattice Numerous other area formulas exist, such as where "r" is the inradius, and "s" is the semiperimeter (in fact, this formula holds for "all" tangential polygons), and where formula_59 are the radii of the excircles tangent to The area "T" of any triangle with perimeter "p" satisfies with equality holding if and only if the There are infinitely many lines that bisect the area of a triangle. Three of them are the medians, which are the only area bisectors that go through the centroid. Three The formulas in this section are true for all Euclidean triangles. The medians and the sides are related by and and equivalently for "m" and "m". For angle A opposite side "a", the length of the internal angle bisector is given by The following formulas involve the circumradius "R" and the inradius "r": where "h" etc. are the altitudes to Suppose two adjacent but non-overlapping triangles share the same side of length "f" and share the same circumcircle, so that the side of length "f" Let "G" be the centroid of a triangle with vertices "A", "B", and "C", and let "P" be any interior point. Then the distances between the points are related by The sum Carnot's theorem states that the sum of the distances from the circumcenter to the three sides equals the sum of the circumradius and the inradius. Here a segment's length is considered to be negative if and only if the segment lies entirely outside the triangle. This method is especially useful for deducing the properties of more abstract forms of triangles, such as the ones induced by Lie algebras, that otherwise have the same properties as usual triangles. Euler's theorem states that the distance "d" between In addition to the law of sines, the law of Morley's trisector theorem states that in any triangle, the three As discussed above, every triangle has a unique inscribed circle (incircle) that is interior to the triangle and tangent to all three sides. Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse which is interior to the triangle and tangent at the midpoints of the sides. Marden's Every convex polygon with area "T" can be inscribed in The Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon with vertices given by the six intersections of the sides of a triangle with the three lines that Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two "distinct" inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of From an interior point in a reference triangle, the nearest points on the three sides serve as the vertices of the pedal triangle of that point. If the interior point is the circumcenter of the reference triangle, the vertices of the pedal triangle are the midpoints of the reference triangle's sides, and so the The tangential triangle of a reference triangle (other than a right triangle) is the triangle whose sides are on the tangent lines to the reference triangle's circumcircle at its vertices. As mentioned above, every triangle has a unique circumcircle, a circle passing through all three vertices, whose center is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of One way to identify locations of points in (or outside) a triangle is to place the triangle in an arbitrary location and orientation in the Cartesian plane, and to use Cartesian coordinates. While convenient for many purposes, this approach has the A non-planar triangle is a triangle which is not contained in a (flat) plane. Some examples of non-planar triangles in non-Euclidean geometries are spherical triangles in spherical geometry and hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry. While the measures of the internal angles in planar triangles always sum to 180°, a hyperbolic triangle has measures of angles that sum to less than 180°, and a spherical triangle has measures of angles that sum to more than 180°. A hyperbolic triangle can be obtained by drawing on a negatively curved surface, such as a saddle surface, and a spherical triangle can be obtained by drawing on a positively curved surface such as a sphere. Thus, if one draws a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one will find that the sum of the measures of its angles is greater than 180°; in fact it will be between 180° and 540°. In particular it is possible to draw a triangle on a sphere such that the measure of each of its internal angles is equal to 90°, adding Rectangles have been the most popular and common geometric form for buildings since the shape is easy to stack and organize; as a standard, it is easy to design furniture and fixtures to fit inside rectangularly shaped buildings. But triangles, while more difficult to use conceptually, provide a great deal of strength. As computer technology helps architects design creative new buildings, triangular shapes are becoming increasingly prevalent as parts of buildings and as the primary shape for some types of skyscrapers as well as building materials. In Tokyo in 1989, architects had wondered whether it was possible to build a 500-story tower to provide affordable office space for this densely packed city, but with the danger to buildings from earthquakes, architects considered that a triangular shape would be necessary if such a building were to be built. In New York City, as Broadway crisscrosses major avenues, the resulting blocks are cut like triangles, and buildings have been built on these shapes; one such building is the triangularly shaped Flatiron Building which real estate people admit has a "warren of awkward spaces that do not easily accommodate modern office furniture" but that has not prevented the structure from becoming a landmark icon. Designers have made houses in Norway using triangular themes. Triangle shapes have appeared in churches as well as public buildings including colleges as well as supports for innovative home designs. Triangles are sturdy; while a rectangle can collapse into a parallelogram from pressure to one of its points, triangles have a natural strength which supports structures against lateral pressures. A triangle will not change shape unless its sides are bent or extended or broken or if its joints break; in essence, each of the three sides supports the other two. A rectangle, in contrast, is more dependent on the strength of its joints in a structural sense. Some innovative designers have proposed making bricks not out of rectangles, but with triangular shapes which can be combined in three dimensions. It is likely that triangles will be used increasingly in new ways as architecture increases in complexity. It is important to remember that triangles are strong in terms of rigidity, but while packed in a tessellating arrangement triangles are not as strong as hexagons under compression (hence the prevalence of hexagonal forms in nature). Tessellated triangles still maintain superior strength for cantilevering however, and this is the basis for one of the strongest man made structures, the tetrahedral truss.	A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry. 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summarize: Berlin lies in northeastern Germany, east of the River Elbe, that once constituted, together with the River (Saxon or Thuringian) Saale (from their confluence at Barby onwards), the eastern border of the Frankish Realm. While the Frankish Realm was primarily inhabited by Germanic tribes like the Franks and the Saxons, the regions east of the border rivers were inhabited by Slavic tribes. This is why most of the cities and villages in northeastern Germany bear Slavic-derived names (Germania Slavica). Typical Germanised place name suffixes of Slavic origin are "-ow", "-itz", "-vitz", "-witz", "-itzsch" and The earliest evidence of settlements in the area of today's Berlin are remnants of a house foundation dated to 1174, found in excavations in Berlin Mitte, and a wooden beam dated from approximately 1192. The first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920. The central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document, and Berlin, across the Spree in what is now called the Nikolaiviertel, is referenced in a document from 1244. 1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the staple right on the The Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648 devastated Berlin. One third of its houses were damaged or destroyed, and the city lost half of its population. Frederick William, known as the "Great Elector", who had succeeded his father George William as ruler in 1640, initiated a policy of promoting immigration and religious tolerance. With the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William offered asylum to the French Huguenots. By 1700, approximately 30 percent of Berlin's residents were French, because of the Huguenot immigration. Many other immigrants came from Bohemia, Poland, and Salzburg. Since 1618, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had been in personal union with the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the dual state formed the Kingdom of Prussia, as Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, crowned himself as king Frederick I in Prussia. Berlin became the In the early 20th century, Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of the First World War in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from. The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned centre of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, technology, arts, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded Berlin is in northeastern Germany, in an area of low-lying marshy woodlands with a mainly flat topography, part of the vast Northern European Plain which stretches all the way from northern France to western Russia. The "Berliner Urstromtal" (an ice age glacial valley), between the low Barnim Plateau to the north and the Teltow plateau to the south, was formed by meltwater flowing from ice sheets at the end of the last Weichselian glaciation. The Spree follows this valley now. In Spandau, a borough in the west of Berlin, the Spree empties into the river Havel, which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is more Berlin has an oceanic climate – (Köppen: "Cfb"), the eastern part of the city has a slight continental influence ("Dfb"), especially in the 0 °C isotherm, one of the changes being the annual rainfall according to the air masses and the greater abundance during a period of the year. This type of climate features moderate summer temperatures but sometimes hot (for being semicontinental) and cold winters but not rigorous most of the time. Due to its transitional climate zones, frosts are common in winter and there are larger temperature differences between seasons than typical for many oceanic climates. Furthermore, Berlin is classified as a temperate continental climate ("Dc") under the Trewartha climate scheme, as well as the suburbs of New York City, although the Berlin's history has left the city with a polycentric organization and a highly eclectic array of architecture and buildings. The city's appearance today is predominantly shaped by the key role it played in Germany's history in the 20th century. Each of the national governments based in Berlin the Kingdom of Prussia, the 2nd German Empire of 1871, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany, East Germany, and now the reunified Germany initiated ambitious reconstruction programs, with each adding its own distinctive style to the city's architecture. Berlin was devastated by bombing raids, fires and street battles during World War II, and many of the buildings that remained after the war were demolished in the The Fernsehturm (TV tower) at Alexanderplatz in Mitte is among the tallest structures in the European Union at. Built in 1969, it is visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin. The city can be viewed from its high observation floor. Starting here the Karl-Marx-Allee heads east, an avenue lined by monumental residential buildings, designed in the Socialist Classicism style. Adjacent to this area is the Rotes Rathaus (City Hall), with its distinctive red-brick architecture. In front of it is the Neptunbrunnen, a fountain featuring a mythological group of Tritons, personifications of the four main Prussian rivers and Neptune on top of it. The Brandenburg Gate is an iconic landmark of Berlin and Germany; it stands as a symbol of eventful European history and of unity and peace. The Reichstag building is the traditional seat of the At the end of 2018, the city-state of Berlin had 3.75 million registered inhabitants in an area of. The city's population density was 4,206 inhabitants per km. Berlin is the most populous city proper in the EU. The urban area of Berlin had about 4.1 million people in 2014 in an area of, making it the sixth most populous urban area in the European Union. The urban agglomeration of the metropolis was home to about 4.5 million in an area of. the functional urban area was home to about 5.2 million people in an area of approximately. The entire Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has a population of more than 6 million in an area of. In 2014, the city state Berlin had 37,368 live births (+6.6%), a record number since 1991. The number of deaths was 32,314. Almost 2.0 million households were counted in the city. 54 percent of them were single-person households. More than 337,000 families with children under the age of 18 lived in Berlin. In 2014 the German capital registered a migration surplus of approximately 40,000 people. National and international migration into the city has a long history. In 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France, the city responded with the Edict of Potsdam, which guaranteed religious freedom and tax-free status to French Huguenot refugees for ten years. The Greater Berlin Act in 1920 incorporated many suburbs and surrounding cities of Berlin. It formed most of the territory that comprises modern Berlin and increased the population from 1.9 million to 4 million. Active immigration and asylum politics in West Berlin triggered waves of immigration in the 1960s and 1970s. Berlin is home to at least 180,000 Turkish and Turkish German residents, making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey. In the 1990s the "Aussiedlergesetze" enabled immigration to Germany of some German is the official and predominant spoken language in Berlin. It is a West Germanic language that derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. German is one of 24 languages of the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission. Berlinerisch or Berlinisch is not a dialect linguistically, but has features of Lausitzisch-neumärkisch According to the 2011 census, approximately 37 percent of the population reported being members of a legally-recognized church or religious organization. The rest either did not belong to such an organization, or there was no information available about them. The largest religious denomination recorded in 2010 was the Protestant regional church body – the Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia (EKBO) – a United church. EKBO is a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) and Union Evangelischer Kirchen (UEK). According to the EKBO, their membership accounted for 18.7 percent of the local population, while the Roman Catholic Church had 9.1 percent of residents registered as its members. About 2.7% of the population identify with other Christian denominations (mostly Eastern Orthodox, but also various Protestants). According to the Berlin residents register, in 2018 14.9 percent were members of the Evangelical Church, and 8.5 percent were members of the Catholic Church. The government keeps a register of members of these churches for tax purposes, because it collects church tax on behalf of the churches. It does not keep records of members of Since the reunification on 3 October 1990, Berlin has been one of the three city states in Germany among the present 16 states of Germany. The House of Representatives ("Abgeordnetenhaus") functions as the city and state parliament, which currently has 141 seats. Berlin's executive body is the Senate of Berlin ("Senat von Berlin"). The Senate consists of the Governing Mayor ("Regierender Bürgermeister") and up to eight senators holding ministerial positions, one of them holding the title of "Mayor" ("Bürgermeister") as deputy to the Governing Mayor. The total annual state budget of Berlin in 2015 exceeded €24.5 ($30.0) billion Berlin is subdivided into 12 boroughs or districts ("Bezirke"). Each borough has a number of subdistricts or neighborhoods ("Ortsteile"), which have roots in much older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on 1 October 1920. These subdistricts became urbanized and incorporated into the city later on. Many residents strongly identify with their neighbourhoods, colloquially called "Kiez". At present, Berlin Berlin maintains official partnerships with 17 cities. Town twinning between Berlin and other cities began with its sister city Los Angeles in 1967. East Berlin's partnerships were canceled at the time of German reunification but later partially reestablished. West Berlin's partnerships had previously been restricted to the borough level. During the Cold War era, the partnerships had reflected the different power blocs, with West Berlin partnering with capitals in the Western World, and East Berlin mostly partnering Berlin is the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. The President of Germany, whose functions are mainly ceremonial under the German constitution, has their official residence in Bellevue Palace. Berlin is the seat of the German Chancellor (Prime Minister), housed in the Chancellery building, the "Bundeskanzleramt". Facing the Chancellery is the Bundestag, the German Parliament, housed in the renovated Reichstag building since the government's relocation to Berlin in 1998. The Bundesrat ("federal council", performing the function of an upper house) is the representation of the federal states ("Bundesländer") of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian House of Lords. The total annual federal budget managed by the German government exceeded €310 ($375) billion in In 2018, the GDP of Berlin totaled €147 billion, an increase of 3.1% over the previous year. Berlin's economy is dominated by the service sector, with around 84% of all companies doing business in services. In 2015, the total labour force in Berlin was 1.85 million. The unemployment rate reached a 24-year low in November 2015 and stood at 10.0%. From 2012 to 2015 Berlin, as a German state, had the highest annual employment growth rate. Around 130,000 jobs were added in this period. Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering. Research and development have economic significance for the city. Several major corporations like Volkswagen, Pfizer, and SAP operate innovation laboratories in the city. The Science and Business Park in Adlershof is the largest technology park in Germany measured by revenue. Within the Eurozone, Berlin has become a center for business relocation and international investments. Many German and international companies have business or service centers in the city. For several years Berlin has been recognized as a major center of business founders. In 2015 Berlin generated the most venture capital for young startup companies in Europe. Among the 10 largest employers in Berlin are the City-State of Berlin, Deutsche Bahn, the hospital providers Charité and Vivantes, the Federal Government of Germany, the local public transport provider Berlin had 788 hotels with 134,399 beds in 2014. The city recorded 28.7 million overnight hotel stays and 11.9 million hotel guests in 2014. Tourism figures have more than doubled within the last ten years and Berlin has become the third most-visited city destination in Europe. Some of the most visited places in Berlin include: Potsdamer Platz, Brandenburger Tor, the Berlin wall, Alexanderplatz, Museumsinsel, Fernsehturm, the East-Side Gallery, Schloss-Charlottenburg, Zoologischer Garten, Siegessäule, Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer, Mauerpark, Botanical Garden, Französischer Dom, Deutscher Dom and Holocaust-Mahnmal. The largest visitor groups are from Germany, the United Kingdom, the The creative arts and entertainment business is an important part of Berlin's economy. The sector comprises music, film, advertising, architecture, art, design, fashion, performing arts, publishing, R&D, software, TV, radio, and video games. In 2014, around 30,500 creative companies operated in the Berlin-Brandenburg metropolitan region, predominantly SMEs. Generating a revenue of 15.6 billion Euro and 6% of all private economic sales, the Berlin is home to many magazine, newspaper, book and scientific/academic publishers, as well as their associated service industries. In addition around 20 news agencies, more than 90 regional daily newspapers and their websites, as well as the Berlin offices of more than 22 national publications such as Der Spiegel, and Die Zeit re-enforce the capital's position as Germany's epicenter for influential debate. Therefore, many international journalists, bloggers and writers live and work in the city. Berlin is the central location to several international and regional television and radio stations. The public broadcaster RBB has its According to Mercer, Berlin ranked number 13 in the Quality of living city ranking in 2019. According to Monocle, Berlin occupies the position of the 6th most livable city in the world. Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Berlin number 21 of all global cities. Berlin's transport infrastructure is highly complex, providing a diverse range of urban mobility. A total of 979 bridges cross of inner-city waterways. of roads run through Berlin, of which are motorways (). In 2013, 1.344 million motor vehicles Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighboring European countries. Regional rail lines of the provide access to the surrounding regions of Brandenburg and Similarly to other German cities, there is an increasing quantity of intercity bus services. The (BVG) and the (DB) manage several extensive urban Berlin has two commercial international airports. Airport (TXL) is within the city limits, and Airport (SXF) is just outside Berlin's south-eastern border, in the state of Brandenburg. Both airports together handled 29.5 million passengers in 2015. In 2014, 67 airlines served 163 destinations in 50 countries from Berlin. Airport is a focus city for Lufthansa and Eurowings. Schönefeld serves as an important Berlin is well known for its highly developed bicycle lane system. It is estimated Berlin has 710 bicycles per 1000 residents. Around 500,000 daily bike riders accounted for 13% of total traffic in 2010. Cyclists have access to of bicycle paths including From 1865 until 1976 Berlin had an extensive pneumatic postal network, which at its peak in 1940, totalled 400 kilometres length. After 1949 the system was split in two separated networks. The West Berlin system in operation and open for public use until 1963, and for government use until 1972. The East Berlin system which inherited the "Hauptelegraphenamt", the central hub of the system, was in operation until 1976 Berlin's two largest energy provider for private households are the Swedish firm Vattenfall and the Berlin-based company GASAG. Both offer electric power and natural gas supply. Some of the city's electric energy is imported from nearby power plants in southern Brandenburg. Berlin has a long history of discoveries in medicine and innovations in medical technology. The modern history of medicine has been significantly influenced by scientists from Berlin. Rudolf Virchow was the founder of cellular pathology, while Robert Koch developed vaccines for anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis. The Charité complex (Universitätsklinik Charité) is the largest university hospital in Europe, tracing back its origins to the year 1710. The Charité is spread over four sites and Since 2017, the digital television standard in Berlin and Germany is DVB-T2. This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream. Berlin has installed several hundred free public Wireless LAN sites across the capital since 2016. The wireless networks are concentrated mostly in central districts; 650 hotspots (325 indoor and 325 , Berlin had 878 schools, teaching 340,658 children in 13,727 classes and 56,787 trainees in businesses and elsewhere. The city has a 6-year primary education program. After completing primary school, students continue to the (a comprehensive school) or (college preparatory school). Berlin has a special bilingual school program in the, in which children are taught the curriculum in German and a foreign language, starting in primary school and continuing in high school. The Französisches Gymnasium Berlin, which was founded in 1689 to teach the children of Huguenot refugees, offers (German/French) instruction. The John F. Kennedy School, a bilingual German–American public school in Zehlendorf, is particularly popular with children of diplomats and the English-speaking expatriate community. 82 teach Latin and 8 teach Classical Greek. The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region is one of the most prolific centres of higher education and research in Germany and Europe. Historically, 40 Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the Berlin-based universities. The city has four public research universities and more than 30 private, professional, and technical colleges "(Hochschulen)", offering a wide range of disciplines. A record number of 175,651 students were enrolled in the winter term of 2015/16. Among them around The city has a high density of internationally renowned research institutions, such as the Fraunhofer Society, the Leibniz Association, the Helmholtz Association, and the Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities. In 2012, around 65,000 professional scientists were working in research and development in the city. Berlin is one of the knowledge and innovation communities (KIC) of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). The Berlin is known for its numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation. The diversity and vivacity of the metropolis led to a trendsetting atmosphere. An innovative music, dance and art scene has developed in the 21st century. Young people, international artists and entrepreneurs continued to settle in the city and made Berlin a popular entertainment center in the world. The expanding cultural performance of the city was underscored by the relocation of the Universal Music Group who decided to move their headquarters to the banks of the River Spree. In 2005, Berlin was named "City of Design" by UNESCO and has been part of the Creative Cities Network ever since. Berlin is home to 138 museums and more than 400 art galleries. Apart from the Museum Island, there are many additional museums in the city. The Gemäldegalerie (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the "old masters" from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the Neue Nationalgalerie (New National Gallery, built by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) specializes in 20th-century European painting. The Hamburger Bahnhof, in Moabit, exhibits a major collection of modern and contemporary art. The expanded Deutsches Historisches Museum re-opened in the Zeughaus with an overview of German history spanning more than a millennium. The Bauhaus Archive is a museum of 20th century design from the famous Bauhaus school. Museum Berggruen houses the collection of noted 20th century collector Heinz Berggruen, and features an extensive assortment of works by Picasso, Matisse, Cézanne, and Giacometti, among others. The Jewish Museum has a standing exhibition on two millennia of German-Jewish history. The German Museum of Technology in Kreuzberg has a large collection of historical technical artifacts. The "Museum für Naturkunde" (Berlin's natural history museum) exhibits natural history near Berlin Berlin's nightlife has been celebrated as one of the most diverse and vibrant of its kind. In the 1970s and 80s the SO36 in Kreuzberg was a centre for punk music and culture. The "SOUND" and the "Dschungel" gained notoriety. Throughout the 1990s, people in their 20s from all over the world, particularly those in Western and Central Europe, made Berlin's club scene a premier nightlife venue. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and became a fertile ground for underground and counterculture gatherings. The central boroughs are home to many nightclubs, including the Watergate, Tresor and Berghain. The KitKatClub and several other locations are known for their sexually uninhibited parties. Clubs are not required to close at a fixed time during the weekends, and many parties last well into the morning, or even all weekend. The "Weekend Club" near Alexanderplatz features a roof terrace that allows partying at night. Several venues have become a popular stage for the Neo-Burlesque scene. Berlin has a long Berlin is home to 44 theaters and stages. The Deutsches Theater in Mitte was built in 1849–50 and has operated almost continuously since then. The Volksbühne at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz was built in 1913–14, though the company had been founded in 1890. The Berliner Ensemble, famous for performing the works of Bertolt Brecht, was established in 1949. The Schaubühne was founded in 1962 and moved to the building of the former Universum Cinema on Kurfürstendamm in 1981. With a seating capacity of 1,895 and a stage floor of, the Friedrichstadt-Palast in Berlin Mitte is the largest show palace in Europe. Berlin has three major opera houses: the Deutsche Oper, the Berlin State Opera, and the Komische Oper. The Berlin State Opera on Unter den Linden opened in 1742 and is The cuisine and culinary offerings of Berlin vary greatly. Twelve restaurants in Berlin have been included in the Michelin Guide of 2015, which ranks the city at the top for the number of restaurants having this distinction in Germany. Berlin is well known for its offerings of vegetarian and vegan cuisine and is home to an innovative entrepreneurial food scene promoting cosmopolitan flavors, local and sustainable ingredients, pop-up street food markets, supper clubs, as well as food festivals, such as Berlin Food Week. Many local foods originated from north German culinary traditions and include rustic and hearty dishes with pork, goose, fish, peas, beans, cucumbers, or potatoes. Typical Zoologischer Garten Berlin, the older of two zoos in the city, was founded in 1844. It is the most visited zoo in Europe and presents the most diverse range of species in the world. It was the home of the captive-born celebrity polar bear Knut. The city's other zoo, Tierpark Friedrichsfelde, was founded in 1955. Berlin's Botanischer Garten includes the Botanic Museum Berlin. With an area of and around 22,000 different plant species, it is one of the largest and most diverse collections of botanical life in the world. Other gardens in the city include the Britzer Garten, and the Gärten der Welt (Gardens of the World) in Marzahn. The Tiergarten park in Mitte, with landscape Berlin has established a high-profile as a host city of major international sporting events. The city hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics and was the host city for the 2006 FIFA World Cup final. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics was held in the Olympiastadion in 2009. The city hosted the Basketball Euroleague Final Four in 2009 and 2016. and was one of the hosts of the FIBA EuroBasket 2015. In 2015 Berlin became the venue for the UEFA Champions League Final. Berlin will host the 2023 Special Olympics World Summer Games. This will be the first time Germany has ever hosted the Special Olympics World Games. The annual Berlin Marathon a course that holds the most top-10 world record runs and the ISTAF are well-established athletic events in the city. The Mellowpark in Köpenick is one of the biggest skate and BMX parks in Europe. A Fan Fest at Brandenburg Gate, which attracts several hundred-thousand spectators, has become popular during international football competitions, like the UEFA European Championship. In 2013 around 600,000 Berliners were registered in one of the more than 2,300 sport and fitness clubs. The city of Berlin operates more than 60 public indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Berlin is the largest Olympic training centre in Germany. About 500 top athletes (15% of all German top athletes) are based there. Forty-seven elite athletes participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Berliners would achieve seven gold, twelve silver and three bronze medals. Several professional clubs representing the most important spectator team sports in Germany have their base in Berlin. The oldest and most popular division-1 team based in Berlin is the football club Hertha BSC. The team represented Berlin as a founding member of the Bundesliga, Germany's highest football league, in 1963. Other professional team sport clubs include:	Berlin (; ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3,769,495 (2019) inhabitants make it the most populous city proper of the European Union. The city is one of Germany's 16 federal states. It is surrounded by the state of Brandenburg, and contiguous with Potsdam, Brandenburg's capital. The two cities are at the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg capital region, which is, with about six million inhabitants and an area of more than 30,000 km2, Germany's third-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-Main regions.	en	en	107	[ 250004, 250054, 10271, 400, 90, 23, 144477, 13, 11, 48850, 102126, 4, 28, 4438, 111, 70, 32547, 540, 372, 4, 450, 24145, 11764, 3674, 4, 25842, 678, 70, 32547, 15, 5464, 27012, 707, 12613, 2852, 3378, 16, 947, 1935, 15, 161063, 2363, 158, 18026, 6620, 99, 3253, 1272, 98, 19364, 7, 247, 70, 8394, 48850, 132988, 111, 70, 17819, 4745, 5120, 39, 5, 51404, 70, 17819, 4745, 5120, 39, 509, 102917, 538, 23, 54815, 3674, 390, 30839, 1771, 109120, 90, 1884, 70, 17819, 7, 136, 70, 105459, 5245, 4, 70, 10776, 7, 28, 4438, 111, 70, 132988, 96113, 7, 3542, 23, 54815, 3674, 390, 187414, 238, 109120, 90, 5, 3293, 83, 15400, 2684, 111, 70, 162708, 136, 54427, 7, 23, 144477, 13, 11, 48850, 102126, 81148, 187414, 238, 9, 820, 14, 4126, 123055, 15, 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summarize: Jarník was born December 22, 1897. He was the son of, a professor of Romance language philology at Charles University, and his older brother, Hertvík Jarník, also became a professor of linguistics. Despite this background, Jarník learned no Latin at his gymnasium (the C.K. české vyšší reálné gymnasium, Ječná, Prague), so when he entered Charles University in 1915 he had to do so as an extraordinary student until he could pass a Latin examination three semesters later. He studied mathematics and physics at Charles University from 1915 to 1919, with Karel Petr as a mentor. After completing his studies, he became an assistant to Jan Vojtěch at the Brno University of Technology, where he also met Mathias Lerch. In 1921 he completed a doctoral degree (RNDr.) at Charles University with a dissertation on Bessel functions supervised by Petr, then returned to Charles University as Petr's assistant. While keeping his position at Charles University, he studied with Edmund Landau at the University of Göttingen from 1923 to 1925 and again from 1927 to 1929. On his first return to Charles University he defended his habilitation, and on his return from the second visit, he was given a chair in mathematics as an extraordinary professor. He was promoted to full professor in 1935 and later served as Dean of Sciences (1947–1948) and Vice-Rector (1950–1953). He retired in 1968. Jarník supervised the dissertations of 16 doctoral students. Notable among these are Miroslav Katětov, a chess master who became rector of Charles University, Jaroslav Kurzweil, known for the Henstock–Kurzweil integral, and Slovak mathematician Tibor Šalát. He died September 22, 1970. Although Jarník's 1921 dissertation, like some of his later publications, was in mathematical analysis, his main area of work was in number theory. He studied the Gauss circle problem and proved a number of results on Diophantine approximation, lattice point problems, and the geometry of numbers. He also made pioneering, but long-neglected, contributions to combinatorial optimization. The Gauss circle problem asks for the number of points of the integer lattice enclosed by a given circle. One of Jarník's theorems (1926), related to this problem, is that any convex curve with length passes through at most points of the integer lattice. The formula_2 in this formula is an instance of Big O notation. Neither the exponent of nor the leading constant of this bound can be improved, as there exist convex curves with this many grid points. Another theorem of Jarník in this area shows that, for any closed convex curve in the plane with a well-defined length, the absolute difference between the area it encloses and the number of integer points it encloses is at most its length. Jarník also published several results in Diophantine approximation, the study of the approximation of real numbers by rational numbers. He proved (1928–1929) that the badly approximable real numbers (the ones with bounded terms in their continued fractions) have Hausdorff dimension one. This is the same dimension as the set of all real numbers, intuitively suggesting that the set of badly approximable numbers is large. He also considered the numbers for which there exist infinitely many good rational approximations, with for a given exponent, and proved (1929) that these have the smaller Hausdorff dimension. The second of these results was later rediscovered by Besicovitch. Besicovitch used different methods than Jarník to prove it, and the result has come to be known as the Jarník–Besicovitch theorem. Jarník's work in real analysis was sparked by finding, in the unpublished works of Bernard Bolzano, a definition of a continuous function that was nowhere differentiable. Bolzano's 1830 discovery predated the 1872 publication of the Weierstrass function, previously considered to be the first example of such a function. Based on his study of Bolzano's function, Jarník was led to a more general theorem: If a real-valued function of a closed interval does not have bounded variation in any subinterval, then there is a dense subset of its domain on which at least one of its Dini derivatives is infinite. This applies in particular to the nowhere-differentiable functions, as they must have unbounded variation in all intervals. Later, after learning of a result by Stefan Banach and Stefan Mazurkiewicz that generic functions (that is, the members of a residual set of functions) are nowhere differentiable, Jarník proved that at almost all points, all four Dini derivatives of such a function are infinite. Much of his later work in this area concerned extensions of these results to approximate derivatives. In computer science and combinatorial optimization, Jarník is known for an algorithm for constructing minimum spanning trees that he published in 1930, in response to the publication of Borůvka's algorithm by another Czech mathematician, Otakar Borůvka. Jarník's algorithm builds a tree from a single starting vertex of a given weighted graph by repeatedly adding the cheapest connection to any other vertex, until all vertices have been connected. The same algorithm was later rediscovered in the late 1950s by Robert C. Prim and Edsger W. Dijkstra. It is also known as Prim's algorithm or the Prim–Dijkstra algorithm. He also published a second, related, paper with (1934) on the Euclidean Steiner tree problem. In this problem, one must again form a tree connecting a given set of points, with edge costs given by the Euclidean distance. However, additional points that are not part of the input may be added to make the overall tree shorter. This paper is the first serious treatment of the general Steiner tree problem (although it appears earlier in a letter by Gauss), and it already contains "virtually all general properties of Steiner trees" later attributed to other researchers. Jarník was a member of the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts, from 1934 as an extraordinary member and from 1946 as a regular member. In 1952 he became one of the founding members of Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. He was also awarded the Czechoslovak State Prize in 1952. The Vojtěch Jarník International Mathematical Competition, held each year since 1991 in Ostrava, is named in his honor, as is Jarníkova Street in the Chodov district of Prague. A series of postage stamps published by Czechoslovakia in 1987 to honor the 125th anniversary of the Union of Czechoslovak mathematicians and physicists included one stamp featuring Jarník together with Joseph Petzval and Vincenc Strouhal. A conference was held in Prague, in March 1998, to honor the centennial of his birth. Jarník published 90 papers in mathematics, including: He was also the author of ten textbooks in Czech, on integral calculus, differential equations, and mathematical analysis. These books "became classics for several generations of students".	Vojtěch Jarník (; 1897–1970) was a Czech mathematician who worked for many years as a professor and administrator at Charles University, and helped found the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. 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summarize: The century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts. The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like "nationalism", "globalism", "environmentalism", "ideology", "world war", "genocide," and "nuclear war" entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon. Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline. The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a truly global economy by the end of the 20th century. Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state. At the beginning of the period, the British Empire was the world's most powerful nation, having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power and, along with Germany and Italy, formed the Axis powers. Japan's military expansionism in East Asia and the Pacific Ocean brought it into conflict with the United States, culminating in a surprise attack which drew the US into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the East and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and France from the West. After the victory of the Allies in Europe, the war in Asia ended with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan by the US, the first nation to develop nuclear weapons and the only one to use them in warfare. In total, World War II left some 60 million people dead. After the war, Germany was occupied and divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Western Europe was rebuilt with the aid of the American Marshall Plan, resulting in a major post-war economic boom, and many of the affected nations became close allies of the United States. With the Axis defeated and Britain and France rebuilding, the United States and the Soviet Union were left standing as the world's only superpowers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as their competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism proliferated in Europe, which became divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. They formed competing military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) which engaged in a decades-long standoff known as the Cold War. The period was marked by a new arms race as the USSR became the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, which were produced by both sides in sufficient numbers to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world—particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan—as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space exploration and the Internet. In the latter half of the century, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, globalization opened the door for several nations to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. The US's global military presence spread American culture around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry, Broadway, rock and roll, pop music, fast food, big-box stores, and the hip-hop lifestyle. Britain also continued to influence world culture, including the "British Invasion" into American music, leading many rock bands from other countries (such as Swedish ABBA) to sing in English. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, most of the communist governments it had supported around the world were dismantled—with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos—followed by awkward transitions into market economies. Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century. In the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate. Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life. At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century. Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination. The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were pressing global issues. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong-il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as the West Nile virus continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa. Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet's habitability. One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions. World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end. The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million. Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects." It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945. The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century. The world's most popular, famous or revered music artists of the 20th century include: Louis Armstrong, Little Richard, Igor Stravinsky, Gustav Mahler, George Gershwin, Sergei Prokofiev, Benjamin Britten, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aaron Copland, Béla Bartók, Ernesto Lecuona, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss, Thelonious Monk, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Bing Crosby, ABBA, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, Harry Belafonte, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Eagles, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Bee Gees, Barbra Streisand, Cher, Nat "King" Cole, Robert Johnson, Led Zeppelin, Leonard Cohen, Queen, Madonna, Bob Marley, Metallica, Charlie Parker, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Frank Sinatra, Stevie Wonder, Radiohead, Aretha Franklin, Tupac Shakur, Nirvana, The Notorious B.I.G., Amr Diab, Fairuz, Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, Randy Newman and many more. Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905. Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full-length feature film, "The Jazz Singer", released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929. Animation was also developed in the 1920s, with the first full-length cel animated feature film "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", released in 1937. Computer-generated imagery was developed in the 1980s, with the first full-length CGI-animated film "Toy Story" was released in 1995. Video games—due to the great technological steps forward in computing since the second post-war period—are the new form of entertainment emerged in the 20th century alongside films. Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation. Other computationally-intense results include the study of fractals and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976. One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, electronics, engineering, travel, medicine, and war. A technological revolution began in the late 20th century, variously called the Digital Revolution, the information revolution, the electronics revolution, the microelectronic revolution, the Information Age, the silicon revolution, the Silicon Age, and/or the third industrial revolution.	The 20th (twentieth) century was a century that began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. 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summarize: The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was founded at the congress of the Czechoslovak Social-Democratic Party (Left), held in Prague May 14–16, 1921. "Rudé právo", previously the organ of the Left Social-Democrats, became the main organ of the new party. As a first chairman was elected Václav Šturc, first vice-chairman was Bohumír Šmeral and second vice-chairman was Vaclav Bolen. The party was one of some twenty political parties that competed within the democratic framework of the First Czechoslovak Republic, but it was never in government. In 1925 parliamentary election the party gained 934,223 votes (13.2%, 2nd place) and 41 seats. The party was the Czechoslovak section of the Communist International. As of 1928 the party was the second-largest section of the International, with an estimated membership of around 138,000, more than twice the membership of the French Communist Party and nearly five times the membership of the Communist Party of China at the time. In 1929 Klement Gottwald became party Secretary-General after the purging from it of various oppositional elements some of whom allied themselves to Trotsky and the International Left Opposition. In 1929 parliamentary election the party gained 753,220 votes (10.2%, 4th place) and 30 seats. In 1935 parliamentary election the party held its 30 seats with 849,495 votes (10.32%, 4th place). The party was banned in October 1938, but continued to exist as an underground organisation. Following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, anti-German protests broke out in Prague in October 1939. In response, the Comintern ordered the party to oppose the protests, which they blamed on "chauvinist elements". During World War II many KSČ leaders sought refuge in the Soviet Union, where they prepared to broaden the party's power base once the war ended. In the early postwar period the Soviet-supported Czechoslovak communists launched a sustained drive that culminated in their seizure of power in 1948. Once in control, KSČ developed an organizational structure and mode of rule patterned closely after those of CPSU. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was in a coalition government from 1945 to 1948. After the war the party grew rapidly, reaching one million members by the time of the 1946 elections: at these elections it became the largest party in Parliament, and party chairman Klement Gottwald became prime minister in a free election. Following the Communist coup d'état of 1948, when free elections and other political freedoms were effectively abolished, power was formally held by the National Front, a coalition in which the KSČ held two-thirds of the seats while the remaining one-third were shared among five other political parties. However, KSČ held a "de facto" absolute monopoly on political power, and the other parties within the National Front were little more than auxiliaries. Even the governmental structure of Czechoslovakia existed primarily to implement policy decisions made within the KSČ. A dispute broke out between Gottwald and the second most-powerful man in the country, party General Secretary Rudolf Slánský, over the extent to which Czechoslovakia should conform with the Soviet model. In 1951, Slánský and several other senior Communists were arrested and charged with participating in a "Trotskyite-Titoite-Zionist conspiracy". They were subjected to a show trial in 1952 (the Prague Trials) and Slánský and 10 other defendants were executed. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, and in 1968, the KSČ was taken over by reformers led by Alexander Dubček. He started a period of liberalization known as the Prague Spring in which he attempted to implement "socialism with a human face". The Soviet Union believed the process of liberalization would end state socialism in the country and on 21 August 1968, Warsaw Pact forces invaded. Subsequently, the Soviet justification for the invasion would become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. In April 1969, Dubček was removed as party General Secretary (replaced by Gustáv Husák) and expelled in 1970. During the period of normalization that followed, the party was dominated by two factions: moderates and hardliners. Moderates and pragmatists were represented by Gustáv Husák who led the neostalinist wing of KSČ leadership. As a moderate or pragmatic, he was pressed by hardliners, most notably Vasil Biľak. An important Slovak Communist Party functionary from 1943 to 1950, Husák was arrested in 1951 and sentenced to three years, later increased to life imprisonment, for "bourgeois nationalism" during the Stalinist purges of the era. Released in 1960 and rehabilitated in 1963, Husák refused any political position in Antonín Novotný's régime but after Novotný's fall he became deputy prime minister during the Prague Spring. After Dubček's resignation Husák was named KSČ First Secretary in April 1969 and president of the republic in July 1975. Above all, Husák was a survivor who learned to accommodate the powerful political forces surrounding him and he denounced Dubček after 1969. Other prominent moderates/pragmatics who were still in power by 1987 included: These leaders generally supported the reforms instituted under Dubček during the late 1960s but successfully made the transition to orthodox party rule following the invasion and Dubček's decline from power. Subsequently, they adopted a more flexible stance regarding economic reform and dissident activity. Key members of this faction included: These hardliners opposed economic and political reforms and took a harsh stand on dissent. The party's hegemony ended with the Velvet Revolution in 1989. In November, Jakeš and the entire Presidium resigned. Jakeš was succeeded by Karel Urbanek, who only held power for about a month before the party formally abandoned power in December. Later that month, Husák, who retained the presidency after standing down as general secretary, was forced to swear in the country's first non-Communist government in 41 years. At the 18th party congress held November 3–4, 1990, the party was rebaptized as KSČS and became a federation of two parties: the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) and the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS). Pavol Kanis served as the chairman of the Federal Council of KSČS. However, the two constituent organizations of the federal party were moving in different directions politically and there was great tension between them. KSS, the Slovak constituent party of KSČS, was renamed as Party of the Democratic Left (SDL) on January 26, 1991. Whilst no longer a communist party per se, SDL formally remained as the Slovak constituent party of KSČS. In August 1991, upon the request of SDL, the party mutated into the Federation of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and the Party of the Democratic Left ("Federácie KSČM a SDĽ"). KSČM unsuccessfully appealed to two Slovak communist splinter parties, the Communist Party of Slovakia – 91 (KSS '91) and the Union of Communists of Slovakia (ZKS), to join the Federation. At the first SDL congress in December 1991, SDL formally withdrew from the Federation with the KSČM. The Federation was formally declared dissolved in April 1992. KSČ organization was based on the Leninist concept of democratic centralism, which provided for the election of party leaders at all levels but required that each level be fully subject to the control of the next higher unit. Accordingly, party programs and policies were directed from the top, and resolutions of higher organs were unconditionally binding on all lower organs and individual party members. In theory, policy matters were freely and openly discussed at congresses, conferences, membership meetings, and in the party press. In practice, however, these discussions merely reflected decisions made by a small contingent of top party officials. The supreme KSČ organ was the party congress, which normally convened every five years for a session lasting less than one week. An exception was made with respect to the 14th Party Congress, which was held in August 1968 under Dubček's leadership. Held in semi-secrecy in a tractor factory in the opening days of the Soviet occupation, this congress denounced the invasion, and was later declared illegal, its proceedings stricken from party records, and a second, "legal" 14th Party Congress held in May 1971. Subsequent numbered congresses were held in April 1976, April 1981 and March 1986. Party congress theoretically was responsible for making basic policy decisions; in practice, however, it was the Presidium of the Central Committee that held the decision-making and policy-making responsibilities. The congress merely endorsed the reports and directives of the top party leadership. The statutory duties assigned the party congress included determination of the party's domestic and foreign policies; approval of the party program and statutes; and election of the Central Committee and the Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission, as well as discussion and approval of their reports. Between congresses, KSČ's Central Committee (CC) was responsible for directing party activities and implementing general policy decisions. Party statutes also provided that CC functioned as the primary arm of KSČ control over the organs of federal government and the republics, National Front, and all cultural and professional organizations. Party members holding leading positions in these bodies were responsible directly to CC for the implementation of KSČ policies. In addition, CC screened nominations for all important government and party positions and selected the editor-in-chief of "Rudé právo", the principal party newspaper. CC generally met in full session at least twice a year. In 1976, CC had 115 members and 45 candidates; in 1986, these figures were 135 and 62, respectively. In terms of composition, CC normally included leading party and government officials, military officials, and some celebrities. CC, like the party congress, rarely acted as more than a rubber stamp of policy decisions made by KSČ's Presidium, except when factional infighting developed within the Presidium in 1968 and CC assumed crucial importance in resolving the dispute to oust First Secretary Novotný in favour of Dubček. Generally, decisions on which CC voted were reached beforehand so that votes taken at the sessions were unanimous. The Presidium, which conducted party work between full committee sessions, formally was elected by the CC; in reality, top party leaders determined its composition. In 1986, there were 11 full members and 6 candidate members. CC's Secretariat acted as the party's highest administrative authority and as the nerve centre of the party's extensive control mechanism. The Secretariat supervised implementation of decisions made in the Presidium, controlled any movement up and down the party ladder, and directed work within the party and government apparatus. Under Husák, composition of the Secretariat, like that of the Presidium, remained rather constant. Many secretaries were also members of the Presidium. The Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission played a dual role, overseeing party discipline and supervising party finances, but it did not control anything. As an organ for enforcement of party standards, Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission frequently wielded its power to suspend or expel "deviant" party members. It was this commission that directed the massive purges in party membership during the early and late 1970s. Members were elected at each party congress (45 members in 1986). These members then elected from among themselves a chairman, deputy chairmen, and a small presidium. Sub-units of the commission existed at the republic, regional and district levels of the party structure. Other KSČ commissions in 1987 included People's Supervisory Commission, Agriculture and Food Commission, Economic Commission, Ideological Commission, and Youth Commission. In 1987 the party also had 18 departments (agitation and propaganda; agriculture, food industry, forestry and water management; Comecon cooperation; culture; economic administration; economics; education and science; elected state organs; external economic relations; fuels and energy; industry; transport and communications; international affairs; mass media; political organisation; science and technology; social organisations and national committees; state administration; and a general department). In most instances the party departments paralleled agencies and ministries of the government and supervised their activities to ensure conformity with KSČ norms and programmes. Also under CC supervision were two party training centres: the Advanced School of Politics and the Institute of Marxism-Leninism (see below). Down on republic level party structure deviated from the government organisation in that a separate communist party unit existed in the Slovak Socialist Republic (see Communist Party of Slovakia) but not in the Czech Socialist Republic. KSS emerged from World War II as a party distinct from KSČ, but the two were united after the communist takeover in 1948. The reformer movement of the 1960s advocated a return to a system of autonomous parties for the two republics. Bureau for the Conduct of Party Work in the Czech Lands was created as a counterpart to KSS, but it was suppressed after the 1968 invasion and by 1971 had been stricken from party records. KSČ had ten regional subdivisions (seven in the Czech lands, three in Slovakia) identical to "kraje", the ten major governmental administrative divisions. In addition, however, the Prague and Bratislava municipal party organs, because of their size, were given regional status within KSČ. Regional conferences selected regional committees, which in turn selected a leading secretary, a number of secretaries and a regional Supervisory and Auditing Commission. Regional units were broken down into a total of 114 district-level (Czech: "okresní") organisations. District conferences were held simultaneously every two to three years, at which time each conference selected a district committee that subsequently selected a secretariat to be headed by a district secretary. At local level, KSČ was structured according to what it called "territorial and production principle"; basic party units were organised in work sites and residences where there are at least five KSČ members. In enterprises or communities where party membership was more numerous, smaller units functioned under larger city, village or factorywide committees. Highest authority of the local organisation was, theoretically, the monthly membership meeting, attendance at which was a basic duty of every member. Each group selected its own leadership, consisting of a chairman and one or more secretaries. It also named delegates to the conference of the next higher unit, be it at municipal (like in case of larger cities) or district level. Since assuming power in 1948, KSČ had one of the largest per capita membership rolls in the communist world (11 percent of the entire population). The membership roll was often alleged by party ideologues to contain a large component of inactive, opportunistic, and "counterrevolutionary" elements. These charges were used on two occasions, between 1948 and 1950 and again from 1969 to 1971, as a pretext to conduct massive purges of the membership. In the first case, during the great Stalinist purges, nearly 1 million members were removed; in the wake of the Prague Spring and subsequent invasion, about half that number either resigned or were purged from KSČ. Purges following the 1968 invasion hit especially the Czechs, the youth and the blue-collar workers, as well as the intelligentsia within the party membership. By the end of 1970, KSČ had lost approx. 27.8% of its members compared to January 1968 figures as a result of forced removal or voluntary resignation. Despite this attrition, a membership of "almost 1,200,000" was claimed in the spring of 1971 for a country with an estimated population of approx. 14.5 million — still one of the highest Communist party membership rates in the world on a percentage basis at that time. Owing to this membership decline, accelerated recruitment efforts were targeted at youth and factory workers for the rest of the 1970s. The party's membership efforts in the 1980s focused on recruiting politically and professionally qualified people willing to exercise greater activism in implementing the party's program. Party leaders at the 17th Party Congress (1986) urged recruitment of more workers, young people, and women. In 1981 it had 1,538,179 members (10% of the population) KSČ membership was contingent upon completion of a one year period as a candidate member. Candidate members could not vote or be elected to party committees. In addition to candidates for party membership, there were also candidates for party leadership groups from the local levels to the Presidium. These candidates, already party members, were considered interns training for the future assumption of particular leadership responsibilities. Indoctrination and training of party members was one of the basic responsibilities of regional and district organizations, and party training was mostly conducted on these levels. Regional and district units worked with local party organizations in setting up training programs and determining which members would be enrolled in particular courses of study. On the whole, the system of party schooling changed little since it was established in 1949. A district or city organization provided weekly classes in the fundamentals of Marxism-Leninism, history of communism, socialist economics, and current party position on domestic and international affairs. Members training for positions as party functionaries attended seminars at schools for Marxism-Leninism set up in local areas or at more advanced institutes for Marxism-Leninism found in Prague, Brno and Bratislava. The highest level of party training was offered at the Advanced School of Politics in Prague. Designed to train the top echelon of party leadership, the three-year curriculum had the official status of a university program and was said to be one of the best programs in political science in Eastern Europe. These institutions were under the direction of KSČ Central Committee. Because of KSČ's mandate to be a workers' party, questions about social background of party members took on a particular salience. KSČ was often reticent with precise details about its members, and the question of how many in the party actually belonged to the revolutionary proletariat proper became a delicate one. Official statements appeared to overstate the percentage of workers within the party's ranks. Nonetheless, a number of trends were clear. The proportion of workers in KSČ was at its highest (approximately 60% of total membership) after World War II but before the party took power in 1948. After that time, percentage of workers fell steadily to a low of an estimated one-quarter of the membership in 1970. In the early 1970s, government media decried the "grave imbalance," noting that "[the] present class and social structure of party membership is not in conformity with the party's role as a vanguard for the working class." In highly industrialized central Bohemia, for example, only 1 in every 35 workers was party member, while 1 in every 5 administrators was. In 1976, after intensive efforts to recruit workers, number of workers rose to one-third of the KSČ membership, i.e., approx. its 1962 level. In the 1980s, driven by a need for "intensive" economic development, the party relaxed its rigid rule about young workers' priority in admissions and allowed district and regional committees to be flexible in their recruitment policy, as long as the overall proportion of workers did not decrease. Average age of party members showed a comparable trend. In the late 1960s, fewer than 30% of party members were under 35 years of age, nearly 20% were over 60, and roughly half were 45 or older. The quip in 1971, a half-century after the party's founding in Czechoslovakia, was "After fifty years, a party of fifty-year-olds." There was a determined effort to attract younger members to the party in the middle to late 1970s; one strategy was to recruit children of parents who were KSČ members. The party sent letters to the youngsters' schools and their parents' employers, encouraging the children to join. By early 1980 approximately one-third of KSČ members were 35 years of age or younger. In 1983, average age of the "leading cadre" was still estimated at 50. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, government media denounced party members' lack of devotion to the pursuit of KSČ policies and goals. Complaints ranged from members' refusal to display flags from their apartment windows on festive occasions to their failure to show up for party work brigades, attend meetings, or pay dues; a significant minority of members tended to underreport their incomes (the basis for assessing dues). In 1970, after a purge of approximately one-third of the membership, an average of less than half the remaining members attended meetings. Perhaps one-third of members were consistently recalcitrant in participating in KSČ activities. In 1983, one primary party branch in the Prague-West district was so unmoved by admonishments that it had to be disbanded and its members dispersed among other organizations. In part, this was a measure of disaffection with Czechoslovakia's thoroughgoing subservience to Soviet hegemony, a Švejkian response to the lack of political and economic autonomy. It was also a reflection of the purge's targets. Those expelled were often the ideologically motivated, the ones for whom developing socialism with a human face represented a significant goal; those who were simply opportunistic survived the purges more easily. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Official designations of leaders of the KSČ: 1921–1945 General Secretary (; ); 1945–53 Chairman (; ); 1953–1971 First Secretary (;); 1971–1989: General Secretary; 1989–1990 Chairman.	The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Czech and Slovak: "Komunistická strana Československa", KSČ) was a Communist and Marxist–Leninist political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between 1921 and 1992. It was a member of the Comintern. Between 1929 and 1953, it was led by Klement Gottwald. After its election victory in 1946, it seized power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état and established a one-party state allied with the Soviet Union. 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summarize: The periodic trends are based on the Periodic Law, which states that if the chemical elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, many of their properties go through cyclical changes, with elements of similar properties recurring at intervals. For example, after arranging elements in their increasing atomic numbers, many of the physical and chemical properties of Lithium, such as its vigorous reactivity with water, recur in sodium, potassium and caesium. This principle was discovered by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1871 after a number of investigations by scientists in the 19th century. Mendeleev also proposed a periodic system of elements that was based not only on atomic weights but also on chemical and physical properties of the elements and their compounds. In 1913, Henry Moseley determined that periodicity depends on the atomic number rather than atomic weight. Lothar Meyer presented his table several months after Mendeleev, but opposed his Periodic law. Initially, no theoretical explanation for the Periodic Law was available and it was used only as an empirical principle, but, with the development of the quantum mechanics, it became possible to understand the theoretical basis for the Periodic Law. The periodic recurrence of elements with similar physical and chemical properties, when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, results directly from the periodic recurrence of similar electronic configurations in the outer shells of respective atoms. Discovery of Periodic Law constitutes one of the most important events in the history of chemical science. Almost every chemist makes extensive and continued use of Periodic Law. Periodic Law also led to the development of the periodic table, which is widely used nowadays. The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost stable electron orbital in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to decrease across a period from left to right due to the shrinking of the atom because of increasing effective nuclear force on the electrons. The atomic radius usually increases while going down a group due to the addition of a new energy level (shell which causes shrinkage in the size of the atoms across the period). However, atomic radii tend to increase diagonally, since the number of electrons has a larger effect than the sizeable nucleus. For example, lithium (145 picometer) has a smaller atomic radius than magnesium (150 picometer). The atomic radius can be further specified into 4 types as: The ionization potential is the minimum amount of energy required to remove one electron from each atom in a mole of isolated, neutral and gaseous atom. The "first ionization energy" is the energy required to remove the first electron, and generally the "nth ionization energy" is the energy required to remove the atom's "n"th electron, after the ("n"−1) electrons before it has been removed. Trend-wise, ionization energy tends to increase while one progresses across a period because the greater number of protons (higher nuclear charge) attract the orbiting electrons more strongly, thereby increasing the energy required to remove one of the electrons. Ionization energy and ionization potentials are completely different. The potential is an intensive property and it is measured by "volt"; whereas the energy is an extensive property expressed by "eV" or "kJ/mole". As one progresses down a group on the periodic table, the ionization energy will likely decrease since the valence electrons are farther away from the nucleus and experience a weaker attraction to the nucleus's positive charge. There will be an increase of ionization energy from left to right of a given period and a decrease from top to bottom. As a rule, it requires far less energy to remove an outer-shell electron than an inner-shell electron. As a result, the ionization energies for a given element will increase steadily within a given shell, and when starting on the next shell down will show a drastic jump in ionization energy. Simply put, the lower the principal quantum number, the higher the ionization energy for the electrons within that shell. The exceptions are the elements in the boron and oxygen family, which require slightly less energy than the general trend. The electron affinity of an atom can be described either as the energy released by an atom when an electron is added to it, conversely as the energy required to detach an electron from a singly charged anion. The sign of the electron affinity can be quite confusing, as atoms that become more stable with the addition of an electron (and so are considered to have a higher electron affinity) show a decrease in potential energy; i.e. the energy gained by the atom appears to be negative. For atoms that become less stable upon gaining an electron, potential energy increases, which implies that the atom gains energy. In such a case, the atom's electron affinity value is positive. Consequently, atoms with a more negative electron affinity value are considered to have a higher electron affinity (they are more receptive to gaining electrons), and vice versa. However, in the reverse scenario where electron affinity is defined as the energy required to detach an electron from an anion, the energy value obtained will be of the same magnitude but have the opposite sign. This is because those atoms with a high electron affinity are less inclined to give up an electron, and so take more energy to remove the electron from the atom. In this case, the atom with the more positive energy value has a higher electron affinity. As one progresses from left to right across a period, the electron affinity will increase. Although it may seem that fluorine should have the greatest electron affinity, the small size of fluorine generates enough repulsion that chlorine (Cl has the greatest electron affinity). Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved, using the Pauling scale. Trend-wise, as one moves from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the electronegativity increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases. Moving down in a group, the electronegativity decreases due to an increase in the distance between the nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom have less of an attraction for electrons or protons. However, in the group (iii) elements electronegativity increases from aluminium to thallium. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost electron shell of an isolated atom of an element. Sometimes, it is also regarded as the basis of Modern Periodic Table. In a period, the number of valence electrons increases (mostly for light metal/elements) as we move from left to right side. However, in a group this periodic trend is constant, that is the number of valence electrons remains the same. Valency in the periodic table across a period first increases and then decreases. There is no change going down a group. However, this periodic trend is sparsely followed for heavier elements (elements with atomic number greater than 20), especially for lanthanide and actinide series. The greater the number of core electrons, the greater the shielding of electrons from the core charge of the nucleus. For this reason ionization energy is lower for elements lower down in a group, and polarizability of species is higher for elements lower down in a group. The valency does not change going down a group since the bonding behavior is not affected by the core electrons. However, non-bonding interactions such as those just cited are affected by core electrons. Metallic properties increase down groups as decreasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes the outermost electrons to be loosely bound and thus able to conduct heat and electricity. Across the period, from left to right, increasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes the metallic character to decrease. Non-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due to the same reason due to an increase in nuclear attractive force. Metals are ductile while nonmetals are not.	Periodic trends are specific patterns in the properties of chemical elements that are revealed in the periodic table of elements. Major periodic trends include electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radii, ionic radius, metallic character, and chemical reactivity.	en	en	46	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 120164, 12768, 7, 621, 35509, 98, 70, 92329, 1771, 36293, 4, 3129, 117249, 450, 2174, 70, 165045, 80854, 621, 145870, 23, 12989, 111, 118055, 34627, 1771, 14012, 4, 5941, 111, 2363, 183871, 738, 8305, 6, 187830, 6827, 65572, 4, 678, 80854, 111, 21373, 183871, 456, 64240, 214, 99, 51514, 7, 5, 1326, 27781, 4, 7103, 80265, 9966, 80854, 23, 2363, 118055, 34627, 1771, 101935, 4, 5941, 111, 70, 72761, 136, 165045, 183871, 111, 1261, 4450, 316, 4, 6044, 237, 6863, 62502, 10821, 456, 71234, 2481, 678, 7401, 4, 43852, 42, 23, 221, 28483, 4, 160, 1073, 7, 6664, 136, 377, 90, 6664, 5, 3293, 24702, 133, 509, 134053, 390, 102374, 290, 6133, 170467, 276, 217822, 334, 23, 159983, 7103, 10, 14012, 111, 145456, 7, 390, 172647, 7, 23, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 5, 276, 217822, 334, 2843, 26171, 71, 10, 120164, 5426, 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summarize: The Krnov Synagogue stopped to be used for religious services in autumn 1938, when the Sudetenland was incorporated into Nazi Germany. Not long afterwards, on November 9, 1938, almost all synagogues in the surrounding towns - as anywhere in Nazi Germany - were destroyed during the "Reichskristallnacht" prosecution. However, the Krnov synagogue was saved. End of October 1938, the mayor of Jägerndorf, Oskar König, had received a secret order from Berlin to destroy and burn down the synagogue of his town on November 9. Unwilling to comply, he summoned a meeting of the councillors and informed them about the order he had received. The Sudeten councillors then unanimously accepted the proposal of the builder Franz Irblich to deceive the Nazis: They decided to remove all symbols of the Jewish religion from the building and change it into a town market hall, reporting to Berlin that there was no synagogue in Jägerndorf which could be destroyed. As such the building was used until the end of World War II in 1945. After WWII the German population of Jägerndorf was expelled and the building of the synagogue was first used as a warehouse, than as a regional archive. In July 1997 it was damaged by a flood, two years later it was finally returned to the Jewish community in Olomouc (German: "Olmütz") with no Jewish community in Krnov (Jägerndorf) existing anymore. Between 2003 and 2014 it was thoroughly renovated. Today, credit is given to Franz Irblich to be the savior of the synagogue also by the now Czech town of Krnov. In 1946, Irblich had received a 10 years sentence by a Czechoslovak extraordinary court after accusations of being a Nazi.	The Krnov Synagogue is a synagogue in Krnov (), Czech Republic. The synagogue, also called the temple, was built in 1871. It is located at 28, Barvířská Street near Soukenická Street (formerly "Tempelring", then "Tuchmacherring", then "Gottwaldova třída" ["třída" = avenue]). The exterior of the building with twin towers and round-arched windows is in an eclectic, round-arched, Rundbogenstil neo-romantic style; while the interior is Moorish Revival, especially the wooden carved coffered ceiling (painted in reddish brown) and the arcade of the women's galleries. 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summarize: Satriani was born in Westbury, New York of Italian descent. His paternal grandparents were from Piacenza and Bobbio, while his maternal grandparents were from Bari. He was inspired to play guitar at age 14, after hearing of the death of Jimi Hendrix. He has been said to have heard the news during football practice, where he then announced to his coach that he was quitting to become a guitarist. In 1974, Satriani studied music with jazz guitarist Billy Bauer and with reclusive jazz pianist Lennie Tristano. The technically demanding Tristano greatly influenced Satriani's playing. Satriani began teaching guitar, with his most notable student at the time being fellow Long Island native Steve Vai (both also went to the same high school). While he was teaching Vai, he was attending Five Towns College for studies in music. In 1978, Satriani moved to Berkeley, California, to pursue a music career. Soon after arriving in California, he resumed teaching. His students included Steve Vai, Kirk Hammett of Metallica, David Bryson of Counting Crows, Kevin Cadogan from Third Eye Blind, Larry LaLonde of Primus and Possessed, Alex Skolnick of Testament, Rick Hunolt (ex-Exodus), Phil Kettner of Lȧȧz Rockit, Geoff Tyson of T-Ride, Charlie Hunter and David Turin. Satriani started playing in a San Francisco-based band called the Squares, where he continued to network and make musical connections (Squares sound man John Cuniberti co-produced his second album). He was invited to join the Greg Kihn Band, who were on the downside of their career, but whose generosity helped Satriani pay off the overwhelming credit-card debt from recording his first album "Not of This Earth" released in 1986. In 1987, Satriani's second album "Surfing with the Alien" produced radio hits and was the first all-instrumental release to chart so highly in many years. The track "Crushing Day" was featured on the soundtrack of a low-budget film titled "It Takes Two". "Surfing with the Alien" is his most acclaimed work, according to aggregator Acclaimed Music. In 1988 Satriani helped produce the EP "The Eyes of Horror" for the death metal band Possessed. That same year, he also released an EP titled "Dreaming #11", which featured the song "The Crush of Love". In 1989, Satriani released the album "Flying in a Blue Dream". It was said to be inspired by the death of his father, who died in 1989 during the recording of the album. "One Big Rush" featured on the soundtrack to the Cameron Crowe movie "Say Anything...". "The Forgotten Part II" was featured on a Labatt Blue commercial in Canada in 1993. "Can't Slow Down" featured in a car-chase sequence in the Don Johnson-starring show "Nash Bridges". "The Bells of Lal (Part One)" was featured for an eerie scene in the 1996 Billy Bob Thornton movie "Sling Blade", while Carl is sharpening a lawnmower blade to kill the menacing Doyle Hargraves played by Dwight Yoakam. Joe Satriani also sang backing vocals on the self-titled "Crowded House" album. Satriani was a friend of Mitchell Froom. In 1992, Satriani released "The Extremist", his most commercially successful album to date. Radio stations across the US picked up "Summer Song", which got a major boost when Sony used it in a major commercial campaign for their Discman portable CD players. "Cryin'", "Friends", and the title track were regional hits on radio. In late 1993, Satriani joined Deep Purple as a temporary replacement for departed guitarist Ritchie Blackmore during the band's Japanese tour. The concerts were a success, and Satriani was asked to join the band permanently, but he declined, having just signed a multialbum solo deal with Sony, and Steve Morse took the guitarist slot in Deep Purple. In 1996, Satriani founded the G3, a concert tour intended to feature a trio of guitarists. The original lineup featured Satriani, Steve Vai, and Eric Johnson. The G3 tour has continued periodically since its inaugural version, with Satriani the only permanent member. Other guitarists who have performed in G3 include among others: Yngwie Malmsteen, John Petrucci, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Robert Fripp, Andy Timmons, Uli Jon Roth, Michael Schenker, Adrian Legg, Paul Gilbert, Steve Morse, and Steve Lukather. In 1998, Satriani recorded and released "Crystal Planet", followed up with "Engines of Creation", one of his more experimental works featuring the electronica genre. Two shows at the Fillmore West in San Francisco were recorded in December 2000 and released as "Live in San Francisco", a two-disc live album and DVD. Satriani regularly recorded and released evolving music, including "Strange Beautiful Music" in 2002 and "Is There Love in Space?" in 2004. In May 2005, Satriani toured India for the first time, playing concerts in Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai. In 2006, Satriani recorded and released "Super Colossal" and "Satriani Live!", another two-disc live album and DVD recorded May 3, 2006, at the Grove in Anaheim, California. In 2006, Satriani signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a nonprofit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underserved public schools throughout the U.S. Satriani has personally delivered instruments to children in the program through a charity raffle for the organization, and like Steve Vai, sits on its board of directors as an honorary member. On August 7, 2007, Epic/Legacy Recordings re-released "Surfing with the Alien" to celebrate the 20th anniversary of its release. This was a two-disc set that includes a remastered album and a DVD of a never-before-seen live show filmed at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1988. Satriani's next album "Professor Satchafunkilus and the Musterion of Rock", was released on April 1, 2008. Satriani released a live DVD recording of a concert in Paris titled "" and a companion two-CD set on February 2, 2010. In March 2010 Satriani participated with other guitarists in the Experience Hendrix Tribute Tour, performing music written and inspired by Jimi Hendrix. On December 4, 2008, Satriani filed a copyright infringement suit against Coldplay in the United States District Court for the Central District of California. Satriani's suit claims that the Coldplay song "Viva la Vida" includes "substantial original portions" of the Satriani song "If I Could Fly" from his 2004 album, "Is There Love in Space?". The Coldplay song in question received two Grammy Awards for Song of the Year. Coldplay denied the allegation. An unspecified settlement was reached between the parties. In 2009, he played two characters in season three of Adult Swim's "Metalocalypse". In May 2010, Satriani announced he was about to enter the studio to record a solo album, and dates were released for an autumn tour. He also said that demos had been recorded for a second Chickenfoot album. Satriani released his 13th studio album, "Black Swans and Wormhole Wizards", on October 5, 2010. Satriani released the DVD/Blu-ray of his three-dimensional concert film "" on April 24, 2012, after its limited showing in theaters. The film was shot in December 2010 in Montreal and was directed by award-winning filmmakers François and Pierre Lamoureux. Satchurated 3D is the first Blu-ray concert film available with Dolby TrueHD 7.1. On May 7, 2013 Satriani released his 14th studio album, titled "Unstoppable Momentum". A career retrospective box set titled "", which contains remastered editions of every studio album from "Not of This Earth" to "Unstoppable Momentum", was released on April 22, 2014. A book titled "Strange Beautiful Music: A Memoir" was also released to coincide with the release of the box set. In August 2014, Satriani participated in the G4 Experience—a week-long guitar camp—with fellow guitarists Paul Gilbert and Andy Timmons, and keyboardist Mike Keneally. In February 2015, the first dates were announced for the Shockwave World Tour, in support of Satriani's 15th studio album, slated for release in July. "Shockwave Supernova" was released on July 24, 2015. The album was conceived after Satriani found himself playing guitar with his teeth a lot during the "Unstoppable Momentum" tour, and had a daydream about an alter ego, "Shockwave Supernova", making him do it. On September 16, 2017, Satriani teased his upcoming 16th studio album, "What Happens Next", through social media. The album was released on January 12, 2018. He collaborated with former Deep Purple bassist Glenn Hughes and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith, two Rock and Roll Hall of Fame members. In April 2020, he released the new LP "Shapeshifting". On May 29, 2008, Satriani was revealed to have been involved in a new hard rock band called Chickenfoot with former Van Halen members Sammy Hagar and Michael Anthony, and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith. The band features Hagar on vocals, Satriani on guitar, Anthony on bass, and Smith on drums. Their eponymous debut album was released on June 5, 2009. The first single and video released was the track "Oh Yeah", which was played on "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien" on June 5, 2009. Satriani received a co-writing credit on all the songs on the band's debut album. "Broken Records" magazine asked Satriani about his new band, and he enthusiastically mentioned, "it was great fun" and it gives him a "kick in the music bone" to play with such great talent. He said it felt natural to step back and play more rhythm than solo guitar. Chickenfoot's second album, "Chickenfoot III", was released on September 27, 2011. Its first single was the track "Bigfoot". In its first week of release, it charted number 9. Satriani is credited on many other albums, including guitar duties on shock rocker Alice Cooper's 1991 album "Hey Stoopid", Spinal Tap's 1992 album "Break Like the Wind", Blue Öyster Cult's 1988 album "Imaginos", and band members Stu Hamm and Gregg Bissonette's solo albums. He was credited with singing background vocals on the 1986 debut album by Crowded House. In 2003, he played lead guitar on The Yardbirds's release "Birdland". In 2006, he made appearances on tracks for Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan's solo CD/DVD dual disc "Gillan's Inn". On Dream Theater's 2007 album "Systematic Chaos", Satriani contributed spoken lyrics to the song "Repentance". Satriani contributed a guitar solo to Jordan Rudess' 2004 solo release "Rhythm of Time". He composed much of the soundtrack for the racing video game "" while "Crowd Chant" was featured in "NHL 2K10" and "Madden NFL 11". He has starred in feature films, including 2006 Christopher Guest film "For Your Consideration" as the guitarist in the band that played for the late-night show. He appeared as himself in the film "Moneyball", playing "The Star-Spangled Banner". The "American Dad" episode "Why Can't We Be Friends" featured the song "Always with Me, Always with You". The song was also sampled in the Nicki Minaj single "Right Thru Me". Satriani joined Chickenfoot in voicing themselves in the "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" episode "IAMAPOD". Satriani is considered a highly technical guitarist, and has been referred to as a top guitar virtuoso. Satriani has mastered many performance techniques on electric guitar, including legato, two-handed tapping and arpeggio tapping, volume swells, harmonics and extreme whammy bar effects. During fast passages, Satriani favors a legato technique (achieved primarily through hammer-ons and pull-offs) that yields smooth and flowing runs. He is also adept at other speed-related techniques such as rapid alternate picking and sweep picking. Satriani was influenced by Jimi Hendrix, English rock guitarists such as Brian May, Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page, Ritchie Blackmore, and Jeff Beck, as well as jazz fusion guitarist Allan Holdsworth. Satriani endorses Ibanez's JS Series guitars, and the Marshall JVM410HJS guitar amplifier. Both lines were designed specifically as signature products for Satriani. The Ibanez JS1 (the original JS model) was based on, and replaced, the Ibanez 540 Radius model that Satriani first endorsed. Many of his guitars are made by Ibanez, including the JS1000, and JS1200. These guitars typically feature the DiMarzio PAF Pro (which he used up until 1993 in both the neck and bridge positions), the DiMarzio Fred (which he used in the bridge position from 1993 to 2005), and the Mo' Joe and the Paf Joe (which he uses in the bridge and neck positions, respectively, from 2005 to present day). He has more recently introduced the Satch Track single coil pickup which he used in his Humbucker/Single coil equipped signature Ibanez guitars. He has since replaced the Satch Track with the Sustainiac. The JS line of guitars is his signature line with the JS1000, JS1200, JS2400, JSBDG, and JS20th using Ibanez's original Edge double locking tremolo bridge. The JS100 and JS120s both use Ibanez's Edge 3 tremolo bridge. The JS1600 is a fixed bridge guitar with no tremolo system. The guitar he was most associated with during the 90s was a chrome-finished guitar nicknamed "Chrome Boy". This instrument can be seen on the "Live in San Francisco" DVD. However, the guitar used for most of the concert was in fact a lookalike nicknamed "Pearly," which featured Seymour Duncan Pearly Gates pickups. Satriani uses a number of other JS models such as the JS double neck model, JS700 (primary axe on the self-titled CD and seen on the 1995 tour "Joe Satriani," which features a fixed bridge, P-90 pickups, and a matching mahogany body and neck), JS6/JS6000 (natural body), JS1 (the original JS model), JS2000 (fixed bridge model), a variety of JS100s, JS1000s and JS1200s with custom paint work, and a large amount of prototype JSs. All double locking bridges have been the original Edge tremolo, not the newer models, which point to a more custom guitar than the "off the shelf" models. Satriani played a red 7-string JS model, seen in the "G3 Live in Tokyo" DVD from 2005. He also has a prototype 24-fret version of the JS—now called the JS-2400—which he has used with Chickenfoot. As of late he has used other prototypes featuring a Sustainiac (as mentioned above) or a JS model with three single coil-sized humbucker pickups. Satriani's guitars are usually equipped with his signature DiMarzio humbucker pickups, Mo' Joe and PAF Joe, and his 24-fret JS model features a signature single-coil sized humbucker called the Satch Track in the neck position. Some of his guitars are still equipped with the pickup models he favored in the past, the DiMarzio FRED and PAF Pro pickups. Satriani has used a wide variety of guitar amps, using Marshall for his main amplifier (notably the limited edition blue coloured 6100 LM model) up until 2001, and his Peavey signature series amps, the Peavey JSX, up until his time with Chickenfoot. The JSX began life as a prototype Peavey XXX and developed into the Joe Satriani signature Peavey model. However he still used distortion pedals with the clean channel rather than the built-in overdrive channels. Satriani has used other amplifiers over the years in the studio, such as the Peavey 5150 (used to record the song 'Crystal Planet'), Cornford, and the Mesa/Boogie Mark IIC+ (used to record the song 'Flying in a Blue Dream'), amongst others. He has recently switched to the Marshall JVM series, having used a modified JVM 410H in his Black Swans and Wormhole Wizards tour in 2010 and with Chickenfoot in 2010 and 2011. These modified JVM Marshall amps were prototypes for a signature amp that Marshall scheduled for release in 2011. They replaced the reverb with noise gates that eliminate lag when switching channels. The clean channel was replaced by the clean channel of a 6100 LM model, which Satriani likes as an option to use distortion pedals with. The orange od channel and the modern red overdrive channel have been better matched with each other as Satriani claims to prefer the organic overdrive of the JVM over pedals. The red overdrive channel was modified for a beefy rock rather than a nu metal sound. The effect loop has been simplified to be serial only. Satriani has used many amps in the studio when recording, including the Peavey Classic. He used Marshall heads and cabinets, including live, prior to his Peavey endorsement. Recently Satriani used the JSX head through a Palmer Speaker Simulator. He has released a Class-A 5-watt tube amp called the "Mini Colossal". In 2009, Satriani split from Peavey, and returned to using Marshall amps. Live, he has been using a Marshall JVM410JS since 2009. His effects pedals include the Vox wah, Dunlop Cry Baby wah, RMC Wizard Wah, DigiTech Whammy, BK Butler Tube Driver, BOSS DS-1, BOSS CH-1, BOSS CE-2, BOSS DD-2 and a standard BOSS DD-3 (used together to emulate reverb effects), BOSS BF-3, BOSS OC-2, Barber Burn Drive Unit, Fulltone Deja Vibe, Fulltone Ultimate Octave, and Electro-Harmonix POG (Polyphonic Octave Generator), the latter being featured prominently on the title cut to his 2006 "Super Colossal". He collaborated with Vox on a range of signature effects stompboxes. These include the "Satchurator" and "Ice 9" distortions, the "Time Machine" delay, and the "Big Bad Wah." His 2000 guitar rig has been documented in detail. Satriani's work frequently makes references to various science fiction stories and ideas. "Surfing with the Alien," "Back to Shalla-Bal," and "The Power Cosmic 2000" refer to the comic book character Silver Surfer, while "Ice 9" refers to the secret government ice weapon in Kurt Vonnegut's "Cat's Cradle". "Borg Sex" is a reference to "Star Trek", which features a homogeneous cybernetic race known as the Borg. His albums and songs often have other-worldly titles, such as "Not of this Earth", "Crystal Planet", "Is There Love in Space?", and "Engines of Creation". On the album "Super Colossal", the song titled "Crowd Chant" was originally called "Party on the Enterprise". It would have featured sampled sounds from the "Starship Enterprise" from "". But as Satriani explained in a podcast, legal issues regarding the samples could not be resolved, and he was unable to get permission to use them. He then removed the sounds from the song and called it "Crowd Chant". Its ending theme was inspired by composer Gabriel Fauré's "Pavane in F-sharp minor, Op. 50". The song is used as goal celebration music for a number of National Hockey League and Major League Soccer teams including the Minnesota Wild (NHL), New York Islanders (NHL), and New England Revolution (MLS). The song is also used in the 2K Sports hockey video game "NHL 2k10". "Redshift Riders," another song on the "Super Colossal" album is, "...based on the idea that in the future, when people can travel throughout space, they will theoretically take advantage of the cosmological redshift effect so they can be swung around large planetary objects and get across [the] universe a lot faster than normal," Satriani said in a podcast about the song. On the album "Professor Satchafunkilus and the Musterion of Rock" the song "I Just Wanna Rock" is about a giant robot on the run who happens to stumble upon a rock concert. Originated by the now-defunct magazine BAM in 1977 as the Bay Area Music Awards, the "Bammies" were expanded and renamed in 1998 to honor music across California. Satriani has the fourth most Grammy Award nominations (15, after Brian McKnight, Snoop Dogg and Zubin Mehta) of any artist without winning. See further artists.	Joseph Satriani (born July 15, 1956) is an American musician, composer, songwriter, and guitar teacher. Early in his career, Satriani worked as a guitar instructor, with many of his former students achieving fame, such as Steve Vai, Larry LaLonde, Rick Hunolt, Kirk Hammett, Andy Timmons, Charlie Hunter, Kevin Cadogan, and Alex Skolnick; he then went on to have a successful solo music career. He is a 15-time Grammy Award nominee and has sold over 10 million albums, making him the best-selling instrumental rock guitarist of all time.	en	en	108	[ 250004, 250054, 20745, 9893, 14, 509, 103122, 23, 10542, 87180, 4, 2356, 5753, 111, 89176, 224, 16797, 5, 18763, 78840, 6236, 9963, 99547, 7, 3542, 1295, 19604, 238, 8051, 136, 25027, 8730, 4, 12960, 1919, 57988, 289, 9963, 99547, 7, 3542, 1295, 52488, 5, 1529, 509, 191722, 47, 11301, 101275, 99, 32070, 616, 4, 7103, 129271, 111, 70, 47219, 111, 41994, 14, 115730, 95866, 5, 1529, 1556, 2809, 2804, 47, 765, 49782, 70, 7123, 20271, 101740, 41361, 4, 7440, 764, 7068, 171530, 47, 1919, 53865, 450, 764, 509, 569, 19514, 47, 24209, 10, 101275, 1419, 5, 360, 27898, 4, 20745, 9893, 14, 22282, 71, 19612, 678, 39644, 101275, 1419, 134376, 153772, 136, 678, 456, 67158, 272, 39644, 139356, 18226, 701, 4699, 590, 157, 5, 581, 121392, 538, 35968, 214, 4699, 590, 157, 6782, 538, 79507, 71, 20745, 9893, 14, 25, 7, 75169, 5, 20745, 9893, 14, 80723, 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summarize: The island is mountainous, and Japan's most active volcano, Mt Aso at, is on Kyushu. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso, in central Kyushu. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. Kyushu is the nearest to the Asian continent which made it the gateway to Japan. The name "Kyūshū" comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island: Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, and Satsuma. Today's is a politically defined region that consists of the seven prefectures on the island of Kyushu (which also includes the former Tsushima and Iki as part of Nagasaki), plus Okinawa Prefecture to the south: Kyushu has 10.3 percent of the population of Japan. Most of Kyushu's population is concentrated along the northwest, in the cities of Fukuoka and Kitakyushu, with population corridors stretching southwest into Sasebo and Nagasaki and south into Kumamoto and Kagoshima. Except for Oita and Miyazaki, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population. Kyushu is described as a stronghold of the Liberal Democratic Party. Parts of Kyushu have a subtropical climate, particularly Miyazaki prefecture and Kagoshima prefecture. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; also, silk is widely produced. The island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, and metal processing. In 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88.9%. Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the northern part of the island, around Beppu. The springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile microorganisms, which are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments. Major universities and colleges in Kyushu: The island is linked to the larger island of Honshu by the Kanmon Tunnels, which carry both the San'yō Shinkansen and non-Shinkansen trains of the Kyushu Railway Company, as well as vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle traffic. The Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway.	In the 8th-century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region., Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479 and covers.	en	en	28	[ 250004, 250054, 581, 90695, 83, 101120, 10821, 4, 136, 15758, 25, 7, 2684, 36457, 2741, 38938, 4, 276, 18, 1301, 31, 99, 4, 83, 98, 8667, 223, 1132, 5, 8622, 621, 5941, 3789, 24092, 7, 111, 120, 44150, 6402, 103488, 4, 26719, 183851, 58555, 111, 8010, 31576, 7, 5, 581, 2684, 170277, 111, 6097, 621, 23, 873, 11636, 4, 98, 70, 28, 4438, 6, 134369, 4, 136, 10932, 276, 18, 5, 1301, 31, 4, 23, 9879, 8667, 223, 1132, 5, 581, 90695, 83, 84797, 71, 1295, 13015, 36590, 390, 70, 2734, 3796, 7832, 14481, 5, 8667, 223, 1132, 83, 70, 43573, 525, 47, 70, 67009, 72852, 3129, 7228, 442, 70, 70836, 7514, 47, 15758, 5, 581, 9351, 44, 605, 53, 15230, 127, 6355, 58, 32497, 1295, 70, 300, 86, 142, 45964, 140280, 7, 111, 159, 14454, 532, 69376, 39501, 297, 98, 70, 90695, 12, 5585, 319, 3121, 4, 5585, 319, 519, 4, 2673, 3121, 4, 2673, 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summarize: Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 50,000–17,000 years ago, during the Wisconsin glaciation. At this time, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to the Settlement of the Americas. Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset (); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC); the Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland ( and ); the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik, and the Dorset culture (500 BC to AD 1500), which spread across Arctic North America. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600 around the Bering Strait, the Thule people being the prehistoric ancestors of the Inuit who now live in Northern Labrador. For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" or "bergy bits"; his "Thule" was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested. Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in. This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook "The Physical Geography of the Sea" (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick, and persists year-round. Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS "Nautilus", and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika. Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometers by ice floes. In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces. Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route). The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about, almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is long. It is the only ocean smaller than Russia, which has a land area of. It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands. It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea. Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland (territory of the Kingdom of Denmark), Canada and the United States. There are several ports and harbors around the Arctic Ocean In Alaska, the main ports are Barrow () and Prudhoe Bay (). In Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill (Port of Churchill) () in Manitoba, Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility) () in Nunavut, Tuktoyaktuk () or Inuvik () in the Northwest Territories. In Greenland, the main port is at Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour) (). In Norway, Kirkenes () and Vardø () are ports on the mainland. Also, there is Longyearbyen () on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago, next to Fram Strait. In Russia, major ports sorted by the different sea areas are: The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf, which is sometimes simply called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is greater in extent. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves, the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world. The Siberian Shelf holds large oil and gas reserves, and the Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial claims. An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is. The deepest point is Molloy Hole in the Fram Strait, at about. The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land). The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoir for current day oil and gas deposits. During the Cretaceous the Canadian Basin opened and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies building out the large Mackenzie Delta. The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangea, beginning in the Triassic opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening the Arctic Ocean as mafic oceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the Chulkchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the "triple-junction" of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in the Late Cretaceous. Throughout the Cenozoic, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene and Eocene, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside. Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. ACEX drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea. In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about ) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable, because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian streams (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the Mediterranean Sea, referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with the Atlantic Basin, "where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing”. The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07×10 km, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominately cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin. Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around depth. It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea. During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline. This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth range of is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current. It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s. Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers. The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from. The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer. This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice. Additionally, this water forms the swiftest currents of the Arctic, with speed of around 0.3–0.6 m/s. Complementing the water from the canyons, some Pacific water that does not sink to the shelf region after passing through the Bering Strait also contributes to this water mass. Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about deep and wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv. The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side. Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago. As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre. During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to center over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the ice has been decreasing since 1980 from the average winter value of at a rate of 3% per decade. The seasonal variations are about with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice. Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the "Titanic" is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the "Baychimo" drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards). Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciation, the Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions. Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and temperatures can rise above the melting point (. Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer. The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach before freezing occurs. The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about over the frozen ocean. The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly in the past. As recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, the region reached an average annual temperature of. The surface waters of the northernmost Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (the dinoflagellates "Apectodinium augustum") requiring surface temperatures of over. Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2-6 months of midnight sun and polar night in the Arctic Ocean, the primary production of photosynthesizing organisms such as ice algae and phytoplankton is limited to the spring and summer months (March/April to September). Important consumers of primary producers in the central Arctic Ocean and the adjacent shelf seas include zooplankton, especially copepods ("Calanus finmarchicus", "Calanus glacialis", and "Calanus hyperboreus") and euphausiids, as well as ice-associated fauna (e.g., amphipods). These primary consumers form an important link between the primary producers and higher trophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs. Pacific side), and with the sea-ice cover. Secondary consumers in the Barents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species including herring, young cod, and capelin. In ice-covered regions of the central Arctic Ocean, polar cod is a central predator of primary consumers. The apex predators in the Arctic Ocean - Marine mammals such as seals, whales, and polar bears, prey upon fish. Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem, and it is especially exposed to climate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world. Lion's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean. Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region. The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark. It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources. The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and a seasonal hole in the ozone layer frequently occurs. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism. Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040. Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8,000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period. Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue. As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie's river delta as stronger storm surges become more likely. Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and inhabited areas. Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and marine genus and species to become extinct. Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya, Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland, or radioactive contamination from Fukushima. On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States of America, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.	The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Sea. 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summarize: Bosnia has been inhabited since Neolithic times. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 2nd century, and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area and large parts of the former Western Empire for the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. The Slavs, a migratory people from southeastern Europe, were allied by the Eurasian Avars in the 6th century, and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and 7th centuries, settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. More South Slavs came in a second wave, and according to some scholars were invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Around this time the Eastern Romans speaking Latin were evolving into what was called in later centuries as the Byzantine Empire, speaking the Greek (named for the ancient city of Byzantium, now the capital of Constantinople since the 330s, established by Emperor Constantine the Great). Modern knowledge of Bosnia in the western Balkans during the Dark Ages is patchy. Upon the looter invasions by the Avars and Slavs from 6th-9th century, bringing Slavic languages, both probably gave way to feudalism only with the might by the Frankish penetrating into the region in the late 9th century (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal entity). It was also around this time that the Bosnians were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. In addition to the Slavic-speaking population, a good number of romanized people remained in south Bosnia by the year 1000. Speaking a Balkan Romance language (related to Romanian), and having retreated into mountainous areas and adopted a pastoralist way of life, they became known as "Vlachs". With time they assimilated, though maintaining specific customs, and the word Vlach came to indicate any shepherd. Being well-versed with horse breeding, Vlachs came to dominate trade and caravan from coastal merchant town towards the interior, growing prosperous and coming to dominate entire regions of Hum, thus merging in Bosnia's medieval feudal society. It is only from the 9th century that Frankish and Byzantine sources begin to mention early Slavic polities in the region. In this regard, the earliest widely acknowledged reference to Bosnia dates from the 10th century "De Administrando Imperio" written by Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, during which period Bosnia is briefly a part of the short-lived Serbian state of Časlav, after whose death in battle in about 960, much of Bosnia finds itself briefly incorporated into the Croatian state of Krešimir II. Shortly thereafter, in 997, Samuel of Bulgaria marches through Bosnia and asserts his over-lordship in parts of it, however, only to be defeated by the Byzantine Empire in 1018 which annexes Bulgaria and asserts its suzerainty in Bosnia. This lasted until later in the century when some parts of Bosnia are briefly incorporated into Croatia and others into Duklja from which the latter Bosnia appears to have seceded in about 1101, upon which Bosnia's bans tried to rule for themselves. However, they all too often found themselves in a tug-of-war between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. In the year of 1137, Hungary annexes most of Bosnia, then briefly losing her in 1167 to the Byzantine Empire before regaining her in 1180. Thus, prior to 1180 and the reign of Ban Kulin parts of Bosnia were briefly found in Serb or Croat units, but neither neighbor had held the Bosnians long enough to acquire their loyalty or to impose any serious claim to Bosnia. The first recorded Ban (viceroy) was Ban Borić, vassal to the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a succession crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1167, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and eventually emplaced their own vassal as Ban – the native Ban Kulin (r. 1180-1204). However, this vassalage was largely nominal, and Bosnia had for all practical purposes made itself into an independent state under Kulin. Ban Kulin presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254, which also fostered the schism of the Bosnian Church. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in 1377. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463, while resistance was active and fierce for a few more centuries. Southern regions of Bosnia, nowadays known as "Herzegovina" would follow in 1483, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced tremendous changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed, the Ottomans nonetheless allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity - a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Within this sandžak (and eventual vilayet) of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest ethno-religious group (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam), while a significant number of Sephardi Jews arrived following their expulsion from Spain in the late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, although on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded and their numbers dwindled. The Orthodox community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and southeastern Bosnia, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the 19th century. Meanwhile, the native schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether. As the Ottoman Empire thrived and expanded into Central Europe, Bosnia was relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a prolonged period of general welfare and prosperity. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into major regional centers of trade and urban culture. Within these cities, various Sultans and governors financed the construction of many important works of Bosnian architecture (such as the Stari most and Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque). Furthermore, numerous Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian soldiers formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, two decisive military victories, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military bureaucracy to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals, generals, and grand viziers. Many Bosnians also made a lasting impression on Ottoman culture, emerging as mystics, scholars, and celebrated poets in the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages. By the late 17th century, however, the Ottoman Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the empire's westernmost province. But they allowed some of the Bosnian tribes to immigrate into the Arabian countries (Palestine, Jordan). The following hundred years were marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39) translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battle since they "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege of Osterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress. Bosnian Muslim women and men were among the casualties during the Battle of Osterwitchatyk. Bosnian Muslim women fought in the defense of the fortress of Būzin (Büzin). Women and men resisted the Austrians at the Chetin (Çetin) Fortress. The women of the Bosnians were deemed to be militaristic according to non-Ottoman records of the war between the Ottomans and Austrians and they played a role in the Bosnian success in battle against the Austrian attackers. Yeni Pazar, Izvornik, Östroviç-i âtık, Çetin, Būzin, Gradişka, and Banaluka were struck by the Austrians. A French account described the bravery in battle of Bosnian Muslim women who fought in the war. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous (albeit ultimately unsuccessful) revolt by Husein Gradaščević in 1831. Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850. A renewed effort at Ottoman reforms occurred in the 1860s under the leadership of the governor Topal Şerif Osman occurred, as he founded a provincial printing press in 1866 that published in both Ottoman Turkish and Bosnian. Later, agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. While violent revolt prompted many to disparage Ottoman rule, it was in fact Ottoman reforms in the realm of cultural production and education that "created the conditions for greater intellectual production that continued during the Habsburg era." Though an Austria-Hungary military force quickly subjugated initial armed resistance upon take-over, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization. The Habsburgs took special care to integrate local Muslims into the fabric of empire, continuing, for example, to publish a provincial yearbook—much like the Ottomans—in Turkish for over a decade after the end of Ottoman rule. Many local officials moreover stayed the same, with the Mehmed-Beg Kapetanović Ljubušak, for example, remaining the mayor of Sarajevo under both polities and, moreover, obtaining the very same level of honor from both the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, with a Third Class Order of Mecidiye and an Order of the Iron Crown Third Class, respectively. All of this amounted to what one historian has called an "almost seamless transition from one empire to another." Although successful economically, Austro-Hungarian policy - which focused on advocating the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation (largely favored by the Muslims) - failed to curb the rising tides of nationalism. The concept of Croat and Serb nationhood had already spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholics and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid 19th century, and was too well-entrenched to allow for the widespread acceptance of a parallel idea of Bosnian nationhood. By the latter half of the 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections. The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to formally annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 (the Bosnian Crisis) added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists. The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914, when a Young Bosnia revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo. The event set off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I. Although 10% of the Bosniak population died serving in the armies or being killed by the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. Following World War I, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over the Agrarian Reform of 1918–19 manifested through mass colonization and property confiscation; also formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the joining of the Tripartite Pact, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). The NDH rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution and genocide. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated. Hundreds of thousands of Serbs died either in Ustaše concentration camps or in widespread mass killings by Ustaše militia. Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks, a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous 'Greater Serbian' state. The Chetniks were responsible for widespread persecution and murder of non-Serbs and communist sympathizers, with the Muslim population of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Sandžak being a primary target. Once captured, Muslim villages were systematically massacred by the Chetniks. The total estimate of Muslims killed by Chetniks is between 80,000 and 100,000, most likely about 86,000 or 6.7 percent of their population (8.1 percent in Bosnia and Herzegovina alone). Several Bosnian Muslim paramilitary units joined the NDH forces to counter their own persecution in the hands of the Serbs in Bosnia. On 12 October 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše, made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and the wider Muslim population, presented information about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity. According to the US Holocaust Museum, 320,000-340,000 ethnic Serbs were murdered. According to the Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum and Research Center, "More than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in horribly sadistic ways, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert" during WWII in the Independent State of Croatia (modern day Croatia and Bosnia). Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against Axis, Ustaše, and Chetnik forces. They too, committed numerous atrocities, mainly against political opponents of all ethnicities. Some Bosnian Muslims joined the SS Handschar division, an SS division of the Nazis that pledged allegiance to both Adolf Hitler and NDH leader, Ante Pavelić. The division was the first SS division which was constituted of non-Germans. On 25 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans. On 6 April 1945 Sarajevo was captured by the Partisans. The end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state. Because of its central geographic position within the for much of the 1950s and 1960s, the 1970s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic could not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. The first multi-party parliamentary elections held on 18 and 25 November 1990 led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). A declaration of sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992. The referendum was boycotted by the great majority of Bosnian Serbs, so with a voter turnout of 64%, 98% of which voted in favor of the proposal. Bosnia and Herzegovina became an independent state on 3 March 1992. While the first casualty of the war is debated, significant Serbian offensives began in March 1992 in Eastern and Northern Bosnia. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosniak villages around Čapljina on 7 March 1992 and around Bosanski Brod and Goražde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian woman on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs, is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities. Open warfare began in Sarajevo on 6 April. International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina meant that the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) officially withdrew from the republic's territory, although their Bosnian Serb members merely joined the Army of Republika Srpska. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by the Serbs. In March 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the Bosniak and ethnic-Croatian leaders led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This, along with international outrage at Serb war crimes and atrocities (most notably the Srebrenica massacre of as many as 8,000 Bosniak males in July 1995) helped turn the tide of war. The signing of the Dayton Agreement in Paris by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Yugoslavia (Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The three years of war and bloodshed had left between 90,000 and 110,000 people killed and more than 2 million displaced. Since its 1992 independence and the 1995 Constitutional framework of the Dayton Agreement, Bosnia and Herzegovina has followed a path of state-building, while remaining under final international supervision through the figure of the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federation of two Entities - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, as well as the district of Brčko. Each of the Entities has its own Constitution and extensive legislative powers. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a potential candidate country for accession into the EU; the EU-BiH Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) was signed in 2008 and entered into force in June 2015. Bosnia and Herzegovina submitted its formal application for EU membership on 15 February 2016; the EU Council conditioned its consideration to further progress on the implementation of the Reform Agenda, as well as to the adaptation of the SAA to take into account the EU accession of Croatia, and to an agreement on a functioning Coordination Mechanism on EU matters. These conditions were fulfilled by the Summer 2016. The accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to NATO is in the negotiation phase, and a Membership Action Plan was signed in April 2010. It requires Bosnia and Herzegovina to define the issue of property over defence assets before NATO may consider the next steps. Bosnian political parties have different attitudes towards NATO: while Bosniak and Bosnian Croat parties support it, Bosnian Serb parties are more cautious and, while not opposing it in principle, require it to be put to a referendum first. On 4 February 2014, the protests against the government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the country's two entities, began in the northern town of Tuzla. Workers from several factories which were privatised and which have now gone bankrupt united to demand action over jobs, unpaid salaries and pensions. Soon protests spread to the rest of the Federation, with violent clashes reported in close to 20 towns, the biggest of which were Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar, Bihać, Brčko and Tuzla. The Bosnian news media reported that hundreds of people had been injured during the protests, including dozens of police officers, with bursts of violence in Sarajevo, in the northern city of Tuzla, in Mostar in the south, and in Zenica in central Bosnia. The same level of unrest or activism did not occur in the Republika Srpska, but hundreds of people also gathered in support of protests in the town of Banja Luka against its separate government. The protests marked the largest outbreak of public anger over high unemployment and two decades of political inertia in the country since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995.	Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes referred to simply as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. It has had permanent settlement since the Neolithic Age. By the early historical period it was inhabited by Illyrians and Celts. Christianity arrived in the 1st century, and by the 4th century the area became part of the Western Roman Empire. Germanic tribes invaded soon after, followed by Slavs in the 6th Century. In 1136, Béla II of Hungary invaded Bosnia and created the title "Ban of Bosnia" as an honorary title for his son Ladislaus II of Hungary. During this time, Bosnia became virtually autonomous, and was eventually proclaimed a kingdom in 1377. The Ottoman Empire followed in 1463 and lasted over 400 years. They wrought great changes to the political and administrative system, introduced land reforms, and class and religious distinctions. A series of uprisings began 1831, which culminated in the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 brought the redrawing of administrative regions into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, and removed any trace of Bosnian identity. The kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, and Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which led to widespread persecution and genocide. 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17262, 8, 23662, 7, 111, 88669, 136, 40780, 53, 20271, 3129, 764, 90254, 33, 297, 70, 23295, 25, 7, 111503, 8305, 85689, 3387, 678, 110663, 136, 2609, 3466, 5, 18763, 79986, 2843, 94419, 70, 4034, 111, 10, 17340, 7864, 53, 678, 70, 55124, 66, 84084, 4, 142, 23, 15386, 79357, 14949, 19216, 18, 90698, 3688, 70760, 390, 15044, 70, 12610, 129574, 136, 24453, 9022, 12426, 7352, 17574, 106820, 90, 5, 360, 57553, 47, 112465, 66, 81887, 7, 47, 4527, 106820, 44951, 7, 118861, 70, 31089, 237, 10, 3917, 47, 456, 164779, 95934, 38529, 939, 645, 55124, 11, 4, 11084, 73, 34658, 10, 215394, 111, 4000, 106820, 119893, 47, 10670, 85018, 70, 3688, 4861, 23, 427, 38775, 262, 61518, 903, 4, 112465, 66, 130970, 7, 47143, 297, 51, 152028, 71, 4989, 7103, 11084, 73, 25, 7, 47219, 23, 427, 7709, 4, 259, 592, 4734, 7103, 142, 51, 226534, 7, 7844, 116000, 191, 23, 427, 12338, 4, 3129, 2843, 1738, 56, 297, 70, 5094, 8780, 111, 70, 55124, 66, 84084, 5, 55124, 66, 32692, 1295, 7068, 24189, 70, 39395, 616, 927, 142642, 509, 94419, 390, 70, 14537, 151994, 17721, 70, 85074, 95286, 136, 19856, 46903, 5524, 87143, 5, 3293, 79612, 21449, 47, 142, 3564, 23, 702, 4015, 4, 3229, 228028, 1995, 19856, 46903, 5524, 100512, 4599, 5, 3311, 70, 1733, 111, 1919, 47219, 23, 702, 14226, 4, 764, 1902, 214493, 297, 23, 3398, 3355, 214, 43396, 90, 47, 70, 144477, 136, 65272, 4, 237, 5299, 237, 825, 22462, 5246, 136, 63920, 111, 100974, 4526, 5, 1529, 509, 214493, 297, 390, 1919, 53297, 145204, 384, 130786, 265, 2750, 4, 25632, 10, 85673, 297, 151994, 678, 110, 83259, 136, 1940, 9, 212122, 22223, 2242, 4, 21647, 297, 4393, 6226, 111, 70, 23295, 23, 702, 18197, 5, 9626, 384, 130786, 265, 4, 55124, 11, 3514, 434, 23, 15044, 13267, 136, 14537, 4, 77681, 141753, 142, 41371, 60097, 3815, 23, 702, 14546, 5, 77168, 214, 1919, 47219, 23, 702, 12183, 49903, 4, 55124, 11, 77736, 3934, 10, 4989, 14922, 111, 206398, 5, 581, 180, 139891, 145359, 1902, 21771, 26859, 6863, 158, 75616, 111, 14713, 136, 87279, 10, 13036, 120332, 47, 70, 57116, 7, 87420, 70, 5117, 23552, 111, 70, 423, 927, 142642, 5, 201106, 4, 7103, 8, 23662, 7, 111, 68894, 136, 2265, 23, 271, 41159, 4, 55124, 11, 51521, 538, 77736, 23, 616, 15748, 4, 12960, 39746, 7154, 509, 36457, 136, 38781, 329, 100, 10, 10846, 1286, 202032, 90, 5, 174715, 10776, 7, 111, 55124, 11, 4, 134523, 5636, 7, 51529, 237, 44, 25178, 731, 12074, 885, 58, 2806, 28960, 23, 616, 17168, 4, 678, 10, 112465, 66, 9, 12620, 297, 19574, 590, 3674, 44, 140752, 72173, 117604, 58, 8035, 70, 4568, 47, 42593, 10591, 275, 23, 423, 3768, 5, 581, 180, 139891, 158, 75616, 111, 55124, 11, 94419, 10, 3525, 1615, 23, 70, 23295, 25, 7, 32692, 136, 65508, 71, 59897, 4017, 223, 65572, 23, 70, 68894, 136, 15380, 212790, 111, 70, 10776, 5, 106073, 70, 60097, 3815, 1902, 2809, 134616, 297, 136, 6863, 11192, 110, 83259, 71924, 297, 4, 70, 71047, 47126, 351, 13, 2347, 9393, 107003, 100, 70, 122785, 1363, 111, 55124, 11, 25, 7, 182324, 390, 49504, 1916, 442, 237, 142, 28970, 140280, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 678, 6863, 186768, 9351, 136, 53732, 9114, 2481, 20, 10, 36998, 7225, 54940, 1614, 461, 208, 3674, 117249, 23, 70, 57116, 7, 5, 17106, 73, 903, 19096, 869, 344, 15, 2940, 57693, 42867, 25983, 16, 111, 55124, 11, 4, 70, 71047, 47126, 65508, 71, 10, 14012, 111, 22799, 65572, 23, 70, 181991, 53, 25, 7, 30355, 9, 170272, 289, 86052, 74, 26719, 10, 3525, 3551, 16200, 214, 5426, 4, 10, 206431, 1363, 111, 86757, 25072, 7, 4, 136, 10, 27140, 5426, 111, 2265, 99710, 2320, 390, 18507, 136, 167821, 261, 67666, 2320, 5, 581, 22759, 202032, 90, 111, 180, 139891, 79986, 2843, 1902, 10, 211228, 24725, 98, 55124, 11, 25, 7, 43904, 3249, 9, 2037, 4, 3129, 98816, 40368, 20028, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 70, 352, 95972, 25, 7, 158, 75616, 7, 4, 103351, 1631, 7, 678, 28811, 14537, 7, 4, 212416, 7, 4, 136, 83063, 4439, 5, 62, 24, 4935, 187414, 238, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 22458, 26908, 74216, 71, 136, 155605, 100512, 70, 142105, 82, 127, 157, 9, 226572, 223, 21115, 15, 24931, 538, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 10, 128839, 538, 9588, 214, 14012, 111, 142477, 7, 47, 3726, 247, 12960, 10, 88551, 14012, 111, 21693, 25612, 14, 845, 19725, 174920, 25632, 2363, 14700, 202, 6889, 1295, 84740, 23, 70, 72399, 423, 927, 142642, 5, 581, 55124, 66, 14949, 142080, 2843, 122446, 13036, 65572, 5, 581, 55124, 66, 116668, 10133, 15, 2940, 70, 129574, 43904, 237, 10, 28271, 16, 3542, 30312, 390, 51521, 109343, 8, 7612, 13, 4, 102971, 98, 70, 61585, 6097, 142027, 7, 3542, 27983, 2837, 107, 42077, 297, 136, 2363, 101935, 104, 50777, 6259, 5, 581, 12426, 7352, 17574, 26908, 23, 55124, 11, 4, 61475, 538, 17438, 14534, 47, 47820, 3081, 27533, 136, 127067, 13, 11, 48850, 55124, 11, 4, 93403, 87420, 70, 23295, 20271, 903, 14922, 136, 23409, 98, 47, 16981, 35845, 78737, 2481, 24189, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 5, 1215, 66, 204610, 4, 70, 24, 4935, 23439, 7, 47148, 55124, 66, 84084, 213566, 297, 144, 239483, 5, 1301, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 6, 68332, 4126, 136, 71062, 297, 3934, 15881, 14713, 4, 55124, 11, 509, 28702, 13, 4126, 111, 70, 81147, 7, 111, 8035, 10, 12912, 6815, 140280, 136, 122446, 10, 85673, 297, 14922, 111, 4537, 2950, 44937, 136, 78737, 2481, 5, 62, 14012, 111, 162708, 4, 6044, 237, 69833, 136, 103901, 4, 3542, 170920, 136, 3514, 434, 3934, 13036, 18150, 27585, 7, 111, 52350, 136, 27081, 29394, 5, 17106, 73, 6097, 162708, 4, 67842, 26672, 7, 136, 23607, 4295, 82466, 71, 70, 50961, 111, 5941, 5526, 43240, 111, 55124, 66, 6, 159958, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 70, 4612, 14, 2684, 136, 121689, 20387, 65381, 9, 43934, 25, 7, 8455, 944, 194, 27766, 9319, 17678, 4, 183851, 55124, 10133, 112730, 26794, 80973, 31486, 7, 23, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 25, 7, 15380, 136, 68894, 32692, 20271, 903, 1733, 5, 55124, 66, 79063, 1314, 100, 4806, 10, 21334, 82761, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 30648, 7, 23, 70, 133868, 7, 111, 61148, 71479, 136, 8815, 118481, 44457, 4, 6626, 125189, 13, 116338, 91375, 3387, 4, 12960, 183851, 3789, 55124, 10133, 49175, 8305, 70, 30648, 7, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 116338, 57495, 15182, 2408, 47, 36, 143414, 53, 70, 167375, 19069, 7, 111, 14537, 23, 70, 145359, 4, 26719, 61113, 8080, 4, 4537, 7, 4, 136, 9963, 27659, 33843, 5, 52455, 55124, 10133, 2843, 7228, 10, 6, 120027, 49128, 98, 180, 139891, 29394, 4, 50419, 9966, 237, 759, 28692, 7, 4, 191225, 7, 4, 136, 176016, 71, 30260, 7, 23, 70, 43563, 1495, 4, 197212, 4, 136, 57309, 66, 46876, 7, 5, 3311, 70, 72399, 729, 927, 142642, 4, 49903, 4, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 25, 7, 116338, 1239, 17883, 1811, 7, 156892, 1257, 678, 70, 23295, 4, 136, 70, 93192, 111, 70, 32774, 43563, 1495, 5550, 678, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 17038, 31, 147595, 23, 611, 5046, 24145, 13438, 7228, 55124, 11, 70, 352, 95972, 25, 7, 171827, 840, 18, 140280, 5, 4966, 1836, 107003, 3060, 111, 70, 55124, 66, 109120, 90, 47, 194704, 67, 3934, 70, 88172, 19, 76726, 15, 81841, 525, 1212, 4, 44532, 194, 581, 25632, 75281, 5369, 3542, 94419, 390, 53333, 116338, 137578, 7, 4, 183851, 52831, 933, 28032, 55124, 11, 4, 136, 40368, 1810, 5992, 271, 7, 111, 3412, 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9, 70547, 90, 30283, 55124, 66, 64857, 15, 320, 2679, 53, 10862, 297, 390, 70, 22458, 7, 16, 20, 165523, 47, 9709, 275, 70, 9588, 214, 2936, 90, 111, 15889, 8780, 5, 581, 23755, 111, 24727, 257, 136, 5406, 275, 64857, 44462, 1902, 21771, 93403, 47, 55124, 11, 136, 47820, 3081, 27533, 25, 7, 129574, 7, 136, 12426, 7352, 17574, 142080, 1295, 208244, 214, 143516, 136, 80380, 23, 70, 4122, 953, 927, 142642, 4, 136, 509, 5792, 5299, 9, 22089, 19, 74694, 47, 63769, 100, 70, 38134, 21329, 712, 26946, 7154, 111, 10, 95103, 6528, 111, 55124, 66, 64857, 44462, 5, 3311, 70, 21, 3055, 23552, 111, 70, 64972, 7, 4, 15889, 8780, 509, 142, 28970, 31461, 111, 55124, 66, 44951, 7, 4, 678, 15889, 68894, 68036, 42518, 214, 47, 70, 17262, 94407, 35462, 1916, 81843, 7, 5, 581, 6528, 111, 10, 51, 47314, 25134, 187414, 238, 11341, 15, 46280, 71407, 84751, 47, 186, 13986, 147, 31251, 297, 390, 41371, 80380, 16, 100512, 10, 5700, 68894, 5415, 25443, 23, 70, 10776, 99, 903, 1733, 4, 26719, 23, 55124, 11, 136, 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summarize: The name "slapstick" originates from the Italian "Batacchio" or "Bataccio" – called the "slap stick" in English – a club-like object composed of two wooden slats used in "commedia dell'arte". When struck, the Batacchio produces a loud smacking noise, though it is only a little force that is transferred from the object to the person being struck. Actors may thus hit one another repeatedly with great audible effect while causing no damage and only very minor, if any, pain. Along with the inflatable bladder (of which the whoopee cushion is a modern variant), it was among the earliest special effects. Slapstick comedy's history is measured in centuries. Shakespeare incorporated many chase scenes and beatings into his comedies, such as in his play "The Comedy of Errors". In early 19th-century England, pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy, while comedy routines also featured heavily in British music hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s. In Punch and Judy shows, which first appeared in England on 9 May 1662, a large slapstick is wielded by Punch against the other characters. British comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby and Dan Leno. The influential English music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the young comedians who worked for him as part of "Fred Karno's Army". Chaplin's fifteen-year music hall career inspired the comedy in all his later film work, especially as pantomimicry. In a biography of Karno, Laurel stated: "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it". American film producer Hal Roach described Karno as "not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him." Building on its later popularity in the 19th and early 20th-century ethnic routines of the American vaudeville house, the style was explored extensively during the "golden era" of black and white, silent movies directed by figures Mack Sennett and Hal Roach and featuring such notables as Charlie Chaplin, Mabel Normand, Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers and the Keystone Cops. Silent slapstick comedy was also popular in early French films and included films by Max Linder, Charles Prince, and Sarah Duhamel. Slapstick also became a common element in animated cartoons starting in the 1930; examples include Disney's "Goofy" shorts, Walter Lantz's Woody Woodpecker and The Beary Family, MGM's "Tom and Jerry", the unrelated Tom and Jerry cartoons of Van Beuren Studios, Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies", MGM's "Barney Bear", and Tex Avery's "Screwy Squirrel". Slapstick was later used in Japanese Tokusatsu TV "Kamen Rider Drive" and in the United States used in the two 1960s TV series, "Gilligan's Island", and "Batman". Slapstick continues to maintain a presence in modern comedy that draws upon its lineage, running in film from Buster Keaton and Louis de Funès to Jerry Lewis and Mel Brooks to the television series "Jackass" and comedy movies by the Farrelly Brothers, and in live performance from Weber and Fields to Jackie Gleason to Rowan Atkinson. In England, slapstick was a main element of the Monty Python comedy troupe and in television series such as "Fawlty Towers" and "The Benny Hill Show". Slapstick has remained a popular art form to the present day including "The Simpsons".	Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. 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summarize: Denis Diderot was born in Langres, Champagne. His parents were Didier Diderot (1685–1759), a cutler, "maître coutelier", and Angélique Vigneron (1677–1748). Three of five siblings survived to adulthood, Denise Diderot (1715–1797) and their youngest brother Pierre-Didier Diderot (1722–1787), and finally their sister Angélique Diderot (1720–1749). According to Arthur McCandless Wilson, Denis Diderot greatly admired his sister Denise, sometimes referring to her as "a female Socrates". Diderot began his formal education at a Jesuit college in Langres, earning a Master of Arts degree in philosophy in 1732. He then entered the Collège d'Harcourt of the University of Paris. He abandoned the idea of entering the clergy in 1735, and instead decided to study at the Paris Law Faculty. His study of law was short-lived however and in the early 1740s, he decided to become a writer and translator. Because of his refusal to enter Diderot's earliest works included a translation of Temple Stanyan's "History of Greece" (1743); with two colleagues, François-Vincent Toussaint and Marc-Antoine Eidous, he produced a translation of Robert James's "Medicinal Dictionary" (1746–1748). In 1745, he published a translation of Shaftesbury's "Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit", to which he had added his own "reflections". In 1746, Diderot wrote his first original work: the "Philosophical Thoughts" (French:"Pensées philosophiques"). In this book, Diderot argued for a reconciliation of reason with feeling so as to establish harmony. According to Diderot, without feeling there is a detrimental In 1747, Diderot wrote "The Skeptic's Walk" (French:"Promenade du sceptique") in which a deist, an atheist, and a pantheist have a dialogue on the nature of divinity. The deist gives the argument from design. The atheist says that the universe is better explained by In 1748, Diderot needed to raise money on short notice. He had become a father through his wife, and his mistress Mme. de Puisieux was making financial demands from him. At this time, Diderot had stated to Mme. de Puisieux that writing a novel was a trivial task, whereupon she challenged him to write a novel. In response, Diderot wrote his novel "The Indiscreet Jewels" (French:"Les bijoux indiscrets"). The book is about the magical ring of a Sultan which induces any woman's "discreet jewels" to confess their sexual experiences when the ring is pointed at them. In all, Diderot would keep writing on science in a desultory way all his life. The scientific work of which he was most proud was "Memoires sur differents sujets de mathematique" (1748). This work contains original ideas on acoustics, tension, air resistance, and "a project for a new organ" which could be played by all. Some of Diderot's scientific works were applauded by contemporary publications of his time like "The Gentleman's Magazine", the "Journal des savants"; and the Jesuit publication "Journal de Trevoux," which invited more such work: "on the part Diderot's celebrated "Letter on the Blind" ("Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient") (1749) introduced him to the world as an original thinker. The subject is a discussion of the relation between man's reason and the knowledge acquired through perception (the five senses). The title of his book also evoked some ironic doubt about who exactly were "the blind" under discussion. In the essay, blind English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson argues that, since knowledge derives from the senses, mathematics is the only form of knowledge that both he and a sighted person can agree on. It is suggested that the blind could be taught to read through their sense of touch. (A later essay, "Lettre sur les sourds et muets", considered the case of a similar deprivation in the deaf and mute.) According to Jonathan Israel, what makes the "Lettre sur les aveugles" so remarkable, however, is its distinct, if undeveloped, presentation of the theory of variation and natural selection. This powerful essay, for which La Mettrie expressed Angered by public resentment over the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the government started incarcerating many of its critics. It was decided at this time to rein in Diderot. On 23 July 1749, the governor of the Vincennes fortress instructed the police to incarcerate Diderot, and the next day he was arrested and placed in solitary confinement in the Vincennes. It is during this time that Jean-Jacques Rousseau came to visit Diderot in prison and came out a changed man, with newfound ideas about the downsides of knowledge, civilization and Enlightenment – the so-called "illumination de Vincennes". Diderot had been permitted to retain one book that he had in his possession at the time of André le Breton, a bookseller and printer, approached Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation of Ephraim Chambers' "Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences" into French, first undertaken by the Englishman John Mills, and followed by the German Gottfried Sellius. Diderot accepted the proposal, and transformed it. He persuaded Le Breton to publish a new work, which would consolidate ideas and knowledge from the Republic of Letters. The publishers found capital for a larger enterprise than Diderot's work, however, was mired in controversy from the beginning; the project was suspended by the courts in 1752. Just as the second volume was completed accusations arose regarding seditious content, concerning the editor's entries on religion and natural law. Diderot was detained and his house was searched for manuscripts for subsequent articles: but the search proved fruitless as no manuscripts could be found. They were hidden in the house of an unlikely confederate—Chretien de Lamoignon Malesherbes, who originally ordered the search. Although Malesherbes was a staunch absolutist, and loyal to the monarchy—he was sympathetic to the literary project. Along with his support, and that of other well-placed influential confederates, the project resumed. Diderot returned to his efforts only to be constantly embroiled in controversy. These twenty years were to Diderot not merely a time of incessant drudgery, but Diderot was left to finish the task as best he could. He wrote 7,000 articles, some very slight, but many of them laborious, comprehensive, and long. He damaged his eyesight correcting proofs and editing the manuscripts of less competent contributors. He spent his days at workshops, mastering manufacturing processes, and his nights writing what he had learned during the day. He was incessantly harassed by threats of police raids. The last copies of the first volume were issued in 1765. In 1764, when his immense work was drawing to an end, he encountered a crowning mortification: he Although the "Encyclopédie" was Diderot's most monumental product, he was the author of many other works that sowed nearly every intellectual field with new and creative ideas. Diderot's writing ranges from a graceful trifle like the "Regrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre" ("Regrets for my Old Dressing Gown") up to the heady "D'Alembert's Dream" ("Le Rêve de d'Alembert") (composed 1769), a philosophical dialogue in which he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. "Jacques le fataliste" (written in 1773, but not published until 1792 in German and 1796 in French) is similar to "Tristram Shandy" and "The Sentimental Journey" in its challenge to the conventional novel's structure and content. "La Religieuse" was a novel that claimed to show the corruption of the Catholic Church's institutions. The novel began not as a work for literary consumption, but as an elaborate practical joke aimed at luring the Marquis de Croismare, a companion of Diderot's, back to Paris. "The Nun" is set in the Eighteenth century, that is, contemporary France. Suzanne Simonin is an intelligent and sensitive sixteen-year-old French girl who is forced against her will into a Catholic convent by her parents. Suzanne's parents initially inform her that she is being sent to the convent for financial reasons. However, while in the convent, she learns that she is actually there because she is an illegitimate child, as her mother committed adultery. By sending Suzanne to the convent, her mother thought she could make amends for her sins by using her daughter as a sacrificial offering. Diderot did not use the novel as an outlet to condemn Christianity, but as a way to criticize cloistered life. In Diderot's telling, the Church fostered a hierarchical society, prevalent in the power dynamic between the Mother Superior and the girls in the convent. Girls were forced against their will to Although "The Nun" was completed in about 1780, the work was not published until 1796, after Diderot's death. The dialogue "Rameau's Nephew" (French: "Le Neveu de Rameau") is a "farce-tragedy" reminiscent of the "Satires" of Horace, a favorite classical author of Diderot's whose lines "Vertumnis, quotquot sunt, natus iniquis" ("Born under (the influence of) the unfavorable (gods) Vertumnuses, however many they are") appear as epigraph. According to Nicholas Cronk, "Rameau's Nephew" is "arguably the greatest work of the French Enlightenment's greatest writer." The narrator in the book recounts a conversation with, nephew of the famous Jean-Philippe Rameau. The nephew composes and teaches music with some success but feels disadvantaged by his name and is jealous of his uncle. Eventually he sinks into an indolent and debauched state. After his wife's death, he loses all self-esteem and his brusque manners result in him being ostracized by former friends. A character profile of the nephew is now sketched by Diderot: a man who was once wealthy and comfortable with Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue—whether as a satire on contemporary manners, a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, a mere setting for a The publication history of the "Nephew" is circuitous. Written in 1761, Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, and apparently did not even share it with his friends. After Diderot's death, a copy of the text reached Schiller, who gave it to Goethe, who, in 1805, translated the work into German. Goethe's translation entered France, and was retranslated into French in 1821. Another copy of the text was published in 1823, but it had been expurgated by Diderot's daughter prior to publication. The original manuscript was only found in 1891. Diderot's most intimate friend was the philologist Friedrich Melchior Grimm. They were brought together by their common friend at that time, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In 1753, Grimm began writing a newsletter, the "La Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique", which he would send to various high personages in Europe. In 1759, Grimm asked Diderot to report on the biennial art exhibitions in the Louvre for the "Correspondance". Diderot reported on the Salons between 1759 and 1771 and again in 1775 and 1781. Diderot's reports would become "the most celebrated contributions to La Correspondance." According to Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, Diderot's reports initiated Diderot wrote sentimental plays, "Le Fils naturel" (1757) and "Le Père de famille" (1758), accompanying them with essays on theatrical theory and practice, including "Les Entretiens sur "Le Fils Naturel"" (Conversations on "The Natural Son"), in which he announced the principles of a new When the Russian Empress Catherine the Great heard that Diderot was in need of money, she arranged to buy his library and appoint him caretaker of it until his death, at a salary of 1,000 livres per year. She even paid him 50 years salary in advance. Although Diderot hated traveling, he was obliged to visit her. On 9 October 1773, he reached St. When returning, Diderot asked the Empress for 1,500 rubles as reimbursement for his trip. She gave him 3,000 rubles, an expensive ring, and an officer to escort him back to Paris. He would write a eulogy in her honor on reaching Paris. In 1766, when Catherine heard that Diderot had not received his annual fee for editing the "Encyclopédie" (an important source of income for the philosopher), she arranged for him to receive a massive sum of 50,000 livres as an advance for his services as her librarian. In July 1784, upon hearing that Diderot was in poor health, Catherine arranged for him to move into a luxurious suite in the "Rue de Richelieu". Diderot died two weeks after moving there—on 31 July 1784. Among Diderot's last works were notes "On the Instructions of her Imperial Majesty...for the Drawing In his youth, Diderot was originally a follower of Voltaire and his deist "Anglomanie", but gradually moved away from this line of thought towards materialism and atheism, a move which was finally realised in 1747 in the philosophical debate in the second part of his "The Skeptic's Walk" (1747). Diderot opposed mysticism and occultism, which were highly prevalent in France at the time he wrote, and believed religious truth claims must fall under the domain of reason, not mystical experience or esoteric secrets. However, Diderot showed some interest in the Diderot died of pulmonary thrombosis in Paris on 31 July 1784, and was buried in the city's Église Saint-Roch. His heirs sent his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the National Library of Russia. He has several Marmontel and commented on the great pleasure of having intellectual conversations with Diderot. Morellet, a regular attendee at D'Holbach's salon, wrote: "It is there that I heard...Diderot treat questions of philosophy, art, or literature, and by his wealth of expression, fluency, and inspired appearance, hold our attention for a long stretch of time." Diderot's contemporary, and rival, Jean Jacques Rousseau wrote in his "Confessions" that after a few centuries Diderot would be accorded as much respect by posterity as was given to Plato Otis Fellows and Norman Torrey have described Diderot as "the most interesting and provocative figure of the French eighteenth century." In 1993, American writer Cathleen Schine published "Rameau's Niece", a satire of academic life in New York that took as its premise a woman's research into an (imagined) 18th-century pornographic parody of Diderot's "Rameau's Nephew". The book was praised by Michiko Kakutani in the "New York Times" as "a nimble philosophical satire of the academic mind" and "an enchanting comedy of modern manners." French author Eric-Emmanuel Schmitt wrote a play titled "Le Libertin" ("The Libertine") which imagines a day in Diderot's life including a fictional sitting for a woman painter which becomes sexually charged but is interrupted by the demands of editing the "Encyclopédie". It was first staged at Paris' Théâtre Montparnasse in 1997 starring Bernard Giraudeau as Diderot and Christiane Cohendy as Madame Therbouche and was well received by critics. In 2013, the tricentennial of Diderot's birth, his hometown of Langres held a series of events in his honor and produced an audio tour of the town highlighting places that were part of Diderot's past, including the remains of the convent where his sister Angélique took her vows. On 6 October 2013, a museum of the Enlightenment focusing on Diderot's contributions to the movement, the Maison des Lumières Denis Diderot, was inaugurated in Langres.

Denis Diderot (; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the "Encyclopédie" along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during the Age of Enlightenment.

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summarize: Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen, is highly flammable: The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol: Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from 4–74% and with chlorine at 5–95%. The explosive reactions may be triggered by spark, heat, or sunlight. The hydrogen autoignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is. Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen mix are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine, compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster, which uses an ammonium perchlorate composite. The H is relatively unreactive. The thermodynamic basis this low reactivity is the very strong H-H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol. The kinetic basis of the low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H and its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, respectively. Molten sodium and potassium react with the gas to give the respective hydrides NaH and KH. The reactivity of H is strongly affected by the presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while H combusts readily, mixtures of H and O do not react in the absence of a catalyst. The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is −13.6 eV, which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 91 nm wavelength. The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as "orbiting" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However, the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic force, while planets and celestial objects are Molecular H exists a two spin isomers, i.e. compounds with two nuclear spin states. In the orthohydrogen form, the spins of the two nuclei are parallel and form a triplet state with a molecular spin quantum number of 1 (+); in the parahydrogen form the spins are antiparallel and form a singlet with a molecular spin quantum number of 0 (–). At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas contains about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form, also known as the "normal form". The equilibrium ratio of orthohydrogen to parahydrogen depends on temperature, but because the ortho form is an excited state and has a higher energy than the While H is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I), or oxygen; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive charge. When bonded to a more electronegative element, particularly fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological molecules. Hydrogen also forms compounds with less electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids, where it takes on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known as hydrides. Hydrogen forms a vast array of compounds with Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired a negative or anionic character, denoted H, and is used when hydrogen forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1 and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode. For hydrides Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H, which contains no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton. That is why is often called a proton. This species is central to discussion of acids. Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors. A bare proton,, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of its unstoppable attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot be removed from the electron clouds of atoms NASA has investigated the use of atomic hydrogen as a rocket propellant. It could be stored in liquid helium to prevent it from recombining into molecular hydrogen. When the helium is vaporized, the atomic hydrogen would be released and combine back to molecular hydrogen. The result would be an intensely hot stream of hydrogen and helium gas. The liftoff weight of rockets could be reduced by 50% by this method. Most interstellar hydrogen is in the form of atomic hydrogen because the atoms can seldom collide and combine. They are the source of the important 21 cm hydrogen line in astronomy at 1420 MHz. Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted, and. Other, highly unstable nuclei ( to ) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature. Unique among the element, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead of and ) In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "inflammable air". He speculated that "inflammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- "hydro" meaning "water" and -γενής "genes" meaning "creator") when he Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation brought understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s. One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and more than 90% by number of atoms. (Most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy.) This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of the Sun and the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive than our Sun. Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift "z"=4. Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions. The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given Hydrogen is often produced using natural gas, which involves the removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons at very high temperatures, with about 95% of hydrogen production coming from steam reforming around year 2000. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. This method is also known as the Bosch process and is widely used for the industrial preparation of hydrogen. At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and. This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure is the most marketable product and pressure Many metals react with water to produce, but the rate of hydrogen evolution depends on the metal, the pH, and the presence alloying agents. Most commonly, hydrogen evolution is induced by acids. The alkali and alkaline earth metals, aluminium, zinc, manganese, and iron react readily with aqueous acids. This reaction is the basis of the Kipp's apparatus, which once was used as a source of laboratory: In the absence of acid, the evolution More than 200 thermochemical cycles can be used for water splitting. Many of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle In deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen () is produced during the process of serpentinization. In this process by water protons (H) Large quantities of are used in the "upgrading" of fossil fuels. Key consumers of include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and Hydrogenation, the addition of to various substrates is conducted on a large scale. The hydrogenation of N2 to give ammonia by the Haber-Bosch Process consumes a few percent of the energy budget in all of industry. The resulting ammonia is used to supply the Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable Hydrogen is not an energy resource, except in the hypothetical context of commercial nuclear fusion power plants using deuterium or tritium, a technology presently far from development. The Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion of hydrogen, but this process is difficult to achieve controllably on Earth. Elemental hydrogen from solar, biological, or electrical sources requires more energy to make than is obtained by burning it, so in these cases hydrogen functions as an energy carrier, like a battery. Hydrogen may be obtained from fossil sources (such as methane), Hydrogen is employed to saturate broken ("dangling") bonds of amorphous silicon and amorphous carbon that helps stabilizing material properties. Apart from its use as a reactant, has a variety of smaller applications. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Because is lighter than air, having a little more than of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. Pure or mixed H is a product of some types of anaerobic metabolism and is produced by several microorganisms, usually via reactions catalyzed by iron- or nickel-containing enzymes called hydrogenases. These enzymes catalyze the reversible redox reaction between H and its component two protons and two electrons. Creation of hydrogen gas occurs in the transfer of reducing equivalents produced during pyruvate fermentation to water. The natural cycle of hydrogen production Hydrogen poses a number of hazards to human safety, from potential detonations and fires when mixed with air to being an asphyxiant in its pure, oxygen-free form. In addition, liquid hydrogen is a cryogen and presents dangers (such as frostbite) associated with very cold liquids. Hydrogen dissolves in many metals, and, in addition to leaking out, may have adverse effects on them, such as hydrogen embrittlement, leading to cracks and explosions. Hydrogen gas leaking into external air may spontaneously ignite. Moreover, hydrogen fire, while being extremely hot, is almost invisible, and thus can lead to accidental burns. Even interpreting the hydrogen data (including safety data) is confounded by a number of phenomena. Many physical and chemical properties of hydrogen depend on the parahydrogen/orthohydrogen ratio (it often takes days or weeks at a given temperature to reach the equilibrium ratio, for which the data is usually given). Hydrogen detonation parameters, such as critical detonation pressure and temperature, strongly depend on the container geometry.

Hydrogen is the chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Hydrogen is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most common isotope of hydrogen, termed "protium" (name rarely used, symbol H), has one proton and no neutrons.

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summarize: The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It was initially developed for use by the United States military and became fully operational in 1995. Civilian use was allowed from the 1980s. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A. Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it. The work of Gladys West is credited as instrumental in the development of computational techniques for detecting satellite positions with the precision needed for GPS. The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio-navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s. In 1955, Friedwardt Winterberg proposed a test of general relativity – detecting time slowing in a strong gravitational field using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit inside artificial satellites. Special and general relativity predict that the clocks on the GPS satellites would be seen by the Earth's observers to run 38 microseconds faster per day than the clocks on the Earth. The GPS calculated positions would quickly drift into error, accumulating to. This was corrected for in the design of GPS. When the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor its radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required. Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem—pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launched With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program. Satellite orbital position errors, induced by variations in the gravity field and radar refraction among others, had to be resolved. A team led by Harold L Jury of Pan Am Aerospace Division in Florida from 1970–1973, used real-time data assimilation and recursive estimation to do so, reducing systematic and residual errors to a manageable level to permit accurate navigation. During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a "Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS)". It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created. On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the US's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago." Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003: GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006. Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of GPS specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the ground clocks. Any drift from time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. In the same manner, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well, but they are less stable and less precise. Each Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier wave with modulation) that includes: Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver-satellite ranges plus time difference between the receiver and GPS satellites multiplied by speed of light, which are called as pseudo-ranges. The receiver then Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect. It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at The description above is representative of a receiver start-up situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm, sometimes called a "tracker", that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times—in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses GPS requires four or more satellites to be visible for accurate navigation. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver's on-board clock and the true time-of-day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. The U.S. Space Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time. The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV), in medium Earth orbit, and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection). The orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from everywhere on the Earth's surface (see animation at right). The result of this objective is that the The control segment (CS) is composed of: The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Space Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information The user segment (US) is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices). In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that,, receivers typically While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant civilian applications as well. GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand-off switching. Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer. The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above above sea level and, or designed or modified for use with unmanned missiles and aircraft, are classified as munitions (weapons)—which means they require State Department export licenses. This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) code. Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Vendor interpretations differ. The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach. These limits only apply to units or components exported from the United States. A growing trade in various components exists, including GPS units from other countries. These are expressly sold as ITAR-free. As of 2009, military GPS applications include: GPS type navigation was first used in war in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, before GPS was fully developed in 1995, to assist Coalition Forces to navigate and perform maneuvers in the war. The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of GPS to being jammed, when Iraqi forces installed jamming devices on likely targets that emitted radio noise, disrupting reception of the weak GPS While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval Observatory). The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift that atomic clocks As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). It happened the second time at 23:59:42 UTC on April 6, 2019. To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern in the future the modernized GPS civil navigation (CNAV) message will use a 13-bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero). The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military. Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a "navigation message" on L1 (C/A and P/Y) and L2 (P/Y) frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750 seconds (12 1/2 minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500-bit-long frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50-bit/s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). Each 30-second frame begins precisely on the minute or half-minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite. The first subframe of each frame encodes All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver. If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The "x, y," and "z" components of satellite position and the time sent are designated as ["x, y, z, s"] where the subscript "i" denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2,..., "n", where "n" ≥ 4. When the time of message reception indicated by the on-board receiver clock is "t̃", the true reception time is, where "b" is the receiver's clock bias from the much more accurate GPS clocks employed by the satellites. The receiver clock bias is the same for all received satellite signals (assuming the satellite clocks are all perfectly synchronized). The message's transit time is, where "s" is the satellite time. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, "c", the distance traveled is. For n satellites, the The GPS equations can be solved by numerical and analytical methods. Geometrical interpretations can enhance the understanding of these solution methods. The measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors. In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of these spheres. Signals from at minimum three satellites are required, and their three spheres would typically intersect at two points. One of the points is the location of the receiver, and the other moves rapidly If the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite "i" and the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite "j" are subtracted,, the common receiver clock bias ("b") cancels out, resulting in a difference of distances. The locus of points having a constant difference in The receiver position can be interpreted as the center of an inscribed sphere (insphere) of radius "bc", given by the receiver clock bias "b" (scaled by the speed of light "c"). The insphere location The clock in the receiver is usually not of the same quality as the ones in the satellites and will not be accurately synchronised to them. This produces large errors in the computed distances to the satellites. Therefore, in practice, the time difference between the receiver clock and the satellite time is defined as an unknown clock bias "b". The equations are then solved simultaneously for the receiver position and the clock bias. The solution space ["x, y, z, b"] can be seen as a four-dimensional geometric space, and signals from at minimum four satellites are needed. In that case each of the equations describes a spherical cone, with the cusp located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the satellite. The receiver is at the intersection of four or more of such cones. When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simultaneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common One closed-form solution to the above set of equations was developed by S. Bancroft. Its properties are well known; in particular, proponents claim it is superior in low-GDOP situations, compared to iterative least squares methods. Bancroft's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical, and can be used for four or more satellites. When four satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single-variable quadratic equation. Bancroft's method provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the case), only one is a near-Earth sensible solution. When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. A case has been made that iterative methods, such as the Gauss–Newton algorithm approach for solving over-determined non-linear least squares (NLLS) problems, generally provide more accurate solutions. Leick et al. (2015) states that "Bancroft's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed-form solution." Other closed-form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear. GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results and the expected size of those errors. GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects, but some residual errors remain uncorrected. Error sources include signal arrival time measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy. Such augmentation systems are generally named or described based on how the information arrives. Some systems transmit additional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or ionospheric delay), Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring and measurement of existing GPS signals in additional or alternative ways. The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but some errors remain. This is one reason GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency. Military receivers can decode the P(Y) code transmitted on both L1 and L2. Without decryption keys, it is still possible to use a "codeless" technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. This technique is slow, so it is currently available only on specialized surveying equipment. In the future, Another method that is used in surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wavelength, which is about for the L1 carrier. Accuracy within 1% of wavelength in detecting the leading edge reduces this component of pseudorange error to as little as. This compares to for the C/A code and for the P code. Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another. In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS-enabled devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation." With respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers, "must use receivers that reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum." For the last 30 years, GPS receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue. The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for satellite-to-ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mobile Satellite Service band. Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an application from LightSquared's predecessor, Motient Services, to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite-terrestrial service. In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry Council came to an out-of-band-emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquared's ground-based stations from emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz. In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground-based network ancillary to their satellite system – known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) – "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand-alone service." This authorization was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Space Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and U.S. Department of Transportation. In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared's wholesale customers—such as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire—to only purchase an integrated satellite-ground-based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only use the ground-based signal using LightSquared's allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz. In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquared's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices although the FCC's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed changes to the Other notable satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally NAVSTAR GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force. It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.

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summarize: The opening sequence is that of a spinning flywheel with shots of airplanes strafing the ground. The shots of the airplanes are from US Navy footage shot in the Pacific Theatre during World War II. The first scene shows the two main characters sitting in bathing suits. Their conversation is robotic and from that point on they decide to be bad. The next scene shows Marie I and Marie II dancing in front of a tree. The tree has many fruits and resembles the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil. Once Marie I eats from the tree, they both fall and appear in their apartment. Marie II attempts suicide by filling the room with gas, but fails because she left the window open. In an extended sequence of scenes, the girls go on dates with a series of older men. In each scene, the girls cavort and eat lots of food while mocking their date, who is driven to the end of his patience, at which point the girls say that they are late for a train, and then ditch the man at the train station. The girls eventually go to a nightclub with 1920s-style dancers and cause a ruckus. Marie II also goes to the apartment of a man who is a butterfly collector. In this scene, there are a lot of butterflies shown as still frames. The man repeatedly declares his love to Marie II, whom he calls Julie. At the end, she says that she wants to eat. In later scenes, the two girls lounge about in various rooms while listening to their suitors profess love for them over the phone. These scenes are accompanied by footage of the girls destroying phallic food, as well as eggs. At one point, the girls meet an older woman, who begs them to stay for a bit, and remarks on how she misses her youth. The girls wait for her to step out, then rob her and leave, after which they philosophize about their actions. Later on, they go to a factory. There are still frames of locks, and the building looks run down. They look for "nourishment" and stumble upon a feast. They eat the food, make a mess and destroy the room. They destroy a chandelier, and the film cuts to them being dunked in water like witches, as the director states how there can be no "clean resolution" to the destructive dinner. The Maries return to the dining room, and attempt to clean the room while whispering about being good and hardworking, and that this will make them happy. This is not enough, as the chandelier falls on the Maries, presumably crushing them. The film closes with war footage similar to the beginning, and ends with an epigraph that the film is "dedicated to those who get upset only over a stomped-upon bed of lettuce". Throughout the film, the two main characters muse about youth, happiness, existence, and the state of being spoiled. The film has very little in the way of plot structure, and scenes proceed from one to the next chaotically, frequently switching between black and white, color, and filter color footage. Many scenes include elements of slapstick, and the characters spend a significant amount of the film eating or playing with food. The film was positively received by Czech audience and critics. Film critic Antonín J. Liehm wrote that "Daisies" are "a remarkable film not only for the viewers that apreciate its artistic significance, but also for those who just want to be entertained and might miss its magnitude on the first viewing". Author Milan Kundera called the film "masterly made" and wrote that "monstrosity of the main characters was depicted elegantly, poetically, dreamlike and 'beautifully', but without becoming any less monstrous". It won the Trilobit Award for the Best Czechoslovak movie of 1966 by Film and TV Union. However after being criticized by the communist MP Jaroslav Pružinec during interpelations in May 1967, the film was pulled from all major cinemas and was only screened in smaller venues. The film was also very well received in Europe. French journalist Pierre Billard, writing for L'Express, compared the "Daisies" to Mack Sennett and Marx Brothers movies and called it "a grand celebration of absurdities with technical finesse and marvellous art direction so rarely achieved". In US press the reception was mostly negative. Bosley Crowther in New York Times wrote: "Pretentiously kookie and laboriously overblown mod farce about two playgirls who are thoroughly emptyheaded. Its stabs at humor and satire simply don't cut." It is the highest ranked Czech film in "They Shoot Pictures Don't They", an online aggregator of critic best-of lists.

Daisies () is a 1966 Czechoslovak comedy-drama film written and directed by Věra Chytilová. Generally regarded as a milestone of the Czechoslovak New Wave movement, it follows two young girls (Jitka Cerhová and Ivana Karbanová), both named Marie, who engage in strange pranks.

en

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summarize: Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two vertical neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. Its 47 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Kr]4d5s, similarly to copper ([Ar]3d4s) and gold ([Xe]4f5d6s); group 11 is one of the few groups in the d-block which has a completely consistent set of electron configurations. This distinctive electron configuration, with a single electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell, accounts for many of the singular properties of metallic silver. Silver is an extremely soft, ductile and malleable transition metal, though it is slightly less malleable than gold. Silver crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12, where only the single 5s electron is delocalized, similarly to copper and gold. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a high polish, and which is so characteristic that the name of the metal itself has become a colour name. Unlike copper and gold, the energy required to excite an electron from the filled d band to the s-p conduction band in silver is large enough (around 385 kJ/mol) that it no longer corresponds to absorption in the visible region of the spectrum, but rather in the ultraviolet; hence silver is not a coloured metal. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm. At wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silver's reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. Very high electrical and thermal conductivity is common to the elements in group 11, because their single s electron is free and does not interact with the filled d subshell, as such interactions (which occur in the preceding transition metals) lower electron mobility. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, but it is not widely used for this property because of the higher cost. An exception is in radio-frequency engineering, particularly at VHF and higher frequencies where silver plating improves electrical conductivity because those currents tend to flow on the surface of conductors rather than through the interior. During World War II in the US, tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper. Pure silver has the highest thermal conductivity of any metal, although the conductivity of carbon (in the diamond allotrope) and superfluid helium-4 are even higher. Silver also has the lowest contact resistance of any metal. Silver readily forms alloys with copper and gold, as well as zinc. Zinc-silver alloys with low zinc concentration may be considered as face-centred cubic solid solutions of zinc in silver, as the structure of the silver is largely unchanged while the electron concentration rises as more zinc is added. Increasing the electron concentration further leads to body-centred cubic (electron concentration 1.5), complex cubic (1.615), and hexagonal close-packed phases (1.75). Silver is a rather unreactive metal. This is because its filled 4d shell is not very effective in shielding the electrostatic forces of attraction from the nucleus to the outermost 5s electron, and hence silver is near the bottom of the electrochemical series ("E"(Ag/Ag) = +0.799 V). In group 11, silver has the lowest first ionization energy (showing the instability of the 5s orbital), but has higher second and third ionization energies than copper and gold (showing the stability of the 4d orbitals), so that the chemistry of silver is predominantly that of the +1 oxidation state, reflecting the increasingly limited range of oxidation states along the transition series as the d-orbitals fill and stabilize. Unlike copper, for which the larger hydration energy of Cu as compared to Cu is the reason why the former is the more stable in aqueous solution and solids despite lacking the stable filled d-subshell of the latter, with silver this effect is swamped by its larger second ionisation energy. Hence, Ag is the stable species in aqueous solution and solids, with Ag being much less stable as it oxidizes water. Most silver compounds have significant covalent character due to the small size and high first ionization energy (730.8 kJ/mol) of silver. Furthermore, silver's Pauling electronegativity of 1.93 is higher than that of lead (1.87), and its electron affinity of 125.6 kJ/mol is much higher than that of hydrogen (72.8 kJ/mol) and not much less than that of oxygen (141.0 kJ/mol). Due to its full d-subshell, silver in its main +1 oxidation state exhibits relatively few properties of the transition metals proper from groups 4 to 10, forming rather unstable organometallic compounds, forming linear complexes showing very low coordination numbers like 2, and forming an amphoteric oxide Silver and gold have rather low chemical affinities for oxygen, lower than copper, and it is therefore expected that silver oxides are thermally quite unstable. Soluble silver(I) salts precipitate dark-brown silver(I) oxide, AgO, upon the addition of alkali. (The hydroxide AgOH exists only in solution; otherwise it spontaneously decomposes to the oxide.) Silver(I) oxide is very easily reduced to metallic silver, and decomposes to silver and oxygen above 160 °C. This The only known dihalide of silver is the difluoride, AgF, which can be obtained from the elements under heat. A strong yet thermally stable and therefore safe fluorinating agent, silver(II) fluoride is often used to synthesize hydrofluorocarbons. In stark contrast to this, all four silver(I) halides are known. The fluoride, chloride, and bromide have the sodium chloride structure, but the iodide has three known stable forms at different temperatures; that at room temperature is the cubic zinc blende structure. They can all be obtained by the direct reaction of their respective elements. As the halogen group is descended, the White silver nitrate, AgNO, is a versatile precursor to many other silver compounds, especially the halides, and is much less sensitive to light. It was once called "lunar caustic" because silver was called "luna" by the ancient alchemists, who believed that silver was associated with the moon. It is often used for gravimetric analysis, exploiting the insolubility of the heavier silver halides which it is a common precursor to. Silver nitrate is used in many ways in organic synthesis, e.g. for deprotection and oxidations. Ag binds alkenes reversibly, and silver nitrate has been used to separate mixtures of alkenes by selective absorption. The resulting adduct can be decomposed with ammonia to release the free alkene. Yellow silver Silver complexes tend to be similar to those of its lighter homologue copper. Silver(III) complexes tend to be rare and very easily reduced to the more stable lower oxidation states, though they are slightly more stable than those of copper(III). For instance, the square planar periodate [Ag(IOOH)] and tellurate [Ag{TeO(OH)}] complexes may be prepared by oxidising silver(I) with alkaline peroxodisulfate. The yellow diamagnetic [AgF] is much less stable, fuming in moist air and reacting with glass. Silver(II) complexes are more common. Like the valence isoelectronic copper(II) complexes, they are usually square planar and paramagnetic, which is increased by the greater field splitting for 4d electrons than for 3d electrons. Aqueous Ag, produced by oxidation of Ag by ozone, is a very strong oxidising agent, even in acidic solutions: it is stabilized in phosphoric acid due to complex formation. Peroxodisulfate oxidation is generally necessary to give the more stable complexes with heterocyclic amines, such as [Ag(py)] and [Ag(bipy)]: these Under standard conditions, silver does not form simple carbonyls, due to the weakness of the Ag–C bond. A few are known at very low temperatures around 6–15 K, such as the green, planar paramagnetic Ag(CO), which dimerizes at 25–30 K, probably by forming Ag–Ag bonds. Additionally, the silver carbonyl [Ag(CO)] [B(OTeF)] is known. Polymeric AgLX complexes with alkenes and alkynes are known, but their bonds are thermodynamically weaker than even those of the platinum complexes (though they are formed more readily than those of the analogous gold complexes): they are Silver forms alloys with most other elements on the periodic table. The elements from groups 1–3, except for hydrogen, lithium, and beryllium, are very miscible with silver in the condensed phase and form intermetallic compounds; those from groups 4–9 are only poorly miscible; the elements in groups 10–14 (except boron and carbon) have very complex Ag–M phase diagrams and form the most commercially important alloys; and the remaining elements on the periodic table have no consistency in their Ag–M phase diagrams. By far the most important such alloys are those with copper: most silver used for coinage and jewellery is in reality a silver–copper alloy, and the eutectic mixture is used in The word "silver" appears in Old English in various spellings, such as "seolfor" and "siolfor". It is cognate with Old High German "silabar"; Gothic "silubr"; or Old Norse "silfr", all ultimately deriving from Proto-Germanic "*silubra". The Balto-Slavic words for silver are rather similar to the Germanic ones (e.g. Russian серебро ["serebró"], Polish "srebro", Lithuanian "sidãbras"), as Silver was one of the seven metals of antiquity that were known to prehistoric humans and whose discovery is thus lost to history. In particular, the three metals of group 11, copper, silver, and gold, occur in the elemental form in nature and were probably used as the first primitive forms of money as opposed to simple bartering. However, unlike copper, silver did not lead to the growth of metallurgy on account of its low structural strength, and was more often used ornamentally or as money. Since silver is more reactive than gold, supplies of native silver were much more limited than those of gold. For example, silver was more expensive than gold in Egypt until around the fifteenth century BC: the Egyptians are thought to have separated gold from silver by heating the metals with salt, and then reducing the silver chloride produced to the metal. The situation changed with the discovery of cupellation, a technique that allowed silver metal to be extracted from its ores. While slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC, and one of the earliest silver extraction centres in Europe was Sardinia in the early Chalcolithic period, these techniques did not spread widely until later, when it spread throughout the region and beyond. The origins of silver production in India, China, and Japan were almost certainly equally ancient, but are not well-documented due to their great age. When the Phoenicians first came to what is now Spain, they obtained so much silver that they could not fit it all on their ships, and as a result used silver to weight their anchors instead of lead. By the time of the Greek and Roman civilizations, silver coins were a staple of the economy: the Greeks were already extracting silver from galena by the 7th century BC, and the rise of Athens was partly made possible by the nearby silver mines at Laurium, from which they extracted about 30 tonnes a year from 600 to 300 BC. The stability of the Roman currency relied to a high degree on the supply Silver plays a certain role in mythology and has found various usage as a metaphor and in folklore. The Greek poet Hesiod's "Works and Days" (lines 109–201) lists different ages of man named after metals like gold, silver, bronze and iron to account for successive ages of humanity. Ovid's "Metamorphoses" contains another retelling of the story, containing an illustration of silver's metaphorical use of signifying the second-best in a series, better than bronze but worse than gold: In folklore, silver was commonly thought to have mystic powers: for example, a bullet cast from silver is often supposed in such folklore the only weapon that is effective against a werewolf, witch, or other monsters. From this the idiom of a silver bullet developed into figuratively referring to any simple solution with very high effectiveness or almost miraculous results, as in the widely discussed The abundance of silver in the Earth's crust is 0.08 parts per million, almost exactly the same as that of mercury. It mostly occurs in sulfide ores, especially acanthite and argentite, AgS. Argentite deposits sometimes also contain native silver when they occur in reducing environments, and when in contact with salt water they are converted to chlorargyrite (including horn silver), AgCl, which is prevalent in Chile and New South Wales. Most other silver minerals are silver pnictides or chalcogenides; they are generally lustrous semiconductors. Most true silver deposits, as opposed to argentiferous deposits of other metals, came from Tertiary period vulcanism. The principal sources of silver are the ores of copper, copper-nickel, lead, and lead-zinc obtained from Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, China, Australia, Chile, Poland and Serbia. Peru, Bolivia and Mexico have been mining silver since 1546, and are still major world producers. Top silver-producing mines are Cannington (Australia), Fresnillo (Mexico), San Cristóbal (Bolivia), Antamina (Peru), Rudna (Poland), and Penasquito (Mexico). Top near-term mine development projects through 2015 are Pascua Lama (Chile), Navidad (Argentina), Jaunicipio (Mexico), Malku Khota (Bolivia), and Hackett River (Canada). In Central Asia, Tajikistan is known to have some of the largest silver deposits in the The earliest known coins were minted in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor around 600 BC. The coins of Lydia were made of electrum, which is a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, that was available within the territory of Lydia. Since that time, silver standards, in which the standard economic unit of account is a fixed weight of silver, have been widespread throughout the world until the 20th century. Notable silver coins through the centuries include the Greek drachma, the Roman denarius, the Islamic dirham, the karshapana from ancient India and rupee from the time of the Mughal Empire (grouped with copper and gold coins to create a trimetallic standard), and the Spanish dollar. The ratio between the amount of silver used for coinage and that used for other purposes has fluctuated greatly over time; for example, in wartime, more silver tends to have been used for coinage to finance the war. Today, silver bullion has the ISO 4217 currency code XAG, one of only four precious metals to have one (the others being palladium, platinum, and gold). Silver coins are produced from cast rods or ingots, rolled to the correct thickness, heat-treated, and then used to cut blanks from. These blanks are then milled and minted in a coining press; modern coining presses can produce 8000 silver coins per hour. Silver prices are normally quoted in troy ounces. One troy ounce is equal to. The London silver fix is published every working day at noon London The major use of silver besides coinage throughout most of history was in the manufacture of jewellery and other general-use items, and this continues to be a major use today. Examples include table silver for cutlery, for which silver is highly suited due to its antibacterial properties. Western concert flutes are usually plated with or made out of sterling silver; in fact, most silverware is only silver-plated rather than made out of pure silver; the silver is normally put in place by electroplating. Silver-plated glass (as opposed to metal) is used for mirrors, vacuum flasks, and Christmas tree decorations. Because pure silver is very soft, most silver used In medicine, silver is incorporated into wound dressings and used as an antibiotic coating in medical devices. Wound dressings containing silver sulfadiazine or silver nanomaterials are used to treat external infections. Silver is also used in some medical applications, such as urinary catheters (where tentative evidence indicates it reduces catheter-related urinary tract infections) and in endotracheal breathing tubes (where evidence suggests it reduces ventilator-associated pneumonia). The silver ion is bioactive and in sufficient concentration readily kills bacteria "in vitro". Silver ions interfere with enzymes in the bacteria Silver is very important in electronics for conductors and electrodes on account of its high electrical conductivity even when tarnished. Bulk silver and silver foils were used to make vacuum tubes, and continue to be used today in the manufacture of semiconductor devices, circuits, Silver-containing brazing alloys are used for brazing metallic materials, mostly cobalt, nickel, and copper-based alloys, tool steels, and precious metals. The basic Silver is useful in the manufacture of chemical equipment on account of its low chemical reactivity, high thermal conductivity, and being easily workable. Silver crucibles (alloyed with 0.15% nickel to avoid recrystallisation of the Silver metal is a good catalyst for oxidation reactions; in fact it is somewhat too good for most purposes, as finely divided silver tends to result in complete oxidation of organic substances to carbon dioxide and water, and hence coarser-grained silver tends to be used The photosensitivity of the silver halides allowed for their use in traditional photography, although digital photography, which does not use silver, is now dominant. The photosensitive emulsion used in black-and-white photography is a suspension of silver halide crystals in gelatin, possibly mixed in with some noble metal compounds for improved photosensitivity, developing, and tuning. Colour photography requires the Nanosilver particles, between 10 and 100 nanometres in size, are used in many applications. They are used in conductive inks for printed electronics, and have a much lower melting point than Pure silver metal is used as a food colouring. It has the E174 designation and is approved in the European Union. Traditional Pakistani and Indian dishes sometimes include decorative silver foil known as "vark", and in various other cultures, silver "dragée" are used to decorate cakes, cookies, and other dessert items. Photochromic lenses include silver halides, so that ultraviolet light in natural daylight liberates metallic silver, darkening the lenses. The silver Silver compounds have low toxicity compared to those of most other heavy metals, as they are poorly absorbed by the human body when digested, and that which does get absorbed is rapidly converted to insoluble silver compounds or complexed by metallothionein. However, silver fluoride and silver nitrate are caustic and can cause tissue damage, resulting in gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, falling blood pressure, cramps, paralysis, and respiratory arrest. Animals repeatedly dosed with silver salts have been observed to experience anaemia, slowed growth, necrosis of the liver, and fatty degeneration of the liver and kidneys; rats implanted with silver foil or injected with colloidal silver have been observed to develop localised tumours. Parenterally admistered colloidal silver causes acute silver poisoning. Some waterborne species are particularly sensitive to silver salts and those of the other precious metals; in most situations, however, silver does not pose serious environmental hazards. In large doses, silver and compounds containing it can be absorbed into the circulatory system and become deposited in various body tissues, leading to argyria, which results in a blue-grayish pigmentation of the skin, eyes, and mucous membranes. Argyria is rare, and so far as is known, does not otherwise harm a person's health, though it is disfiguring and usually permanent. Mild forms of argyria are sometimes mistaken for cyanosis. Metallic silver, like copper, is an antibacterial agent, which was known to the ancients and first scientifically investigated and named the oligodynamic effect by Carl Nägeli. Silver ions damage the metabolism of bacteria even at such low concentrations as 0.01–0.1 milligrams per litre; metallic silver has a similar effect due to the formation of silver oxide. This effect is lost in the presence of sulfur due to the extreme insolubility of silver sulfide. Some silver compounds are very explosive, such as the nitrogen compounds silver azide, silver amide, and silver fulminate, as well as silver acetylide, silver oxalate, and silver(II) oxide. They can explode on heating, force, drying, illumination, or sometimes spontaneously. To avoid the formation of such compounds, ammonia and acetylene should be kept away from silver equipment. Salts of silver with strongly oxidising acids such as silver chlorate and silver nitrate can explode on contact with materials that can be readily oxidised, such as organic compounds, sulfur and soot.

Silver is a chemical element with the symbol Ag (from the Latin "", derived from the Proto-Indo-European "h2erǵ": "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earth's crust in the pure, free elemental form ("native silver"), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in minerals such as argentite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, and zinc refining.

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121

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summarize: The Snowdrop Festival is a movie about a place and its inhabitants. Jiri Menzel presents us with an insight into the many ordinary and eccentric lives at the village of Kersko. The movie begins very slow. A group of men on their bicycles leaving the local pub. They are drunk and happy, singing songs as they leave together to their houses. On the road they come across the local policemen who removes the valves from their cycles and asks them to walk home as they are drunk. Their happiness disappears, the singing stops and they walk home. Morning we see a hungover guy who is bossed around by his wife and daughter. He doesn't feel like staying home and wants to go out. He never speaks against them but always murmurs when he is told to do something. There is a group of people who seem very polished and educated. They stand out from the rest of the characters with their philosophical thoughts and discussions. The local inn keepers, a couple can't seem to keep their hands off of each other. The story gains its life when two young men who work in the fields see a pig. They try to hunt it down. But the pig escapes and the chase start. The huntsmen of the village follow the pig to a school in the neighboring village and shoots it down in the classroom, they then explain the anatomy of the pig to the students. We see a very enthusiastic young gentleman taking over the class. As they are getting ready to take the pig and have a feast the huntsmen from the village show up and claim that the meat is theirs as the pig was shot in their territory. There is small brawl and with the intervention of the school teacher they decide to meet at the inn and share the spoils of the hunt. *https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/14/movies/the-screen-snowdrop-festival.html

The Snowdrop Festival () is a 1984 Czechoslovak comedy film directed by Jiří Menzel, based on the book by Bohumil Hrabal, who plays a small part in the film. The film is set in a small village called Kersko. The film is about the lives, hobbies and relationships of people living in a small village.

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summarize: He was born into the family of a furrier; his mother was a hatter. Since his childhood he was involved with the theatre and music, and after some unsuccessful attempts to study, he chose the career of an actor. He began to appear on the stage in 1939, as a member of an amateur elocution group. During the German occupation of Czechoslovakia he performed with a collective of young artists, "Tvar" (The Shape). At the end of the Second World War, he was (having one Jewish parent) interned in the labor camp in Bystřice u Benešova. His mother was murdered in the Auschwitz concentration camp. Following the liberation, he took up a career as a professional actor in the avant-garde studio "Větrník" (from 1945 to 1946), and afterward he was engaged in many Prague theatre scenes. A few years later, he also began to appear in films and gradually became one of the most popular actors in Czechoslovakia. In the mid-1980s Kopecký acted in a politically biased documentary film about emigrants, but, on the other side, he presented a very critical speech against the communist régime in May 1987, at the Fourth Congress of Dramatic Artists. He was married five times, once with Czech actress Stella Zázvorková. For many years Kopecký suffered from manic-depressive disease, partially caused by the death of his mother, who perished in a concentration camp. Following his engagement in "Větrník" he appeared in various theatre scenes: A turning point in his career came in 1965, when the director František Pavlíček engaged him to the "Divadlo na Vinohradech", to which he remained faithful throughout the rest of his life. Nonetheless, he acted as a guest also in other theatres, e.g. in "Semafor" Theatre, or in "Divadlo ABC" (ABC Theatre), where he cooperated with another important actor of the time, Jan Werich. Among his most valued roles were Paolino in Pirandello's "The Man, The Beast and The Virtue", Professor Higgins in G. B. Shaw's "Pygmalion", Harpagon in Molière's "The Miser", and many others. Kopecký was a passionate admirer of film from his early age, and began to appear on screen shortly after the war. His first minor role was in the historic film "Jan Roháč z Dubé" (1947), but he quickly graduated to more important characters. During his career he played mainly negative roles of bon vivants, elegant intriguers, traitors, debauchees, lechers and villains, which he managed to depict with the great elegance and esprit. Among his most valued roles in film were Chaplain Katz in "The Good Soldier Švejk" (1956), Hogofogo in "Limonádový Joe" (1964), the chief of the Czech water-goblins in "Jak utopit dr. Mráčka aneb Konec vodníků v Čechách" (1974), the villainous Count von Kratzmar in "Adéla ještě nevečeřela" (1977), and many others. He may be best known today as Dr. Štrosmajer in the Czech television series "Nemocnice na kraji města".

Miloš Kopecký (22 August 1922 in Prague – 16 February 1996 in Prague) was a Czech actor, active mainly in the second half of the 20th century.

en

31

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summarize: Empirical evidence is information that verifies the truth (which accurately corresponds to reality) or falsity (inaccuracy) of a claim. In the empiricist view, one can claim to have knowledge only when based on empirical evidence (although some empiricists believe that there are other ways of gaining knowledge). This stands in contrast to the rationalist view under which reason or reflection alone is considered evidence for the truth or falsity of some propositions. Empirical evidence is information acquired by observation or experimentation, in the form of recorded data, which may be the subject of analysis (e.g. by scientists). This is the primary source of empirical evidence. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular magazines, book or movie reviews, or articles found in scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate someone else's original research. Empirical evidence may be synonymous with the outcome of an experiment. In this regard, an empirical result is a unified confirmation. In this context, the term "semi-empirical" is used for qualifying theoretical methods that use, in part, basic axioms or postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical "ab initio" methods, which are purely deductive and based on first principles. In science, empirical evidence is required for a hypothesis to gain acceptance in the scientific community. Normally, this validation is achieved by the scientific method of forming a hypothesis, experimental design, peer review, reproduction of results, conference presentation, and journal publication. This requires rigorous communication of hypothesis (usually expressed in mathematics), experimental constraints and controls (expressed necessarily in terms of standard experimental apparatus), and a common understanding of measurement. Statements and arguments depending on empirical evidence are often referred to as "a posteriori" ("following experience") as distinguished from "a priori" (preceding it). "A priori" knowledge or justification is independent of experience (for example "All bachelors are unmarried"), whereas "a posteriori" knowledge or justification is dependent on experience or empirical evidence (for example "Some bachelors are very happy"). The notion that the distinction between "a posteriori" and "a priori" is tantamount to the distinction between empirical and non-empirical knowledge comes from Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason." The standard positivist view of empirically acquired information has been that observation, experience, and experiment serve as neutral arbiters between competing theories. However, since the 1960s, a persistent critique most associated with Thomas Kuhn, has argued that these methods are influenced by prior beliefs and experiences. Consequently, it cannot be expected that two scientists when observing, experiencing, or experimenting on the same event will make the same theory-neutral observations. The role of observation as a theory-neutral arbiter may not be possible. Theory-dependence of observation means that, even if there were agreed methods of inference and interpretation, scientists may still disagree on the nature of empirical data.

Empirical evidence is the information received by means of the senses, particularly by observation and documentation of patterns and behavior through experimentation. The term comes from the Greek word for experience, ἐμπειρία ("empeiría").

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summarize: In the 2nd century BC, the Romans were competing for dominance in northern Italy with various peoples including the Gauls-Celtic tribe Boii. The Romans defeated the Boii at the Battle of Placentia (194 BC) and the Battle of Mutina (193 BC). Afterward, many of the Boii retreated north across the Alps. Much later Roman authors refer to the area they had once occupied (the "desert of the Boii" as Pliny and Strabo called it) as "Boiohaemum". The earliest mention was by Tacitus' "Germania" 28 (written at the end of the 1st century AD), and later mentions of the same name are in Strabo and Velleius Paterculus. The name appears to include the tribal name "Boi-" plus the Germanic element *"haimaz" "home" (whence Gothic "haims", German "Heimat", English "home"), indicating a Proto-Germanic *Bajōhaimaz. "Boiohaemum" was apparently isolated to the area where King Marobod's Kingdom was centred, within the Hercynian forest. Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII in his 10th century work "De Administrando Imperio" also mentioned the region as "Boiki" (see White Serbia). The Czech name "Čechy" is derived from the name of the Slavic ethnic group, the Czechs, who settled in the area during the 6th or 7th century AD. Bohemia, like neighbouring Bavaria, is named after the Boii, a large Celtic nation known to the Romans for their migrations and settlement in northern Italy and other places. Another part of the nation moved west with the Helvetii into southern France, which was one of the events leading to the interventions of Julius Caesar's Gaulish campaign of 58 BC. The emigration of the Helvetii and Boii left southern Germany and Bohemia a lightly inhabited "desert" into which Suebic peoples arrived, speaking Germanic languages, and became dominant over remaining Celtic groups. To the south, over the Danube, the Romans extended their empire, and to the southeast, in present-day Hungary, were Dacian peoples. In the area of modern Bohemia the Marcomanni and other Suebic groups were led by their king, Marobodus, after they had suffered defeat to Roman forces in Germany. He took advantage of the natural defenses provided by its mountains and forests. They were able to maintain a strong alliance with neighbouring tribes including (at different times) the Lugii, Quadi, Hermunduri, Semnones, and Buri, which was sometimes partly controlled by the Roman Empire and sometimes in conflict with it; for example, in the 2nd century, they fought Marcus Aurelius. In late classical times and the early Middle Ages, two new Suebic groupings appeared to the west of Bohemia in southern Germany, the Alemanni (in the Helvetian desert), and the Bavarians (Baiuvarii). Many Suebic tribes from the Bohemian region took part in such movements westwards, even settling as far away as Spain and Portugal. With them were also tribes who had pushed from the east, such as the Vandals, and Alans. Other groups pushed southwards towards Pannonia. The last known mention of the Kingdom of the Marcomanni, concerning a queen named Fritigil, is from the 4th century, and she was thought to have lived in or near Pannonia. The Suebian Langobardi, who moved over many generations from the Baltic Sea, via the Elbe and Pannonia to Italy, recorded in a tribal history a time spent in "Bainaib". After the Migration Period, Bohemia was partially repopulated around the 6th century, and eventually Slavic tribes arrived from the east, and their language began to replace the older Germanic, Celtic and Sarmatian ones. These are precursors of today's Czechs, but the exact amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or three waves. The first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Lombards left Bohemia (c. 568 AD). Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samo's tribal confederation. His death marked the end of the old "Slavonic" confederation, the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources ("Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii", Bavaria, 800–850) divide the population of Bohemia into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani) and Fraganeo. (The suffix "-ani" or "-ni" means "people of-"). Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century but became dominant only much later, in the 10th or 11th century. The 9th century was crucial for the future of Bohemia. The manorial system sharply declined, as it did in Bavaria. The influence of the central "Fraganeo-Czechs" grew, as a result of the important cultic centre in their territory. They were Slavic-speaking and thus contributed to the transformation of diverse neighbouring populations into a new nation named and led by them with a united "slavic" ethnic consciousness. Bohemia was made a part of the early Slavic state of Great Moravia, under the rule of Svatopluk I (r. 870–894). After Svatopluk's death Great Moravia was weakened by years of internal conflict and constant warfare, ultimately collapsing and fragmenting because of the continual incursions of the invading nomadic Magyars. Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensive Christianization of the population. A native monarchy arose to the throne, and Bohemia came under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty, which would rule the Czech lands for the next several hundred years. The Přemyslids secured their frontiers from the remnant Asian interlocurs, after the collapse of the Moravian state, by entering into a state of semi-vassalage to the Frankish rulers. The alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity, in the 9th century. Continuing close relations were developed with the East Frankish Kingdom, which devolved from the Carolingian Empire, into East Francia, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Empire. After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I of Bohemia was granted the Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great. Bohemia would remain a largely autonomous state under the Holy Roman Empire for several decades. The jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire was definitively reasserted when Jaromír of Bohemia was granted fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia by Emperor King Henry II of the Holy Roman Empire, with the promise that he hold it as a vassal once he re-occupied Prague with a German army in 1004, ending the rule of Boleslaw I of Poland. The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukes Vratislav II (1085) and Vladislav II (1158), but their heirs would return to the title of duke. The title of king became hereditary under Ottokar I (1198). His grandson Ottokar II (king from 1253–1278) conquered a short-lived empire which contained modern Austria and Slovenia. The mid-13th century saw the beginning of substantial German immigration as the court sought to replace losses from the brief Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241. Germans settled primarily along the northern, western, and southern borders of Bohemia, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom. The House of Luxembourg accepted the invitation to the Bohemian throne with the marriage to the Premyslid heiress, Elizabeth and the crowning subsequent of John I of Bohemia in 1310. His son, Charles IV became King of Bohemia in 1346. He founded Charles University in Prague, central Europe's first university, two years later. His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to also be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule the Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany. From the 13th century on, settlements of Germans developed throughout Bohemia, making Bohemia a bilingual country. The German settlers particularly brought mining technology to the mountainous regions of the Sudetes. In the mining town of Sankt Joachimsthal (now Jáchymov), famous coins called Joachimsthalers were coined, which gave their name to the Thaler and the dollar. Meanwhile, Prague German intermediated between Upper German and East Central German, influencing the foundations of modern standard German. At the same time and place, the teachings of Jan Hus, the rector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, influenced the rise of modern Czech. During the ecumenical Council of Constance in 1415, Jan Hus was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite the fact that Hus was granted formal protection by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg prior to the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on 6 July 1415. The execution of Hus, as well as five consecutive papal crusades against followers of Hus, forced the Bohemians to defend themselves in the Hussite Wars. The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary, Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he used innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time, and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle. After Žižka's death, Prokop the Great took over the command for the army, and under his lead the Hussites were victorious for another ten years, to the sheer terror of Europe. The Hussite cause gradually splintered into two main factions, the moderate Utraquists and the more fanatic Taborites. The Utraquists began to lay the groundwork for an agreement with the Catholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war-weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in the Battle of Lipany in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians." Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiate freedom of religion in 1436. That happened in the so-called Compacts of Basel, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It lasted for only a short period of time, as Pope Pius II declared the compacts to be invalid in 1462. In 1458, George of Podebrady was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League", which would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointed Leo of Rozmital to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. However, the negotiations were not completed because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope. After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria became the new King of Bohemia and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg Monarchy. Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period. In 1609, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, who made Prague again the capital of the Empire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish "Maiestas Rudolphina", which confirmed the older "Confessio Bohemica" of 1575. After Emperor Matthias II and then King of Bohemia Ferdinand II (later Holy Roman Emperor) began oppressing the rights of Protestants in Bohemia, the resulting Bohemian Revolt led to outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618. Elector Frederick V of the Electorate of the Palatinate, a Calvinist Protestant, was elected by the Bohemian nobility to replace Ferdinand on the Bohemian throne, and was known as the Winter King. Frederick's wife, the popular Elizabeth Stuart and subsequently Elizabeth of Bohemia, known as the Winter Queen or Queen of Hearts, was the daughter of King James VI of Scotland. After Frederick's defeat in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, 27 Bohemian estates leaders together with Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague were executed on the Prague's Old Town Square on 21 June 1621 and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin). That ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and also ended the role of Prague as ruling city of the Holy Roman Empire. In the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, the German language was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. Czech formally remained the first language in the kingdom, but both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes although German became increasingly dominant, and Czech was spoken in much of the countryside. The formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when the Bohemian Diet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule, which essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery. At the end of the 18th century, the Czech National Revival movement, in cooperation with part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the kingdom's historic rights, whereby the Czech language was to regain its historical role and replace German as the language of administration. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph II and Leopold II, who introduced minor language concessions, showed promise for the Czech movement, but many of these reforms were later rescinded. During the Revolution of 1848, many Czech nationalists called for autonomy for Bohemia from Habsburg Austria, but the revolutionaries were defeated. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although the Czech language experienced a rebirth as romantic nationalism developed among the Czechs. In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, and Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue"). After the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire. An attempt by the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. The "state rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918. Under the "state rights program", appealing to the stability of Bohemia's borders over many centuries, the Czech emancipation movement claimed the right to the whole of the Bohemian lands over the Germans right to the lands, amounting to a third of Bohemia, where they formed the majority. After World War I, Bohemia (as the largest and most populous land) became the core of the newly formed country of Czechoslovakia, which combined Bohemia, Moravia, Czech Silesia, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and Carpathian Ruthenia into one state. Under its first president, Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a liberal democratic republic but serious issues emerged regarding the Czech majority's relationship with the native German and Hungarian minorities. The German Bohemians had demanded that the regions with German speaking majority be included in a German state. Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia historically inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (the Sudetenland) were annexed to Nazi Germany. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the separate Slovak Republic, a puppet state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945 Bohemia, (without the Sudetenland), together with Moravia formed the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia ("Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren"). Any open opposition to German occupation was brutally suppressed by the Nazi authorities and many Czech patriots were executed as a result. In 1942, Nazi forces murdered the population of a whole village Lidice. After World War II ended in 1945, after initial plans to cede lands to Germany or to create German-speaking cantons had been abandoned, the vast majority of the Bohemian Germans were expelled by force by the order of the re-established Czechoslovak central government, based on the Potsdam Agreement that acquiesced in large-scale ethnic cleansing. The Bohemian Germans' property was confiscated by the Czech authorities and amounted, according to contemporary estimates, to a third of the Czechoslovak national income. Germans who were valued for their skills were allowed to stay to pass on their knowledge to the Czech migrants. The expulsion severely depopulated the area and from then on, locales were referred to in only their Czech equivalents regardless of their previous demographic makeup. The re-settlement of the formerly German-settled areas allowed many poorer people to acquire property, thus equalizing the Czechoslovak society. The Communist Party won the most votes in free elections but not a simple majority. Klement Gottwald, the communist leader, became Prime Minister of a coalition government. In February 1948 the non-communist members of the government resigned in protest against arbitrary measures by the communists and their Soviet protectors in many of the state's institutions. Gottwald and the communists responded with a coup d'état and installed a pro-Soviet authoritarian state. In 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions that did not follow the historical borders. In 1989, Agnes of Bohemia became the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by Pope John Paul II before the "Velvet Revolution" later that year. After the Velvet Divorce in 1993, the territory of Bohemia remained in the Czech Republic. The new Constitution of the Czech Republic provided for higher administrative units to be established, providing for the possibility of Bohemia as an administrative unit, but did not specify the form they would take. A constitutional act in 1997 rejected the restoration of self-governing historical Czech lands and decided for the regional system that has been in use since 2000. Petr Pithart, former Czech prime minister and president of the Senate at the time, remained one of the main advocates of the land system, claiming that the primary reason for its refusal was the fear of possible Moravian separatism. Bohemia thus remains a historical region, and its administration is divided between the Prague, Central Bohemia, Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Hradec Králové Regions, as well as parts of the Pardubice, Vysočina, South Bohemian, Olomouc and South Moravian Regions. In addition to their use in the names of the regions, the historical land names remain in use in names of municipalities, cadastral areas, railway stations or geographical names. The distinction and border between the Czech lands is also preserved in local dialects. The area around Kłodzko (; ; ) in south-western Poland was culturally and traditionally a part of Bohemia, and was settled by German speakers like neighboring Sudetenland. Kłodzko Land has now been a part of Lower Silesia since its conquest by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1763. Referred to as "Little Prague" (), the Kłodzko Valley region on the Nysa Kłodzka river was the focus of several attempts to reincorporate the area into Czechoslovakia, one of several Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts. The last attempt occurred in May 1945 when Czechoslovakia tried to annex the area, whose German speaking majority was being expelled by Polish authorities. The Czech argued that because of the small Czech minority present in the western part of the Kłodzko Valley, which was called the region's "Czech Corner" by the German majority, the area should go over to Czechoslovakia instead of being assigned to Poland, as no relevant Polish minority lived in the area. Pressure brought on by the Soviet Union led to a ceasing of military operations, with the Czech minority being expelled to Germany and Czechoslovakia. According to canon law of the Roman Catholic Church, the area remained part of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague until 1972. Capitalizing on interest regarding the Kladsko area in the Czech national psyche, a special tourist area in the Náchod District has been designated as the "Kladsko Borderland Tourist Area" (tourism district; ). The area, entirely within the Czech Republic, was formerly known as the "Jirásek's Region" (), "Adršpach rocks" (). Kraje of Bohemia during the Kingdom of Bohemia

Bohemia ( ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech lands in the present-day Czech Republic. In a broader meaning, Bohemia sometimes refers to the entire Czech territory, including Moravia and Czech Silesia, especially in a historical context, such as the Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by Bohemian kings.

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summarize: When an object's velocity is held constant at one meter per second against a constant opposing force of one newton, the rate at which work is done is one watt. In terms of electromagnetism, one watt is the rate at which electrical work is performed when a current of one ampere (A) flows across an electrical potential difference of one volt (V), meaning the watt is equivalent to the volt-ampere (the latter unit, however, is used for a different quantity from the real power of an electrical circuit). Two additional unit conversions for watt can be found using the above equation and Ohm's law. Where ohm (formula_4) is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance. The "watt" is named after the Scottish inventor James Watt. This unit was proposed initially by C. William Siemens in August 1882 in his President's Address to the Fifty-Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Noting that units in the practical system of units were named after leading physicists, Siemens proposed that "Watt" might be an appropriate name for a unit of power. Siemens defined the unit consistently within the then-existing system of practical units as "the power conveyed by a current of an Ampère through the difference of potential of a Volt." In October 1908, at the International Conference on Electric Units and Standards in London, so-called "international" definitions were established for practical electrical units. Siemens' definition was adopted as the "international" watt. (Also used: 1 ampere x 1 ohm.) The watt was defined as equal to 10 units of power in the "practical system" of units. The "international units" were dominant from 1909 until 1948. After the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1948, the "international" watt was redefined from practical units to absolute units (i.e., using only length, mass, and time). Concretely, this meant that 1 watt was now defined as the quantity of energy transferred in a unit of time, namely 1 J/s. In this new definition, 1 "absolute" watt = 1.00019 "international" watts. Texts written before 1948 are likely to be using the "international" watt, which implies caution when comparing numerical values from this period with the post-1948 watt. In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted the "absolute" "watt" into the International System of Units (SI) as the unit of power. The attowatt (aW) is equal to one quintillionth (10) of a watt. The sound intensity in water corresponding to the international standard reference sound pressure of 1 μPa is approximately 0.65 aW/m. The femtowatt (fW) is equal to one quadrillionth (10) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in references to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and signal-to-noise require that the RF energy applied to the antenna input be specified. These input levels are often stated in dBf (decibels referenced to 1 femtowatt). This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load; the specification takes into account the RF input impedance of the tuner. The picowatt (pW), not to be confused with the much larger petawatt (PW), is equal to one trillionth (10) of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics and in the science of radio astronomy. One picowatt is the international standard reference value of sound power when this quantity is expressed as a level in decibels. The nanowatt (nW) is equal to one billionth (10) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers. The microwatt (μW) is equal to one millionth (10) of a watt. Important powers that are measured in microwatts are typically stated in medical instrumentation systems such as the EEG and the ECG, in a wide variety of scientific and engineering instruments and also in reference to radio and radar receivers. Compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt (mW) is equal to one thousandth (10) of a watt. A typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are often measured in dBm, referenced to one milliwatt. The kilowatt (kW) is equal to one thousand (10) watts. This unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a common unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio and television transmitters. One kilowatt is approximately equal to 1.34 horsepower. A small electric heater with one heating element can use 1.0 kilowatt. The average electric power consumption of a household in the United States is about one kilowatt. A surface area of one square meter on Earth receives typically about one kilowatt of sunlight from the sun (the solar irradiance) (on a clear day at mid day, close to the equator). The megawatt (MW) is equal to one million (10) watts. Many events or machines produce or sustain the conversion of energy on this scale, including large electric motors; large warships such as aircraft carriers, cruisers, and submarines; large server farms or data centers; and some scientific research equipment, such as supercolliders, and the output pulses of very large lasers. A large residential or commercial building may use several megawatts in electric power and heat. On railways, modern high-powered electric locomotives typically have a peak power output of 5 or 6 MW, while some produce much more. The Eurostar, for example, uses more than 12 MW, while heavy diesel-electric locomotives typically produce/use 3 to 5 MW. U.S. nuclear power plants have net summer capacities between about 500 and 1300 MW. The earliest citing of the megawatt in the "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) is a reference in the 1900 "Webster's International Dictionary of English Language". The OED also states that megawatt appeared in a 28 November 1947 article in the journal "Science" (506:2). The gigawatt (GW) is equal to one billion (10) watts or 1 gigawatt = 1000 megawatts. This unit is often used for large power plants or power grids. For example, by the end of 2010 power shortages in China's Shanxi province were expected to increase to 5–6 GW and the installed capacity of wind power in Germany was 25.8 GW. The largest unit (out of four) of the Belgian Doel Nuclear Power Station has a peak output of 1.04 GW. HVDC converters have been built with power ratings of up to 2 GW. The terawatt (TW) is equal to one trillion (10) watts. The total power used by humans worldwide is commonly measured in terawatts. The most powerful lasers from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s produced power in terawatts, but only for nanosecond time frames. The average lightning strike peaks at 1 terawatt, but these strikes only last for 30 microseconds. The petawatt (PW) is equal to one quadrillion () watts and can be produced by the current generation of lasers for time scales on the order of picoseconds ( s). One such laser is the Lawrence Livermore's Nova laser, which achieved a power output of 1.25 PW ( W) by a process called chirped pulse amplification. The duration of the pulse was roughly 0.5 ps ( s), giving a total energy of 600 J. Another example is the Laser for Fast Ignition Experiments (LFEX) at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), Osaka University, which achieved a power output of 2 PW for a duration of approximately 1 ps. Based on the average total solar irradiance of 1.366 kW/m, the total power of sunlight striking Earth's atmosphere is estimated at 174 PW. In the electric power industry, "megawatt electrical" ("MWe" or MW) refers by convention to the electric power produced by a generator, while "megawatt thermal" or "thermal megawatt" (MWt, MW, or MWth, MW) refers to thermal power produced by the plant. For example, the Embalse nuclear power plant in Argentina uses a fission reactor to generate 2109 MW (i.e. heat), which creates steam to drive a turbine, which generates 648 MW (i.e. electricity). Other SI prefixes are sometimes used, for example "gigawatt electrical" (GW). The International Bureau of Weights and Measures, which maintains the SI-standard, states that further information about a quantity should not be attached to the unit symbol but instead to the quantity symbol (i.e., "P" = 270 W rather than "P" = 270 W) and so these units are non-SI. In compliance with SI the energy company Ørsted A/S uses the unit megawatt for produced electrical power and the equivalent unit megajoule per second for delivered heating power in a combined heat and power station such as Avedøre Power Station. When describing alternating current (AC) electricity, another distinction is made between the watt and the volt-ampere. While these units are equivalent for simple resistive circuits, they differ when loads exhibit electrical reactance. Radio stations usually report the power of their transmitters in units of watts, referring to the effective radiated power. This refers to the power that a half-wave dipole antenna would need to radiate to match the intensity of the transmitter's main lobe. The terms power and energy are frequently confused. Power is the rate at which energy is generated or consumed and hence is measured in units (e.g. watts) that represent energy "per unit time". For example, when a light bulb with a power rating of is turned on for one hour, the energy used is 100 watt hours (W·h), 0.1 kilowatt hour, or 360 kJ. This same amount of energy would light a 40-watt bulb for 2.5 hours, or a 50-watt bulb for 2 hours. Power stations are rated using units of power, typically megawatts or gigawatts (for example, the Three Gorges Dam in China, is rated at approximately 22 gigawatts). This reflects the maximum power output it can achieve at any point in time. A power station's annual energy output, however, would be recorded using units of energy (not power), typically gigawatt hours. Major energy production or consumption is often expressed as terawatt hours for a given period; often a calendar year or financial year. One terawatt hour of energy is equal to a sustained power delivery of one terawatt for one hour, or approximately 114 megawatts for a period of one year: equivalent to approximately 114 megawatts of constant power output. The watt second is a unit of energy, equal to the joule. One kilowatt hour is 3,600,000 watt seconds. While a watt per hour exists in principle (as a unit of rate of change of power with time), it is not correct to refer to a watt (or watt hour) as a "watt per hour".

The watt (symbol: W) is a unit of power. In the International System of Units (SI) it is defined as a derived unit of 1 joule per second, and is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. In SI base units, the watt is described as kg⋅m⋅s. The watt is named after James Watt, an 18th-century Scottish inventor.

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summarize: During the thousand years of its existence, Prague grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, to become the capital of a modern European country. The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age. Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya. Around the fifth and fourth century BC, a Celtic tribe appeared in the area, later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist, a present-day suburb of Prague, and naming the region of Bohemia, which means "home of the Boii people". In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time by the area the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople). Charles IV ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles In 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members brought them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity. These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history, Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly native German-speaking) Jewish populations. From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany—Reinhard Heydrich—during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals. In February 1945, Prague suffered several Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The largest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovak Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime. On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the "socialism with a human face". It was the Prague Spring, which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the "normalization" of the country. In 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the capital of Czechoslovakia benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the Velvet Divorce, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 high-rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, "práh", which means "ford" or "rapid", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river. The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw. Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word "práh" (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city "to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house". The Czech "práh" might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of Prague is situated on the Vltava river, at. in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany; Paris, France; and Vancouver, Canada. Prague has an oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb") with humid continental ("Dfb") influences, defined as such by the isotherm. The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high Prague is the capital of the Czech Republic and as such is the regular seat of its central authorities. Since 24 November 1990, it is de facto again a statutory town, but has a specific status of the municipality and the region at the same time. Prague also houses the administrative institutions of the Central Bohemia Region. Until 1949, all administrative districts of Prague were formed Prague is automously administered by the Prague City Assembly, which is elected through municipal elections and consists of 55 to 70 members. Executive body of Prague, elected by the Assembly is a According to the 2011 census, about 14% of the city inhabitants were born outside the Czech Republic. That is the highest proportion in the country. However, in 2011, 64.8 per cent of the city's population self-identified themselves as Czechs, which is higher than the national average. Even though official population of Prague hovers around The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre ("Národní Divadlo") and the Estates Theatre ("Stavovské or Tylovo" or "Nosticovo divadlo"), where the premières of Mozart's "Don Giovanni" and "La clemenza di Tito" were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre. The city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. There are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival, the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows. Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include ", xXx, Blade II, Children of Dune, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, EuroTrip, Van Helsing, Red Tails," and "". Other Czech films shot in Prague include "Empties", "Amadeus" and "The Fifth Horseman is Fear". Also, the romantic music video "Never Tear Us Apart" by INXS, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other landmarks. Rihanna's "Don't Stop the Music" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film "Dungeons and Dragons" in 2000. The music video "Silver and Cold" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including "Yuvraaj", "Drona" and "Rockstar". Early 2000s europop hit "Something" by "Lasgo" was filmed at the central train station in Prague. Video games set in Prague include ", Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb,,,, Still Life, " and "". With the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its museums and cultural sites as well as try its Czech beers and cuisine. The city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel). Recent major events held in Prague: Prague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. As of 2017 its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €56,200, making it the sixth best performing region in the EU at 182.4 per cent of the EU-28 average in 2016. Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce, and its wages are significantly above average (≈+25%). In 2Q/2019, average salaries available in Prague reached CZK 42.297 (≈€1,650) per month, an annual increase of 6.3%, which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 7.2% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 2.8% in 2Q/2019 as well as with 2.8% nationally.) Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration are the most significant. Services account for around 80 per cent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters. The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up Since the fall of the Iron Curtain, Prague has become one of the world's most popular tourist destinations. Prague suffered considerably less damage during World War II than some other major cities in the region, allowing most of its historic architecture to stay true to form. It contains one of the Nine public universities and thirty six The region city of Prague is an important centre of research. It is the seat of 39 out of 54 institutes of the Czech Academy of Sciences, including the largest ones, the Institute of Physics, the Institute of Microbiology and the Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry. It is also a seat of 10 public research institutes, four business incubators and large hospitals performing research and development activities such as the Motol University Hospital or Institute for Clinical and Experimental As of 2017, Prague had current transport modal share: 52% of all trips are done in public transport, 24,5% in car, 22,4% on foot, 0,4% on bike and 0,5% by airplane. The public transport infrastructure consists of a heavily used Prague Integrated Transport (PID, "Pražská integrovaná doprava") of Prague Metro (lines A, B, and C – its length is with 61 stations in total), Prague tram system, Prague buses, commuter S-trains, funiculars, and six ferries. Prague has one of the highest rates of public transport usage in the world, with 1.2 billion passenger journeys per year. Prague has about 300 bus lines (numbers 100–960) and 34 tram lines (numbers 1–26 without 19 and 91–99 ). There are also three funiculars, one on Petřín Hill, one on Mrázovka Hill and a third at the Zoo in Troja. The Prague tram system now operates various types of trams, including the Tatra T3, newer Tatra KT8D5, T6A5, Škoda 14 T (designed by Porsche), newer modern Škoda 15 T and nostalgic tram lines 23 and 41. The Metro has three major lines extending throughout the city: A (green), B (yellow) and C (red). A fourth Metro line D is planned, which would connect the city centre to southern parts of the city. The Prague Metro system served 589.2 million passengers in 2012, making it the fifth busiest metro system in Europe and the most-patronised in the world on a per capita basis. The first section of the Prague metro was put into operation in 1974. It was the stretch between stations Kačerov and Florenc on the current line C. The first part of Line A was opened in 1978 (Dejvická – Náměstí Míru), the first part of line B in 1985 (Anděl – Florenc). In April The main flow of traffic leads through the centre The city forms the hub of the Czech railway system, with services to all parts of the country and abroad. The railway system links Prague with major European cities (which can be reached without transfers), including Berlin, Munich, Hamburg, Nurenberg and Dresden (Germany); Vienna, Graz and Linz (Austria); Warsaw and Cracow Prague is served by Václav Havel Airport Prague, the largest airport in the Czech Republic and one of the largest and busiest airports in central and eastern Europe. The airport is the hub of carriers Smartwings and Czech Airlines operating throughout Europe. Other airports in Prague include the city's In 2018, 2% of people commute by bike in Prague, cycling is very common as a sport or recreation. As of 2017, there were 178 km (111 mi) of protected cycle paths and routes. Also, there were 48 km (30 mi) of bike lanes and 24 km (15 mi) of specially marked bus lanes that are free to be used by cyclists. Prague is the site The city of Prague maintains its own EU delegation in Brussels called Prague House. Prague was the location of U.S. President Barack Obama's speech on 5 April 2009, which led to the New START treaty with Russia, signed in Prague on 8 April 2010. The annual conference Forum 2000, which was founded by former Czech President Václav Havel, Japanese philanthropist Yōhei Sasakawa, and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Elie Wiesel in 1996, is held in Prague. Its main objective is "to identify the key issues facing civilization and to explore ways to prevent the escalation of conflicts that have religion, culture or ethnicity as their primary components", and also intends to promote democracy in non-democratic countries and to support civil society. Conferences have attracted a number of prominent thinkers, Nobel laureates, former and acting politicians, business leaders and other individuals like: Frederik Willem de Klerk, Bill Clinton, Nicholas Winton, Oscar Arias Sánchez, Dalai Lama, Hans Küng, Shimon Peres and Madeleine Albright. Prague is A number of other settlements are derived or similar to the name of Prague. In many of these cases, Czech emigration has left a number of namesake cities

Prague (;,, ) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 13th largest city in the European Union and the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated on the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of 2.7 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate, with relatively warm summers and chilly winters.

en

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summarize: Since the 20th century, the "book musical" has been defined as a musical play where songs and dances are fully integrated into a well-made story with serious dramatic goals that is able to evoke genuine emotions other than laughter. The three main components of a book musical are its "music", "lyrics" and "book". The book or script of a musical refers to the story, character development and dramatic structure, including the spoken dialogue and stage directions, but it can also refer to the dialogue and lyrics together, which are sometimes referred to as the "libretto" (Italian for "little book"). The music and lyrics together form the "score" of a Musical theatre is closely related to the theatrical form of opera, but the two are usually distinguished by weighing a number of factors. First, musicals generally have a greater focus on spoken dialogue. Some musicals, however, are entirely accompanied and sung-through, while some operas, such as "Die Zauberflöte", and most operettas, have some unaccompanied dialogue. Second, musicals also usually include more dancing as an essential part of the storytelling, particularly by the principal performers as well as the chorus. Third, musicals often use There are various Eastern traditions of theatre that include music, such as Chinese opera, Taiwanese opera, Japanese Noh and Indian musical theatre, including Sanskrit drama, Indian classical dance, Parsi theatre and Yakshagana. India has, since the 20th century, produced The antecedents of musical theatre in Europe can be traced back to the theatre of ancient Greece, where music and dance were included in stage comedies and tragedies during the 5th century BCE. The music from the ancient forms is lost, however, and they had little influence on later development of musical theatre. In the 12th and 13th centuries, religious dramas taught the liturgy. Groups of actors would use outdoor Pageant wagons (stages on wheels) to tell each part of the story. Poetic forms sometimes alternated with the prose dialogues, Around 1850, the French composer Hervé was experimenting with a form of comic musical theatre he called opérette. The best known composers of operetta were Jacques Offenbach from the 1850s to the 1870s and Johann Strauss II in the 1870s and 1880s. Offenbach's fertile melodies, combined with his librettists' witty satire, formed a model for the musical theatre that followed. Adaptations of the French operettas (played in mostly bad, risqué translations), musical burlesques, music hall, pantomime and burletta dominated the London musical "A Trip to Chinatown" (1891) was Broadway's long-run champion (until "Irene" in 1919), running for 657 performances, but New York runs continued to be relatively short, with a few exceptions, compared with London runs, until the 1920s. Gilbert and Sullivan were both pirated and imitated in New York by productions such as Reginald De Koven's "Robin Hood" (1891) and John Philip Sousa's "El Capitan" (1896). "A Trip to Coontown" (1898) was the first musical comedy entirely produced and performed by African Americans on Broadway (largely inspired by the routines of the minstrel shows), followed by ragtime-tinged shows. Hundreds of musical comedies were staged on Broadway in the 1890s and early 20th century, composed of songs written in New York's Tin Pan Alley, including those by George M. Cohan, who worked to create an American style distinct from the Gilbert and Sullivan works. The most successful New York shows were often followed by extensive national tours. Meanwhile, musicals took over the London stage in the Gay Nineties, led by producer George Edwardes, who perceived that audiences wanted a new alternative Virtually eliminated from the English-speaking stage by competition from the ubiquitous Edwardian musical comedies, operettas returned to London and Broadway in 1907 with "The Merry Widow", and adaptations of continental operettas became direct competitors with musicals. Franz Lehár and Oscar Straus composed new operettas that were popular in English until World War I. In America, Victor Herbert produced a string of enduring operettas including "The Fortune Teller" (1898), "Babes in Toyland" (1903), "Mlle. Modiste" (1905), "The Red Mill" (1906) and "Naughty Marietta" (1910). In the 1910s, the team of P. G. Wodehouse, Guy Progressing far beyond the comparatively frivolous musicals and sentimental operettas of the decade, Broadway's "Show Boat" (1927), represented an even more complete integration of book and score than the Princess Theatre musicals, with dramatic themes told through the music, dialogue, setting and movement. This was accomplished by combining the lyricism of Kern's music with the skillful libretto of Oscar Hammerstein II. One historian wrote, "Here we come to a completely new genre – the musical play as distinguished from musical comedy. Now... everything else was subservient to that play. The 1940s would begin with more hits from Porter, Irving Berlin, Rodgers and Hart, Weill and Gershwin, some with runs over 500 performances as the economy rebounded, but artistic change was in the air. Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Oklahoma!" (1943) completed the revolution begun by "Show Boat", by tightly integrating all the aspects of musical theatre, with a cohesive plot, songs that furthered the action of the story, and featured dream ballets and other dances that advanced the plot and developed the characters, rather than using dance as an excuse to parade scantily clad women across the stage. Rodgers and Hammerstein hired ballet choreographer Agnes de Mille, who used everyday motions to The 1950s were crucial to the development of the American musical. Damon Runyon's eclectic characters were at the core of Frank Loesser's and Abe Burrows' "Guys and Dolls", (1950, 1,200 performances); and the Gold Rush was the setting for Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe's "Paint Your Wagon" (1951). The relatively brief seven-month run of that show didn't discourage Lerner and Loewe from collaborating again, this time on "My Fair Lady" (1956), an adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's "Pygmalion" starring Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews, which at 2,717 performances held the long-run record for many years. Popular Hollywood films were made of all of these musicals. This surpassed the run of two hits by British creators: "The Boy Friend" In 1960, "The Fantasticks" was first produced off-Broadway. This intimate allegorical show would quietly run for over 40 years at the Sullivan Street Theatre in Greenwich Village, becoming by far the longest-running musical in history. Its authors produced other innovative works in the 1960s, such as "Celebration" and "I Do! I Do!", the first two-character Broadway musical. The 1960s would see a number of blockbusters, like "Fiddler on the Roof" (1964; 3,242 performances), "Hello, Dolly!" (1964; 2,844 performances), "Funny Girl" (1964; 1,348 performances) and "Man of La Mancha" (1965; 2,328 performances), and some more risqué pieces like "Cabaret", before ending with the emergence of the rock musical. Two men had considerable impact on musical theatre history beginning in this decade: Stephen Sondheim and Jerry Herman. The first project for which Sondheim wrote both music and lyrics was "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum" (1962, 964 performances), with a book based on the works of Plautus by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart, starring Zero Mostel. Sondheim moved the musical beyond its concentration on the romantic plots typical of earlier eras; his work tended to be darker, exploring the grittier sides of life both present and past. Other early Sondheim works include "Anyone Can Whistle" (1964, which ran only nine performances, despite having stars Lee Remick and Angela Lansbury), and the successful "Company" (1970), "Follies" (1971) and "A Little Night Music" (1973). Later, After "Show Boat" and "Porgy and Bess", and as the struggle in America and elsewhere for minorities' civil rights progressed, Hammerstein, Harold Arlen, Yip Harburg and others were emboldened to write more musicals and operas that aimed to normalize societal toleration of minorities and urged racial harmony. Early Golden Age works that focused on racial tolerance included "Finian's Rainbow" and "South Pacific". Towards the end of the Golden Age, several shows tackled Jewish subjects and issues, such as "Fiddler on the Roof", "Milk and Honey", "Blitz!" and later "Rags". The original concept that became "West Side After the success of "Hair", rock musicals flourished in the 1970s, with "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Godspell", "The Rocky Horror Show", "Evita" and "Two Gentlemen of Verona". Some of those began as "concept albums" which were then adapted to the stage, most notably "Jesus Christ Superstar" and "Evita". Others had no dialogue or were otherwise reminiscent of opera, with dramatic, emotional themes; these sometimes started as concept albums and were referred to as rock operas. Shows like "Raisin", "Dreamgirls", "Purlie" and "The Wiz" brought a significant African-American influence to Broadway. More varied musical genres and styles were incorporated into musicals both on and especially off-Broadway. At the same time, Stephen Sondheim found success with some of his musicals, as mentioned above. In 1975, the dance musical "A Chorus Line" emerged from recorded group therapy-style sessions Michael Bennett conducted with "gypsies" – those who sing and dance in support of the leading players – from the Broadway community. From hundreds of hours of tapes, James Kirkwood Jr. and Nick Dante fashioned a book about The 1980s saw the influence of European "megamusicals" on Broadway, in the West End and elsewhere. These typically feature a pop-influenced score, large casts and spectacular sets and special effects – a falling chandelier (in "The Phantom of the Opera"); a helicopter landing on stage (in "Miss Saigon") – and big budgets. Some were based on novels or other works of literature. The British team of composer Andrew Lloyd Webber and producer Cameron Mackintosh started the megamusical phenomenon with their 1981 musical "Cats", based on the poems of T. S. Eliot, which overtook "A Chorus Line" to become the longest-running Broadway show. Lloyd Webber followed up with "Starlight Express" (1984), performed on roller skates; "The Phantom of the In the 1990s, a new generation of theatrical composers emerged, including Jason Robert Brown and Michael John LaChiusa, who began with productions Off-Broadway. The most conspicuous success of these artists was Jonathan Larson's show "Rent" (1996), a rock musical (based on the opera "La bohème") about a struggling community of artists in Manhattan. While the cost of tickets to Broadway and West End musicals was escalating beyond the budget of many theatregoers, "Rent" was marketed to increase the popularity of musicals among a younger audience. It featured a young cast and a heavily rock-influenced score; the musical became a hit. Its young fans, many of them students, calling themselves RENTheads], camped out at the Nederlander Theatre in hopes of winning the lottery for $20 front row tickets, and some saw the show dozens of The U.S. and Britain were the most active sources of book musicals from the 19th century through much of the 20th century (although Europe produced various forms of popular light opera and operetta, for example Spanish Zarzuela, during that period and even earlier). However, the light musical stage in other countries has become more active in recent decades. Musicals from other English-speaking countries (notably Australia and Canada) often do well locally and occasionally even reach Broadway or the West End (e.g., "The Boy from Oz" and "The Drowsy Chaperone"). South Africa has an active musical theatre scene, with revues like "African Footprint" and "Umoja" and book musicals, such as "Kat and the Kings" and "Sarafina!" touring internationally. Locally, musicals like "Vere", "Love and Green Onions", "Over the Rainbow: the all-new all-gay... extravaganza" and "Bangbroek Mountain" and "In Briefs – a queer little Musical" have been produced successfully. Successful musicals from continental Europe include shows from (among other Musicals are often presented by amateur and school groups in churches, schools and other performance spaces. Although amateur theatre has existed for centuries, even in the New World, François Cellier and Cunningham Bridgeman wrote, in 1914, that prior to the late 19th century, amateur actors were treated with contempt by professionals. After the formation of amateur Gilbert and Sullivan companies licensed to perform the Savoy operas, professionals recognized that the The Broadway League announced that in the 2007–08 season, 12.27 million tickets were purchased for Broadway shows for a gross sale amount of almost a billion dollars. The League further reported that during the 2006–07 season, approximately 65% of Broadway tickets were purchased by tourists, and that foreign tourists were 16% of attendees. The Society of London Theatre reported that 2007 set a record for attendance in London. Total attendees in the major commercial and grant-aided theatres in Central London were 13.6 million, and total ticket revenues were £469.7 million. Also, the international musicals scene has been particularly active in recent years. Stephen Sondheim commented in the year 2000: However, noting the success in recent decades of original material, and creative re-imaginings of film, plays and literature, theatre historian John Kenrick countered: Is the Musical dead?... Absolutely not! Changing? Always! The musical has been changing ever since Offenbach did his first rewrite in the 1850s. And change is the clearest sign that the musical is still a living, growing genre. Will we ever return to the so-called 'golden age', with musicals at the center of popular culture? Probably not. Public taste has undergone fundamental changes, and the commercial arts can only flow where the paying public allows.

Musical theatre is a form of theatrical performance that combines songs, spoken dialogue, acting and dance. The story and emotional content of a musical – humor, pathos, love, anger – are communicated through words, music, movement and technical aspects of the entertainment as an integrated whole. Although musical theatre overlaps with other theatrical forms like opera and dance, it may be distinguished by the equal importance given to the music as compared with the dialogue, movement and other elements. Since the early 20th century, musical theatre stage works have generally been called, simply, musicals.

en

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summarize: On 4 March 1947, the Treaty of Dunkirk was signed by France and the United Kingdom as a "Treaty of Alliance and Mutual Assistance" in the event of a possible attack by Germany or the Soviet Union in the aftermath of World War II. In 1948, this alliance was expanded to include the Benelux countries, in the form of the Western Union, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organization (BTO), established by the Treaty of Brussels. Talks for a new military alliance which could also include North America resulted in the signature of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949 by the member states of the Western Union plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The North Atlantic Treaty was largely dormant until the Korean War initiated the establishment of NATO to implement it, by means of an integrated military structure: This included the formation of Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) in 1951, which adopted the Western Union's military structures and plans. In 1952, the post of Secretary General of NATO was established as the organization's chief civilian. That year also saw the first major NATO maritime exercises, Exercise Mainbrace and the accession of Greece and Turkey to the organization. Following the London and Paris Conferences, West Germany was permitted to rearm militarily, as they joined NATO in May 1955, which was, in turn, a major factor in the creation of the Soviet-dominated Warsaw Pact, delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion – doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO's military structure in 1966. In 1982, the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance. The collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1989–1991 removed the "de facto" main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO's purpose, nature, tasks, and focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent. NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 during the break-up of Yugoslavia. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, most of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004., requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO-led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times following incidents in the Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, and annexation of Crimea. The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent. Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO–Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. Between 1999 and 2020 NATO incorporated the following Central and Eastern European countries, including several former communist states: the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Albania, Croatia, Montenegro, and North Macedonia. The Russian intervention in Crimea in 2014 led to strong condemnation by NATO nations and the creation of a new "spearhead" force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria. At the subsequent 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO's member states formally committed for the first time to spend the equivalent of at least 2% of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline. NATO did not condemn the 2016–present purges in Turkey. NATO members have resisted the UN's Nuclear Weapon Ban Treaty, a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons, supported by more than 120 nations. No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, "Anchor Guard" in 1990 and "Ace Guard" in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick-reaction force was deployed to the area. The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the break-up of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, ordering a no-fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no-fly zone. On 10 and 11 April 1994, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F-16 jets acting under NATO direction. In retaliation, Serbs took 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces. In August 1995, a two-week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre. Further NATO air strikes helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995. As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea. Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations. In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević's Serbian-led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started a 78-day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999. Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo. Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence. In August–September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia., 4,882 KFOR soldiers, representing 31 countries, continue to operate in the area. The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The US/UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management. The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization's history. The Article states that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, and to enhance the security of shipping in general, which began on 4 October 2001. The alliance showed unity: On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which included troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area. ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan, and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country. On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US-led anti-terrorism coalition. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter/attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance's efforts. During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO-led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014. ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow-on training Resolute Support Mission. In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF-I. The NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM-I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM-I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US-led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual-hatted as the Commander of NTM-I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011. Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F-4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria, and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity. Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. Russia, China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well. The operation seeks to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and abetting to increase the general level of security in the region. During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protesters and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on 19 March. On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1, and additional ships and submarines from NATO members. They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries". On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition's forces. NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations, resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict. In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO. The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable [German] contribution to NATO and NATO-led operations" and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama. While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August. Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs. The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country's operations in the conflict were not sustainable. By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets. A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign. Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues. NATO has thirty members, mainly in Europe and North America. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO's "area of responsibility" under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. French Algeria was however covered until their independence on 3 July 1962. Twelve of these thirty are original members who joined in 1949, while the other eighteen joined in one of eight enlargement rounds. From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo-Mitterrandism". Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear-armed submarines to the alliance. Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defence, with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defence spending. New membership in the alliance has been largely from Central and Eastern Europe, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. Accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans, and requires approval by each current member. NATO currently has one candidate country that is in the process of joining the alliance: Bosnia and Herzegovina. North Macedonia signed an accession protocol to become a NATO member state in February 2019, and became a member state on 27 March 2020. Its accession had been blocked by Greece for many years due to the Macedonia naming dispute, which was resolved in 2018 by the Prespa agreement. In order to support each other in the process, new and potential members in the region formed the Adriatic Charter in 2003. Georgia was also named as an aspiring member, and was promised "future membership" during the 2008 summit in Bucharest, though in 2014, US President Barack Obama said the country was not "currently on a path" to membership. Russia continues to politically oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with informal understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and US negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification. NATO's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia, though they have also been criticized in the West. A June 2016 Levada poll found that 68% of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland—former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia—is a threat to Russia. In contrast 65% of Poles surveyed in a 2017 Pew Research Center report identified Russia as a "major threat", with an average of 31% saying so across all NATO countries, and 67% of Poles surveyed in 2018 favour US forces being based in Poland. Of non-CIS Eastern European countries surveyed by Gallup in 2016, all but Serbia and Montenegro were more likely than not to view NATO as a protective alliance rather than a threat. A 2006 study in the journal "Security Studies" argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine's relationship with NATO and Europe has been politically controversial, and improvement of these relations was one of the goals of the "Euromaidan" protests that saw the ousting of pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. In March 2014, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk reiterated the government's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership. Ukraine's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership, but signalled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join. Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro-Atlantic Partnership. Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan. The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility of using NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act – the so-called "right of first refusal". For example, Article 42(7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power". The treaty applies globally to specified territories whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework" for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme. Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialogue forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council. In June 2018, Qatar expressed its wish to join NATO. However, NATO declined membership, stating that only additional European countries could join according to Article 10 of NATO's founding treaty. Qatar and NATO have previously signed a security agreement together in January 2018. Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives. In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalization of relations, but reflect the Allies' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries" was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "partners across the globe" or "global partners". Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg stated that NATO needs to "address the rise of China," by closely cooperating with Australia, New Zealand, Japan and South Korea. Colombia is the NATO's latest partner and Colombia has access to the full range of cooperative activities NATO offers to partners; Colombia became the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO. All agencies and organizations of NATO are integrated into either the civilian administrative or military executive roles. For the most part they perform roles and functions that directly or indirectly support the security role of the alliance as a whole. The civilian structure includes: The military structure includes: The organizations and agencies of NATO include: The NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO PA) is a body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO, which meets at two session per year. NATO PA interacts directly with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ;, '), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 North American and European countries. The organization implements the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's Headquarters are located in Evere, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.

en

99

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summarize: Rice was born at Shardeloes, an historic English country house near Amersham, Buckinghamshire, England that was requisitioned as a maternity hospital during the Second World War. His father, Hugh Gordon Rice (d. 1988), served with the Eighth Army and reached the rank of major during the Second World War, and afterward worked for the de Havilland Aircraft Company, becoming Far East representative, and for the Diplomatic Service, including as adviser to the Ministry of Overseas Development at Amman, Jordan. Rice's mother, Joan Odette (née Bawden; 1919–2009), daughter of an entrepreneur in the London fashion trade, served in the Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF) as a photographic interpreter, and in her eighties became known as a writer on the publication of her wartime diaries. Rice was educated at three independent schools: Aldwickbury School in Hertfordshire, St Albans School and Lancing College. He left Lancing with GCE A-Levels in History and French and then started work as an articled clerk for a law firm in London, having decided not to apply for a university place. He later attended the Sorbonne in Paris for a year. After studying for a year in Paris at the Sorbonne, Rice joined EMI Records as a management trainee in 1966. When EMI producer Norrie Paramor left to set up his own organization in 1968, Rice joined him as an assistant producer, working with, among others, Cliff Richard, The Scaffold. Rice became famous for his collaborations with Andrew Lloyd Webber, with whom he wrote "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", "Jesus Christ Superstar", "Evita", "Cricket", "The Likes of Us," and additional songs for the 2011 West End production of "The Wizard of Oz". "Joseph" and "Superstar" were additionally known as two of the first hit musicals that drew their sound from the rock and pop music that became embedded in culture in the 1960s. For The Walt Disney Company, Rice has collaborated individually with Alan Menken and Elton John, creating productions including "Aladdin" (winning an Academy Award, Golden Globe and Grammy Award for Song of the Year for "A Whole New World") and "The Lion King" (winning the Golden Globe and Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Can You Feel the Love Tonight"). In 1996, his collaboration with Lloyd Webber for the film version "Evita" won Rice his third Academy Award for Best Original Song with the song "You Must Love Me". Rice has also collaborated with Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson of ABBA on "Chess" and with Rick Wakeman on the albums "1984" and "Cost of Living". In 2009, he wrote the lyrics for Andrei Konchalovsky's critically panned reimagining of "The Nutcracker", set to the music of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Rice reunited with Andrew Lloyd Webber in 2011 to pen new songs for Lloyd Webber's newest production of "The Wizard of Oz" which opened in March 2011 at the London Palladium. Rice has since, however, rejected working with Lloyd Webber again, claiming their partnership has run its course, and they are "no longer relevant as a team". On 9 November 1979, Rice hosted a highly publicised edition of "Friday Night, Saturday Morning" on the BBC which had a heated debate on the newly released film "Monty Python's Life of Brian", a film that had been banned by many local councils and caused protests throughout the world with accusations that it was blasphemous (as the lyricist of "Jesus Christ Superstar", Rice himself had been accused of blasphemy a decade before). To argue in favour of this accusation were veteran broadcaster and noted Christian Malcolm Muggeridge, and Mervyn Stockwood (the Bishop of Southwark). In defence of the film were two members of the Monty Python team, John Cleese and Michael Palin. He has also been a frequent guest panellist for many years on the radio panel games "Just a Minute" and "Trivia Test Match". Rice also made an appearance in the film "About a Boy". The film includes several clips from an edition of the game show "Countdown" on which he was the guest adjudicator. His other interests include cricket (he was President of the MCC in 2002) and maths. He wrote the foreword to the book "Why Do Buses Come In Threes" by Rob Eastaway and Jeremy Wyndham, and featured prominently in Tony Hawks's "One Hit Wonderland", where he co-wrote the song which gave Hawks a top twenty hit in Albania. On 2 December 2010 he addressed the eighth Bradman Oration in Adelaide. In October 2011, November and December 2016 and January and February 2017, Rice was guest presenter for the BBC Radio 2 show "Sounds of the '60s", standing in for regular presenter Brian Matthew who was unwell. He released his autobiography "Oh What a Circus: The Autobiography of Tim Rice" in 1998, which covered his childhood and early adult life until the opening of the original London production of "Evita" in 1978. He also took part in the Bush Theatre's 2011 project "Sixty Six Books" for which he wrote a piece based upon a book of the King James Bible. Rice is the current President of The London Library, the largest independent lending library in Europe. Along with his brother Jo and the radio presenters Mike Read and Paul Gambaccini, he was a co-founder of the "Guinness Book of British Hit Singles" and served as an editor from 1977 to 1996. In September 1981, Rice, along with Colin Webb and Michael Parkinson, launched Pavilion Books, a publishing house with a publishing focus on music and the arts. He held it until 1997. Rice is patron of London-based drama school, Associated Studios. Rice was made a Knight Bachelor by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994 (entitling him to the address "Sir Tim Rice" or "Sir Tim"), was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1999, and was named a Disney Legend in 2002. In 2008, Rice received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors. On 19 August 1974, Rice married Jane Artereta, daughter of Colonel Alexander Henry McIntosh, OBE, and former wife of producer and talent agent Michael Whitehall. The couple having met while working at Capital Radio. The marriage unravelled in the late 1980s after the British tabloid newspapers revealed that he had been conducting an affair with the singer Elaine Paige. Jane retains the title Lady Rice as, despite obtaining a divorce decree nisi, the couple never made it absolute and therefore they remain technically married. Lady Rice manages the family's 33,000 acre Dundonnell estate which Sir Tim Rice bought in 1998 for £2 million. She has won awards for her conservation work with red squirrels. They have two children, Eva Jane Florence, a novelist and singer-songwriter, and Donald Alexander Hugh, a film director and theatre producer who also helps to run Dundonnell. Eva, who was named after Eva Perón, is the author of the novel "The Lost Art of Keeping Secrets", which was a finalist for the British Book Award Best Read of the Year. Rice has a second daughter, Zoe Joan Eleanor from a relationship with Nell Sully, an artist. He has a third daughter, Charlotte Cordelia Violet Christina from a relationship with Laura-Jane Foley, a writer. As of 2017, he has seven grandchildren. Rice was a supporter of the Conservative Party, but in 2007 stated that the Conservatives were no longer interested in him and that his relationship with the Party had "irrevocably changed." He was reported in early 2014 to be a donor for the UK Independence Party. Despite his disenchantment with the Conservative Party, Rice joined Andrew Lloyd Webber, both supporters of Margaret Thatcher, at her funeral in 2013. He also raised funds for the Euro No campaign in 2000. Describing his religion, Rice stated in a 1982 interview, "Technically I'm Church of England, which is really nothing. But I don't follow it. I wouldn't say I was a Christian. I have nothing against it." Conversely, he also stated that he adapted the biblical stories of Joseph and Jesus to musicals because "I'd always rather take a true story over an untrue one." Rice supports Sunderland association football club. He was awarded an honorary doctorate of letters by the University of Sunderland at a ceremony at the Stadium of Light in November 2006. On the Board of Trustees of the Sunderland charity, Foundation of Light, in 2011 he took part in the Foundation of Light event. Rice runs his own amateur Heartaches Cricket Club, the name inspired by an Elvis Presley song. Rice is a life member of the Odiham and Greywell Cricket Club. According to "The Sunday Times" Rich List of the UK's richest millionaires, Rice is worth £152 million as of 2017. In 2015, Rice expressed his indebtedness to the journalist Angus McGill as "the man responsible for Andrew Lloyd Webber and I having our first song recorded". Speaking at McGill's funeral, Rice told a tale from his days at EMI about trying to rig the results of the "London Evening Standard" Girl of the Year competition in 1967. As "glorified office boy", Rice was writing songs with Lloyd Webber and desperate to find anybody to record one of their songs. Rice and colleagues filled in 5,000 entry forms overnight voting for the contestant who was a singer, and delivered them to McGill, who supervised the competition. Rice said it was "a disgraceful act of dishonesty on my part... without actually breaking the rules". As a result, the Standard proclaimed two Girls of the Year and Rice's choice, Rosalind ("Ross") Hannaman, was signed to EMI where she made her first record. Rice said at the funeral: "I owe [Angus] an awful lot, which is just one of the reasons why I'm here today." In addition to adaptations of his theatrical productions, Rice has worked on several original film and television projects:

Sir Timothy Miles Bindon Rice (born 10 November 1944) is an English lyricist and author. He is best known for his collaborations with Andrew Lloyd Webber, with whom he wrote, among other shows, "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", "Jesus Christ Superstar", and "Evita"; with Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson of ABBA, with whom he wrote "Chess"; and with Disney on "Aladdin, The Lion King", the stage adaptation of "Beauty and the Beast", and the original Broadway musical "Aida". He also wrote lyrics for the Alan Menken musical "King David", and for DreamWorks Animation's "The Road to El Dorado".

en

135

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summarize: John Francis Pastorius was born December 1, 1951, in Norristown, Pennsylvania. He was the oldest of three boys born to Stephanie, his Finnish mother, and Jack Pastorius, a singer and jazz drummer who spent much of his time on the road. His family moved to Oakland Park near Fort Lauderdale when he was eight. Pastorius' nickname, "Jaco", became adopted, and was partially influenced by his love for sports as well as the umpire Jocko Conlan. In 1974, he began spelling it "Jaco" after it was misspelled by his neighbor, pianist Alex Darqui. His brother called him "Mowgli" after the wild boy in "The Jungle Book" because he was energetic and spent much of his time shirtless on the beach, climbing trees, running through the woods, and swimming in the ocean. He attended St. Clement's Catholic School in Wilton Manors and was an altar boy at St. Clement's Church. His confirmation name was Anthony, thus expanding his name to John Francis Anthony Pastorius. He was intensely competitive and excelled at baseball, basketball, and football. He played drums until he injured his wrist playing football when he was thirteen. The damage was severe enough to warrant corrective surgery and inhibited his ability to play the drums. By 1968–1969, at the age of 17, Pastorius had begun to appreciate jazz and had saved enough money to buy an upright bass. Its deep, mellow tone appealed to him, though it strained his finances. He had difficulty maintaining the instrument, which he attributed to the humidity in Florida. When he woke one day to find it had cracked, he traded it for a 1962 Fender Jazz Bass. In his teens he played bass guitar for Wayne Cochran and the C.C. Riders. In the early 1970s, Pastorius taught bass at the University of Miami, where he befriended jazz guitarist Pat Metheny, who was also on the faculty. With Paul Bley, Pastorius and Metheny recorded an album, later titled "Jaco" (Improvising Artists, 1974). Pastorius then played on Metheny's debut album, "Bright Size Life" (ECM, 1976). He recorded his debut solo album, "Jaco Pastorius" (Epic, 1976) with Michael Brecker, Randy Brecker, Herbie Hancock, Hubert Laws, Pat Metheny, Sam & Dave, David Sanborn, and Wayne Shorter. Before recording his debut album, Pastorius attended a concert in Miami by the jazz fusion band Weather Report. After the concert, he approached keyboardist Joe Zawinul, who led the band. As was his habit, he introduced himself by saying, "I'm John Francis Pastorius III. I'm the greatest bass player in the world." Zawinul admired his brashness and asked for a demo tape. After listening to the tape, Zawinul realized that Pastorius had considerable skill. They corresponded, and Pastorius sent Zawinul a rough mix of his solo album. After bassist Alphonso Johnson left Weather Report, Zawinul asked Pastorius to join the band. Pastorius made his band debut on the album "Black Market" (Columbia, 1976), in which he shared the bass chair with Johnson. Pastorius was fully established as sole band bass player for the recording of "Heavy Weather" (Columbia, 1977), which contained the Grammy-nominated hit "Birdland". During his time with Weather Report, Pastorius began abusing alcohol and illegal drugs, which exacerbated existing mental problems and led to erratic behavior. He left Weather Report in 1982 due to clashes with tour commitments for his other projects, plus a growing dissatisfaction with Zawinul's synthesized and orchestrated approach to the band's music. Warner Bros. signed Pastorius to a favorable contract in the late 1970s based on his groundbreaking skill and his star quality, which they hoped would lead to large sales. He used this contract to set up his Word of Mouth big band which consisted of Chuck Findley on trumpet, Howard Johnson on tuba, Wayne Shorter, Michael Brecker, and Tom Scott on reeds, Toots Thielemans on harmonica, Peter Erskine and Jack DeJohnette on drums, and Don Alias on percussion. This was the group that recorded his second solo album, "Word of Mouth" (Warner Bros., 1981). In 1982, Pastorius toured with Word of Mouth as a 21-piece big band. While in Japan, to the alarm of his band members, he shaved his head, painted his face black, and threw his bass guitar into Hiroshima Bay. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in late 1982 after the tour. Pastorius had shown signs of bipolar disorder before his diagnosis, but these signs were dismissed as eccentricities, character flaws, and by Pastorius himself as a normal part of his freewheeling personality. Despite attention in the press, "Word of Mouth" sold poorly. Warner Bros. was unimpressed by the demo tapes from "Holiday for Pans". Pastorius released a third album, "Invitation" (1983), a live recording from the Word of Mouth tour of Japan. As alcohol and drug problems dominated his life, he had trouble finding work, finding people who would tolerate his shenanigans, and he wound up homeless. In 1985, while filming an instructional video, Pastorius told the interviewer, Jerry Jemmott, that although he had been praised often for his ability, he wished that someone would give him a job. Pastorius developed a self-destructive habit of provoking bar fights and allowing himself to be beaten up. After sneaking onstage at a Santana concert at the Sunrise Musical Theater in Sunrise, Florida on September 11, 1987 and being ejected from the premises, he made his way to the Midnight Bottle Club in Wilton Manors, Florida. After reportedly kicking in a glass door, having been refused entrance to the club, he was in a violent confrontation with Luc Havan, the club's manager who was a martial arts expert. Pastorius was hospitalized for multiple facial fractures and injuries to his right eye and left arm, and fell into a coma. There were encouraging signs that he would come out of the coma and recover, but they soon faded. A brain hemorrhage a few days later led to brain death. He was taken off life support and died on September 21, 1987 at the age of 35 at Broward General Medical Center in Fort Lauderdale. Luc Havan faced a charge of second-degree murder. He pleaded guilty to manslaughter and was sentenced to twenty-two months in prison and five years' probation. After serving four months in prison, he was paroled for good behavior. Until about 1970, most jazz bassists played the acoustic, upright bass, also known as the double bass. With the exception of the bass players in the trios Bill Evans led, bassists remained in the background with the drummer, forming the rhythm section, while the saxophonist, trumpeter, or vocalist handled the melody and led the band. Pastorius had other ideas for the bass player. He played an electric bass from which he had removed the frets. He played fast and loud, sang, and did flips. He spread powder on the stage so he could dance like James Brown. He joked around and talked to the crowd. A self-described Florida beach bum, he often went barefoot and shirtless. He was tall, lean, and strong, and for someone who played sports the nickname "Jocko" fit. His thumbs were "double jointed" and his fingers were long and thin. After being taught about artificial harmonics, he added them to his technique and repertoire. (Natural harmonics, also known as open string harmonics, are played by lightly touching the string at a fret without pressing it to the fretboard, resulting in a note that rings somewhat like a bell. Artificial harmonics, also called false harmonics, involve lightly touching a string with one finger, then using another finger to play the note, simultaneously playing and stopping the note.) An often cited example is the introduction to "Birdland". He was noted for virtuosic bass lines which combined Afro-Cuban rhythms, inspired by the likes of Cachao Lopez, with R&B to create 16th-note funk lines syncopated with ghost notes. He played these with a "movable anchor" thumb technique on the right hand, anchoring on the bridge pickup while playing on the E and A strings and muting the E string with his thumb while playing on higher strings. Examples include "Come On, Come Over" from the album "Jaco Pastorius" and "The Chicken" from "The Birthday Concert". Pastorius played a number of Fender Jazz Bass guitars over the years, but the most famous was a 1962 Jazz Bass that he called the Bass of Doom. When he was 21, Pastorius acquired the bass, which was modified to remove the frets. It is unclear when the frets were removed, as his recollections varied over the years. A common story is that he used a common butter knife to remove the frets, and sealed the fretboard with epoxy resin. One anecdote, as recounted by Allyn Robinson in an interview with Robert Sturrken on his "Nightlife and Music with the Maestro" program on WYLK Lake 94, claimed Pastorius removed the frets only four hours before a gig with Wayne Cochran. In 1986 the bass was repaired by luthiers Kevin Kaufman and Jim Hamilton, after it had been broken into many pieces. After the repair Pastorius recorded a session with Mike Stern, then the bass was stolen from a park bench in Manhattan in 1986. It was found in a guitar shop in 2006, but the shop owner refused to give it up. The Pastorius family enlisted lawyers to help but nearly went bankrupt in 2010. Robert Trujillo, bass guitarist for Metallica, considered Jaco Pastorius to be one of his heroes, and he felt that the family ought to have the bass. Trujillo helped pay to have it returned to them. Fender began offering a fretless version of their standard Jazz Bass in the mid 1980s, and in 1999 began offering the "Fender Jaco Pastorius Jazz Bass" in their Artist series, and Custom Shop series. These instruments were modelled on the Bass of Doom, with the Custom Shop version featuring a fretboard sealed with epoxy resin. In the 2000s Fender's budget brand Squier offered the "Squier Vintage Modified Fretless Jazz Bass" which was also reminiscent of Jaco's instrument. Pastorius used the "Variamp" EQ (equalization) controls on his two Acoustic 360 amplifiers (made by the Acoustic Control Corporation of Van Nuys, California) to boost the midrange frequencies, thus accentuating the natural growling tone of his fretless passive Fender Jazz Bass and roundwound string combination. He also controlled his tone color with a rackmount MXR digital delay unit that fed a second Acoustic amp rig. During the final three years of his life he used Hartke cabinets because of the character of aluminum speaker cones (as opposed to paper speaker cones). These provided a bright, clear sound. He typically used the delay in a chorus-like mode, providing a shimmering stereo doubling effect. He often used the fuzz control built into the Acoustic 360. For the bass solo "Slang/Third Stone From the Sun" on Weather Report's live album "" (1979), Pastorius used the MXR digital delay to layer and loop a chordal figure and then soloed over it; the same technique, with a looped bass riff, can be heard during his solo on the Joni Mitchell concert video "Shadows and Light". Pastorius appeared as a guest on many albums by other artists, including Ian Hunter of Mott the Hoople, on "All American Alien Boy" in 1976. He can be heard on Airto Moreira's album "I'm Fine, How Are You?" (1977). His signature sound is prominent on Flora Purim's "Everyday Everynight" (1978), on which he played the bass melody for a Michel Colombier composition entitled "The Hope", and performed bass and vocals on one of his own compositions, entitled "Las Olas". Other recordings included Joni Mitchell's "Hejira" and Al Di Meola’s "Land of the Midnight Sun", both released in 1976. Near the end of his career, he worked often with guitarist Mike Stern, guitarist Biréli Lagrène, and drummer Brian Melvin. Pastorius received two Grammy Award nominations in 1977 for his self-titled debut album: one for Best Jazz Performance by a Group and one for Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist ("Donna Lee"). In 1978, he received a Grammy nomination for Best Jazz Performance by a Soloist for his work on Weather Report's album "Heavy Weather". "Bass Player" magazine gave him second place on a list of the one hundred greatest bass players of all time, behind James Jamerson. After his death in 1987, he was voted, by readers of "Down Beat" magazine, to its Hall of Fame, joining bassists Jimmy Blanton, Ray Brown, Ron Carter, Charles Mingus, Charlie Haden, and Milt Hinton. Many musicians have composed songs in his honour, such as Pat Metheny's "Jaco" on the album "Pat Metheny Group" (1978) and "Mr. Pastorius" by Marcus Miller on Miles Davis's album "Amandla". Others who have dedicated compositions to him include Randy Brecker, Eliane Elias, Chuck Loeb, John McLaughlin, Bob Moses, Ana Popović, Dave Samuels, and the Yellowjackets. On December 2, 2007, the day after his birthday, a concert called "20th Anniversary Tribute to Jaco Pastorius" was held at Broward Center for the Performing Arts in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with performances by the Jaco Pastorius Big Band and appearances by Randy Brecker, Dave Bargeron, Peter Erskine, Jimmy Haslip, Bob Mintzer, Gerald Veasley, Pastorius's sons John and Julius Pastorius, Pastorius's daughter Mary Pastorius, Ira Sullivan, Bobby Thomas Jr., and Dana Paul. Almost twenty years after his death, Fender released the Jaco Pastorius Jazz Bass, a fretless instrument in its Artist Series. He has been called "arguably the most important and ground-breaking electric bassist in history" and "perhaps the most influential electric bassist today". William C. Banfield, director of Africana Studies, Music and Society at Berklee College, described Pastorius as one of the few original American virtuosos who defined a musical movement, in addition to Jimi Hendrix, Louis Armstrong, Thelonious Monk, Charlie Christian, Bud Powell, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, John Coltrane, Sarah Vaughan, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus and Wes Montgomery.

John Francis Anthony "Jaco" Pastorius III (; December 1, 1951 – September 21, 1987) was an American jazz bassist who was a member of Weather Report from 1976 to 1981. He worked with Pat Metheny and Joni Mitchell, and recorded albums as a solo artist and band leader. His bass playing employed funk, lyrical solos, bass chords, and innovative harmonics. As of 2017, he is the only electric bassist of seven bassists inducted into the "DownBeat" Jazz Hall of Fame, and has been lauded as one of the best electric bassists of all time.

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summarize: Judas Iscariot, one of the Twelve Apostles, worries that the followers of Jesus are getting out of control and may be seen as a threat by the Roman Empire, who might harshly suppress them ("Heaven on Their Minds"). The other apostles anticipate going to Jerusalem with Jesus and ask him about his plans, but Jesus tells them not to worry about the future ("What's the Buzz"). Mary Magdalene tries to help Jesus relax. Judas tells Jesus that he should not associate with Mary, because a relationship with a prostitute could be seen as inconsistent with his own teachings and be used against him ("Strange Thing Mystifying"). Jesus tells Judas that he should not judge others unless he is without sin. Jesus then reproaches the apostles and complains that none of them truly cares about him. Mary Magdalene tries to reassure Jesus while anointing him with oil ("Everything's Alright"). Judas angrily says that the money spent on oil should have been used to help the poor. Jesus answers that they do not have the resources to end poverty, and that they should be glad for what comforts they have. Meanwhile, Caiaphas, the High Priest of Israel, assembles the Pharisees and priests. Like Judas they fear that Jesus's followers will be seen as a threat by the Romans, and that many Jews might suffer the consequences. Caiaphas concludes that for the greater good, Jesus must be killed ("This Jesus Must Die"). As Jesus and his followers arrive exultantly in Jerusalem, they are confronted by Caiaphas, who demands that Jesus disperse the crowd. Jesus instead greets the happy crowd ("Hosanna"). Then Simon the Zealot suggests that Jesus lead his mob in a war against Rome and gain absolute power. Jesus rejects this, stating that none of his followers understand what true power is ("Simon Zealotes/Poor Jerusalem"). Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judea, has a dream in which he meets a Galilean and then receives the blame for the man's violent death at the hands of a mob ("Pilate's Dream"). Jesus arrives at the Temple and finds that it is being used as a marketplace; angered by this, he drives everyone out ("The Temple"). A group of lepers ask Jesus to heal them. Their number increases, and overwhelmed, Jesus rejects them. Mary Magdalene sings him to sleep. While he sleeps, Mary acknowledges that she is in love with him, and it frightens her ("I Don't Know How to Love Him"). Conflicted, Judas seeks out the Pharisees and proposes helping them arrest Jesus, believing that Jesus is out of control and that Jesus himself would approve of his action. In exchange for his help, Judas is offered thirty pieces of silver. Judas initially refuses, then accepts when Caiaphas suggests that he can use the money to help the poor ("Damned for All Time/Blood Money"). At the Last Supper, Jesus is stung when the others get drunk and pay little attention to him. He remarks that "for all you care" the wine they are drinking could be his blood and the bread his body. He asks them to remember him, then frustrated by their lack of understanding, he predicts that Peter will deny him three times that night, and that another one of them will betray him. Judas admits that he is the one who will betray Jesus and, saying that he does not understand why Jesus did not plan things better, he leaves ("The Last Supper"). The remaining apostles fall asleep, and Jesus retreats to the Garden of Gethsemane to pray ("Gethsemane (I Only Want to Say)"). He tells God his doubts about whether his mission has had any success, and angrily demands to know why he should continue and suffer the horrible death that awaits him. Receiving no answer, he realises that he cannot defy God's will, and surrenders to God. Judas arrives with Roman soldiers and identifies Jesus by kissing him on the cheek ("The Arrest"). When Jesus is brought to trial before the Sanhedrin, Caiaphas demands to know if he calls himself the Son of God, and Jesus responds merely "That's what you say". Caiaphas says that this is sufficient evidence and sends him to Pilate. Meanwhile, Peter is confronted by three people, to whom he denies that he knows Jesus ("Peter's Denial"). Mary observes that Jesus had predicted this. Pilate asks Jesus if he is the King of the Jews. Jesus again answers "That's what you say". Since Jesus is from Galilee, Pilate says that he is not under his jurisdiction and sends him to King Herod ("Pilate and Christ"). The flamboyant King Herod asks Jesus to prove his divinity by performing miracles ("King Herod's Song"), but Jesus ignores him. Herod angrily sends him back to Pilate. Mary Magdalene, Peter, and the apostles remember when they first began following Jesus, and wish that they could return to a time of peace ("Could We Start Again, Please?"). Judas is horrified at Jesus's harsh treatment. He expresses regret to the Pharisees, fearing that he will forever be remembered as a traitor. Caiaphas and Annas assure him that he has done the right thing. Judas throws down the money he was given and storms out. He curses God for manipulating him, and commits suicide ("Judas's Death"). At Jesus's trial, Pilate attempts to interrogate Jesus, but is cut off by a bloodthirsty mob which demands that Jesus be crucified. He tells the mob that Jesus has committed no crime and does not deserve to die, but to satisfy the mob he will have Jesus flogged ("Trial Before Pilate"). Pilate pleads with Jesus to defend himself, but Jesus says weakly that everything has been determined by God. The crowd still calls for Jesus's death and finally Pilate reluctantly agrees to crucify Jesus. As Jesus awaits crucifixion, he is haunted by the ghost of Judas, who asks why Jesus chose to arrive in the manner and time that he did, and if it was all part of a divine plan ("Superstar"). Jesus is crucified, recites his final words and dies ("The Crucifixion"). 2 flutes, clarinet, 2 bassoons, 2 saxophones (one tenor), 6 horns, 4 trumpets, 3 trombones, drum set, percussion set, 6 guitars (1 acoustic, 2 electric, 4 bass), 5 pianos, electric piano, 3 organs, positive organ, and strings. Additional vocals are provided by a choir, a children's choir ("Overture"), and other singers ("Superstar"). Act One Act Two The songs were first written and conceived as an album musical, before the musical was created and staged. On the original album, the part of Jesus was sung by Ian Gillan, with Murray Head as Judas, Michael d'Abo as King Herod, Yvonne Elliman as Mary Magdalene, and Barry Dennen as Pilate. In July 1971, the first authorised American concert of the rock opera took place in front of an audience of 13,000 people at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's Civic Arena with Jeff Fenholt singing the role of Jesus, Carl Anderson as Judas and Elliman repeating as Mary Magdalene. The musical opened on Broadway on 12 October 1971, directed by Tom O'Horgan, at the Mark Hellinger Theatre. It starred Jeff Fenholt as Jesus, Ben Vereen as Judas and Bob Bingham as Caiaphas. Dennen and Elliman played the roles that they had sung on the album. Kurt Yaghjian was Annas. Anderson replaced Vereen when he fell ill, and the two performers later took turns playing the role. The show closed on 30 June 1973 after 711 performances. The production received mixed reviews; the bold casting of African-Americans as Judas was lauded, but reviewer Clive Barnes from "The New York Times" said, "the real disappointment was not in the music... but in the conception." The show was nominated for five Tony Awards, including Best Score, but won none. Lloyd Webber won a Drama Desk Award as "Most Promising Composer", and Vereen won a Theatre World Award. The Broadway show and subsequent productions were condemned by some religious groups. Tim Rice was quoted as saying "It happens that we don't see Christ as God but simply the right man at the right time at the right place." Some Christians considered such comments to be blasphemous, the character of Judas too sympathetic and some of his criticisms of Jesus offensive. The musical's lack of allusion to the resurrection of Jesus has resulted in criticism similar to that of fellow musical "Godspell", which also did not clearly depict the resurrection. At the same time, some Jews claimed that it bolstered the antisemitic belief that the Jews were responsible for Jesus's death by showing most of the villains as Jewish (Caiaphas and the other priests, Herod) and showing the crowd in Jerusalem calling for the crucifixion. The musical was banned in South Africa for being "irreligious". A 1972 production of the play was banned in the Hungarian People's Republic for "distribution of religious propaganda". "Superstar" opened at the Palace Theatre in London in 1972, starring Paul Nicholas as Jesus, Stephen Tate as Judas and Dana Gillespie as Mary Magdalene. It was directed by Australian Jim Sharman. This production was much more successful than the original production on Broadway, running for eight years and becoming the United Kingdom's longest-running musical at the time. Dmitri Shostakovich attended this production in London just before his death. He regretted that he could not have composed something like it; he lauded especially a rock band underpinning full symphonic strings, brass and woodwind. One of the earliest foreign productions was a five-day run in Sweden at Scandinavium in Gothenburg, opening on 18 February 1972 and playing to 74,000 people (a record at the time). Starring as Mary Magdalene was Agnetha Fältskog. On 16 March 1972 an oratorio version was performed at Memorial Drive Park in Adelaide, South Australia as part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts. This was followed in May by the first full Australian production, at the Capitol Theatre, Sydney, later moving to the Palais Theatre in Melbourne. Sharman again directed, and the cast included Trevor White as Jesus, Jon English as Judas, and Michele Fawdon (1972–1973) and Marcia Hines (1973–1974) as Mary Magdalene. Hines was the first black woman to play the role. Other cast members included Reg Livermore, John Paul Young, Stevie Wright and Rory O'Donoghue as well as Graham Russell and Russell Hitchcock who met during the production and subsequently formed the band Air Supply. The production ran until February 1974. In June 1972 the show opened in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, in Atelje 212 theatre, in adaptation by Jovan Ćirilov. The role of Jesus Christ was played by Korni Grupa vocalist Zlatko Pejaković, the role of Mary Magdalene by Azra Halinović and the role of Pontius Pilate by Branko Milićević. The premiere was directly broadcast by Radio Television of Belgrade. Bora Đorđević and Srđan Marjanović, at the time little known musicians, also participated as members of the choir. The production was praised by the Yugoslav public. In 1973, the show opened in Paris at the Théâtre de Chaillot in a French adaptation by Pierre Delanoë. The title role was sung by Daniel Beretta, and Mary Magdalena was Anne-Marie David. The critics were unimpressed, and the production stopped after 30 performances. In the same year, Noel Pearson produced the show at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, Republic of Ireland, with Luke Kelly giving a critically acclaimed performance as King Herod. In 1974, first Spanish-language production ran in Mexico with the title "Jesucristo Super Estrella". Julissa played Mary Magdalen. The musical was seen in 1974 in Peru and Singapore. Robert Stigwood launched two road touring companies in 1971 to cover North America, with Robert Corff and Tom Westerman as Jesus, respectively. The first major US National Tour, however began In 1976, managed by Laura Shapiro Kramer. The tour continued until 1980. In 1977, the show had its first Broadway revival, running from 23 November 1977 to 12 February 1978. It was directed by William Daniel Grey, with choreography by Kelly Carrol and starred William Daniel Grey as Jesus, Patrick Jude as Judas, and Barbara Niles as Mary Magdalene. Regional productions followed. In 1981, Emilio de Soto directed an English-language version in Venezuela, with 163 actors. From 1982 to 1984, an Australian production toured Australia and South-East Asia, directed by Trevor White, who also reprised his role of Jesus. The cast included Doug Parkinson as Judas and Marcia Hines (reprising her role as Mary Magdalene). The North American touring revival of "Superstar" in 1992 starred Neeley and Anderson reprising their respective Broadway and 1973 film roles as Jesus and Judas, receiving positive reviews for their performances. This production also starred both Dennis DeYoung as Pilate, and Syreeta and Irene Cara sharing Mary Magdalene. Originally expected to run for three to four months, the tour ended up running for five years. Original cast replacements to this tour included Christine Rea as Mary Magdalene, Jason Raize as Pontius Pilate and Simone as the Maid by the Fire and understudy for Mary. In 1994, a New Zealand production starred Darryl Lovegrove as Jesus, Jay Laga'aia as Judas and Frankie Stevens as Caiaphas. Also in 1994, a stage version titled "Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection" was performed in Atlanta, Austin and Seattle featuring Amy Ray and Emily Saliers of the Indigo Girls as Jesus and Mary Magdalene respectively, and Michael Lorant as Judas. In 1996, the musical was revived in London at the Lyceum Theatre and ran for a year and a half. Directed by Gale Edwards, it starred Steve Balsamo and Zubin Varla as Jesus and Judas, and Joanna Ampil as Mary Magdalene and Alice Cooper as King Herod. The production was nominated for an Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival but did not win. It was followed by a UK tour. This production was revived on Broadway at the Ford Center for the Performing Arts in 2000, starring Glenn Carter as Jesus and Tony Vincent as Judas. It opened to mixed reviews and ran for 161 performances. It was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical but did not win. In 2002, a national tour starred Sebastian Bach as Jesus and Anderson once again as Judas. Bach received mixed reviews while Anderson was again praised. In April 2003, Bach was replaced by Eric Kunze. Anderson left the show later in 2003 after being diagnosed with leukaemia and died in 2004. The tour closed shortly after Anderson's departure. In 2004 a year-long UK tour began, directed by Bob Tomson and Bill Kenwright. Carter reprised his role as Jesus, with James Fox as Judas. In 2005, a successful Scandinavian tour starred Australian Peter Murphy (Jesus), American Kristen Cummings (Mary), Englishman Jon Boydon née Stokes (Judas), Frenchman Jérôme Pradon (King Herod) and Australian Michael-John Hurney (Pilate). A US tour starring Neeley, reprising his role as Jesus, Corey Glover as Judas, and Christine Rea as Mary, began in 2006 and played for five years. A Chilean heavy metal version has played annually in Santiago since 2004. In Boston, Gary Cherone portrayed Jesus in productions in 1994, 1996 and 2003 and Judas in 2000. A new production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" was mounted at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival, in Stratford, Ontario, in 2011. Directed by Des McAnuff, the cast starred Paul Nolan as Jesus, Josh Young as Judas, Brent Carver as Pilate, Chilina Kennedy as Mary Magdalene, Bruce Dow as Herod and Melissa O'Neil as Martha. This moved to La Jolla Playhouse later in the year and transferred to the Neil Simon Theatre on Broadway in 2012, with Tom Hewitt taking over the role of Pilate. Reviews were mixed. The revival was nominated for two Tonys: Best Revival and, for Young, Best Actor. Neither award was won, but Young won a Theatre World Award. The revival closed after 116 performances and 24 previews. Through a 2012 ITV competition TV show called "Superstar", produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber, the UK public chose Ben Forster for the role of Jesus in an arena tour of the musical, beginning at O2 in September 2012. The production also starred Tim Minchin as Judas, Melanie C as Mary Magdalene and Chris Moyles as King Herod. Lloyd Webber stated, "The funny thing is that "Jesus Christ Superstar" [as a rock concert] is what we actually intended it to be. When it is done in a conventional proscenium theatre production it feels shoe-horned in. That is why I wanted to do this." The tour resumed in March 2013 in the UK, and an Australian leg of the tour commenced in Perth in May 2013. Andrew O'Keefe played King Herod in Australia, with Jon Stevens as Pilate. Stevens had played Judas in an Australian arena tour in 1992. In 2016, celebrating 45 years since the musical debuted on Broadway, "Jesus Christ Superstar" returned to London at Regent's Park Open Air Theatre, directed by Timothy Sheader. The production won the BBC Radio 2 Audience Award for Best Musical at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards, and a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival. The production returned to the Open Air Theatre as part of the 2017 season, running from 11 August 2017 to 23 September. Additionally, the Lyric Opera of Chicago hosted a run of the production from late April 2018 to late May 2018. before returning to London at the Barbican Centre from 9 July to 24 August 2019 prior to a 50th anniversary US tour from October 2019. Two notable Jesuses were Takeshi Kaga, in the 1976 Japanese production, and Camilo Sesto in the 1975 Spanish production. Mary Magdalene was played by Rocío Banquells in a 1981 production in Mexico. A Czech version premiered in 1994 in Prague's Spirála Theatre and ran until 1998, with 1288 performances. In the 2000s, a Venezuelan production ran for two years (2006–2008), directed by Michel Hausmann. A Spanish production produced by Stage Entertainment ran from 2007 to 2009, followed by long-running productions in Italy and Sweden (featuring Ola Salo) and Norway. Concerts of the show have been mounted in Vienna, Austria, since 1981, including one on Easter of 2015 starring Drew Sarich in the title role. In 2010, an Australian production presented by Harvest Rain Theatre Company was directed by Tim O'Connor. Luke Kennedy appeared as Jesus, Naomi Price as Mary, Tod Strike as Judas, and Steven Tandy as Herod. A 2017 Professional Australian Production was staged at the Arts Centre Melbourne and starred Rob Mills as Jesus. A 2014 production in São Paulo, Brazil starred Igor Rickli as Jesus. Negra Li was Mary Magdalene. A 2014 production in Lima, Peru, at the Sarita Colonia prison, as part of a rehabilitation program for inmates, received some press. Eighty prisoners mounted the production, directed by inmate Freddy Battifora, who also played the role of Jesus. The Catholic Church approved of the production. In 2018 a new production, directed by Michael Hunt was premiered at the Perm Academic Theatre, Russia. Hunt worked closely with The Really Useful Group on a new translation together with the concept for a new staging. This rock opera is very popular in Russia but is the first authorised production to receive the support of the Really Useful Group. The original 1970 concept album was very popular; its 1971 release topped the US Billboard Pop Albums. The 1972 and 1992 Australian cast recordings were also both highly successful. In 1994, a studio recording under the name of "Jesus Christ Superstar: A Resurrection" was released. A 1996 radio production for BBC Radio 2 starred Tony Hadley as Jesus, Roger Daltrey as Judas, Frances Ruffelle as Mary Magdalene and Julian Clary as King Herod; this production was re-broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra on 6 August 2016. In May 2018, Aztec Records released a 1973 live recording of the Australian production; previous recordings of that production were released as "bootleg" copies. A film adaptation of "Jesus Christ Superstar" was released in 1973 and was the eighth highest-grossing film of that year. The film, directed by Norman Jewison, was shot in Israel and other Middle Eastern locations. Ted Neeley, Carl Anderson and Yvonne Elliman were each nominated for a Golden Globe Award for their portrayals of Jesus, Judas and Mary Magdalene, respectively. Bob Bingham (Caiaphas) and Barry Dennen (Pilate) also reprised their roles. A new song, called "Then We Are Decided" and phrased as a dialogue between Caiaphas and Annas, was written and composed for this adaptation. A second adaptation was filmed in 1999, and released around the world on video in 2000 and 2001. It starred Glenn Carter as Jesus, Jérôme Pradon as Judas, Reneé Castle as Mary Magdalene, and Rik Mayall as Herod, and was directed by Gale Edwards and Nick Morris. It was released on video in the UK in October 2000. In the U.S. it was released on VHS and DVD in March 2001, and aired on PBS's "Great Performances" series in April 2001. It won the International Emmy Award for Best Performing Arts Film in November 2001. The style of the film is more like the stage version than the location-based 1973 adaptation, and it used many of the ideas from the 1996–1999 UK production. On Easter Sunday, April 1, 2018, NBC aired a live concert version of the show featuring John Legend as Jesus, Sara Bareilles as Mary Magdalene, Brandon Victor Dixon as Judas, Alice Cooper as King Herod, Norm Lewis as Caiaphas, Ben Daniels as Pilate, Jin Ha as Annas, Erik Grönwall as Simon Zealotes and Jason Tam as Peter. Two years later, on Easter Sunday, April 12, 2020, the show was re-broadcast on NBC, with many U.S. Households observing Easter at home while practicing social distancing due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Jesus Christ Superstar is a 1970 rock opera with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice. It started as a rock opera album musical before its Broadway on-stage debut in 1971. The musical is sung-through, with no spoken dialogue. The story is loosely based on the Gospels' accounts of the last week of Jesus' life, beginning with the preparation for the arrival of Jesus and his disciples in Jerusalem and ending with the crucifixion. It depicts political and interpersonal struggles between Judas Iscariot and Jesus that are not present in the Bible.

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summarize: The daughter of university professors, Jade spent three years at Dijon's Conservatory of Dramatic Art. In 1964 she played on stage 40 times the part of Agnès in Molière's "L'école des femmes". In 1966 she won the Prix de Comédie for Jean Giraudoux's stage play "Ondine", performed at the Comédie Boulogne. She moved to Paris and became a student of Jean-Laurent Cochet at the Edouard VII theater, and began acting in television productions, including a leading role in TV series "Les oiseaux rares". While performing as Frida in Pirandello's "Henri IV", in a production by Sacha Pitoëff at the Théâtre Moderne, Jade was discovered by New Wave film director François Truffaut. He was "completely taken by her beauty, her manners, her kindness, and her "joie de vivre"", and cast her in the role of Christine Darbon in "Stolen Kisses" (1968). During the filming, Truffaut fell in love with her, and there was talk of marriage. Truffaut dubbed Claude Jade “French cinema’s little sweetheart” and the director and his muse were soon a couple in real life, although Truffaut changed his mind about marrying her the night before their wedding. American critic Pauline Kael wrote that Jade "seems a less ethereal, more practical Catherine Deneuve". When "Baisers volés" became a hit, Truffaut promised that one day he would ask Claude Jade to help him continue the series. The director's love shines through his alter-ego Doinel in Stolen Kisses (1968), "Bed and Board" (Domicile Conjugal, 1970) and "Love on the Run" (1979), as Christine puts up with Antoine's foibles and affairs. The Guardian notes "Memorable scenes pass through the mind like a montage: her teaching Antoine the best way to butter toast in the morning, their writing each other little notes, his calling her "my little mother, my little sister, my little daughter" in a taxi, and she replying she would rather be his wife; her attempts to guess Antoine's latest job, amusingly suggesting cab driver or water taster, her reaction when Antoine hangs a scissors on her ring finger, his affectionate response to her wearing glasses in bed, the medium tracking shot of her legs as she stops at a shop for tangerines then heads up the stairs, as one of the neighbourhood men longingly admires them." Playing the same character, Jade appeared in three Truffaut Movies. Truffaut uses the occasion to examine three states, three ages, of his heroine, played with the right middle-class gentility and innocence by Claude Jade: loved from a distance ("Stolen Kisses"); married and misled ("Bed and Board"); divorced but still on good terms ("Love on the Run"). Some months after Truffaut's "Stolen Kisses" Claude Jade starred in Alfred Hitchcock's "Topaz" (1969), as Michèle Picard, a secret agent's anxious daughter, married to a reporter (Michel Subor). Recommended to Hitchcock by Truffaut, she was 19 years old when cast, with Dany Robin playing her mother. Hitchcock said he chose the two actresses to provide glamor, and later quipped, "Claude Jade is a rather quiet young lady, but I wouldn't guarantee [that] about her behavior in a taxi". Jade recounted that they "talked in a Paris hotel about cooking, and I gave him my recipe for soufflé and told him I liked "Strangers on a Train", and that was that." Hitchcock said she resembled his former star Grace Kelly, and in France she was a younger Danielle Darrieux. Some of her scenes were deleted and restored for the director's cut of "Topaz" in 1999. "Topaz" was Jade's only Hollywood film. Universal Pictures offered her a seven-year contract, which she turned down reportedly because she preferred to work in French. Director Tony Richardson's film "Nijinsky" (a.k.a. "The Dancer") (1970), based on a screenplay by Edward Albee, was canceled during pre-production by producer Harry Saltzman. It was to have starred Jade as Vaslav Nijinsky's wife, alongside Rudolf Nureyev as Nijinsky and Paul Scofield as his lover Sergei Diaghilev. She had a leading role as Linda in "Sous le signe de Monte-Cristo" ("Under the Sign of Monte Cristo") by André Hunebelle, a modern version of Alexandre Dumas' novel. Here the 19 years young actress starred alongside French cinema's veterans like Pierre Brasseur and Michel Auclair. Jade starred in Édouard Molinaro's "My Uncle Benjamin" ("Mon oncle Benjamin", 1969) alongside Jacques Brel. As Manette she refuses Brel's advances until he produces a marriage contract. At the End Manette realizes she prefers happiness to a marriage contract after all. Her career continued in Belgium, where she played a young English teacher who is fatally intrigued by a murderer (Gérard Barray) in the 1969 film "The Witness". Her fiancé is this movie was played by Jean-Claude Dauphin, to whom she was engaged at this time. Also in 1969 she starred as Helena in a film adaptation of Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream" by Jean-Christophe Averty, "Le Songe d'une nuit d'été". In 1970 she reprised her part as Christine from "Stolen Kisses" in Truffaut's "Bed and Board" as a married woman. The Truffaut films influenced her type as lovingly gentle modern young woman in contemporary cinema, which she contrasted in ambivalent figures: Critic Vincent Canby praised her in work in Gérard Brach's "The Boat on the Grass" ("Le bateau sur l'herbe", 1971), in which she starred as Eleonore, a young girl between two friends (Jean-Pierre Cassel, John McEnery). She starred in "Hearth Fires" ("Les feux de la chandeleur", 1972) as Laura, a daughter who wants to reconcile her parents (Annie Girardot, Jean Rochefort) and who falls in love with her mother's best friend (Bernard Fresson). Alongside Robert Hossein she played the priest's love Françoise in "Forbidden Priests" ("Prêtres interdits", 1973). In "Home Sweet Home" (1973), she played a hardened nurse who is changed by a love affair with a social worker (Jacques Perrin). Jade played a dual role in "The Choice", 1976). She starred in three Italian films: as a private investigator in "Number One" (1973), as Tiffany, the girlfriend of a private eye (Frederick Stafford, her father from "Topaz") in "La ragazza di via Condotti" (1973), and as Maria Teresa, an unhappily married woman in Eriprando Visconti's "A Spiral of Mist" ("Una spirale di nebbia", 1977). She played a nun in "Kita No Misaki - Cap du Nord" (1976), by Japanese director Kei Kumai. In the same year she starred as Penny Vanderwood in "Thinking Robots", based on a horror novel by George Langelaan. Among other films of the 1970s were "Malicious Pleasure" ("Le malin plaisir", 1975), "Trop c'est trop" (1975) and the romantic comedy "The Pawn" ("Le Pion", 1978), in which she starred as a young widow who wins the heart of her son's teacher (Henri Guybet). One year later Claude Jade played a third time her part as Christine Doinel in Truffaut's "Love on the Run". In 1970 she starred as Orphan Françoise in mini-series "Mauregard", directed by Truffaut's co-writer Claude de Givray. Other TV roles in the decade are Sheherazade (in "Shéhérazade") and Louise de La Vallière (in "Le chateau perdu"), Lucile Desmoulins (in "La passion de Camille et Lucile Desmoulins"). She starred in such television movies as "Mamie Rose", "La Mandragore", "Monsieur Seul", "Fou comme François", "Les anneaux de Bicêtre", "Ulysse est revenu", and, in her biggest success of that decade, as heroine Veronique d'Hergemont in the series "The Island of Thirty Coffins". In the 1980s Jade moved to Moscow for three years with her husband Bernard Coste, a French diplomat, and her son Pierre Coste (born in 1976). She starred in two Soviet films. In "Teheran 43" (1981) she played the mysterious terrorist Françoise, with Alain Delon and an international cast. For Sergei Yutkevich's "Lenin in Paris" (1981), she played the French Bolshevik Inessa Armand, although without the rumored love affair with Vladimir Lenin. Among her other film roles in the 1980s were the arrested philosophy prof in "Schools Falling Apart" ("Le Bahut va craquer", 1981), the lawyer Valouin in "A Captain's Honor" ("L'honneur d'un capitaine", 1982), the Vicki Baum-heroine Evelyne Droste in "Rendezvous in Paris" (Germany, 1982) and the mysterious Alice in René Féret's thriller "The Man Who Wasn't There" ("L'homme qui n'était pas là", 1987). She also appeared in TV movies, such as the thriller "La grotte aux loups" (1980); the drama "Nous ne l'avons pas assez aimée" (1980); "Treize" (1981); a dual role in "Lise et Laura" (1982); "A Girl in the Sunflowers" (1984); the Italian miniseries "Voglia di volare" (1984); the French-Spanish-Canadian-German miniseries "Le grand secret" (1989) and in episode "L'amie d'enfance" of the series "Commissaire Moulin". During the 1990s Jade worked mainly in television, such as the TV series "La tête en l'air" and "Fleur bleue", as guest star in "Une femme d'honneur" (ep."Mémoire perdue"), "Inspecteur Moretti" (ep. "Un enfant au soleil"), "Julie Lescaut" (ep. "Rumeurs") and "Navarro" (ep. "Sentiments mortels"). TV movies included "L'Éternité devant soi", "Le bonheur des autres", "Eugénie Grandet" and "Porté disparu". From 1998 to 2000 she was the lead actress in the series "Tide of Life" ("Cap des Pins)". Her last U.S. acting part was a guest appearance on "The Hitchhiker": In Episode "Windows" she is Monique who shoot down at the end her neighbor David Marshall Grant. Jade's film roles in cinemas in 1990s included Gabrielle Martin, a mother betrayed by her husband, in "Tableau d'honneur". This was followed by her performance as shy lesbian Caroline in Jean-Pierre Mocky's "Bonsoir". In 1998, she played a governor's wife, Reine Schmaltz, who saves herself on a lifeboat in the historical movie "The Raft of the Medusa" ("Le Radeau de la Méduse", 1998). In her last decade, Jade's work included the TV movie "Sans famille" (2000); the series "La Crim" (episode "Le secret" in 2004), and "Groupe Flag" (episode "Vrai ou faux" in 2005). She also appeared in an episode of the short film series "Drug Scenes" ("Scénarios sur la drogue", episode "La rampe", 2000); and in the short "À San Remo" (2004). Jade was a member of Jean Meyer's theatre company in Lyon, appearing in plays by Jean Giraudoux (Helena in "The Trojan War Will Not Take Place", and Isabelle in "Intermezzo"); Henry de Montherlant ("Port Royal"); James Joyce ("The Exiles"); Racine ("Britannicus"); and Balzac ("Le Faiseur"). She took roles in plays by Vladimir Volkoff ("The Interrogation"); Catherine Decours ("Regulus 93"); Michel Vinaver ("Dissident il va sans dire"), Alfred de Musset ("Lorenzaccio") and others. She worked onstage in Lyon, Nantes, Dijon and Paris. Many plays were adapted for TV, such as her performances as Helena in Shakespeares "Midsummer Night's Dream"; her Sylvie in Marcel Aymés "Les oiseaux de lune"; her Colomba in Jules Romains's adaptation of Ben Johnson's "Volpone"; her Clarisse in Jacques Deval's "Il y a longtemps que je t'aime"; her title role in Jules Supervielle's "Shéhérazade"; and her Louise de La Vallière in "Le château perdu". Her last stage role was as Célimène in Jacques Rampal's "Celimene and the Cardinal". Jade published her autobiography, "Baisers envolés," in 2004. On 1 December 2006, Jade died of uveal melanoma which had metastasised to metastatic liver disease. She wore a prosthetic eye in her last stage performance, "Celimene and the Cardinal", in August 2006. Jade won an award in 1970 for "Révelation de la Nuit du cinéma", and in 1975 she received the Prix Orange at the Cannes Film Festival. Her contributions to French culture were recognised in 1998, when was named a knight in the Légion d'honneur. In 2000 she won the New Wave Award at West Palm Beach International Film Festival for her "trend-setting role in the world cinema", followed in 2002 by the "Prix Réconnaissance des Cinéphiles" in Puget-Théniers. In 2013 a street in Dijon was named after Claude Jade: Allée Claude Jade, 21000 Dijon.

Claude Marcelle Jorré, better known as Claude Jade (; 8 October 1948 – 1 December 2006), was a French actress. She is known for starring as Christine in François Truffaut's three films "Stolen Kisses" (1968), "Bed and Board" (1970) and "Love on the Run" (1979). Jade acted in theatre, film and television. Her film work outside France included the Soviet Union, the United States, Italy and Japan.

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summarize: Truffaut was born in Paris on 6 February 1932. His mother was Janine de Montferrand. His mother's future husband, Roland Truffaut, accepted him as an adopted son and gave him his surname. He was passed around to live with various nannies and his grandmother for a number of years. It was his grandmother who instilled in him her love of books and music. He lived with his grandmother until her death, when Truffaut was eight years old. It was only after his grandmother's death that he lived with his parents for the first time. The identity of Truffaut's biological father was unknown, though a private detective agency in 1968 revealed that their inquiry into the matter led to a Roland Levy, a Jewish dentist from Bayonne. Truffaut's mother's family disputed the findings but Truffaut himself believed and embraced them. Truffaut would often stay with friends and try to be out of the house as much as possible. He knew Robert Lachenay from childhood, and they would be lifelong best friends. Lachenay was the inspiration for the character René Bigey in "The 400 Blows" and would work as an assistant on some of Truffaut's films. It was the cinema that offered him the greatest escape from an unsatisfying home life. He was eight years old when he saw his first movie, Abel Gance's "Paradis Perdu" ("Paradise Lost") from 1939. It was there that his obsession began. He frequently played truant from school and would sneak into theaters because he didn't have enough money for admission. After being expelled from several schools, at the age of fourteen he decided to become self-taught. Two of his academic goals were to watch three movies a day and read three books a week. Truffaut frequented Henri Langlois' Cinémathèque Française where he was exposed to countless foreign films from around the world. It was here that he became familiar with American cinema and directors such as John Ford, Howard Hawks and Nicholas Ray, as well as those of British director Alfred Hitchcock. After starting his own film club in 1948, Truffaut met André Bazin, who would have great effect on his professional and personal life. Bazin was a critic and the head of another film society at the time. He became a personal friend of Truffaut's and helped him out of various financial and criminal situations during his formative years. Truffaut joined the French Army in 1950, aged 18, but spent the next two years trying to escape. Truffaut was arrested for attempting to desert the army and incarcerated in military prison. Bazin used his various political contacts to get Truffaut released and set him up with a job at his newly formed film magazine "Cahiers du cinéma". Over the next few years, Truffaut became a critic (and later editor) at "Cahiers", where he became notorious for his brutal, unforgiving reviews. He was called "The Gravedigger of French Cinema" and was the only French critic not invited to the Cannes Film Festival in 1958. He supported Bazin in the development of one of the most influential theories of cinema itself, the auteur theory. In 1954, Truffaut wrote an article in "Cahiers du cinéma" called "Une Certaine Tendance du Cinéma Français" ("A Certain Trend of French Cinema"), in which he attacked the current state of French films, lambasting certain screenwriters and producers, and listing eight directors he considered incapable of devising the kinds of "vile" and "grotesque" characters and storylines that he declared were characteristic of the mainstream French film industry: Jean Renoir, Robert Bresson, Jean Cocteau, Jacques Becker, Abel Gance, Max Ophuls, Jacques Tati and Roger Leenhardt. The article caused a storm of controversy, and also landed Truffaut an offer to write for the nationally circulated, more widely read cultural weekly "Arts-Lettres-Spectacles". Truffaut would pen more than 500 film articles for that publication over the next four years. Truffaut later devised the auteur theory, which stated that the director was the "author" of his work; that great directors such as Renoir or Hitchcock have distinct styles and themes that permeate all of their films. Although his theory was not widely accepted then, it gained some support in the 1960s from American critic Andrew Sarris. In 1967, Truffaut published his book-length interview of Hitchcock, "Hitchcock/Truffaut" (New York: Simon and Schuster). After having been a critic, Truffaut decided to make films of his own. He started out with the short film "Une Visite" in 1955 and followed that up with "Les Mistons" in 1957. After seeing Orson Welles' "Touch of Evil" at the Expo 58, he was inspired to make his feature film directorial debut with "The 400 Blows", which was released in 1959 to much critical and commercial acclaim. Truffaut received a Best Director award from the Cannes Film Festival, the same festival that had banned him only one year earlier. The film follows the character of Antoine Doinel through his perilous misadventures in school, an unhappy home life and later reform school. The film is highly autobiographical. Both Truffaut and Doinel were only children of loveless marriages; they both committed petty crimes of theft and truancy from the military. Truffaut cast Jean-Pierre Léaud as Antoine Doinel. Léaud was seen as an ordinary boy of 14 who auditioned for the role after seeing a flyer, but interviews filmed after the film's release (one is included on the Criterion DVD of the film) reveal Léaud's natural sophistication and an instinctive understanding of acting for the camera. Léaud and Truffaut collaborated on several films over the years. Their most noteworthy collaboration was the continuation of the Antoine Doinel character in a series of films called "The Antoine Doinel Cycle". The primary focus of "The 400 Blows" is on the life of a young character by the name of Antoine Doinel. This film follows this character through his troubled adolescence. He is caught in between an unstable parental relationship and an isolated youth. The film focuses on the real life events of the director, François Truffaut. From birth Truffaut was thrown into an undesired situation. As he was born out of wedlock, his birth had to remain a secret because of the social stigma associated with illegitimacy. He was registered as "A child born to an unknown father" in the hospital records. He was looked after by a nurse for an extended period of time. His mother eventually married and her husband Roland gave his surname, Truffaut, to François. Although he was legally accepted as a legitimate child, his parents did not accept him. The Truffauts had another child who died shortly after birth. This experience saddened them greatly and as a result they despised François because of the memory of regret that he represented (Knopf 4). He was an outcast from his earliest years, dismissed as an unwanted child. François was sent to live with his grandparents. It wasn't until François's grandmother's death that his parents took him in, much to the dismay of his own mother. The experiences with his mother were harsh. He recalled being treated badly by her but he found comfort in his father's laughter and overall spirit. The relationship with Roland was more comforting than the one with his own mother. François had a very depressing childhood after moving in with his parents. They would leave him alone whenever they would go on vacations. He even recalled memories of being alone during Christmas. Being left alone forced François into a sense of independence, he would often do various tasks around the house in order to improve it such as painting or changing the electric outlets. Sadly, these kind gestures often resulted in a catastrophic event causing him to get scolded by his mother. His father would mostly laugh them off. "The 400 Blows" marked the beginning of the French New Wave movement, which gave directors such as Jean-Luc Godard, Claude Chabrol and Jacques Rivette a wider audience. The New Wave dealt with a self-conscious rejection of traditional cinema structure. This was a topic on which Truffaut had been writing for years. Following the success of "The 400 Blows", Truffaut featured disjunctive editing and seemingly random voice-overs in his next film "Shoot the Piano Player" (1960) starring Charles Aznavour. Truffaut has stated that in the middle of filming, he realized that he hated gangsters. But since gangsters were a main part of the story, he toned up the comical aspect of the characters and made the movie more attuned to his liking. Even though "Shoot the Piano Player" was much appreciated by critics, it performed poorly at the box office. While the film focused on two of the French New Wave's favorite elements, American film noir and themselves, Truffaut never again experimented as heavily. In 1962, Truffaut directed his third movie, "Jules and Jim", a romantic drama starring Jeanne Moreau. The film was very popular and highly influential. In 1963, Truffaut was approached to direct an American film called "Bonnie and Clyde", with a treatment written by "Esquire" journalists, David Newman and Robert Benton intended to introduce the French New Wave to Hollywood. Although he was interested enough to help in script development, Truffaut ultimately declined, but not before interesting Jean-Luc Godard and American actor and would be producer, Warren Beatty, the latter of whom proceeded with the film with director Arthur Penn. His fourth movie as director was "The Soft Skin" (1964) which was not well acclaimed on initial release. Truffaut's first non-French film was a 1966 adaptation of Ray Bradbury's classic science fiction novel "Fahrenheit 451", showcasing Truffaut's love of books. His only English-speaking film made on location in England was a great challenge for Truffaut, because he barely spoke English himself. This was also his first film shot in color by cinematographer Nicolas Roeg. The larger-scale production was difficult for Truffaut, who had worked only with small crews and budgets. The shoot was also strained by a conflict with lead actor Oscar Werner, who was unhappy with his character and stormed off set, leaving Truffaut to shoot scenes using a body double shot from behind. The film was a commercial failure, and Truffaut never worked outside France again. The film's cult standing has steadily grown, although some critics remain mixed on it as an adaptation. A 2014 consideration of the film by Charles Silver praises it. Truffaut worked on projects with varied subjects. "The Bride Wore Black" (1968), a brutal tale of revenge, is a stylish homage to the films of Alfred Hitchcock (once again starring Jeanne Moreau). "Stolen Kisses" (1968) was a continuation of the Antoine Doinel Cycle starring Claude Jade as Antoine's fiancée and later wife Christine Darbon. It was a big hit on the international art circuit. A short time later Claude Jade made her Hollywood debut in Hitchcock's "Topaz". "Mississippi Mermaid" (1969), with Catherine Deneuve and Jean-Paul Belmondo is an identity-bending romantic thriller. "The Wild Child" (1970) included Truffaut's acting debut in the lead role of 18th century physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard. "Bed and Board" (1970) was another Antoine Doinel film, also with Claude Jade from "Stolen kisses" who is now Léaud's on-screen-wife. "Two English Girls" (1971) is the female reflection of the same love story as "Jules et Jim". It is based on a story written by Henri-Pierre Roché, who also wrote "Jules and Jim". It is about a man who falls equally in love with two sisters, and their love affair over a period of years. "Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me" (1972) was a screwball comedy that was not well received. "Day for Night" won Truffaut a Best Foreign Film Oscar in 1973. The film is probably his most reflective work. It is the story of a film crew trying to finish their film while dealing with all of the personal and professional problems that accompany making a movie. Truffaut plays the director of the fictional film being made. This film features scenes shown in his previous films. It is considered to be his best film since his earliest work. "Time" magazine placed it on their list of 100 Best Films of the Century (along with "The 400 Blows"). In 1975, Truffaut gained more notoriety with "The Story of Adèle H." Isabelle Adjani in the title role earned a nomination for a Best Actress Oscar. Truffaut's 1976 film "Small Change" gained a Golden Globe Nomination for Best Foreign Film. "The Man Who Loved Women" (1977), a romantic drama, was a minor hit. "The Green Room" (1978) starred Truffaut himself in the lead. It was a box office flop so he made "Love on the Run" (1979) starring Jean-Pierre Léaud and Claude Jade as the final movie of the Doinel Cycle. One of Truffaut's final films gave him an international revival. In 1980, his film "The Last Metro" garnered twelve César Award nominations with ten wins, including Best Director. Truffaut's last film was shot in black and white, giving his career a sense of having bookends. "Confidentially Yours" is Truffaut's tribute to his favorite director, Alfred Hitchcock. It deals with numerous Hitchcockian themes, such as private guilt versus public innocence, a woman investigating a murder, and anonymous locations. Some of Truffaut's films feature the character Antoine Doinel, played by the actor Jean-Pierre Léaud. He began his career in "The 400 Blows" at the age of fourteen, and continued as the favorite actor and "double" of Truffaut. The series continued with "Antoine and Colette" (a short film in the anthology "Love at Twenty"), "Stolen Kisses" (in which he falls in love with Christine Darbon alias Claude Jade), "Bed and Board" about the married couple Antoine and Christine—and, finally, "Love on the Run", where the couple go through a divorce. In the last films, Léaud's girlfriend and later wife, Christine Darbon, was played by Truffaut's favorite actress, Claude Jade. During the filming of "Stolen Kisses", Truffaut himself fell in love with, and was briefly engaged to, Claude Jade. A keen reader, Truffaut adapted many literary works, including two novels by Henri-Pierre Roché, Ray Bradbury's "Fahrenheit 451", Henry James' "The Altar of the Dead", filmed as "The Green Room", and several American detective novels. Truffaut's other films were from original screenplays, often co-written by the screenwriters Suzanne Schiffman or Jean Gruault. They featured diverse subjects, the sombre "The Story of Adèle H.", inspired by the life of the daughter of Victor Hugo, with Isabelle Adjani; "Day for Night", shot at the Victorine Studios describing the ups and downs of film-making; and "The Last Metro", set during the German occupation of France, a film rewarded by ten César Awards. Known as lifelong cinephile, Truffaut once (according to the 1993 documentary film "") threw a hitchhiker he had picked up out of his car after learning that the hitchhiker didn't like films. Truffaut is admired among other filmmakers and several tributes to his work have appeared in other films such as "Almost Famous", "Face" and "The Diving Bell and the Butterfly", as well as novelist Haruki Murakami's "Kafka on the Shore". He also acted, appearing in Steven Spielberg's 1977 film "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", where he played scientist Claude Lacombe. Truffaut expressed his admiration for filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel, Ingmar Bergman, Robert Bresson, Roberto Rossellini, and Alfred Hitchcock. Truffaut wrote "Hitchcock/Truffaut", a book about Hitchcock, based on a lengthy series of interviews. On Jean Renoir, he said: "I think Renoir is the only filmmaker who's practically infallible, who has never made a mistake on film. And I think if he never made mistakes, it's because he always found solutions based on simplicity—human solutions. He's one film director who never pretended. He never tried to have a style, and if you know his work—which is very comprehensive, since he dealt with all sorts of subjects—when you get stuck, especially as a young filmmaker, you can think of how Renoir would have handled the situation, and you generally find a solution". In 1973, Jean-Luc Godard accused Truffaut of making a movie that was a "lie" ("Day For Night"), and Truffaut replied with a 20-page letter in which he accused Godard of being a radical-chic hypocrite, a man who believed everyone to be "equal" in theory only. "The Ursula Andress of militancy—like Brando—a piece of shit on a pedestal." The two never spoke or saw each other again. However, as noted by Serge Toubiana and Antoine de Baecque in their biography of Truffaut, Godard tried to reconcile their friendship later on, and after Truffaut's death wrote the introduction to a collection of his letters and a lengthy tribute in his video-essay film "Histoire(s) du cinéma". Truffaut was married to Madeleine Morgenstern from 1957 to 1965, and they had two daughters, Laura (born 1959) and Eva (born 1961). Madeleine was the daughter of Ignace Morgenstern, managing director of one of France's largest film distribution companies, and was largely responsible for securing funding for Truffaut's first films. Truffaut was an inveterate womanizer and had affairs with many of his leading ladies, including Marie-France Pisier ("Antoine and Colette", "Love on the Run"), Jeanne Moreau ("Jules and Jim", "The Bride Wore Black"), Françoise Dorléac ("The Soft Skin"), Julie Christie ("Fahrenheit 451"), Catherine Deneuve ("Mississippi Mermaid", "The Last Metro"), and Jacqueline Bisset ("Day for Night"). Truffaut also fell for Isabelle Adjani during the filming of "The Story of Adele H." but his advances were rebuffed. In 1968 Truffaut was engaged to actress Claude Jade ("Stolen Kisses", "Bed and Board", "Love on the Run"); he and Fanny Ardant ("The Woman Next Door", "Confidentially Yours") lived together from 1981 to 1984 and had a daughter, Joséphine Truffaut (born 28 September 1983). Truffaut was an atheist, although he had great respect for the Catholic Church and even requested a mass for his funeral. In July 1983, Truffaut rented France Gall's and Michel Berger's house outside Honfleur, Normandy (composing for Philippe Labro's film "Rive droite, rive gauche") when he had his first stroke and was diagnosed with a brain tumor. He was expected to attend his friend Miloš Forman's "Amadeus" premiere when he died on 21 October 1984, aged 52, at the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine in France. At the time of his death, he still had numerous films in preparation. His goal was to make 30 films and then retire to write books for his remaining days. He was five films short of his personal goal. He is buried in Paris' Montmartre Cemetery.

François Roland Truffaut (,, ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French film director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and film critic. He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave. In a film career lasting over a quarter of a century, he remains an icon of the French film industry, having worked on over 25 films. Truffaut's film "The 400 Blows" came to be a defining film of the French New Wave movement, and was followed by four sequels, "Antoine et Colette", "Stolen Kisses", "Bed and Board", and "Love on the Run", between 1958 and 1979.

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1003, 58, 15, 46568, 5753, 12, 26328, 136, 42763, 1515, 194, 24372, 19441, 2809, 10, 35778, 4, 19419, 17123, 1003, 68872, 47, 3249, 54180, 111, 1919, 10002, 5, 1529, 26859, 1810, 678, 70, 16610, 1346, 44, 1062, 86, 98684, 13, 58, 23, 47114, 136, 134629, 450, 1257, 678, 44, 68016, 7950, 67772, 58, 23, 44321, 5, 24372, 86681, 3347, 1681, 98051, 7, 25, 44, 221234, 111, 170566, 58, 99, 70, 45434, 9318, 4, 764, 509, 191722, 47, 3249, 1919, 60213, 1346, 14364, 15403, 34377, 678, 44, 3957, 4082, 54231, 19725, 830, 3129, 509, 121447, 23, 41722, 47, 5045, 130306, 136, 60091, 1030, 164779, 5, 19419, 17123, 1003, 75204, 10, 11345, 31068, 70318, 1295, 70, 113501, 3847, 8129, 4, 70, 5701, 8395, 450, 1902, 4599, 14534, 4049, 4734, 1632, 6602, 110680, 5, 581, 1346, 28960, 7, 70, 62816, 111, 180611, 984, 73, 583, 8305, 1919, 117, 6613, 223, 1239, 712, 43210, 90, 23, 10696, 4, 142, 51, 157976, 5368, 6897, 136, 14432, 17690, 10696, 5, 581, 1346, 83, 103210, 1809, 8730, 48461, 289, 5, 149766, 19419, 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13438, 5, 581, 1346, 25, 7, 58984, 135203, 1556, 2288, 3938, 538, 55993, 19, 4, 102971, 3060, 35778, 7, 47143, 17664, 297, 98, 442, 237, 142, 6, 202444, 5, 62, 1049, 177229, 111, 70, 1346, 390, 28166, 57035, 1645, 62093, 442, 5, 19419, 17123, 1003, 79786, 98, 77635, 678, 10861, 297, 28368, 7, 5, 44, 3957, 15640, 112, 13787, 107, 10074, 58, 5173, 90419, 4, 10, 50029, 9342, 111, 52758, 429, 4, 83, 10, 31995, 4745, 7622, 4588, 47, 70, 54180, 111, 74733, 43482, 206, 124324, 15, 191, 329, 13438, 6057, 2852, 16162, 86, 5455, 916, 194, 44, 294, 188, 1977, 63243, 90, 58, 5173, 90419, 509, 10, 9454, 1363, 111, 70, 180611, 984, 73, 583, 6, 151612, 13, 6057, 2852, 6, 101956, 823, 112, 237, 180611, 25, 7, 36604, 109160, 13, 136, 14432, 58386, 161055, 94587, 19, 5, 1650, 509, 10, 6957, 5962, 98, 70, 21640, 4927, 61404, 5, 62, 16610, 1733, 14432, 6, 101956, 823, 112, 7228, 604, 38436, 34377, 23, 43482, 206, 124324, 25, 7, 44, 77888, 1828, 740, 44, 135261, 164, 172, 7520, 6035, 48206, 58, 5173, 84772, 4, 678, 129811, 1575, 4615, 272, 136, 16162, 9, 115043, 12628, 432, 557, 83, 142, 182324, 9, 776, 6238, 79880, 133995, 5, 44, 3957, 33384, 123829, 58, 5173, 89149, 99201, 19419, 17123, 1003, 25, 7, 1030, 1916, 34377, 23, 70, 37105, 31486, 111, 543, 927, 142642, 219600, 16162, 34890, 27967, 2500, 71, 1650, 5861, 5, 44, 571, 297, 136, 62554, 58, 5173, 89149, 509, 15700, 180611, 984, 73, 583, 1346, 4, 2843, 678, 6, 101956, 823, 112, 1295, 44, 294, 188, 1977, 200, 43576, 58, 2750, 83, 5036, 36060, 11, 1674, 25, 7, 98, 9, 86667, 9, 2452, 2242, 5, 44, 618, 3613, 14941, 61240, 58, 5173, 87905, 83, 70, 117776, 44961, 1830, 111, 70, 5701, 5161, 13765, 237, 44, 105214, 90, 82, 41994, 740, 1650, 83, 35509, 98, 10, 13765, 59121, 390, 80640, 9, 196243, 2777, 12640, 4, 2750, 2843, 54397, 44, 105214, 90, 136, 41994, 740, 1650, 83, 1672, 10, 332, 2750, 123867, 105950, 538, 23, 5161, 678, 6626, 114015, 7, 4, 136, 2363, 5161, 103086, 645, 10, 14922, 111, 5369, 5, 44, 14168, 206, 10, 12035, 429, 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summarize: Bertie the Brain was one of the first game playing machines developed. It was built in 1950 by Josef Kates. It measured more than four meters tall, and was displayed at the Canadian National Exhibition that year. Although personal computers only became popular with the development of the microprocessor and microcomputer, computer gaming on mainframes and minicomputers had previously already existed. OXO, an adaptation of tic-tac-toe for the EDSAC, debuted in 1952. Another pioneer computer game was developed in 1961, when MIT students Martin Graetz and Alan Kotok, with MIT student Steve Russell, developed "Spacewar!" on a PDP-1 mainframe computer used for statistical calculations. The first generation of computer games were often text-based adventures or interactive fiction, in which the player communicated with the computer by entering commands through a keyboard. An early text-adventure, "Adventure", was developed for the PDP-11 minicomputer by Will Crowther in 1976, and expanded by Don Woods in 1977. By the 1980s, personal computers had become powerful enough As the video game market became flooded with poor-quality cartridge games created by numerous companies attempting to enter the market, and overproduction of high-profile releases such as the Atari 2600 adaptations of "Pac-Man" and "E.T." grossly underperformed, the popularity of personal computers for education rose dramatically. In 1983, consumer interest in console video games dwindled to historical lows, as interest in games on personal computers rose. The effects of the crash were largely limited to the console market, as established companies such as Atari posted record losses over subsequent years. Conversely, the home computer market boomed, as sales of low-cost color computers such as the Commodore 64 rose to record highs and developers such as Electronic Arts benefited from increasing interest in the platform. To enhance the immersive experience with their unrealistic graphics and electronic sound, early PC games included extras such as the peril-sensitive sunglasses that shipped with "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" or the science fiction novella included with "Elite". These extras gradually became Among launch titles for the IBM Personal Computer (PC) in 1981 was "Microsoft Adventure", which IBM described as bringing "players into a fantasy world of caves and treasures". "BYTE" that year stated that the computer's speed and sophistication made it "an excellent gaming device", and IBM and others sold games like "Microsoft Flight Simulator". The PC's CGA graphics and speaker sound were poor, however, and most customers bought the powerful but expensive computer for business. One ComputerLand owner estimated in 1983 that a quarter of corporate executives with computers "have a game hidden somewhere in their drawers", and "InfoWorld" in 1984 reported that "in offices all over America (more than anyone realizes) executives and managers are playing games on their computers", but software companies found selling games for the PC difficult; an observer said that year that "Flight Simulator" had sold hundreds of thousands of copies because customers with corporate PCs could claim that it was a "simulation". From mid-1985, however, what "Compute!" described as a "wave" of inexpensive IBM PC clones from American and Asian companies, such as the Tandy 1000, caused prices to decline; by the end of 1986, the equivalent to a $1600 real IBM PC with 256K RAM and two disk drives cost as little as $600, lower than the price of the Apple IIc. Consumers began purchasing DOS computers for the home in large numbers. While often purchased to do work in evenings and weekends, clones' popularity caused consumer-software companies to increase the number of IBM-compatible products, including those developed specifically for By 1996, the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows simplified device driver and memory management. The success of 3D console titles such as "Super Mario 64" and "Tomb Raider" increased interest in hardware accelerated 3D graphics on PCs, and soon resulted in attempts to produce affordable solutions with the ATI Rage, Matrox Mystique, S3 ViRGE, and Rendition Vérité. As 3D graphics libraries such as DirectX and OpenGL matured and knocked proprietary interfaces out of the market, these platforms gained greater acceptance in the market, particularly with their demonstrated benefits in games such as "Unreal". However, major changes to the Microsoft Windows operating system, by then the market leader, made many older DOS-based games unplayable on Windows NT, and later, Windows XP (without using an emulator, such as DOSbox). The faster graphics accelerators and improving CPU technology During the 1980s, the cheap and talented workforce of the Polish People's Republic began producing video games with Warsaw company Karen, founded by enterprising emigrant Lucjan Wencel, developing many hits that were released in the United States. The 1991 strategy game ""Solidarność"" by Przemysław Rokita, where players led a trade union to political victory, was the symbolic beginning of a new trend where interactive works applied video game conventions to local Polish culture and history, and through a distorting mirror portrayed the Eastern Bloc, local villages, and the mentality of citizens. Developers in this age struggled with minimal profits, working after hours, harsh working conditions, older computers, and an ignorance of foreign languages and sentiments. The country saw In high-end PC gaming, a PC will generally have far more processing resources at its disposal than other gaming systems. Game developers can use this to improve the visual fidelity of their game relative to other platforms, but even if they do not, games running on PC are likely to benefit from higher screen resolution, higher framerate, and anti-aliasing. Increased draw distance is also common in open world games. Better hardware The defining characteristic of the PC platform is the absence of centralized control; all other gaming platforms (except Android devices, to an extent) are owned and administered by a single group. The advantages of openness include: There are also disadvantages, including: The openness of the PC platform allows players to edit or modify their games and distribute the results over the Internet as "mods". A healthy mod community greatly increases a game's longevity and the most popular mods have driven purchases of their parent game to record heights. It is common for professional developers to release the tools they use to create their games (and sometimes even source code) in order to encourage modding, but if a game is popular enough mods generally arise even without official support. Mods can compete with official downloadable content however, or even outright redistribute it, and their ability to extend the lifespan of a game can work against its developers' plans for regular sequels. As game technology has become more complex, it has also become harder to distribute development tools to the public. Modding has a different connotation on consoles which are typically restricted much more heavily. As publicly released development tools are rare, console mods usually refer to hardware alterations designed to remove restrictions. Although the PC platform is almost completely decentralized at a hardware level, there are two dominant software forces: the Microsoft Windows operating system and the Steam distribution service. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named "Windows" on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Valve does not release any sales figures on its Steam service, instead it only provides the data to companies with games on Steam, which they cannot release without permission due to signing a non-disclosure agreement with Valve. However, Stardock, the previous owner of competing platform Impulse, estimated that, as of 2009, Steam had a 70% share of the digital distribution market for video games. In early 2011, "Forbes" reported that Steam sales constituted 50–70% of the $4 billion market for downloaded PC games and that Steam offered game producers gross margins of 70% of purchase price, compared with 30% at retail. In 2011, Steam served over 780 petabytes of information, double what it had delivered in 2010. PC games are sold predominantly through the Internet, with buyers downloading their new purchase directly to their computer. This approach allows smaller independent developers to compete with large publisher-backed games and avoids the speed and capacity limits of the optical discs which most other gaming platforms rely on. Valve released the Steam platform for Windows computers in 2003 as a means to distribute Valve-developed video games such as Half-Life 2. It would later see release on the Mac OS X operating system in 2010 and was released on Linux in 2012 as well. By 2011, it controlled 70% of the market for downloadable PC games, Modern computer games place great demand on the computer's hardware, often requiring a fast central processing unit (CPU) to function properly. CPU manufacturers historically relied mainly on increasing clock rates to improve the performance of their processors, but had begun to move steadily towards multi-core CPUs by 2005. These processors allow the computer to simultaneously process multiple tasks, called threads, allowing the use of more complex graphics, artificial intelligence and in-game physics. Similarly, 3D games often rely on a powerful graphics processing unit (GPU), which accelerates the process of drawing complex scenes in realtime. GPUs may be an integrated part of the computer's motherboard, the most common solution in laptops, or come packaged with a discrete graphics card with a supply of dedicated Video RAM, connected to the motherboard through either an AGP or PCI-Express port. It is also possible to use multiple GPUs in a single computer, using technologies such as NVidia's Scalable Link Computer games also rely on third-party software such as an operating system (OS), device drivers, libraries and more to run. Today, the vast majority of computer games are designed to run on the Microsoft Windows family of operating systems. Whereas earlier games written for DOS would include code to communicate directly with hardware, today application programming interfaces (APIs) provide an interface between the game and the OS, simplifying game design. Microsoft's DirectX is an API that Multiplayer gaming was largely limited to local area networks (LANs) before cost-effective broadband Internet access became available, due to their typically higher bandwidth and lower latency than the dial-up services of the time. These advantages allowed more players to join any given computer game, but have Online multiplayer games have achieved popularity largely as a result of increasing broadband adoption among consumers. Affordable high-bandwidth Internet connections allow large numbers of players to play together, and thus have found particular use in massively multiplayer online role-playing games, "Tanarus" and persistent online games such as "World War II Online". Although it is possible to participate in online computer games using dial-up modems, broadband Internet connections are generally considered necessary in order to reduce the latency or "lag" between players. Such connections require a broadband-compatible modem connected to the personal computer through a network interface card (generally integrated onto the computer's motherboard), optionally separated by a router. Online games require a virtual environment, generally called a "game server". These virtual servers inter-connect gamers, allowing real time, and often fast-paced action. To meet this subsequent need, Game Server Providers (GSP) have become increasingly more popular over the last half decade. While not required for all gamers, these servers provide a unique "home", fully customizable, such as additional modifications, settings, etc., giving the end gamers the experience they desire. Today there are over 510,000 game servers hosted in North America alone. Emulation software, used to run software without the original hardware, are popular for their ability to play legacy video games without the platform for which they were designed. The operating system emulators include DOSBox, a DOS emulator which allows playing games developed originally for this operating system and thus not compatible with a modern-day OS. Console emulators such as Nestopia and MAME are relatively commonplace, although the complexity of modern consoles such as the Xbox or PlayStation makes them far PC games have long been a source of controversy, largely due to the depictions of violence that has become commonly associated with video games in general. The debate surrounds the influence of objectionable content on the social development of minors, with organizations such as the American Psychological Association concluding that video game violence increases children's aggression, a concern that prompted a further investigation by the Centers for Disease Control in September There are several computer games museums around the world. In 2011 one opened in Berlin, a computer game museum that documents computer games from the 1970s until today. The Museum of Art and Digital Entertainment, in Oakland, California also exhibits PC games in its general collection. The Video Game Museum in Rome is dedicated to the preservation of videogames, and includes Pss games in its collection. The Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California holds a collection of PC games, and allows visitors to play "Spacewar!", the first computer game, on a restored original DEC PDP-1.

A PC game, also known as a computer game or personal computer game, is a type of video game played on a personal computer rather than a video game console or arcade machine. Its defining characteristics include: more diverse and user-determined gaming hardware and software; and generally greater capacity in input, processing, video and audio output. The uncoordinated nature of the PC game market, and now its lack of physical media, make precisely assessing its size difficult.In 2018, the global PC games market was valued at about $27.7 billion.

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summarize: Collodi was born in Florence on 24 November 1826. His mother Angiolina Orzali was a seamstress from the town of Collodi from which he took the pen name and his father Domenico Lorenzini was a cook; and both worked for the "marchese" Ginori Lisci. Carlo was the eldest child in the family and he had ten siblings but seven died at a young age. He spent most of his childhood in the town of Collodi where his mother was born. He lived there with his maternal grandmother. After attending primary school, he was sent to study at a theological seminary called Colle Val d’Elsa. An account at the seminary shows that the "marchese" had offered financial aid, but the boy found that he did not want to be a priest so he continued his education at the College of the Scolopi Fathers in Florence. In 1844 he started working at the Florentine bookstore Libreria Piatti, where he assisted Giuseppe Aiazzi, a prominent Italian manuscript specialist. During the Italian Wars of Independence in 1848 and 1860 Collodi served as a volunteer with the Tuscan army. His active interest in political matters may be seen in his earliest literary works as well as in the founding of the satirical newspaper "Il Lampione" in 1853. This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1854 he published his second newspaper, "Lo scaramuccia" ("The Controversy"). Lorenzini's first publications were in his periodicals. A debut came in 1856 with the play "Gli amici di casa" and parodic guidebook "Un romanzo in vapore", both in 1856. By 1860, he published his first notable work called "Il signor Alberi ha ragione!" (Mr. Alberi Is Right!), which outlined his political and cultural vision of Italy. This is the text where Lorenzini started using the Collodi pseudonym, which was taken from his mother's hometown. Collodi had also begun intense activity on other political newspapers such as "Il Fanfulla"; at the same time he was employed by the Censorship Commission for the Theatre. During this period he composed various satirical sketches and stories (sometimes simply by collating earlier articles), including "Macchiette" (1880), "Occhi e nasi" (1881), "Storie allegre" (1887). Collodi became disenchanted with Italian politics afterward so he turned to children's literature and his first works involved translating French fairy tales into Italian. In 1875, for instance, he completed "Racconti delle fate", a translation of French fairy tales by Charles Perrault. In 1876 Lorenzini wrote "Giannettino" (inspired by Alessandro Luigi Parravicini's "Giannetto"), the "Minuzzolo", and "Il viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino", a pedagogic series which explored the unification of Italy through the ironic thoughts and actions of the character Giannettino. Lorenzini became fascinated by the idea of using an amiable, rascally character as a means of expressing his own convictions through allegory. In 1880 he began writing "Storia di un burattino" ("Story of a Marionette"), also called "Le avventure di Pinocchio", which was published weekly in "Il Giornale per i Bambini", the first Italian newspaper for children. Pinocchio was adapted into a 1940 film by Disney that is considered to be one of Disney's greatest films ever made. Collodi died suddenly in Florence on 26 October 1890 and lies buried in Cimitero Monumentale Delle Porte Sante, Firenze, Toscana, Italy. The National Carlo Collodi Foundation was established to promote education and the works of Carlo Lorenzini, and the Park of Pinocchio attracts many visitors each year.

Carlo Lorenzini (24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi (), was an Italian author, humorist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel "The Adventures of Pinocchio".

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summarize: Jacob Grimm was born 4 January 1785, in Hanau in Hesse-Kassel. His father, Philipp Grimm, was a lawyer who died while Jacob was a child, and his mother was left with a very small income. Her sister was lady of the chamber to the Landgravine of Hesse, and she helped to support and educate the family. Jacob was sent to the public school at Kassel in 1798 with his younger brother Wilhelm. In 1802, he went to the University of Marburg where he studied law, a profession for which he had been intended by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg a year later, having just recovered from a severe illness, and likewise began the study of law. Jacob Grimm became inspired by the lectures of Friedrich Karl von Savigny, a noted expert of Roman law; Wilhelm Grimm, in the preface to the "Deutsche Grammatik" (German Grammar), credits Savigny with giving the brothers an awareness of science. Savigny's lectures also awakened in Jacob a love for historical and antiquarian investigation, which underlies all his work. It was in Savigny's library that Grimm first saw Bodmer's edition of the Middle High German minnesingers and other early texts, which gave him a desire to study their language. In the beginning of 1805, he was invited by Savigny to Paris, to help him in his literary work. There Grimm strengthened his taste for the literature of the Middle Ages. Towards the close of the year, he returned to Kassel, where his mother and brother had settled after Wilhelm finished his studies. The following year, Jacob obtained a position in the war office with a small salary of 100 thalers. He complained that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform and pigtail, but the role gave him spare time for the pursuit of his studies. In 1808, soon after the death of his mother, he was appointed superintendent of the private library of Jérôme Bonaparte, King of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Kassel had been incorporated by Napoleon. Grimm was appointed an auditor to the state council, while retaining his superintendent post. His salary rose to 4000 francs and his official duties were nominal. In 1813, after the expulsion of Bonaparte and the reinstatement of an elector, Grimm was appointed Secretary of Legation accompanying the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army. In 1814, he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of books taken by the French, and he attended the Congress of Vienna as Secretary of Legation in 1814–1815. Upon his return from Vienna, he was sent to Paris again to secure book restitutions. Meanwhile, Wilhelm had obtained a job at the Kassel library, and Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel in 1816. Upon the death of Volkel in 1828, the brothers both expected promotion, and they were dissatisfied when the role of first librarian was given to Rommel, the keeper of the archives. Consequently, they moved the following year to Göttingen, where Jacob was appointed professor and librarian, and Wilhelm under-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on the "Germania" of Tacitus. Grimm joined other academics, known as the Göttingen Seven, who signed a protest against the King of Hanover's abrogation of the liberal constitution which had been established some years before. As a result, he was dismissed from his professorship and banished from the Kingdom of Hanover in 1837. He returned to Kassel with his brother, who had also signed the protest. They remained there until 1840, when they accepted King Frederick William IV's invitation to move to Berlin, where they both received professorships and were elected members of the Academy of Sciences. Grimm was not under any obligation to lecture, and seldom did so; he spent his time working with his brother on their dictionary project. During their time in Kassel, he regularly attended the meetings of the academy and read papers on varied subjects, including Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann, Friedrich Schiller, old age, and the origin of language. He described his impressions of Italian and Scandinavian travel, interspersing more general observations with linguistic details. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. Grimm died in Berlin at the age of 78, working until the very end of his life. He describes his own work at the end of his autobiography: Nearly all my labours have been devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our earlier language, poetry and laws. These studies may have appeared to many, and may still appear, useless; to me they have always seemed a noble and earnest task, definitely and inseparably connected with our common fatherland, and calculated to foster the love of it. My principle has always been in these investigations to under-value nothing, but to utilize the small for the illustration of the great, the popular tradition for the elucidation of the written monuments. Grimm's "Geschichte der deutschen Sprache" (History of the German Language) explores German history hidden in the words of the German language and is the oldest linguistic history of the Teutonic tribes. He collected scattered words and allusions from classical literature and tried to determine the relationship between the German language and those of the Getae, Thracians, Scythians, and other nations whose languages were known only through Greek and Latin authors. Grimm's results were later greatly modified by a wider range of available comparison and improved methods of investigation. Many questions that he raised remain obscure due to the lack of surviving records of the languages, but his book's influence was profound. Grimm's famous "Deutsche Grammatik" (German Grammar) was the outcome of his purely philological work. He drew on the work of past generations, from the humanists onwards, consulting an enormous collection of materials in the form of text editions, dictionaries, and grammars, mostly uncritical and unreliable. Some work had been done in the way of comparison and determination of general laws, and the concept of a comparative Germanic grammar had been grasped by the Englishman George Hickes by the beginning of the 18th century, in his "Thesaurus". Ten Kate in the Netherlands had made valuable contributions to the history and comparison of Germanic languages. Grimm himself did not initially intend to include all the languages in his "Grammar", but he soon found that Old High German postulated Gothic, and that the later stages of German could not be understood without the help of other West Germanic varieties including English, and that the literature of Scandinavia could not be ignored. The first edition of the first part of the "Grammar", which appeared in 1819, treated the inflections of all these languages, and included a general introduction in which he vindicated the importance of an historical study of the German language against the quasi-philosophical methods then in vogue. In 1822 the book appeared in a second edition (really a new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface, he had to "mow the first crop down to the ground"). The considerable gap between the two stages of Grimm's development of these editions is shown by the fact that the second volume addresses phonology in 600 pages – more than half the volume. Grimm had concluded that all philology must be based on rigorous adherence to the laws of sound change, and he subsequently never deviated from this principle. This gave to all his investigations a consistency and force of conviction that had been lacking in the study of philology before his day. His advances have been attributed mainly to the influence of his contemporary Rasmus Christian Rask. Rask was two years younger than Grimm, but the Icelandic paradigms in Grimm's first editions, his Icelandic paradigms are based entirely on Rask's grammar; in his second edition, he relied almost entirely on Rask for Old English. His debt to Rask is shown by comparing his treatment of Old English in the two editions. For example, in the first edition he declines "dæg, dæges", plural "dægas", without having observed the law of vowel-change pointed out by Rask. (The correct plural is "dagas.") The appearance of Rask's Old English grammar was probably the primary impetus for Grimm to recast his work from the beginning. Rask was also the first to clearly formulate the laws of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially in the vowels (previously ignored by etymologists). The "Grammar" was continued in three volumes, treating principally derivation, composition and syntax, the last of which was unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The "Grammar" is noted for its comprehensiveness, method and fullness of detail, with all his points illustrated by an almost exhaustive mass of material, and it has served as a model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the Romance languages is founded entirely on Grimm's methods, which have had a profound influence on the wider study of the Indo-European languages in general. Jacob is recognized for enunciating Grimm's law, the Germanic Sound Shift, which was first observed by the Danish philologist Rasmus Christian Rask. Grimm's law was the first non-trivial systematic sound change to be discovered. Grimm's law, also known as the "Rask-Grimm Rule" or the First Germanic Sound Shift, was the first law in linguistics concerning a non-trivial sound change. It was a turning point in the development of linguistics, allowing the introduction of a rigorous methodology to historic linguistic research. It concerns the correspondence of consonants between the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language and its Germanic descendants, Low Saxon and High German, and was first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first part of his "Grammar". The correspondence of single consonants had been more or less clearly recognized by several of his predecessors, including Friedrich von Schlegel, Rasmus Christian Rask and Johan Ihre, the last having established a considerable number of "literarum permutationes", such as b for f, with the examples "bœra" = "ferre" ("to bear"), "befwer" = "fibra" ("fiber"). Rask, in his essay on the origin of the Icelandic language, gave the same comparisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the same examples in most cases. As Grimm in the preface to his first edition expressly mentioned Rask's essay, there is every probability that it inspired his own investigations. But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations described by his predecessors and his own comprehensive generalizations. The extension of the law to High German in any case is entirely Grimm's work. The idea that Grimm wished to deprive Rask of his claims to priority is based on the fact that he does not expressly mention Rask's results in his second edition, but it was always his plan to refrain from all controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first edition, he calls attention to Rask's essay, and praises it ungrudgingly. Nevertheless, a certain bitterness of feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, after Rask refused to consider the value of Grimm's views when they clashed with his own. Grimm's monumental dictionary of the German Language, the "Deutsches Wörterbuch", was started in 1838 and first published in 1854. The Brothers anticipated it would take 10 years and encompass some six to seven volumes. However, it was undertaken on so large a scale as to make it impossible for them to complete it. The dictionary, as far as it was worked on by Grimm himself, has been described as a collection of disconnected antiquarian essays of high value. It was finally finished by subsequent scholars in 1961 and supplemented in 1971. At 33 volumes at some 330,000 headwords, it remains a standard work of reference to the present day. A current project at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities is underway to update the "Deutsches Wörterbuch" to modern academic standards. Volumes A–F were scheduled for release in 2012. The first work Jacob Grimm published, "Über den altdeutschen Meistergesang" (1811), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in this essay Grimm showed that "Minnesang" and "Meistergesang" were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented different stages of development, and also announced his important discovery of the invariable division of the "Lied" into three strophic parts. Grimm's text-editions were mostly prepared in conjunction with his brother. In 1812 they published the two ancient fragments of the "Hildebrandslied" and the "Weißenbrunner Gebet", Jacob having discovered what till then had never been suspected — namely the alliteration in these poems. However, Jacob had little taste for text editing, and, as he himself confessed, working on a critical text gave him little pleasure. He therefore left this department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre. Both Brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national poetry, whether in the form of epics, ballads or popular tales. They published In 1816–1818 a collection of legends culled from diverse sources and published the two-volume "Deutsche Sagen" (German Legends). At the same time they collected all the folktales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people, partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 1812–1815 the first edition of those "Kinder- und Hausmärchen" (Children's and Household Tales), which has carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household of the western world. The closely related subject of the satirical beast epic of the Middle Ages also held great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an edition of the "Reinhart Fuchs" in 1834. His first contribution to mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs, undertaken jointly with his brother, and was published in 1815. However, this work was not followed by any others on the subject. The first edition of his "Deutsche Mythologie" (German Mythology) appeared in 1835. This work covered the whole range of the subject, attempting to trace the mythology and superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct evidence, and following their evolution to modern-day popular traditions, tales, and expressions. Grimm's work as a jurist was influential for the development of the history of law, particularly in Northern Europe. His essay "Von der Poesie im Recht" ("Poetry in Law", 1816) developed a far-reaching, suprapositivist Romantic conception of law. The "Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer" ("German Legal Antiquities", 1828) was a comprehensive compilation of sources of law from all Germanic languages, whose structure allowed an initial understanding of older German legal traditions not influenced by Roman law. Grimm's "Weisthümer" (4 vol., 1840–63), a compilation of partially oral legal traditions from rural Germany, allows research of the development of written law in Northern Europe. Jacob Grimm's work tied in strongly with his views on Germany and its culture. His work on both fairy tales and philology dealt with the country's origins. He wished for a united Germany, and, like his brother, supported the Liberal movement for a constitutional monarchy and civil liberties, as demonstrated by their involvement in the Göttingen Seven protest. In the German revolution of 1848, he was elected to the Frankfurt National Parliament. The people of Germany had demanded a constitution, so the Parliament, formed of elected members from various German states, met to form one. Grimm was selected for the office largely because of his part in the University of Goettingen's refusal to swear to the king of Hanover. He then went to Frankfurt, where he made some speeches, and was adamant that the Danish-ruled but German-speaking duchy of Holstein to be under German control. Grimm soon became disillusioned with the National Assembly and asked to be released from his duties to return to his studies. Jacob Grimm died on 20 September 1863, in Berlin, Germany from disease The following is a complete list of Grimm's separately published works. Those he published with his brother are marked with a star (*). For a list of his essays in periodicals, etc., see vol. V of his "Kleinere Schriften", from which the present list is taken. His life is best studied in his own "Selbstbiographie", in vol. I of the "Kleinere Schriften". There is also a brief memoir by Karl Goedeke in "Göttinger Professoren" (Gotha (Perthes), 1872).

Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (4 January 1785 – 20 September 1863), also known as Ludwig Karl, was a German philologist, jurist, and mythologist. He is known as the discoverer of Grimm's law of linguistics, the co-author of the monumental "Deutsches Wörterbuch", the author of "Deutsche Mythologie", and the editor of "Grimm's Fairy Tales". He was the older brother of Wilhelm Grimm, of the literary duo the Brothers Grimm.

en

89

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summarize: The rules of chess are published by FIDE ("Fédération Internationale des Échecs"), chess's international governing body, in its "Handbook". Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ. FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2018. By convention, chess game pieces are divided into white and black sets. Each set consists of 16 pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. The pieces are set out as shown in the diagram and photo. The players of the sets are referred to as "White" and "Black", respectively. The game is played on In competitive games, the colors are allocated by the organizers; in informal games, the colors are usually decided randomly, for example by coin toss, or by one player's concealing a white and black pawn in either hand and having the opponent choose. White moves first, after which players alternate turns, moving one piece per turn (except for castling, when two pieces are moved). A piece is moved to either an unoccupied square or one occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exception Once in every game, each king can make a special move, known as "castling". Castling consists of moving the king two squares along the When a pawn makes a two-step advance from its starting position and there is an opponent's pawn on a square next to the destination square on an adjacent file, then the opponent's pawn can capture it "en passant" ("in passing"), When a pawn advances to the eighth rank, as a part of the move it is "promoted" and must be exchanged for the player's choice of queen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawn is chosen to be promoted When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be "in check". A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position where the king is no longer in check. This can involve capturing the checking piece; interposing a piece between the checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and Games can be There are several ways games can end in a draw: In competition, chess games are played with a time control. If a player's time runs out before the game is completed, the game is automatically lost (provided the opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate). The duration of a game ranges from long (or "classical") games, which can take up to seven hours (even longer if adjournments are permitted), to Chess is believed to have originated in northwest India, in the Gupta Empire ( 280–550), where its early form in the 6th century was known as "chaturaṅga" (), literally "four divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Thence it spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The earliest evidence of chess is found in the nearby Sasanian Persia around 600, where the game came to be known by the name "chatrang". Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–44), where it was then named "shatranj", with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish "shatranj" was rendered as "ajedrez" ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as "xadrez", and in Greek as ζατρίκιον ("zatrikion", which comes directly from the Persian "chatrang"), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in southern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes made the game essentially as it is known today. These modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted in Italy and Spain. Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities. The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece towards the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most In the 18th century, the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters were François-André Danican Philidor, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won a famous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnell in 1834. Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major European cities like "Café de la Régence" in Paris and "Simpson's Divan" in London. The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first). Finally the rules around castling were standardized – variations in the castling rules had persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as "Western chess" or "international chess", particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes have been technical in nature, for example establishing the correct procedure for Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz beginning in 1873 described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position. The scientific approach and positional understanding of Steinitz revolutionized the game. Steinitz was the first to break a position down into its components. Before Steinitz, players brought their queen out early, did not completely their other pieces, and mounted a quick attack on the opposing king, which either succeeded or failed. The level of defense was poor and players did not form any deep plan. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then (except for one interruption), ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950 FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the titles of Grandmaster and International Master on 27 players. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim. Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part of noble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the "King's Game". Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's "The Book of the Courtier" (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely an honest kynde of During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1750), wrote: The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action [...] II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations [...] III. Caution, The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities, including Jewish, Christian and Muslim. Jewish scholars Maimonides and Kalonymus ben Kalonymus both condemned chess, though the former only condemned it when played for money while the latter condemned it in all circumstances. In medieval times both the Catholic and Orthodox Chess games and positions are recorded using a system of notation, most commonly algebraic chess notation. Abbreviated algebraic (or short algebraic) notation generally records moves in the format: The pieces are identified by their initials. In English, these are "K" (king), "Q" (queen), "R" (rook), "B" (bishop), and "N" (knight; N is used to avoid confusion with king). For example, Qg5 means "queen moves to the g-file, 5th rank" (that is, to the square g5). Chess literature published in other languages may use different initials for pieces, or figurine algebraic notation (FAN) may be used to avoid language issues. To resolve ambiguities, an additional letter or number is added to indicate the file or rank from which the piece moved (e.g. Ngf3 means "knight from the g-file moves to the square f3"; R1e2 means "rook on the first rank moves to e2"). The letter "P" for pawn is not used; so e4 means "pawn moves to the square e4". If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before the destination square. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3". When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5 (pawn on the e-file captures the piece on d5) or exd (pawn on the e-file captures a piece somewhere on the d-file). Particularly in Germany, some publications use ":" rather than "x" to indicate capture, but this is now rare. Some publications omit the capture symbol altogether; so exd5 would be rendered A game of chess can generally be loosely subdivided into three phases or stages of play: the "opening", followed by the "middlegame", then last the "endgame". A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequences of opening moves are referred to as "openings" and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez or Sicilian Defense. They are catalogued in reference works such as the "Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings". There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet (for example, the Réti The middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening. There is no clear line between the opening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have been developed. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of the endgame.) Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position. The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical patterns have their own names; for The endgame (also "end game" or "ending") is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame: Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are positions Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long-term positioning advantages during the game – for example, where to place different pieces – while tactics concentrate on immediate maneuver. These two aspects of the gameplay cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostly achieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. A game of chess is normally divided into three phases: the opening, typically the first 10 moves, when players move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; the middlegame; and last the endgame, when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawn promotion is often decisive. In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short-term actions – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player or a computer. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves. Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for the future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares). The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs). Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federation and English Chess Federation) which in turn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of the International Olympic Committee, but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games; chess has its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event. The current World Chess Champion is Magnus Carlsen of The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the world chess organization FIDE: All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women-only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster (WGM), are available. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the GM title, and as of 2020, all of the top ten rated women hold the unrestricted GM title. , there are 1725 active grandmasters and 3903 international masters in the world. The top three countries with the largest numbers of grandmasters are Russia, the United States, and Germany, with 251, 98, and 96, respectively. FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers. International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chess players (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (also called chess compositions). The creator is known as a chess composer. There are many types of chess problems; the two most important are: Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments exist for both the composition and solving of chess problems. This is one of the most famous chess studies; it was published by Richard Réti 4 December 1921. It seems impossible to catch the advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. The Chess has an extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the total number of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000. B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess have been known for hundreds of years. The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be about 10, and has been proved to be fewer than 10, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon. He wrote: The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered as one of the predecessors of game theory. Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a draw). According to Generalized chess (played on "n"×"n" Some applications of combinatorial game theory There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much recent research. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess. Recent research indicates that factors other than practice are also important. For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Compared to general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill. A relationship between chess skill and intelligence has long been discussed in the literature and popular culture. Academic studies of the relationship date back at least to 1927. Academic opinion has long been split on how strong the relationship is, with some studies finding no relationship and others finding a relatively strong one. A 2016 meta-analysis There are more than two thousand published chess variants, most of them of relatively recent origin, including: Prime sources in English describing chess variants and their rules include David Pritchard's encyclopedias, the website "The Reference aids Lists

Chess is a two-player strategy board game played on a checkered board with 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. Played by millions of people worldwide, chess is believed to be derived from the Indian game "chaturanga" sometime before the 7th century. Chaturanga is also the likely ancestor of the Eastern strategy games "xiangqi" (Chinese chess), "janggi" (Korean chess), and shogi (Japanese chess). Chess reached Europe by the 9th century, due to the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The pieces assumed their current properties in Spain in the late 15th century, and the modern rules were standardized in the 19th century.

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summarize: Perrault was born in Paris to a wealthy bourgeois family, the seventh child of Pierre Perrault and Paquette Le Clerc. He attended very good schools and studied law before embarking on a career in government service, following in the footsteps of his father and elder brother Jean. He took part in the creation of the Academy of Sciences as well as the restoration of the Academy of Painting. In 1654, he moved in with his brother Pierre, who had purchased the position of chief tax collector of the city of Paris. When the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres was founded in 1663, Perrault was appointed its secretary and served under Jean Baptiste Colbert, finance minister to King Louis XIV. Jean Chapelain, Amable de Bourzeys, and Jacques Cassagne (the King's librarian) were also appointed. Using his influence as Colbert's administrative aide, in April 1667 he was able to get his brother, Claude Perrault, appointed to a committee of three, the Petit Conseil, also including Louis Le Vau and Charles Le Brun, who designed the new section of the Louvre, the Colonnade, built between 1667 and 1674, to be overseen by Colbert. The design was chosen over designs by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (with whom, as Perrault recounts in his "Memoirs," he had stormy relations while the Italian artist was in residence at Louis's court in 1665) and François Mansart. One of the factors leading to this choice included the fear of high costs, and second was the personal antagonism between Bernini and leading members of Louis' court, including Colbert and Perrault; King Louis himself maintained a public air of benevolence towards Bernini, ordering the issuing of a royal bronze portrait medal in honor of the artist in 1674. As Perrault further describes in his "Memoirs", however, the king harbored private resentment at Bernini's displays of arrogance. The king was so displeased with Bernini's equestrian statue of him that he ordered it to be destroyed; however, his courtiers prevailed upon him to have it redone instead, with a head depicting the Roman hero Marcus Curtius. In 1668, Perrault wrote "La Peinture" ("Painting") to honor the king's first painter, Charles Le Brun. He also wrote "Courses de tetes et de bague" ("Head and Ring Races", 1670), written to commemorate the 1662 celebrations staged by Louis for his mistress, Louise-Françoise de La Baume le Blanc, duchesse de La Vallière. Perrault was elected to the Académie française in 1671. He married Marie Guichon, age 19, in 1672; she died in 1678. In 1669 Perrault advised Louis XIV to include thirty-nine fountains each representing one of the fables of Aesop in the labyrinth of Versailles in the gardens of Versailles. The work was carried out between 1672 and 1677. Water jets spurting from the animals' mouths were conceived to give the impression of speech between the creatures. There was a plaque with a caption and a quatrain written by the poet Isaac de Benserade next to each fountain. Perrault produced the guidebook for the labyrinth, "Labyrinte de Versailles", printed at the royal press, Paris, in 1677, and illustrated by Sebastien le Clerc. Philippe Quinault, a longtime family friend of the Perraults, quickly gained a reputation as the librettist for the new musical genre known as opera, collaborating with composer Jean-Baptiste Lully. After "Alceste" (1674) was denounced by traditionalists who rejected it for deviating from classical theater, Perrault wrote in response "Critique de l'Opéra" (1674) in which he praised the merits of "Alceste" over the tragedy of the same name by Euripides. This treatise on "Alceste" initiated the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns ("Querelle des Anciens et des Modernes"), which pitted supporters of the literature of Antiquity (the "Ancients") against supporters of the literature from the century of Louis XIV (the "Moderns"). He was on the side of the Moderns and wrote "Le Siècle de Louis le Grand" ("The Century of Louis the Great", 1687) and "Parallèle des Anciens et des Modernes" ("Parallel between Ancients and Moderns", 1688–1692) where he attempted to prove the superiority of the literature of his century. "Le Siècle de Louis le Grand " was written in celebration of Louis XIV's recovery from a life-threatening operation. Perrault argued that because of Louis's enlightened rule, the present age was superior in every respect to ancient times. He also claimed that even modern French literature was superior to the works of antiquity, and that, after all,. In 1682, Colbert forced Perrault into retirement at the age of 56, assigning his tasks to his own son, Jules-Armand, marquis d'Ormoy. Colbert would die the next year, and Perrault stopped receiving the pension given to him as a writer. Colbert's bitter rival succeeded him, François-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois, and quickly removed Perrault from his other appointments. After this, in 1686, Perrault decided to write epic poetry and show his genuine devotion to Christianity, writing "Saint Paulin, évêque de Nôle" ("St. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola", about Paulinus of Nola). Just like Jean Chapelain's "La Pucelle, ou la France délivrée", an epic poem about Joan of Arc, Perrault became a target of mockery from Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux. Charles Perrault died in Paris in 1703 at the age of 75. On 12 January 2016 Google honoured him with a doodle by artist Sophie Diao depicting characters from the Tales of Mother Goose (Histoires ou contes du temps passé). In 1695, when he was 67, Perrault lost his position as secretary and decided to dedicate himself to his children. In 1697 he published "Tales and Stories of the Past with Morals" ("Histoires ou Contes du Temps passé"), subtitled "Tales of Mother Goose" ("Les Contes de ma Mère l'Oye"). (The spelling of the name is with "y" although modern French uses only an "i".) This "Mother Goose" has never been identified as a person, but used to refer to popular and rural storytelling traditions in proverbial phrases of the time. (Source : "Dictionnaire de l'Académie", 1694, quoted by Nathalie Froloff in her edition of the "Tales" (Gallimard, Folio, Paris, 1999.- p. 10).) These tales, based on French popular tradition, were very popular in sophisticated court circles. Its publication made him suddenly very widely known and he is often credited as the founder of the modern fairy tale genre. Naturally, his work reflects awareness of earlier fairy tales written in the salons, most notably by Marie-Catherine Le Jumel de Barneville, Baroness d'Aulnoy, who coined the phrase "fairy tale" and wrote tales as early as 1690. Some of his popular stories, particularly Cinderella and The Sleeping Beauty, are still commonly told similar to the way Perrault had written them, while others have been revised over the years. For example, some versions of Sleeping Beauty published today are based partially on a Brothers Grimm tale, "Little Briar Rose“, a modified version of the Perrault story, but the Disney version is true to the original Perrault tale. Perrault had written Little Red Riding Hood as a warning to readers about men preying on young girls walking through the forest. He concludes his fairy tale with a moral, cautioning women and young girls about the dangers of trusting men. He states, "Watch out if you haven’t learned that tame wolves/ Are the most dangerous of all". Perrault warns the readers about the manipulation and false appearances some men portray: "I say Wolf, for all wolves are not of the same sort; there is one kind with an amenable disposition – neither noisy, nor hateful, nor angry, but tame, obliging and gentle, following the young maids in the streets, even into their homes. Alas! Who does not know that these gentle wolves are of all such creatures the most dangerous!" Indeed, the girl gets into bed with the wolf and is devoured. There is no happy ending as in most current versions of the story. He had actually published his collection under the name of his last son (born in 1678), Pierre (Perrault) Darmancourt ("Armancourt" being the name of a property he bought for him), probably fearful of criticism from the "Ancients". In the tales, he used images from around him, such as the Chateau Ussé for "The Sleeping Beauty", and the Marquis of the Château d'Oiron as the model for the Marquis de Carabas in "Puss in Boots". He ornamented his folktale subject matter with details, asides and subtext drawn from the world of fashion. Following up on these tales, he translated the "Fabulae Centum" (100 Fables) of the Latin poet Gabriele Faerno into French verse in 1699.

Charles Perrault (,, ; 12 January 1628 – 16 May 1703) was a French author and member of the Académie Française. He laid the foundations for a new literary genre, the fairy tale, with his works derived from earlier folk tales, published in his 1697 book "Histoires ou contes du temps passé". The best known of his tales include "Le Petit Chaperon Rouge" ("Little Red Riding Hood"), "Cendrillon" ("Cinderella"), "Le Chat Botté" ("Puss in Boots"), "La Belle au bois Dormant " ("The Sleeping Beauty") and "Barbe Bleue" ("Bluebeard").

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summarize: Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm was born on 4 January 1785, and his brother Wilhelm Carl Grimm was born on 24 February 1786. Both were born in Hanau, in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel within the Holy Roman Empire (present-day Germany), to Philipp Wilhelm Grimm, a jurist, and Dorothea Grimm née Zimmer, daughter of a Kassel city councilman. They were the second- and third-eldest surviving siblings in a family of nine children, three of whom died in infancy. In 1791, the family moved to the countryside town of Steinau, when Philipp was employed there as district magistrate ("). The family became prominent members of the community, residing in a large home surrounded by fields. Biographer Jack Zipes writes that the brothers were happy in Steinau and "clearly fond of country life". The children were educated at home by private tutors, receiving strict instruction as Lutherans that instilled After graduation from the ", the brothers attended the University of Marburg. The university was small with about 200 students and there they became painfully aware that students of lower social status were not treated equally. They were disqualified from admission because of their social standing and had to request dispensation to study law. Wealthier students received stipends, but the brothers were excluded even from tuition aid. Their poverty kept them from student activities or university social life; ironically, however, their outsider status worked in their favor, and In 1825, Wilhelm married Henriette Dorothea (Dortchen) Wild, a long-time family friend and one of a group who supplied them with stories. Jacob never married but continued to live in the household with Wilhelm and Dortchen. In 1830, both brothers were overlooked when the post of chief librarian came available, which disappointed them greatly. They moved the household to Göttingen in the Kingdom of Hanover where they took employment at the University of Göttingen, Jacob as a professor and head librarian and Wilhelm as professor. During the next seven years, the brothers continued to research, write, and publish. In 1835, Jacob published the well-regarded "German Mythology" ('); Wilhelm continued to edit and prepare the third edition of'for publication. The two brothers taught German studies at In 1840, von Savigny and Bettina von Arnim appealed successfully to Frederick William IV of Prussia on behalf of the brothers who were offered posts at the University of Berlin. In addition to teaching posts, the Academy of Sciences offered them stipends to continue their research. Once they had established their household in Berlin, they directed their efforts towards the work on the German dictionary and continued to publish their research. Jacob turned his attention to researching German legal traditions and the history of the German language, which was published in the late 1840s and early 1850s; meanwhile, Wilhelm began researching medieval The rise of romanticism, Romantic nationalism, and trends in valuing popular culture in the early 19th century revived interest in fairy tales, which had declined since their late-17th-century peak. Johann Karl August Musäus published a popular collection of tales between 1782 and 1787; the Grimms aided the revival with their folklore collection, built on the conviction that a national identity could be found in popular culture and with the common folk ("). They collected and published their tales as a reflection of German cultural identity. In the first collection, though, they included Charles Perrault's tales, published in Paris in 1697 and written for the literary salons of an aristocratic French audience. Scholar Lydie Jean says that Perrault created a myth that his tales came from the common people and reflected existing folklore to justify including them—even though many of When Jacob returned to Marburg from Paris in 1806, their friend Brentano sought the brothers' help in adding to his collection of folk tales, at which time the brothers began to gather tales in an organized fashion. By 1810, they had produced a manuscript collection of several dozen tales, written after inviting storytellers to their home and transcribing what they heard. These tales were heavily modified in transcription, and many had roots in previously written sources. At Brentano's request, they printed and sent him copies of the 53 tales that they collected for inclusion in his third volume of "". Brentano either ignored or forgot about the tales, leaving the copies in a church in Alsace where they were found in 1920 and became known as the Ölenberg manuscript. It is the earliest extant version of the Grimms' collection and has become a valuable source to scholars studying the development of the Grimms' collection from the time of its inception. The manuscript was published in 1927 and again in 1975. The From 1807 onward, the brothers added to the collection. Jacob established the framework, maintained through many iterations; from 1815 until his death, Wilhelm assumed sole responsibility for editing and rewriting the tales. He made the tales stylistically similar, added dialogue, removed pieces "that might detract from a rustic tone", improved the plots, and incorporated psychological motifs. Ronald Murphy writes in "The Owl, the Raven and the Dove" that the brothers—and in particular Wilhelm—also added religious and spiritual motifs to the tales. He believes that Wilhelm "gleaned" bits from old Germanic faiths, Norse mythology, Roman and Greek mythology, and biblical stories that he reshaped. Over the years, Wilhelm worked extensively on the prose and expanded and added detail to the stories, to the point that many grew to twice the length they were in The Grimms' legacy contains legends, novellas, and folk stories, the vast majority of which were not intended as children's tales. Von Armin was deeply concerned about the content of some of the tales, such as those that showed children being eaten, and suggested that they be removed. Instead, the brothers added an introduction with cautionary advice that parents steer children toward age-appropriate stories. Despite von Armin's unease, none of the tales were eliminated from the collection, in the brothers' belief that all the tales were of value and reflected inherent cultural qualities. Furthermore, the stories were didactic in nature at a time when discipline relied on fear, according to scholar Linda Dégh, who explains that tales such as "Little Red Riding Between 1812 and 1864,'was published 17 times: seven of the "Large edition" (') and ten of the "Small edition" ("). The Large editions contained all the tales collected to date, extensive annotations, and scholarly notes written by the brothers; the Small editions had only 50 tales and were intended for children. Jacob and Wilhelm's younger brother Emil Grimm illustrated the Small editions, adding Christian symbolism to the drawings, such as depicting Cinderella's mother as an angel, and adding a Bible to the bedside table of Little Red Riding Hood's grandmother. The first volume was published in 1812 with 86 folk tales, and a second volume with 70 additional tales was published late in 1814 (dated 1815 on the title page); together, the two volumes and their 156 tales are considered the first of the Large (annotated) editions. A second expanded edition with 170 tales was While at the University of Marburg, the brothers came to see culture as tied to language and regarded the purest cultural expression in the grammar of a language. They moved away from Brentano's practice—and that of the other romanticists—who frequently changed original oral styles of folk tale to a more literary style, which the brothers considered artificial. They thought that the style of the people (the ') reflected a natural and divinely inspired poetry (') as opposed to the "" (art poetry), which they " was not an immediate bestseller, but its popularity grew with each edition. The early editions attracted lukewarm critical reviews, generally on the basis that the stories were unappealing to children. The brothers responded with modifications and rewrites to increase the book's market appeal to that demographic. By the 1870s, the tales had increased greatly in popularity, to the point that they were added to the teaching curriculum in Prussia. In the 20th century, the work has maintained status as second only to the Bible as the most popular book in Germany. Its sales generated a mini-industry of criticism, which analyzed the tales' folkloric content in the context of literary history, socialism, and psychological elements often along Freudian and Jungian lines. In their research, the brothers made a science of the study of folklore (see folkloristics), generating a model of research that "launched general fieldwork in most European countries", and setting standards for research and analysis of stories and legends that made them pioneers in the field of folklore in the 19th century. The Third Reich used the Grimms' stories to foster nationalism. The Nazi Party decreed that every household should own a copy of "". Later, officials of the Allied-occupied Germany banned the book for a period. In the US, the 1937 release of Walt Disney's "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" shows the triumph of good over evil, innocence over oppression, according to Zipes—a popular theme that Disney repeated in 1959 during the Cold War with the production of "Sleeping Beauty". The Grimms' tales have provided much of the early foundation on which Disney built an empire. In film, the Cinderella motif, the story of a poor girl finding love and success, is repeated in movies such as "Pretty Woman", "The Princess Diaries",, "Ever After", "Maid in Manhattan", and "Ella Enchanted". In 1962, the lives of both brothers were the subject of the film "The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm" featuring an all star cast, including Laurence Harvey and Karlheinz Böhm in the title roles. Twentieth-century educators debated the value and influence of teaching stories that include brutality and violence, and some of the more gruesome details were sanitized. Dégh writes that some educators believe that children should be shielded from cruelty of any form; that stories with a happy ending are fine to teach, whereas those that are darker, particularly the legends, might pose more harm. On the other hand, some educators and psychologists believe that children easily discern the difference between what is a story and what is not and that the tales continue to have value for children. The publication of Bruno Bettelheim's 1976 "The Uses of Enchantment" brought a new wave of interest in the stories as children's literature, with an emphasis on the "therapeutic value for children". More popular stories such as "Hansel and Gretel" and "Little Red Riding Hood" have become staples of modern childhood, presented in coloring books, puppet shows, and cartoons. Other stories, however, have been considered too gruesome and have not made a popular transition. Regardless of the debate, the Grimms' stories remain resilient and popular around the world, though a recent study in England suggests that some parents consider the stories overly violent and inappropriate for young children, writes Libby Copeland for "Slate". Nevertheless, children remain enamored with the Grimm fairy tales with the brothers themselves embraced as the creators of the stories and even as part of the stories themselves. The film "Brothers Grimm" imagines them as con-artists exploiting superstitious German peasants until they are asked to confront a genuine fairy tale curse that calls them to finally be heroes. The movie "Ever After" shows the Grimm Brothers in their role as collectors of fairy tales though they learn to their surprise that at least one of their stories (Cinderella) is actually true. "Grimm" follows a detective who discovers he is a Grimm, the latest in a line of guardians who are sworn to keep the balance between humanity and mythological creatures. "Ever After High" imagines Grimm Brothers (here descendants called Milton and Giles) as headmasters of Ever After High boarding school where they train the children of the previous generation of fairy tales to follow in their parents' footsteps. The "10th Kingdom" mini series states that the brothers were trapped in the fairy tale world for years where they witnessed the events of their stories before finally making it back to the real world. "The Sisters Grimm" book series follows their descendants, Sabrina and Daphne, as they adapt to life in Ferryport Landing, a town in upstate New York populated by fairy tale people. Separate from the previous series are "The Land of Stories" and "its" Sisters Grimm, a self described coven determined to track down and document creatures from the fairy tale world that cross over into the real world. Their ancestors were in fact chosen by Mother Goose and others to tell fairy tales so that they might give hope to the human race. The university library at the Humboldt University of Berlin is housed in the Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm Center ("). Among its collections is a large portion of the Grimm Brothers' private library.

The Brothers Grimm (' or ', ), Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785–1863) and Wilhelm Carl Grimm (1786–1859), were German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers and authors who together collected and published folklore during the 19th century. They were among the first and best-known collectors of German and European folk tales, and popularized traditional oral tale types such as "Cinderella" (""), "The Frog Prince" (""), "The Goose-Girl" ("Die Gänsemagd"), "Hansel and Gretel" (""), "Rapunzel", "Beauty and the Beast", "Little Red Riding Hood", "The Wolf and the Seven Young Goats", "The Three Little Pigs", "Rumpelstiltskin" (""), "Sleeping Beauty" (""), and "Snow White" (""). Their classic collection, "Children's and Household Tales" ("), was published in two volumes—the first in 1812 and the second in 1815.

en

201

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summarize: Bronson was born Charles Dennis Buchinsky, the eleventh of fifteen children, into a Roman Catholic family of Lithuanian descent in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania, in the coal region of the Allegheny Mountains north of Johnstown, Pennsylvania. His father, Valteris P. Bučinskis, who later adjusted his name to Walter Buchinsky to sound more "American", was from Druskininkai in southern Lithuania. Bronson's mother, Mary (née Valinsky), whose parents were from Lithuania, was born in the coal mining town of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania. Bronson learned to speak English when he was a teenager; before that, he spoke Lithuanian and Russian. In a 1973 interview, Bronson said that he did not know his father very well and "I'm not even sure if I loved him or hated him." He said that all he could remember was that when his mother said that his father was coming home, the children would hide. Bronson was the first member of his family to graduate from high school. When Bronson was 10 years old, his father died and he went to work in the coal mines, first in the mining office and then in the mine. He later said he earned one dollar for each ton of coal that he mined. In another interview, he said that he had to work double shifts to earn $1 a week. Bronson later recounted that he and his brother engaged in dangerous work removing "stumps" between the mines, and that cave-ins were common. The family suffered extreme poverty during the Great Depression, and Bronson recalled going hungry many times. His mother could not afford milk for his younger sister, so she was fed warm tea instead. His family was so poor that he once had to wear his sister's dress to school for lack of clothing. He worked in the mine until he entered military service during World War II. In 1943, Bronson enlisted in the United States Army Air Forces and served in the 760th Flexible Gunnery Training Squadron, and in 1945 as a Boeing B-29 Superfortress aerial gunner with the Guam-based 61st Bombardment Squadron within the 39th Bombardment Group, which conducted combat missions against the Japanese home islands. He flew 25 missions and received a Purple Heart for wounds received in battle. After the end of World War II, Bronson worked at many odd jobs until joining a theatrical group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He later shared an apartment in New York City with Jack Klugman while both were aspiring to play on the stage. In 1950, he married and moved to Hollywood, where he enrolled in acting classes and began to find small roles. Bronson's first film role — an uncredited one — was as a sailor in "You're in the Navy Now" in 1951, directed by Henry Hathaway. Other early screen appearances were in "The Mob" (1951); "The People Against O'Hara" (1951), directed by John Sturges; "Bloodhounds of Broadway" (1952); "Battle Zone" (1952); "Pat and Mike" (1952), as a boxer and mob enforcer; "Diplomatic Courier" (1952), another for Hathaway; "My Six Convicts" (1952); "The Marrying Kind" (1952); and "Red Skies of Montana" (1952). In 1952, Bronson boxed in a ring with Roy Rogers in Rogers' show "Knockout". He appeared on an episode of "The Red Skelton Show" as a boxer in a skit with Skelton playing "Cauliflower McPugg". He appeared with fellow guest star Lee Marvin in an episode of "Biff Baker, U.S.A.", an espionage series on CBS starring Alan Hale, Jr. He had small roles in "Miss Sadie Thompson" (1953); "House of Wax" (1953), directed by Andre DeToth; "The Clown" (1953); "Torpedo Alley" (1953); and "Riding Shotgun", starring Randolph Scott, directed by DeToth again. Bronson had a notable support part as an Indian in "Apache" (1954) for director Robert Aldrich who then used him again in "Vera Cruz" (1954). Bronson then made a strong impact as the main villain in the Alan Ladd western "Drum Beat" as a murderous Modoc warrior, Captain Jack (based on a real person), who relishes wearing the tunics of soldiers he has killed. He had roles in "Tennessee Champ" (1954) for MGM, and "Crime Wave" (1954) directed by de Toth. In 1954, during the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) proceedings, he changed his surname from Buchinsky to Bronson at the suggestion of his agent, who feared that an Eastern European surname might damage his career. As "Charles Bronson", he could be seen in "Target Zero" (1955), "Big House, U.S.A." (1955), and "Jubal" (1956). Bronson had the lead role of the episode "The Apache Kid" of the syndicated crime drama "Sheriff of Cochise", starring John Bromfield; Bronson was subsequently cast twice in 1959 after the series was renamed "U.S. Marshal". He guest-starred in the short-lived CBS situation comedy, "Hey, Jeannie!" and in three episodes of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents": "And So Died Riabouchinska" (1956), "There Was an Old Woman" (1956), and "The Woman Who Wanted to Live" (1962). In 1957, Bronson was cast in the Western series "Colt.45" as an outlaw named Danny Arnold in the episode "Young Gun". He had a support role in Sam Fuller's "Run of the Arrow" (1957). In 1958 Bronson appeared as Butch Cassidy on the TV western "Tales of Wells Fargo" in the episode titled "Butch Cassidy." Bronson scored the lead in his own ABC's detective series "Man with a Camera" (1958–1960), in which he portrayed Mike Kovac, a former combat photographer freelancing in New York City. He was cast in leading man roles in some low budget films, notably, "Machine-Gun Kelly" (1958), a biopic of a real life gangster directed by Roger Corman. He also starred in "Gang War" (1958), "When Hell Broke Loose" (1958), and "Showdown at Boot Hill" (1959). On television, he played Steve Ogrodowski, a naval intelligence officer, in two episodes of the CBS military sitcom/drama, "Hennesey", starring Jackie Cooper, and he played Rogue Donovan, an escaped murderer in "Yancy Derringer" (episode: "Hell and High Water"). Bronson starred alongside Elizabeth Montgomery in a "Twilight Zone" episode ("Two"; 1961). He appeared in five episodes of Richard Boone's "Have Gun – Will Travel" (1957–63). Bronson had a support role in an expensive war film, "Never So Few" (1959), directed by John Sturges. Bronson was cast in the 1960 episode "Zigzag" of "Riverboat", starring Darren McGavin. That same year, he was cast as "Dutch Malkin" in the 1960 episode "The Generous Politician" of "The Islanders". In 1960 Bronson appeared as Frank Buckley in the TV western "Laramie" in the episode titled "Street of Hate." In 1960, he garnered attention in John Sturges' "The Magnificent Seven", in which he was cast as one of seven gunfighters taking up the cause of the defenseless. During filming, Bronson was a loner who kept to himself, according to Eli Wallach. He received $50,000 for this role. This role made him a favorite actor of many in the former Soviet Union, such as Vladimir Vysotsky. AIP put Bronson in the romantic lead of "Master of the World" (1961), supporting Vincent Price. He had a support role in MGM's "A Thunder of Drums" (1961) but a bigger part in "X-15" (1961). In 1961, Bronson was nominated for an Emmy Award for his supporting role in an episode entitled "Memory in White" of CBS's "General Electric Theater", hosted by Ronald Reagan. In 1962, he appeared alongside Elvis Presley in "Kid Galahad". In 1963, he co-starred in the series "Empire". Sturges cast Bronson for another Hollywood production, "The Great Escape" (1963), as claustrophobic Polish prisoner of war Flight Lieutenant Danny Velinski, nicknamed "The Tunnel King" (coincidentally, Bronson really was claustrophobic because of his childhood work in a mine). The film was a huge hit and Bronson had one of the leads, but he still found himself playing a villain in "4 for Texas" (1963) for Robert Aldrich. During the 1963–64 television season Bronson portrayed Linc, the stubborn wagonmaster in the ABC western series, "The Travels of Jaimie McPheeters". In 1964, Bronson guest starred in an episode of the western TV series Bonanza as Harry Starr ("The Underdog"). Bronson had the lead in "Guns of Diablo" (1965), a Western. In the 1965–1966 season, he guest-starred in an episode of "The Legend of Jesse James". In 1965, Bronson was cast as Velasquez, a demolitions expert, in the third-season episode "Heritage" on ABC's WW II drama "Combat!". He had a relatively minor role in "Battle of the Bulge" (1965) and was billed fourth in MGM's "The Sandpiper" (1966), which the popularity of stars Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor propelled to a big success. He was billed third in "This Property Is Condemned" (1966). In 1967, he guest-starred as Ralph Schuyler, an undercover government agent in the episode "The One That Got Away" on ABC's "The Fugitive". That year Aldrich gave Bronson an excellent role in "The Dirty Dozen" (1967), where he played an Army death row convict conscripted into a suicide mission. It was a massive box office success but Bronson was only the third lead. He seemed unable to make the transition to star of major studio films in Hollywood. In "Villa Rides" (1968) he supported Robert Mitchum and Yul Brynner, playing the real-life Rodolfo Fierro. Bronson made a serious name for himself in European films. He was making "Villa Rides" when approached by the producers of a French film "Adieu l'ami" looking for an American co-star for Alain Delon. Bronson's agent Paul Kohner later recalled the producer pitched the actor "on the fact that in the American film industry all the money, all the publicity, goes to the pretty boy hero types. In Europe... the public is attracted by character, not face." The film was a big success in Europe. Even more popular was "Once Upon a Time in the West" (1968) where Bronson played Harmonica. The director, Sergio Leone, once called him "the greatest actor I ever worked with", and had wanted to cast Bronson for the lead in 1964's "A Fistful of Dollars". Bronson turned him down and the role launched Clint Eastwood to film stardom. The film was the biggest hit of 1969 in France. Bronson appeared in a French action film, "Guns for San Sebastian" (1968) alongside Anthony Quinn. In Britain, he was cast in the lead of "Lola" (1969), playing a middle-aged man in love with a 16-year-old girl. He then made a buddy comedy with Tony Curtis in Turkey, "You Can't Win 'Em All" (1970). Bronson then played the lead in a French thriller, "Rider on the Rain" (1970) which was a big hit in France. It won a Hollywood Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Bronson starred in some French-Italian action films, "Violent City" (1970) and "Cold Sweat" (1970), the latter directed by Terence Young. He was in a French thriller, "Someone Behind the Door" (1971) alongside Anthony Perkins, then starred in another directed by Young, the French-Spanish-Italian Western, "Red Sun" (1971). "The Valachi Papers" (1972) was a third with Young; Bronson played Joseph Valachi. That year, this overseas fame earned him a special Golden Globe Henrietta Award for "World Film Favorite - Male" together with Sean Connery. In 1972 Bronson began a string of successful action films for United Artists, beginning with "Chato's Land" (1972), although he had done several films for UA before this in the 1960s ("The Magnificent Seven", etc.). "Chato's Land" was the first film Bronson made with director Michael Winner. Winner was reunited with Bronson in "The Mechanic" (1972) and "The Stone Killer" (1973). Bronson worked with Sturges on "Chino" (1973), then did "Mr. Majestyk" (1974) with Richard Fleischer based on a book by Elmore Leonard. One film UA brought into the domestic mainstream was "Violent City", an Italian-made film originally released overseas in 1970, but not issued in the U.S. until 1974 under the title "The Family". By 1973, Bronson was considered to be the world's top box office attraction, and commanded $1 million per film. Bronson's most famous role came at age 52, in "Death Wish", his most popular film, with director Michael Winner. He played Paul Kersey, a successful New York architect who turns into a crime-fighting vigilante after his wife is murdered and his daughter sexually assaulted. This movie spawned four sequels over the next two decades, all starring Bronson. Bronson starred in two films directed by Tom Gries: "Breakout" (1975), and "Breakheart Pass" (1975), a Western adapted from a novel by Alistair MacLean, which was a box office disappointment. He also starred in the directorial debut of Walter Hill, "Hard Times" (1975), playing a Depression-era street fighter making his living in illegal bare-knuckled matches in Louisiana. He earned good reviews. Bronson reached his pinnacle in box-office drawing power in 1975, when he was ranked 4th, behind only Robert Redford, Barbra Streisand, and Al Pacino. Bronson did a Western comedy for UA, "From Noon till Three" (1976) but it was not well received. At Warner Bros he made "St. Ives" (1976), his first film with director J. Lee Thompson. He played Dan Shomron in "Raid on Entebbe" (1977), then was reunited with Thompson in "The White Buffalo" (1977), produced by Dino de Laurentiis for UA. UA also released "Telefon" (1977), directed by Don Siegel. Bronson went on to make two films for ITC, "Love and Bullets" (1979) and "Borderline" (1980). He was reunited with Thompson on "Caboblanco" (1980), and played Albert Johnson in "Death Hunt" (1981), opposite Lee Marvin. In the years between 1976 and 1994, Bronson commanded high salaries to star in numerous films made by smaller production companies, most notably Cannon Films, for whom some of his last films were made. Bronson was paid $1.5 million by Cannon to star in "Death Wish II" (1982), directed by Michael Winner. In the story, architect Paul Kersey (Bronson) moves to Los Angeles with his daughter. After she is murdered at the hands of several gang members, Kersey once again becomes a vigilante. The film was a big success at the box office. Cannon Films promptly hired Bronson for "10 to Midnight" (1983), in which he played a cop chasing a serial killer. The movie marks the fourth collaboration between Bronson and director J. Lee Thompson. The supporting cast includes Lisa Eilbacher, Andrew Stevens, Gene Davis, Geoffrey Lewis, and Wilford Brimley. ITC Entertainment hired Thompson and Bronson for "The Evil That Men Do" (1984), co-starring Theresa Saldana, and Joseph Maher. The film was adapted by David Lee Henry and John Crowther from the novel of the same name by R. Lance Hill. Bronson plays a former assassin, who comes out of retirement to avenge the death of his journalist friend. Cannon reunited Bronson and Winner for "Death Wish 3" (1985). It is the last to be directed by Winner. Kersey returns to battle with New York street punk gangs while receiving tacit support from an NYPD lieutenant (Ed Lauter). In "Murphy's Law" (1986), directed by Thompson, Bronson plays Jack Murphy, a hardened, antisocial LAPD detective who turns to alcohol to numb the pain of harsh reality. His ex-wife (Angel Tompkins) has become a stripper and his career is going nowhere. His world is turned upside down when an ex-convict (Carrie Snodgress) frames him for putting her in prison earlier in his career. Bronson had a slight change of pace with a television film, "Act of Vengeance" (1986), playing real-life union worker Joseph Yablonski. It was directed by John Mackenzie. The movie is based on the book, "Act of Vengeance" by Trevor Armbrister, a story about the corruption that occurred during the United Mine Workers' presidential elections in 1969. It premiered on April 21, 1986. More typical of this period were four Cannon action films: "Assassination" (1987) directed by Peter Hunt, and three with Thompson: "" (1988), "Messenger of Death" (1989) and "" (1989). Bronson's first non action film in a long time was "The Indian Runner" (1991), directed by Sean Penn. He followed this with some TV movies, "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus" and "The Sea Wolf" (1993). Bronson's last starring role in a theatrically released film was 1994's "". His final films were a trilogy of TV movies which were "Family of Cops" (1995), "" (1997) and "Family of Cops 3" (1999). At the time of his death, film critic Stephen Hunter said that Bronson "oozed male life-force, stoic toughness, capability, strength." and "always projected the charisma of ambiguity: Was he an ugly handsome man or a handsome ugly man? You were never sure, so further study was obligatory." Hunter said, "he never became a great actor, but he knew exactly how to dominate a scene quietly." Bronson "was the man with the name ending in a vowel... who never left the position, never complained, never quit, never skulked. He simmered, he sulked, he bristled with class resentments, but he hung in there, got the job done and expected no thanks. His nobility was all the more palpable for never having to be expressed in words. Bronson told critic Roger Ebert in 1974 that "I'm only a product like a cake of soap, to be sold as well as possible." He said that in the action pictures he was producing at the time, there was not much time for acting. He said: "I supply a presence. There are never any long dialogue scenes to establish a character. He has to be completely established at the beginning of the movie, and ready to work." Director Michael Winner said that Bronson did not have to "go into any big thing about what he does or how he does it" because he had a "quality that the motion-picture camera seems to respond to. He has a great strength on the screen, even when he's standing still or in a completely passive role. There is a depth, a mystery – there is always the sense that something will happen." Sergio Leone offered Bronson the part of "Man with No Name" in "A Fistful of Dollars". Bronson declined, arguing that the script was bad. Bronson was again approached for a starring role in the sequel "For a Few Dollars More" but he passed, citing that the sequel's script was like the first film. Bronson was offered both the roles of Tuco and Angel Eyes in "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly". Bronson wanted to accept but he had to decline both, as he was in England filming "The Dirty Dozen". Bronson would later star in Leone's "Once Upon a Time in the West" (1968). Ingmar Bergman wanted to make a film with Bronson but the actor turned him down. "Everything is weakness and sickness with Bergman," he said. He was considered for the role of Snake Plissken in "Escape from New York" (1981), but director John Carpenter thought he was too tough looking and too old for the part, and decided to cast Kurt Russell instead. Bronson auditioned for the role of Superman for the 1978 film adaptation, but producer Ilya Salkind turned him down for being too earthy and decided to cast Christopher Reeve. Bronson was scarred by his early deprivation and his early struggle as an actor. A 1973 newspaper profile said that he was so shy and introverted he could not watch his own films. Bronson was described as "still suspicious, still holds grudges, still despises interviews, still hates to give anything of himself, still can't believe it has really happened to him." He was embittered that it took so long for him to be recognized in the U.S., and after achieving fame he refused to work for a noted director who had snubbed him years before. Critic Roger Ebert wrote in 1974 that Bronson does not volunteer information, does not elaborate, and has no theories about his films."He wrote that Bronson threatened to "get" Time magazine critic Jay Cocks, who had written a negative review he viewed as a personal attack, and that unlike other actors who projected violence on film, Bronson seemed violent in person. His first marriage was to Harriet Tendler, whom he met when both were fledgling actors in Philadelphia. They had two children, Suzanne and Tony, before divorcing in 1965. She wrote in her memoir that she "was an 18-year-old virgin when she met the 26-year-old Charlie Buchinsky at a Philadelphia acting school in 1947. Two years later, with the grudging consent of her father, a successful, Jewish dairy farmer, Tendler wed Buchinsky, a Catholic and a former coal miner. Tendler supported them both while she and Charlie pursued their acting dreams. On their first date, he had four cents in his pocket — and went on, now as Charles Bronson, to become one of the highest paid actors in the country." Bronson was married to English actress Jill Ireland from October 5, 1968, until her death in 1990. He had met her in 1962, when she was married to Scottish actor David McCallum. At the time, Bronson (who shared the screen with McCallum in "The Great Escape") reportedly told him, "I'm going to marry your wife". The Bronsons lived in a grand Bel Air mansion in Los Angeles with seven children: two by his previous marriage, three by hers (one of whom was adopted), and two of their own, Zuleika and Katrina, the latter of whom was also adopted. After they married, she often played his leading lady, and they starred in fifteen films together. To maintain a close family, they would load up everyone and take them to wherever filming was taking place, so that they could all be together. They spent time in a colonial farmhouse on in West Windsor, Vermont, where Ireland raised horses and provided training for their daughter Zuleika so that she could perform at the higher levels of horse showing. The Vermont farm, "Zuleika Farm", was named for the only biological child between them. During the late 1980s through the mid-1990s Bronson regularly spent winter holidays vacationing with his family in Snowmass, Colorado. On May 18, 1990, aged 54, after a long battle with breast cancer, Jill Ireland died of the disease at their home in Malibu, California. In December 1998, Bronson was married for a third time to Kim Weeks, a former employee of Dove Audio who had helped record Ireland in the production of her audiobooks. The couple were married for five years until Bronson's death in 2003. Bronson's health deteriorated in his later years, and he retired from acting after undergoing hip-replacement surgery in August 1998. Bronson died at age 81 on August 30, 2003, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. Although pneumonia and/or Alzheimer's disease have been cited as his cause of death, neither appears on his death certificate, which cites "respiratory failure", "metastatic lung cancer", with, secondarily, "chronic obstructive pulmonary disease" and "congestive cardiomyopathy" as the causes of death. He was interred at Brownsville Cemetery in West Windsor, Vermont.

Charles Bronson (born Charles Dennis Buchinsky; November 3, 1921 – August 30, 2003) was an American actor. He was often cast in the role of a police officer, gunfighter, or vigilante in revenge-oriented plot lines, had long-term collaborations with film directors Michael Winner and J. Lee Thompson, and appeared in fifteen films with his second wife Jill Ireland.

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summarize: Instrumental rock was most popular during rock and roll's first decade (mid-1950s to mid-1960s), before the British Invasion. One notable early instrumental was "Honky Tonk" by the Bill Doggett Combo, with its slinky beat and sinuous saxophone-organ lead. And bluesman Jimmy Reed charted with "Boogie in the Dark" and "Roll and Rhumba". Jazz saxophonist Earl Bostic revived his career with instrumentals like "Harlem Nocturne" and "Earl's Rhumboogie"; other jazz musicians who scored pop hits include Tab Smith and Arnett Cobb. Several rhythm and blues sax players had hit instrumental songs, including Big Jay McNeeley, Red Prysock, and Lee Allen, whose "Walking with Mr. Lee" was quite popular. There were several notable blues instrumental songs during the 1950s; Little Walter's rollicking "Juke" was a #1 R&B hit. Instrumental hit songs could emphasize electronic organ (the Tornados' "Telstar", Dave "Baby" Cortez's "The Happy Organ", Johnny & the Hurricanes' "Red River Rock"), or the saxophone (the Champs' "Tequila", Bill Black's Combo's "Don't Be Cruel", the Piltdown Men's "McDonald's Cave"), but the guitar was most prominent. Duane Eddy scored several hits (his best known probably being "Rebel-'Rouser"). Eddy was the first rock & roll artist to release an album in stereo. The Fireballs, featuring the distinctive guitar work of George Tomsco, began their career in the late 1950s with instrumental hits such as "Torquay" and "Bulldog." The band pioneered the guitar/guitar/bass/drums configuration, paving the way for the Ventures, the Shadows, and the surf music scene. The Fireballs were one of a few instrumental bands that successfully transitioned into vocal music, having the biggest hit of 1963 in the US ("Sugar Shack"). The Shadows from the UK, with American Fender Stratocaster guitars with British Vox amplifiers using a (lead guitar) reverb and echo unit from 1960 onwards had several hit singles including "Apache", "Wonderful Land" and "The Rise and Fall of Flingle Bunt". The Shadows (alone, and accompanying Cliff Richard) featured heavily in the UK charts until 1963 when Beatlemania arrived combined with DJ indifference to non-vocal singles. The Ventures' precise guitar work was a major influence on many later rock guitarists; they also helped shape surf music, although their origins and first records were not surf instrumentals, per se. In the U.S. they greatly escalated the guitar instrumentals and use of the vibrato bar on the lead guitar. Surf music was quite popular in the early 1960s, and was generally rather simple and melodic—one exception being Dick Dale, who gained fame for his quick playing, often influenced by the music of the Middle East, and frequently using exotic scales. Around the time of the British Invasion, rock changed appreciably, and instrumental hits came mostly from the R&B world. Notable artists include Booker T. & the MG's and saxophonist Junior Walker. The early incarnation of Fleetwood Mac with bandleader Peter Green achieved number one chart positions with the guitar-based instrumental Albatross in February 1969. Steve Cropper of the MG's asserts: Just before the British Invasion, Lonnie Mack's version of Chuck Berry's "Memphis" reached #5 on the Billboard Pop chart in June 1963. Employing both the blues scale and distortion, it ushered in the era of blues rock guitar of Eric Clapton, Jimi Hendrix and Stevie Ray Vaughan. Previously, only three other rock guitar instrumentals had cracked Billboard's top five: the Virtues' "Guitar Boogie Shuffle" in 1959, and Duane Eddy's "Because They're Young" and the Ventures' "Walk, Don't Run" in 1960. In August 1964, Checker Records released the album "Two Great Guitars" recorded by rock and roll pioneers Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley which is one of rock music's first recorded guitar jam sessions. Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s. The Allman Brothers Band is often not considered an instrumental rock band but they play many instrumentals and include long instrumental passages in longer versions of their songs. A good example is the 22-minute version of Whipping Post in "At Fillmore East" LP. Their instrumentals, "In Memory of Elizabeth Reed" and "Jessica" are popular, with "Jessica" being featured as theme for both the 1977 and 2002 formats of "Top Gear". Jeff Beck also recorded two entirely instrumental albums in the 1970s: "Blow by Blow" and "Wired". Successful among mainstream audiences, both have strong jazz influences, the latter featuring a cover of Charles Mingus's jazz standard "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat". Progressive rock and art rock performers of the 1960s and 1970s deserve some mention. Many of these musicians featured virtuosic instrumental performances (and occasional instrumental songs), but many of their compositions also featured vocals. King Crimson gained a massive cult following in the late 1960s and 1970s with their explosive instrumental output that merged rock, jazz, classical and heavy metal styles, though their albums also included songs with vocals. "Tubular Bells" by Mike Oldfield, a progressive rock album released in 1973, was all instrumental (save for some brief spoken words) and is one of the best-selling instrumental albums ever, with 16 million copies sold. A portion of it was used in the soundtrack of the Academy Award-winning film "The Exorcist". The Dutch band Finch recorded three all-instrumental albums of progressive rock of continuing interest. One of the most acclaimed albums of the band Camel, 1975's "The Snow Goose", was entirely instrumental. Many of Pink Floyd's early compositions were largely instrumental pieces containing structured jams fusing psychedelic, progressive and space rock. Frank Zappa was known for intermixing instrumental rock tracks with his somewhat more famous novelty songs on his albums. The jazz fusion of the 1970s often had considerable stylistic cross-over with rock, and groups such as Return to Forever, the Mahavishnu Orchestra and Weather Report had sizable followings among rock fans. Surf music's "2nd Wave" began in 1979 with the release of the first Jon & the Nightriders record. During the 1980s, the instrumental rock genre was dominated by several guitar soloists. Swedish virtuoso Yngwie Malmsteen made a name for himself in 1984 by playing in the popular band Alcatrazz, and then by releasing his debut solo album "Rising Force" later that year, which made it to #60 on the Billboard Charts. Joe Satriani's 1987 album "Surfing With The Alien" was a surprise hit, containing the ever-popular instrumental ballad "Always With Me, Always With You", and the blues boogie infected "Satch Boogie"—both staples for guitarists learning their craft. Two years later came Satriani's follow-up album "Flying in a Blue Dream". After Malmsteen left Alcatrazz, he was replaced by the extravagant Steve Vai, who had previously been playing with the Frank Zappa band. Continuing the tradition (and following a brief stint in David Lee Roth's band from 1986 to 1988), Vai went on to release a number of highly acclaimed solo albums. Arguably the best-known of these was his 1990 release, "Passion and Warfare". Jason Becker was also considered by many to be a great player, who released two albums with Cacophony. Cacophony were a primarily instrumental group featuring Becker and Marty Friedman (the latter of whom went on to play with the thrash metal band Megadeth). After the release of Cacophony's second album "Go Off!" in 1988, Becker released two solo albums before being diagnosed with ALS. He now uses a wheelchair and is completely unable to play. Pepeu Gomes, a Brazilian electric guitar player, was considered in 1988 by American magazine Guitar World one of the ten best guitar players in the world. Although he has pure instrumental rock songs with no Brazilian flavour, what makes his work really unique is that he mixes the Brazilian rhythms and tunes from well known popular songs, or simply composes by himself using Samba, Choro, Maracatu etc. In 1990, Steve Vai released "Passion and Warfare". A fusion of rock, jazz, classical and Eastern tonalities, "Passion and Warfare" was a technical break-through in regards to what could be achieved in the field of guitar composition and technical performance. This was followed up by the 1995 trio album "Alien Love Secrets", and what some regard as Vai's most epic and complex album to date, "Fire Garden", released a year after. In 1995, Michael Angelo Batio of Nitro fame released his CD "No Boundaries" which began his solo career. His albums predominantly feature instrumental rock, but have occasionally featured vocals by himself and other vocalists. So far Batio has released eight solo albums. During the 1990s, instrumental music flourished among indie-rock groups and with the popularity of post rock groups like Tortoise, Mogwai and Cul de Sac. Don Caballero gained notice for their instrumental math rock, as did neo-surf-rockers the Mermen and Man or Astro-man?. Quentin Tarantino's smash hit film "Pulp Fiction" made heavy use of rock instrumentals on its soundtrack, spurring some interest in classic instrumentals, and revitalizing Dick Dale's career. With the rise of grunge, guitar-orientated instrumental rock of the type popular in the 1980s became less popular, and there were few artists who continued to thrive in that style. Over the past decade there have been many new releases of instrumental rock albums. The majority of the popular guitar heroes from the 1980s have made rejuvenated and generally well-received comebacks, thanks largely to the revitalized sound apparent on their recent releases. Artists such as Steve Morse, Marty Friedman, Paul Gilbert, Ron Jarzombek, Joe Satriani and Yngwie Malmsteen have continued releasing instrumental rock music and touring with great success. However, it is still extremely rare to hear an instrumental rock tune on the radio, or see one on the music charts. Les Fradkin has popularized the Beatles' music catalog as guitar-based instrumental rock on the Apple iTunes music download service. The 2000s gave way for a new style of performer. John Lowery (a.k.a. John 5) released a solo instrumental album after leaving Marilyn Manson in 2003. "Vertigo" is composed of a fusion of metal, rockabilly, rock and roll, and bluegrass musical styles. The album was a success, and the album after that, "Songs for Sanity", which features guest appearances by Steve Vai and Albert Lee, was met with more success, becoming one of the top selling records on the record label Shrapnel. He followed this in 2007 with The Devil Knows My Name, which features Joe Satriani, Jim Root, and Eric Johnson. The 2000s have seen a rise in the popularity of bands that have been labeled post-rock; many of these bands have created instrumental rock songs. Constellation Records has released some of the best-known examples of instrumental post-rock, such as Godspeed You! Black Emperor and Do Make Say Think. Other examples include Austin TV, Mogwai, the Cancer Conspiracy, the Mercury Program, 65daysofstatic, God Is An Astronaut, Russian Circles and Explosions in the Sky. Within the indie rock label, bands such as Ratatat and Delicate Steve are popular instrumental rock acts. Guitarist Omar Rodriguez Lopez's solo albums typically are instrumental ("Old Money") or mostly instrumental ("Se Dice Bisonte, No Bufalo"). In the late 2000s a new style of heavy metal called djent emerged. Some of the leading bands in the scene such as Animals as Leaders are instrumental acts, while many others started as instrumental acts before later acquiring vocalists.

Instrumental rock is rock music that emphasizes musical instruments and features very little or no singing. Examples of instrumental rock can be found in practically every subgenre of rock, often from musicians who specialize in the style. Instrumental rock was most popular from the mid-1950s to mid-1960s, with artists such as Bill Doggett Combo, The Fireballs, The Shadows, The Ventures, Johnny and the Hurricanes and The Spotnicks. Surf music had many instrumental songs. Many instrumental hits came from the R&B world. Funk and disco produced several instrumental hit singles during the 1970s. The Allman Brothers Band feature several instrumentals. Jeff Beck also recorded two instrumental albums in the 1970s. Progressive rock and art rock performers of the 1960s and 1970s did many virtuosic instrumental performances.

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142

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summarize: The film is set in the 13th century. The lord of Vlkov marries much younger Lenora. His son Ondřej gives live bats to Lenora as a wedding gift, which enrages his father who almost kills him. He prays for the boy to survive. He promises to God that he will give Ondřej to the Teutonic Order if he survives. Ondřej is healed and sent to the Baltic Sea, where he joins the Teutonic Order. He befriends Armin who becomes his mentor and protector. Armin participated in the Crusades to the Holy Land and is a fanatic who is devoted to God. Knight Rotgier tries to leave the order and escapes. Ondřej, Armin and other members chase him. He is found by Ondřej and tries to convince Ondřej to leave the order. Ondřej hesitates to arrest him but declines. Rotgier injures him and steals his horse. Rotgier is eventually captured and executed for attacking Ondřej. Ondřej is punished by penitence for his weakness. Ondřej decides to run away. Armin decides to track him down. Armin travels to Bohemia where he hears about Ondřej from charcoal burners who wanted to steal his sword. Armin joins them and when they surprise Ondřej, he attacks the one who wanted to steal his sword which makes the other charcoal burners attack him. But Armin draws his sword and kills or scares them away saving Ondřej's life. Ondřej's sword has been broken in the fight and Armin forces him to go with him. Later, near a brook when Armin bends over to drink, Ondřej hits him with a stone which causes Armin to fall unconscious and Ondřej escapes. Ondřej returns home only to find out his father is dead. He takes care of his father's business, but feels remorse about what he did to Armin. Ondřej falls in love with Lenora and convinces a local priest to marry them. When they are getting married, Armin shows up. Ondřej invites him to the wedding but tension between them runs out. Ondřej convinces Armin to spend the night in Vlkov. During the night, Armin gets to Lenora's chambers and murders her. He gets caught and Ondřej decides to execute him in a similar manner as Rotgier was killed. Armin begs Ondřej to return to the order before his death. The film concludes with Ondřej's return to Teutonic Order. The film was produced after Vláčil's previous film "Marketa Lazarová". Marketa was very expensive and it was decided to make another film set in Middle Ages so the sets and costumes could be re-used. However by the time production started the sets from Marketa Lazarová were already destroyed. The screenplay was written by Vláčil and Vladimír Körner. Körner was doing research for his novel "Písečná kosa" about Prussian uprisings when he was contacted by Vláčil. They quickly wrote the screenplay and the film immediately went into production. Körner released Valley of the Bees as a novel in 1975. The film was eventually shot at Kuklov monastery ruins near Brloh. The Teutonic order scenes were shot at Czech castles Karlštejn and Rabí and Polish castles Malborg and Lidzbark Warmiński. Theodor Pištěk designed the costumes for the film. Vláčil was inspired by historical movies of Ingmar Bergman and Robert Bresson. Jan Kačer was originally supposed to play both Armin and Ondřej. It proved to be technically impossible so Kačer suggested Petr Čepek for the role of Ondřej. The director demanded that ascetic knight Armin needs to be slim, so Kačer was forced to lose 11 kilograms for the role. The film was shot from July to October 1967. Post-production ended in December 1967. The final budget was 4 379 000 Kčs. The film had a premiere on 17 May 1968 at Kino U Hradeb in Prague. During its theatrical run it only managed to attract 350,000 viewers. The film was re-released in theatres in 1980. The film was released on DVD in 2007 by Bonton in the Czech Republic. A Second Run DVD with English subtitles was released in 2010. The film received mixed reviews from critics. Many felt that it didn't reach the qualities of "Marketa Lazarová", which premiered just 4 months earlier. Gustav Francl criticized the casting Jan Kačer, who he felt didn't fit in the role of Armin. The film had better reviews in foreign press and today it is considered one of Vláčil's best works.

The Valley of the Bees () is a 1967 Czechoslovak historical drama film directed by František Vláčil. The film follows a young man Ondřej who's sent to join Teutonic order by his father. When he flees the order and returns home, his friend Armin is determined to bring him back.

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summarize: IBM used Capacitor Read Only Storage (CROS) and Transformer Read Only Storage (TROS) to store microcode for the smaller System/360 models, the 360/85 and the initial two models (370/155 and 370/165) of the S/370. On some models there was also a Writeable Control Store (WCS) for additional diagnostics and emulation support. The simplest type of solid-state ROM is as old as the semiconductor technology itself. Combinational logic gates can be joined manually to map -bit address input onto arbitrary values of -bit data output (a look-up table). With the invention of the integrated circuit came mask ROM. Mask ROM consists of a grid of word lines (the address input) and bit lines (the data output), selectively joined together with transistor switches, and can represent an arbitrary look-up table with a regular physical layout and predictable propagation delay. In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages: Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings. PROM, invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can simply order a large batch of fresh PROM chips and program them with the desired contents at its designers' convenience. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light. EEPROM, developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972, went a long way to solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be programmed in-place if the containing device provides a means to receive the program contents from an external source (for example, a personal computer via a serial cable). Flash memory, invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s and commercialized in the late 1980s, is a form of EEPROM that makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times without damage. It permits erasure and programming of only a specific part of the device, instead of the entire device. This can be done at high speed, hence the name "Flash" All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, so that in large quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for many years. (Decreasing cost of reprogrammable devices had almost eliminated the market for mask ROM by the year 2000.) Rewriteable technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM. The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating plainly that "the aim of NAND Flash is to replace hard disks," rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile primary storage., NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of USB flash drives and tiny microSD memory cards, for example), and much lower power consumption. Every stored-program computer may use a form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes. Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as ENIAC after 1948. (Until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks.) Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see historical examples below). With the advent of integrated circuits in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart static RAM were implemented as arrays of transistors in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter needs a latch (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a word line. Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years. Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly. For example, the Commodore 64 included 64 KB of RAM and 20 KB of ROM contained a BASIC interpreter and the "KERNAL" of its operating system. Later home or office computers such as the IBM PC XT often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and bootloader remaining in ROM (known as the BIOS in IBM-compatible computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system. In modern PCs, "ROM" (or flash) is used to store the basic bootstrapping firmware for the main processor, as well as the various firmware needed to internally control self-contained devices such as graphic cards, hard disks, DVD drives, TFT screens, etc., in the system. Today, many of these "read-only" memories – especially the BIOS – are often replaced with Flash memory (see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the integrated circuits on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or OTP (one-time programmable). ROM and successor technologies such as flash are prevalent in embedded systems. These are in everything from industrial robots to home appliances and consumer electronics (MP3 players, set-top boxes, etc.) all of which are designed for specific functions, but are based on general-purpose microprocessors. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack hard disks for reasons of cost, size, or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connecting to a PC for firmware updates; for example, a digital audio player might be updated to support a new file format. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the iPodLinux and OpenWrt projects have enabled users to run full-featured Linux distributions on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively. ROM is also useful for binary storage of cryptographic data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance information security. Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store look-up tables for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a floating-point unit might tabulate the sine function in order to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when CPUs were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM. Notably, the display adapters of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display font could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the CGA and MDA adapters available with the IBM PC XT. The use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However, Flash ROM has taken over a new role as a medium for mass storage or secondary storage of files. Classic "mask-programmed ROM" chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication. Other types of non-volatile solid-state memory permit some degree of modification: By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory. There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including: Although the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has varied over time, large RAM chips can be read faster than most ROMs. For this reason (and to allow uniform access), ROM content is sometimes copied to RAM or shadowed before its first use, and subsequently read from RAM. For those types of ROM that can be electrically modified, writing speed has traditionally been much slower than reading speed, and it may need unusually high voltage, the movement of jumper plugs to apply write-enable signals, and special lock/unlock command codes. Modern NAND Flash achieves the highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM technology, with speeds as high as 10 GB/s, this has been enabled by the increased investment in both consumer and enterprise solid state drives and flash memory products for higher end mobile devices. On a technical level the gains have been achieved by increasing parallelism both in controller design and of storage, the use of large DRAM read/write caches and the implementation of memory cells which can store more than one bit (DLC, TLC and MLC). The latter approach is more failure prone but this has been largely mitigated by overprovisioning (the inclusion of spare capacity in a product which is visible only to the drive controller) and by increasingly sophisticated read/write algorithms in drive firmware. Because they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of electrical insulation onto a floating transistor gate, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EPROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000. The limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic disk drives in the near future. The timespan over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The data retention of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash may be time-limited by charge leaking from the floating gates of the memory cell transistors. Early generation EEPROM's, in the mid 1980's generally cited 5 or 6 year data retention. A review of EEPROM's offered in the year 2020 shows manufacturers citing 100 year data retention. Adverse environments will reduce the retention time ( Leakage is accelerated by high temperatures or radiation ). Masked ROM and fuse/antifuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit, although fuse re-growth was once a problem in some systems. The contents of ROM chips can be extracted with special hardware devices and relevant controlling software. This practice is common for, as a main example, reading the contents of older video game console cartridges. Another example is making backups of firmware/OS ROMs from older computers or other devices - for archival purposes, as in many cases, the original chips are PROMs and thus at risk of exceeding their usable data lifetime. The resultant memory dump files are known as ROM images or abbreviated "ROMs", and can be used to produce duplicate ROMs - for example to produce new cartridges or as digital files for playing in console emulators. The term "ROM image" originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage that it is still applied to images of newer games distributed on CD-ROMs or other optical media. ROM images of commercial games, firmware, etc. usually contain copyrighted software. The unauthorized copying and distribution of copyrighted software is a violation of copyright laws in many jurisdictions, although duplication for backup purposes may be considered fair use depending on location. In any case, there is a thriving community engaged in the distribution and trading of such software and abandonware for preservation/sharing purposes.

Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the memory device. Read-only memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life of the system, also known as firmware. Software applications (like video games) for programmable devices can be distributed as plug-in cartridges containing read-only memory.

en

79

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summarize: Liquid Tension Experiment was formed by former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy. Portnoy first invited keyboardist Jordan Rudess and progressive rock icon Tony Levin (bass, Chapman Stick) of King Crimson and Peter Gabriel's band to join him. In his instructional video "Liquid Drum Theater", Portnoy said that his first choice for the guitar was Dimebag Darrell, but he was unable to join because of conflicting schedules. Two other primary choices, Steve Morse (Dixie Dregs, Kansas, Deep Purple) and Jim Matheos (Fates Warning) were also unavailable. Portnoy then turned to fellow Dream Theater member John Petrucci to fill the position (despite initially wanting to keep the project completely separate from Dream Theater). The combo was formed as a side project to Dream Theater in 1997. Both Mike and John confirmed on the 5 Years in a Livetime DVD commentary, that Rudess was asked to join Dream Theater largely because of the success of Liquid Tension Experiment, and the chemistry of the three working together. Rudess had previously declined to join Dream Theater in 1994 and instead became a member of the Dixie Dregs, known for complex, "Southern fusion" instrumental music. Liquid Tension Experiment released two albums, "Liquid Tension Experiment" (1998) and "Liquid Tension Experiment 2" (1999) on Magna Carta Records. They also played a few live shows in New York, Philadelphia, Los Angeles and London. Mike Portnoy had stated in numerous interviews (and on his web site FAQ) that there would not be a third LTE album, as three of the four band members were also part of Dream Theater and the material would be too similar. In 2007 however, he said that a third release is possible, but that his problems with the Magna Carta label are more of an obstacle than getting the band members together to record. A situation that had to do with the company that released the Liquid Drum Theater VHS tape using video footage of Liquid Tension Experiment in the studio without getting the required permission of Magna Carta. Mike Portnoy came back to Magna Carta in 2007 to release Liquid Trio Experiment's "Spontaneous Combustion" Sessions. Several songs and riffs from the project have been incorporated into Dream Theater's live performances, such as "Instrumedley" from "Live at Budokan", which includes excerpts of the songs "Paradigm Shift" and "Universal Mind." On October 4, 2007, it was announced that LTE would headline NEARfest 2008 in June. On March 29, 2008, six Liquid Tension Experiment tour dates in June 2008 were announced to celebrate the bands 10 year anniversary as well to create a "whole new musical experiment". Liquid Tension Experiment released a multi-disc boxed set of tour highlights from their 2008 tour, including complete shows from New York and Los Angeles on DVD and CD (the L.A. show also on Blu-ray), the Liquid Trio Experiment 2 recording from Chicago (q.v. below), and a disc of improvisations from other shows on the tour. The New York and Los Angeles shows were also released separately on CD or DVD, all through Dream Theater's official bootlegs website, YtseJam Records' subsidiary, Lazy Tomato Entertainment. On July 19th 2012, at Dream Theater's second show on Huntington NY, Tony Levin joined Petrucci, Rudess and Mike Mangini (Dream Theater's current drummer) onstage to perform "Paradigm Shift." Later in 2012, Portnoy performed "Acid Rain" live with PSMS, his band with Derek Sherinian, Tony MacAlpine and Billy Sheehan. They recorded a live DVD in Tokyo including the song. On February 10 2017, Mike Portnoy and Tony Levin reunited on stage in Tampa, FL to perform Paradigm Shift, Acid Rain and Universal Mind. They were accompanied by members of progressive metal group Haken. In April 2019, both John Petrucci and Jordan Rudess announced that a new Liquid Tension Experiment reunion is possible, once all involved musicians find time for that. In May 2020, Jordan Rudess posted a video to the website Cameo stating, in response to a fan's question, that the prospect of Liquid Tension Experiment reuniting "looks very good", with the only barrier being the band members' schedules. During the recording sessions for their second album, John Petrucci had to leave when his wife went into premature labor. During that period, the remaining members, who still had studio time booked, continued to write music in improvisation. On October 23, 2007, a compilation of jams from those sessions was released under the name of "Liquid Trio Experiment". The album, called "Spontaneous Combustion", was recorded from Mike Portnoy's DATs of the sessions because the original master tapes disappeared before the mixing stage. A few songs from Liquid Tension Experiment 2 were spawned from these jam sessions, including "914", "Chewbacca", and "Liquid Dreams". The second incarnation of Liquid Trio Experiment happened unexpectedly while playing a concert in Chicago, IL on June 25, 2008. In the beginning of their set, Jordan Rudess' keyboard started playing half steps every fourth key. At the end of playing "Universal Mind", he went off stage to talk to the tech crew to see if it could be fixed. In the meantime, the other three musicians on stage continued to play, improvising for what turned out to be the rest of the concert. Rudess was on the phone with Roland for most of the time, and finally realized the keyboard was unfixable in that time, so he came onstage and took Petrucci's guitar to jam with the band. Petrucci took Levin's bass, and Levin joined in on Chapman Stick. Toward the end of the show, Charlie Benante from the band Anthrax came and played drums while Portnoy played bass. This entire improvised concert was released in 2009 as "".

Liquid Tension Experiment (LTE) was an instrumental progressive metal band founded by Mike Portnoy, then Dream Theater's drummer, in 1997. The band has released two albums through Magna Carta Records. A third album, with the absence of John Petrucci was released in 2007 under the name "Liquid Trio Experiment". A live album with the absence of Jordan Rudess (mostly) was released in 2009 under the name "Liquid Trio Experiment 2". Three live albums and two videos were released in 2009 by the complete band.

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summarize: Hans Christian Andersen was born in Odense, Denmark on 2 April 1805. He was an only child. His father, also named Hans, considered himself related to nobility (his paternal grandmother had told his father that their family had belonged to a higher social class, but investigations have disproved these stories). A persistent speculation suggests that Andersen was an illegitimate son of King Christian VIII, but this notion has been challenged. Andersen's father, who had received an elementary school education, introduced his son to literature, reading to him the "Arabian Nights". Andersen's mother, Anne Marie Andersdatter, was an illiterate washerwoman. Following her husband's death in 1816, she remarried in 1818. Andersen was sent to a local school for poor children where he received a basic education and had to support himself, working as an apprentice to a weaver and, later, to a tailor. At fourteen, he moved to Copenhagen to seek employment as an actor. Having an excellent soprano voice, he was accepted into the Royal Danish Theatre, but his voice soon changed. A colleague at the theatre told him that he considered Andersen a poet. Taking the suggestion seriously, Andersen began to focus on writing. Jonas Collin, director of the Royal Danish Theatre, held great affection for Andersen and sent him to a grammar school in Slagelse, persuading King Frederick VI to pay part of the youth's education. Andersen had by then published his first story, "The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave" (1822). Though not a stellar pupil, he also attended school at Elsinore until 1827. He later said his years in school were the darkest and most bitter of his life. At one school, he lived at his schoolmaster's home, where he was abused, being told that it was "to improve his character". He later said the faculty had discouraged him from writing, driving him into a depression. A very early fairy tale by Andersen, "The Tallow Candle" (), was discovered in a Danish archive in October 2012. The story, written in the 1820s, was about a candle that did not feel appreciated. It was written while Andersen was still in school and dedicated to a benefactor in whose family's possession it remained until it turned up among other family papers in a local archive. In 1829, Andersen enjoyed considerable success with the short story "A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager". Its protagonist meets characters ranging from Saint Peter to a talking cat. Andersen followed this success with a theatrical piece, "Love on St. Nicholas Church Tower", and a short volume of poems. Although he made little progress writing and publishing immediately thereafter, in 1833 he received a small travel grant from the king, thus enabling him to set out on the first of many journeys through Europe. At Jura, near Le Locle, Switzerland, Andersen wrote the story "Agnete and the Merman". He spent an evening in the Italian seaside village of Sestri Levante the same year, inspiring the title of "The Bay of Fables". In October 1834, he arrived in Rome. Andersen's travels in Italy were to be reflected in his first novel, a fictionalized autobiography titled "The Improvisatore" (), published in 1835 to instant acclaim. Andersen's initial attempts at writing fairy tales were revisions of stories that he heard as a child. Initially his original fairy tales were not met with recognition, due partly to the difficulty of translating them. In 1835, Andersen published the first two installments of his "Fairy Tales" (; lit. "fantastic tales"). More stories, completing the first volume, were published in 1837. The collection comprises nine tales, including "The Tinderbox", "The Princess and the Pea", "Thumbelina", "The Little Mermaid" and "The Emperor's New Clothes". The quality of these stories was not immediately recognized, and they sold poorly. At the same time, Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels, "O.T." (1836) and "Only a Fiddler" (1837); the latter work was reviewed by a young Søren Kierkegaard. Much of his work was influenced by the Bible as when he was growing up Christianity was very important in the Danish culture. After a visit to Sweden in 1837, Andersen became inspired by Scandinavism and committed himself to writing a poem that would convey the relatedness of Swedes, Danes and Norwegians. In July 1839, during a visit to the island of Funen, Andersen wrote the text of his poem "Jeg er en Skandinav" ("I am a Scandinavian") to capture "the beauty of the Nordic spirit, the way the three sister nations have gradually grown together" as part of a Scandinavian national anthem. Composer Otto Lindblad set the poem to music, and the composition was published in January 1840. Its popularity peaked in 1845, after which it was seldom sung. Andersen returned to the fairy tale genre in 1838 with another collection, "Fairy Tales Told for Children. New Collection. First Booklet" (), which consists of "The Daisy", "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", and "The Wild Swans". He went on to publish "New Fairy Tales (1844). First Volume. First Collection", which contained "The Nightingale" and "The Ugly Duckling". After that came "New Fairy Tales (1845). First Volume. Second Collection" in which was found "The Snow Queen". "The Little Match Girl" appeared in December 1845 in the "Dansk Folkekalender (1846)" and also in "New Fairy Tales (1848). Second Volume. Second Collection". 1845 saw a breakthrough for Andersen with the publication of four translations of his fairy tales. "The Little Mermaid" appeared in the periodical "Bentley's Miscellany", followed by a second volume, "Wonderful Stories for Children". Two other volumes enthusiastically received were "A Danish Story Book" and "Danish Fairy Tales and Legends". A review that appeared in the London journal "The Athenæum" (February 1846) said of "Wonderful Stories", "This is a book full of life and fancy; a book for grandfathers no less than grandchildren, not a word of which will be skipped by those who have it once in hand." Andersen would continue to write fairy tales and published them in installments until 1872. In 1851, he published to wide acclaim "In Sweden", a volume of travel sketches. A keen traveller, Andersen published several other long travelogues: "Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc. etc. in the Summer of 1831", "A Poet's Bazaar", "In Spain" and "A Visit to Portugal in 1866". (The last describes his visit with his Portuguese friends Jorge and Jose O'Neill, who were his fellows in the mid-1820s while living in Copenhagen.) In his travelogues, Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing, but always developed the genre to suit his own purposes. Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical passages on topics such as being an author, immortality, and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report. Some of the travelogues, such as "In Sweden", even contain fairy-tales. In the 1840s, Andersen's attention returned to the stage, but with little success. He had better fortune with the publication of the "Picture-Book without Pictures" (1840). A second series of fairy tales began in 1838 and a third in 1845. Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although his native Denmark still showed some resistance to his pretensions. Between 1845 and 1864, H. C. Andersen lived at Nyhavn 67, Copenhagen, where a memorial plaque now stands. In ‘Andersen as a Novelist’, Kierkegaard remarks that Andersen is characterized as, “...a possibility of a personality, wrapped up in such a web of arbitrary moods and moving through an elegiac duo-decimal scale [i.e., a chromatic scale. Proceeding by semitones, and therefore including sharps as well as flats, such a scale is associated more with lament or elegy than is an ordinary diatonic scale] of almost echoless, dying tones just as easily roused as subdued, who, in order to become a personality, needs a strong life-development.” In June 1847, Andersen paid his first visit to England and enjoyed a triumphal social success during the summer. The Countess of Blessington invited him to her parties where intellectual people could meet, and it was at one such party that he met Charles Dickens for the first time. They shook hands and walked to the veranda, about which Andersen wrote in his diary: "We had come to the veranda, I was so happy to see and speak to England's now-living writer whom I love the most." The two authors respected each other's work and shared something important in common as writers: depictions of the poor and the underclass, who often had difficult lives affected both by the Industrial Revolution and by abject poverty. In the Victorian era there was a growing sympathy for children and an idealisation of the innocence of childhood. Ten years later, Andersen visited England again, primarily to meet Dickens. He extended a brief visit to Dickens' home at Gads Hill Place into a five-week stay, to the distress of Dickens' family. After Andersen was told to leave, Dickens gradually stopped all correspondence between them, to the great disappointment and confusion of Andersen, who had quite enjoyed the visit and never understood why his letters went unanswered. In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations. Andersen often fell in love with unattainable women, and many of his stories are interpreted as references. At one point, he wrote in his diary: "Almighty God, thee only have I; thou steerest my fate, I must give myself up to thee! Give me a livelihood! Give me a bride! My blood wants love, as my heart does!" A girl named Riborg Voigt was the unrequited love of Andersen's youth. A small pouch containing a long letter from Voigt was found on Andersen's chest when he died, several decades after he first fell in love with her, and after he presumably fell in love with others. Other disappointments in love included Sophie Ørsted, the daughter of the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted, and Louise Collin, the youngest daughter of his benefactor Jonas Collin. One of his stories, "The Nightingale", was written as an expression of his passion for Jenny Lind and became the inspiration for her nickname, the "Swedish Nightingale". Andersen was often shy around women and had extreme difficulty in proposing to Lind. When Lind was boarding a train to go to an opera concert, Andersen gave Lind a letter of proposal. Her feelings towards him were not the same; she saw him as a brother, writing to him in 1844: "farewell... God bless and protect my brother is the sincere wish of his affectionate sister, Jenny". Andersen certainly experienced same-sex attraction as well: he wrote to Edvard Collin: "I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench... my sentiments for you are those of a woman. The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery." Collin, who preferred women, wrote in his own memoir: "I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering." Likewise, the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer Harald Scharff and Carl Alexander, the young hereditary duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, did not result in any relationships. According to Anne Klara Bom and Anya Aarenstrup from the H. C. Andersen Centre of University of Southern Denmark, "To conclude, it is correct to point to the very ambivalent (and also very traumatic) elements in Andersen's emotional life concerning the sexual sphere, but it is decidedly just as wrong to describe him as homosexual and maintain that he had physical relationships with men. He did not. Indeed, that would have been entirely contrary to his moral and religious ideas, aspects that are quite outside the field of vision of Wullschlager and her like." In early 1872, Andersen fell out of his bed and was severely hurt; he never fully recovered from the resultant injuries. Soon afterward, he started to show signs of liver cancer. He died on 4 August 1875, in a house called "Rolighed" (literally: calmness), near Copenhagen, the home of his close friends, the banker Moritz Melchior and his wife. Shortly before his death, Andersen had consulted a composer about the music for his funeral, saying: "Most of the people who will walk after me will be children, so make the beat keep time with little steps." His body was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro area of Copenhagen, in the family plot of the Collins. However, in 1914 the stone was moved to another cemetery (today known as ""Frederiksbergs ældre kirkegaard""), where younger Collin family members were buried. For a period, his, Edvard Collin's and Henriette Collin's graves were unmarked. A second stone has been erected, marking H.C. Andersen's grave, now without any mention of the Collin couple, but all three still share the same plot. At the time of his death, Andersen was internationally revered, and the Danish Government paid him an annual stipend as a "national treasure". Noteworthy recordings in English include: "Tale Spinners for Children" released seven LP's of dramatizations of Andersen stories: Andersen's stories laid the groundwork for other children's classics, such as "The Wind in the Willows" (1908) by Kenneth Grahame and "Winnie-the-Pooh" (1926) by A. A. Milne. The technique of making inanimate objects, such as toys, come to life ("Little Ida's Flowers") would later also be used by Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter. In Gilbert and Sullivan's Savoy Opera "Iolanthe", the Lord Chancellor mocks the Fairy Queen with a reference to Andersen, thereby implying that her claims are fictional: <poem>It seems that she's a fairy From Andersen's library, And I took her for The proprietor Of a Ladies' Seminary!</poem> In Stephen Sondheim's "A Little Night Music", the middle-aged Frederik contemplates reading erotic literature to his young, virginal bride in order to seduce her, but concludes: "Her taste is much blander / I'm sorry to say / But is Hans Christian Ander- / Sen ever risqué?" Titles like "The Ugly Duckling" and "The Emperor's New Clothes" have become idiomatic in several languages. Andersen's fairy tales include:

Hans Christian Andersen (, ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875), in Denmark usually called H.C. Andersen, was a Danish author. Although a prolific writer of plays, travelogues, novels, and poems, he is best remembered for his fairy tales.

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summarize: In 1950, during the Cold War, František (Franta) Sláma (Ondřej Vetchý) is incarcerated in Czechoslovakia, because of his prior service in the RAF. His recollections of the war begin in 1939, just days prior to the German invasion of Czechoslovakia. After the invasion, the Czechoslovak Army is disbanded and its Air Force has to surrender its aircraft. However, young pilots Franta and his friend Karel Vojtíšek (Kryštof Hádek), among others, refuse to submit to their occupiers and flee to the United Kingdom to join the RAF. The British make the Czechoslovaks retrain from the basics, which infuriates them, especially Karel, who is both impatient to fight the Germans and humiliated at being retaught what he already knows. Karel also sees the compulsory English language lessons as a pointless waste of his time. The RAF is in such a dire need of pilots during the Battle of Britain that eventually the Czechoslovak airmen are allowed to fly. After their first sortie they realise why the British have trained them so intensely: a young Czechoslovak nicknamed "Tom Tom" is shot down by a Messerschmitt Bf 109. Franta becomes the unit commander, with the younger Karel under his charge. While shooting at a Heinkel He 111 bomber, the rear gunner hits Karel's Spitfire fighter aircraft. However, he manages to bail out and find his way to a farm. There he meets and falls in love with Susan (Tara Fitzgerald), although she thinks he is far too young. The next day, after returning to the aerodrome, Karel brings Franta to meet Susan. The latter begins to get on well with Susan, although Karel believes that he is still Susan's boyfriend. Following a mission to France where the squadron attacks a train, Karel is shot down, but Franta lands and rescues him, a move that shows that their friendship endures. Soon after, Karel learns a sort of love triangle has developed, with Susan being involved with Franta, which leads to a quarrel between the two friends. A few missions later, while escorting American bombers, Franta's Spitfire malfunctions and he is forced to ditch into the ocean. His life raft bursts as he tries to inflate it, so Karel decides to drop his own raft, but he flies too low and fatally crashes. The raft emerges from the water, allowing Franta to survive until he is rescued. Afterward, when the war is over, Franta drives to Susan's home, only to find her with her injured husband recently returned from fighting overseas. Knowing he has no future with Susan and wanting to preserve her honour, he pretends to have lost his way and asks directions to the next town. Disappointed by what has happened, Franta returns to Czechoslovakia and finds his old girlfriend has married the neighbourhood jobsworth, has given birth to a child, and has taken over Barča, his dog. All Franta can do is endure the situation as stoically as he can. Arrested and thrown in prison, he only has his memories of his friendship with Karel to sustain him. Principal photography for the film involved a large number of locations: Hradcany Airport, Czech Republic, Dover, England, Germany and South Africa. Dogfight footage from the 1969 film "Battle of Britain" was seamlessly integrated with contemporary film footage using computer imagery and mastering to create the aerial sequences due to the prohibitively expensive cost ($10,000 per hour) of renting a real Spitfire. The scene of a train being attacked was the most expensive scene in Czech cinema history, costing more than the entire film "Kolya". Brief scenes from the 1990 film "Memphis Belle" were also incorporated. Director Jan Svěrák played a number of roles, including practically all the crew members of an Allied North American B-25 Mitchell bomber in the scene where a damaged bomber is escorted. "Dark Blue World" opened in both the U.S. and Europe at major international film festivals in London and Toronto, to generally positive reviews, making it one of the most popular aviation war films made. Rex Reed described the film in "The New York Observer" as an "epic that blends action, romance and tragedy. Brilliantly directed and sublimely acted." However, other reviewers were not as enthused. Leonard Maltin commented that the love triangle provided a "more novel and interesting" aspect but the "surprisingly elaborate" flying scenes helped make the film less of a "capable but uninspired yarn", not much different from other World War II features. Peter Bradshaw's review in "The Guardian" echoed a similar view, "A by-the-numbers WW2 romantic tale of two Czech pilots in love with the same British woman, which plays like a mixture of "Pearl Harbor" and "Two Little Boys" by Rolf Harris." "Dark Blue World" was released in America on December 28, 2001, and grossed $258,771. The film grossed $2,300,000 worldwide. "Dark Blue World" was a major winner at the 2002 Czech Lion Awards with Box Office Award, Critics' Award Jan Svěrák for Best Director, Vladimír Smutný for Best Cinematography, Ondřej Soukup for Best Music and Alois Fišárek for Best Editing. The film was also nominated for Best Film, Ondřej Vetchý for Best Actor, Kryštof Hádek for Best Supporting Actor, Linda Rybová for Best Supporting Actress, Zbyněk Mikulík for Best Sound, Věra Mirová for Best Costumes and Jan Vlasák for Best Art Direction. "Dark Blue World" also won the 2001 National Board Review award for Best Foreign Film and the 2002 Love is Folly International Film Festival (Bulgaria), Golden Aphrodite Award (Best Film) for Jan Svěrák. Ondřej Vetchý was also nominated for the Audience Award (Best Actor) in the 2001 European Film Awards.

Dark Blue World () is a 2001 film by Czech director Jan Svěrák, the Academy Award-winning director of "Kolya", about Czech pilots who fought for the British Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. The screenplay was written by Zdeněk Svěrák, the director's father. The film stars Czech actors Ondřej Vetchý, Kryštof Hádek and Oldřich Kaiser. British actors include Tara Fitzgerald, Charles Dance and Anna Massey.

en

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summarize: James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, the eldest of the five surviving children of Agnes Muirhead (1703–1755) and James Watt (1698–1782). His mother came from a distinguished family, was well educated and said to be of forceful character, while his father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the Greenock's chief baillie in 1751. Watts parents were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters, however despite a religious upbringing he later became a deist. Watt's grandfather, Thomas Watt (1642–1734), was a teacher of mathematics, surveying and navigation and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Initially Watt was educated at home by his mother, later going on to attend Greenock Grammar School. There he exhibited an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin and Greek failed to interest him. He is said to have suffered prolonged bouts of ill-health as a child and from frequent headaches all his life. After leaving school Watt worked in the workshops of his father's businesses, demonstrating considerable dexterity and skill in creating engineering models. After his father suffered some unsuccessful business ventures Watt left Greenock to seek employment in Glasgow as a mathematical instrument maker. When he was 18 his mother died and his father's health began to fail. Watt travelled to London and was able to obtain a period of training as an instrument maker for a year (1755/56), then returned to Scotland, settling in the major commercial city of Glasgow intent on setting up his own instrument-making business. He was still very young and having not had a full apprenticeship did not have the usual connections via a former master to establish himself as a journeyman instrument maker. Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated. These instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently, three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a small workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, became Watt's friends. At first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. He made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. It is sometimes falsely stated that he struggled to establish himself in Glasgow due to opposition from the Trades House, but this myth has been thoroughly debunked by the historian,. The records from this period are lost but it is known that he was able to work and trade completely normally as a skilled metal worker so the Incorporation of Hammermen must have been satisfied that he met their requirements for membership. It is also known that other people in the metal trades were pursued for working without being members of the Incorporation well into the 19th century, so the rules were definitely being enforced when Watt was trading freely throughout the city. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and toys. This partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. Craig died in 1765. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, which lasted into the twentieth century. In 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret (Peggy) Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood: James Jr. (1769–1848) and Margaret (1767–1796). His wife died in childbirth in 1772. In 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children: Gregory (1777–1804), who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet (1779–1794). Ann died in 1832. Between 1777 and 1790 he lived in Regent Place, Birmingham. There is a popular story that Watt was inspired to invent the steam engine by seeing a kettle boiling, the steam forcing the lid to rise and thus showing Watt the power of steam. This story is told in many forms; in some Watt is a young lad, in others he is older, sometimes it's his mother's kettle, sometimes his aunt's. Watt did not actually "invent" the steam engine, as the story implies, but dramatically improved the efficiency of the existing Newcomen engine by adding a separate condenser. This is difficult to explain to someone not familiar with concepts of heat and thermal efficiency. It appears that the story was created, possibly by Watt's son James Watt Jr., and persists because it is easy for children to understand and remember. In this light it can be seen as akin to the story of Isaac Newton and the falling apple and his discovery of gravity. Although it is often dismissed as a myth, the story of Watt and the kettle has a basis in fact. In trying to understand the thermodynamics of heat and steam James Watt carried out many laboratory experiments and his diaries record that in conducting these he used a kettle as a boiler to generate steam. In 1759 Watt's friend, John Robison, called his attention to the use of steam as a source of motive power. The design of the Newcomen engine, in use for almost 50 years for pumping water from mines, had hardly changed from its first implementation. Watt began to experiment with steam, though he had never seen an operating steam engine. He tried constructing a model; it failed to work satisfactorily, but he continued his experiments and began to read everything he could about the subject. He came to realise the importance of latent heat—the thermal energy released or absorbed during a constant-temperature process—in understanding the engine, which, unknown to Watt, his friend Joseph Black had previously discovered some years before. Understanding of the steam engine was in a very primitive state, for the science of thermodynamics would not be formalised for nearly another 100 years. In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a model Newcomen engine belonging to the university. Even after repair, the engine barely worked. After much experimentation, Watt demonstrated that about three-quarters of the thermal energy of the steam was being consumed in heating the engine cylinder on every cycle. This energy was wasted because later in the cycle cold water was injected into the cylinder to condense the steam to reduce its pressure. Thus by repeatedly heating and cooling the cylinder, the engine wasted most of its thermal energy rather than converting it into mechanical energy. Watt's critical insight, arrived at in May 1765, was to cause the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston, and to maintain the temperature of the cylinder at the same temperature as the injected steam by surrounding it with a "steam jacket." Thus very little energy was absorbed by the cylinder on each cycle, making more available to perform useful work. Watt had a working model later that same year. Despite a potentially workable design, there were still substantial difficulties in constructing a full-scale engine. This required more capital, some of which came from Black. More substantial backing came from John Roebuck, the founder of the celebrated Carron Iron Works near Falkirk, with whom he now formed a partnership. Roebuck lived at Kinneil House in Bo'ness, during which time Watt worked at perfecting his steam engine in a cottage adjacent to the house. The shell of the cottage, and a very large part of one of his projects, still exist to the rear. The principal difficulty was in machining the piston and cylinder. Iron workers of the day were more like blacksmiths than modern machinists, and were unable to produce the components with sufficient precision. Much capital was spent in pursuing a patent on Watt's invention. Strapped for resources, Watt was forced to take up employment—first as a surveyor, then as a civil engineer—for eight years. Roebuck went bankrupt, and Matthew Boulton, who owned the Soho Manufactory works near Birmingham, acquired his patent rights. An extension of the patent to 1800 was successfully obtained in 1775. Through Boulton, Watt finally had access to some of the best iron workers in the world. The difficulty of the manufacture of a large cylinder with a tightly fitting piston was solved by John Wilkinson, who had developed precision boring techniques for cannon making at Bersham, near Wrexham, North Wales. Watt and Boulton formed a hugely successful partnership, Boulton and Watt, which lasted for the next twenty-five years. In 1776, the first engines were installed and working in commercial enterprises. These first engines were used to power pumps and produced only reciprocating motion to move the pump rods at the bottom of the shaft. The design was commercially successful, and for the next five years Watt was very busy installing more engines, mostly in Cornwall for pumping water out of mines. These early engines were not manufactured by Boulton and Watt, but were made by others according to drawings made by Watt, who served in the role of consulting engineer. The erection of the engine and its shakedown was supervised by Watt, at first, and then by men in the firm's employ. These were large machines. The first, for example, had a cylinder with a diameter of some 50 inches and an overall height of about 24 feet, and required the construction of a dedicated building to house it. Boulton and Watt charged an annual payment, equal to one third of the value of the coal saved in comparison to a Newcomen engine performing the same work. The field of application for the invention was greatly widened when Boulton urged Watt to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston to produce rotational power for grinding, weaving and milling. Although a crank seemed the obvious solution to the conversion Watt and Boulton were stymied by a patent for this, whose holder, James Pickard, and associates proposed to cross-license the external condenser. Watt adamantly opposed this and they circumvented the patent by their sun and planet gear in 1781. Over the next six years, he made a number of other improvements and modifications to the steam engine. A double acting engine, in which the steam acted alternately on the two sides of the piston was one. He described methods for working the steam "expansively" (i.e., using steam at pressures well above atmospheric). A compound engine, which connected two or more engines was described. Two more patents were granted for these in 1781 and 1782. Numerous other improvements that made for easier manufacture and installation were continually implemented. One of these included the use of the steam indicator which produced an informative plot of the pressure in the cylinder against its volume, which he kept as a trade secret. Another important invention, one which Watt was most proud of, was the parallel motion which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc. This was patented in 1784. A throttle valve to control the power of the engine, and a centrifugal governor, patented in 1788, to keep it from "running away" were very important. These improvements taken together produced an engine which was up to five times as efficient in its use of fuel as the Newcomen engine. Because of the danger of exploding boilers, which were in a very primitive stage of development, and the ongoing issues with leaks, Watt restricted his use of high pressure steam – all of his engines used steam at near atmospheric pressure. Edward Bull started constructing engines for Boulton and Watt in Cornwall in 1781. By 1792 he had started making engines of his own design, but which contained a separate condenser, and so infringed Watt's patents. Two brothers, Jabez Carter Hornblower and Jonathan Hornblower Jnr also started to build engines about the same time. Others began to modify Newcomen engines by adding a condenser, and the mine owners in Cornwall became convinced that Watt's patent could not be enforced. They started to withhold payments due to Boulton and Watt, which by 1795 had fallen. Of the total £21,000 (equivalent to £ as of ) owed, only £2,500 had been received. Watt was forced to go to court to enforce his claims. He first sued Bull in 1793. The jury found for Watt, but the question of whether or not the original specification of the patent was valid was left to another trial. In the meantime, injunctions were issued against the infringers, forcing their payments of the royalties to be placed in escrow. The trial on determining the validity of the specifications which was held in the following year was inconclusive, but the injunctions remained in force and the infringers, except for Jonathan Hornblower, all began to settle their cases. Hornblower was soon brought to trial and the verdict of the four judges (in 1799) was decisively in favour of Watt. Their friend John Wilkinson, who had solved the problem of boring an accurate cylinder, was a particularly grievous case. He had erected about twenty engines without Boulton's and Watts' knowledge. They finally agreed to settle the infringement in 1796. Boulton and Watt never collected all that was owed them, but the disputes were all settled directly between the parties or through arbitration. These trials were extremely costly in both money and time, but ultimately were successful for the firm. Before 1780 there was no good method for making copies of letters or drawings. The only method sometimes used was a mechanical one using linked multiple pens. Watt at first experimented with improving this method, but soon gave up on this approach because it was so cumbersome. He instead decided to try to physically transfer some ink from the front of the original to the back of another sheet, moistened with a solvent, and pressed to the original. The second sheet had to be thin, so that the ink could be seen through it when the copy was held up to the light, thus reproducing the original exactly. Watt started to develop the process in 1779, and made many experiments to formulate the ink, select the thin paper, to devise a method for wetting the special thin paper, and to make a press suitable for applying the correct pressure to effect the transfer. All of these required much experimentation, but he soon had enough success to patent the process a year later. Watt formed another partnership with Boulton (who provided financing) and James Keir (to manage the business) in a firm called James Watt and Co. The perfection of the invention required much more development work before it could be routinely used by others, but this was carried out over the next few years. Boulton and Watt gave up their shares to their sons in 1794. It became a commercial success and was widely used in offices even into the twentieth century. From an early age Watt was very interested in chemistry. In late 1786, while in Paris, he witnessed an experiment by Berthollet in which he reacted hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide to produce chlorine. He had already found that an aqueous solution of chlorine could bleach textiles, and had published his findings, which aroused great interest among many potential rivals. When Watt returned to Britain, he began experiments along these lines with hopes of finding a commercially viable process. He discovered that a mixture of salt, manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid could produce chlorine, which Watt believed might be a cheaper method. He passed the chlorine into a weak solution of alkali, and obtained a turbid solution that appeared to have good bleaching properties. He soon communicated these results to James McGrigor, his father-in-law, who was a bleacher in Glasgow. Otherwise he tried to keep his method a secret. With McGrigor and his wife Annie, he started to scale up the process, and in March 1788, McGrigor was able to bleach 1500 yards of cloth to his satisfaction. About this time Berthollet discovered the salt and sulphuric acid process, and published it so it became public knowledge. Many others began to experiment with improving the process, which still had many shortcomings, not the least of which was the problem of transporting the liquid product. Watt's rivals soon overtook him in developing the process, and he dropped out of the race. It was not until 1799, when Charles Tennant patented a process for producing solid bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) that it became a commercial success. By 1794 Watt had been chosen by Thomas Beddoes to manufacture apparatus to produce, clean and store gases for use in the new Pneumatic Institution at Hotwells in Bristol. Watt continued to experiment with various gases for several years, but by 1797 the medical uses for the "factitious airs" had come to a dead end. Watt combined theoretical knowledge of science with the ability to apply it practically. Humphry Davy said of him "Those who consider James Watt only as a great practical mechanic form a very erroneous idea of his character; he was equally distinguished as a natural philosopher and a chemist, and his inventions demonstrate his profound knowledge of those sciences, and that peculiar characteristic of genius, the union of them for practical application". He was greatly respected by other prominent men of the Industrial Revolution. He was an important member of the Lunar Society, and was a much sought-after conversationalist and companion, always interested in expanding his horizons. His personal relationships with his friends and partners were always congenial and long-lasting. Watt was a prolific correspondent. During his years in Cornwall, he wrote long letters to Boulton several times per week. He was averse to publishing his results in, for example, the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society however, and instead preferred to communicate his ideas in patents. He was an excellent draughtsman. He was a rather poor businessman, and especially hated bargaining and negotiating terms with those who sought to use the steam engine. In a letter to William Small in 1772, Watt confessed that "he would rather face a loaded cannon than settle an account or make a bargain." Until he retired, he was always much concerned about his financial affairs, and was something of a worrier. His health was often poor and he suffered frequent nervous headaches and depression. At first the partnership made the drawing and specifications for the engines, and supervised the work to erect it on the customers property. They produced almost none of the parts themselves. Watt did most of his work at his home in Harper's Hill in Birmingham, while Boulton worked at the Soho Manufactory. Gradually the partners began to actually manufacture more and more of the parts, and by 1795 they purchased a property about a mile away from the Soho manufactory, on the banks of the Birmingham Canal, to establish a new foundry for the manufacture of the engines. The Soho Foundry formally opened in 1796 at a time when Watt's sons, Gregory and James Jr. were heavily involved in the management of the enterprise. In 1800, the year of Watt's retirement, the firm made a total of 41 engines. Watt retired in 1800, the same year that his fundamental patent and partnership with Boulton expired. The famous partnership was transferred to the men's sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt Jr.. Longtime firm engineer William Murdoch was soon made a partner and the firm prospered. Watt continued to invent other things before and during his semi-retirement. Within his home in Handsworth, Staffordshire, Watt made use of a garret room as a workshop, and it was here that he worked on many of his inventions. Among other things, he invented and constructed several machines for copying sculptures and medallions which worked very well, but which he never patented. One of the first sculptures he produced with the machine was a small head of his old professor friend Adam Smith. He maintained his interest in civil engineering and was a consultant on several significant projects. He proposed, for example, a method for constructing a flexible pipe to be used for pumping water under the Clyde at Glasgow. He and his second wife travelled to France and Germany, and he purchased an estate in mid-Wales at Doldowlod House, one mile south of Llanwrthwl, which he much improved. In 1816 he took a trip on the paddle-steamer "Comet", a product of his inventions, to revisit his home town of Greenock. He died on 25 August 1819 at his home "Heathfield Hall" near Handsworth in Staffordshire (now part of Birmingham) at the age of 83. He was buried on 2 September in the graveyard of St Mary's Church, Handsworth. The church has since been extended and his grave is now inside the church. On 16 July 1764 married his cousin Margaret Miller ("d". 1773). They had two children, Margaret (1767–1796) and James (1769–1848). In 1791 their daughter married James Miller; their son did not marry. In September 1773 while Watt was working in the Scottish Highlands he learned that his wife, who was pregnant with their third child, was seriously ill. He immediately returned home but found that she had died and their child was stillborn. In 1775 he married Ann MacGregor (d.1832). He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in The Glasgow Royal Arch Lodge, No.77, in 1763. The Lodge ceased to exist in 1810. A Masonic Lodge was named after him in his home town of Glasgow – Lodge James Watt, No.1215. William Murdoch joined Boulton and Watt in 1777. At first he worked in the pattern shop in Soho, but soon he was erecting engines in Cornwall. He became an important part of the firm and made many contributions to its success. A very able man, he made several important inventions on his own. John Griffiths, who wrote a biography of him in 1992, has argued that Watt's discouragment of Murdoch's work with high pressure steam on his steam road locomotive experiments delayed its development: Watt rightly believed that boilers of the time would be unsafe at higher pressures. Watt patented the application of the sun and planet gear to steam in 1781 and a steam locomotive in 1784, both of which have strong claims to have been invented by Murdoch. The patent was never contested by Murdoch, however, and Boulton and Watt's firm continued to use the sun and planet gear in their rotative engines, even long after the patent for the crank expired in 1794. Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76. As one author states, James Watt's improvements to the steam engine "converted it from a prime mover of marginal efficiency into the mechanical workhorse of the Industrial Revolution". The reality, however, is that Watt's improvements upon the Newcomen engine had limited, albeit popular, utility given their size and low power, and were not carried over to the designs of the high-pressure steam engines to which these authors refer regarding the revolutionary impact of the steam engine, something Watt opposed. Watt was much honoured in his own time. In 1784 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and was elected as a member of the Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy, of Rotterdam in 1787. In 1789 he was elected to the elite group, the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. In 1806 he was conferred the honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of Glasgow. The French Academy elected him a Corresponding Member and he was made a Foreign Associate in 1814. The watt is named after James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, and was adopted by the Second Congress of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889 and by the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 as the unit of power incorporated in the International System of Units (or "SI"). On 29 May 2009 the Bank of England announced that Boulton and Watt would appear on a new £50 note. The design is the first to feature a dual portrait on a Bank of England note, and presents the two industrialists side by side with images of Watt's steam engine and Boulton's Soho Manufactory. Quotes attributed to each of the men are inscribed on the note: "I sell here, sir, what all the world desires to have—POWER" (Boulton) and "I can think of nothing else but this machine" (Watt). The inclusion of Watt is the second time that a Scot has featured on a Bank of England note (the first was Adam Smith on the 2007 issue £20 note). In September 2011 it was announced that the notes would enter circulation on 2 November. In 2011 he was one of seven inaugural inductees to the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame. Watt was buried in the grounds of St. Mary's Church, Handsworth, in Birmingham. Later expansion of the church, over his grave, means that his tomb is now buried "inside" the church. The garret room workshop that Watt used in his retirement was left, locked and untouched, until 1853, when it was first viewed by his biographer J. P. Muirhead. Thereafter, it was occasionally visited, but left untouched, as a kind of shrine. A proposal to have it transferred to the Patent Office came to nothing. When the house was due to be demolished in 1924, the room and all its contents were presented to the Science Museum, where it was recreated in its entirety. It remained on display for visitors for many years, but was walled-off when the gallery it was housed in closed. The workshop remained intact, and preserved, and in March 2011 was put on public display as part of a new permanent Science Museum exhibition, "James Watt and our world". The approximate location of James Watt's birth in Greenock is commemorated by a statue. Several locations and street names in Greenock recall him, most notably the Watt Memorial Library, which was begun in 1816 with Watt's donation of scientific books, and developed as part of the Watt Institution by his son (which ultimately became the James Watt College). Taken over by the local authority in 1974, the library now also houses the local history collection and archives of Inverclyde, and is dominated by a large seated statue in the vestibule. Watt is additionally commemorated by statuary in George Square, Glasgow and Princes Street, Edinburgh, as well as several others in Birmingham, where he is also remembered by the Moonstones and a school is named in his honour. The James Watt College has expanded from its original location to include campuses in Kilwinning (North Ayrshire), Finnart Street and The Waterfront in Greenock, and the Sports campus in Largs. Heriot-Watt University near Edinburgh was at one time the School of Arts of Edinburgh, founded in 1821 as the world's first Mechanics Institute, but to commemorate George Heriot, the 16th-century financier to King James, and James Watt, after Royal Charter the name was changed to Heriot-Watt University. Dozens of university and college buildings (chiefly of science and technology) are named after him. Matthew Boulton's home, Soho House, is now a museum, commemorating the work of both men. The University of Glasgow's Faculty of Engineering has its headquarters in the James Watt Building, which also houses the department of Mechanical Engineering and the department of Aerospace Engineering. The huge painting "James Watt contemplating the steam engine" by James Eckford Lauder is now owned by the National Gallery of Scotland. There is a statue of James Watt in Piccadilly Gardens, Manchester and City Square, Leeds. A colossal statue of Watt by Chantrey was placed in Westminster Abbey, and later was moved to St. Paul's Cathedral. On the cenotaph the inscription reads, in part, "JAMES WATT... ENLARGED THE RESOURCES OF HIS COUNTRY, INCREASED THE POWER OF MAN, AND ROSE TO AN EMINENT PLACE AMONG THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS FOLLOWERS OF SCIENCE AND THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE WORLD." A bust of Watt is in the Hall of Heroes of the National Wallace Monument in Stirling. Watt was the sole inventor listed on his six patents:

James Watt (; 30 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor, mechanical engineer, and chemist who improved on Thomas Newcomen's 1712 Newcomen steam engine with his Watt steam engine in 1776, which was fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.

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20653, 44, 132894, 58, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 4, 237, 70, 13765, 35388, 90, 4, 1284, 155034, 25958, 52295, 71, 70, 227066, 111, 70, 144573, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 390, 154107, 10, 84797, 158, 555, 2189, 5, 3293, 83, 34844, 47, 73342, 47, 22008, 959, 16031, 678, 23755, 7, 111, 80097, 136, 70, 42, 2749, 227066, 5, 1650, 135179, 450, 70, 13765, 509, 75935, 4, 144681, 390, 130402, 25, 7, 775, 14631, 130402, 89596, 5, 4, 136, 70560, 7, 6637, 442, 83, 23468, 100, 20020, 47, 28219, 136, 37629, 5, 360, 903, 22729, 442, 831, 186, 51592, 237, 27255, 47, 70, 13765, 111, 114636, 145076, 136, 70, 6817, 214, 108787, 136, 1919, 103882, 53, 111, 64002, 939, 5, 106073, 442, 83, 27983, 2837, 45188, 297, 237, 10, 759, 927, 4, 70, 13765, 111, 130402, 136, 70, 311, 46401, 1556, 10, 18231, 23, 15824, 5, 360, 31577, 47, 28219, 70, 182342, 242554, 7, 111, 80097, 136, 2288, 302, 14631, 130402, 175100, 1810, 5941, 139915, 53, 28007, 7, 136, 1919, 879, 10484, 17164, 450, 23, 55080, 214, 6097, 764, 11814, 10, 311, 46401, 237, 10, 337, 34759, 47, 139392, 2288, 302, 5, 360, 729, 12975, 130402, 25, 7, 34391, 4, 4939, 30520, 40514, 4, 35839, 1919, 35743, 47, 70, 4527, 111, 2288, 302, 237, 10, 31344, 111, 53250, 14537, 5, 581, 4331, 111, 70, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 4, 23, 4527, 100, 39555, 836, 5369, 100, 42874, 214, 7401, 1295, 5665, 7, 4, 1902, 7941, 538, 98816, 1295, 6863, 5117, 208124, 5, 130402, 80723, 47, 28007, 678, 2288, 302, 4, 21208, 764, 1902, 8306, 51592, 142, 172852, 2288, 302, 87907, 5, 1529, 37842, 64549, 214, 10, 3299, 74, 442, 165523, 47, 4488, 64561, 3826, 538, 4, 1284, 764, 136475, 1919, 28007, 7, 136, 80723, 47, 12301, 26818, 764, 5809, 1672, 70, 28368, 5, 1529, 21449, 47, 2773, 3075, 70, 131011, 111, 19161, 18, 80097, 2451, 2347, 70, 42, 2749, 48302, 121447, 707, 57622, 297, 20271, 10, 53697, 9, 98334, 13, 9433, 2451, 73, 100094, 70, 87907, 4, 3129, 4, 51, 69723, 19, 47, 130402, 4, 1919, 34391, 33876, 10074, 1902, 198395, 134053, 3060, 5369, 8108, 5, 9626, 144057, 111, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 509, 23, 10, 4552, 128489, 13, 11341, 4, 100, 70, 41664, 111, 182342, 242554, 7, 2806, 959, 186, 1483, 48353, 100, 110518, 15700, 805, 5369, 5, 360, 729, 15748, 4, 130402, 509, 37170, 47, 121461, 10, 3299, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 66165, 81551, 47, 70, 152363, 5, 31267, 7103, 121461, 4, 70, 87907, 3059, 538, 79786, 5, 24372, 5045, 28007, 2320, 4, 130402, 106804, 297, 450, 1672, 17262, 9, 167565, 1314, 111, 70, 70, 42, 2749, 48302, 111, 70, 2288, 302, 509, 8035, 18588, 297, 23, 80097, 214, 70, 87907, 19932, 104532, 98, 11907, 105823, 5, 3293, 48302, 509, 509, 3674, 6637, 14432, 23, 70, 105823, 91097, 7401, 509, 115049, 297, 3934, 70, 19932, 104532, 47, 158, 118435, 70, 2288, 302, 47, 34390, 6863, 81147, 5, 12613, 7, 390, 119140, 297, 538, 80097, 214, 136, 21185, 214, 70, 19932, 104532, 4, 70, 87907, 509, 3674, 2684, 111, 6863, 70, 42, 2749, 48302, 43257, 3501, 96760, 214, 442, 3934, 135969, 289, 48302, 5, 130402, 25, 7, 130306, 149201, 4, 174920, 99, 23, 4347, 729, 12424, 4, 509, 47, 22304, 70, 2288, 302, 47, 158, 118435, 23, 10, 84797, 1608, 26278, 34955, 1295, 70, 6244, 1507, 4, 136, 47, 76104, 70, 52768, 111, 70, 19932, 104532, 99, 70, 5701, 52768, 237, 70, 115049, 297, 2288, 302, 390, 206990, 442, 678, 10, 44, 824, 302, 79, 27853, 1242, 12613, 7, 4552, 10176, 48302, 509, 57622, 297, 390, 70, 19932, 104532, 98, 12638, 105823, 4, 20662, 1286, 19882, 47, 51339, 80234, 4488, 5, 130402, 1902, 10, 20697, 3299, 14432, 450, 5701, 6602, 5, 262, 61518, 10, 38516, 538, 4488, 2886, 4331, 4, 2685, 3542, 7464, 193984, 34844, 3387, 23, 64549, 214, 10, 4393, 9, 7, 57965, 87907, 5, 3293, 56065, 1286, 10323, 4, 3060, 111, 3129, 21449, 1295, 10074, 5, 5455, 193984, 4420, 214, 21449, 1295, 4939, 2777, 13, 187470, 4, 70, 14037, 56, 111, 70, 176016, 71, 3980, 1900, 70599, 27985, 7, 43573, 155270, 481, 92, 4, 678, 136565, 764, 5036, 100, 4806, 10, 165410, 5, 2777, 13, 187470, 158930, 99, 37029, 86, 379, 13038, 23, 2460, 25, 7432, 4, 20271, 3129, 1733, 130402, 79786, 99, 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297, 23, 729, 12772, 4, 47, 13695, 442, 1295, 44, 16428, 592, 16065, 58, 3542, 4552, 5526, 5, 32255, 136912, 7, 39958, 25842, 181653, 142, 87907, 3129, 509, 1257, 47, 43606, 20028, 237, 93766, 23, 6863, 4527, 111, 160692, 237, 70, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 5, 88949, 111, 70, 77064, 111, 24649, 6238, 337, 34759, 7, 4, 3129, 3542, 23, 10, 4552, 128489, 13, 36541, 111, 34754, 4, 136, 70, 221560, 37348, 678, 95, 24251, 4, 130402, 173072, 297, 1919, 4527, 111, 11192, 81147, 2288, 302, 46, 756, 111, 1919, 87907, 7, 11814, 2288, 302, 99, 43573, 99, 840, 94266, 1771, 81147, 5, 38157, 33672, 26859, 64549, 214, 87907, 7, 100, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 23, 729, 13556, 5, 3311, 729, 12231, 764, 1902, 26859, 20662, 87907, 7, 111, 1919, 10002, 4331, 4, 1284, 3129, 70541, 297, 10, 84797, 158, 555, 2189, 4, 136, 221, 34128, 2852, 297, 130402, 25, 7, 33407, 7, 5, 32964, 82953, 7, 4, 823, 30764, 125717, 78315, 12986, 6488, 136, 86452, 78315, 12986, 6488, 821, 53313, 2843, 26859, 47, 45367, 87907, 7, 1672, 70, 5701, 1733, 5, 64511, 7, 80723, 47, 2811, 40383, 2356, 277, 33, 87907, 7, 390, 154107, 10, 158, 555, 2189, 4, 136, 70, 5665, 144044, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 100512, 122991, 71, 450, 130402, 25, 7, 33407, 5809, 959, 186, 22, 50930, 71, 5, 10660, 26859, 47, 678, 16200, 81997, 7, 4743, 47, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 4, 3129, 390, 729, 8821, 1902, 91148, 5, 6619, 70, 3622, 11762, 304, 93712, 15, 13, 3181, 85540, 47, 11762, 237, 111, 1388, 36, 24243, 4, 4734, 11762, 304, 4, 4283, 1902, 2809, 75204, 5, 130402, 509, 168861, 47, 738, 47, 29685, 47, 22, 50930, 1919, 140526, 5, 1529, 5117, 166, 297, 33672, 23, 729, 11591, 5, 581, 115944, 14037, 100, 130402, 4, 1284, 70, 9655, 111, 36766, 707, 959, 70, 7311, 29458, 2320, 111, 70, 33407, 509, 35604, 509, 25737, 47, 15700, 110324, 5, 360, 70, 29459, 6032, 4, 23, 17043, 10763, 7, 3542, 31089, 71, 26548, 70, 34128, 25681, 7, 4, 100, 21896, 2363, 81997, 7, 111, 70, 121678, 2449, 47, 186, 158012, 23, 62494, 8770, 5, 581, 110324, 98, 72694, 214, 70, 35604, 2481, 111, 70, 71679, 5256, 3129, 509, 34658, 23, 70, 25632, 6602, 509, 23, 2271, 67158, 272, 4, 1284, 70, 23, 17043, 10763, 7, 47143, 297, 23, 37772, 136, 70, 34128, 25681, 7, 4, 40494, 100, 86452, 78315, 12986, 6488, 4, 756, 80723, 47, 9615, 133, 2363, 50218, 5, 78315, 12986, 6488, 509, 33662, 91048, 47, 110324, 136, 70, 493, 61669, 111, 70, 22759, 116983, 7, 15, 73, 729, 101655, 509, 125189, 21286, 23, 1238, 141775, 111, 130402, 5, 581, 481, 34391, 4939, 18899, 875, 1681, 4, 2750, 1902, 86869, 71, 70, 2967, 111, 3017, 214, 142, 152018, 19932, 104532, 4, 509, 10, 106480, 10314, 13, 13048, 7225, 5, 1529, 1902, 3657, 89829, 1672, 214075, 87907, 7, 15490, 2460, 202, 1507, 25, 7, 136, 130402, 7, 25, 51359, 5, 10660, 77681, 176506, 47, 9615, 133, 70, 34128, 2852, 5911, 23, 729, 11648, 5, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 8306, 43799, 297, 756, 450, 509, 36, 24243, 2856, 4, 1284, 70, 167956, 7, 3542, 756, 9615, 6259, 105237, 17721, 70, 68036, 707, 8305, 61799, 1363, 5, 32255, 110324, 7, 3542, 111531, 11034, 538, 23, 15044, 17265, 136, 1733, 4, 1284, 20654, 37838, 3542, 65771, 100, 70, 11037, 5, 117371, 729, 4836, 2685, 509, 110, 4127, 55300, 100, 20662, 71200, 7, 111, 120820, 707, 188304, 7, 5, 581, 4734, 55300, 68018, 11814, 509, 10, 135969, 289, 1632, 17368, 3126, 297, 48716, 59434, 5, 130402, 99, 5117, 28007, 297, 678, 224588, 903, 55300, 4, 1284, 33662, 26038, 1257, 98, 903, 51515, 6637, 442, 509, 221, 1452, 1297, 43452, 5, 1529, 64457, 68872, 47, 9790, 47, 72761, 538, 12302, 3060, 23, 92, 1295, 70, 12912, 111, 70, 7311, 47, 70, 4420, 111, 15700, 155434, 4, 13411, 510, 297, 678, 10, 86869, 660, 4, 136, 30501, 71, 47, 70, 7311, 5, 581, 17932, 155434, 1902, 47, 186, 6117, 19, 4, 221, 450, 70, 23, 92, 5809, 186, 51592, 8305, 442, 3229, 70, 43658, 509, 34658, 1257, 47, 70, 22729, 4, 4911, 7, 42238, 214, 70, 7311, 66161, 5, 130402, 26859, 47, 85493, 70, 9433, 23, 106, 104656, 4, 136, 7228, 5941, 28007, 7, 47, 26168, 67, 70, 23, 92, 4, 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50339, 47, 14631, 157580, 416, 6504, 4, 1919, 67373, 9, 73, 9, 19729, 4, 2750, 509, 10, 2586, 934, 56, 23, 181787, 5, 64511, 90825, 764, 37842, 47, 13695, 1919, 55300, 10, 23410, 5, 17106, 157580, 416, 6504, 136, 1919, 58386, 164733, 4, 764, 26859, 47, 105994, 1257, 70, 9433, 4, 136, 23, 11994, 729, 12772, 4, 157580, 416, 6504, 509, 19048, 47, 2586, 934, 17551, 143915, 7, 111, 20450, 927, 47, 1919, 152796, 5, 56888, 903, 1733, 53598, 497, 30058, 134053, 70, 28279, 136, 2906, 63470, 12259, 43840, 9433, 4, 136, 91376, 442, 221, 442, 100512, 3835, 51359, 5, 52455, 27060, 80723, 47, 28007, 678, 224588, 70, 9433, 4, 3129, 7464, 1902, 5941, 16610, 277, 5180, 4, 959, 70, 19713, 111, 3129, 509, 70, 2967, 111, 6181, 214, 70, 41931, 12996, 5, 130402, 25, 7, 43876, 7, 33662, 645, 188, 685, 4049, 23, 168698, 70, 9433, 4, 136, 764, 36069, 20051, 1810, 111, 70, 45712, 5, 1650, 509, 959, 24189, 729, 5046, 4, 3229, 28166, 5531, 30125, 33407, 297, 10, 9433, 100, 27024, 214, 18652, 2586, 934, 214, 173169, 15, 6827, 45071, 75690, 206, 1484, 1486, 16, 450, 442, 100512, 10, 60091, 36272, 5, 3311, 729, 14889, 130402, 1902, 2809, 19667, 19, 390, 14978, 22417, 246, 90, 47, 142901, 20939, 19481, 47, 27489, 4, 46622, 136, 4343, 106500, 100, 4527, 23, 70, 3525, 436, 50901, 47148, 105251, 99, 9903, 19256, 7, 23, 194510, 5, 130402, 136475, 47, 28007, 678, 67842, 106500, 100, 40368, 5369, 4, 1284, 390, 729, 14773, 70, 29874, 4527, 7, 100, 70, 44, 114700, 1890, 10821, 1831, 7, 58, 1902, 1380, 47, 10, 103494, 3564, 5, 130402, 70163, 71, 70, 4524, 70760, 51359, 111, 41664, 678, 70, 81273, 47, 59911, 442, 138155, 538, 5, 19210, 11727, 1294, 930, 3033, 2804, 111, 4049, 44, 20800, 8364, 2750, 16916, 14631, 130402, 4734, 237, 10, 6782, 138155, 135969, 3173, 10, 4552, 70426, 86, 10821, 6528, 111, 1919, 62816, 74, 764, 509, 105950, 538, 157167, 67175, 237, 10, 6083, 6, 119598, 56, 136, 10, 290, 6133, 4, 136, 1919, 26868, 17514, 106804, 13, 1919, 502, 151645, 51359, 111, 8382, 41664, 7, 4, 136, 450, 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4, 136, 390, 729, 8821, 1836, 59038, 71, 10, 57266, 1672, 10, 84765, 16065, 1295, 70, 1061, 497, 138461, 18770, 53, 4, 98, 70, 4620, 7, 111, 70, 188377, 73908, 4, 47, 137633, 10, 3525, 14037, 1294, 100, 70, 142901, 111, 70, 87907, 7, 5, 581, 1061, 497, 215624, 1294, 23113, 538, 142096, 23, 729, 11648, 99, 10, 1733, 3229, 130402, 25, 7, 775, 7, 4, 139256, 53, 136, 14631, 89596, 5, 3542, 17305, 5115, 53, 75412, 23, 70, 24365, 111, 70, 202681, 5, 360, 51374, 4, 70, 6602, 111, 130402, 25, 7, 90223, 674, 4, 70, 11037, 7228, 10, 3622, 111, 6478, 87907, 7, 5, 130402, 90223, 71, 23, 51374, 4, 70, 5701, 6602, 450, 1919, 20531, 33407, 136, 165410, 678, 2460, 202, 1507, 14700, 14, 2822, 5, 581, 170277, 165410, 509, 12302, 2822, 47, 70, 453, 25, 7, 775, 7, 4, 115136, 153671, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 14631, 130402, 89596, 5, 5, 14407, 6032, 11037, 185118, 25031, 10934, 246, 206, 509, 33662, 7228, 10, 4755, 136, 70, 11037, 78737, 297, 5, 130402, 136475, 47, 26868, 3789, 8966, 8108, 136, 20271, 1919, 36137, 9, 107, 2826, 5911, 5, 17106, 73, 1919, 5368, 23, 10639, 7, 93017, 4, 112006, 6651, 72567, 4, 130402, 7228, 4527, 111, 10, 3671, 2264, 17155, 237, 10, 42819, 4, 136, 442, 509, 3688, 450, 764, 79786, 98, 5941, 111, 1919, 26868, 17514, 5, 2022, 4021, 3789, 8966, 4, 764, 26868, 297, 136, 64549, 297, 40368, 116491, 100, 43658, 214, 152319, 30891, 136, 40501, 45486, 7, 3129, 79786, 4552, 5299, 4, 1284, 3129, 764, 8306, 33407, 297, 5, 6561, 111, 70, 5117, 152319, 30891, 764, 181653, 678, 70, 36279, 509, 10, 19336, 10336, 111, 1919, 10332, 16030, 34391, 16173, 37700, 5, 1529, 76104, 297, 1919, 33946, 23, 9782, 177907, 136, 509, 10, 129275, 98, 40368, 88551, 77635, 5, 1529, 26171, 71, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 10, 55300, 100, 64549, 214, 10, 110677, 137158, 47, 186, 11814, 100, 42874, 214, 7401, 1379, 70, 313, 538, 112, 99, 181787, 5, 1529, 136, 1919, 17932, 58386, 26983, 6259, 47, 9942, 136, 102126, 4, 136, 764, 59038, 71, 142, 97761, 23, 4122, 9, 97207, 90, 99, 20384, 24293, 61488, 13038, 4, 1632, 84765, 127067, 111, 51905, 5429, 927, 27751, 4, 3129, 764, 5045, 52295, 71, 5, 360, 543, 2485, 764, 34739, 10, 24745, 98, 70, 7922, 19298, 9, 824, 302, 56, 44, 10770, 126, 830, 10, 12996, 111, 1919, 26868, 17514, 4, 47, 456, 169697, 1919, 5368, 59444, 111, 15497, 31, 2594, 5, 1529, 68, 71, 98, 714, 8055, 543, 2947, 99, 1919, 5368, 44, 13025, 10519, 28394, 19449, 58, 43573, 10639, 7, 93017, 23, 112006, 6651, 72567, 15, 35613, 2831, 111, 188377, 16, 99, 70, 32070, 111, 19251, 5, 1529, 509, 373, 46572, 98, 116, 6088, 23, 70, 17202, 119300, 111, 2907, 23213, 25, 7, 84084, 4, 10639, 7, 93017, 5, 581, 106820, 1556, 16792, 2809, 65042, 297, 136, 1919, 17202, 83, 5036, 46132, 70, 106820, 5, 2161, 611, 20414, 729, 13307, 139505, 1919, 193429, 94037, 102617, 24073, 71, 740, 73073, 21320, 5, 10660, 1902, 6626, 20020, 4, 94037, 21067, 18197, 1104, 2489, 109241, 136, 14631, 21067, 14212, 132869, 72208, 5, 360, 729, 12183, 2363, 76849, 139505, 14631, 102617, 74, 2363, 775, 6777, 959, 1108, 1294, 5, 360, 6088, 729, 13574, 12960, 130402, 509, 20697, 23, 70, 50695, 4745, 194953, 7, 764, 97384, 450, 1919, 58386, 4, 2750, 509, 181036, 678, 2363, 50960, 29041, 4, 509, 147115, 99825, 5, 1529, 109312, 176377, 5368, 1284, 14037, 450, 2412, 1902, 68, 71, 136, 2363, 29041, 509, 7464, 57332, 5, 360, 729, 6873, 764, 139505, 35512, 4727, 91127, 6504, 15, 71, 5, 1819, 91887, 5, 1529, 509, 360, 1890, 27686, 3934, 50695, 4745, 5153, 1510, 191, 1294, 23, 581, 181787, 25674, 63590, 112363, 4, 438, 5, 14546, 4, 23, 729, 15748, 5, 581, 112363, 8360, 5281, 47, 32316, 23, 543, 963, 5, 62, 3010, 31, 6402, 112363, 509, 24, 4806, 7103, 4049, 23, 1919, 5368, 59444, 111, 181787, 46, 112363, 14631, 130402, 4, 438, 5, 1530, 1837, 5, 25031, 10934, 246, 206, 33284, 297, 2460, 202, 1507, 136, 130402, 23, 729, 14546, 5, 1913, 5117, 764, 79786, 23, 70, 103510, 19927, 23, 1061, 497, 4, 1284, 33662, 764, 509, 72, 24762, 214, 87907, 7, 23, 5631, 19, 66769, 5, 1529, 100512, 142, 5526, 2831, 111, 70, 11037, 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67081, 111, 210479, 4, 136, 509, 3163, 89829, 237, 10, 32786, 111, 70, 42173, 686, 66, 67081, 100, 146797, 289, 6, 197652, 53, 4, 111, 72756, 23, 729, 19308, 5, 360, 196208, 764, 509, 3163, 89829, 47, 70, 100307, 21115, 4, 70, 81775, 2832, 72173, 67081, 111, 18543, 90125, 1314, 5, 360, 543, 9016, 764, 509, 158, 2875, 2822, 70, 20338, 6635, 52625, 111, 36293, 7, 390, 70, 12535, 111, 181787, 5, 581, 92265, 62903, 3163, 89829, 4049, 10, 46348, 18908, 6238, 74057, 136, 764, 509, 7228, 10, 184293, 6, 228214, 23, 543, 2592, 5, 581, 793, 18, 83, 24, 4806, 7103, 14631, 130402, 100, 1919, 127752, 7, 47, 70, 34754, 111, 70, 2288, 302, 87907, 4, 136, 509, 30666, 297, 390, 70, 77648, 77699, 111, 70, 56101, 56187, 100, 70, 223438, 674, 111, 28745, 23, 145810, 136, 390, 70, 534, 927, 9082, 114732, 98, 150533, 7, 136, 1215, 162, 30891, 23, 23936, 237, 70, 25072, 111, 14537, 49504, 3674, 23, 70, 8357, 12353, 111, 46640, 7, 15, 748, 44, 9902, 51029, 2161, 1702, 4347, 1877, 70, 4932, 111, 30715, 171530, 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summarize: Early computers used relays, mechanical counters or delay lines for main memory functions. Ultrasonic delay lines were serial devices which could only reproduce data in the order it was written. Drum memory could be expanded at relatively low cost but efficient retrieval of memory items required knowledge of the physical layout of the drum to optimize speed. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of discrete transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers. Such registers were relatively large and too costly to use for large amounts of data; generally only a few dozen or few hundred bits of such memory could be provided. The first practical form of random-access memory was the Williams tube starting in 1947. It stored data as electrically charged spots on the face of a cathode ray tube. Since the electron beam of the CRT could read and write the spots on the tube in any order, memory was random access. The capacity of the Williams tube was a few hundred to around a thousand bits, but it was much smaller, faster, and more power-efficient than using individual vacuum tube latches. Developed at the University of Manchester in England, the Williams tube provided the medium on which the first electronically stored program was implemented in the Manchester Baby computer, which first successfully ran a program on 21 June 1948. In fact, rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the Baby, the Baby was a testbed to demonstrate the reliability of the memory. Magnetic-core memory was invented in 1947 and developed up until the mid-1970s. It became a widespread form of random-access memory, relying on an array of magnetized rings. By changing the sense of each ring's magnetization, data could be stored with one bit stored per ring. Since every ring had a combination of address wires to select and read or write it, access to any memory location in any sequence was possible. Magnetic core memory was the standard form of computer memory system until displaced by solid-state MOS (metal-oxide-silicon) semiconductor memory in integrated circuits (ICs) during the early 1970s. Prior to the development of integrated read-only memory (ROM) circuits, "permanent" (or "read-only") random-access memory was often constructed using diode matrices driven by address decoders, or specially wound core rope memory planes. Semiconductor memory began in the 1960s with bipolar memory, which used bipolar transistors. While it improved performance, it could not compete with the lower price of magnetic core memory. The invention of the MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959, led to the development of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) memory by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory. The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s. An integrated bipolar static random-access memory (SRAM) was invented by Robert H. Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. It was followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964. SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but required six MOS transistors for each bit of data. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced the SP95 memory chip for the System/360 Model 95. Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) allowed replacement of a 4 or 6-transistor latch circuit by a single transistor for each memory bit, greatly increasing memory density at the cost of volatility. Data was stored in the tiny capacitance of each transistor, and had to be periodically refreshed every few milliseconds before the charge could leak away. Toshiba's Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator, which was introduced in 1965, used a form of capacitive bipolar DRAM, storing 180-bit data on discrete memory cells, consisting of germanium bipolar transistors and capacitors. While it offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Dr. Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining the characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was capable of building capacitors, and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. In 1967, Dennard filed a patent under IBM for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell, based on MOS technology. The first commercial DRAM IC chip was the Intel 1103, which was manufactured on an 8μm MOS process with a capacity of 1Kibit, and was released in 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) was developed by Samsung Electronics. The first commercial SDRAM chip was the Samsung KM48SL2000, which had a capacity of 16Mibit. It was introduced by Samsung in 1992, and mass-produced in 1993. The first commercial DDR SDRAM (double data rate SDRAM) memory chip was Samsung's 64Mibit DDR SDRAM chip, released in June 1998. GDDR (graphics DDR) is a form of DDR SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM), which was first released by Samsung as a 16Mibit memory chip in 1998. The two widely used forms of modern RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). In SRAM, a bit of data is stored using the state of a six-transistor memory cell, typically using six MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors). This form of RAM is more expensive to produce, but is generally faster and requires less dynamic power than DRAM. In modern computers, SRAM is often used as cache memory for the CPU. DRAM stores a bit of data using a transistor and capacitor pair (typically a MOSFET and MOS capacitor, respectively), which together comprise a DRAM cell. The capacitor holds a high or low charge (1 or 0, respectively), and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this form of memory is less expensive to produce than static RAM, it is the predominant form of computer memory used in modern computers. Both static and dynamic RAM are considered "volatile", as their state is lost or reset when power is removed from the system. By contrast, read-only memory (ROM) stores data by permanently enabling or disabling selected transistors, such that the memory cannot be altered. Writeable variants of ROM (such as EEPROM and flash memory) share properties of both ROM and RAM, enabling data to persist without power and to be updated without requiring special equipment. These persistent forms of semiconductor ROM include USB flash drives, memory cards for cameras and portable devices, and solid-state drives. ECC memory (which can be either SRAM or DRAM) includes special circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults (memory errors) in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. In general, the term "RAM" refers solely to solid-state memory devices (either DRAM or SRAM), and more specifically the main memory in most computers. In optical storage, the term DVD-RAM is somewhat of a misnomer since, unlike CD-RW or DVD-RW it does not need to be erased before reuse. Nevertheless, a DVD-RAM behaves much like a hard disc drive if somewhat slower. The memory cell is the fundamental building block of computer memory. The memory cell is an electronic circuit that stores one bit of binary information and it must be set to store a logic 1 (high voltage level) and reset to store a logic 0 (low voltage level). Its value is maintained/stored until it is changed by the set/reset process. The value in the memory cell can be accessed by reading it. In SRAM, the memory cell is a type of flip-flop circuit, usually implemented using FETs. This means that SRAM requires very low power when not being accessed, but it is expensive and has low storage density. A second type, DRAM, is based around a capacitor. Charging and discharging this capacitor can store a "1" or a "0" in the cell. However, the charge in this capacitor slowly leaks away, and must be refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh process, DRAM uses more power, but it can achieve greater storage densities and lower unit costs compared to SRAM. To be useful, memory cells must be readable and writeable. Within the RAM device, multiplexing and demultiplexing circuitry is used to select memory cells. Typically, a RAM device has a set of address lines A0... An, and for each combination of bits that may be applied to these lines, a set of memory cells are activated. Due to this addressing, RAM devices virtually always have a memory capacity that is a power of two. Usually several memory cells share the same address. For example, a 4 bit 'wide' RAM chip has 4 memory cells for each address. Often the width of the memory and that of the microprocessor are different, for a 32 bit microprocessor, eight 4 bit RAM chips would be needed. Often more addresses are needed than can be provided by a device. In that case, external multiplexors to the device are used to activate the correct device that is being accessed. One can read and over-write data in RAM. Many computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of processor registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the "random access" term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, rank, channel, or interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that access time to rotating storage media or a tape is variable. The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the highest possible average access performance while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system (generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom). In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or when changing needs demand more storage capacity. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the computer system. In addition to serving as temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, RAM is used in numerous other ways. Most modern operating systems employ a method of extending RAM capacity, known as "virtual memory". A portion of the computer's hard drive is set aside for a "paging file" or a "scratch partition", and the combination of physical RAM and the paging file form the system's total memory. (For example, if a computer has 2 GiB (1024 B) of RAM and a 1 GiB page file, the operating system has 3 GiB total memory available to it.) When the system runs low on physical memory, it can "swap" portions of RAM to the paging file to make room for new data, as well as to read previously swapped information back into RAM. Excessive use of this mechanism results in thrashing and generally hampers overall system performance, mainly because hard drives are far slower than RAM. Software can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a RAM disk. A RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down, unless memory is arranged to have a standby battery source. Sometimes, the contents of a relatively slow ROM chip are copied to read/write memory to allow for shorter access times. The ROM chip is then disabled while the initialized memory locations are switched in on the same block of addresses (often write-protected). This process, sometimes called "shadowing", is fairly common in both computers and embedded systems. As a common example, the BIOS in typical personal computers often has an option called “use shadow BIOS” or similar. When enabled, functions that rely on data from the BIOS's ROM instead use DRAM locations (most can also toggle shadowing of video card ROM or other ROM sections). Depending on the system, this may not result in increased performance, and may cause incompatibilities. For example, some hardware may be inaccessible to the operating system if shadow RAM is used. On some systems the benefit may be hypothetical because the BIOS is not used after booting in favor of direct hardware access. Free memory is reduced by the size of the shadowed ROMs. Several new types of "non-volatile" RAM, which preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include carbon nanotubes and approaches utilizing Tunnel magnetoresistance. Amongst the 1st generation MRAM, a 128 KiB ( bytes) chip was manufactured with 0.18 μm technology in the summer of 2003. In June 2004, Infineon Technologies unveiled a 16 MiB (16 × 2 bytes) prototype again based on 0.18 μm technology. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently in development: thermal-assisted switching (TAS) which is being developed by Crocus Technology, and spin-transfer torque (STT) on which Crocus, Hynix, IBM, and several other companies are working. Nantero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 GiB (10 × 2 bytes) array in 2004. Whether some of these technologies can eventually take significant market share from either DRAM, SRAM, or flash-memory technology, however, remains to be seen. Since 2006, "solid-state drives" (based on flash memory) with capacities exceeding 256 gigabytes and performance far exceeding traditional disks have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random-access memory and "disks", dramatically reducing the difference in performance. Some kinds of random-access memory, such as "EcoRAM", are specifically designed for server farms, where low power consumption is more important than speed. The "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries, which is also referred to as "bandwidth wall". From 1986 to 2000, CPU speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottleneck in computer performance. CPU speed improvements slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in a 2005 document. First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat... Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address. The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in "Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures" which projected a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. A different concept is the processor-memory performance gap, which can be addressed by 3D integrated circuits that reduce the distance between the logic and memory aspects that are further apart in a 2D chip. Memory subsystem design requires a focus on the gap, which is widening over time. The main method of bridging the gap is the use of caches; small amounts of high-speed memory that houses recent operations and instructions nearby the processor, speeding up the execution of those operations or instructions in cases where they are called upon frequently. Multiple levels of caching have been developed to deal with the widening gap, and the performance of high-speed modern computers relies on evolving caching techniques. There can be up to a 53% difference between the growth in speed of processor speeds and the lagging speed of main memory access. Solid-state hard drives have continued to increase in speed, from ~400 Mbit/s via SATA3 in 2012 up to ~3 GB/s via NVMe/PCIe in 2018, closing the gap between RAM and hard disk speeds, although RAM continues to be an order of magnitude faster, with single-lane DDR4 3200 capable of 25 GB/s, and modern GDDR even faster. Fast, cheap, non-volatile solid state drives have replaced some functions formerly performed by RAM, such as holding certain data for immediate availability in server farms - 1 terabyte of SSD storage can be had for $200, while 1 TiB of RAM would cost thousands of dollars.

Random-access memory (RAM ) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order, typically used to store working data and machine code. A random-access memory device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the physical location of data inside the memory. In contrast, with other direct-access data storage media such as hard disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older magnetic tapes and drum memory, the time required to read and write data items varies significantly depending on their physical locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as media rotation speeds and arm movement.

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summarize: The establishment of a medieval university in Prague was inspired by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. He asked his friend and ally, Pope Clement VI, to do so. On 26 January 1347 the pope issued the bull establishing a university in Prague, modeled on the University of Paris, with the full (4) number of faculties, that is including theological. On 7 April 1348 Charles, the king of Bohemia, gave to the established university privileges and immunities from the secular power in a Golden Bull and on 14 January 1349 he repeated that as the King of the Romans. Most Czech sources since the 19th century—encyclopedias, general histories, materials of the University itself—prefer to give 1348 as the year of the founding of the university, rather than 1347 or 1349. This was caused by an anticlerical shift in the 19th century, shared by both Czechs and Germans. The university was opened in 1349. The university was sectioned into parts called "nations": the Bohemian, Bavarian, Polish and Saxon. The Bohemian "natio" included Bohemians, Moravians, southern Slavs, and Hungarians; the Bavarian included Austrians, Swabians, natives of Franconia and of the Rhine provinces; the Polish included Silesians, Poles, Ruthenians; the Saxon included inhabitants of the Margravate of Meissen, Thuringia, Upper and Lower Saxony, Denmark, and Sweden. Ethnically Czech students made 16–20% of all students. Archbishop Arnošt of Pardubice took an active part in the foundation by obliging the clergy to contribute and became a chancellor of the university (i.e., director or manager). The first graduate was promoted in 1359. The lectures were held in the colleges, of which the oldest was named for the king the "Carolinum", established in 1366. In 1372 the Faculty of Law became an independent university. In 1402 Jerome of Prague in Oxford copied out the "Dialogus" and "Trialogus" of John Wycliffe. The dean of the philosophical faculty, Jan Hus, translated "Trialogus" into the Czech language. In 1403 the university forbade its members to follow the teachings of Wycliffe, but his doctrine continued to gain in popularity. In the Western Schism, the Bohemian "natio" took the side of king Wenceslaus and supported the Council of Pisa (1409). The other "nationes" of the university declared their support for the side of Pope Gregory XII, thus the vote was 1:3 against the Bohemians. Hus and other Bohemians, though, took advantage of Wenceslaus' opposition to Gregory. By the Decree of Kutná Hora () on 18 January 1409, the king subverted the university constitution by granting the Bohemian masters three votes. Only a single vote was left for all other three "nationes" combined, compared to one vote per each "natio" before. The result of this "coup" was the emigration of foreign (mostly German) professors and students, founding the University of Leipzig in May 1409. Before that, in 1408, the university had about 200 doctors and magisters, 500 bachelors, and 30,000 students; it now lost a large part of this number, accounts of the loss varying from 5000 to 20,000 including 46 professors. In the autumn of 1409, Hus was elected rector of the now Czech-dominated rump university. Thus, the Prague university lost the largest part of its students and faculty. From then on the university declined to a merely regional institution with a very low status. Soon, in 1419, the faculties of theology and law disappeared, and only the faculty of arts remained in existence. The faculty of arts became a centre of the Hussite movement, and the chief doctrinal authority of the Utraquists. No degrees were given in the years 1417–30; at times there were only eight or nine professors. Emperor Sigismund, son of Charles IV, took what was left into his personal property and some progress was made. The emperor Ferdinand I called the Jesuits to Prague and in 1562 they opened an academy—the "Clementinum". From 1541 till 1558 the Czech humanist (1516–1566) was a professor of Greek language. Some progress was made again when the emperor Rudolph II took up residence in Prague. In 1609 the obligatory celibacy of the professors was abolished. In 1616 the Jesuit Academy became a university. (It could award academic degrees.) Jesuits were expelled 1618–1621 during the early stages of the Thirty Years' War, which was started in Prague by anti-Catholic and anti-Imperial Bohemians. By 1622 the Jesuits had a predominant influence over the emperor. An Imperial decree of 19 September 1622 gave the Jesuits supreme control over the entire school system of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. The last four professors at the Carolinum resigned and all of the Carolinum and nine colleges went to the Jesuits. The right of handing out degrees, of holding chancellorships and of appointing the secular professors was also granted to the Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst Adalbert von Harrach actively opposed union of the university with another institution and the withdrawal of the archepiscopal right to the chancellorship and prevented the drawing up of the Golden Bull for the confirmation of the grant to Jesuits. Cardinal Ernst funded the "Collegium Adalbertinum" and in 1638 emperor Ferdinand III limited the teaching monopoly enjoyed by the Jesuits. He took from them the rights, properties and archives of the Carolinum making the university once more independent under an imperial protector. During the last years of the Thirty Years' War the Charles Bridge in Prague was courageously defended by students of the Carolinum and Clementinum. Since 1650 those who received any degrees took an oath to maintain the "Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin", renewed annually. On 23 February 1654 emperor Ferdinand III merged "Carolinum" and "Clementinum" and created a single university with four faculties—Charles-Ferdinand University. "Carolinum" had at that time only the faculty of arts, as the only faculty surviving the period of the Hussite Wars. Starting at this time, the university designated itself Charles-Ferdinand University (). The dilapidated Carolinum was rebuilt in 1718 at the expense of the state. The rebuilding and the bureaucratic reforms of universities in the Habsburg monarchy in 1752 and 1754 deprived the university of many of its former privileges. In 1757 a Dominican and an Augustinian were appointed to give theological instruction. However, there was a gradual introduction of enlightened reforms, and this process culminated at the end of the century when even non-Catholics were granted the right to study. On 29 July 1784, German replaced Latin as the language of instruction. For the first time Protestants were allowed, and soon after Jews. The university acknowledged the need for a Czech language and literature chair. Emperor Leopold II established it by a courtly decree on 28 October 1791. On 15 May 1792, scholar and historian was named the professor of the chair. He started his lectures on 13 March 1793. In the revolution of 1848, German and Czech students fought for the addition of the Czech language at the Charles-Ferdinand University as a language of lectures. Due to the demographic changes of the 19th century, Prague ceased to have a German-language majority around 1860. By 1863, 22 lecture courses were held in Czech, the remainder (out of 187) in German. In 1864, Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected this because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions. It soon became clear that neither the German-speaking Bohemians nor the Czechs were satisfied with the bilingual arrangement that the University arranged after the revolutions of 1848. The Czechs also refused to support the idea of the reinstitution of the 1349 student nations, instead declaring their support for the idea of keeping the university together, but dividing it into separate colleges, one German and one Czech. This would allow both Germans and Czechs to retain the collective traditions of the University. German-speakers, however, quickly vetoed this proposal, preferring a pure German university: they proposed to split Charles-Ferdinand University into two separate institutions. After long negotiations, Charles-Ferdinand was divided into a German Charles-Ferdinand University () and a Czech Charles-Ferdinand University () by an act of the Cisleithanian Imperial Council, which Emperor Franz Joseph sanctioned on 28 February 1882. Each section was entirely independent of the other, and enjoyed equal status. The two universities shared medical and scientific institutes, the old insignia, aula, library, and botanical garden, but common facilities were administrated by the German University. The first rector of the Czech University became. In 1890, the Royal and Imperial Czech Charles Ferdinand University had 112 teachers and 2,191 students and the Royal and Imperial German Charles Ferdinand University had 146 teachers and 1,483 students. Both universities had three faculties; the Theological Faculty remained the common until 1891, when it was divided as well. In the winter semester of 1909–10 the German Charles-Ferdinand University had 1,778 students; these were divided into: 58 theological students, for both the secular priesthood and religious orders; 755 law students; 376 medical; 589 philosophical. Among the students were about 80 women. The professors were divided as follows: theology, 7 regular professors, 1 assistant professor, 1 docent; law, 12 regular professors, 2 assistant professors, 4 docents; medicine, 15 regular professors, 19 assistant, 30 docents; philosophy, 30 regular professors, 8 assistant, 19 docents, 7 lecturers. The Czech Charles-Ferdinand University in the winter semester of 1909–10 included 4,319 students; of these 131 were theological students belonging both to the secular and regular clergy; 1,962 law students; 687 medical; 1,539 philosophical; 256 students were women. The professors were divided as follows: theological faculty, 8 regular professors, 2 docents; law, 12 regular, 7 assistant professors, 12 docents; medicine, 16 regular professors, 22 assistant, 24 docents; philosophy, 29 regular, 16 assistant, 35 docents, 11 lecturers. The high point of the German University was the era preceding the First World War, when it was home to world-renowned scientists such as physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, Moritz Winternitz and Albert Einstein. In addition, the German-language students included prominent individuals such as future writers Max Brod, Franz Kafka, and Johannes Urzidil. The "Lese- und Redehalle der deutschen Studenten in Prag" ("Reading and Lecture Hall of the German students in Prague"), founded in 1848, was an important social and scientific centre. Their library contained in 1885 more than 23,519 books and offered 248 scientific journals, 19 daily newspapers, 49 periodicals and 34 papers of entertainment. Regular lectures were held to scientific and political themes. Even before the Austro-Hungarian Empire was abolished in late 1918, to be succeeded by Czechoslovakia, Czech politicians demanded that the insignia of 1348 were exclusively to be kept by the Czech university. The "Act No. 197/1919 Sb. z. a n." established the Protestant Theological Faculty, but not as a part of the Charles University. That changed on 10 May 1990, when it finally became a faculty of the university. In 1920, the so-called "" (No. 135/1920 Sb. z. a n.) was issued, named for its initiator, professor of physiology František Mareš, which determined that the Czech university was to be the successor to the original university. Dropping the Habsburg name "Ferdinand", it designated itself Charles University, while the German university was not named in the document, and then became officially called the German University in Prague (). In 1921 the German-speaking Bohemians considered moving their university to Liberec (), in northern Bohemia. In 1930, about 42,000 inhabitants of Prague spoke German as their native language, while millions lived in northern, southern and western Bohemia, in Czech Silesia and parts of Moravia near the borders with Austria and Germany. In October 1932, after Naegle's death, the Czechs started again a controversy over the insignia. Ethnic tensions intensified, although some professors of the German University were members of the Czechoslovak government. Any agreement to use the insignia for both the universities was rejected. On 21 November 1934, the German University had to hand over the "insigniae" to the Czechs. The German University senate sent a delegation to Minister of Education Krčmář to protest the writ. At noon on 24 November 1934, several thousand students of the Czech University protested in front of the German university building. The Czech rector Karel Domin gave a speech urging the crowd to attack, while the outnumbered German students tried to resist. Under the threat of violence, on 25 November 1934 rector (1873–1951) handed over the "insigniae". These troubles of 1934 harmed relations between the two universities and nationalities. The tide turned in 1938 when, following the Munich Agreement, German troops entered the border areas of Czechoslovakia (the so-called Sudetenland), as did Polish and Hungarian troops elsewhere. On 15 March 1939 Germans forced Czecho-Slovakia to split apart and the Czech lands were occupied by Nazis as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. "Reichsprotektor" Konstantin von Neurath handed the historical "insigniae" to the German University, which was officially renamed "Deutsche Karls-Universität in Prag". On 1 September 1939 the German University was subordinated to the Reich Ministry of Education in Berlin and on 4 November 1939 it was proclaimed to be "Reichsuniversität". On 28 October 1939, during a demonstration, Jan Opletal was shot. His burial on 15 November 1939 became another demonstration. On 17 November 1939 (now marked as International Students' Day) the Czech University and all other Czech institutions of higher learning were closed, remaining closed until the end of the War. Nine student leaders were executed and about 1,200 Czech students were interned in Sachsenhausen and not released until 1943. About 20 or 35 interned students died in the camp. On 8 May 1940 the Czech University was officially renamed Czech Charles University () by government regulation 188/1940 Coll. World War II marks the end of the coexistence of the two universities in Prague. Although the university began to recover rapidly after 1945, it did not enjoy academic freedom for long. After the communist coup in 1948, the new regime started to arrange purges and repress all forms of disagreement with the official ideology, and continued to do so for the next four decades, with the second wave of purges during the "normalization" period in the beginning of the 1970s. Only in the late 1980s did the situation start to improve; students organized various activities and several peaceful demonstrations in the wake of the Revolutions of 1989 abroad. This initiated the "Velvet Revolution" in 1989, in which both students and faculty of the university played a large role. Václav Havel—a writer, dramatist and philosopher was recruited from the independent academic community and appointed president of the republic in December 1989. Charles University does not have one joint campus. The academic facilities occupy many locations throughout the city of Prague and three of the faculties are located in other cities (two of them in Hradec Králové, one in Pilsen). The historical main building from the 14th century called "Carolinum" is situated in the Old Town of Prague and constitutes the university's center. It is the seat of the rector and of the Academic Senate of Charles university. Carolinum is also the venue for official academic ceremonies such as matriculations or graduations. The Botanical Garden of Charles University, maintained by its Faculty of Science, is located in the New Town. Among the four original faculties of Charles University were: the faculty of law, medicine, art (philosophy) and theology (now catholic theology). Today, Charles University consists of 17 faculties, based primarily in Prague, two houses in Hradec Králové and one in Plzeň. According to Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), Charles University ranked in the upper 1.5 percent of the world’s best universities in 2011. It came 201st to 300th out of 17,000 universities worldwide. It is the best university in the Czech Republic and one of the best universities in Central and Eastern Europe only overtaken by Russian Lomonosov Moscow State University at 74th place. It was placed 31st in Times "BRICS & Emerging Economies Rankings 2014" (after 23rd University of Warsaw). It was ranked in 2013 as 201–300 best in the World among 500 universities evaluated by Academic Ranking of World Universities (Shanghai Ranking), 233rd among 500 in QS World University Rankings, 351–400 among 400 universities in Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 485th in CWTS Leiden Ranking of 500 universities. Earlier rankings are presented in following table: Rector of the University Václav Hampl said in 2008: “I am very pleased that Charles University achieved such a great success and I would like to thank to all who have contributed to it. An overwhelming majority of schools with a similar placement like Charles University have incomparably better financing and therefore this success is not only a reflection of professional qualities of our academics but also their personal efforts and dedication.“ According to the QS Subject Ranking Charles University is among the 51–100 best universities in the world in geography and linguistics. In Germany the Charles University in Prague cooperates with the Goethe-University in Frankfurt/Main. Both cities are linked by a long-lasting partnership agreement.

Charles University, known also as Charles University in Prague ( (UK); ; ) or historically as the University of Prague (), is the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic. It is one of the oldest universities in Europe in continuous operation. Today, the university consists of 17 faculties located in Prague, Hradec Králové and Pilsen. Its academic publishing house is Karolinum Press. The university also operates several museums and two botanical gardens.

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summarize: Ježek was born in the Prague quarter of Žižkov to the family of a tailor. He was almost blind from a young age. He studied composition at the Prague Conservatory as a pupil of Karel Boleslav Jirák (1924–1927), at the master school of composition with Josef Suk (1927–1930), and shortly also with Alois Hába (1927–1928). Ježek met the playwrights/comedians Jan Werich and Jiří Voskovec (aka George Voskovec), leaders of the "Osvobozené divadlo" (Prague Liberated Theatre) in Prague, and took up the post of main composer and conductor for the theatre. During the next decade (from 1928 to 1939), he composed incidental music, songs, dances, and ballets for the comic and satirical plays of Voskovec and Werich. In 1934 he became a member of Czech Group of Surrealists. Forced to leave Czechoslovakia following the Nazi occupation, Ježek, Voskovec and Werich went into exile in New York City. He worked as a piano teacher and choirmaster there, and continued to work with Voskovec and Werich. In 1942, the long-ill Ježek died of chronic kidney disease in New York. On December 29, 1941, three days before his death, Ježek married Frances Bečáková. He collaborated with many avant-garde artists of pre-war Czechoslovakia, such as Vítězslav Nezval and E. F. Burian. His musical output is commonly divided into two parts. The first part of his work consists of chamber, piano and concertant compositions, created first under the influence of Stravinsky, of the Parisian Les Six and of Arnold Schönberg. Later he found his own, specific and modern expression. He also became a popular jazz composer in pre-war Czechoslovakia. He composed songs and dances for the revue plays of the Prague Free Theatre (The Ass and the Shadow, Caesar, The Headsman and the Fool e.g.) and also for the films of Voskovec and Werich (Powder and Petrol, The World Is Ours, Heave Ho!). His innovative melodies are well known in the Czech Republic to this day. Ježek was also evidently fascinated by American jazz. Between 1929 and 1936, possibly earlier, he organized and conducted an orchestra featuring his original jazz compositions and arrangements. Billed variously as "Ježek's Jazz" and "Ježkův swingband" they recorded for the Czech "Ultraphon" label, making some of the most original music in Europe. A few of these recordings deserve special mention. "Bugatti Step" (1930; Ultraphone A10166) is an up-tempo number for piano and jazz orchestra, enjoying enduring popularity as a hot jazz piano solo. "Teď ještě ne" (Not Yet) (1931; Ultraphon A10217) is rousing dance music in the Jean Goldkette or Coon-Sanders' Nighthawks style. "Rubbish Heap Blues" (1937; Ultraphon A11421) shows that Ježek not only listened to Duke Ellington's records, but was keeping up with Duke's very latest work. "Rubbish Heap" features a Johnny Hodges-like alto sax and a Cootie Williams-like growl trumpet, plus a three-trombone section to complement the three trumpets. Ježek's composition titled simply "Polonaisa" (1931; Ultraphon A10355) is a traditional Polonaise clothed in modern instrumentation, harmony and textures. It is as if Chopin and Gershwin had collaborated, the Polish dance rhythms mingling easily with hot syncopation. Ježek also turned the boys loose in records of his arrangements of well-known hot jazz standards, such as "Tiger Rag," "Dinah" and "Chinatown, My Chinatown." These recordings, very few of which could have survived the Nazi occupation and World War II, are almost completely unknown, at least in the United States. A seven-volume CD retrospective of Voskovec and Werich's work for the Liberated Theater (1929–1938) containing the items mentioned above and dozens of others was issued by the Czech Supraphon label in 1994 (and reissued in 2007). Orchestral Chamber Piano

Jaroslav Ježek () (September 25, 1906 – January 1, 1942) was a Czechoslovakian composer, pianist and conductor, author of jazz, classical, incidental, and film music.

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summarize: The horror genre has ancient origins with roots in folklore and religious traditions, focusing on death, the afterlife, evil, the demonic and the principle of the thing embodied in the person. These were manifested in stories of beings such as demons, witches, vampires, werewolves and ghosts. European horror fiction became established through works of the Ancient Greeks and Ancient Romans. The well-known 19th-century novel about Frankenstein was greatly influenced by the story of Hippolytus, where Asclepius revives him from death. Euripides wrote plays based on the story, "Hippolytos Kalyptomenos" and "Hippolytus". In Plutarch's "The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans" focused on Cimon, the author describes the spirit of a murderer, Damon, who himself was murdered in a bathhouse in Chaeronea. Pliny the Younger tells the tale of Athenodorus Cananites who bought a haunted house in Athens. Athenodorus was cautious since the house was inexpensive. While writing a book on philosophy, he was visited by a ghostly appearing figure bound in chains. The figure disappeared in the courtyard; the following day, the magistrates dug it up to find an unmarked grave. Werewolf stories were popular in medieval French literature. One of Marie de France's twelve lais is a werewolf story titled "Bisclavret". The Countess Yolande commissioned a werewolf story titled "Guillaume de Palerme". Anonymous writers penned two werewolf stories, "Biclarel" and "Melion". Much horror fiction derives from the cruellest personages of the 15th century. Dracula can be traced to the Prince of Wallachia Vlad III, whose alleged war crimes were published in German pamphlets. A 1499 pamphlet was published by Markus Ayrer, which is most notable for its woodcut imagery. The alleged serial-killer sprees of Gilles de Rais have been seen as the inspiration for "Bluebeard". The motif of the vampiress is most notably derived from the real-life noblewoman and murderess, Elizabeth Bathory, and helped usher in the emergence of horror fiction in the 18th century, such as through László Turóczi's 1729 book "Tragica Historia". The 18th century saw the gradual development of Romanticism and the Gothic horror genre. It drew on the written and material heritage of the Late Middle Ages, finding its form with Horace Walpole's seminal and controversial 1764 novel, "The Castle of Otranto". In fact, the first edition was published disguised as an actual medieval romance from Italy, discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. Once revealed as modern, many found it anachronistic, reactionary, or simply in poor taste but it proved immediately popular. "Otranto" inspired "Vathek" (1786) by William Beckford, "A Sicilian Romance" (1790), "The Mysteries of Udolpho" (1794) and "The Italian" (1796) by Ann Radcliffe and "The Monk" (1797) by Matthew Lewis. A significant amount of horror fiction of this era was written by women and marketed towards a female audience, a typical scenario of the novels being a resourceful female menaced in a gloomy castle. The Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre that modern readers today call horror literature in the 19th century. Influential works and characters that continue resonating in fiction and film today saw their genesis in the Brothers Grimm's "Hänsel und Gretel" (1812), Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" (1818), John Polodori's "The Vampyre" (1819), Charles Maturin's "Melmoth the Wanderer" (1820), Washington Irving's "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820), Jane C. Loudon's "" (1827), Victor Hugo's "The Hunchback of Notre Dame" (1831), Thomas Peckett Prest's "Varney the Vampire" (1847), the works of Edgar Allan Poe, the works of Sheridan Le Fanu, Robert Louis Stevenson's "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde" (1886), Oscar Wilde's "The Picture of Dorian Gray" (1890), H. G. Wells' "The Invisible Man" (1897), and Bram Stoker's "Dracula" (1897). Each of these works created an enduring icon of horror seen in later re-imaginings on the page, stage and screen. A proliferation of cheap periodicals around turn of the century led to a boom in horror writing. For example, Gaston Leroux serialized his "Le Fantôme de l'Opéra" before it became a novel in 1910. One writer who specialized in horror fiction for mainstream pulps, such as "All-Story Magazine," was Tod Robbins, whose fiction deals with themes of madness and cruelty. Later, specialist publications emerged to give horror writers an outlet, prominent among them was "Weird Tales" and "Unknown" "Worlds". Influential horror writers of the early 20th century made inroads in these mediums. Particularly, the venerated horror author H.P. Lovecraft, and his enduring Cthulhu Mythos transformed and popularized the genre of cosmic horror, and M.R. James is credited with redefining the ghost story in that era. The serial murderer became a recurring theme. Yellow journalism and sensationalism of various murderers, such as Jack the Ripper, and lesser so, Carl Panzram, Fritz Haarman, and Albert Fish, all perpetuated this phenomenon. The trend continued in the postwar era, partly renewed after the murders committed by Ed Gein. In 1959, Robert Bloch, inspired by the murders, wrote "Psycho". The crimes committed in 1969 by the Manson family influenced the slasher theme in horror fiction of the 1970s. In 1981, Thomas Harris wrote "Red Dragon", introducing Dr. Hannibal Lecter. In 1988, the sequel to that novel, "The Silence of the Lambs", was published. Early cinema was inspired by many aspects of horror literature, and started a strong tradition of horror films and subgenres that continues to this day. Up until the graphic depictions of violence and gore on the screen commonly associated with 1960s and 1970s slasher films and splatter films, comic books such as those published by EC Comics (most notably "Tales From The Crypt") in the 1950s satisfied readers' quests for horror imagery that the silver screen could not provide. This imagery made these comics controversial, and as a consequence, they were frequently censored. The modern zombie tale dealing with the motif of the living dead harks back to works including H.P. Lovecraft's stories "Cool Air" (1925), "In The Vault" (1926), and "The Outsider" (1926), and Dennis Wheatley's "Strange Conflict" (1941). Richard Matheson's novel "I Am Legend" (1954) influenced an entire genre of apocalyptic zombie fiction emblematized by the films of George A. Romero. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the enormous commercial success of three books - "Rosemary's Baby" (1967) by Ira Levin, "The Exorcist" by William Peter Blatty, and "The Other" by Thomas Tryon - encouraged publishers to begin releasing numerous other horror novels, thus creating a "horror boom". One of the best-known late-20th century horror writers is Stephen King, known for "Carrie", "The Shining", "It", "Misery" and several dozen other novels and about 200 short stories. Beginning in the 1970s, King's stories have attracted a large audience, for which he was awarded by the U.S. National Book Foundation in 2003. Other popular horror authors of the period included Anne Rice, Brian Lumley, Graham Masterton, James Herbert, Dean Koontz, Clive Barker, Ramsey Campbell, and Peter Straub. Best-selling book series of contemporary times exist in genres related to horror fiction, such as the werewolf fiction urban fantasy Kitty Norville books by Carrie Vaughn (2005 onward). Horror elements continue to expand outside the genre. The alternate history of more traditional historical horror in Dan Simmons's 2007 novel "The Terror" sits on bookstore shelves next to genre mash ups such as "Pride and Prejudice and Zombies" (2009), and historical fantasy and horror comics such as "Hellblazer" (1993 onward) and Mike Mignola's Hellboy (1993 onward). Horror also serves as one of the central genres in more complex modern works such as Mark Z. Danielewski's "House of Leaves" (2000), a finalist for the National Book Award. There are many horror novels for teens, such as "The Monstrumologist" by Rick Yancey (2009). Additionally, many movies, particularly animated ones, use a horror aesthetic. These are what can be collectively referred to as "children's horror". Although it's unknown for sure why children enjoy these movies (as it seems counter-intuitive), it is theorized that it is the grotesque monsters that fascinate kids. Tangential to this, the internalized impact of horror television programs and films on children is rather under-researched, especially when compared to the research done on the similar subject of violence in TV and film's impact on the young mind. What little research there is tends to be inconclusive on the impact that viewing such media has. One defining trait of the horror genre is that it provokes an emotional, psychological, or physical response within readers that causes them to react with fear. One of H.P. Lovecraft's most famous quotes about the genre is that: "The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the oldest and strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown." the first sentence from his seminal essay, "Supernatural Horror in Literature". Science fiction historian Darrell Schweitzer has stated "In the simplest sense, a horror story is one that scares us" and "the true horror story requires a sense of evil, not in necessarily in a theological sense; but the menaces must be truly menacing, life-destroying, and antithetical to happiness." In her essay "Elements of Aversion", Elizabeth Barrette articulates the need by some for horror tales in a modern world: In a sense similar to the reason a person seeks out the controlled thrill of a roller coaster, readers in the modern era seek out feelings of horror and terror to feel a sense of excitement. However, Barrette adds that horror fiction is one of the few mediums where readers seek out a form of art that forces themselves to confront ideas and images they "might rather ignore to challenge preconceptions of all kinds." One can see the confrontation of ideas that readers and characters would "rather ignore" throughout literature in famous moments such as Hamlet's musings about the skull of Yorick, its implications of the mortality of humanity, and the gruesome end that bodies inevitably come to. In horror fiction, the confrontation with the gruesome is often a metaphor for the problems facing the current generation of the author. There are many theories as to why people enjoy being scared. For example, "people who like horror films are more likely to score highly for openness to experience, a personality trait linked to intellect and imagination." Stephanie Demetrakopoulos illustrates a common interpretation of one of the benchmarks of the canon of horror literature. Tina Broussard in an Horror Stories - Ghost Stories of Dracula surmises Demetrakopoulos' thesis: It is a now commonly accepted viewpoint that the horror elements of Dracula's portrayal of vampirism are metaphors for sexuality in a repressed Victorian era. But this is merely one of many interpretations of the metaphor of Dracula. Judith Halberstam postulates many of these in her essay "Technologies of Monstrosity: Bram Stoker's Dracula". She writes: Halberstram articulates a view of Dracula as manifesting the growing perception of the aristocracy as an evil and outdated notion to be defeated. The depiction of a multinational band of protagonists using the latest technologies (such as a telegraph) to quickly share, collate, and act upon new information is what leads to the destruction of the vampire. This is one of many interpretations of the metaphor of only one central figure of the canon of horror fiction, as over a dozen possible metaphors are referenced in the analysis, from the religious to the anti-semitic. Noël Carroll's "Philosophy of Horror" postulates that a modern piece of horror fiction's "monster", villain, or a more inclusive menace must exhibit the following two traits: In addition to those essays and articles shown above, scholarship on horror fiction is almost as old as horror fiction itself. In 1826, the gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe published an essay distinguishing two elements of horror fiction, "terror" and "horror." Whereas terror is a feeling of dread that takes place before an event happens, horror is a feeling of revulsion or disgust after an event has happened. Radcliffe describes terror as that which "expands the soul and awakens the faculties to a high degree of life," whereas horror is described as that which "freezes and nearly annihilates them." Modern scholarship on horror fiction draws upon a range of sources. In their historical studies of the gothic novel, both Devandra Varma and S.L. Varnado make reference to the theologian Rudolf Otto, whose concept of the "numinous" was originally used to describe religious experience. A recent survey reports how often horror media is consumed:To assess frequency of horror consumption, we asked respondents the following question: “In the past year, about how often have you used horror media (e.g., horror literature, film, and video games) for entertainment?” 11.3% said “Never,” 7.5% “Once,” 28.9% “Several times,” 14.1% “Once a month,” 20.8% “Several times a month,” 7.3% “Once a week,” and 10.2% “Several times a week.” Evidently, then, most respondents (81.3%) claimed to use horror media several times a year or more often. Unsurprisingly, there is a strong correlation between liking and frequency of use (r=.79, p<.0001). Achievements in horror fiction are recognized by numerous awards. The Horror Writer's Association presents the Bram Stoker Awards for Superior Achievement, named in honor of Bram Stoker, author of the seminal horror novel "Dracula". The Australian Horror Writers Association presents annual Australian Shadows Awards. The International Horror Guild Award was presented annually to works of horror and dark fantasy from 1995 to 2008. The Shirley Jackson Awards are literary awards for outstanding achievement in the literature of psychological suspense, horror, and the dark fantastic works. Other important awards for horror literature are included as subcategories within general awards for fantasy and science fiction in such awards as the Aurealis Award. Some writers of fiction normally classified as "horror" tend to dislike the term, considering it too lurid. They instead use the terms dark fantasy or Gothic fantasy for supernatural horror, or "psychological thriller" for non-supernatural horror.

Horror is a genre of speculative fiction which is intended to frighten, scare, disgust, or startle its readers by inducing feelings of horror and terror. Literary historian J. A. Cuddon defined the horror story as "a piece of fiction in prose of variable length... which shocks, or even frightens the reader, or perhaps induces a feeling of repulsion or loathing". It creates an eerie and frightening atmosphere. Horror is frequently supernatural, though it might also be non-supernatural. Often the central menace of a work of horror fiction can be interpreted as a metaphor for the larger fears of a society.

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summarize: Marshall was born in Noorat, Victoria. At six years old he contracted polio, which left him with a physical disability that grew worse as he grew older. From an early age, he resolved to be a writer, and in "I Can Jump Puddles" he demonstrated an almost total recall of his childhood in Noorat. The characters and places of his book are thinly disguised from real life: "Mount Turalla" is Mount Noorat, "Lake Turalla" is Lake Keilambete, the "Curruthers" are the "Blacks", Mrs. Conlon is Mary Conlon of Dixie, Terang, and his best friend, "Joe" from the books, is Leo Carmody. Australian poet and contemporary, Hal Porter wrote in 1965 that Marshall was: "... the warmest and most centralized human being... To walk with ease and nonchalance the straight, straight line between appearing tragic and appearing willfully brave is a feat so complex I should not like to have to rake in the dark for the super-bravery to accomplish it."During the early 1930s Marshall worked as an accountant at the Trueform Boot and Shoe Company, Clifton Hill and later wrote about life in the factory in his novel "How beautiful are Thy Feet", 1949. Marshall wrote numerous short stories, mainly set in the bush. He also wrote newspaper columns and magazine articles. He traveled widely in Australia and overseas. He also collected and published Indigenous Australian stories and legends. His literary friends and associates included John Morrison and Clem Christesen. He married Olive Dulcie Dixon in May 1941 and they had 2 daughters, Katherine and Jennifer. The couple divorced in 1957. For many years he lived in Sandringham Marshall died on the 21st January 1984 in a nursing home in Brighton East Victoria where he had been a resident for the last two years.His remains are interred at Nillumbik (Diamond Creek) Cemetery, Victoria. In 1981 the Australian Broadcasting Corporation produced a nine-part mini-series of Marshall's autobiographical stories. The actor, Adam Garnett, won the 1982 Logie Awards for "Best Performance by a Juvenile", for his role as Alan Marshall in the series. In 1979 Alan Marshall unveiled a plaque on a monument to himself at his birthplace in Noorat. Marshall was made a Member of the Order of Australia in the 1981 Australia Day Honours. In 1985 the Shire of Eltham, where Marshall had lived for many years, established the annual Alan Marshall Short Story Competition for emergent writers. In 1937, he completed his first novel, "How Beautiful Are Thy Feet", which remained unpublished until 1949. There is a bronze bust of him and a plaque in the Sandringham Library, Melbourne. Sculptor Marcus Skipper created a realistic statue of Marshall cast in bronze which is located in the front of Eltham Library, a branch of Yarra Plenty Regional Library. It has been classified as significant by the National Trust. Alan Marshall Reserve, Eltham is located on the corner of Main Road and Leane Drive, and has been there since at least 2007.

Alan Marshall, (2 May 1902 – 21 January 1984) was an Australian writer, story teller, humanist and social documenter.

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summarize: Edgar Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809, the second child of English-born actress Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe and actor David Poe Jr. He had an elder brother named William Henry Leonard Poe and a younger sister named Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather, David Poe Sr., emigrated from County Cavan, Ireland around 1750. Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeare's "King Lear", which the couple were performing in 1809. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died a year later from consumption (pulmonary tuberculosis). Poe was then taken into the home of John Allan, a successful merchant in Richmond, Virginia who dealt in a variety of goods, including cloth, wheat, tombstones, tobacco, and slaves. The Allans served as a foster family and gave him the name "Edgar Allan Poe", though they never formally adopted him. The Allan family had Poe baptized into the Episcopal Church in 1812. John Allan alternately spoiled and aggressively disciplined his foster son. The family sailed to the United Kingdom in 1815, and Poe attended the grammar school for a short period in Irvine, Ayrshire, Scotland (where Allan was born) before rejoining the family in London in 1816. There he studied at a boarding school in Chelsea until summer 1817. He was subsequently entered at the Reverend John Bransby's Manor House School at Stoke Newington, then a suburb north of London. Poe moved with the Allans back to Richmond in 1820. In 1824, he served as the lieutenant of the Richmond youth honor guard as the city celebrated the visit of the Marquis de Lafayette. In March 1825, Allan's uncle and business benefactor William Galt died, who was said to be one of the wealthiest men in Richmond, leaving Allan several acres of real estate. The inheritance was estimated at $750,000 (). By summer 1825, Allan celebrated his expansive wealth by purchasing a two-story brick house called Moldavia. Poe may have become engaged to Sarah Elmira Royster before he registered at the University of Virginia in February 1826 to study ancient and modern languages. The university was in its infancy, established on the ideals of its founder Thomas Jefferson. It had strict rules against gambling, horses, guns, tobacco, and alcohol, but these rules were mostly ignored. Jefferson had enacted a system of student self-government, allowing students to choose their own studies, make their own arrangements for boarding, and report all wrongdoing to the faculty. The unique system was still in chaos, and there was a high dropout rate. During his time there, Poe lost touch with Royster and also became estranged from his foster father over gambling debts. He claimed that Allan had not given him sufficient money to register for classes, purchase texts, and procure and furnish a dormitory. Allan did send additional money and clothes, but Poe's debts increased. Poe gave up on the university after a year but did not feel welcome returning to Richmond, especially when he learned that his sweetheart Royster had married another man, Alexander Shelton. He traveled to Boston in April 1827, sustaining himself with odd jobs as a clerk and newspaper writer, and he started using the pseudonym Henri Le Rennet during this period. Poe was unable to support himself, so he enlisted in the United States Army as a private on May 27, 1827, using the name "Edgar A. Perry". He claimed that he was even though he was 18. He first served at Fort Independence in Boston Harbor for five dollars a month. That same year, he released his first book, a 40-page collection of poetry titled "Tamerlane and Other Poems", attributed with the byline "by a Bostonian". Only 50 copies were printed, and the book received virtually no attention. Poe's regiment was posted to Fort Moultrie in Charleston, South Carolina and traveled by ship on the brig "Waltham" on November 8, 1827. Poe was promoted to "artificer", an enlisted tradesman who prepared shells for artillery, and had his monthly pay doubled. He served for two years and attained the rank of Sergeant Major for Artillery (the highest rank that a non-commissioned officer could achieve); he then sought to end his five-year enlistment early. Poe revealed his real name and his circumstances to his commanding officer, Lieutenant Howard, who would only allow Poe to be discharged if he reconciled with Allan. Poe wrote a letter to Allan, who was unsympathetic and spent several months ignoring Poe's pleas; Allan may not have written to Poe even to make him aware of his foster mother's illness. Frances Allan died on February 28, 1829, and Poe visited the day after her burial. Perhaps softened by his wife's death, Allan agreed to support Poe's attempt to be discharged in order to receive an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. Poe was finally discharged on April 15, 1829, after securing a replacement to finish his enlisted term for him. Before entering West Point, he moved back to Baltimore for a time to stay with his widowed aunt Maria Clemm, her daughter Virginia Eliza Clemm (Poe's first cousin), his brother Henry, and his invalid grandmother Elizabeth Cairnes Poe. Meanwhile, Poe published his second book "Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane and Minor Poems" in Baltimore in 1829. Poe traveled to West Point and matriculated as a cadet on July 1, 1830. In October 1830, Allan married his second wife Louisa Patterson. The marriage and bitter quarrels with Poe over the children born to Allan out of extramarital affairs led to the foster father finally disowning Poe. Poe decided to leave West Point by purposely getting court-martialed. On February 8, 1831, he was tried for gross neglect of duty and disobedience of orders for refusing to attend formations, classes, or church. He tactically pleaded not guilty to induce dismissal, knowing that he would be found guilty. Poe left for New York in February 1831 and released a third volume of poems, simply titled "Poems." The book was financed with help from his fellow cadets at West Point, many of whom donated 75 cents to the cause, raising a total of $170. They may have been expecting verses similar to the satirical ones that Poe had been writing about commanding officers. It was printed by Elam Bliss of New York, labeled as "Second Edition," and including a page saying, "To the U.S. Corps of Cadets this volume is respectfully dedicated". The book once again reprinted the long poems "Tamerlane" and "Al Aaraaf" but also six previously unpublished poems, including early versions of "To Helen", "Israfel", and "The City in the Sea". Poe returned to Baltimore to his aunt, brother, and cousin in March 1831. His elder brother Henry had been in ill health, in part due to problems with alcoholism, and he died on August 1, 1831. After his brother's death, Poe began more earnest attempts to start his career as a writer, but he chose a difficult time in American publishing to do so. He was one of the first Americans to live by writing alone and was hampered by the lack of an international copyright law. American publishers often produced unauthorized copies of British works rather than paying for new work by Americans. The industry was also particularly hurt by the Panic of 1837. There was a booming growth in American periodicals around this time, fueled in part by new technology, but many did not last beyond a few issues. Publishers often refused to pay their writers or paid them much later than they promised, and Poe repeatedly resorted to humiliating pleas for money and other assistance. After his early attempts at poetry, Poe had turned his attention to prose. He placed a few stories with a Philadelphia publication and began work on his only drama "Politian". The "Baltimore Saturday Visiter" awarded him a prize in October 1833 for his short story "MS. Found in a Bottle". The story brought him to the attention of John P. Kennedy, a Baltimorean of considerable means who helped Poe place some of his stories and introduced him to Thomas W. White, editor of the "Southern Literary Messenger" in Richmond. Poe became assistant editor of the periodical in August 1835, but White discharged him within a few weeks for being drunk on the job. Poe returned to Baltimore where he obtained a license to marry his cousin Virginia on September 22, 1835, though it is unknown if they were married at that time. He was 26 and she was 13. Poe was reinstated by White after promising good behavior, and he went back to Richmond with Virginia and her mother. He remained at the "Messenger" until January 1837. During this period, Poe claimed that its circulation increased from 700 to 3,500. He published several poems, book reviews, critiques, and stories in the paper. On May 16, 1836, he and Virginia held a Presbyterian wedding ceremony at their Richmond boarding house, with a witness falsely attesting Clemm's age as 21. Poe's novel "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" was published and widely reviewed in 1838. In the summer of 1839, Poe became assistant editor of "Burton's Gentleman's Magazine". He published numerous articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing his reputation as a trenchant critic which he had established at the "Messenger". Also in 1839, the collection "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque" was published in two volumes, though he made little money from it and it received mixed reviews. Poe left "Burton's" after about a year and found a position as assistant at "Graham's Magazine". In June 1840, Poe published a prospectus announcing his intentions to start his own journal called "The Stylus", although he originally intended to call it "The Penn", as it would have been based in Philadelphia. He bought advertising space for his prospectus in the June 6, 1840 issue of Philadelphia's "Saturday Evening Post": ""Prospectus of the Penn Magazine, a Monthly Literary journal to be edited and published in the city of Philadelphia by Edgar A. Poe."" The journal was never produced before Poe's death. Around this time, Poe attempted to secure a position within the administration of President John Tyler, claiming that he was a member of the Whig Party. He hoped to be appointed to the United States Custom House in Philadelphia with help from President Tyler's son Robert, an acquaintance of Poe's friend Frederick Thomas. Poe failed to show up for a meeting with Thomas to discuss the appointment in mid-September 1842, claiming to have been sick, though Thomas believed that he had been drunk. Poe was promised an appointment, but all positions were filled by others. One evening in January 1842, Virginia showed the first signs of consumption, now known as tuberculosis, while singing and playing the piano, which Poe described as breaking a blood vessel in her throat. She only partially recovered, and Poe began to drink more heavily under the stress of her illness. He left "Graham's" and attempted to find a new position, for a time angling for a government post. He returned to New York where he worked briefly at the "Evening Mirror" before becoming editor of the "Broadway Journal", and later its owner. There Poe alienated himself from other writers by publicly accusing Henry Wadsworth Longfellow of plagiarism, though Longfellow never responded. On January 29, 1845, his poem "The Raven" appeared in the "Evening Mirror" and became a popular sensation. It made Poe a household name almost instantly, though he was paid only $9 for its publication. It was concurrently published in "" under the pseudonym "Quarles". The "Broadway Journal" failed in 1846, and Poe moved to a cottage in Fordham, New York, in what is now the Bronx. That home is now known as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage, relocated to a park near the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road. Nearby, Poe befriended the Jesuits at St. John's College, now Fordham University. Virginia died at the cottage on January 30, 1847. Biographers and critics often suggest that Poe's frequent theme of the "death of a beautiful woman" stems from the repeated loss of women throughout his life, including his wife. Poe was increasingly unstable after his wife's death. He attempted to court poet Sarah Helen Whitman who lived in Providence, Rhode Island. Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior. There is also strong evidence that Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail their relationship. Poe then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with his childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster. On October 3, 1849, Poe was found delirious on the streets of Baltimore, "in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance", according to Joseph W. Walker, who found him. He was taken to the Washington Medical College, where he died on Sunday, October 7, 1849, at 5:00 in the morning. Poe was not coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition and, oddly, was wearing clothes that were not his own. He is said to have repeatedly called out the name "Reynolds" on the night before his death, though it is unclear to whom he was referring. Some sources say that Poe's final words were, "Lord help my poor soul". All medical records have been lost, including Poe's death certificate. Newspapers at the time reported Poe's death as "congestion of the brain" or "cerebral inflammation", common euphemisms for death from disreputable causes such as alcoholism. The actual cause of death remains a mystery. Speculation has included "delirium tremens", heart disease, epilepsy, syphilis, meningeal inflammation, cholera, and rabies. One theory dating from 1872 suggests that cooping was the cause of Poe's death, a form of electoral fraud in which citizens were forced to vote for a particular candidate, sometimes leading to violence and even murder. Immediately after Poe's death, his literary rival Rufus Wilmot Griswold wrote a slanted high-profile obituary under a pseudonym, filled with falsehoods that cast him as a lunatic and a madman, and which described him as a person who "walked the streets, in madness or melancholy, with lips moving in indistinct curses, or with eyes upturned in passionate prayers, (never for himself, for he felt, or professed to feel, that he was already damned)". The long obituary appeared in the "New York Tribune" signed "Ludwig" on the day that Poe was buried. It was soon further published throughout the country. The piece began, "Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it." "Ludwig" was soon identified as Griswold, an editor, critic, and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842. Griswold somehow became Poe's literary executor and attempted to destroy his enemy's reputation after his death. Griswold wrote a biographical article of Poe called "Memoir of the Author", which he included in an 1850 volume of the collected works. There he depicted Poe as a depraved, drunken, drug-addled madman and included Poe's letters as evidence. Many of his claims were either lies or distorted half-truths. For example, it is seriously disputed that Poe really was a drug addict. Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Poe well, but it became a popularly accepted biographical source. This occurred in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because readers thrilled at the thought of reading works by an "evil" man. Letters that Griswold presented as proof were later revealed to be forgeries. After Poe's death, Griswold convinced Poe's mother-in-law to sign away the rights to his works. Griswold went on to publish the collected works attached with his own fabricated biography of Poe that invented stories of his drunkenness, immorality and instability. Poe's best known fiction works are Gothic, adhering to the genre's conventions to appeal to the public taste. His most recurring themes deal with questions of death, including its physical signs, the effects of decomposition, concerns of premature burial, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning. Many of his works are generally considered part of the dark romanticism genre, a literary reaction to transcendentalism which Poe strongly disliked. He referred to followers of the transcendental movement as "Frog-Pondians", after the pond on Boston Common, and ridiculed their writings as "metaphor—run mad," lapsing into "obscurity for obscurity's sake" or "mysticism for mysticism's sake". Poe once wrote in a letter to Thomas Holley Chivers that he did not dislike transcendentalists, "only the pretenders and sophists among them". Beyond horror, Poe also wrote satires, humor tales, and hoaxes. For comic effect, he used irony and ludicrous extravagance, often in an attempt to liberate the reader from cultural conformity. "Metzengerstein" is the first story that Poe is known to have published and his first foray into horror, but it was originally intended as a burlesque satirizing the popular genre. Poe also reinvented science fiction, responding in his writing to emerging technologies such as hot air balloons in "The Balloon-Hoax". Poe wrote much of his work using themes aimed specifically at mass-market tastes. To that end, his fiction often included elements of popular pseudosciences, such as phrenology and physiognomy. Poe's writing reflects his literary theories, which he presented in his criticism and also in essays such as "The Poetic Principle". He disliked didacticism and allegory, though he believed that meaning in literature should be an undercurrent just beneath the surface. Works with obvious meanings, he wrote, cease to be art. He believed that work of quality should be brief and focus on a specific single effect. To that end, he believed that the writer should carefully calculate every sentiment and idea. Poe describes his method in writing "The Raven" in the essay "The Philosophy of Composition", and he claims to have strictly followed this method. It has been questioned whether he really followed this system, however. T. S. Eliot said: "It is difficult for us to read that essay without reflecting that if Poe plotted out his poem with such calculation, he might have taken a little more pains over it: the result hardly does credit to the method." Biographer Joseph Wood Krutch described the essay as "a rather highly ingenious exercise in the art of rationalization". During his lifetime, Poe was mostly recognized as a literary critic. Fellow critic James Russell Lowell called him "the most discriminating, philosophical, and fearless critic upon imaginative works who has written in America", suggesting—rhetorically—that he occasionally used prussic acid instead of ink. Poe's caustic reviews earned him the reputation of being a "tomahawk man". A favorite target of Poe's criticism was Boston's acclaimed poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who was often defended by his literary friends in what was later called "The Longfellow War". Poe accused Longfellow of "the heresy of the didactic", writing poetry that was preachy, derivative, and thematically plagiarized. Poe correctly predicted that Longfellow's reputation and style of poetry would decline, concluding, "We grant him high qualities, but deny him the Future". Poe was also known as a writer of fiction and became one of the first American authors of the 19th century to become more popular in Europe than in the United States. Poe is particularly respected in France, in part due to early translations by Charles Baudelaire. Baudelaire's translations became definitive renditions of Poe's work throughout Europe. Poe's early detective fiction tales featuring C. Auguste Dupin laid the groundwork for future detectives in literature. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle said, "Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed... Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?" The Mystery Writers of America have named their awards for excellence in the genre the "Edgars". Poe's work also influenced science fiction, notably Jules Verne, who wrote a sequel to Poe's novel "The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket" called "An Antarctic Mystery", also known as "The Sphinx of the Ice Fields". Science fiction author H. G. Wells noted, ""Pym" tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago". In 2013, "The Guardian" cited "Pym" as one of the greatest novels ever written in the English language, and noted its influence on later authors such as Doyle, Henry James, B. Traven, and David Morrell. Horror author and historian H. P. Lovecraft was heavily influenced by Poe’s horror tales, dedicating an entire section of his long essay, “Supernatural Horror in Literature”, to his influence on the genre. In his letters, Lovecraft stated, “When I write stories, Edgar Allan Poe is my model.” Alfred Hitchcock once said, "It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films". Like many famous artists, Poe's works have spawned imitators. One trend among imitators of Poe has been claims by clairvoyants or psychics to be "channeling" poems from Poe's spirit. One of the most notable of these was Lizzie Doten, who published "Poems from the Inner Life" in 1863, in which she claimed to have "received" new compositions by Poe's spirit. The compositions were re-workings of famous Poe poems such as "The Bells", but which reflected a new, positive outlook. Even so, Poe has received not only praise, but criticism as well. This is partly because of the negative perception of his personal character and its influence upon his reputation. William Butler Yeats was occasionally critical of Poe and once called him "vulgar". Transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson reacted to "The Raven" by saying, "I see nothing in it", and derisively referred to Poe as "the jingle man". Aldous Huxley wrote that Poe's writing "falls into vulgarity" by being "too poetical"—the equivalent of wearing a diamond ring on every finger. It is believed that only twelve copies have survived of Poe's first book "Tamerlane and Other Poems". In December 2009, one copy sold at Christie's auctioneers in New York City for $662,500, a record price paid for a work of American literature. "", an essay written in 1848, included a cosmological theory that presaged the Big Bang theory by 80 years, as well as the first plausible solution to Olbers' paradox. Poe eschewed the scientific method in "Eureka" and instead wrote from pure intuition. For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true and considered it to be his career masterpiece. Even so, "Eureka" is full of scientific errors. In particular, Poe's suggestions ignored Newtonian principles regarding the density and rotation of planets. Poe had a keen interest in cryptography. He had placed a notice of his abilities in the Philadelphia paper "Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger", inviting submissions of ciphers which he proceeded to solve. In July 1841, Poe had published an essay called "A Few Words on Secret Writing" in "Graham's Magazine". Capitalizing on public interest in the topic, he wrote "The Gold-Bug" incorporating ciphers as an essential part of the story. Poe's success with cryptography relied not so much on his deep knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram) as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage. The sensation that Poe created with his cryptography stunts played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines. Two ciphers he published in 1841 under the name "W. B. Tyler" were not solved until 1992 and 2000 respectively. One was a quote from Joseph Addison's play "Cato"; the other is still unidentified. Poe had an influence on cryptography beyond increasing public interest during his lifetime. William Friedman, America's foremost cryptologist, was heavily influenced by Poe. Friedman's initial interest in cryptography came from reading "The Gold-Bug" as a child, an interest that he later put to use in deciphering Japan's PURPLE code during World War II. The historical Edgar Allan Poe has appeared as a fictionalized character, often representing the "mad genius" or "tormented artist" and exploiting his personal struggles. Many such depictions also blend in with characters from his stories, suggesting that Poe and his characters share identities. Often, fictional depictions of Poe use his mystery-solving skills in such novels as "The Poe Shadow" by Matthew Pearl. No childhood home of Poe is still standing, including the Allan family's Moldavia estate. The oldest standing home in Richmond, the Old Stone House, is in use as the Edgar Allan Poe Museum, though Poe never lived there. The collection includes many items that Poe used during his time with the Allan family, and also features several rare first printings of Poe works. 13 West Range is the dorm room that Poe is believed to have used while studying at the University of Virginia in 1826; it is preserved and available for visits. Its upkeep is now overseen by a group of students and staff known as the Raven Society. The earliest surviving home in which Poe lived is in Baltimore, preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe House and Museum. Poe is believed to have lived in the home at the age of 23 when he first lived with Maria Clemm and Virginia (as well as his grandmother and possibly his brother William Henry Leonard Poe). It is open to the public and is also the home of the Edgar Allan Poe Society. Of the several homes that Poe, his wife Virginia, and his mother-in-law Maria rented in Philadelphia, only the last house has survived. The Spring Garden home, where the author lived in 1843–1844, is today preserved by the National Park Service as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site. Poe's final home is preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe Cottage in the Bronx. In Boston, a commemorative plaque on Boylston Street is several blocks away from the actual location of Poe's birth. The house which was his birthplace at 62 Carver Street no longer exists; also, the street has since been renamed "Charles Street South". A "square" at the intersection of Broadway, Fayette, and Carver Streets had once been named in his honor, but it disappeared when the streets were rearranged. In 2009, the intersection of Charles and Boylston Streets (two blocks north of his birthplace) was designated "Edgar Allan Poe Square". In March 2014, fundraising was completed for construction of a permanent memorial sculpture, known as "Poe Returning to Boston," at this location. The winning design by Stefanie Rocknak depicts a life-sized Poe striding against the wind, accompanied by a flying raven; his suitcase lid has fallen open, leaving a "paper trail" of literary works embedded in the sidewalk behind him. The public unveiling on October 5, 2014 was attended by former U.S. poet laureate Robert Pinsky. Other Poe landmarks include a building on the Upper West Side where Poe temporarily lived when he first moved to New York. A plaque suggests that Poe wrote "The Raven" here. On Sullivan's Island in Charleston, South Carolina, the setting of Poe's tale "The Gold-Bug" and where Poe served in the Army in 1827 at Fort Moultrie, there is a restaurant called Poe's Tavern. In Fell's Point, Baltimore, a bar still stands where legend says that Poe was last seen drinking before his death. Now known as "The Horse You Came in On", local lore insists that a ghost whom they call "Edgar" haunts the rooms above. Early daguerreotypes of Poe continue to arouse great interest among literary historians. Notable among them are: Between 1949 and 2009, a bottle of cognac and three roses were left at Poe's original grave marker every January 19 by an unknown visitor affectionately referred to as the "Poe Toaster". Sam Porpora was a historian at the Westminster Church in Baltimore where Poe is buried, and he claimed on August 15, 2007 that he had started the tradition in 1949. Porpora said that the tradition began in order to raise money and enhance the profile of the church. His story has not been confirmed, and some details which he gave to the press are factually inaccurate. The Poe Toaster's last appearance was on January 19, 2009, the day of Poe's bicentennial. Tales Poetry Other works

Edgar Allan Poe (; born Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and of American literature as a whole, and he was one of the country's earliest practitioners of the short story. He is also generally considered the inventor of the detective fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. Poe was the first well-known American writer to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a financially difficult life and career.

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10, 31330, 47, 139814, 4, 2750, 509, 2234, 53, 15293, 2347, 9523, 136, 66933, 40368, 21775, 47438, 214, 663, 13, 25, 7, 6221, 162, 74, 139814, 1543, 959, 765, 59121, 47, 663, 13, 3853, 47, 3249, 4049, 107419, 111, 1919, 1738, 56, 42732, 25, 7, 202711, 5, 9942, 7, 139814, 68, 71, 98, 22482, 29835, 543, 4235, 4, 136, 663, 13, 36997, 71, 70, 5155, 7103, 604, 373, 51626, 5, 181799, 32977, 33, 297, 390, 1919, 58386, 25, 7, 47219, 4, 139814, 176506, 47, 8060, 663, 13, 25, 7, 81887, 47, 186, 2837, 69674, 71, 23, 12989, 47, 53299, 142, 164306, 47, 70, 14098, 46684, 67485, 53, 62903, 99, 10542, 41097, 4, 2356, 5753, 5, 663, 13, 509, 77681, 2837, 69674, 71, 98, 7071, 423, 4, 543, 4235, 4, 7103, 134149, 449, 10, 91995, 674, 47, 67229, 1919, 22, 12897, 71, 13579, 100, 4049, 5, 117371, 22, 33558, 10542, 41097, 4, 764, 109133, 4420, 47, 230092, 100, 10, 1733, 47, 24765, 678, 1919, 64685, 2600, 71, 10, 9109, 5379, 82366, 2276, 4, 604, 76849, 118623, 126443, 82366, 2276, 15, 7192, 13, 25, 7, 5117, 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summarize: In the 16th century, European visitors to the Indian subcontinent began to notice similarities among Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and European languages. In 1583, English Jesuit missionary and Konkani scholar Thomas Stephens wrote a letter from Goa to his brother (not published until the 20th century) in which he noted similarities between Indian languages and Greek and Latin. Another account was made by Filippo Sassetti, a merchant born in Florence in 1540, who travelled to the Indian subcontinent. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and Italian (these included "devaḥ"/"dio" "God", "sarpaḥ"/"serpe" "serpent", "sapta"/"sette" "seven", "aṣṭa"/"otto" "eight", and "nava"/"nove" "nine"). However, neither Stephens' nor Sassetti's observations led to further scholarly inquiry. In 1647, Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn noted the similarity among certain Asian and European languages and theorized that they were derived from a primitive common language which he called Scythian. He included in his hypothesis Dutch, Albanian, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, later adding Slavic, Celtic, and Baltic languages. However, Van Boxhorn's suggestions did not become widely known and did not stimulate further research. Ottoman Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi visited Vienna in 1665–1666 as part of a diplomatic mission and noted a few similarities between words in German and in Persian. Gaston Coeurdoux and others made observations of the same type. Coeurdoux made a thorough comparison of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek conjugations in the late 1760s to suggest a relationship among them. Meanwhile, Mikhail Lomonosov compared different language groups, including Slavic, Baltic ("Kurlandic"), Iranian ("Medic"), Finnish, Chinese, "Hottentot" (Khoekhoe), and others, noting that related languages (including Latin, Greek, German and Russian) must have separated in antiquity from common ancestors. The hypothesis reappeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on the striking similarities among three of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, to which he tentatively added Gothic, Celtic, and Persian, though his classification contained some inaccuracies and omissions. In one of the most famous quotations in linguistics, Jones made the following prescient statement in a lecture to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1786, conjecturing the existence of an earlier ancestor language, which he called "a common source" but did not name: Thomas Young first used the term "Indo-European" in 1813, deriving from the geographical extremes of the language family: from Western Europe to North India. A synonym is "Indo-Germanic" ("Idg." or "IdG."), specifying the family's southeasternmost and northwesternmost branches. This first appeared in French ("indo-germanique") in 1810 in the work of Conrad Malte-Brun; in most languages this term is now dated or less common than "Indo-European", although in German "indogermanisch" remains the standard scientific term. A number of other synonymous terms have also been used. Franz Bopp wrote in 1816 "On the conjugational system of the Sanskrit language compared with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic" and between 1833 and 1852 he wrote "Comparative Grammar". This marks the beginning of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline. The classical phase of Indo-European comparative linguistics leads from this work to August Schleicher's 1861 "Compendium" and up to Karl Brugmann's "Grundriss", published in the 1880s. Brugmann's neogrammarian reevaluation of the field and Ferdinand de Saussure's development of the laryngeal theory may be considered the beginning of "modern" Indo-European studies. The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins, Jochem Schindler, and Helmut Rix) developed a better understanding of morphology and of ablaut in the wake of Kuryłowicz's 1956 "Apophony in Indo-European," who in 1927 pointed out the existence of the Hittite consonant ḫ. Kuryłowicz's discovery supported Ferdinand de Saussure's 1879 proposal of the existence of "coefficients sonantiques", elements de Saussure reconstructed to account for vowel length alternations in Indo-European languages. This led to the so-called laryngeal theory, a major step forward in Indo-European linguistics and a confirmation of de Saussure's theory. The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, listed below in alphabetical order In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known languages and language-groups have existed or are proposed to have existed: Membership of languages in the Indo-European language family is determined by genealogical relationships, meaning that all members are presumed descendants of a common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European. Membership in the various branches, groups and subgroups of Indo-European is also genealogical, but here the defining factors are "shared innovations" among various languages, suggesting a common ancestor that split off from other Indo-European groups. For example, what makes the Germanic languages a branch of Indo-European is that much of their structure and phonology can be stated in rules that apply to all of them. Many of their common features are presumed innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages. The "tree model" is considered an appropriate representation of the genealogical history of a language family if communities do not remain in contact after their languages have started to diverge. In this case, subgroups defined by shared innovations form a nested pattern. The tree model is not appropriate in cases where languages remain in contact as they diversify; in such cases subgroups may overlap, and the "wave model" is a more accurate representation. Most approaches to Indo-European subgrouping to date have assumed that the tree model is by-and-large valid for Indo-European; however, there is also a long tradition of wave-model approaches. In addition to genealogical changes, many of the early changes in Indo-European languages can be attributed to language contact. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be areal features. More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, because English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar innovations in Germanic and Balto-Slavic that are far more likely areal features than traceable to a common proto-language, such as the uniform development of a high vowel (*"u" in the case of Germanic, *"i/u" in the case of Baltic and Slavic) before the PIE syllabic resonants *"ṛ, *ḷ, *ṃ, *ṇ", unique to these two groups among IE languages, which is in agreement with the wave model. The Balkan sprachbund even features areal convergence among members of very different branches. An extension to the "Ringe-Warnow model of language evolution", suggests that early IE had featured limited contact between distinct lineages, with only the Germanic subfamily exhibiting a less treelike behaviour as it acquired some characteristics from neighbours early in its evolution. The internal diversification of especially West Germanic is cited to have been radically non-treelike. Specialists have postulated the existence of higher-order subgroups such as Italo-Celtic, Graeco-Armenian, Graeco-Aryan or Graeco-Armeno-Aryan, and Balto-Slavo-Germanic. However, unlike the ten traditional branches, these are all controversial to a greater or lesser degree. The Italo-Celtic subgroup was at one point uncontroversial, considered by Antoine Meillet to be even better established than Balto-Slavic. The main lines of evidence included the genitive suffix "-ī"; the superlative suffix "-m̥mo"; the change of /p/ to /kw/ before another /kw/ in the same word (as in "penkwe" > "*kwenkwe" > Latin "quīnque", Old Irish "cóic"); and the subjunctive morpheme "-ā-". This evidence was prominently challenged by Calvert Watkins; while Michael Weiss has argued for the subgroup. Evidence for a relationship between Greek and Armenian includes the regular change of the second laryngeal to "a" at the beginnings of words, as well as terms for "woman" and "sheep". Greek and Indo-Iranian share innovations mainly in verbal morphology and patterns of nominal derivation. Relations have also been proposed between Phrygian and Greek, and between Thracian and Armenian. Some fundamental shared features, like the aorist (a verb form denoting action without reference to duration or completion) having the perfect active particle -s fixed to the stem, link this group closer to Anatolian languages and Tocharian. Shared features with Balto-Slavic languages, on the other hand (especially present and preterit formations), might be due to later contacts. The Indo-Hittite hypothesis proposes that the Indo-European language family consists of two main branches: one represented by the Anatolian languages and another branch encompassing all other Indo-European languages. Features that separate Anatolian from all other branches of Indo-European (such as the gender or the verb system) have been interpreted alternately as archaic debris or as innovations due to prolonged isolation. Points proffered in favour of the Indo-Hittite hypothesis are the (non-universal) Indo-European agricultural terminology in Anatolia and the preservation of laryngeals. However, in general this hypothesis is considered to attribute too much weight to the Anatolian evidence. According to another view, the Anatolian subgroup left the Indo-European parent language comparatively late, approximately at the same time as Indo-Iranian and later than the Greek or Armenian divisions. A third view, especially prevalent in the so-called French school of Indo-European studies, holds that extant similarities in non-satem languages in general—including Anatolian—might be due to their peripheral location in the Indo-European language-area and to early separation, rather than indicating a special ancestral relationship. Hans J. Holm, based on lexical calculations, arrives at a picture roughly replicating the general scholarly opinion and refuting the Indo-Hittite hypothesis. The division of the Indo-European languages into satem and centum groups was put forward by Peter von Bradke in 1890, although Karl Brugmann did propose a similar type of division in 1886. In the satem languages, which include the Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian branches, as well as (in most respects) Albanian and Armenian, the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European palatovelars remained distinct and were fricativized, while the labiovelars merged with the 'plain velars'. In the centum languages, the palatovelars merged with the plain velars, while the labiovelars remained distinct. The results of these alternative developments are exemplified by the words for "hundred" in Avestan ("satem") and Latin ("centum")—the initial palatovelar developed into a fricative in the former, but became an ordinary velar in the latter. Rather than being a genealogical separation, the centum–satem division is commonly seen as resulting from innovative changes that spread across PIE dialect-branches over a particular geographical area; the centum–satem isogloss intersects a number of other isoglosses that mark distinctions between features in the early IE branches. It may be that the centum branches in fact reflect the original state of affairs in PIE, and only the satem branches shared a set of innovations, which affected all but the peripheral areas of the PIE dialect continuum. Kortlandt proposes that the ancestors of Balts and Slavs took part in satemization before being drawn later into the western Indo-European sphere. Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages form part of one of several hypothetical macrofamilies. However, these theories remain highly controversial, not being accepted by most linguists in the field. Some of the smaller proposed macrofamilies include: Other, greater proposed families including Indo-European languages, include: Objections to such groupings are not based on any theoretical claim about the likely historical existence or non-existence of such macrofamilies; it is entirely reasonable to suppose that they might have existed. The serious difficulty lies in identifying the details of actual relationships between language families, because it is very hard to find concrete evidence that transcends chance resemblance, or is not equally likely explained as being due to borrowing (including Wanderwörter, which can travel very long distances). Because the signal-to-noise ratio in historical linguistics declines over time, at great enough time-depths it becomes open to reasonable doubt that one can even distinguish between signal and noise. The proposed Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. From the 1960s, knowledge of Anatolian became certain enough to establish its relationship to PIE. Using the method of internal reconstruction, an earlier stage, called Pre-Proto-Indo-European, has been proposed. PIE was an inflected language, in which the grammatical relationships between words were signaled through inflectional morphemes (usually endings). The roots of PIE are basic morphemes carrying a lexical meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of endings, these form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs). The reconstructed Indo-European verb system is complex and, like the noun, exhibits a system of ablaut. The diversification of the parent language into the attested branches of daughter languages is historically unattested. The timeline of the evolution of the various daughter languages, on the other hand, is mostly undisputed, quite regardless of the question of Indo-European origins. Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Don Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo-European branches: David Anthony proposes the following sequence: From 1500 BC the following sequence may be given: In reconstructing the history of the Indo-European languages and the form of the Proto-Indo-European language, some languages have been of particular importance. These generally include the ancient Indo-European languages that are both well-attested and documented at an early date, although some languages from later periods are important if they are particularly linguistically conservative (most notably, Lithuanian). Early poetry is of special significance because of the rigid poetic meter normally employed, which makes it possible to reconstruct a number of features (e.g. vowel length) that were either unwritten or corrupted in the process of transmission down to the earliest extant written manuscripts. Most noticeable of all: Other primary sources: Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to poor attestation: Other secondary sources, of lesser value due to extensive phonological changes and relatively limited attestation: As the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, changing according to various sound laws evidenced in the daughter languages. PIE is normally reconstructed with a complex system of 15 stop consonants, including an unusual three-way phonation (voicing) distinction between voiceless, voiced and "voiced aspirated" (i.e. breathy voiced) stops, and a three-way distinction among velar consonants ("k"-type sounds) between "palatal" "ḱ ǵ ǵh", "plain velar" "k g gh" and labiovelar "kw gw gwh". (The correctness of the terms "palatal" and "plain velar" is disputed; see Proto-Indo-European phonology.) All daughter languages have reduced the number of distinctions among these sounds, often in divergent ways. As an example, in English, one of the Germanic languages, the following are some of the major changes that happened: None of the daughter-language families (except possibly Anatolian, particularly Luvian) reflect the plain velar stops differently from the other two series, and there is even a certain amount of dispute whether this series existed at all in PIE. The major distinction between "centum" and "satem" languages corresponds to the outcome of the PIE plain velars: The three-way PIE distinction between voiceless, voiced and voiced aspirated stops is considered extremely unusual from the perspective of linguistic typology—particularly in the existence of voiced aspirated stops without a corresponding series of voiceless aspirated stops. None of the various daughter-language families continue it unchanged, with numerous "solutions" to the apparently unstable PIE situation: Among the other notable changes affecting consonants are: The following table shows the basic outcomes of PIE consonants in some of the most important daughter languages for the purposes of reconstruction. For a fuller table, see Indo-European sound laws. The following table presents a comparison of conjugations of the thematic present indicative of the verbal root * of the English verb "to bear" and its reflexes in various early attested IE languages and their modern descendants or relatives, showing that all languages had in the early stage an inflectional verb system. While similarities are still visible between the modern descendants and relatives of these ancient languages, the differences have increased over time. Some IE languages have moved from synthetic verb systems to largely periphrastic systems. In addition, the pronouns of periphrastic forms are in brackets when they appear. Some of these verbs have undergone a change in meaning as well. Today, Indo-European languages are spoken by 3.2 billion native speakers across all inhabited continents, the largest number by far for any recognised language family. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to "Ethnologue", 10 are Indo-European: Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Punjabi, German, French, and Marathi, accounting for over 1.7 billion native speakers. Additionally, hundreds of millions of persons worldwide study Indo-European languages as secondary or tertiary languages, including in cultures which have completely different language families and historical backgrounds—there are between 600 million and one billion L2 learners of English alone. The success of the language family, including the large number of speakers and the vast portions of the Earth that they inhabit, is due to several factors. The ancient Indo-European migrations and widespread dissemination of Indo-European culture throughout Eurasia, including that of the Proto-Indo-Europeans themselves, and that of their daughter cultures including the Indo-Aryans, Iranian peoples, Celts, Greeks, Romans, Germanic peoples, and Slavs, led to these peoples' branches of the language family already taking a dominant foothold in virtually all of Eurasia except for swathes of the Near East, North and East Asia, replacing many (but not all) of the previously-spoken pre-Indo-European languages of this extensive area. However Semitic languages remain dominant in much of the Middle East and North Africa, and Caucasian languages in much of the Caucasus region. Similarly in Europe and the Urals the Uralic languages (such as Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian etc) remain, as does Basque, a pre-Indo-European Isolate. Despite being unaware of their common linguistic origin, diverse groups of Indo-European speakers continued to culturally dominate and often replace the indigenous languages of the western two-thirds of Eurasia. By the beginning of the Common Era, Indo-European peoples controlled almost the entirety of this area: the Celts western and central Europe, the Romans southern Europe, the Germanic peoples northern Europe, the Slavs eastern Europe, the Iranian peoples most of western and central Asia and parts of eastern Europe, and the Indo-Aryan peoples in the Indian subcontinent, with the Tocharians inhabiting the Indo-European frontier in western China. By the medieval period, only the Semitic, Dravidian, Caucasian, and Uralic languages, and the language isolate Basque remained of the (relatively) indigenous languages of Europe and the western half of Asia. Despite medieval invasions by Eurasian nomads, a group to which the Proto-Indo-Europeans had once belonged, Indo-European expansion reached another peak in the early modern period with the dramatic increase in the population of the Indian subcontinent and European expansionism throughout the globe during the Age of Discovery, as well as the continued replacement and assimilation of surrounding non-Indo-European languages and peoples due to increased state centralization and nationalism. These trends compounded throughout the modern period due to the general global population growth and the results of European colonization of the Western Hemisphere and Oceania, leading to an explosion in the number of Indo-European speakers as well as the territories inhabited by them. Due to colonization and the modern dominance of Indo-European languages in the fields of politics, global science, technology, education, finance, and sports, even many modern countries whose populations largely speak non-Indo-European languages have Indo-European languages as official languages, and the majority of the global population speaks at least one Indo-European language. The overwhelming majority of languages used on the Internet are Indo-European, with English continuing to lead the group; English in general has in many respects become the "lingua franca" of global communication.

The Indo-European languages are a large language family native to western Eurasia. It comprises most of the languages of Europe together with those of the northern Indian Subcontinent and the Iranian Plateau. A few of these languages, such as English, have expanded through colonialism in the modern period and are now spoken across all continents. The Indo-European family is divided into several branches or sub-families, the largest of which are the Indo-Iranian, Germanic, Romance, and Balto-Slavic groups. The most populous individual languages within them are Spanish, English, Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Portuguese, Bengali, Punjabi, and Russian, each with over 100 million speakers. German, French, Marathi, Italian, and Persian have more than 50 million each. In total, 46% of the world's population (3.2 billion) speaks an Indo-European language as a first language, by far the highest of any language family. There are about 445 living Indo-European languages, according to the estimate by "Ethnologue", with over two thirds (313) of them belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch.

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summarize: The official name was "Deutsche Demokratische Republik" (German Democratic Republic), usually abbreviated to "DDR" (GDR). Both terms were used in East Germany, with increasing usage of the abbreviated form, especially since East Germany considered West Germans and West Berliners to be foreigners following the promulgation of its second constitution in 1968. West Germans, the western media and statesmen initially avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like "Ostzone" (Eastern Zone), "Sowjetische Besatzungszone" (Soviet Occupation Zone; often abbreviated to "SBZ") and "sogenannte DDR" or "so-called GDR". The centre Explaining the internal impact of the GDR regime from the perspective of German history in the long term, historian Gerhard A. Ritter (2002) has argued that the East German state was defined by two dominant forcesSoviet communism on the one hand, and German traditions filtered through the interwar experiences of German communists on the other. It always was constrained by the powerful example of the increasingly prosperous West, to which East Germans compared their nation. The changes wrought by the communists were most apparent in ending capitalism and transforming industry and agriculture, in the militarization of society, and in the political thrust of the educational system and the media. On the other hand, there was relatively little change made in the historically independent domains of the sciences, the engineering professions, the Protestant churches, and in many bourgeois lifestyles. Social policy, says Ritter, became a critical legitimization tool in the last decades and mixed socialist and traditional elements about equally. At the Yalta Conference during World War II, the Allies (the US, the UK, and the Soviet Union) agreed on dividing a defeated Nazi Germany into occupation zones, The two former parties were notorious rivals when they were active before the Nazis consolidated all power and criminalised them. The unification of the two parties was symbolic of the new friendship of German socialists in defeating their common enemy; however, the communists, who held a majority, had virtually total control over policy. The SED was the ruling party for the entire duration of the East German state. It had close ties with the Soviets, which maintained military forces in East Germany until its dissolution in 1991 (the Russian Federation continued to maintain forces in what had been East Germany until 1994), with the stated purpose of countering NATO bases in West Germany. As West Germany was reorganized and gained independence from its occupiers, the GDR was established in East Germany in 1949. The creation of the two states solidified the 1945 division of Germany. On 10 March In the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the Allies established their joint military occupation and administration of Germany via the Allied Control Council (ACC), a four-power (US, UK, USSR, France) military government effective until the restoration of German sovereignty. In eastern Germany, the Soviet Occupation Zone (SBZ"Sowjetische Besatzungszone") comprised the five states ("Länder") of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. Disagreements over the policies to be followed in the occupied zones quickly led to a breakdown in cooperation between the four powers, and the Soviets administered their zone without regard to the policies implemented in the other zones. The Soviets withdrew from the ACC in 1948; subsequently as the other three zones were increasingly unified and granted self-government, the Soviet administration instituted a separate socialist government in its zone. Yet, seven years after the Allies' Potsdam Agreement to a unified Germany, the USSR via the Stalin Note (10 March 1952) proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, which the three Western Allies (the On 21 April 1946, the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the part of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet zone merged to form the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), which then won the elections of 1946. The SED's government nationalised infrastructure and industrial plants. In 1948, the German Economic Commission (—DWK) under its chairman Heinrich Rau assumed administrative authority in the Soviet occupation zone, thus becoming the predecessor of an East German government. On 7 October 1949, the SED established the (German Democratic RepublicGDR), based on a socialist political constitution establishing its control of the Anti-Fascist National Front of the German Democratic Republic (NF, ), an omnibus alliance of every party and mass organisation in East Germany. The NF was established to stand for election to the (People's Chamber), the East German parliament. The first and only president of the German Democratic Republic was Wilhelm From the beginning, the newly formed GDR tried to establish its own separate identity. Because of the imperial and military legacy of Prussia, the SED repudiated continuity between Prussia and the GDR. The SED destroyed a number of symbolic relics of the former Prussian aristocracy: the Junker manor houses were torn down, the Berliner Stadtschloß was In May 1989, following widespread public anger over the faking of results of local government elections, many citizens applied for exit visas or left the country contrary to GDR laws. The impetus for this exodus of East Germans was the removal of the electrified fence along Hungary's border with Austria on 2 May. Although formally the Hungarian frontier was still closed, many East Germans took the opportunity to enter the country via Czechoslovakia, and then make the illegal crossing from Hungary into Austria and West Germany beyond. By July, 25,000 East Germans had crossed into Hungary, most of whom did not attempt the risky crossing into Austria but remained instead in Hungary or claimed asylum in West German embassies in Prague or Budapest. The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on August 19, 1989 then set in motion a chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. The idea of opening the border at a ceremony came from Otto von Habsburg and was brought up by There were four periods in East German political history. These included: 1949–61, which saw the building of socialism; 1961–1970 after the Berlin Wall closed off escape was a period of stability and consolidation; 1971–85 was termed the Honecker Era, and saw closer ties with West Germany; and 1985–89 saw the decline and extinction of East Germany. The ruling political party in East Germany was the "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands" (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED). It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone. However, the SED quickly transformed into a full-fledged Communist party as the more independent-minded Social Democrats were pushed out. The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to supporting a democratic form of government in Germany, though the Soviets' understanding of democracy was radically different from that of the West. As in other Soviet-bloc countries, non-communist political parties were allowed. Nevertheless, every political party in the GDR was forced to join the National Front of Democratic Germany, a broad The East German population declined by three million people throughout its forty-one year history, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990; of the 1948 population, some 4 million were deported from the lands east of the Oder-Neisse line, which made the home of millions of Germans part of Poland and the Soviet Union. This was Until 1952, East Germany comprised the capital, East Berlin (though legally it was not fully part of the GDR's territory), and the five German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern (in 1947 renamed Mecklenburg), Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, and Saxony, their post-war territorial demarcations approximating the pre-war German demarcations of the Middle German "Länder" (states) and "Provinzen" (provinces of Prussia). The western parts of two provinces, Pomerania and Lower Silesia, the remainder of which were annexed by Poland, remained in the GDR and were attached to Mecklenburg and Saxony, respectively. The East German Administrative Reform of 1952 The government of East Germany had control over a large number of military and paramilitary organisations through various ministries. Chief among these was the Ministry of National Defence. Because of East Germany's proximity to the West during the Cold War (1945–92), its military forces were among the most advanced of the Warsaw Pact. Defining what was a military force and what was not is a matter of some dispute. The Nationale Volksarmee (NVA) was the largest military organisation in East Germany. It was formed in 1956 from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei (Barracked People's Police), the military units of the regular police (Volkspolizei), when East Germany joined The border troops of the Eastern sector were originally organised as a police force, the Deutsche Grenzpolizei, similar to the Bundesgrenzschutz in West Germany. It was controlled by the Ministry of the Interior. Following the remilitarisation of East After the NVA was separated from the Volkspolizei in 1956, the Ministry of the Interior maintained its own The Ministry of State Security (Stasi) included the Felix Dzerzhinsky Guards Regiment, which was mainly involved with facilities security and plain clothes events security. The "Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse" (combat groups of the working class) numbered around 400,000 for much of their existence, and were organised around factories. The KdA was the political-military instrument of the Every man was required to serve eighteen months of compulsory military service; for the medically unqualified and conscientious objector, there were the "Baueinheiten" (construction units), established in 1964, The East German state promoted an "anti-imperialist" line that was reflected in all its media and all the schools. This line followed Lenin's theory of imperialism as the highest and last stage of capitalism, and Dimitrov's theory of fascism as the After receiving wider international diplomatic recognition in 1972–73, the GDR began active cooperation with Third World socialist governments and national liberation movements. While the USSR was in control of the overall strategy and Cuban armed forces were involved in the actual combat (mostly in the People's Republic of Angola and socialist Ethiopia), the GDR provided experts for military hardware maintenance and personnel training, and oversaw creation of secret security agencies based on its own Stasi model. East Germany pursued an anti-Zionist policy; Jeffrey Herf argues that East Germany was waging an undeclared war on Israel. According to Herf, "the Middle East was one of the crucial battlefields of the global Cold War between the Soviet Union and the West; it was also a region in which East Germany played a salient role in the Soviet bloc's antagonism toward Israel." While East Germany saw itself The East German economy began poorly because of the devastation caused by the Second World War; the loss of so many young soldiers, the disruption of business and transportation, the allied bombing campaigns that decimated cities, and reparations owed to the USSR. The Red Army dismantled and transported to Russia the infrastructure and industrial plants of the Soviet Zone of Occupation. By the early 1950s, the reparations were paid in agricultural and industrial products; and Lower Silesia, with its coal mines and Szczecin, an important natural port, were given to Poland by the decision of Stalin and in accordance with Potsdam Agreement. The socialist centrally planned economy of the German Democratic Republic was like that of the USSR. In 1950, the GDR joined the COMECON trade bloc. In 1985, collective (state) enterprises earned 96.7% of the net national income. To ensure stable prices for goods and services, the state paid 80% of basic supply costs. The estimated 1984 per capita income was $9,800 ($22,600 in 2015 dollars). In 1976, the average annual growth of the GDP was approximately five percent. This made East German economy the richest in all of the Soviet Bloc until reunification in 1990. Notable East German exports were photographic cameras, under the Praktica brand; automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg, and the IFA brands; hunting rifles, sextants, typewriters and wristwatches. Until the 1960s, East Germans endured shortages of basic foodstuffs such as sugar and coffee. East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or with any access to a hard currency) and the necessary Staatsbank foreign currency account could afford Western products and export-quality East German products via Intershop. Consumer goods also were available, by post, from the Danish Jauerfood, and Genex companies. The government used money and prices as political devices, providing highly subsidised prices for a wide range of basic goods and services, in what was known as "the second pay packet". At the production level, artificial prices made for a system of semi-barter and resource hoarding. For the consumer, it led to the substitution of GDR money with time, barter, and hard currencies. The socialist economy became steadily more dependent on financial infusions from hard-currency loans from West Germany. East Germans, meanwhile, came to see their soft currency as worthless relative to the Deutsche Mark (DM). Economic issues would also persist in the east of Germany after the reunification of the west and the east, James Hawes in his book 'the shortest history of Germany'. Quotes from the federal office of political education (23 June 2009) 'In 1991 alone, 153 billion Deutschmarks had to be transferred to eastern Germany to secure incomes, support businesses and improve infrastructure... by 1999 the total had amounted to 1.634 trillion Marks net... The sums were so large that public debt in Germany more than doubled.' Religion became contested ground in the GDR, with the governing Communists promoting state atheism, although some people remained loyal to Christian communities. In 1957 the State authorities established a State Secretariat for Church Affairs to handle the government's contact with churches and with religious groups; the SED remained officially atheist. In 1950, 85% of the GDR citizens were Protestants, while 10% were Catholics. In 1961, the renowned philosophical theologian Paul Tillich claimed that the Protestant population in East Germany had the most admirable Church in Protestantism, because the Communists there had not been able to win a spiritual victory over them. By 1989, membership in the Christian churches dropped significantly. Protestants constituted 25% of the population, Catholics 5%. The share of people who considered themselves non-religious rose from 5% in 1950 to 70% in 1989. When it first came to power, the Communist party asserted the compatibility of Christianity and Marxism and sought Christian participation in the building of socialism. At first the promotion of Marxist-Leninist atheism received little official attention. In the mid-1950s, as the Cold War heated up, atheism became a topic of major interest for the state, in both domestic and foreign contexts. University East Germany, historically, was majority Protestant (primarily Lutheran) from the early stages of the Protestant Reformation onwards. In 1948, freed from the influence of the Nazi-oriented German Christians, Lutheran, Reformed and United churches from most parts of Germany came together as the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) at the Conference of Eisenach ("Kirchenversammlung von Eisenach"). In 1969 the regional Protestant churches in East Germany and East Berlin broke away from the EKD and formed the "Federation of Protestant Churches in the German Democratic Republic" (, BEK), in 1970 also joined by the Moravian "Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine". In June 1991, following the German reunification, the BEK churches again merged with the EKD ones. Between 1956 and 1971 the leadership of the East German Lutheran churches gradually changed its relations with the state from hostility to cooperation. From the founding of the GDR in 1949, the Socialist Unity Party sought to weaken the influence of the church on the rising generation. The church adopted an attitude of confrontation and distance toward the state. Around 1956 this began to develop into a more neutral stance accommodating conditional loyalty. The government was no longer regarded as The smaller Catholic Church in eastern Germany had a fully functioning episcopal hierarchy that was in full accord with the Vatican. During the early postwar years, tensions were high. The Catholic Church as a whole (and particularly the bishops) resisted both the East German state and Marxist ideology. The state allowed the bishops to lodge protests, which they did on issues such as abortion. After 1945 the Church did fairly well in integrating Catholic exiles from lands to the east (which mostly became part of Poland) and in adjusting its institutional structures to meet the needs of East Germany's culture was strongly influenced by communist thought and was marked by an attempt to define itself in opposition to the west, particularly West Germany and the United States. Critics of the East German state have claimed that the state's commitment to Communism was a hollow and cynical tool, Machiavellian in nature, but this assertion has been challenged by studies that have found that the East German leadership was genuinely committed to the advance of scientific knowledge, economic development, and social progress. However, Pence and Betts argue, the majority of East Germans over time increasingly regarded the state's ideals to be hollow, though there was also a substantial number of East Germans who regarded their culture as having a healthier, more authentic mentality than that of West Germany. GDR culture and politics were limited by the harsh censorship. The Puhdys and Karat were some of the most popular mainstream bands in East Germany. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as "Neues Leben" and "Magazin". Other popular rock bands were, City, Silly and Pankow. Most of these artists recorded on the state-owned AMIGA label. Schlager, which was very popular in the west, also gained a foothold early on in East Germany, and numerous musicians, such as,, and gained national fame. From 1962 to 1976, an international schlager festival was held in Rostock, garnering participants from between 18 and 22 countries each year. The city of Dresden held a similar international festival for schlager musicians from 1971 until shortly before reunification. There was a national schlager contest hosted yearly in Magdeburg from 1966 to 1971 as well. Bands and singers from other Communist countries were popular, e.g. Czerwone Gitary from Poland known as the "Rote Gitarren". Czech Karel Gott, the Golden Voice from Prague, was beloved in both German states. Hungarian band Omega East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the "Theater am Schiffbauerdamm" with his Berliner Ensemble. Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a "Working Class Theatre", played for the working class by the working class. After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's legacy, including Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall. In the 1950s the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with "The Dragon" by The prolific cinema of East Germany was headed by the DEFA, "Deutsche Film AG", which was subdivided in different local groups, for example "Gruppe Berlin", "Gruppe Babelsberg" or "Gruppe Johannisthal", where the local teams shot and produced films. The East German industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies ("Das kalte Herz", film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy tales and modern productions such as "Das Schulgespenst"). Frank Beyer's "Jakob der Lügner" (Jacob the Liar), about the Holocaust, and "Fünf Patronenhülsen" (Five Cartridges), about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous. Films about daily life, such as "Die Legende von Paul und Paula", by Heiner Carow, and "Solo Sunny", directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase, were very popular. The film industry was remarkable for its production of "Ostern", or Western-like movies. Amerindians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the North American westerns of the time, where they were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed East Germany was very successful in the sports of cycling, weight-lifting, swimming, gymnastics, track and field, boxing, ice skating, and winter sports. The success is largely attributed to doping under the direction of Manfred Höppner, a sports doctor, described as the architect of East Germany's state-sponsored drug program. Anabolic steroids were the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years. The development and implementation of a state-supported sports doping program helped East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in sport during the 1970s and 1980s, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records. Another factor for success was the furtherance system for young people in GDR. Sport teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain Television and radio in East Germany were state-run industries; the "Rundfunk der DDR" was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until unification. The The sexual culture of both German districts was different. East Germany had a cultural acceptance of birth control and premarital sex, in contrast to the West. As a result of this East Germans had sex earlier and more often. Scholars such as Kristen Ghodsee have attributed the higher women orgasm rate (80%) and By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system. There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 Telex stations. Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office). East Germany was assigned telephone country code +37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code +49. An unusual feature of the telephone network Margot Honecker, former Minister for Education of East Germany, said: Many East Germans initially regarded the dissolution of the GDR positively. But this reaction soon turned sour. West Germans often acted as if they had "won" and East Germans had "lost" in unification, leading many East Germans ("Ossis") to resent West Germans ("Wessis"). In 2004, Ascher Barnstone wrote, "East Germans resent the wealth possessed by West Germans; West Germans see the East Germans as lazy opportunists who want something for nothing. East Germans find 'Wessis' arrogant and pushy, West Germans think the 'Ossis' are lazy good-for-nothings." Unification and subsequent federal policies led to serious economic hardships for many East Germans that had List of sovereign states Europe

East Germany, officially the German Democratic Republic (GDR;, ), was a state that existed from 1949 to 1990, the period when the eastern portion of Germany was part of the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War. Commonly described as a communist state in English usage, it described itself as a socialist "workers' and peasants' state". It consisted of territory that was administered and occupied by Soviet forces following the end of World War II—the Soviet occupation zone of the Potsdam Agreement, bounded on the east by the Oder–Neisse line. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin but did not include it and West Berlin remained outside the jurisdiction of the GDR.

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summarize: Zdeněk Liška was born on 16 March 1922 in Smečno near Kladno in central Bohemia. His father and grandfather were amateur municipal musicians. As a child he learned to play the accordion and the violin; while in high school, he composed his first song. He studied composition and conducting at Prague Conservatory under Rudolf Karel, Otakar Šín, Metod Doležil, and Karel Janeček. He graduated from the Conservatory in 1944. After a brief stint as a conductor of an amateur orchestra in Slaný and as a teacher at a Humpolec music school, he joined the Zlín Film Studios in 1945. Liška worked notably with animator Jan Švankmajer, scoring several of his earlier short films: "Punch and Judy" (1966), "Et Cetera" (1966), "Historia Naturae (Suita)" (1967), "The Flat" (1968), "Don Juan" (1969), "The Ossuary" (1970), "Jabberwocky" (1971), and "Leonardo's Diary" (1972), and later "The Castle of Otranto" (1979). Liška's music for Švankmajer's "Historia Naturae (Suita)", "The Flat", and "The Ossuary" was also featured in the 1984 short film by American animators the Brothers Quay entitled "The Cabinet of Jan Švankmajer". He also created a great number of iconic scores for important live-action films of the Czech New Wave including "The Shop on Main Street", "Marketa Lazarová", "The Valley of the Bees", "Fruit of Paradise" and "Ikarie XB-1". In addition to his feature-film work, Liška wrote music for the travel documentary films of Hanzelka and Zikmund, for Laterna Magika, for twelve of Karel Zeman's Mr. Prokouk films, and for various popular science short films. The main theme he wrote for the heavily propagandist television series "Thirty Cases of Major Zeman" is still widely remembered in the Czech Republic, where it is often played by rock bands. In the mid-twentieth century, he was among the most well-known Czech film composers and the foremost Czech composer of fantasy film scores. He was noted for his skill with musical characterizations and humor in music, as well as his creative use of electronic music techniques. His score for "Death Is Called Engelchen" won a prize in a competition for the best Czechoslovak feature-length film score of 1963.

Zdeněk Liška (16 March 1922 – 13 August 1983) was a Czech composer who produced a large number of film scores across a prolific career that started in the 1950s. He was revelatory in his contribution to the development of electronic music. His music in this field is noticeable and dramatic, based on a unique musical feeling achieved using quite unusual instrumental combinations and various electronic and electroacoustic techniques.

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summarize: Since the interwar period scholars have conventionally divided Slavic languages, on the basis of geographical and genealogical principle, and with the use of the extralinguistic feature of script, into three main branches, that is, East, West and South. (From the vantage of linguistic features alone, there are only two branches of the Slavic languages, namely North and South. These three conventional branches feature some of the following subbranches: Some linguists speculate that a North Slavic branch has existed as well. The Old Novgorod dialect may have reflected some idiosyncrasies of this group. Mutual intelligibility also plays a role in determining the West, East, and South branches. Speakers of languages within the same branch will in most cases be able to understand each other at least partially, but they are generally unable to across branches (which would be comparable to a native English speaker trying to understand any other Germanic language besides Scots). The most obvious differences between the East, West and South Slavic branches are in the orthography of the standard languages: West Slavic languages (and Western South Slavic languages – Croatian and Slovene) are written in the Latin script, and have had more Western European influence due to their proximity and speakers being historically Roman Catholic, whereas the East Slavic and Eastern South Slavic languages are written in Cyrillic and, with Eastern Orthodox or Uniate faith, have had more Greek influence. East Slavic languages such as Russian have, however, during and after Peter the Great's Europeanization campaign, absorbed many words of Latin, French, German, and Italian origin. The tripartite division of the Slavic languages does not take into account the spoken dialects of each language. Of these, certain so-called transitional dialects and hybrid dialects often bridge the gaps between different languages, showing similarities that do not stand out when comparing Slavic literary (i.e. standard) languages. For example, Slovak (West Slavic) and Ukrainian (East Slavic) are bridged by the Rusyn language/dialect of Eastern Slovakia and Western Ukraine. Similarly, the Croatian Kajkavian dialect is more similar to Slovene than to the standard Croatian language. Although the Slavic languages diverged from a common proto-language later than any other group of the Indo-European language family, enough differences exist between the various Slavic dialects and languages to make communication between speakers of different Slavic languages difficult. Within the individual Slavic languages, dialects may vary to a lesser degree, as those of Russian, or to a much greater degree, as those of Slovene. Slavic languages descend from Proto-Slavic, their immediate parent language, ultimately deriving from Proto-Indo-European, the ancestor language of all Indo-European languages, via a Proto-Balto-Slavic stage. During the Proto-Balto-Slavic period a number of exclusive isoglosses in phonology, morphology, lexis, and syntax developed, which makes Slavic and Baltic the closest related of all the Indo-European branches. The secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE. A minority of Baltists maintain the view that the Slavic group of languages differs so radically from the neighboring Baltic group (Lithuanian, Latvian, and the now-extinct Old Prussian), that they could not have shared a parent language after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European continuum about five millennia ago. Substantial advances in Balto-Slavic accentology that occurred in the last three decades, however, make this view very hard to maintain nowadays, especially when one considers that there was most likely no "Proto-Baltic" language and that West Baltic and East Baltic differ from each other as much as each of them does from Proto-Slavic. The imposition of Old Church Slavonic on Orthodox Slavs was often at the expense of the vernacular. Says WB Lockwood, a prominent Indo-European linguist, "It (O.C.S) remained in use to modern times but was more and more influenced by the living, evolving languages, so that one distinguishes Bulgarian, Serbian, and Russian varieties. The use of such media hampered the development of the local languages for literary purposes, and when they do appear the first attempts are usually in an artificially mixed style." (148) Lockwood also notes that these languages have "enriched" themselves by drawing on Church Slavonic for the vocabulary of abstract concepts. The situation in the Catholic countries, where Latin was more important, was different. The Polish Renaissance poet Jan Kochanowski and the Croatian Baroque writers of the 16th century all wrote in their respective vernaculars (though Polish itself had drawn amply on Latin in the same way Russian would eventually draw on Church Slavonic). Although Church Slavonic hampered vernacular literatures, it fostered Slavonic literary activity and abetted linguistic independence from external influences. Only the Croatian vernacular literary tradition nearly matches Church Slavonic in age. It began with the Vinodol Codex and continued through the Renaissance until the codifications of Croatian in 1830, though much of the literature between 1300 and 1500 was written in much the same mixture of the vernacular and Church Slavonic as prevailed in Russia and elsewhere. The most important early monument of Croatian literacy is the Baška tablet from the late 11th century. It is a large stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island of Krk, containing text written mostly in Čakavian dialect in angular Croatian Glagolitic script. The independence of Dubrovnik facilitated the continuity of the tradition. More recent foreign influences follow the same general pattern in Slavic languages as elsewhere and are governed by the political relationships of the Slavs. In the 17th century, bourgeois Russian ("delovoi jazyk") absorbed German words through direct contacts between Russians and communities of German settlers in Russia. In the era of Peter the Great, close contacts with France invited countless loan words and calques from French, many of which not only survived but also replaced older Slavonic loans. In the 19th century, Russian influenced most literary Slavic languages by one means or another. The Proto-Slavic language existed until around AD 500. By the 7th century, it had broken apart into large dialectal zones. There are no reliable hypotheses about the nature of the subsequent breakups of West and South Slavic. East Slavic is generally thought to converge to one Old East Slavic language, which existed until at least the 12th century. Linguistic differentiation was accelerated by the dispersion of the Slavic peoples over a large territory, which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of Slavic-speaking majorities. Written documents of the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries already display some local linguistic features. For example, the Freising manuscripts show a language that contains some phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovene dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word "krilatec"). The Freising manuscripts are the first Latin-script continuous text in a Slavic language. The migration of Slavic speakers into the Balkans in the declining centuries of the Byzantine Empire expanded the area of Slavic speech, but the pre-existing writing (notably Greek) survived in this area. The arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia in the 9th century interposed non-Slavic speakers between South and West Slavs. Frankish conquests completed the geographical separation between these two groups, also severing the connection between Slavs in Moravia and Lower Austria (Moravians) and those in present-day Styria, Carinthia, East Tyrol in Austria, and in the provinces of modern Slovenia, where the ancestors of the Slovenes settled during first colonisation. In September 2015, Alexei Kassian and Anna Dybo published, as a part of interdisciplinary study of Slavic ethnogenesis, a lexicostatistical classification of Slavic languages. It was built using qualitative 110-word Swadesh lists that were compiled according to the standards of the Global Lexicostatistical Database project and processed using modern phylogenetic algorithms. The resulting dated tree complies with the traditional expert views on the Slavic group structure. Kassian-Dybo's tree suggests that Proto-Slavic first diverged into three branches: Eastern, Western and Southern. The Proto-Slavic break-up is dated to around 100 A.D., which correlates with the archaeological assessment of Slavic population in the early 1st millennium A.D. being spread on a large territory and already not being monolithic. Then, in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., these three Slavic branches almost simultaneously divided into sub-branches, which corresponds to the fast spread of the Slavs through Eastern Europe and the Balkans during the second half of the 1st millennium A.D. (the so-called Slavicization of Europe). The Slovenian language was excluded from the analysis, as both Ljubljana koine and Literary Slovenian show mixed lexical features of Southern and Western Slavic languages (which could possibly indicate the Western Slavic origin of Slovenian, which for a long time was being influenced on the part of the neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects), and the quality Swadesh lists were not yet collected for Slovenian dialects. Because of scarcity or unreliability of data, the study also did not cover the so-called Old Novgordian dialect, the Polabian language and some other Slavic lects. The above Kassian-Dybo's research did not take into account the findings by Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak who stated that in the 11th century Novgorod language differed from Kiev language as well as from all other Slavic languages much more than in later centuries, meaning that there was no common Old East Slavic language of Kievan Rus' from which Ukrainian, Russian and Belorusian languages diverged, but that Russian language developed as convergence of Novgorod language and other Russian dialects, whereas Ukrainian and Belorusian were continuation of developement of respective Kiev and Polotsk dialects of Kievan Rus'. Also Russian linguist Sergey Nikolaev, analysing historical development of Slavic dialects’ accent system, concluded that a number of other tribes in Kievan Rus came from different Slavic branches and spoke distant Slavic dialects. Zaliznyak and Nikolaev's points mean that there was a convergence stage before the divergence or simultaneously, which was not taken into consideration by Kassian-Dybo's research. Ukrainian linguists (Stepan Smal-Stotsky, Ivan Ohienko, George Shevelov, Yevhen Tymchenko, Vsevolod Hantsov, Olena Kurylo) deny the existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. According to them, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages. The following is a summary of the main changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) leading up to the Common Slavic (CS) period immediately following the Proto-Slavic language (PS). The Slavic languages are a relatively homogeneous family, compared with other families of Indo-European languages (e.g. Germanic, Romance, and Indo-Iranian). As late as the 10th century AD, the entire Slavic-speaking area still functioned as a single, dialectally differentiated language, termed "Common Slavic". Compared with most other Indo-European languages, the Slavic languages are quite conservative, particularly in terms of morphology (the means of inflecting nouns and verbs to indicate grammatical differences). Most Slavic languages have a rich, fusional morphology that conserves much of the inflectional morphology of Proto-Indo-European. The following table shows the inventory of consonants of Late Common Slavic: The sound did not occur in West Slavic, where it had developed to. This inventory of sounds is quite similar to what is found in most modern Slavic languages. The extensive series of palatal consonants, along with the affricates *ts and *dz, developed through a series of palatalizations that happened during the Proto-Slavic period, from earlier sequences either of velar consonants followed by front vowels (e.g. *ke, *ki, *ge, *gi, *xe, and *xi), or of various consonants followed by *j (e.g. *tj, *dj, *sj, *zj, *rj, *lj, *kj, and *gj, where *j is the palatal approximant (, the sound of the English letter "y" in "yes" or "you"). The biggest change in this inventory results from a further general palatalization occurring near the end of the Common Slavic period, where "all" consonants became palatalized before front vowels. This produced a large number of new palatalized (or "soft") sounds, which formed pairs with the corresponding non-palatalized (or "hard") consonants and absorbed the existing palatalized sounds. These sounds were best preserved in Russian but were lost to varying degrees in other languages (particularly Czech and Slovak). The following table shows the inventory of modern Russian: This general process of palatalization did not occur in Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian. As a result, the modern consonant inventory of these languages is nearly identical to the Late Common Slavic inventory. Late Common Slavic tolerated relatively few consonant clusters. However, as a result of the loss of certain formerly present vowels (the weak yers), the modern Slavic languages allow quite complex clusters, as in the Russian word взблеск ("flash"). Also present in many Slavic languages are clusters rarely found cross-linguistically, as in Russian ртуть ("mercury") or Polish mchu ("moss", gen. sg.). The word for "mercury" with the initial "rt-" cluster, for example, is also found in the other East and West Slavic languages, although Slovak retains an epenthetic vowel ("ortuť"). A typical vowel inventory is as follows: The sound occurs only in some languages (Russian and Belarusian), and even in these languages, it is unclear whether it is its own phoneme or an allophone of /i/. Nonetheless, it is a quite prominent and noticeable characteristic of the languages in which it is present. Common Slavic also had two nasal vowels: *ę and *ǫ. However, these are preserved only in modern Polish (along with a few lesser-known dialects and microlanguages; see Yus for more details). Other phonemic vowels are found in certain languages (e.g. the schwa in Bulgarian and Slovenian, distinct high-mid and low-mid vowels in Slovenian, and the lax front vowel in Ukrainian). An area of great difference among Slavic languages is that of prosody (i.e. syllabic distinctions such as vowel length, accent, and tone). Common Slavic had a complex system of prosody, inherited with little change from Proto-Indo-European. This consisted of phonemic vowel length and a free, mobile pitch accent: The modern languages vary greatly in the extent to which they preserve this system. On one extreme, Serbo-Croatian preserves the system nearly unchanged (even more so in the conservative Chakavian dialect); on the other, Macedonian has basically lost the system in its entirety. Between them are found numerous variations: Similarly, Slavic languages have extensive morphophonemic alternations in their derivational and inflectional morphology, including between velar and postalveolar consonants, front and back vowels, and a vowel and no vowel. The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Slavic language family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them. Most languages of the former Soviet Union and of some neighbouring countries (for example, Mongolian) are significantly influenced by Russian, especially in vocabulary. The Romanian, Albanian, and Hungarian languages show the influence of the neighboring Slavic nations, especially in vocabulary pertaining to urban life, agriculture, and crafts and trade—the major cultural innovations at times of limited long-range cultural contact. In each one of these languages, Slavic lexical borrowings represent at least 15% of the total vocabulary. However, Romanian has much lower influence from Slavic than Albanian or Hungarian. This is potentially because Slavic tribes crossed and partially settled the territories inhabited by ancient Illyrians and Vlachs on their way to the Balkans. Although also spoken in neighbouring lands, the Germanic languages show less significant Slavic influence, partly because Slavic migrations were mostly headed south rather than west. Slavic tribes did push westwards into Germanic territory, but borrowing for the most part seems to have been from Germanic to Slavic rather than the other way: for instance, the now-extinct Polabian language was heavily influenced by German, far more than any living Slavic language today. The Slavic contributions to Germanic languages remains a moot question, though Max Vasmer, a specialist in Slavic etymology, has claimed that there were no Slavic loans into Proto-Germanic. The only Germanic languages that show significant Slavic influence are Yiddish and the historical colonial dialects of German that were spoken East of the Oder–Neisse line, such as Silesian German (formerly spoken in Silesia and South of East Prussia) and the Eastern varieties of East Low German, with the exception of Low Prussian, which had a strong Baltic substratum. Modern Dutch slang, especially the Amsterdam dialect, borrowed much from Yiddish in turn. However, there are isolated Slavic loans (mostly recent) into other Germanic languages. For example, the word for "border" (in modern German "Grenze", Dutch "grens") was borrowed from the Common Slavic "granica". There are, however, many cities and villages of Slavic origin in Eastern Germany, the largest of which are Berlin, Leipzig and Dresden. English derives "quark" (a kind of cheese, not the subatomic particle) from the German "Quark", which in turn is derived from the Slavic "tvarog", which means "curd". Many German surnames, particularly in Eastern Germany and Austria, are Slavic in origin. Swedish also has "torg" (market place) from Old Russian "tъrgъ" or Polish "targ", "tolk" (interpreter) from Old Slavic "tlŭkŭ", and "pråm" (barge) from West Slavonic "pramŭ". The Czech word is now found in most languages worldwide, and the word, probably also from Czech, is found in many European languages, such as Greek "". A well-known Slavic word in almost all European languages is vodka, a borrowing from Russian "водка" ("vodka") – which itself was borrowed from Polish "wódka" (lit. "little water"), from common Slavic "voda" ("water", cognate to the English word) with the diminutive ending "-ka". Owing to the medieval fur trade with Northern Russia, Pan-European loans from Russian include such familiar words as "sable". The English word "vampire" was borrowed (perhaps via French "vampire") from German "Vampir", in turn derived from Serbian "vampir", continuing Proto-Slavic "*ǫpyrь", although Polish scholar K. Stachowski has argued that the origin of the word is early Slavic "*vąpěrь", going back to Turkic "oobyr". Several European languages, including English, have borrowed the word "polje" (meaning "large, flat plain") directly from the former Yugoslav languages (i.e. Slovene, Croatian, and Serbian). During the heyday of the USSR in the 20th century, many more Russian words became known worldwide: "da", "Soviet", "sputnik", "perestroika", "glasnost", "kolkhoz", etc. Also in the English language borrowed from Russian is "samovar" (lit. "self-boiling") to refer to the specific Russian tea urn. The following tree for the Slavic languages derives from the Ethnologue report for Slavic languages. It includes the ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-3 codes where available. East Slavic languages: West Slavic languages: South Slavic languages: Para- and supranational languages

The Slavic languages, also known as the Slavonic languages, are Indo-European languages spoken primarily by the Slavic peoples or their descendants. They are thought to descend from a proto-language called Proto-Slavic, spoken during the Early Middle Ages, which in turn is thought to have descended from the earlier Proto-Balto-Slavic language, linking the Slavic languages to the Baltic languages in a Balto-Slavic group within the Indo-European family.

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summarize: The arrest of Hus in 1414 caused considerable resentment in Czech lands. The authorities of both countries appealed urgently and repeatedly to King Sigismund to release Jan Hus. When news of his death at the Council of Constance in 1415 arrived, disturbances broke out, directed primarily against the clergy and especially against the monks. Even the Archbishop narrowly escaped from the effects of this popular anger. The treatment of Hus was felt to be a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country and his death was seen as a criminal act. King Wenceslaus, prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance. His wife openly favoured the friends of Hus. Avowed Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords, who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates and to obey the power of the Bishops only where their orders accorded with the injunctions of the Bible. The university would arbitrate any disputed points. The entire Hussite nobility joined the league. Other than verbal protest of the council's treatment of Hus, there was little evidence of any actions taken by the nobility until 1417. At that point several of the lesser nobility and some barons, signatories of the 1415 protest letter, removed Romanist priests from their parishes, replacing them with priests willing to give communion in both wine and bread. The chalice of wine became the central identifying symbol of the Hussite movement. If the king had joined, its resolutions would have received the sanction of the law; but he refused, and approached the newly formed Roman Catholic League of lords, whose members pledged themselves to support the king, the Catholic Church, and the Council. The prospect of a civil war began to emerge. Pope Martin V as Cardinal Otto of Colonna had attacked Hus with relentless severity. He energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He wished to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus, for which purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In 1418, Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother over to the standpoint of the council by pointing out the inevitability of a religious war if the heretics in Bohemia found further protection. Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave the country and Roman Catholic priests were reinstated. These measures caused a general commotion which hastened the death of King Wenceslaus by a paralytic stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund. Hussitism organised itself during the years 1415–1419. From the beginning, there formed two parties, with a smaller number of people withdrawing from both parties around the pacifist Petr Chelčický, whose teachings would form the foundation of the Unitas Fratrum. The moderate party, who followed Hus more closely, sought to conduct reform while leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched. The more radical party identified itself more boldly with the doctrines of John Wycliffe, sharing his passionate hatred of the monastic clergy, and his desire to return the Church to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles. This required the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularisation of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals preached the ""sufficientia legis Christi""—the divine law (i.e. the Bible) is the sole rule and canon for human society, not only in the church, but also in political and civil matters. They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of saints and images, fasts, superfluous holidays, the oath, intercession for the dead, auricular Confession, indulgences, the sacraments of Confirmation and the Anointing of the Sick; they admitted laymen and women to the preacher's office, and chose their own priests. But above all they clung to Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, denying transubstantiation, and this is the principal point by which they are distinguished from the moderate party. The programme of the more conservative Hussites (the moderate party) is contained in the Four Articles of Prague, which were written by Jakoubek ze Stříbra and agreed upon in July 1420, promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and German languages. The full text is about two pages long, but they are often summarized as: The views of the moderate Hussites were widely represented at the University and among the citizens of Prague; they were therefore called the Prague Party, but also Calixtines (Latin "calix" chalice) or Utraquists (Latin "utraque" both), because they emphasized the second article of Prague, and the chalice became their emblem. The radicals (the radical party) had their gathering-places all around the country. Their first armed assault fell on the small town of Ústí, on the river Lužnice, south of Prague (today's Sezimovo Ústí). However, as the place did not prove to be defensible, they settled in the remains of an older town upon a hill not far away and founded a new town, which they named Tábor (after the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called Táborité (Taborites). They comprised the essential force of the radical Hussites. Their aim was to destroy the enemies of the law of God, and to defend his kingdom (which had been expected to come in a short time) by the sword. Their end-of-world visions did not come true. In order to preserve their settlement and spread their ideology, they waged bloody wars; in the beginning they observed a strict regime, inflicting the severest punishment equally for murder, as for less severe faults as adultery, perjury and usury, and also tried to apply rigid Biblical standards to the social order of the time. The Taborites usually had the support of the Orebites (later called Orphans), an eastern Bohemian sect of Hussitism based in Hradec Králové. Hussites were not a unitary movement, but a diverse one with multiple factions that held different views and opposed each other in the Hussite Wars. Hussites can be divided into: The news of the death of King Wenceslaus in 1419 produced a great commotion among the people of Prague. A revolution swept over the country: churches and monasteries were destroyed, and church property was seized by the Hussite nobility. It was then, and remained till much later, in question whether Bohemia was a hereditary or an elective monarchy, especially as the line through which Sigismund claimed the throne had accepted that the Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy elected by the nobles, and thus the regent of the kingdom (Čeněk of Wartenberg) also explicitly stated that Sigismund had not been elected as reason for Sigismund's claim to not be accepted. Sigismund could get possession of "his" kingdom only by force of arms. Pope Martin V called upon Catholics of the West to take up arms against the Hussites, declaring a crusade, and there followed twelve years of warfare. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427 they assumed the offensive. Apart from their religious aims, they fought for the national interests of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties were united, and they not only repelled the attacks of the army of crusaders but crossed the borders into neighboring countries. On March 23, 1430, Joan of Arc dictated a letter that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic faith, but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat. Eventually, the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. They invited a Bohemian embassy to appear at the Council of Basel. The discussions began on 10 January 1432, centering chiefly on the four articles of Prague. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian–Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the ""Compacta"" of Prague on 30 November 1433. The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed. The Taborites refused to conform. The Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites at the Battle of Lipany on (30 May 1434). From that time, the Taborites lost their importance, though the Hussite movement would continue in Poland for another five years, until the Royalist forces of Poland defeated the Polish Hussites at the Battle of Grotniki. The state assembly of Jihlava in 1436 confirmed the ""Compacta"" and gave them the sanction of law. This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and at last Sigismund obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in 1437. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the Utraquists, as heresy in 1444. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the Utraquists; the rest joined the "Brothers of the Law of Christ" () (see Unity of the Brethren; also Bohemian Brethren and Moravian Church). In 1462, Pope Pius II declared the ""Compacta"" null and void, prohibited communion in both kinds, and acknowledged King George of Podebrady as king on condition that he would promise an unconditional harmony with the Roman Church. This he refused, but his successor, King Vladislaus II, favored the Roman Catholics and proceeded against some zealous clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the Diet of Kutná Hora, an agreement was made between the Roman Catholics and Utraquists that lasted for thirty-one years. It was only later, at the Diet of 1512, that the equal rights of both religions were permanently established. The appearance of Martin Luther was hailed by the Utraquist clergy, and Luther himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists approved of the German Reformation; a schism arose among them, and many returned to the Roman doctrine, while other elements had organised the ""Unitas Fratrum"" already in 1457. Under Emperor Maximilian II, the Bohemian state assembly established the ""Confessio Bohemica"", upon which Lutherans, Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From that time forward Hussitism began to die out. After the Battle of White Mountain on 8 November 1620 the Roman Catholic Faith was re-established with vigour, which fundamentally changed the religious conditions of the Czech lands. Leaders and members of Unitas Fratrum were forced to choose to either leave the many and varied southeastern principalities of what was the Holy Roman Empire (mainly Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia and parts of Germany and its many states), or to practice their beliefs secretly. As a result, members were forced underground and dispersed across northwestern Europe. The largest remaining communities of the Brethren were located in Lissa (Leszno) in Poland, which had historically strong ties with the Czechs, and in small, isolated groups in Moravia. Some, among them Jan Amos Comenius, fled to western Europe, mainly the Low Countries. A settlement of Hussites in Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany, in 1722 caused the emergence of the Moravian Church. In 1918, as a result of World War I, the Czech lands regained independence from Austria-Hungary controlled by the Habsburg monarchy as Czechoslovakia (due to Masaryk and Czechoslovak legions with Hussite tradition, in the name of the troops). Today, the Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to be the modern successor of the Hussite tradition.

The Hussites ( or "Kališníci"; "Chalice People") were a Czech pre-Protestant Christian movement that followed the teachings of reformer Jan Hus, who became the best known representative of the Bohemian Reformation.

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summarize: The film begins in 1945 and traces the seasonal or annual changes that a small Moravian village undergoes until the Epilogue, which is sometime after 1958. (1945) The first part establishes the innocence and camaraderie of a village amidst the backdrop of a post-War landscape. Children play with guns and a land mine is discovered while ploughing the fields. A group of villagers detonate it and end the night dancing and drinking in the local pub. They leave at dawn as the sun rises on a beautiful, idyllic landscape and stop to sleep beneath a tree after taking in the view. (1948) It is just months after the Communists have taken power in February. Loud speakers blare propaganda and announce rations while the farmer František works. We discover that four of the main villagers have converted, namely, the organist Očenáš, the photographer Plecmera, the postman Bertin, and Zejvala. The townspeople disdain them. A landowner must vacate his land so it can become a collective; his wife tearfully removes pictures of Jesus and the Virgin Mary from the walls as the landowner criticizes: "I hope you look after this place, your own looks like a pigsty." To which the communists respond ominously: "Don't worry! We will show you what we can do!" The communists greedily inspect their winnings (animals, house, a stockpile of wood) and begin to loot for themselves. Meanwhile, a tailor sets up shop with his wife and the help of friends, who warn him that the communists will put an end to his good fortunes. Indeed, a group of communists come and demand he turn over the property on which he has just spent his life's savings and lead a tailoring collective instead. (1949) Bertin, the postman, is shot soon after we see him and his wife-to-be, Machačová, being fitted for wedding clothes. A funeral is held after which police arrest those they deem responsible. František the noble farmer leads a mass of townspeople to demand the police turn over some of the wrongly accused perpetrators, namely the priest. The organist Očenáš, facing death threats, leaves at his wife's persistence. The photographer's wife, aspiring for status and a new house, implores her husband to fill the position left behind by Očenáš. (1951) Zášinek comes home drunk from a night at the bar. He hallucinates the ghost of his ex-wife, a Jew. He had divorced her because he feared the Germans and she had died in a concentration camp. Her ghost tells him that she has forgiven him. Nevertheless, his guilt drives him mad. He sees her again at an afternoon soiree and dances with her briefly. Meanwhile, Machačová, "the merry widow," shows up to the same soiree with the town thief, Jořka. He has been summoned to prison a few days prior and we understand that he is to report that afternoon. After dancing, he bids her farewell and walks off, presumably toward the prison. He stops and pours acid on his left foot, which starts to hiss and boil. He returns a clock he had stolen, repaired, to its rightful owner, then collapses from his wound and dies as white goose down covers him like snow. (Autumn, 1951) Zášinek is still upset about his guilt. He visits the church to confess. He is shown later at a pub amidst friends and the merry widow. They dine and soon begin to dance, all while being painted. The painting shifts from formless shapes to lackluster diners to a frenzied dance, with Zášinek soon depicted as a devil with a skull. He returns home the next morning drunk and is impaled by a loose bull and dies. (1952) František's weary father comments on how his strength is failing with age. At a townhall meeting, the communists announce they will take more loans; the panel clap for each other. The audience does not clap; František speaks against the decision and leads away the villagers. The communists seek to destroy him, for "as long as he is around, nothing will get done." He is arrested; police attempt to get others to sign statements alleging his guilt but with no immediate success—the villagers hold out until they are threatened. (1954) A communist who had stolen from the original confiscated house returns. He is called a disgrace and dismissed. František has escaped from prison but he is sick and near death. (1955) František's health rebounds. He no longer has anything but buys a horse and sets to work again. The narrator asks, "which can bear more, a man or a horse? A man, because he has to." (1957) Realizing that the village rallies around the noble František, the communists ask him to persuade the others to declare their harvests. František refuses. After being forced, all villagers sign except Frantisek. (1958) František is taken to the home originally seized from the landowner. It has been poorly taken care of; he agrees to take it on and become the collective's leader. On his way to assume the role, he and his daughter's carriage are stopped by a carnival procession of villagers masked with the heads of animals and monsters. They are gentle to him and he laughs as he continues. The mob moves next to an oncoming car. It is the photographer and his wife. They stop it, pull them out and dance. The photographer's merriment is cut short as he clutches his chest and falls to the snow with a heart attack. Later the townspeople amassed at the pub remove their animal masks and remark: "soon all the people will be gone and all that will be left are the animals." (Epilogue) Očenáš returns to the village. He runs into the now-blind and divorced photographer who has tumbled from power. Očenáš asks about František, who he discovers has recently died. The photographer remarks: "the best people go and the blackguards stay." Očenáš visits František's family and speaks with his daughters, who tell him the farmer's last words were to "listen to the workers in the fields"-- "things will be better when they begin to sing again." Očenáš departs on his bike and looks back forlornly on the countryside as he laments: "We have made our beds and now we have to lie in them. But have we made them ourselves? What have we done, rather, what have we undone, all my fellow countrymen?" In 1977 an unofficial spiritual sequel "The Moravian Land" was released. It was directed by Antonín Kachlík. The film was meant to be a counterbalance to "All My Compatriots". Many actors from All My Compatriots also starred in the "Moravian Land". It presented collectivization as a positive thing. Vojtěch Jasný directed "Return to Paradise Lost" in 1999. It is a loose continuation to All My Compatriots. It stars Vladimír Pucholt as a Czech émigrée who returns home after fall of Communist regime. He comes from the village showed in All My Compatriots. Some characters returned in this sequel.

All My Compatriots, also known as All My Countrymen (), is a 1968 Czechoslovak film directed by Vojtěch Jasný. Considered the "most Czech" of his contemporary filmmakers, Jasný's style was primarily lyricist. It took nearly 10 years to complete the script and it was his greatest work. The movie was based on real people from Jasný's hometown Kelč. The film was banned and the director went into exile rather than recant. It was entered into the 1969 Cannes Film Festival where Jasný won the award for Best Director.

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102

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summarize: The wikibooks.org domain was registered on. It was launched to host and build free textbooks on subjects such as organic chemistry and physics. Two major sub-projects, Wikijunior and Wikiversity, were created within Wikibooks before its official policy was later changed so that future incubator-type projects are started according to the Wikimedia Foundation's new project policy. In August 2006, Wikiversity became an independent Wikimedia Foundation project. Since 2008, Wikibooks is included in BASE. In June 2016, Compete.com estimated that Wikibooks had 1,478,812 unique visitors. Wikijunior is a subproject of Wikibooks that specializes in books for children. The project consists of both a magazine and a website, and is currently being developed in English, Danish, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Spanish and Arabic. It is funded by a grant from the Beck Foundation. While some books are original, others began as text copied over from other sources of free content textbooks found on the Internet. All of the site's content is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike license (or a compatible license). This means that, as with its sister project, Wikipedia, contributions remain copyrighted to their creators, while the licensing ensures that it can be freely distributed and reused subject to certain conditions. Wikibooks differs from Wikisource in that Wikisource collects exact copies and original translations of existing free content works, such as the original text of Shakespearean plays, while Wikibooks is dedicated either to original works, significantly altered versions of existing works or annotations to original works. The project is working towards completion of textbooks on numerous subjects, which founders hope will be followed by mainstream adoption and use of textbooks developed and housed there.

Wikibooks (previously called "Wikimedia Free Textbook Project" and "Wikimedia-Textbooks") is a wiki-based Wikimedia project hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation for the creation of free content e-book textbooks and annotated texts that anyone can edit.

en

41

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summarize: Wiktionary was brought online on December 12, 2002, following a proposal by Daniel Alston and an idea by Larry Sanger, co-founder of Wikipedia. On March 28, 2004, the first non-English Wiktionaries were initiated in French and Polish. Wiktionaries in numerous other languages have since been started. Wiktionary was hosted on a temporary domain name (wiktionary.wikipedia.org) until May 1, 2004, when it switched to the current domain name., Wiktionary features over 25.9 million entries across its editions. The largest of the language editions is the English Wiktionary, with over 6.3 million entries, followed by the Malagasy Wiktionary with over 6 million bot-generated entries and the French Wiktionary with over 3.7 million. Forty-one Wiktionary language editions now contain over 100,000 entries each. Most of the entries and many of the definitions at the project's largest language editions were created by bots that found creative ways to generate entries or (rarely) automatically imported thousands of entries from previously published dictionaries. Seven of the 18 bots registered at the English Wiktionary created 163,000 of the entries there. Another of these bots, "ThirdPersBot," was responsible for the addition of a number of third-person conjugations that would not have received their own entries in standard dictionaries; for instance, it defined "smoulders" as the "third-person singular simple present form of smoulder." Of the 648,970 definitions the English Wiktionary provides for 501,171 English words, 217,850 are "form of" definitions of this kind. This means its coverage of English is slightly smaller than that of major monolingual print dictionaries. The "Oxford English Dictionary", for instance, has 615,000 headwords, while "Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged" has 475,000 entries (with many additional embedded headwords). Detailed statistics exist to show how many entries of various kinds exist. The English Wiktionary does not rely on bots to the extent that some other editions do. The French and Vietnamese Wiktionaries, for example, imported large sections of the Free Vietnamese Dictionary Project (FVDP), which provides free content bilingual dictionaries to and from Vietnamese. These imported entries make up virtually all of the Vietnamese edition's contents. Almost all non-Malagasy-language entries of the Malagasy Wiktionary were copied by bot from other Wiktionaries. Like the English edition, the French Wiktionary has imported the approximately 20,000 entries from the Unihan database of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters. The French Wiktionary grew rapidly in 2006 thanks in large part to bots copying many entries from old, freely licensed dictionaries, such as the eighth edition of the "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française" (1935, around 35,000 words), and using bots to add words from other Wiktionary editions with French translations. The Russian edition grew by nearly 80,000 entries as "LXbot" added boilerplate entries (with headings, but without definitions) for words in English and German. As of December 2019, en.wiktionary has over 700,000 gloss definitions and over 1,100,000 total definitions (including different forms) for English entries alone, with a total of over 6,100,000 entries across all languages. Wiktionary has historically lacked a uniform logo across its numerous language editions. Some editions use logos that depict a dictionary entry about the term "Wiktionary", based on the previous English Wiktionary logo, which was designed by Brion Vibber, a MediaWiki developer. Because a purely textual logo must vary considerably from language to language, a four-phase contest to adopt a uniform logo was held at the Wikimedia Meta-Wiki from September to October 2006. Some communities adopted the winning entry by "Smurrayinchester", a 3×3 grid of wooden tiles, each bearing a character from a different writing system. However, the poll did not see as much participation from the Wiktionary community as some community members had hoped, and a number of the larger wikis ultimately kept their textual logos. In April 2009, the issue was resurrected with a new contest. This time, a depiction by "AAEngelman" of an open hardbound dictionary won a head-to-head vote against the 2006 logo, but the process to refine and adopt the new logo then stalled. In the following years, some wikis replaced their textual logos with one of the two newer logos. In 2012, 55 wikis that had been using the English Wiktionary logo received localized versions of the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester". In July 2016, the English Wiktionary adopted a variant of this logo., 135 wikis, representing 61% of Wiktionary's entries, use a logo based on the 2006 design by "Smurrayinchester", 33 wikis (36%) use a textual logo, and three wikis (3%) use the 2009 design by "AAEngelman". To ensure accuracy, the English Wiktionary has a policy requiring that terms be "attested". Terms in major languages such as English and Chinese must be verified by: For less-documented languages such as Creek and extinct languages such as Latin, one use in a permanently recorded medium or one mention in a reference work is sufficient verification. Critical reception of Wiktionary has been mixed. In 2006 Jill Lepore wrote in the article "Noah's Ark" for "The New Yorker," There's no show of hands at "Wiktionary". There's not even an editorial staff. "Be your own lexicographer!", might be "Wiktionary's" motto. Who needs experts? Why pay good money for a dictionary written by lexicographers when we could cobble one together ourselves? "Wiktionary" isn't so much republican or democratic as Maoist. And it's only as good as the copyright-expired books from which it pilfers. Keir Graff's review for "Booklist" was less critical: Is there a place for Wiktionary? Undoubtedly. The industry and enthusiasm of its many creators are proof that there's a market. And it's wonderful to have another strong source to use when searching the odd terms that pop up in today's fast-changing world and the online environment. But as with so many Web sources (including this column), it's best used by sophisticated users in conjunction with more reputable sources. References in other publications are fleeting and part of larger discussions of Wikipedia, not progressing beyond a definition, although David Brooks in "The Nashua Telegraph" described it as "wild and woolly". One of the impediments to independent coverage of Wiktionary is the continuing confusion that it is merely an extension of Wikipedia. In 2005, "PC Magazine" rated Wiktionary as one of the Internet's "Top 101 Web Sites", although little information was given about the site. The measure of correctness of the inflections for a subset of the Polish words in the English Wiktionary showed that this grammatical data is very stable. Only 131 out of 4748 Polish words have had their inflection data corrected. Wiktionary has semi-structured data. Wiktionary lexicographic data can be converted to machine-readable format in order to be used in natural language processing tasks. Wiktionary data mining is a complex task. There are the following difficulties: (1) the constant and frequent changes to data and schemata, (2) the heterogeneity in Wiktionary language edition schemata and (3) the human-centric nature of a wiki. There are several parsers for different Wiktionary language editions: Examples of natural language processing tasks which have been solved with the help of Wiktionary data include:

Wiktionary is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary of terms (including words, phrases, proverbs, etc.) in all natural languages and a number of artificial languages. These entries may contain definitions, pronunciation guides, inflections, usage examples, related terms, images for illustration, among other features. It is collaboratively edited via a wiki. Its name is a portmanteau of the words "wiki" and "dictionary". It is available in 171 languages and in Simple English. Like its sister project Wikipedia, Wiktionary is run by the Wikimedia Foundation, and is written collaboratively by volunteers, dubbed "Wiktionarians". Its wiki software, MediaWiki, allows almost anyone with access to the website to create and edit entries.

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summarize: The story takes place in the town of Kostelec in 1942, during the Nazi occupation, shortly after Czech and Slovak resistance fighters assassinated Reinhard Heydrich, the Reichsprotector of Bohemia and Moravia, precipitating a vengeful Nazi crackdown. When the movie opens, the owner of the town bookstore is placing a comical maquette in his shop window, featuring photos of students who are soon to graduate from the local high school as well as a photo of their elderly Latin teacher, Professor Málek (played by František Smolík), as he points to the words "Higher Principle," the nickname that the students have given him on account of his frequent quotation of Seneca's moral precepts. A local Nazi official takes offense at the lightheartedness of the maquette, considering it out of keeping with official mourning for Heydrich, and orders it removed. Teachers at the high school and its director worry that the episode will get them in trouble with the local Gestapo, but the students don't take it seriously, and in fact, when one notices a photo of Heydrich in the newspaper that his open-faced sandwich came wrapped in, he and a friend ink a comical mustache and beard onto the portrait. A more cautious student quickly shoves the caricature into the schoolroom stove, but later we see a student named Zajíček, who is flunking most of his classes, washing soot off one of his hands. Zajíček's father, played by a young Rudolf Hrušinský, happens to be in a relationship with a secretary at the town's Gestapo headquarters, and his shoestore is going bankrupt, giving him a motive for collaboration. At a meeting of the school's teachers, Professor Málek reads aloud a passage from Seneca that seems dangerously appropriate to the times, and to the relief of his fellow teachers, he says that he won't be assigning it as the text for the students' final Latin exam, but will instead be choosing a passage in Tacitus about a man who protested injustice with a hunger strike. The exam preoccupies the students, who ask to be excused from their Czech class in order to prepare for it. Vlasta Ryšánek (Ivan Mistrík), son of a washerwoman, can translate Latin extemporaneously, but most of his classmates find it a struggle, including Jana Skálová (played by Jana Brejchová), who is in love with Vlasta, and depends on his coaching and crib sheets to pass exams. Her father is a lawyer and disapproves of her friendship with Vlasta, in part because Vlasta's mother does Jana's family's laundry. In the middle of their year-end Latin exam, Gestapo officers arrest three classmates, including Vlasta, without any explanation. Professor Málek visits Jana's father to ask him to intervene, and the lawyer eventually promises both Málek and his daughter that he will try. But as Jana discovers, while spying on her father, he is too frightened even to enter Gestapo headquarters, despite having made an acquaintance with a strangely friendly Gestapo commander—an acquaintance accidentally witnessed by a student who wasn't arrested, Honza Horák (Petr Kostka), who is trying to help Jana find out what's happening to Vlasta and his companions. After Jana tells Professor Málek of her father's loss of nerve, he visits the Gestapo commander himself at his home. To Málek's surprise, the commander says that when he was in the boy scouts, he was taught to do a good deed every day, and that he'll do one for Málek. But by the time he returns to his office, the three boys have already been sentenced and taken away to be shot. To save face, the Gestapo office reassures Málek that "the matter has been settled," and Jana carries the reassurance to Vlasta's mother, reaching her just as the Nazis are announcing her son's execution over the town's loudspeakers. In a final scene, at the school, the German teacher, eager to curry favor with the Nazis, insists that Málek deliver a lecture warning his students against the mockery of Heydrich committed by their late classmates. Instead, risking his own life, the teacher declares to the class that "From the standpoint of higher moral principles the murder of a tyrant is not a crime!"

Higher Principle () is a Czech drama film based on the eponymous short story from the book "Silent Barricade" () written by Jan Drda in 1946. The movie was released in 1960 and was temporarily banned in West Germany as the "anti-German film".

en

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summarize: Francesco Forgione was born to Grazio Mario Forgione (1860–1946) and Maria Giuseppa Di Nunzio (1859–1929) on May 25, 1887, in Pietrelcina, a town in the province of Benevento, in the Southern Italian region of Campania. His parents were peasant farmers. He was baptized in the nearby Santa Anna Chapel, which stands upon the walls of a castle. He later served as an altar boy in this same chapel. He had an older brother, Michele, and three younger sisters, Felicita, Pellegrina, and Grazia (who was later to become a Bridgettine nun). His parents had two other children who died in infancy. When he was baptized, he was given the name Francesco. He stated that by the time he was five years old, he had already made the decision to dedicate his entire life to God. He worked on the land up to the age of 10, looking after the small flock of sheep the family owned. Pietrelcina was a town where feast days of saints were celebrated throughout the year, and the Forgione family was deeply religious. They attended Mass daily, prayed the Rosary nightly, and abstained from meat three days a Commencing his seven-year study for the priesthood, Fra Pio travelled to the friary of Saint Francis of Assisi in Umbria. At 17, he fell ill, complaining of loss of appetite, insomnia, exhaustion, fainting spells, and migraines. He vomited frequently and could digest only milk and cheese. Religious devotees point to this time that inexplicable phenomena allegedly began to occur. During prayers for example, Pio appeared to others to be in a stupor, as if he were absent. One of Pio's fellow friars later claimed to have seen him in ecstasy, and allegedly levitating above the ground. In June 1905, Pio's health worsened to such an extent that his superiors decided to send him to a mountain convent, in the hope that the change of air would do him good. This had little impact, however, and doctors advised that he return home. Even there his health failed to improve. Despite this, On 27 January 1907, he still made his solemn profession. In 1910, Pio was subsequently ordained a priest by Archbishop Paolo Schinosi at the Cathedral of Benevento. Four days later, he offered his first Mass at the parish church of Our Lady of the Angels. His health being When World War I started, four friars from this community were selected for military service in the Italian army. At that time, Padre Pio was a teacher at the seminary and a spiritual director. When one more friar was called into service, Pio was put in charge of the community. On 15 November 1915, he was drafted and on December 6, assigned to the 10th Medical Corps in Naples. Due to poor health, he was continually discharged and recalled until on 16 March 1918, he was declared unfit for service and discharged completely. People who had started rebuilding their lives after the war began to see in Padre Pio a symbol of hope. Those close to him attest that he began to manifest several spiritual gifts, including the gifts of healing, bilocation, levitation, prophecy, miracles, extraordinary abstinence from both sleep and nourishment (one account states that Padre Agostino recorded By 1925 Pio had converted an old convent building into a medical clinic with a few beds intended primarily for people in extreme need. In 1940, a committee was set-up to establish a bigger clinic and donations started to be made. Construction began in 1947. According to Luzzatto, the bulk of the money for financing the hospital came directly from Brunatto (a keen follower of Pio but who had made his fortune in the black The Vatican initially imposed severe sanctions on Pio in the 1920s to reduce publicity about him: it forbade him from saying Mass in public, blessing people, answering letters, showing his stigmata publicly, and communicating with Padre Benedetto, his spiritual director. The Church authorities decided that Pio be relocated to another convent in northern Italy. The local people threatened to riot, and the Vatican left him where he was. A second plan for removal was also changed. Nevertheless, from 1921 to 1922 he was prevented from publicly performing his priestly duties, such as hearing confessions and saying Mass. From 1924 to 1931, the Holy See made statements denying that the events in Pio's life were due to any divine cause. The pathologist Amico Bignami conducted a medical examination of Father Pio's wounds in Festa was a physician and examined Pio in 1919 and 1920. He was obviously impressed by the fragrance of the stigmata. Festa, as Bignami before A psychiatric examination was conducted by the psychiatrist, Franciscan priest Agostino Gemelli in 1920. He came to the conclusion that Francesco Forgione was a man of "restricted field of knowledge, low psychic energy, monotonous ideas, little volition." Gemelli critically judged Pio: "The case is one of suggestion unconsciously planted by Father Benedetto in the weak mind of Padre Pio, producing those characteristic manifestations of psittacism that are intrinsic to the hysteric mind." On behalf of the Holy Office, Gemelli re-examined Father Pio in 1925, writing a report in April 1926. This time he let Pio show him the wounds. Gemelli saw as its cause the use of a corrosive substance. Pio had attached himself to these wounds. The Jesuit Festa had previously tried to question Gemelli's comments on stigmata in The Bishop of Volterra, Raffaele Rossi, Carmelite, was formally commissioned on June 11, 1921 by the Holy Office to make a canonical inquiry concerning Father Pio. Rossi began his Apostolic Visitation on June 14 in San Giovanni Rotondo with the interrogation of witnesses, two diocesan priests and seven friars. After eight days of investigation, he finally completed a benevolent report, which he sent to the Holy Office on October 4, 1921, the feast of St. Francis of Assisi. The extensive and detailed report essentially stated the following: Father Pio, of whom Rossi had a favorable impression, was a good religious and the San Giovanni Rotondo convent was a good community. Whatever is extraordinary about what Father Pio does that can not be explained, but certainly not by the intervention of the devil, or by deception or dizziness. Public exuberance has declined sharply. During the interviews John XXIII was skeptical of Padre Pio. At the beginning of his tenure, he learned that Father Pio's opponents had placed listening devices in his monastery cell and confessional, recording his confessions with tape. In a semi-official journal note, John XXIII wrote that he prayed for "PP" (Padre Pio) and the discovery by Father Carlo Maccari was Secretary-General of the Diocese of Rome and met Pio nine times altogether. Pio was very suspicious of Maccari, who wrote in his diary: "Reticence, narrowness of mind, lies - these are the weapons he uses to evade my questions... Overall impression: pitiful." Maccari demanded Father Pio's omission to practice kisses after the confession for the lay sisters. In his report, Maccari noted that Pio had inadequate religious education. He works a lot for a man of his age. He is not an ascetic and has many connections to the outside world. In general, there is too much mixing of the "sacred" and the "all too human". Maccari noted Pio was said to have had the gift of reading souls, the ability to bilocate, among other supernatural phenomena. He was said to communicate with angels and worked favors and healings before they were requested of him. The reports of supernatural phenomena surrounding Padre Pio attracted fame and legend. The Vatican was initially skeptical. Based on Pio's correspondence, even early in his priesthood he experienced less obvious indications of the visible stigmata: bodily marks, pain, and bleeding in locations supposedly corresponding to the crucifixion wounds of Jesus Christ. In a 1911 letter, he wrote to his spiritual advisor Padre Benedetto from San Marco in Lamis, describing something he had been apparently experiencing for a year: Then last night something happened which I can neither explain nor understand. In the middle of the palms of my hands a red mark appeared, about the size of a penny, accompanied by acute pain in the middle of the red marks. The pain was more pronounced in the middle of the left hand, so much so that I can still feel it. Also under my feet I can feel some pain. Already in a letter dated March 21, 1912, to his spiritual companion and confessor, Father Agostino, Father Pio wrote of his devotion to the mystical body of Christ In the 1999 book, "Padre Pio: The Wonder Worker", a segment by Irish priest Malachy Gerard Carroll describes the story of Gemma de Giorgi, a Sicilian girl whose blindness was believed to have been cured during a visit to Padre Pio. Gemma, who was brought to San Giovanni Rotondo in 1947 by her grandmother, During his period of spiritual suffering, his followers believe that Padre Pio was attacked by the devil, both physically and spiritually. His followers also believe that the devil used diabolical tricks in order to increase Padre Pio's torments. These included apparitions as an "angel of light" and the alteration or destruction of letters to and from his spiritual directors. Padre Augustine confirmed this when he said: Now, twenty-two days have passed since Jesus allowed the devils to vent their anger on me. My Father, my whole body is bruised from the beatings that I have received to the present time by our enemies. Several times, they have even World War I continued and in July 1918, Pope Benedict XV, who had termed the World War "the suicide of Europe," appealed to all Christians urging them to pray for an end to the World War. On 27 July of the same year, Padre Pio offered himself as a victim for the end of the war. Days passed and between 5 and 7 August, Padre Pio had a vision in which Christ appeared and pierced his side. As a result, Padre Pio claimed to have received a physical wound in his side. This occurrence is considered as a transverberation or "piercing of the heart", indicating the union of love with God within Christian mysticism. The occasion of transverberation coincided with a seven-week-long period of spiritual unrest for Padre Pio. One of his Capuchin brothers said this of his state during that period: During this time his entire appearance looked altered as if he had died. He was constantly weeping and sighing, saying that God had forsaken him. In a letter from Padre Pio to Padre Benedetto, dated 21 August 1918, In 1947, Father Karol Józef Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II) visited Padre Pio, who heard his confession. Austrian Cardinal Alfons Stickler reported that Wojtyła confided to him that during this meeting, Padre Pio told him he would one day ascend to "the highest post in the church though further confirmation is needed." Stickler said that Wojtyła believed that By 1933, the tide began to turn. Pope Pius XI ordered a reversal of the ban on Padre Pio's public celebration of Mass, arguing, "I have not been badly disposed toward Padre Pio, but I have been badly informed." In 1934, Pio died in 1968 at the age of 81. His health deteriorated in the 1960s but he continued his spiritual works. On 21 September 1968, the day after the 50th anniversary of his receiving the stigmata, Padre Pio felt great fatigue. The next day, on September 22, 1968, he was supposed to offer a Solemn Mass, but feeling weak, he asked his superior if he might say a Low Mass instead, as he had done daily for years. Due to the large number of pilgrims present for the Mass, Padre Pio's superior decided the Solemn Mass must proceed. Padre Pio carried out his duties but appeared extremely weak and fragile. His voice was weak and, after the Mass had concluded, he nearly collapsed while walking down the altar In 1971, three years after his death, Pope Paul VI said to the superiors of the Capuchin Order about Pio: In 1982, the Holy See authorized the archbishop of Manfredonia to open an investigation to determine whether Pio should be canonized. The investigation continued for seven years. In 1990 Pio was declared a Servant of God, the first step in the process of canonization. The investigation, however, did not lead to any public factual clearance by the Church on his previous 'excommunication' or on the allegations that his stigmata were not of a supernatural kind. Moreover, Pio's stigmata were remarkably left out of the obligatory investigations for the canonization process, in order to avoid obstacles prohibiting a successful closure. Beginning in 1990, the Congregation for the Causes of Saints debated how Padre Pio had lived his life, and in 1997 Pope John Paul II declared him venerable. A discussion of the effects of his life on others followed. Cases were studied such as a reported cure of an Italian woman, Consiglia de Martino, associated with Padre Pio's intercession. In 1999, on the advice of the Congregation, John Paul II declared Padre Pio blessed. A media offensive by the Capuchins was able to realise a broad acceptation of the contested saint in society. After further consideration of Padre Pio's virtues and ability to do good even after his death, including discussion of another healing attributed to his intercession, John Paul II declared Padre Pio a saint on 16 June 2002. An estimated 300,000 people attended the canonization ceremony in Rome. On 1 July 2004, John Paul II dedicated the Sanctuary of Saint Pio of Pietrelcina (sometimes referred as "Padre Pio Pilgrimage Church"), built in the village of San Giovanni Rotondo to the memory of Saint Pio of Pietrelcina. On 3 March 2008, the body of Pio was exhumed from his crypt, forty years after his death, so that his remains could be prepared for display. A church statement described the body as being in "fair condition". Archbishop Domenico Umberto D'Ambrosio, Papal legate to the shrine in San Giovanni Rotondo, stated "the top part of the skull is partly skeletal but the chin is perfect and the rest of the body is well preserved". Archbishop D’Ambrosio also confirmed in a communiqué that “the stigmata are not visible.” He said that Pio's hands "looked like they had just undergone a manicure". It was hoped that morticians would be able to restore the face so that it will be recognizable. However, because of its deterioration, his face was covered with a lifelike silicone mask. Cardinal José Saraiva Martins, prefect for the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints, celebrated Mass for 15,000 devotees on April 24 at the Shrine of Holy Mary of Grace, San Giovanni Rotondo, before the body went on display in a crystal, marble, and silver sepulcher in the crypt of the monastery. Padre Pio is wearing his brown Capuchin habit with a white silk stole embroidered with crystals and gold thread. His hands hold a large wooden cross. 800,000 pilgrims worldwide, mostly from Italy, made reservations to view the body up to December 2008, but only 7,200 people a day were able to file past the crystal coffin. Officials extended the display through September, 2009. Pio's remains were placed in the church of Saint Pio, which is beside San Giovanni Rotondo. In April 2010 they were moved to a special golden "Cripta". A statue of Pio in Messina, Sicily attracted attention in 2002 when it supposedly wept tears of blood. Saint Pio of Pietrelcina is known as the patron saint of civil defence volunteers, after a group of 160 petitioned the Italian Bishops’ conference for this designation. The bishops forwarded the request to the Vatican, which gave its approval to the designation. He is also “less officially” known as the patron saint of stress relief and the “January blues,” after the Catholic Enquiry Office in London proclaimed him as such. They designated the most depressing day of the year, identified as January 22, as Don't Worry Be Happy Day, in honor of Padre Pio's famous advice: “Pray, hope, and don’t worry.” Padre Pio has become one of the world's most popular saints. There are more than 3,000 "Padre Pio Prayer Groups" worldwide, with three million members. The first St Padre Pio parish http://www.stpp.church/home.html in the world was established 16 June 2002 in Kleinburg, Ontario, Canada. There are parishes in Vineland and Lavallette, New Jersey, and Sydney, Australia, and shrines in Buena, New Jersey, and Santo Tomas, Batangas, Philippines, dedicated to Padre Pio. A 2006 survey by the magazine "Famiglia Cristiana" found that more Italian Catholics pray to Padre Pio for intercession than to any other figure. It was announced in 2009 that a renewable energy statue of Padre Pio was to be built on a hill near the town of San Giovanni Rotondo in the south-eastern province of Apulia, Italy, the town where he is commemorated. The project would cost several million pounds, with the money to be raised from the saint's devotees around the world. The statue would be coated in a special photovoltaic paint, enabling it to trap the sun's heat and produce solar energy, making it an "ecological" religious icon. The remains of Saint Pio were brought to the Vatican for veneration during the 2015–2016 Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy. Saint Pio and Saint Leopold Mandic were designated as saint-confessors to inspire people to become reconciled to the Church and to God, by the confession of their sins.

Padre Pio, also known as Saint Pio of Pietrelcina (), (25 May 188723 September 1968), was an Italian friar, priest, stigmatist and mystic, now venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church. Born Francesco Forgione, he was given the name of Pius () when he joined the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin.

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summarize: Childhood friends Bill Gates and Paul Allen sought to make a business utilizing their shared skills in computer programming. In 1972, they founded Traf-O-Data which sold a rudimentary computer to track and analyze automobile traffic data. Gates enrolled at Harvard while Allen pursued a degree in computer science at Washington State University, though he later dropped out of school to work at Honeywell. The January 1975 issue of "Popular Electronics" featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems's (MITS) Altair 8800 microcomputer, which inspired Allen to suggest that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device. Gates called MITS and claimed that he had a working interpreter, and MITS requested a demonstration. Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter, and it worked flawlessly when they demonstrated it to MITS in March 1975 in Albuquerque, New Mexico. MITS agreed to distribute it, marketing it as Altair BASIC. Gates and Allen established Microsoft on April 4, 1975, with Gates as the CEO, and Allen suggested the name "Micro-Soft", short for micro-computer software. In Microsoft released Microsoft Windows on November 20, 1985 as a graphical extension for MS-DOS, despite having begun jointly developing OS/2 with IBM the previous August. Microsoft moved its headquarters from Bellevue to Redmond, Washington on February 26, 1986 and went public on March 13, with the resulting rise in stock making an estimated four billionaires and 12,000 millionaires from Microsoft employees. Microsoft released its version of OS/2 to original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) on April 2, 1987. In 1990, the Federal Trade Commission examined Microsoft for possible collusion due to the partnership with IBM, marking the beginning of more than a decade of legal clashes with the government. Meanwhile, the company was at work on Microsoft Windows NT, which was heavily based on their copy of the OS/2 code. It shipped on July 21, Following Bill Gates' internal "Internet Tidal Wave memo" on May 26, 1995, Microsoft began to redefine its offerings and expand its product line into computer networking and the World Wide Web. With a few exceptions of new companies, like Netscape, Microsoft was the only major and established company that acted fast enough to be a part of the World Wide Web practically from the start. Other companies like Borland, WordPerfect, Novell, IBM and Lotus, being much slower to adapt to the new situation, would give Microsoft Released in January 2007, the next version of Windows, Vista, focused on features, security and a redesigned user interface dubbed Aero. Microsoft Office 2007, released at the same time, featured a "Ribbon" user interface which was a significant departure from its predecessors. Relatively strong sales of both products helped to produce a record profit in 2007. The European Union imposed another fine of €899 million ($1.4 billion) for Microsoft's lack of compliance with the March 2004 judgment on February 27, 2008, saying that the company charged rivals unreasonable prices for key information about its workgroup and backoffice servers. Microsoft stated that it was in compliance and that "these fines are about the past issues that have been resolved". 2007 also saw the creation of a multi-core unit at Microsoft, following the steps of server companies such as Sun and IBM. Gates retired from his role as Chief Software Architect on June 27, 2008, a decision announced in June 2006, while retaining other positions related to the company in addition to being an advisor Following the release of Windows Phone, Microsoft undertook a gradual rebranding of its product range throughout 2011 and 2012, with the corporation's logos, products, services and websites adopting the principles and concepts of the Metro design language. Microsoft unveiled Windows 8, an operating system designed to power both personal computers and tablet computers, in Taipei in June 2011. A developer preview was released on September 13, which was subsequently replaced by a consumer preview on February 29, 2012, and released to the public On February 4, 2014, Steve Ballmer stepped down as CEO of Microsoft and was succeeded by Satya Nadella, who previously led Microsoft's Cloud and Enterprise division. On the same day, John W. Thompson took on the role of chairman, in place of Bill Gates, who continued to participate as a technology advisor. Thompson became the second chairman in Microsoft's history. On April 25, 2014, Microsoft acquired Nokia Devices and Services for $7.2 billion. This new subsidiary was renamed Microsoft Mobile Oy. On September 15, 2014, Microsoft acquired the video game development company Mojang, best known for "Minecraft", for $2.5 billion. On June 8, 2017, Microsoft acquired Hexadite, an Israeli security firm, for $100 million. On January 21, 2015, Microsoft announced the release of their first Interactive whiteboard, Microsoft Surface Hub. On July 29, 2015, Windows 10 was released, with its server sibling, Windows Server 2016, released in September 2016. In Q1 2015, Microsoft was the third largest maker of mobile phones, selling 33 million units (7.2% of all). While a The company is run by a board of directors made up of mostly company outsiders, as is customary for publicly traded companies. Members of the board of directors as of January 2018 are Bill Gates, Satya Nadella, Reid Hoffman, Hugh Johnston, Teri List-Stoll, Charles Noski, Helmut Panke, Sandi Peterson, Penny Pritzker, Charles Scharf, Arne Sorenson, John W. Stanton, John W. Thompson and Padmasree Warrior. Board members are elected every year at the annual shareholders' meeting using a majority vote system. There are five committees within the board which oversee more specific When Microsoft went public and launched its Initial Public Offering (IPO) in 1986, the opening stock price was $21; after the trading day, the price closed at $27.75. As of July 2010, with the company's nine stock splits, any IPO shares would be multiplied by 288; if one were to buy the IPO today, given the splits and other factors, it would cost about 9 cents. The stock price peaked in 1999 at around $119 ($60.928, adjusting for splits). The company began to offer a dividend on January In 2004, Microsoft commissioned research firms to do independent studies comparing the total cost of ownership (TCO) of Windows Server 2003 to Linux; the firms concluded that companies found Windows easier to administrate than Linux, thus those using Windows would administrate faster resulting in lower costs for their company (i.e. lower TCO). This spurred a wave of related studies; a study by the Yankee Group concluded that upgrading from one version of Windows Server to another costs a fraction of the switching costs from Windows Server to Linux, although companies surveyed noted the increased security and reliability of Linux servers and concern about being locked into using Microsoft products. Another study, released by the Open Source Development Labs, claimed that the Microsoft studies were "simply outdated and one-sided" and their survey In July 2014, Microsoft announced plans to lay off 18,000 employees. Microsoft employed 127,104 people as of June 5, 2014, making this about a 14 percent reduction of its workforce as the biggest Microsoft lay off ever. This included 12,500 professional and factory personnel. Previously, Microsoft had eliminated 5,800 jobs in 2009 in line with the Great Recession of 2008–2017. In September 2014, Microsoft laid off 2,100 people, including 747 people in the Seattle–Redmond Microsoft provides information about reported bugs in their software to intelligence agencies of the United States government, prior to the public release of the fix. A Microsoft spokesperson has stated that the corporation runs several programs that facilitate the sharing of such information with the U.S. government. Following media reports about PRISM, NSA's massive electronic surveillance program, in May 2013, several technology companies were identified as participants, including Microsoft. According to leaks of said program, Microsoft joined the PRISM program in 2007. However, in June 2013, an official statement from Microsoft flatly denied their participation in the program: During the first six months in 2013, Microsoft had received requests that affected between 15,000 and 15,999 accounts. In December 2013, the company made statement to further emphasize the fact that they take their customers' privacy and data protection very seriously, even saying that "government snooping Technical reference for developers and articles for various Microsoft magazines such as "Microsoft Systems Journal" (MSJ) are available through the Microsoft Developer Network (MSDN). MSDN also offers subscriptions for companies and individuals, and the more expensive subscriptions usually offer access to pre-release beta versions of Microsoft software. In April 2004 Microsoft launched a community site for developers and users, titled Channel 9, that provides a wiki and an Internet forum. Another community site that provides daily videocasts and other services, On10.net, launched on March 3, 2006. Free technical support is traditionally provided through online Usenet newsgroups, and CompuServe in the past, monitored by Microsoft employees; there can be several newsgroups for a single product. Helpful people can be elected by peers or Microsoft employees for Microsoft Most Valuable Professional (MVP) status, which entitles them to a sort of special social status and possibilities for awards and other benefits. Noted for its internal lexicon, the expression "eating your own dog food" is used to describe the policy of using pre-release and beta versions of products inside Microsoft in an effort In 2011, Greenpeace released a report rating the top ten big brands in cloud computing on their sources of electricity for their data centers. At the time, data centers consumed up to 2% of all global electricity and this amount was projected to increase. Phil Radford of Greenpeace said "we are concerned that this new explosion in electricity use could lock us into old, polluting energy sources instead of the clean energy available today," and called on "Amazon, Microsoft and other leaders of the information-technology industry must embrace clean energy to power their cloud-based data centers." In 2013, Microsoft agreed to buy power generated by a Texas wind project to power one of its data centers. Microsoft is ranked on the 17th place in Greenpeace's "Guide to Greener Electronics" (16th Edition) that ranks 18 electronics manufacturers according to their policies on toxic chemicals, recycling and climate change. Microsoft's timeline for phasing out brominated flame retardant (BFRs) and phthalates in all products is The corporate headquarters, informally known as the Microsoft Redmond campus, is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington. Microsoft initially moved onto the grounds of the campus on February 26, 1986, weeks before the company went public on March 13. The headquarters has since experienced multiple expansions since its establishment. It On October 26, 2015, the company opened its retail location on Fifth Avenue in New York City. The location features a five-story glass storefront and is 22,270 square feet. As per company executives, Microsoft had been on the Microsoft adopted the so-called ""Pac-Man" Logo", designed by Scott Baker, in 1987. Baker stated "The new logo, in Helvetica italic typeface, has a slash between the "o" and "s" to emphasize the "soft" part of the name and convey motion and speed." Dave Norris ran an internal joke campaign to save the old logo, which was green, in all uppercase, and featured a fanciful letter "O", nicknamed the "blibbet", but it was discarded. Microsoft's logo with the tagline ""Your potential. Our passion."" — below the main corporate name — is based on a slogan Microsoft used in 2008. In 2002, the company started using the The company was the official jersey During the COVID-19 pandemic, Microsoft's president Smith announced that an initial batch of supplies,

Microsoft Corporation () is an American multinational technology company with headquarters in Redmond, Washington. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports, and sells computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services. Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, the Microsoft Office suite, and the Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface lineup of touchscreen personal computers. In 2016, it was the world's largest software maker by revenue (currently Alphabet/Google has more revenue). The word "Microsoft" is a portmanteau of "microcomputer" and "software". Microsoft is ranked No. 30 in the 2018 Fortune 500 rankings of the largest United States corporations by total revenue. It is considered one of the Big Five technology companies alongside Amazon, Apple, Google, and Facebook.

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summarize: The first law of thermodynamics was developed empirically over about half a century. A main aspect of the struggle was to deal with the previously proposed caloric theory of heat. In 1840, Germain Hess stated a conservation law for the so-called 'heat of reaction' for chemical reactions. His law was later recognized as a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics, but Hess's statement was not explicitly concerned with the relation between energy exchanges by heat and work. In 1842, Julius Robert von Mayer made a statement that has been rendered by Truesdell (1980) in the words "in a process at constant pressure, the heat used to produce expansion is universally interconvertible with work", but this is not a general statement of the first law. The first full statements of the law came in 1850 from Rudolf Clausius and from William Rankine; Rankine's statement is considered less distinct relative to Clausius'. The original nineteenth century statements of the first law of thermodynamics appeared in a conceptual framework in which transfer of energy as heat was taken as a primitive notion, not defined or constructed by the theoretical development of the framework, but rather presupposed as prior to it and already accepted. The primitive notion of heat was taken as empirically established, especially through calorimetry regarded as a subject in its own right, prior to thermodynamics. Jointly primitive with this notion of heat were the notions of empirical temperature and thermal equilibrium. This framework also took as primitive the notion of transfer of energy as work. This framework did not presume a concept of energy in general, but regarded it as derived or synthesized from the prior notions of heat and work. By one author, this framework has been called the "thermodynamic" approach. The first explicit statement of the In 1907, George H. Bryan wrote about systems between which there is no transfer of matter (closed systems): "Definition. When energy flows from one system or part of a system to another otherwise than by the performance of mechanical work, the energy so transferred is called "heat"." This definition may be regarded as expressing a conceptual revision, as follows. This was systematically expounded in 1909 by Constantin Carathéodory, whose attention had been drawn to it by Max Born. Largely through Born's influence, this revised conceptual approach to the definition of heat came to be preferred by many twentieth-century writers. It might be called the "mechanical approach". Energy can also be transferred from one thermodynamic system to another in association with transfer of matter. Born points out that in general such energy transfer is not resolvable uniquely into work and heat moieties. In general, when there is transfer of energy associated with matter transfer, work and heat transfers The revised statement of the first law postulates that a change in the internal energy of a system due to any arbitrary process, that takes the system from a given initial thermodynamic state to a given final equilibrium thermodynamic state, can be determined through the physical existence, for those given states, of a reference process that occurs purely through stages of adiabatic work. The revised statement is then This statement is much less close to the empirical basis than are the original statements, but is often regarded as conceptually parsimonious in that it rests only on the concepts of adiabatic work and of non-adiabatic processes, not on the concepts of transfer of energy as heat and of The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system was expressed in two ways by Clausius. One way referred to cyclic processes and the inputs and outputs of the system, but did not refer to increments in the internal state of the system. The other way referred to an incremental change in the internal state of the system, and did not expect the process to be cyclic. A cyclic process is one that can be repeated indefinitely often, returning the system to its initial state. Of particular interest for In a non-cyclic process, the change in the internal energy of a system is equal to net energy added as heat to the system minus the net work done by the system, both being measured in mechanical units. Taking as a change in internal energy, one writes where denotes the net quantity of heat supplied to the system by its surroundings and denotes the net work done by the system. This sign convention is implicit in Clausius' statement of the law given above. It originated with the study of heat engines that produce useful work by consumption of heat. Often nowadays, however, writers use the IUPAC convention by which the first law is formulated with work done on the system by its surroundings having a positive sign. With this now often used sign convention for work, the first law for a closed system may be written: This convention follows physicists such as Max Planck, The law is of great importance and generality and is consequently thought of from several points of view. Most careful textbook statements of the law express it for closed systems. It is stated in several ways, sometimes even by the same author. For the thermodynamics of closed systems, the distinction between transfers of energy as work and as heat is central and is within the scope of the present article. For the thermodynamics of open systems, such a distinction is beyond the scope of the present article, but some limited comments are made on it in the section below headed 'First law of thermodynamics for open systems'. There are two main ways of stating a law of thermodynamics, physically or mathematically. They should be logically coherent and consistent with one another. An example of a physical statement is that of Planck (1897/1903): This physical statement is restricted neither to closed systems nor to systems with states that are strictly defined only for thermodynamic equilibrium; it has meaning also for open systems and for systems with states that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. An example of a mathematical statement is that of Crawford (1963): This statement by Crawford, for, uses the sign convention of IUPAC, not that of Clausius. Though it does not explicitly say so, this statement refers to closed systems, and to internal energy defined for bodies in states of thermodynamic equilibrium, which possess well-defined temperatures. The history of statements of the law for closed systems has two main periods, before and after the work of Bryan (1907), of Carathéodory (1909), and the approval of Carathéodory's work given by Born (1921). The earlier traditional versions of the law for closed systems are nowadays often considered to be out of date. Carathéodory's celebrated presentation of equilibrium thermodynamics refers to closed systems, which are allowed to contain several phases connected by internal walls of various kinds of impermeability and permeability (explicitly including walls that are permeable only to heat). Carathéodory's 1909 version of the first law of thermodynamics was stated in an axiom which refrained from defining or mentioning temperature or quantity of heat transferred. That axiom stated that the internal energy of a phase in equilibrium is a function of state, that the sum of the internal energies of the phases is the total internal energy of the system, and that the value of the total internal energy of the system is changed by the amount of work done adiabatically on it, considering work as a form of energy. That article considered this statement to be The first law of thermodynamics for closed systems was originally induced from empirically observed evidence, including calorimetric evidence. It is nowadays, however, taken to provide the definition of heat via the law of conservation of energy and the definition of work in terms of changes in the external parameters of a system. The original discovery of the law was gradual over a period of perhaps half a century or more, and some early studies were in terms of cyclic processes. The following is an account in terms of changes of state of a closed system through compound processes that are not necessarily cyclic. This account first considers processes for which the first law is easily verified because of their simplicity, namely adiabatic processes (in which there is no transfer as heat) and adynamic processes (in which there is no transfer as work). In an adiabatic process, there is transfer of energy as work but not as heat. For all adiabatic process that takes a system from a given initial state to a given final state, irrespective of how the work is done, the respective eventual total quantities of energy transferred as work are one and the same, determined just by the given initial and final states. The work done on the system is defined and measured by changes in mechanical or quasi-mechanical variables external to the system. Physically, adiabatic transfer of energy as work requires the existence of adiabatic enclosures. For instance, in Joule's experiment, the initial system is a tank of water with a paddle wheel inside. If we isolate the tank thermally, and move the paddle wheel with a pulley and a weight, we can relate the increase in temperature with the distance descended by the mass. A complementary observable aspect of the first law is about heat transfer. Adynamic transfer of energy as heat can be measured empirically by changes in the surroundings of the system of interest by calorimetry. This again requires the existence of adiabatic enclosure of the entire process, system and surroundings, though the separating wall between the surroundings and the system is thermally conductive or radiatively permeable, not adiabatic. A calorimeter can rely on measurement of sensible heat, which requires the existence of thermometers and measurement of temperature change in bodies of known sensible heat capacity under specified conditions; or it can rely on the measurement of latent heat, through measurement of Heat transfer is practically reversible when it is driven by practically negligibly small temperature gradients. Work transfer is practically reversible when it occurs so slowly that there are no frictional effects within the system; frictional effects outside the system should also be zero if the process is to be globally reversible. For a particular reversible process in general, the work done reversibly on the system, formula_29, and the heat transferred reversibly to the system, If, in a process of change of state of a closed system, the energy transfer is not under a practically zero temperature gradient and practically frictionless, then the process is irreversible. Then the heat and work transfers may be difficult to calculate, and irreversible thermodynamics is called for. Nevertheless, the first law still The first law of thermodynamics is so general that its predictions cannot all be directly tested. In many properly conducted experiments it has been precisely supported, and never violated. Indeed, within its scope of applicability, the law is so reliably established, that, nowadays, rather than experiment When the heat and work transfers in the equations above are infinitesimal in magnitude, they are often denoted by, rather than exact differentials denoted by, as a reminder that heat and work do not describe the "state" of any system. The integral of an inexact differential depends upon the particular path taken through the space of thermodynamic parameters while the integral of an exact differential depends only upon the initial and final states. If the initial and final states are the same, then the integral of an inexact differential may or may not be zero, but the integral of an exact differential is always zero. The path taken by a thermodynamic system through a chemical or physical change is known as a thermodynamic process. The first law for a closed homogeneous system may be stated in terms that include concepts that are established in the second law. The internal energy may then be expressed as a function of the system's defining state variables, entropy, and, volume:. In these terms,, the system's temperature, and, its pressure, are partial derivatives of with respect to and. These variables are important throughout thermodynamics, though not necessary for the statement of the first law. Rigorously, they are defined only when the system is in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium. For some purposes, the concepts provide good approximations for scenarios sufficiently near to the system's internal thermodynamic equilibrium. The first law requires that: Then, for the fictive case of a reversible process, can be written in terms of exact differentials. One may imagine reversible changes, such that there is at each instant negligible departure from thermodynamic equilibrium within the system. This excludes isochoric work. Then, mechanical work is given by and the quantity of heat added can be expressed as. For these conditions While this has been shown here for reversible changes, it is valid in general, as can be considered as a thermodynamic state function of the defining state variables and : Equation (2) is known as the fundamental thermodynamic relation for a closed system in the energy representation, for which the defining state variables are and, with respect Classical thermodynamics is initially focused on closed homogeneous systems (e.g. Planck 1897/1903), which might be regarded as 'zero-dimensional' in the sense that they have no spatial variation. But it is desired to study also systems with distinct internal motion and spatial inhomogeneity. For such systems, the principle of conservation of energy is expressed in terms not only of internal energy as defined for homogeneous systems, but also in terms of kinetic energy and potential energies of parts of the inhomogeneous system with respect to each other and with respect to long-range external forces. How the total energy of a system is allocated between these three more specific kinds of energy varies according to the purposes of different writers; this is because these components of energy are to some extent mathematical artefacts rather than actually measured physical quantities. For any closed homogeneous component of an inhomogeneous closed system, if formula_45 denotes the total For the first law of thermodynamics, there is no trivial passage of physical conception from the closed system view to an open system view. For closed systems, the concepts of an adiabatic enclosure and of an adiabatic wall are fundamental. Matter and internal energy cannot permeate or penetrate such a wall. For an open system, there is a wall that allows penetration by matter. In general, matter in diffusive motion carries with it some internal energy, and some microscopic potential energy changes accompany the motion. An open system is not adiabatically enclosed. There are some cases in which a process for an open system can, for particular purposes, be considered as if it were for a closed system. In an open system, by definition hypothetically or potentially, matter can pass between the system and its surroundings. But when, in a particular case, the process of interest involves only hypothetical or potential but no actual passage of matter, the process can be considered as if it were for a closed system. Since the revised and more rigorous definition of the internal energy of a closed system rests upon the possibility of processes by which adiabatic work takes the system from one state to another, this leaves a problem for the definition of internal energy for an open system, for which adiabatic work is not in general possible. According to Max Born, the transfer of matter and energy across an open connection "cannot be reduced to mechanics". In contrast to the case of closed systems, for open systems, in the presence of diffusion, there is no unconstrained and unconditional physical distinction between convective transfer of internal energy by bulk flow of matter, the transfer of internal energy without transfer of matter (usually called heat conduction and work transfer), and change of various potential energies. The older traditional way and the conceptually revised (Carathéodory) way agree that there is no physically unique definition of heat and work transfer processes between open systems. In particular, between two otherwise isolated open systems an adiabatic wall is by definition impossible. This problem is solved by recourse to the principle of conservation of energy. This principle allows a composite isolated system to be derived from two other component non-interacting isolated systems, in such a A system connected to its surroundings only through contact by a single permeable wall, but otherwise isolated, is an open system. If it is initially in a state of contact equilibrium with a surrounding subsystem, a thermodynamic process of transfer of matter can be made to occur between them if the surrounding subsystem is subjected to some thermodynamic operation, for example, removal of a partition between it and some further surrounding subsystem. The removal of the partition in the surroundings initiates a process of exchange between the system and its contiguous surrounding subsystem. An example is evaporation. One may consider an open system consisting of a collection of liquid, enclosed except where it is allowed to evaporate into or to receive condensate from its vapor above it, which may be considered as its contiguous surrounding subsystem, and subject to control of its volume and temperature. A An open system can be in contact equilibrium with several other systems at once. This includes cases in which there is contact equilibrium between the system, and several subsystems in its surroundings, including separate connections with subsystems through walls that are permeable to the transfer of matter and internal energy as heat and allowing friction of passage of the transferred matter, but immovable, and separate connections through adiabatic walls with others, and separate connections through diathermic walls impermeable to matter with yet others. Because there are physically separate connections that are permeable to energy but impermeable to matter, between the system and its surroundings, energy transfers between them can occur with definite heat and work characters. Conceptually essential here is that the internal energy transferred with the transfer of matter is measured by a variable that is mathematically independent of the variables that measure heat and work. With such independence of variables, the total increase of internal energy in the process is then determined as the sum of the internal energy transferred from the surroundings with the transfer of matter through the walls that are permeable to it, and of the internal energy transferred to the system as heat through the diathermic walls, and of the energy transferred to the system as work through the adiabatic walls, including the energy transferred to the system by long-range forces. These simultaneously transferred quantities of energy are defined by events in the surroundings of the system. Because the internal energy transferred with matter is not in general uniquely resolvable into heat and work components, the total energy transfer cannot in general be uniquely resolved into heat and work components. Under these conditions, the following formula can describe the process in terms of externally defined thermodynamic variables, as a statement of the first law of thermodynamics: where Δ"U" denotes the change of internal energy of the system, and denotes the change of internal energy of the of the surrounding subsystems that are in open contact with the system, due to transfer between the system and that surrounding subsystem, and denotes the internal energy transferred as heat from the heat reservoir of the surroundings to the system, and denotes the energy transferred from the system to the surrounding subsystems that are in adiabatic connection with it. The case of a wall that is permeable to matter and can move so as to allow transfer of energy as work is not considered here. The transfer of energy between an open system and a single contiguous subsystem of its surroundings is considered also in non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The problem of definition arises also in this case. It may be allowed that the wall between the system and the subsystem is not only permeable to matter and to internal energy, but also may be movable so as to allow work to be done when the two systems have different pressures. In this case, the transfer of energy as heat is not defined. Methods for study of non-equilibrium processes mostly deal with spatially continuous flow systems. In this case, the open connection between system and surroundings is usually taken to fully surround the system, so that there are no separate connections impermeable to matter but permeable to heat. Except for the special case mentioned above when there is no actual transfer of matter, which can be treated as if for a closed system, in strictly defined thermodynamic terms, it follows that transfer of energy as heat is not defined. In this sense, there is no such thing as 'heat flow' for a continuous-flow open system. Properly, for closed systems, one speaks of transfer of internal energy as heat, but in general, for open systems, one can speak safely only of transfer of internal energy. A factor here is that there are often cross-effects between distinct transfers, for example that transfer of one substance may cause transfer of another even when the latter has zero chemical potential gradient. Usually transfer between a system and its surroundings applies to transfer of a state variable, and obeys a balance law, that the amount lost by the donor system is equal to the amount gained by the receptor system. Heat is not a state variable. For his 1947 definition of "heat transfer" for discrete open systems, the author Prigogine carefully explains at some length that his definition of it does not obey a balance law. He describes this as paradoxical. The situation is clarified by Gyarmati, who shows that his definition of "heat transfer", for continuous-flow systems, really refers not specifically to heat, but rather to transfer of internal energy, as follows. He considers a conceptual small cell in a situation of continuous-flow as a system defined in the so-called Lagrangian way, moving with the local center of mass. The flow of matter across the

The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy, adapted for thermodynamic processes, distinguishing two kinds of transfer of energy, as heat and as thermodynamic work, and relating them to a function of a body's state, called Internal energy.

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summarize: Accenture began as the business and technology consulting division of accounting firm Arthur Andersen in the early 1950s when it conducted a feasibility study for General Electric to install a computer at Appliance Park in Louisville, Kentucky, which led to GE's installation of a UNIVAC I computer and printer, believed to be the first commercial use of a computer in the U.S. Joseph Glickauf, an early pioneer of computer consulting, held a position as head of Arthur Andersen's administrative services division. In 1989, Arthur Andersen and Andersen Consulting became separate units of Andersen Worldwide Société Coopérative (AWSC). Throughout the 1990s, there was increasing tension between Andersen Consulting and Arthur Andersen. Andersen Consulting was paying Arthur Andersen up to 15% of its profits each year (a provision of the 1989 split was that the more profitable unit – whether AA or AC – pay the other the 15 percent), while at the same time Arthur Andersen was competing with Andersen Consulting through its own newly established business consulting service line called Arthur Andersen Business Consulting (AABC). This dispute came to a head in 1998 when Andersen Consulting put the 15% transfer payment for that year and future years into escrow and issued a claim for breach of contract against AWSC and Arthur Andersen. In August 2000, as a result of the conclusion of arbitration with the International Chamber of Commerce, Andersen Consulting broke all contractual ties with AWSC and Arthur Andersen. As part of the arbitration settlement, Andersen Consulting paid the sum held in escrow (then $1.2 billion) to Arthur Andersen, and was required to change its name, resulting in the entity being renamed Accenture. On 1 January 2001, Andersen Consulting adopted its current name, "Accenture". The word "Accenture" is derived from "Accent on the future". The name "Accenture" was submitted by Kim Petersen, a Danish employee from the company's Oslo, Norway office, as a result of an internal competition. Andersen felt that the name should represent its will to be a global consulting leader and high performer, and also intended that the name should not be offensive in any country in which Accenture operates. On 19 July 2001, Accenture's initial public offering (IPO) was priced at $14.50 per share, and the shares began trading on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE); Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley served as its lead underwriters. Accenture stock closed the day at $15.17, with the day's high at $15.25. On the first day of the IPO, Accenture raised nearly $1.7 billion. In October 2002, the Congressional General Accounting Office (GAO) identified Accenture as one of four publicly traded federal contractors that were incorporated in a tax haven. The other three, unlike Accenture, were incorporated in the United States before they re-incorporated in a tax haven, thereby lowering their US taxes. Critics, most notably former CNN journalist Lou Dobbs, have reported Accenture's decision to incorporate in Bermuda as a US tax avoidance ploy, because they viewed Accenture as having been a US-based company. The GAO itself did not characterize Accenture as having been a US-based company; it stated that "prior to incorporating in Bermuda, Accenture was operating as a series of related partnerships and corporations under the control of its partners through the mechanism of contracts with a Swiss coordinating entity." Accenture engaged in an IT overhaul project for the National Health Service (NHS) in 2003, making headlines when it withdrew from the contract in 2006 over disputes related to delays and cost overruns. The government of the United Kingdom ultimately abandoned the project five years later for the same reasons. Accenture announced on 26 May 2009 that its board of directors unanimously approved changing the company's place of incorporation from Bermuda to Ireland and would become Accenture plc. In 2012 it was revealed Accenture was paying only 3.5% in tax in the Republic of Ireland as opposed to the average rate of 24%. Accenture was chosen to replace CGI Group as the lead contractor for HealthCare.gov in January 2014. In December 2014, Accenture won a $563 million contract to provide ongoing maintenance, software development and technology support for HealthCare.gov through 2019. In July 2015, the United States Department of Defense awarded a major Electronic Health Records contract to Cerner, Leidos and Accenture. The contract valued $4.33 billion will serve 55 hospitals and 600 clinics. Accenture Federal Services and Leidos will play the role of configuration specialist, while Cerner is the prime contractor. On 29 August 2017, Apple Inc. announced a partnership with Accenture to create iOS business software. In June 2018, Accenture generated controversy over the amount the firm has been charging to recruit 7,500 Customs and Border Protection officers. Under the $297 million contract, Accenture had been charging the US Government nearly $40,000 per hire, which is more than the annual salary of the average officer. According to a report published by the DHS Office of Inspector General in December 2018, Accenture had been paid $13.6M through the first ten months of the contract. They had hired two agents against a contract goal of 7,500 hires over 5 years. The report was issued as a'management alert', indicating an issue requiring immediate attention, stating that "Accenture has already taken longer to deploy and delivered less capability than promised". In January 2019, CEO Pierre Nanterme stepped down from his position, citing health reasons. Twenty days after stepping down, he died in France at the age of 59 after being diagnosed with colon cancer. Chief Financial Officer David Rowland was named as the interim CEO. In July 2019, Julie Sweet, previously CEO of Accenture North America, was named the new chief executive officer of the firm, effective September 2019. She replaced the interim CEO, David Rowland. In February 2019, contractors from Accenture's Austin, Texas location who performed content moderation tasks for Facebook wrote an open letter to Facebook describing poor working conditions and a "Big Brother environment" that included restricted work breaks and strict non-disclosure agreements. A counselor in the Austin office stated that the content moderators could develop posttraumatic stress disorder as a result of the work, which included evaluating videos and images containing graphic violence, hate speech, animal abuse, and child abuse. On 7 January 2020, news sources reported that Accenture had agreed to acquire Symantec's 300-person cybersecurity services division from Broadcom. In February 2020, Accenture announced that it plans to shut down its media auditing by the end of August. The company also announced the appointment of Jean-Marc Ollagnier as CEO for Europe. In March 2020, Accenture announced that it has agreed to acquire Munich-based ESR Labs, a company that develops embedded software for German car brands and suppliers. In April 2020, Accenture acquired critical infrastructure protection firm Revolutionary Security for an undisclosed amount. In May 2020, Accenture announced that it had acquired Callisto Integration, a Canada-based provider of consulting and technology services and Byte Prophecy, an Ahmedabad-based data analytics company. In June 2020, Accenture finalized its acquisition of Gekko, a France-based Amazon Web Services (AWS) cloud services company. The deal improved Accenture's cloud and artificial intelligence leadership position; enhanced its existing alliances with technology suppliers, including industry partners such as Amazon, Google and Microsoft; and complemented the cloud transformation experience and strategic priorities of the Accenture AWS Business Group (AABG) in France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. For the fiscal year 2019, Accenture reported earnings of US$6.305 billion, with an annual revenue of US$43.215 billion, an increase of 5.4% over the previous fiscal cycle. Accenture's shares traded at over $197 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$125.1 billion in November 2019. In 2011, Accenture launched a new campaign of results-based advertisements featuring clients such as Marriott, Unilever and the Royal Shakespeare Company alongside its slogan "High performance Delivered". As of 2019, Interbrand ranked Accenture No. 31 on its list of best global brands. The brand consultancy noted Accenture's focus on branding and marketing of its Accenture Strategy, Accenture Consulting, Accenture Digital, Accenture Technology and Accenture Operations divisions. From at least 2005 until December 2009, Accenture used Tiger Woods as a celebrity spokesperson and advertised using the service mark "Go on, be a Tiger" and the ancillary statement "We know what it takes to be a Tiger" in association with his image. On 13 December 2009 after details of Woods' extra-marital affairs were exposed, the company terminated Woods' six-year sponsorship deal. The company uses a standardised system of branding, with extensive use of the font Graphik. From 1999, the firm's culture was parodied by the webcomic "Bigtime Consulting", operated pseudonymously by its San Francisco-based employee James Sanchez. Accenture has implemented policies to reduce gendered discrimination such as gender neutral bathrooms and gender neutral dress-codes. As of 2019, Accenture is currently engaged in a lawsuit with The Hertz Corporation. Hertz sued Accenture in April over a contract where Accenture was hired to build a website and app for Hertz. On 12 September, both parties appeared before the judge and provided oral arguments on the legitimacy of Hertz's complaint and Accenture's motion to dismiss. On 15 November, fact discovery is likely to be completed according to schedule, with expert witness depositions finished by 31 January 2020, and a pre-trial conference on 21 February.

Accenture plc, stylised as accenture, is an Irish-domiciled multinational professional services company. A Fortune Global 500 company, it has been incorporated in Dublin, Ireland since 1 September 2009. In 2019, the company reported revenues of $43.2 billion, with more than 492,000 employees serving clients in more than 200 cities in 120 countries. In 2015, the company had about 150,000 employees in India, 48,000 in the US, and 50,000 in the Philippines. Accenture's current clients include 91 of the Fortune Global 100 and more than three-quarters of the Fortune Global 500.

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summarize: One of the first known experiments on the relationship between combustion and air was conducted by the 2nd century BCE Greek writer on mechanics, Philo of Byzantium. In his work "Pneumatica", Philo observed that inverting a vessel over a burning candle and surrounding the vessel's neck with water resulted in some water rising into the neck. Philo incorrectly surmised that parts of the air in the vessel were converted into the classical element fire and thus were able to escape through pores in the glass. Many centuries later Leonardo da Vinci built on Philo's work by observing that a portion of air is consumed during combustion and respiration. Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov, and Pierre Bayen all produced oxygen in experiments in the 17th and the 18th century but none of them recognized it as a chemical element. This may have been in part due to the prevalence of the philosophy of combustion and corrosion called the "phlogiston theory", which was then the favored explanation of those processes. Established in 1667 by the German alchemist J. J. Becher, and modified by the chemist Georg Ernst Stahl Polish alchemist, philosopher, and physician Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój) in his work "De Lapide Philosophorum Tractatus duodecim e naturae fonte et manuali experientia depromti" (1604) described a substance contained in air, referring to it as 'cibus vitae' (food of life), and this substance is identical with oxygen. Sendivogius, during his experiments performed between 1598 and 1604, properly recognized that the substance is equivalent to the gaseous byproduct released by the thermal decomposition of potassium nitrate. In Bugaj's view, the isolation of oxygen and the proper association of the substance to that part of air which is required for life, lends sufficient weight to the discovery of oxygen by Sendivogius. This discovery of Sendivogius was however frequently denied by the generations of scientists and chemists which succeeded him. It is also commonly claimed that oxygen was first discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He had produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates in 1771–2. Scheele called the gas "fire air" because it was then the only Lavoisier conducted the first adequate quantitative experiments on oxidation and gave the first correct explanation of how combustion works. He used these and similar experiments, all started in 1774, to discredit the phlogiston theory and to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element. In one experiment, Lavoisier observed that there was no overall increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He noted that air rushed in when he opened the container, which indicated that part of the trapped air had been consumed. He also noted that the tin had increased in weight and that increase was the same as the weight of the air that rushed back in. This and other experiments on combustion were John Dalton's original atomic hypothesis presumed that all elements were monatomic and that the atoms in compounds would normally have the simplest atomic ratios with respect to one another. For example, Dalton assumed that water's formula was HO, leading to the conclusion that the atomic mass of oxygen was 8 times that of hydrogen, instead of the modern value of about 16. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is formed of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen; and by 1811 Amedeo Avogadro had arrived at the correct interpretation of water's composition, based on what is now called Avogadro's law and the diatomic elemental molecules in those gases. By the late 19th century scientists realized that air could be liquefied and its components isolated by compressing and cooling it. Using a cascade method, Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pierre Pictet evaporated liquid sulfur dioxide in order to liquefy carbon dioxide, which in turn was evaporated to cool oxygen gas enough to liquefy it. He sent a telegram on December At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas with the molecular formula, referred to as dioxygen. As "dioxygen", two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. The bond can be variously described based on level of theory, but is reasonably and simply described as a covalent double bond that results from the filling of molecular orbitals formed from the atomic orbitals of the individual oxygen atoms, the filling of which results in a bond order of two. More specifically, the double bond is the result of sequential, low-to-high energy, or Aufbau, filling of orbitals, and the resulting cancellation of contributions from the 2s electrons, after sequential filling of the low σ and σ orbitals; σ overlap of the two atomic 2p orbitals that lie along the O-O molecular axis and overlap of two pairs of atomic 2p orbitals perpendicular to the O-O molecular axis, and then cancellation of contributions from the remaining two of the six 2p electrons after their partial filling of the lowest and orbitals. This combination of cancellations and σ and overlaps results in dioxygen's double bond character The common allotrope of elemental oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen,, the major part of the Earth's atmospheric oxygen (see Occurrence). O has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol, which is smaller than the energy of other double bonds or pairs of single bonds in the biosphere and responsible for the exothermic reaction of O with any organic molecule. Due to its energy content, O is used by complex forms of life, such as animals, in cellular respiration. Other aspects of are covered in the remainder of this article. Trioxygen () is usually known as ozone and is a very reactive allotrope of oxygen that is damaging to lung tissue. Oxygen dissolves more readily in water than nitrogen, and in freshwater more readily than seawater. Water in equilibrium with air contains approximately 1 molecule of dissolved for every 2 molecules of (1:2), compared with an atmospheric ratio of approximately 1:4. The solubility of oxygen in water is temperature-dependent, and about twice as much (14.6 mg·L) dissolves at 0 °C than at 20 °C (7.6 mg·L). At 25 °C and of air, freshwater contains about 6.04 milliliters (mL) of oxygen per liter, and seawater contains about 4.95 mL per liter. At 5 °C the solubility increases to 9.0 mL (50% more than at 25 °C) per liter Naturally occurring oxygen is composed of three stable isotopes, O, O, and O, with O being the most abundant (99.762% natural abundance). Most O is synthesized at the end of the helium fusion process in massive stars but some is made in the neon burning process. O is primarily made by the burning of hydrogen into helium during the CNO cycle, making it a common isotope in the hydrogen burning zones of stars. Oxygen is the most abundant chemical element by mass in the Earth's biosphere, air, sea and land. Oxygen is the third most abundant chemical element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen. Oxygen constitutes 49.2% of the Earth's crust by mass as part of oxide compounds such as silicon dioxide and is the most abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust. It is also the major component of the world's oceans (88.8% by mass). Oxygen gas is the second most common component of the Earth's atmosphere, taking up 20.8% of its volume and 23.1% of its mass (some 10 tonnes). Earth is unusual among the planets of the Solar System in having such a high concentration of oxygen gas in its atmosphere: Mars (with 0.1% by volume) and Venus have much less. The Paleoclimatologists measure the ratio of oxygen-18 and oxygen-16 in the shells and skeletons of marine organisms to determine the climate millions of years ago (see oxygen isotope ratio cycle). Seawater molecules that contain the lighter isotope, oxygen-16, evaporate at a slightly faster rate than water molecules containing the 12% heavier oxygen-18, and this disparity increases at lower temperatures. During periods of lower global temperatures, snow and rain from that evaporated water tends to be higher in oxygen-16, and the seawater left behind tends to be higher in oxygen-18. Marine organisms then incorporate more oxygen-18 into their skeletons and shells than they would in a warmer climate. Paleoclimatologists also directly measure this ratio in the water molecules of ice core samples as old as hundreds of thousands of years. Planetary geologists have measured the relative quantities In nature, free oxygen is produced by the light-driven splitting of water during oxygenic photosynthesis. According to some estimates, green algae and cyanobacteria in marine environments provide about 70% of the free oxygen produced on Earth, and the rest is produced by terrestrial plants. Other estimates of the oceanic contribution to atmospheric oxygen are higher, while some estimates are lower, suggesting oceans produce ~45% of Earth's atmospheric oxygen each year. A simplified overall formula for photosynthesis is: or simply Photolytic oxygen evolution occurs in the thylakoid membranes of photosynthetic organisms and requires the energy of four photons. Many steps are involved, but the result is the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane, which is used to synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via photophosphorylation. The remaining (after production of the water molecule) is released into the atmosphere. The chemical energy of oxygen is released in mitochondria to The free oxygen partial pressure in the body of a living vertebrate organism is highest in the respiratory Free oxygen gas was almost nonexistent in Earth's atmosphere before photosynthetic archaea and bacteria evolved, probably about 3.5 billion years ago. Free oxygen first appeared in significant quantities during the Paleoproterozoic eon (between 3.0 and 2.3 billion years ago). Even if there was much dissolved iron in the oceans when oxygenic photosynthesis was getting more common, it appears the banded iron formations were created by anoxyenic or micro-aerophilic iron-oxidizing bacteria which dominated the deeper areas of the photic zone, while oxygen-producing cyanobacteria covered the shallows. Free oxygen began to outgas from the oceans 3–2.7 billion years ago, reaching 10% of its present level around 1.7 billion years ago. The presence of large amounts One hundred million tonnes of are extracted from air for industrial uses annually by two primary methods. The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air, with distilling as a vapor while is left as a liquid. The other primary method of producing is passing a stream of clean, dry air through one bed of a pair of identical zeolite molecular sieves, which absorbs the nitrogen and delivers a gas stream that is 90% to 93%. Simultaneously, nitrogen gas is released from the other nitrogen-saturated zeolite bed, by reducing the chamber operating pressure and diverting part of the oxygen gas from the producer bed through it, in the reverse direction of flow. Oxygen storage methods include high pressure oxygen tanks, cryogenics and chemical compounds. For reasons of economy, oxygen is often transported in bulk as a liquid in specially insulated tankers, since one liter of liquefied oxygen is equivalent to 840 liters of gaseous oxygen at atmospheric pressure and. Uptake of from the air is the essential purpose of respiration, so oxygen supplementation is used in medicine. Treatment not only increases oxygen levels in the patient's blood, but has the secondary effect of decreasing resistance to blood flow in many types of diseased lungs, easing work load on the heart. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart disorders (congestive heart failure), some disorders that cause increased pulmonary artery pressure, and any disease that impairs the body's ability to take up and use gaseous oxygen. Treatments are flexible enough to be used in hospitals, the patient's home, or increasingly by portable devices. Oxygen tents were once commonly used in oxygen supplementation, but have since been replaced mostly by An application of as a low-pressure breathing gas is in modern space suits, which surround their occupant's body with the breathing gas. These devices use nearly pure oxygen at about one-third normal pressure, resulting in a normal blood partial pressure of. This trade-off of higher oxygen concentration for lower pressure is needed to maintain suit flexibility. Scuba and surface-supplied underwater divers and submariners also rely on artificially delivered. Submarines, submersibles and atmospheric diving suits usually operate at normal atmospheric pressure. Breathing air is scrubbed of carbon dioxide by chemical extraction and oxygen is replaced to maintain a constant partial pressure. Ambient pressure divers breathe air or gas mixtures with an oxygen fraction suited to the operating depth. Pure or nearly pure use in diving at pressures higher than atmospheric is usually limited to rebreathers, or decompression at relatively shallow depths (~6 meters depth, or less), or medical treatment in recompression chambers at Smelting of iron ore into steel consumes 55% of commercially produced oxygen. In this process, is injected through a high-pressure lance into molten iron, which removes sulfur impurities and excess carbon as the respective oxides, and. The reactions are exothermic, so the temperature increases to 1,700 °C. Another 25% of commercially produced oxygen is used by the chemical industry. Ethylene is reacted with to create ethylene The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in almost all known compounds of oxygen. The oxidation state −1 is found in a few compounds such as peroxides. Compounds containing oxygen in other oxidation states are very uncommon: −1/2 (superoxides), −1/3 (ozonides), 0 (elemental, hypofluorous acid), +1/2 (dioxygenyl), +1 (dioxygen difluoride), and +2 (oxygen difluoride). Water () is an oxide of hydrogen and the most familiar oxygen compound. Hydrogen atoms are covalently bonded to oxygen in a water molecule but also have an additional attraction (about 23.3 kJ/mol per hydrogen atom) to an adjacent oxygen atom in a separate molecule. These hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them approximately 15% closer than what would be expected in a simple liquid with just van der Waals forces. Due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms chemical bonds with almost all other elements to give corresponding oxides. The surface of most metals, such as aluminium and titanium, are oxidized in the presence of air and become coated with a thin film of oxide that passivates the metal and slows further corrosion. Many oxides of the Among the most important classes of organic compounds that contain oxygen are (where "R" is an organic group): alcohols (R-OH); ethers (R-O-R); ketones (R-CO-R); aldehydes (R-CO-H); carboxylic acids (R-COOH); esters (R-COO-R); acid anhydrides (R-CO-O-CO-R); and amides (). There are many important organic solvents that contain oxygen, including: acetone, methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, furan, THF, diethyl ether, dioxane, ethyl acetate, DMF, DMSO, acetic acid, and formic acid. Acetone () and phenol () are used as feeder materials The NFPA 704 standard rates compressed oxygen gas as nonhazardous to health, nonflammable and nonreactive, but an oxidizer. Refrigerated liquid oxygen (LOX) is given a health hazard rating of 3 (for increased risk of hyperoxia from condensed vapors, and for hazards common to cryogenic liquids such as frostbite), and all other ratings are the same as the compressed gas form. Oxygen gas () can be toxic at elevated partial pressures, leading to convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at partial pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen composition at standard pressure or 2.5 times the normal sea-level partial pressure of about 21 kPa. This is not a problem except for patients on mechanical ventilators, since gas supplied through oxygen masks in medical applications is typically composed of only 30%–50% by volume (about 30 kPa at standard pressure). At one time, premature babies were placed in incubators containing -rich air, but this practice was discontinued after some babies were blinded by the oxygen content being Highly concentrated sources of oxygen promote rapid combustion. Fire and explosion hazards exist when concentrated oxidants and fuels are brought into close proximity; an ignition event, such as heat or a spark, is needed to trigger combustion. Oxygen is the oxidant, not the fuel, but nevertheless the source of most of the chemical energy released in combustion. Concentrated will allow combustion to proceed rapidly and energetically. Steel pipes and

Oxygen is the chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group in the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal, and an oxidizing agent that readily forms oxides with most elements as well as with other compounds. After hydrogen and helium, oxygen is the third-most abundant element in the universe by mass. At standard temperature and pressure, two atoms of the element bind to form dioxygen, a colorless and odorless diatomic gas with the formula. Diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.95% of the Earth's atmosphere. As compounds including oxides, the element makes up almost half of the Earth's crust.

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summarize: The heat capacity of an object, denoted by formula_1, is the limit where formula_3 is the amount of heat that must be added to the object (of mass "M") in order to raise its temperature by formula_4. The value of this parameter usually varies considerably depending on the starting temperature formula_5 of the object and the pressure formula_6 applied to it. In particular, it typically varies dramatically with phase transitions such as melting or vaporization (see enthalpy of fusion and enthalpy of vaporization). Therefore, it should be considered a function formula_7of those two variables. The variation can be ignored in contexts when working with objects in narrow ranges of temperature and pressure. For example, the heat capacity of a block of iron weighing one pound is about 204 J/K when measured from a starting temperature "T"=25 °C and "P"=1 atm of pressure. That approximate value is quite adequate for all temperatures between, say, 15 °C and 35 °C, and surrounding pressures from 0 to 10 atmospheres, because the exact value varies very little in those ranges. One can trust that the same heat input of 204 J will raise the temperature of the block from 15 °C to 16 °C, or from 34 °C to 35 °C, with negligible error. On the other hand, the variation cannot typically be ignored across a phase transition. For example, the heat capacity of a liter of liquid water is about 4,200 J/K, meaning it takes 4,200 J to heat a liter of water by one K/°C. However, it takes 2257,000 J to boil a liter of liquid water (that is already just below boiling point) - this is about five times as much energy as it takes to heat liquid water from 0°C to 100°C. At constant pressure, heat supplied to the system would contribute to both the work done and the change in internal energy, according to the first law of thermodynamics. The heat capacity would be called formula_8. A system undergoing a process at constant volume would imply that no work would be done, so the heat supplied would contribute only to the change in internal energy. The heat capacity obtained this way is denoted formula_9. The value of formula_9is always less than the value of formula_8. formula_14 (Mayer's relation) formula_15 where Using the above two relations, the specific heats can be deduced as follows: formula_19 formula_20 No change in internal energy (as the temperature of the system is constant throughout the process) leads to only work done of the total supplied heat, and thus infinite amount of heat is required to increase the temperature of the system by a unit temperature, leading to infinite or undefined heat capacity of the system. Heat capacity of a system undergoing phase transition is infinite, because the heat is utilized in changing the state of the material rather than raising the overall temperature. The heat capacity may be well-defined even for heterogeneous objects, with separate parts made of different materials; such as an electric motor, a crucible with some metal, or a whole building. In many cases, the (isobaric) heat capacity of such objects can be computed by simply adding together the (isobaric) heat capacities of the individual parts. However, this computation is valid only all parts of the object are at the same external pressure before and after the measurement. That may not be possible in some cases. For example, when heating an amount of gas in an elastic container, its volume "and pressure" will both increase, even if the atmospheric pressure outside the container is kept constant. Therefore, the effective heat capacity of the gas, in that situation, will have a value intermediate between its isobaric and isochoric capacities formula_21 and formula_22. For complex thermodynamic systems with several interacting parts and state variables, or for measurement conditions that are neither constant pressure nor constant volume, or for situations where the temperature is significantly non-uniform, the simple definitions of heat capacity above are not useful or even meaningful. The heat energy that is supplied may end up as kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (energy stored in force fields), both at macroscopic and atomic scales. Then the change in temperature will depends on the particular path that the system followed through its phase space between the initial and final states. Namely, one must somehow specify how the positions, velocities, pressures, volumes, etc. changed between the initial and final states; and use the general tools of thermodynamics to predict the system's reaction to a small energy input. The "constant volume" and "constant pressure" heating modes are just two among infinitely many paths that a simple homogeneous system can follow. The heat capacity can usually be measured by the method implied by its definition: start with the object at a known uniform temperature, add a known amount of heat energy to it, wait for its temperature to become uniform, and measure the change in its temperature. This method can give moderately accurate values for many solids; however, it cannot provide very precise measurements, especially for gases. The SI unit for heat capacity of an object is joule per kelvin (J/K, or J K). Since an increment of temperature of one degree Celsius is the same as an increment of one kelvin, that is the same unit as J/°C. The heat capacity of an object is an amount of energy divided by a temperature change, which has the dimension L·M·T·Θ. Therefore, the SI unit J/K is equivalent to kilogram meter squared per second squared per kelvin (kg m s K ). Professionals in construction, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and other technical disciplines, especially in the United States, may use the so-called English Engineering units, that include the Imperial pound (lb = 0.45459237 kg) as the unit of mass, the degree Fahrenheit or Rankine (5/9 K, about 0.55556 K) as the unit of temperature increment, and the British thermal unit (BTU ≈ 1055.06 J), as the unit of heat. In those contexts, the unit of heat capacity is BTU/°F ≈ 1900 J. The BTU was in fact defined so that the average heat capacity of one pound of water would be 1 BTU/°F. In chemistry, heat amounts are often measured in calories. Confusingly, two units with that name, denoted "cal" or "Cal", have been commonly used to measure amounts of heat: With these units of heat energy, the units of heat capacity are Most physical systems exhibit a positive heat capacity. However, even though it can seem paradoxical at first, there are some systems for which the heat capacity is "negative". These are inhomogeneous systems that do not meet the strict definition of thermodynamic equilibrium. They include gravitating objects such as stars and galaxies, and also sometimes some nano-scale clusters of a few tens of atoms, close to a phase transition. A negative heat capacity can result in a negative temperature. According to the virial theorem, for a self-gravitating body like a star or an interstellar gas cloud, the average potential energy "U" and the average kinetic energy "U" are locked together in the relation The total energy "U" (= "U" + "U") therefore obeys If the system loses energy, for example, by radiating energy into space, the average kinetic energy actually increases. If a temperature is defined by the average kinetic energy, then the system therefore can be said to have a negative heat capacity. A more extreme version of this occurs with black holes. According to black-hole thermodynamics, the more mass and energy a black hole absorbs, the colder it becomes. In contrast, if it is a net emitter of energy, through Hawking radiation, it will become hotter and hotter until it boils away.

Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K).

en

51

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summarize: Points, considered within the framework of Euclidean geometry, are one of the most fundamental objects. Euclid originally defined the point as "that which has no part". In two-dimensional Euclidean space, a point is represented by an ordered pair (, ) of numbers, where the first number conventionally represents the horizontal and is often denoted by, and the second number conventionally represents the vertical and is often denoted by. This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by an ordered triplet (,, ) with the additional third number representing depth and often denoted by. Further generalizations are represented by an ordered tuplet of terms, where is the dimension of the space in which the point is located. Many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an infinite collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a set of points; As an example, a line is an infinite set of points of the form formula_1, where through and are constants and is the dimension of the space. Similar constructions exist that define the plane, line segment and other related concepts. A line segment consisting of only a single point is called a degenerate line segment. In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, that any two points can be connected by a straight line. This is easily confirmed under modern extensions of Euclidean geometry, and had lasting consequences at its introduction, allowing the construction of almost all the geometric concepts known at the time. However, Euclid's postulation of points was neither complete nor definitive, and he occasionally assumed facts about points that did not follow directly from his axioms, such as the ordering of points on the line or the existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions. There are several inequivalent definitions of dimension in mathematics. In all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional. The dimension of a vector space is the maximum size of a linearly independent subset. In a vector space consisting of a single point (which must be the zero vector 0), there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero: formula_2. The topological dimension of a topological space "X" is defined to be the minimum value of "n", such that every finite open cover formula_3 of "X" admits a finite open cover formula_4 of "X" which refines formula_3 in which no point is included in more than "n"+1 elements. If no such minimal "n" exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension. A point is zero-dimensional with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a single open set. Let "X" be a metric space. If "S" ⊂ "X" and "d" ∈ [0, ∞), the "d"-dimensional Hausdorff content of "S" is the infimum of the set of numbers δ ≥ 0 such that there is some (indexed) collection of balls formula_6 covering "S" with "r" > 0 for each "i" ∈ "I" that satisfies formula_7. The Hausdorff dimension of "X" is defined by A point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius. Although the notion of a point is generally considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e.g. noncommutative geometry and pointless topology. A "pointless" or "pointfree" space is defined not as a set, but via some structure (algebraic or logical respectively) which looks like a well-known function space on the set: an algebra of continuous functions or an algebra of sets respectively. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of functions in a way that the operation "take a value at this point" may not be defined. A further tradition starts from some books of A. N. Whitehead in which the notion of region is assumed as a primitive together with the one of "inclusion" or "connection". Often in physics and mathematics, it is useful to think of a point as having non-zero mass or charge (this is especially common in classical electromagnetism, where electrons are idealized as points with non-zero charge). The Dirac delta function, or function, is (informally) a generalized function on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero, with an integral of one over the entire real line. The delta function is sometimes thought of as an infinitely high, infinitely thin spike at the origin, with total area one under the spike, and physically represents an idealized point mass or point charge. It was introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac. In the context of signal processing it is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol (or function). Its discrete analog is the Kronecker delta function which is usually defined on a finite domain and takes values 0 and 1.

In modern mathematics, a point refers usually to an element of some set called a space. More specifically, in Euclidean geometry, a point is a primitive notion upon which the geometry is built, meaning that a point cannot be defined in terms of previously defined objects. That is, a point is defined only by some properties, called axioms, that it must satisfy. In particular, the geometric points do not have any length, area, volume or any other dimensional attribute. A common interpretation is that the concept of a point is meant to capture the notion of a unique location in Euclidean space.

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summarize: Euclid set forth the first great landmark of mathematical thought, an axiomatic treatment of geometry. He selected a small core of undefined terms (called "common notions") and postulates (or axioms) which he then used to prove various geometrical statements. Although the plane in its modern sense is not directly given a definition anywhere in the "Elements", it may be thought of as part of the common notions. Euclid never used numbers to measure length, angle, or area. In this way the Euclidean plane is not quite the same as the Cartesian plane. A plane is a ruled surface. This section is solely concerned with planes embedded in three dimensions: specifically, in R. In a Euclidean space of any number of dimensions, a plane is uniquely determined by any of the following: The following statements hold in three-dimensional Euclidean space but not in higher dimensions, though they have higher-dimensional analogues: In a manner analogous to the way lines in a two-dimensional space are described using a point-slope form for their equations, planes in a three dimensional space have a natural description using a point in the plane and a vector orthogonal to it (the normal vector) to indicate its "inclination". Specifically, let be the position vector of some point, and let be a nonzero vector. The plane determined by the point and the vector consists of those points, with position vector, such that the vector drawn from to is perpendicular to. Recalling that two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero, it follows that the desired plane can be described as the set of all points such that Expanded this becomes which is the "point-normal" form of the equation of a plane. This is just a linear equation where Conversely, it is easily shown that if and are constants and, and are not all zero, then the graph of the equation is a plane having the vector as a normal. This familiar equation for a plane is called the "general form" of the equation of the plane. Thus for example a regression equation of the form (with ) establishes a best-fit plane in three-dimensional space when there are two explanatory variables. Alternatively, a plane may be described parametrically as the set of all points of the form where "s" and "t" range over all real numbers,'and are given linearly independent vectors defining the plane, and is the vector representing the position of an arbitrary (but fixed) point on the plane. The vectors'and can be visualized as vectors starting at and pointing in different directions along the plane. The vectors and can be perpendicular, but cannot be parallel. Let,, and be non-collinear points. The plane passing through,, and can be described as the set of all points (x,y,z) that satisfy the following determinant equations: To describe the plane by an equation of the form formula_8, solve the following system of equations: This system can be solved using Cramer's rule and basic matrix manipulations. Let If "D" is non-zero (so for planes not through the origin) the values for "a", "b" and "c" can be calculated as follows: These equations are parametric in "d". Setting "d" equal to any non-zero number and substituting it into these equations will yield one solution set. This plane can also be described by the "point and a normal vector" prescription above. A suitable normal vector is given by the cross product and the point can be taken to be any of the given points, or (or any other point in the plane). For a plane formula_17 and a point formula_18 not necessarily lying on the plane, the shortest distance from formula_19 to the plane is It follows that formula_19 lies in the plane if and only if "D=0". If formula_22 meaning that "a", "b", and "c" are normalized then the equation becomes Another vector form for the equation of a plane, known as the Hesse normal form relies on the parameter "D". This form is: where formula_25 is a unit normal vector to the plane, formula_26 a position vector of a point of the plane and "D" the distance of the plane from the origin. The general formula for higher dimensions can be quickly arrived at using vector notation. Let the hyperplane have equation formula_27, where the formula_25 is a normal vector and formula_29 is a position vector to a point in the hyperplane. We desire the perpendicular distance to the point formula_30. The hyperplane may also be represented by the scalar equation formula_31, for constants formula_32. Likewise, a corresponding formula_25 may be represented as formula_34. We desire the scalar projection of the vector formula_35 in the direction of formula_25. Noting that formula_37 (as formula_38 satisfies the equation of the hyperplane) we have The line of intersection between two planes formula_40 and formula_41 where formula_42 are normalized is given by where This is found by noticing that the line must be perpendicular to both plane normals, and so parallel to their cross product formula_46 (this cross product is zero if and only if the planes are parallel, and are therefore non-intersecting or entirely coincident). The remainder of the expression is arrived at by finding an arbitrary point on the line. To do so, consider that any point in space may be written as formula_47, since formula_48 is a basis. We wish to find a point which is on both planes (i.e. on their intersection), so insert this equation into each of the equations of the planes to get two simultaneous equations which can be solved for formula_49 and formula_50. If we further assume that formula_51 and formula_52 are orthonormal then the closest point on the line of intersection to the origin is formula_53. If that is not the case, then a more complex procedure must be used. Given two intersecting planes described by formula_54 and formula_55, the dihedral angle between them is defined to be the angle formula_56 between their normal directions: In addition to its familiar geometric structure, with isomorphisms that are isometries with respect to the usual inner product, the plane may be viewed at various other levels of abstraction. Each level of abstraction corresponds to a specific category. At one extreme, all geometrical and metric concepts may be dropped to leave the topological plane, which may be thought of as an idealized homotopically trivial infinite rubber sheet, which retains a notion of proximity, but has no distances. The topological plane has a concept of a linear path, but no concept of a straight line. The topological plane, or its equivalent the open disc, is the basic topological neighborhood used to construct surfaces (or 2-manifolds) classified in low-dimensional topology. Isomorphisms of the topological plane are all continuous bijections. The topological plane is the natural context for the branch of graph theory that deals with planar graphs, and results such as the four color theorem. The plane may also be viewed as an affine space, whose isomorphisms are combinations of translations and non-singular linear maps. From this viewpoint there are no distances, but collinearity and ratios of distances on any line are preserved. Differential geometry views a plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold, a topological plane which is provided with a differential structure. Again in this case, there is no notion of distance, but there is now a concept of smoothness of maps, for example a differentiable or smooth path (depending on the type of differential structure applied). The isomorphisms in this case are bijections with the chosen degree of differentiability. In the opposite direction of abstraction, we may apply a compatible field structure to the geometric plane, giving rise to the complex plane and the major area of complex analysis. The complex field has only two isomorphisms that leave the real line fixed, the identity and conjugation. In the same way as in the real case, the plane may also be viewed as the simplest, one-dimensional (over the complex numbers) complex manifold, sometimes called the complex line. However, this viewpoint contrasts sharply with the case of the plane as a 2-dimensional real manifold. The isomorphisms are all conformal bijections of the complex plane, but the only possibilities are maps that correspond to the composition of a multiplication by a complex number and a translation. In addition, the Euclidean geometry (which has zero curvature everywhere) is not the only geometry that the plane may have. The plane may be given a spherical geometry by using the stereographic projection. This can be thought of as placing a sphere on the plane (just like a ball on the floor), removing the top point, and projecting the sphere onto the plane from this point). This is one of the projections that may be used in making a flat map of part of the Earth's surface. The resulting geometry has constant positive curvature. Alternatively, the plane can also be given a metric which gives it constant negative curvature giving the hyperbolic plane. The latter possibility finds an application in the theory of special relativity in the simplified case where there are two spatial dimensions and one time dimension. (The hyperbolic plane is a timelike hypersurface in three-dimensional Minkowski space.) The one-point compactification of the plane is homeomorphic to a sphere (see stereographic projection); the open disk is homeomorphic to a sphere with the "north pole" missing; adding that point completes the (compact) sphere. The result of this compactification is a manifold referred to as the Riemann sphere or the complex projective line. The projection from the Euclidean plane to a sphere without a point is a diffeomorphism and even a conformal map. The plane itself is homeomorphic (and diffeomorphic) to an open disk. For the hyperbolic plane such diffeomorphism is conformal, but for the Euclidean plane it is not.

In mathematics, a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. A plane is the two-dimensional analogue of a point (zero dimensions), a line (one dimension) and three-dimensional space. Planes can arise as subspaces of some higher-dimensional space, as with a room's walls extended infinitely far, or they may enjoy an independent existence in their own right, as in the setting of Euclidean geometry.

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summarize: The exact date of Hus's birth is disputed. Some claim he was born around 1369, while others claim he was born sometime between 1373 and 1375. Though older sources state the latter, more contemporary research states that 1372 is more likely. The belief that he was born on July 6, also his death day, has no factual basis and is likely a myth. Hus was born in Husinec, to peasant parents. We know that Hus took his name from the village where he lived (Husinec). Why Hus did not take the name of his father is up to speculation; some believe that it was because Hus did not know his father, while other say it was simply the custom at the time. Nearly all other information we have about Hus's very early life is either myth or completely unreliable. Similarly, we know little of Hus's family. His father's name was Michael; his mother's name is unknown. We know that Hus had a brother due to him expressing concerns for his nephew while awaiting execution at Constance. Whether or not Hus had any other family is unknown. At the age of roughly 10, Hus was sent away to a monastery. Again, the exact reason is not known; some claim his father had died, other say he simply went due to his devoutness. He impressed the teachers with his studies, and they recommended that he move to Prague, one of the largest cities in Bohemia at the time. Hus apparently supported himself by securing a job with someone in Prague, which allowed him access to food, shelter, clothing, and the Prague Library. 3 years later, he was admitted to the University of Prague. Though not an exceptional student, he was said to have pursued his studies with ferocity. In 1393, Hus earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Prague, and he earned his master's degree in 1396. The strongly anti-papal views that were held by many of the professors there likely influenced Hus's future work. Hus began teaching at the university in 1398 and in 1399, he first publicly defended propositions of Wycliffe. In 1401, his students and faculty promoted him to dean of the philosophical department, and a year later, he became a rector of the University of Prague. He was appointed a preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in 1402. Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs and the Realists, and he was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe. Although church authorities banned many works of Wycliffe in 1403, Hus translated "Trialogus" into Czech and helped to distribute it. Hus denounced the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc tolerated this, and even appointed Hus a preacher at the clergy's biennial synod. On June 24, 1405, Pope Innocent VII directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffe's teachings, especially the doctrine of impanation in the Eucharist. The archbishop complied by issuing a synod decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy. In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the University of Oxford and praising Wycliffe. Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit. Then, in 1408, Pope Gregory XII warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heresies and of the sympathies of King Wenceslaus IV for non-conformists. In response, the king and university ordered all of Wycliffe's writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction. Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings. In 1408, the Charles University in Prague was divided by the Western Schism, in which Gregory XII in Rome and Benedict XIII in Avignon both claimed the papacy. Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism, and said that he expected the same of the University. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian "nation" (one of the four governing sections), with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality. In January 1409, Wenceslaus summoned representatives of the four nations comprising the university to the Czech city of Kutná Hora to demand statements of allegiance. The Czech nation agreed, but the other three nations declined. The king then decreed that the Czech nation would have three votes in University affairs, while the "German nation" (composed of the former Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish nations) would have one vote in total. As a consequence of the changed voting, by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs. The Palatine Elector called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the Margrave of Meissen started a new university in Leipzig. It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague. The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy. In 1409, the Council of Pisa tried to end the schism by electing Alexander V as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit. (Alexander was declared an "antipope" by the Council of Constance in 1418.) Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from king Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then lodged an accusation of "ecclesiastical disturbances" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V. On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a papal bull that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague. All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his doctrines repudiated, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain. The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V. Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by John XXIII (also later declared an antipope). In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well. John XXIII also authorized indulgences to raise money for the war. Priests urged the people on and these crowded into churches to give their offerings. This traffic in indulgences was to some a sign of the corruption of the church needing remediation. Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411, and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase, during which the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance. Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address "Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis". It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, "De ecclesia", and his treatise, "De absolutione a pena et culpa". Hus asserted that no Pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward, some of Hus's followers, led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burnt the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists. In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles, but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling, requesting that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation; papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls, and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties. King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. It did not take place there, but in the palace of the archbishops at Prague, in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the doctrine of Wycliffe ("Sermones", iii. 519, etc.). There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results, but the King ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded approval of their conception of the Church, according to which the Pope is the head, the Cardinals are the body of the Church, from Hus and his followers. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others. By this time, Hus's ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia, and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the Pope and Archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus, and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban, and the interdict was pronounced against Prague. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside, where he continued to preach and write. Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive King, a hostile Pope or an ineffective Council. On October 18, 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge. By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517. After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation on one hand, and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care on the other. Therefore, he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor. Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled "De Ecclesia", were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized, and yet their first ten chapters are but an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title, and the following chapters are but an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works ("De potentate papae") on the power of the Pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy, and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek, and sent it to Prague, where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title. After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned. King Wenceslaus's brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was "King of the Romans" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire, though not then Emperor), and heir to the Bohemian crown, was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end of all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe conduct. It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be, but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty, under his safe conduct from Sigismund, and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating Mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him, on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then, on 6 December 1414, into the prison of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal; however, the prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic. On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard, but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends, but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, "Gottlieben on the Rhine". Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill. On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time, and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read, and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission, but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe, and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the Council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic. At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him, twenty-six of which had been excerpted from his book on the Church ("De ecclesia"), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma ("Contra Stanislaum"). The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess: He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught; others, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke; to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted. The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415, in the presence of the assembly of the Council in the Cathedral. After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi (then Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read. An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation — he was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant; again he refused. With curses, Hus's ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed, and the sentence of the Church was pronounced, stripping him of all rights, and he was delivered to secular authorities. Then a tall paper hat was put upon his head, with the inscription ""Haeresiarcha"" (i.e., the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men. At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands, and prayed aloud. The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes, and bound his neck with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life. Hus declined, stating: Anecdotally, it has been claimed that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire. An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, ""O Sancta Simplicitas!"". The phrase's Czech equivalent, ""Svatá prostota!"" (vocative form: ""Svatá prostoto!"", Translated ""Holy simplicity!"") is still used today when commenting on a person's foolish action coming from the belief that he or she is doing something righteous. It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, ""Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!"" (a variant of the Jesus Prayer). Hus's ashes were later thrown into the Rhine River as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains. Responding with horror to the execution of Hus, the people of Bohemia moved even more rapidly away from Papal teachings, provoking Rome to pronounce a crusade against them (1 March 1420): Pope Martin V issued a Papal bull authorizing the execution of all supporters of Hus and Wycliffe. King Wenceslaus IV died in August 1419 and his brother, Sigismund of Hungary, was unable to establish a real government in Bohemia due to the Hussite revolt. The Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia, and became a major military power. Under the leadership of Jan Žižka (c. 1360 – 1424) and later of Prokop the Great (c. 1380 – 1434) – both excellent commanders – the Hussites defeated the crusade and the other three crusades that followed (1419–1434). Fighting ended after a compromise between the Utraquist Hussites and the Catholic Council of Basel in 1436. It resulted in the Basel Compacts, in which the Catholic Church officially allowed Bohemia to practice its own version of Christianity (Hussitism). A century later, as much as ninety percent of the inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands still followed Hussite teachings. Hus left only a few reformatory writings in the proper sense of the word, most of his works being polemical treatises against Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč. He translated Wycliffe's "Trialogus", and was very familiar with his works on the body of Jesus, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper (consubstantiation rather than transubstantiation had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it, although it is possible that he simply repeated it without advocating it. But the doctrine was seized eagerly by the radical party, the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. According to their book, the Church is not the clerical hierarchy which was generally accepted as ‘the Church;’ the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation. Christ, not the pope, is its head. It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved. Neither internal membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church. To some, Hus's efforts were predominantly designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses, rather than a campaign of sweeping theological change. To others, the seeds of the Reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings. In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, "One pays for confession, for mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers. The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it." (Macek, 16) After Hus's death, his followers, known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans. Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed "deep regret for the cruel death inflicted" on Hus and added "deep sorrow" for Hus's death and praised his "moral courage". Cardinal Miloslav Vlk of the Czech Republic was instrumental in crafting John Paul II's statement. Hus was also, unlike the vast majority of preachers at the time, an advocate for women and feminism. He believed women were given rights in the Bible. Hus stated that "Women were made in the image of God and should fear no man." He allowed women to preach and serve in battle, and they later fought in the Hussite wars. Jan Hus introduced reforms to medieval Czech orthography, including the "hook" (háček) diacritic which was used to form the graphemes,,, and, which replaced digraphs like,,, and ; the "dot" above letters for strong accent, as well as the acute accent to mark long vowels,,,, and, in order to represent each phoneme by a single symbol. Some sources mention documented use of the special symbols in Bible translations (1462), the Schaffhausen Bible, and handwritten notes in the bible. The symbol (instead of ) came later. The book "Orthographia Bohemica" (1406) may have been written by Jan Hus, or by another author from Charles University. A century after the Hussite Wars began, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were Hussites (although in the Utraquist tradition following a joint Utraquist—Catholic victory in the Hussite Wars). Although Bohemia was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, there are only few Protestant adherents remaining in modern times; mainly due to historical reasons such as persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, particularly after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620; restrictions during the Communist rule; and also the ongoing secularization. Jan Hus was a key contributor to Protestantism, whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther. The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts which allowed for a reformed church in the Kingdom of Bohemia—almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation. The Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) considers itself a spiritual heir to many of Hus's followers. Hus's extensive writings earn him a prominent place in Czech literary history. Professor Thomas Garrigue Masaryk used Hus' name in his speech at Geneva University on 6 July 1915, for defense against Austria and in July 1917 for the title of the first corps of troops his legions in Russia. Today, the Jan Hus Memorial is located at the Prague Old Town Square (), and there are many smaller memorials in other towns throughout the Czech Republic. In New York City, a church in Brooklyn (located at 153 Ocean Avenue), and a church and a theatre in Manhattan (located at 351 East 74th Street) are named for Hus: respectively the John Hus Moravian Church, the Jan Hus Presbyterian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse. Although the Manhattan's church and theatre share a single building and management, the Playhouse's productions are usually non-religious or non-denominational. A statue of Jan Hus was erected at the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, New York (on Long Island) by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893. In contrast to the popular perception that Hus was a proto-Protestant, some Eastern Orthodox Christians have argued that his theology was far closer to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Jan Hus is considered as a martyr saint in some jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church. The Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to trace its origin to Hus, to be "neo-Hussite", and contains mixed Eastern Orthodox and Protestant elements. Hus was voted the greatest hero of Czech nation in a 2015 survey by Czech Radio. He received 19% of votes.

Jan Hus (; ; – 6 July 1415), sometimes anglicized as John Hus or John Huss, and referred to in historical texts as "Iohannes Hus" or "Johannes Huss", was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a church reformer and an inspirer of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation. After John Wycliffe, the theorist of ecclesiastical reform, Hus is considered the second church reformer, as he lived before Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. His teachings had a strong influence on the states of Western Europe, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination, and, over a century later, on Martin Luther. Hus was a master, dean, and rector at the Charles University in Prague.

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434, 10, 35845, 538, 19336, 41170, 111, 187363, 25876, 98, 442, 5, 345, 5416, 86681, 604, 27992, 4, 10, 178707, 20387, 7068, 1119, 164779, 297, 4, 44, 58, 670, 192437, 55331, 80410, 7, 3890, 740, 581, 113860, 25, 7, 103655, 183234, 4, 44, 58, 294, 2107, 709, 55706, 102, 3890, 58, 15, 38965, 45023, 3173, 12, 44, 58, 294, 2107, 709, 55706, 188, 3890, 830, 11062, 143, 3674, 44, 58, 11193, 538, 134381, 939, 3890, 18939, 83, 7464, 11814, 18925, 3229, 6868, 214, 98, 10, 3445, 25, 7, 150863, 4745, 22631, 38162, 1295, 70, 144239, 450, 764, 707, 2412, 83, 20594, 9844, 7108, 13, 10821, 5, 1650, 83, 2804, 450, 3229, 764, 509, 1672, 47, 14700, 2149, 4, 764, 13625, 297, 1810, 4, 44, 58, 136658, 4, 775, 111, 70, 43722, 3430, 4, 765, 1143, 2408, 98, 1821, 3890, 58, 15, 11, 20117, 111, 70, 9716, 4061, 8889, 194, 20387, 25, 7, 10, 114942, 3542, 14432, 104250, 19, 3934, 70, 627, 82625, 32547, 237, 10, 26950, 111, 56282, 214, 70, 140143, 1363, 111, 1919, 47143, 7, 5, 138646, 214, 678, 92973, 47, 70, 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summarize: Relative atomic mass is determined by the average atomic mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses of all the atoms of a particular chemical element found in a particular sample, which is then compared to the atomic mass of carbon-12. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless (no unit appended). This quotient also explains the word "relative": the sample mass value is considered relative to that of carbon-12. It is a synonym for atomic weight, though it is not to be confused with relative isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass is also frequently used as a synonym for standard atomic weight and these quantities may have overlapping values if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under defined conditions. However, relative atomic mass (atomic weight) is still technically distinct from standard atomic weight because of its application only to the atoms obtained from a single sample; it is also not restricted to terrestrial samples, whereas standard atomic weight averages multiple samples but only from terrestrial sources. Relative atomic mass is therefore a more general term that can more broadly refer to samples taken from non-terrestrial environments or highly specific terrestrial environments which may differ substantially from Earth-average or reflect different degrees of certainty (e.g. in number of significant figures) than those reflected in standard atomic weights. The prevailing IUPAC definitions (as taken from the "Gold Book") are: and Here the "unified atomic mass unit" refers to of the mass of an atom of C "in its ground state". The IUPAC definition of relative atomic mass is: The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight...", as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is common practice to instead substitute the tabulated values of standard atomic weights, which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories and which are revised biennially by the IUPAC's Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW). Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales based on the atomic mass unit (symbol: "a.m.u." or "amu") used either the oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass or else the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for reference. See the article on the history of the modern unified atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems. The IUPAC commission CIAAW maintains an expectation-interval value for relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) on Earth named standard atomic weight. Standard atomic weight requires the sources be terrestrial, natural, and stable with regard to radioactivity. Also, there are requirements for the research process. For 84 stable elements, CIAAW has determined this standard atomic weight. These values are widely published and referred to loosely as 'the' atomic weight of elements for real-life substances like pharmaceuticals and commercial trade. Also, CIAAW has published abridged (rounded) values and simplified values (for when the Earthly sources vary systematically). Atomic mass ("m") is the mass of a single atom, with unit "Da" or "u" (the dalton). It defines the mass of a specific isotope, which is an input value for the determination of the relative atomic mass. An example for three silicon isotopes is given below. The relative "isotopic" mass is specifically the "ratio of" the mass of a single atom "to" the mass of a unified atomic mass unit. This value, too, is relative, and therefore dimensionless. Modern relative atomic masses (a term specific to a given element sample) are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are available for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples. For this reason, the relative atomic masses of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million). The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose relative atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: Si, Si and Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However, the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table). The calculation is as follows: The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated, especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties, and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 or 10 ppm. Apart from this uncertainty by measurement, some elements have variation over sources. That is, different sources (ocean water, rocks) have a different radioactive history and so different isotopic composition. To reflect this natural variability, the IUPAC made the decision in 2010 to list the standard relative atomic masses of 10 elements as an interval rather than a fixed number.

Relative atomic mass (symbol: "A") or atomic weight is a dimensionless physical quantity defined as the ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the atomic mass constant. The atomic mass constant (symbol: "m") is defined as being of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since both quantities in the ratio are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless; hence the value is said to be "relative".

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summarize: Macroscopically, the ideal gas law states that, for an ideal gas, the product of pressure and volume is proportional to the product of amount of substance (in moles) and absolute temperature : where is the gas constant (). Introducing the Boltzmann constant transforms the ideal gas law into an alternative form: where is the number of molecules of gas. For, is equal to the number of particles in one mole (the Avogadro number). Given a thermodynamic system at an absolute temperature, the average thermal energy carried by each microscopic degree of freedom in the system is (i.e., about, or, at room temperature). In classical statistical mechanics, this average is predicted to hold exactly for homogeneous ideal gases. Monatomic ideal gases (the six noble gases) possess three degrees of freedom per atom, corresponding to the three spatial directions, which means a thermal energy of per atom. This corresponds very well with experimental data. The thermal energy can be used to calculate the root-mean-square speed of the atoms, which turns out to be inversely proportional to the square root of the atomic mass. The root mean square speeds found at room temperature accurately reflect this, ranging from for helium, down to for xenon. Kinetic theory gives the average pressure for an ideal gas as Combination with the ideal gas law shows that the average translational kinetic energy is Considering that the translational motion velocity vector has three degrees of freedom (one for each dimension) gives the average energy per degree of freedom equal to one third of that, i.e.. The ideal gas equation is also obeyed closely by molecular gases; but the form for the heat capacity is more complicated, because the molecules possess additional internal degrees of freedom, as well as the three degrees of freedom for movement of the molecule as a whole. Diatomic gases, for example, possess a total of six degrees of simple freedom per molecule that are related to atomic motion (three translational, two rotational, and one vibrational). At lower temperatures, not all these degrees of freedom may fully participate in the gas heat capacity, due to quantum mechanical limits on the availability of excited states at the relevant thermal energy per molecule. More generally, systems in equilibrium at temperature have probability of occupying a state with energy weighted by the corresponding Boltzmann factor: where is the partition function. Again, it is the energy-like quantity that takes central importance. Consequences of this include (in addition to the results for ideal gases above) the Arrhenius equation in chemical kinetics. In statistical mechanics, the entropy of an isolated system at thermodynamic equilibrium is defined as the natural logarithm of, the number of distinct microscopic states available to the system given the macroscopic constraints (such as a fixed total energy ): This equation, which relates the microscopic details, or microstates, of the system (via ) to its macroscopic state (via the entropy ), is the central idea of statistical mechanics. Such is its importance that it is inscribed on Boltzmann's tombstone. The constant of proportionality serves to make the statistical mechanical entropy equal to the classical thermodynamic entropy of Clausius: The use of natural units simplifies many physical relationships; in this form the definition of thermodynamic entropy coincides with the form of information entropy: where is the probability of each microstate. The value chosen for a unit of the Planck temperature is that corresponding to the energy of the Planck mass.

The Boltzmann constant ( or ) is the proportionality factor that relates the average relative kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the thermodynamic temperature of the gas. It occurs in the definitions of the kelvin and the gas constant, and in Planck's law of black-body radiation and Boltzmann's entropy formula. The Boltzmann constant has the dimension energy divided by temperature, the same as entropy. It is named after the Austrian scientist Ludwig Boltzmann.

en

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summarize: The atomic mass constant can also be expressed as its energy equivalent, that is "m""c". The 2018 CODATA recommended values are: The megaelectronvolt (MeV) is commonly used as a unit of mass in particle physics, and these values are also important for the practical determination of relative atomic masses. The interpretation of the law of definite proportions in terms of the atomic theory of matter implied that the masses of atoms of various elements had definite ratios that depended on the elements. While the actual masses were unknown, the relative masses could be deduced from that law. In 1803 John Dalton proposed to use the (still unknown) atomic mass of the lightest atom, that of hydrogen, as the natural unit of atomic mass. This was the basis of the atomic weight scale. For technical reasons, in 1898, chemist Wilhelm Ostwald and others proposed to redefine the unit of atomic mass as 1/16 of the mass of an oxygen atom. That proposal was formally adopted by the International Committee on Atomic Weights (ICAW) in 1903. That was approximately the mass of one hydrogen atom, but oxygen was more amenable to experimental determination. This suggestion was made before the discovery of the existence of elemental isotopes, which occurred in 1912. The same definition was adopted in 1909 the physicist Jean Perrin in his extensive experiments to determine the atomic masses and Avogadro's constant. This definition remained unchanged until 1961. Perrin also defined the "mole" as an amount of a compound that contained as many molecules as 32 grams of oxygen (). He called that number the Avogadro number in honor of physicist Amedeo Avogadro. The discovery of isotopes of oxygen in 1929 required a more precise definition of the unit. Unfortunately, two distinct definitions came into use. Chemists choose to define the AMU as 1/16 of the average mass of an oxygen atom as found in nature; that is, the average of the masses of the known isotopes, weighted by their natural abundance. Physicists, on the other hand, defined it as 1/16 of the mass of an atom of the isotope oxygen-16 (O). The existence of two distinct units with the same name was confusing, and the difference (about in relative terms) was large enough to affect high-precision measurements. Moreover, it was discovered that the isotopes of oxygen had different natural abundances in water and in air. For these and other reasons, in 1961 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which had absorbed the ICAW, adopted a new definition of the atomic mass unit for use in both physics and chemistry; namely, 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. This new value was intermediate between the two earlier definitions, but closer to the one used by chemists (who would be affected the most by the change). The new unit was named the "unified atomic mass unit" and given a new symbol "u", to replace the old "amu" that had been used for the oxygen-based units. However, the old symbol "amu" has sometimes been used, after 1961, to refer to the new unit, particularly in lay and preparatory contexts. With this new definition, the standard atomic weight of carbon is approximately, and that of oxygen is approximately. These values, generally used in chemistry, are based on averages of many samples from Earth's crust, its atmosphere, and organic materials. The IUPAC 1961 definition of the unified atomic mass unit, with that name and symbol "u", was adopted by the International Bureau for Weights and Measures (BIPM) in 1971 as a "non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". In 1993, the IUPAC proposed the shorter name "dalton" (with symbol "Da") for the unified atomic mass unit. As with other unit names such as watt and newton, "dalton" is not capitalized in English, but its symbol, "Da", is capitalized. The name was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) in 2005. In 2003 the name was recommended to the BIPM by the Consultative Committee for Units, part of the CIPM, as it "is shorter and works better with [the SI] prefixes". In 2006, the BIPM included the dalton in its 8th edition of the formal definition of SI. The name was also listed as an alternative to "unified atomic mass unit" by the International Organization for Standardization in 2009. It is now recommended by several scientific publishers, and some of them consider "atomic mass unit" and "amu" deprecated. In 2019, the BIPM retained the dalton in its 9th edition of the formal definition of SI while dropping the unified atomic mass unit from its table of non-SI units accepted for use with the SI, but secondarily notes that the dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u) are alternative names (and symbols) for the same unit. A proposal was made in 2012 to redefine the dalton (and presumably the unified atomic mass unit) as being 1/"N" grams, thereby breaking the link with C. This would imply changes in the atomic masses of all elements when expressed in daltons, but the change would be too small to have practical effects. The definition of the dalton was not affected by the 2019 redefinition of SI base units, that is, 1 Da in the SI is still 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, a quantity that must be determined experimentally in terms of SI units. However, the definition of a mole was changed to be the amount of substance consisting of exactly entities and the definition of the kilogram was changed as well. As a consequence, the molar mass constant is no longer exactly 1 g/mol, meaning that the number of grams in the mass of one mole of any substance is no longer exactly equal to the number of daltons in its average molecular mass. Although relative atomic masses are defined for neutral atoms, they are measured (by mass spectrometry) for ions: hence, the measured values must be corrected for the mass of the electrons that were removed to form the ions, and also for the mass equivalent of the electron binding energy, "E"/"m""c". The total binding energy of the six electrons in a carbon-12 atom is 1030.1089 eV = : "E"/"m""c" =, or about one part in 10 million of the mass of the atom. Before the 2019 redefinition of SI units, experiments were aimed to determine the value of the Avogadro constant for finding the value of the unified atomic mass unit. A reasonably accurate value of the atomic mass unit was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. Perrin estimated the Avogadro number by a variety of methods, at the turn of the 20th century. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work. The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant, whose value had been essentially known since 1834 when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron, "e". The quotient "F"/"e" provided an estimate of Avogadro's number. The classic experiment is that of Bower and Davis at NIST, and relies on dissolving silver metal away from the anode of an electrolysis cell, while passing a constant electric current "I" for a known time "t". If "m" is the mass of silver lost from the anode and "A" the atomic weight of silver, then the Faraday constant is given by: The NIST scientists devised a method to compensate for silver lost from the anode by mechanical causes, and conducted an isotope analysis of the silver used to determine its atomic weight. Their value for the conventional Faraday constant was "F" =, which corresponds to a value for the Avogadro constant of : both values have a relative standard uncertainty of. In practice, the atomic mass constant is determined from the electron rest mass "m" and the electron relative atomic mass "A"(e) (that is, the mass of electron divided by the atomic mass constant). The relative atomic mass of the electron can be measured in cyclotron experiments, while the rest mass of the electron can be derived from other physical constants. where "c" is the speed of light, "h" is the Planck constant, "α" is the fine-structure constant, and "R" is the Rydberg constant. As may be observed from the old values (2014 CODATA) in the table below, the main limiting factor in the precision of the Avogadro constant was the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant, as all the other constants that contribute to the calculation were known more precisely. The power of the presently defined values of universal constants can be understood from the table below(2018 CODATA). Silicon single crystals may be produced today in commercial facilities with extremely high purity and with few lattice defects. This method defined the Avogadro constant as the ratio of the molar volume, "V", to the atomic volume "V": The unit cell of silicon has a cubic packing arrangement of 8 atoms, and the unit cell volume may be measured by determining a single unit cell parameter, the length "a" of one of the sides of the cube. The 2018 CODATA value of "a" for silicon is. In practice, measurements are carried out on a distance known as "d"(Si), which is the distance between the planes denoted by the Miller indices {220}, and is equal to "a"/. The isotope proportional composition of the sample used must be measured and taken into account. Silicon occurs in three stable isotopes (Si, Si, Si), and the natural variation in their proportions is greater than other uncertainties in the measurements. The atomic weight "A" for the sample crystal can be calculated, as the standard atomic weights of the three nuclides are known with great accuracy. This, together with the measured density "ρ" of the sample, allows the molar volume "V" to be determined: where "M" is the molar mass constant. The 2018 CODATA value for the molar volume of silicon is, with a relative standard uncertainty of.

The dalton or unified atomic mass unit (symbols: Da or u) is a unit of mass widely used in physics and chemistry. It is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state and at rest. The atomic mass constant, denoted "m", is defined identically, giving.

en

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summarize: All definitions are ultimately circular in nature since they depend on concepts which must themselves have definitions, a dependence which cannot be continued indefinitely without returning to the starting point. To avoid this vicious circle certain concepts must be taken as primitive concepts; terms which are given no definition. In geometry, it is frequently the case that the concept of line is taken as a primitive. In those situations where a line is a defined concept, as in coordinate geometry, some other fundamental ideas are taken as primitives. When the line concept is a primitive, the behaviour and properties of lines are dictated by the axioms which they must satisfy. In a non-axiomatic or simplified axiomatic treatment of geometry, the concept of a primitive notion may be too abstract to be dealt with. In this circumstance it is possible that a "description" or "mental image" of a primitive notion is provided to give a foundation to build the notion on which would formally be based on the (unstated) axioms. Descriptions of this type may be referred to, by some authors, as definitions in this informal style of presentation. These are not true definitions and could not be used in formal proofs of statements. The "definition" of line in Euclid's Elements falls into this category. Even in the case where a specific geometry is being considered (for example, Euclidean geometry), there is no generally accepted agreement among authors as to what an informal description of a line should be when the subject is not being treated formally. When geometry was first formalised by Euclid in the "Elements", he defined a general line (straight or curved) to be "breadthless length" with a straight line being a line "which lies evenly with the points on itself". These definitions serve little purpose since they use terms which are not, themselves, defined. In fact, Euclid did not use these definitions in this work and probably included them just to make it clear to the reader what was being discussed. In modern geometry, a line is simply taken as an undefined object with properties given by axioms, but is sometimes defined as a set of points obeying a linear relationship when some other fundamental concept is left undefined. In an axiomatic formulation of Euclidean geometry, such as that of Hilbert (Euclid's original axioms contained various flaws which have been corrected by modern mathematicians), a line is stated to have certain properties which relate it to other lines and points. For example, for any two distinct points, there is a unique line containing them, and any two distinct lines intersect in at most one point. In two dimensions, i.e., the Euclidean plane, two lines which do not intersect are called parallel. In higher dimensions, two lines that do not intersect are parallel if they are contained in a plane, or skew if they are not. Any collection of finitely many lines partitions the plane into convex polygons (possibly unbounded); this partition is known as an arrangement of lines. Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, can be described algebraically by linear equations. In two dimensions, the equation for non-vertical lines is often given in the "slope-intercept form": where: The slope of the line through points formula_2 and formula_3, when formula_4, is given by formula_5 and the equation of this line can be written formula_6. In formula_7, every line formula_8 (including vertical lines) is described by a linear equation of the form with fixed real coefficients "a", "b" and "c" such that "a" and "b" are not both zero. Using this form, vertical lines correspond to the equations with "b" = 0. There are many variant ways to write the equation of a line which can all be converted from one to another by algebraic manipulation. These forms (see Linear equation for other forms) are generally named by the type of information (data) about the line that is needed to write down the form. Some of the important data of a line is its slope, x-intercept, known points on the line and y-intercept. The equation of the line passing through two different points formula_10 and formula_11 may be written as If "x" ≠ "x", this equation may be rewritten as or In three dimensions, lines can "not" be described by a single linear equation, so they are frequently described by parametric equations: where: They may also be described as the simultaneous solutions of two linear equations such that formula_20 and formula_21 are not proportional (the relations formula_22 imply formula_23). This follows since in three dimensions a single linear equation typically describes a plane and a line is what is common to two distinct intersecting planes. The "normal form" (also called the "Hesse normal form", after the German mathematician Ludwig Otto Hesse), is based on the "normal segment" for a given line, which is defined to be the line segment drawn from the origin perpendicular to the line. This segment joins the origin with the closest point on the line to the origin. The normal form of the equation of a straight line on the plane is given by: where "θ" is the angle of inclination of the normal segment (the oriented angle from the unit vector of the "x" axis to this segment), and "p" is the (positive) length of the normal segment. The normal form can be derived from the general form formula_25 by dividing all of the coefficients by Unlike the slope-intercept and intercept forms, this form can represent any line but also requires only two finite parameters, "θ" and "p", to be specified. If "p" > 0, then "θ" is uniquely defined modulo 2. On the other hand, if the line is through the origin ("c" = 0, "p" = 0), one drops the term to compute sin"θ" and cos"θ", and "θ" is only defined modulo. In polar coordinates on the Euclidean plane the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line is expressed as: where "m" is the slope of the line and b is the "y"-intercept. When "θ" = 0 the graph will be undefined. The equation can be rewritten to eliminate discontinuities in this manner: In polar coordinates on the Euclidean plane, the intercept form of the equation of a line that is non-horizontal, non-vertical, and does not pass through pole may be expressed as, where formula_30 and formula_31 represent the "x" and "y" intercepts respectively. The above equation is not applicable for vertical and horizontal lines because in these cases one of the intercepts does not exist. Moreover, it is not applicable on lines passing through the pole since in this case, both "x" and "y" intercepts are zero (which is not allowed here since formula_30 and formula_31 are denominators). A vertical line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation Similarly, a horizontal line that doesn't pass through the pole is given by the equation The equation of a line which passes through the pole is simply given as: where "m" is the slope of the line. The vector equation of the line through points A and B is given by formula_37 (where λ is a scalar). If a is vector OA and b is vector OB, then the equation of the line can be written: formula_38. A ray starting at point "A" is described by limiting λ. One ray is obtained if λ ≥ 0, and the opposite ray comes from λ ≤ 0. In three-dimensional space, a first degree equation in the variables "x", "y", and "z" defines a plane, so two such equations, provided the planes they give rise to are not parallel, define a line which is the intersection of the planes. More generally, in "n"-dimensional space "n"-1 first-degree equations in the "n" coordinate variables define a line under suitable conditions. In more general Euclidean space, R (and analogously in every other affine space), the line "L" passing through two different points "a" and "b" (considered as vectors) is the subset The direction of the line is from "a" ("t" = 0) to "b" ("t" = 1), or in other words, in the direction of the vector "b" − "a". Different choices of "a" and "b" can yield the same line. Three points are said to be "collinear" if they lie on the same line. Three points "usually" determine a plane, but in the case of three collinear points this does "not" happen. In affine coordinates, in "n"-dimensional space the points "X"=("x", "x",..., "x"), "Y"=("y", "y",..., "y"), and "Z"=("z", "z",..., "z") are collinear if the matrix has a rank less than 3. In particular, for three points in the plane ("n" = 2), the above matrix is square and the points are collinear if and only if its determinant is zero. Equivalently for three points in a plane, the points are collinear if and only if the slope between one pair of points equals the slope between any other pair of points (in which case the slope between the remaining pair of points will equal the other slopes). By extension, "k" points in a plane are collinear if and only if any ("k"–1) pairs of points have the same pairwise slopes. In Euclidean geometry, the Euclidean distance "d"("a","b") between two points "a" and "b" may be used to express the collinearity between three points by: However, there are other notions of distance (such as the Manhattan distance) for which this property is not true. In the geometries where the concept of a line is a primitive notion, as may be the case in some synthetic geometries, other methods of determining collinearity are needed. In a sense, all lines in Euclidean geometry are equal, in that, without coordinates, one can not tell them apart from one another. However, lines may play special roles with respect to other objects in the geometry and be divided into types according to that relationship. For instance, with respect to a conic (a circle, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola), lines can be: In the context of determining parallelism in Euclidean geometry, a transversal is a line that intersects two other lines that may or not be parallel to each other. For more general algebraic curves, lines could also be: With respect to triangles we have: For a convex quadrilateral with at most two parallel sides, the Newton line is the line that connects the midpoints of the two diagonals. For a hexagon with vertices lying on a conic we have the Pascal line and, in the special case where the conic is a pair of lines, we have the Pappus line. Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that never cross. Intersecting lines share a single point in common. Coincidental lines coincide with each other—every point that is on either one of them is also on the other. Perpendicular lines are lines that intersect at right angles. In three-dimensional space, skew lines are lines that are not in the same plane and thus do not intersect each other. In many models of projective geometry, the representation of a line rarely conforms to the notion of the "straight curve" as it is visualised in Euclidean geometry. In elliptic geometry we see a typical example of this. In the spherical representation of elliptic geometry, lines are represented by great circles of a sphere with diametrically opposite points identified. In a different model of elliptic geometry, lines are represented by Euclidean planes passing through the origin. Even though these representations are visually distinct, they satisfy all the properties (such as, two points determining a unique line) that make them suitable representations for lines in this geometry. Given a line and any point "A" on it, we may consider "A" as decomposing this line into two parts. Each such part is called a ray (or half-line) and the point "A" is called its "initial point". The point A is considered to be a member of the ray. Intuitively, a ray consists of those points on a line passing through "A" and proceeding indefinitely, starting at "A", in one direction only along the line. However, in order to use this concept of a ray in proofs a more precise definition is required. Given distinct points "A" and "B", they determine a unique ray with initial point "A". As two points define a unique line, this ray consists of all the points between "A" and "B" (including "A" and "B") and all the points "C" on the line through "A" and "B" such that "B" is between "A" and "C". This is, at times, also expressed as the set of all points "C" such that "A" is not between "B" and "C". A point "D", on the line determined by "A" and "B" but not in the ray with initial point "A" determined by "B", will determine another ray with initial point "A". With respect to the "AB" ray, the "AD" ray is called the "opposite ray". Thus, we would say that two different points, "A" and "B", define a line and a decomposition of this line into the disjoint union of an open segment and two rays, "BC" and "AD" (the point "D" is not drawn in the diagram, but is to the left of "A" on the line "AB"). These are not opposite rays since they have different initial points. In Euclidean geometry two rays with a common endpoint form an angle. The definition of a ray depends upon the notion of betweenness for points on a line. It follows that rays exist only for geometries for which this notion exists, typically Euclidean geometry or affine geometry over an ordered field. On the other hand, rays do not exist in projective geometry nor in a geometry over a non-ordered field, like the complex numbers or any finite field. In topology, a ray in a space "X" is a continuous embedding R → "X". It is used to define the important concept of end of the space. A line segment is a part of a line that is bounded by two distinct end points and contains every point on the line between its end points. Depending on how the line segment is defined, either of the two end points may or may not be part of the line segment. Two or more line segments may have some of the same relationships as lines, such as being parallel, intersecting, or skew, but unlike lines they may be none of these, if they are coplanar and either do not intersect or are collinear. The "shortness" and "straightness" of a line, interpreted as the property that the distance along the line between any two of its points is minimized (see triangle inequality), can be generalized and leads to the concept of geodesics in metric spaces.

The notion of line or straight line was introduced by ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects (i.e., having no curvature) with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects. Until the 17th century, lines were defined as the "[...] first species of quantity, which has only one dimension, namely length, without any width nor depth, and is nothing else than the flow or run of the point which [...] will leave from its imaginary moving some vestige in length, exempt of any width. [...] The straight line is that which is equally extended between its points."

en

120

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summarize: The Avogadro constant is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules regardless of the nature of the gas. The name "Avogadro's number" was coined in 1909 by the physicist Jean Perrin, who defined it as the number of molecules in exactly 32 grams of oxygen. The goal of this definition was to make the mass of a mole of a substance, in grams, be numerically equal to the mass of one molecule relative to the mass of the hydrogen atom; which, because of the law of definite proportions, was the natural unit of atomic mass, and was assumed to be 1/16 of the atomic mass of oxygen. The value of Avogadro's number (still not known by that name) was first obtained indirectly by Josef Loschmidt in 1865, by estimating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. This value, the number density "n" of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honor, and is related to the Avogadro constant, "N", by where "p" is the pressure, "R" is the gas constant, and "T" is the absolute temperature. Because of this work, the symbol "L" is sometimes used for the Avogadro constant, and, in German literature, that name may be used for both constants, distinguished only by the units of measurement. (However, "N" should not to be confused with the entirely different Loschmidt constant in the English language literature.) Perrin himself determined Avogadro's number by several different experimental methods. He was awarded the 1926 Nobel Prize in Physics, largely for this work. The electric charge per mole of electrons is a constant called the Faraday constant and had been known since 1834 when Michael Faraday published his works on electrolysis. In 1910, Robert Millikan obtained the first measurement of the charge on an electron. Dividing the charge on a mole of electrons by the charge on a single electron provided a more accurate estimate of the Avogadro number. In 1971 the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) decided to regard the amount of substance as an independent dimension of measurement, with the mole as its base unit in the International System of Units (SI). Specifically, the mole was defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. By this definition, the common rule of thumb "one gram of matter contains "N" nucleons" was exact for carbon-12, but slightly inexact for other elements and isotopes. On the other hand, one mole of any substance contained exactly as many molecules as one mole of any other substance. As a consequence of this definition, in the SI system the Avogadro constant "N" had the dimensionality of reciprocal of amount of substance rather than of a pure number, and had the approximate value with units of mol. By this definition, the value of "N" inherently had to be determined experimentally. The IBPM also named "N" the "Avogadro "constant"", but the term "Avogadro number" continued to be used especially in introductory works. In 2017, the IBPM decided to change the definitions of mole and amount of substance. The mole was redefined as being the amount of substance containing exactly elementary entities. One consequence of this change is that the mass of a mole of C atoms is no longer exactly 0.012 kg. On the other hand, the dalton ( universal atomic mass unit) remains unchanged as 1/12 of the mass of C. Thus, the molar mass constant is no longer exactly 1 g/mol, although the difference ( in relative terms, as of March 2019) is insignificant for practical purposes. In other measurement systems where the unit of amount of substance is not the SI mole, the Avogadro constant "N" is taken to mean the number of particles in said unit, and will have a different value. For example, if quantities of a substance are measured in pound-mole (lb-mol), then the Avogadro constant "N" is lb-mol. If the ounce-mole (oz-mol) is used instead, "N" is oz-mol. However, these units are hardly used nowadays. The Avogadro constant, "N" is related to other physical constants and properties.

The Avogadro constant ("N" or "L") is the proportionality factor that relates the number of constituent particles (usually molecules, atoms or ions) in a sample with the amount of substance in that sample. Its SI unit is the reciprocal mole, and it is defined as It is named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro.

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summarize: Doppler was born in Salzburg (today Austria) in 1803. After completing high school, Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the Imperial–Royal Polytechnic Institute (now TU Wien), where he became an assistant in 1829. In 1835 he began work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University in Prague), where he received an appointment in 1841. One year later, at the age of 38, Doppler gave a lecture to the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences and subsequently published his most notable work, "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" ("On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens"). There is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec Eden. In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he later tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. This was independently at the same time when physicist Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau () became also involved in aspects of the discovery of the Doppler effect, which is known by the French as the "Doppler-Fizeau Effect". Fizeau contributed towards understanding its effect with light rather than sound, and in doing so, corrected many of Doppler's persistent errors. He also developed the formal mathematical theorem underlying the principles of this effect. In 1848, he discovered the frequency shift of a wave when the source and receiver are moving relative to each other, therefore being the first to predict blue shifts and red shifts of light waves. Doppler continued working as a professor at the Prague Polytechnic, publishing over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy, but in 1847 he left Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and Forests (its successor is the University of Miskolc) in Selmecbánya (then Kingdom of Hungary, now Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), Doppler's research was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of 1848. During the Hungarian Revolution, he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the University of Vienna in 1850. While there, Doppler, along with Franz Unger, influenced the development of young Gregor Mendel, the founding father of genetics, who was a student at the University of Vienna from 1851 to 1853. Doppler died on 17 March 1853 at age 49 from a pulmonary disease in Venice (at that time part of the Austrian Empire). His tomb, found by Dr. Peter M. Schuster, is just inside the entrance of the Venetian island cemetery of San Michele. Some confusion exists about Doppler's full name. Doppler referred to himself as Christian Doppler. The records of his birth and baptism stated Christian "Andreas" Doppler. Forty years after Doppler's death the misnomer "Johann" Christian Doppler was introduced by the astronomer Julius Scheiner. Scheiner's mistake has since been copied by many. On 29 November 2017, Google celebrated his 214th birthday with a Google Doodle.

Christian Andreas Doppler (; 29 November 1803 – 17 March 1853) was an Austrian mathematician and physicist. He is celebrated for his principle – known as the Doppler effect – that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer. He used this concept to explain the color of binary stars.

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summarize: To avoid ambiguity, the nature of the particles should be specified in any measurement of the amount of substance: thus, 1 mol "of molecules" of oxygen () is about 32 grams, whereas 1 mol "of atoms" of oxygen () is about 16 grams. When not specified, the amount of a substance with discrete covalently bonded molecules of definite size, like water or ethylene (), usually means the number of such molecules. For metallic elements, and some non-metallic elements like carbon and silicon which have molecules of indefinite size, it usually refers to atoms instead. For element allotropes with discrete molecules – like iodine,, chlorine,, white phosphorus, and octasulfur – the term is ambiguous, and should be clarified. For salts (ionic solids) and for polymers of indeterminate molecular size, the term usually refers to the number of instances of the conventional chemical formula of the substance. Thus, for example, 1 mol of calcium chloride () is understood to contain one mole of calcium cations and two moles of chloride anions, even though the ions are not bound into separate three-atom molecules. Likewise, 1 mol of solid silicon dioxide (), which has a three-dimensional covalent lattice structure, is understood to contain one mole of silicon atoms and two moles of oxygen atoms. For substances that normally exist in partially dissociated or polymerized form, the amount of substance usually refers to its nominal formula, without taking those changes into account. For example, "a solution of 1 mol of formaldehyde () in water" is generally understood to contain one mole of carbon atoms, even though some of the formaldehyde may be in the form of methanediol or oligomers like paraformaldehyde and metaformaldehyde. Note that, because of the latter, the number of carbon-containing "molecules" in the solution may be substantially less than one mole. The quotient of some extensive physical quantity of a homogeneous sample by its amount of substance is an intensive property of the substance, usually named by the prefix molar. For example, the ratio of the mass of a sample by its amount of substance is the molar mass, whose SI unit is kilograms (or, more usually, grams) per mole; which is about 18.015 g/mol for water, and 55.845 g/mol for iron. From the volume, one gets the molar volume, which is about 17.962 milliliter/mol for liquid water and 7.092 mL/mol for iron at room temperature. From the heat capacity, one gets the molar heat capacity, which is about 75.385 J/K/mol for water and about 25.10 J/K/mol for iron. Another important derived quantity is the amount of substance concentration (also called "amount concentration", or "substance concentration" in clinical chemistry; which is defined as the amount of a specific substance in a sample of a solution (or some other mixture), divided by the volume of the sample. The SI unit of this quantity is the mole (of the substance) per liter (of the solution). Thus, for example, the amount concentration of sodium chloride in ocean water is typically about 0.599 mol/L. The denominator is the volume of the solution, not of the solvent. Thus, for example, one liter of standard vodka contains about 0.40 L of ethanol (315 g, 6.85 mol) and 0.60 L of water. The amount concentration of ethanol is therefore (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(1 L of vodka) = 6.85 mol/L, not (6.85 mol of ethanol)/(0.60 L of water), which would be 11.4 mol/L. In chemistry, it is customary to read the unit "mol/L" as molar, and denote it by the symbol "M" (both following the numeric value). Thus, for example, each liter of a "0.5 molar" or "0.5 M" solution of urea () in water contains 0.5 moles of that molecule. By extension, the amount concentration is also commonly called the molarity of the substance of interest in the solution. However, as of May 2007, these terms and symbols are not condoned by IUPAC. This quantity should not be confused with the mass concentration, which is the mass of the substance of interest divided by the volume of the solution (about 35 g/L for sodium chloride in ocean water). Confusingly, the amount concentration, or "molarity", should also be distinguished from "molar concentration", which should be the number of moles (molecules) of the substance of interest divided by the total number of moles (molecules) in the solution sample. This quantity is more properly called the amount fraction. The alchemists, and especially the early metallurgists, probably had some notion of amount of substance, but there are no surviving records of any generalization of the idea beyond a set of recipes. In 1758, Mikhail Lomonosov questioned the idea that mass was the only measure of the quantity of matter, but he did so only in relation to his theories on gravitation. The development of the concept of amount of substance was coincidental with, and vital to, the birth of modern chemistry.

In chemistry, the amount of substance in a given sample of matter is defined as the number of discrete atomic-scale particles in it divided by the Avogadro constant "N". In a truly atomistic view, the amount of substance is simply the number of particles that constitute the substance. The particles or entities may be molecules, atoms, ions, electrons, or other, depending on the context. The value of the Avogadro constant "N" has been defined as. In the truly atomistic view, 1 mol = particles (the Avogadro number) and therefore the conversion constant is simply "N" = 1. The amount of substance is sometimes referred to as the chemical amount.

en

131

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summarize: Bolzano was the son of two pious Catholics. His father, Bernard Pompeius Bolzano, was an Italian who had moved to Prague, where he married Maria Cecilia Maurer who came from Prague's German-speaking family Maurer. Only two of their twelve children lived to adulthood. Bolzano entered the University of Prague in 1796 and studied mathematics, philosophy and physics. Starting in 1800, he also began studying theology, becoming a Catholic priest in 1804. He was appointed to the new chair of philosophy of religion at Prague University in 1805. He proved to be a popular lecturer not only in religion but also in philosophy, and he was elected Dean of the Philosophical Faculty in 1818. Bolzano alienated many faculty and church leaders with his teachings of the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations. Upon his refusal to recant his beliefs, Bolzano was dismissed from the university in 1819. His political convictions, which he was inclined to share with others with some frequency, eventually proved to be too liberal for the Austrian authorities. He was exiled to the countryside and then devoted his energies to his writings on social, religious, philosophical, and mathematical matters. Although forbidden to publish in mainstream journals as a condition of his exile, Bolzano continued to develop his ideas and publish them either on his own or in obscure Eastern European journals. In 1842 he moved back to Prague, where he died in 1848. Bolzano made several original contributions to mathematics. His overall philosophical stance was that, contrary to much of the prevailing mathematics of the era, it was better not to introduce intuitive ideas such as time and motion into mathematics. To this end, he was one of the earliest mathematicians to begin instilling rigor into mathematical analysis with his three chief mathematical works "Beyträge zu einer begründeteren Darstellung der Mathematik" (1810), "Der binomische Lehrsatz" (1816) and "Rein analytischer Beweis" (1817). These works presented "...a sample of a new way of developing analysis", whose ultimate goal would not be realized until some fifty years later when they came to the attention of Karl Weierstrass. To the foundations of mathematical analysis he contributed the introduction of a fully rigorous ε–δ definition of a mathematical limit. Bolzano was the first to recognize the greatest lower bound property of the real numbers. Like several others of his day, he was skeptical of the possibility of Gottfried Leibniz's infinitesimals, that had been the earliest putative foundation for differential calculus. Bolzano's notion of a limit was similar to the modern one: that a limit, rather than being a relation among infinitesimals, must instead be cast in terms of how the dependent variable approaches a definite quantity as the independent variable approaches some other definite quantity. Bolzano also gave the first purely analytic proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra, which had originally been proven by Gauss from geometrical considerations. He also gave the first purely analytic proof of the intermediate value theorem (also known as Bolzano's theorem). Today he is mostly remembered for the Bolzano–Weierstrass theorem, which Karl Weierstrass developed independently and published years after Bolzano's first proof and which was initially called the Weierstrass theorem until Bolzano's earlier work was rediscovered. Bolzano's posthumously published work "Paradoxien des Unendlichen (The Paradoxes of the Infinite)" (1851) was greatly admired by many of the eminent logicians who came after him, including Charles Sanders Peirce, Georg Cantor, and Richard Dedekind. Bolzano's main claim to fame, however, is his 1837 "Wissenschaftslehre" ("Theory of Science"), a work in four volumes that covered not only philosophy of science in the modern sense but also logic, epistemology and scientific pedagogy. The logical theory that Bolzano developed in this work has come to be acknowledged as ground-breaking. Other works are a four-volume "Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft" ("Textbook of the Science of Religion") and the metaphysical work "Athanasia", a defense of the immortality of the soul. Bolzano also did valuable work in mathematics, which remained virtually unknown until Otto Stolz rediscovered many of his lost journal articles and republished them in 1881. In his 1837 "Wissenschaftslehre" Bolzano attempted to provide logical foundations for all sciences, building on abstractions like part-relation, abstract objects, attributes, sentence-shapes, ideas and propositions in themselves, sums and sets, collections, substances, adherences, subjective ideas, judgments, and sentence-occurrences. These attempts were basically an extension of his earlier thoughts in the philosophy of mathematics, for example his 1810 "Beiträge" where he emphasized the distinction between the objective relationship between logical consequences and our subjective recognition of these connections. For Bolzano, it was not enough that we merely have "confirmation" of natural or mathematical truths, but rather it was the proper role of the sciences (both pure and applied) to seek out "justification" in terms of the fundamental truths that may or may not appear to be obvious to our intuitions. Bolzano begins his work by explaining what he means by "theory of science", and the relation between our knowledge, truths and sciences. Human knowledge, he states, is made of all truths (or true propositions) that men know or have known. This is, however, only a very small fraction of all the truths that exist, although still too much for one human being to comprehend. Therefore, our knowledge is divided into more accessible parts. Such a collection of truths is what Bolzano calls a science ("Wissenschaft"). It is important to note that not all true propositions of a science have to be known to men; hence, this is how we can make discoveries in a science. To better understand and comprehend the truths of a science, men have created textbooks ("Lehrbuch"), which of course contain only the true propositions of the science known to men. But how to know where to divide our knowledge, that is, which truths belong together? Bolzano explains that we will ultimately know this through some reflection, but that the resulting rules of how to divide our knowledge into sciences will be a science in itself. This science, that tells us which truths belong together and should be explained in a textbook, is the "Theory of Science" ("Wissenschaftslehre"). In the "Wissenschaftslehre", Bolzano is mainly concerned with three realms: (1) The realm of language, consisting in words and sentences. <br> (2) The realm of thought, consisting in subjective ideas and judgements. <br> (3) The realm of logic, consisting in objective ideas (or ideas in themselves) and propositions in themselves. Bolzano devotes a great part of the "Wissenschaftslehre" to an explanation of these realms and their relations. Two distinctions play a prominent role in his system. Firstly, the distinction between parts and wholes. For instance, words are parts of sentences, subjective ideas are parts of judgments, objective ideas are parts of propositions in themselves. Secondly, all objects divide into those that exist, which means that they are causally connected and located in time and/or space, and those that do not exist. Bolzano's original claim is that the logical realm is populated by objects of the latter kind. "Satz an Sich" is a basic notion in Bolzano's "Wissenschaftslehre". It is introduced at the very beginning, in section 19. Bolzano first introduces the notions of proposition (spoken or written or thought or in itself) and idea (spoken or written or thought or in itself). "The grass is green" is a proposition ("Satz"): in this connection of words, something is said or asserted. "Grass", however, is only an idea ("Vorstellung"). Something is represented by it, but it does not assert anything. Bolzano's notion of proposition is fairly broad: "A rectangle is round" is a proposition — even though it is false by virtue of self-contradiction — because it is composed in an intelligible manner out of intelligible parts. Bolzano does not give a complete definition of a "Satz an Sich" (i.e. proposition in itself) but he gives us just enough information to understand what he means by it. A proposition in itself (i) has no existence (that is: it has no position in time or place), (ii) is either true or false, independent of anyone knowing or thinking that it is true or false, and (iii) is what is 'grasped' by thinking beings. So a written sentence ('Socrates has wisdom') grasps a proposition in itself, namely the proposition [Socrates has wisdom]. The written sentence does have existence (it has a certain location at a certain time, say it is on your computer screen at this very moment) and expresses the proposition in itself which is in the realm of in itself (i.e. "an sich"). (Bolzano's use of the term "an sich" differs greatly from that of Kant; for Kant's use of the term see "an sich".) Every proposition in itself is composed out of ideas in themselves (for simplicity, we will use "proposition" to mean "proposition in itself" and "idea" to refer to an objective idea or idea in itself. Ideas are negatively defined as those parts of a proposition that are themselves not propositions. A proposition consists of at least three ideas, namely: a subject idea, a predicate idea and the copula (i.e. 'has', or another form of "to have"). (Though there are propositions which contain propositions, but we won't take them into consideration right now.) Bolzano identifies certain types of ideas. There are simple ideas that have no parts (as an example Bolzano uses [something]), but there are also complex ideas that consist of other ideas (Bolzano uses the example of [nothing], which consists of the ideas [not] and [something]). Complex ideas can have the same content (i.e. the same parts) without being the same — because their components are differently connected. The idea [A black pen with blue ink] is different from the idea [A blue pen with black ink] though the parts of both ideas are the same. It is important to understand that an idea does not need to have an object. Bolzano uses "object" to denote something that is represented by an idea. An idea that has an object, represents that object. But an idea that does not have an object represents nothing. (Don't get confused here by terminology: an objectless idea is an idea without a representation.) Consider, for further explanation, an example used by Bolzano. The idea [a round square], does not have an object, because the object that ought to be represented is self-contrary. A different example is the idea [nothing] which certainly does not have an object. However, the proposition [the idea of a round square has complexity] has as its subject-idea [the idea of a round square]. This subject-idea does have an object, namely the idea [a round square]. But, that idea does not have an object. Besides objectless ideas, there are ideas that have only one object, e.g. the idea [the first man on the moon] represents only one object. Bolzano calls these ideas'singular ideas'. Obviously there are also ideas that have many objects (e.g. [the citizens of Amsterdam]) and even infinitely many objects (e.g. [a prime number]). Bolzano has a complex theory of how we are able to sense things. He explains sensation by means of the term intuition, in German called "Anschauung". An intuition is a simple idea, it has only one object ("Einzelvorstellung"), but besides that, it is also unique (Bolzano needs this to explain sensation). Intuitions ("Anschauungen") are objective ideas, they belong to the "an sich" realm, which means that they don’t have existence. As said, Bolzano’s argumentation for intuitions is by an explanation of sensation. What happens when you sense a real existing object, for instance a rose, is this: the different aspects of the rose, like its scent and its color, cause in you a change. That change means that before and after sensing the rose, your mind is in a different state. So sensation is in fact a change in your mental state. How is this related to objects and ideas? Bolzano explains that this change, in your mind, is essentially a simple idea ("Vorstellung"), like, ‘this smell’ (of this particular rose). This idea represents; it has as its object the change. Besides being simple, this change must also be unique. This is because literally you can’t have the same experience twice, nor can two people, who smell the same rose at the same time, have exactly the same experience of that smell (although they will be quite alike). So each single sensation causes a single (new) unique and simple idea with a particular change as its object. Now, this idea in your mind is a subjective idea, meaning that it is in you at a particular time. It has existence. But this subjective idea must correspond to, or has as a content, an objective idea. This is where Bolzano brings in intuitions ("Anschauungen"); they are the simple, unique and objective ideas that correspond to our subjective ideas of changes caused by sensation. So for each single possible sensation, there is a corresponding objective idea. Schematically the whole process is like this: whenever you smell a rose, its scent causes a change in you. This change is the object of your subjective idea of that particular smell. That subjective idea corresponds to the intuition or "Anschauung". According to Bolzano, all propositions are composed out of three (simple or complex) elements: a subject, a predicate and a copula. Instead of the more traditional copulative term 'is', Bolzano prefers 'has'. The reason for this is that 'has', unlike 'is', can connect a concrete term, such as 'Socrates', to an abstract term such as 'baldness'. "Socrates has baldness" is, according to Bolzano, preferable to "Socrates is bald" because the latter form is less basic: 'bald' is itself composed of the elements'something', 'that', 'has' and 'baldness'. Bolzano also reduces existential propositions to this form: "Socrates exists" would simply become "Socrates has existence ("Dasein")". A major role in Bolzano’s logical theory is played by the notion of "variations": various logical relations are defined in terms of the changes in truth value that propositions incur when their non-logical parts are replaced by others. Logically analytical propositions, for instance, are those in which all the non-logical parts can be replaced without change of truth value. Two propositions are 'compatible' ("verträglich") with respect to one of their component parts x if there is at least one term that can be inserted that would make both true. A proposition Q is 'deducible' ("ableitbar") from a proposition P, with respect to certain of their non-logical parts, if any replacement of those parts that makes P true also makes Q true. If a proposition is deducible from another with respect to all its non-logical parts, it is said to be 'logically deducible'. Besides the relation of deducibility, Bolzano also has a stricter relation of 'consequentiality' ("Abfolge"). This is an asymmetric relation that obtains between true propositions, when one of the propositions is not only deducible from, but also explained by the other. Bolzano distinguishes five meanings the words "true" and "truth" have in common usage, all of which Bolzano takes to be unproblematic. The meanings are listed in order of properness: I. Abstract objective meaning: "Truth" signifies an attribute that may apply to a proposition, primarily to a proposition in itself, namely the attribute on the basis of which the proposition expresses something that in reality is as is expressed. Antonyms: "falsity, falseness, falsehood". II. Concrete objective meaning: (a) "Truth" signifies a proposition that has the attribute "truth" in the abstract objective meaning. Antonym: (a) "falsehood". III. Subjective meaning: (a) "Truth" signifies a correct judgment. Antonym: (a) "mistake". IV. Collective meaning: "Truth" signifies a body or multiplicity true propositions or judgments (e.g. the biblical truth). V. Improper meaning: "True" signifies that some object is in reality what some denomination states it to be. (e.g. the true God). Antonyms: "false, unreal, illusory". Bolzano's primary concern is with the concrete objective meaning: with concrete objective truths or truths in themselves. All truths in themselves are a kind of propositions in themselves. They do not exist, i.e. they are not spatiotemporally located as thought and spoken propositions are. However, certain propositions have the attribute of being a truth in itself. Being a thought proposition is not a part of the concept of a truth in itself, notwithstanding the fact that, given God’s omniscience, all truths in themselves are also thought truths. The concepts ‘truth in itself’ and ‘thought truth’ are interchangeable, as they apply to the same objects, but they are not identical. Bolzano offers as the correct definition of (abstract objective) truth: a proposition is true if it expresses something that applies to its object. The correct definition of a (concrete objective) truth must thus be: a truth is a proposition that expresses something that applies to its object. This definition applies to truths in themselves, rather than to thought or known truths, as none of the concepts figuring in this definition are subordinate to a concept of something mental or known. Bolzano proves in §§31–32 of his "Wissenschaftslehre" three things: A There is at least one truth in itself (concrete objective meaning): B. There is more than one truth in itself: C. There are infinitely many truths in themselves: A known truth has as its parts ("Bestandteile") a truth in itself and a judgment (Bolzano, "Wissenschaftslehre" §26). A judgment is a thought which states a true proposition. In judging (at least when the matter of the judgment is a true proposition), the idea of an object is being connected in a certain way with the idea of a characteristic (§ 23). In true judgments, the relation between the idea of the object and the idea of the characteristic is an actual/existent relation (§28). Every judgment has as its matter a proposition, which is either true or false. Every judgment exists, but not "für sich". Judgments, namely, in contrast with propositions in themselves, are dependent on subjective mental activity. Not every mental activity, though, has to be a judgment; recall that all judgments have as matter propositions, and hence all judgments need to be either true or false. Mere presentations or thoughts are examples of mental activities which do not necessarily need to be stated (behaupten), and so are not judgments (§ 34). Judgments that have as its matter true propositions can be called cognitions (§36). Cognitions are also dependent on the subject, and so, opposed to truths in themselves, cognitions do permit degrees; a proposition can be more or less known, but it cannot be more or less true. Every cognition implies necessarily a judgment, but not every judgment is necessarily cognition, because there are also judgments that are not true. Bolzano maintains that there are no such things as false cognitions, only false judgments (§34). Bolzano came to be surrounded by a circle of friends and pupils who spread his thoughts about (the so-called Bolzano Circle), but the effect of his thought on philosophy initially seemed destined to be slight. His work was rediscovered, however, by Edmund Husserl and Kazimierz Twardowski, both students of Franz Brentano. Through them, Bolzano became a formative influence on both phenomenology and analytic philosophy.

Bernard Bolzano (, ; ; ; born Bernardus Placidus Johann Nepomuk Bolzano; 5 October 1781 – 18 December 1848) was a Bohemian mathematician, logician, philosopher, theologian and Catholic priest of Italian extraction, also known for his antimilitarist views.

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summarize: The mole is essentially a count of particles. Usually the particles counted are chemically identical entities, individually distinct. For example, a solution may contain a certain number of dissolved molecules that are more or less independent of each other. However, in a solid the constituent particles are fixed and bound in a lattice arrangement, yet they may be separable without losing their chemical identity. Thus the solid is composed of a certain number of moles of such particles. In yet other cases, such as diamond, where the entire crystal is essentially a single molecule, the mole is still used to express the number of atoms bound together, rather than a count of multiple molecules. Thus, common chemical conventions apply to the definition of the constituent particles of a substance, in other cases exact definitions may be specified. The molar mass of a substance is the mass of a sample, in multiples of the gram, divided by the amount of substance in that sample. The amount of substance is the number of moles in the sample. It is a characteristic property of the substance. For most practical purposes, its magnitude is numerically the same as that of the mean mass of one molecule, expressed in daltons. For example, the molar mass of water is 18.015 g/mol. Other methods include the use of the molar volume or the measurement of electric charge. The number of moles of a substance in a sample is obtained by dividing the mass of the sample by the molar mass of the compound. For example, 100 g of water is about 5.551 mol of water. The molar mass of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the distribution of isotopes of each chemical element present in it. For example, the mass of one mole of calcium-40 is, whereas the mass of one mole of calcium-42 is, and of one mole of calcium with the normal isotopic mix is. The molar concentration, also called "molarity", of a solution of some substance is the number of moles per unit of volume of the final solution. In the SI its standard unit is mol/m, although more practical units, such as mole per litre (mol/L) are used. The molar fraction or mole fraction of a substance in a mixture (such as a solution) is the number of moles of the compound in one sample of the mixture, divided by the total number of moles of all components. For example, if 20 g of is dissolved in 100 g of water, the amounts of the two substances in the solution will be (20 g)/(58.443 g/mol) = 0.34221 mol and (100 g)/(18.015 g/mol) = 5.5509 mol, respectively; and the molar fraction of will be 0.34221/(0.34221 + 5.5509) = 0.05807. In a mixture of gases, the partial pressure of each component is proportional to its molar ratio. The history of the mole is intertwined with that of molecular mass, atomic mass units, and the Avogadro number. The first table of standard atomic weight (atomic mass) was published by John Dalton (1766–1844) in 1805, based on a system in which the relative atomic mass of hydrogen was defined as 1. These relative atomic masses were based on the stoichiometric proportions of chemical reaction and compounds, a fact that greatly aided their acceptance: It was not necessary for a chemist to subscribe to atomic theory (an unproven hypothesis at the time) to make practical use of the tables. This would lead to some confusion between atomic masses (promoted by proponents of atomic theory) and equivalent weights (promoted by its opponents and which sometimes differed from relative atomic masses by an integer factor), which would last throughout much of the nineteenth century. Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) was instrumental in the determination of relative atomic masses to ever-increasing accuracy. He was also the first chemist to use oxygen as the standard to which other masses were referred. Oxygen is a useful standard, as, unlike hydrogen, it forms compounds with most other elements, especially metals. However, he chose to fix the atomic mass of oxygen as 100, which did not catch on. Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–56), Henri Victor Regnault (1810–78) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910) expanded on Berzelius' works, resolving many of the problems of unknown stoichiometry of compounds, and the use of atomic masses attracted a large consensus by the time of the Karlsruhe Congress (1860). The convention had reverted to defining the atomic mass of hydrogen as 1, although at the level of precision of measurements at that time – relative uncertainties of around 1% – this was numerically equivalent to the later standard of oxygen = 16. However the chemical convenience of having oxygen as the primary atomic mass standard became ever more evident with advances in analytical chemistry and the need for ever more accurate atomic mass determinations. The name "mole" is an 1897 translation of the German unit "Mol", coined by the chemist Wilhelm Ostwald in 1894 from the German word "Molekül" (molecule). However, the related concept of equivalent mass had been in use at least a century earlier. Developments in mass spectrometry led to the adoption of oxygen-16 as the standard substance, in lieu of natural oxygen. The oxygen-16 definition was replaced with one based on carbon-12 during the 1960s. The mole was defined by International Bureau of Weights and Measures as "the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12." Thus, by that definition, one mole of pure C had a mass of "exactly" 12 g. The four different definitions were equivalent to within 1%. Since the definition of the gram was not mathematically tied to that of the dalton, the number of molecules per mole "N" (the Avogadro constant) had to be determined experimentally. The experimental value adopted by CODATA in 2010 is. In 2011 the measurement was refined to. The mole was made the seventh SI base unit in 1971 by the 14th CGPM. In 2011, the 24th meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) agreed to a plan for a possible revision of the SI base unit definitions at an undetermined date. On 16 November 2018, after a meeting of scientists from more than 60 countries at the CGPM in Versailles, France, all SI base units were defined in terms of physical constants. This meant that each SI unit, including the mole, would not be defined in terms of any physical objects but rather they would be defined by constants that are, in their nature, exact. Such changes officially came into effect on 20 May 2019. Following such changes, "one mole" of a substance was redefined as "exactly elementary entities" of that substance. Since its adoption into the International System of Units in 1971, numerous criticisms of the concept of the mole as a unit like the metre or the second have arisen: In chemistry, it has been known since Proust's law of definite proportions (1794) that knowledge of the mass of each of the components in a chemical system is not sufficient to define the system. Amount of substance can be described as mass divided by Proust's "definite proportions", and contains information that is missing from the measurement of mass alone. As demonstrated by Dalton's law of partial pressures (1803), a measurement of mass is not even necessary to measure the amount of substance (although in practice it is usual). There are many physical relationships between amount of substance and other physical quantities, the most notable one being the ideal gas law (where the relationship was first demonstrated in 1857). The term "mole" was first used in a textbook describing these colligative properties. Like chemists, chemical engineers use the unit mole extensively, but different unit multiples may be more suitable for industrial use. For example, the SI unit for volume is the cubic metre, a much larger unit than the commonly used litre in the chemical laboratory. When amount of substance is also expressed in kmol (1000 mol) in industrial-scaled processes, the numerical value of molarity remains the same. For convenience in avoiding conversions in the imperial (or American customary units), some engineers adopted the "pound-mole" (notation "lb-mol" or "lbmol"), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 lb of C. One lb-mol is equal to, which value is the same as the number of grams in an international avoirdupois pound. In the metric system, chemical engineers once used the "kilogram-mole" (notation "kg-mol"), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 kg of C, and often referred to the mole as the "gram-mole" (notation "g-mol"), when dealing with laboratory data. Late 20th-century chemical engineering practice came to use the "kilomole" (kmol), which is numerically identical to the kilogram-mole, but whose name and symbol adopt the SI convention for standard multiples of metric units – thus, kmol means 1000 mol. This is analogous to the use of kg instead of g. The use of kmol is not only for "magnitude convenience" but also makes the equations used for modelling chemical engineering systems coherent. For example, the conversion of a flowrate of kg/s to kmol/s only requires the molecular mass without the factor 1000 unless the basic SI unit of mol/s were to be used. Greenhouse and growth chamber lighting for plants is sometimes expressed in micromoles per square metre per second, where 1 mol photons = photons. October 23, denoted 10/23 in the US, is recognized by some as Mole Day. It is an informal holiday in honor of the unit among chemists. The date is derived from the Avogadro number, which is approximately. It starts at 6:02 a.m. and ends at 6:02 p.m. Alternatively, some chemists celebrate June 2 (), June 22 (), or 6 February (), a reference to the 6.02 or 6.022 part of the constant.

The mole (symbol: mol) is the unit of measurement for amount of substance in the International System of Units (SI). A mole of a substance or a mole of particles is defined as exactly particles, which may be atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons. In short, for particles 1 mol =.

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summarize: Fiedler was the son of a shoemaker. He went to the Royal Mercantile College in Chemnitz and in 1849 to the Bergakademie Freiberg as an external student. In 1852 he became a mathematics teacher at the "Werkmeisterschule" in Freiberg and 1853 at the "Gewerbeschule" in Chemnitz. He had to take care of his widowed mother and his siblings, and educated himself without directly attending a university. In 1858 he obtained the doctorate in mathematics at the University of Leipzig under August Ferdinand Möbius ("Die Zentralprojektion als geometrische Wissenschaft"). Fiedler made himself known by editing the translation of the textbooks of analytic, projective, and algebraic geometry by George Salmon (in the 19th century known in Germany as "Salmon-Fiedler"). He was a friend of Salmon and studied his theological works after he retired. In 1864 he became professor for descriptive geometry at the Technical University in Prag and 1867 professor at the Federal polytechnic school in Zurich (by the mediation of Karl Culmann). In 1907 he retired. Among his students were Marcel Grossmann and Emil Weyr. Hendrik de Vries was his assistant. He was a member of the Leopoldina (1889) and the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities (1906). He obtained in 1884 the Steiner price of the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and in 1907 the Honorary degree of the Vienna University of Technology was awarded to him. In 1860 he married Line Elise née Springer. In 1875, he was naturalized in Zurich. His son Ernst (1861–1954) was professor of mathematics and rector of the "Oberrealschule" (today Kantonsschule Rämibühl) in Zurich. His son Karl (1863–1894) was Privatdozent for zoology in Zurich.

Otto Wilhelm Fiedler (3 April 1832 in Chemnitz – 19 November 1912 in Zurich) was a German-Swiss mathematician, known for his textbooks of geometry and his contributions to descriptive geometry.

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summarize: From the ideal gas law "PV" = "nRT" we get: where "P" is pressure, "V" is volume, "n" is number of moles of a given substance, and "T" is temperature. As pressure is defined as force per unit area, the gas equation can also be written as: Area and volume are (length) and (length) respectively. Therefore: Since force × length = work: The physical significance of "R" is work per degree per mole. It may be expressed in any set of units representing work or energy (such as joules), units representing degrees of temperature on an absolute scale (such as Kelvin or Rankine), and any system of units designating a mole or a similar pure number that allows an equation of macroscopic mass and fundamental particle numbers in a system, such as an ideal gas (see "Avogadro constant"). Instead of a mole the constant can be expressed by considering the normal cubic meter. Otherwise, we can also say that: Therefore, we can write "R" as: And so, in SI base units: The Boltzmann constant "k" (often abbreviated "k") may be used in place of the gas constant by working in pure particle count, "N", rather than amount of substance, "n", since where "N" is the Avogadro constant. For example, the ideal gas law in terms of Boltzmann's constant is where "N" is the number of particles (molecules in this case), or to generalize to an inhomogeneous system the local form holds: where "n" is the number density. As of 2006, the most precise measurement of "R" had been obtained by measuring the speed of sound "c"("P", "T") in argon at the temperature "T" of the triple point of water at different pressures "P", and extrapolating to the zero-pressure limit "c"(0, "T"). The value of "R" is then obtained from the relation where: However, following the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, "R" now has an exact value defined in terms of other precisely defined physical constants. The specific gas constant of a gas or a mixture of gases ("R") is given by the molar gas constant divided by the molar mass ("M") of the gas or mixture. Just as the ideal gas constant can be related to the Boltzmann constant, so can the specific gas constant by dividing the Boltzmann constant by the molecular mass of the gas. Another important relationship comes from thermodynamics. Mayer's relation relates the specific gas constant to the specific heats for a calorically perfect gas and a thermally perfect gas. where "c" is the specific heat for a constant pressure and "c" is the specific heat for a constant volume. It is common, especially in engineering applications, to represent the specific gas constant by the symbol "R". In such cases, the universal gas constant is usually given a different symbol such as "" to distinguish it. In any case, the context and/or units of the gas constant should make it clear as to whether the universal or specific gas constant is being referred to. The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (USSA1976) defines the gas constant "R" as: Note the use of kilomole units resulting in the factor of 1,000 in the constant. The USSA1976 acknowledges that this value is not consistent with the cited values for the Avogadro constant and the Boltzmann constant. This disparity is not a significant departure from accuracy, and USSA1976 uses this value of "R" for all the calculations of the standard atmosphere. When using the ISO value of "R", the calculated pressure increases by only 0.62 pascal at 11 kilometers (the equivalent of a difference of only 17.4 centimeters or 6.8 inches) and an increase of 0.292 Pa at 20 km (the equivalent of a difference of only 33.8 cm or 13.2 in). Also note that this was well before the 2019 SI redefinition which gave the constant an exact value.

The gas constant (also known as the molar, universal, or ideal gas constant) is denoted by the symbol or. It is equivalent to the Boltzmann constant, but expressed in units of energy per temperature increment per "mole", i.e. the pressure–volume product, rather than energy per temperature increment per "particle". The constant is also a combination of the constants from Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. It is a physical constant that is featured in many fundamental equations in the physical sciences, such as the ideal gas law, the Arrhenius equation, and the Nernst equation.

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summarize: The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 2nd millennium BC. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction, astronomy, and various crafts. The earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian "Rhind Papyrus" (2000–1800 BC) and "Moscow Papyrus" (c. 1890 BC), the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322 (1900 BC). For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, or frustum. Later clay tablets (350–50 BC) demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiter's position and motion within time-velocity space. These geometric procedures anticipated the Oxford Calculators, including the mean speed theorem, by 14 centuries. South of Egypt the ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of sun clocks. In the 7th century BC, the Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, which is credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history. Eudoxus (408–c. 355 BC) developed the method of exhaustion, which allowed the calculation of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures, as well as a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes, which enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances. Around 300 BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, whose "Elements", widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time, introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof. Although most of the contents of the "Elements" were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework. The "Elements" was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry classes today. Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of Syracuse used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave remarkably accurate approximations of Pi. He also studied the spiral bearing his name and obtained formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution. Indian mathematicians also made many important contributions in geometry. The "Satapatha Brahmana" (3rd century BC) contains rules for ritual geometric constructions that are similar to the "Sulba Sutras". According to, the "Śulba Sūtras" contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples, which are particular cases of Diophantine equations. In the Bakhshali manuscript, there is a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value system with a dot for zero." Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya" (499) includes the computation of areas and volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work "" in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions, ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber, and piling of grain). In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles ("i.e." triangles with rational sides and rational areas). In the Middle Ages, mathematics in medieval Islam contributed to the development of geometry, especially algebraic geometry. Al-Mahani (b. 853) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (836–901) dealt with arithmetic operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities, and contributed to the development of analytic geometry. Omar Khayyám (1048–1131) found geometric solutions to cubic equations. The theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on quadrilaterals, including the Lambert quadrilateral and Saccheri quadrilateral, were early results in hyperbolic geometry, and along with their alternative postulates, such as Playfair's axiom, these works had a considerable influence on the development of non-Euclidean geometry among later European geometers, including Witelo (c. 1230–c. 1314), Gersonides (1288–1344), Alfonso, John Wallis, and Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri. In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first was the creation of analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise quantitative science of physics. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591–1661). Projective geometry studies properties of shapes which are unchanged under projections and sections, especially as they relate to artistic perspective. Two developments in geometry in the 19th century changed the way it had been studied previously. These were the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, János Bolyai and Carl Friedrich Gauss and of the formulation of symmetry as the central consideration in the Erlangen Programme of Felix Klein (which generalized the Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries). Two of the master geometers of the time were Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), working primarily with tools from mathematical analysis, and introducing the Riemann surface, and Henri Poincaré, the founder of algebraic topology and the geometric theory of dynamical systems. As a consequence of these major changes in the conception of geometry, the concept of "space" became something rich and varied, and the natural background for theories as different as complex analysis and classical mechanics. The following are some of the most important concepts in geometry. Euclid took an abstract approach to geometry in his Elements, one of the most influential books ever written. Euclid introduced certain axioms, or postulates, expressing primary or self-evident properties of points, lines, and planes. He proceeded to rigorously deduce other properties by mathematical reasoning. The characteristic feature of Euclid's approach to geometry was its rigor, and it has come to be known as "axiomatic" or "synthetic" geometry. At the start of the 19th century, the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856), János Bolyai (1802–1860), Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and others led to a revival of interest in this discipline, and in the 20th century, David Hilbert (1862–1943) employed axiomatic reasoning in an attempt to provide a modern foundation of geometry. Points are considered fundamental objects in Euclidean geometry. They have been defined in a variety of ways, including Euclid's definition as 'that which has no part' and through the use of algebra or nested sets. In many areas of geometry, such as analytic geometry, differential geometry, and topology, all objects are considered to be built up from points. However, there has been some study of geometry without reference to points. Euclid described a line as "breadthless length" which "lies equally with respect to the points on itself". In modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is closely tied to the way the geometry is described. For instance, in analytic geometry, a line in the plane is often defined as the set of points whose coordinates satisfy a given linear equation, but in a more abstract setting, such as incidence geometry, a line may be an independent object, distinct from the set of points which lie on it. In differential geometry, a geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a line to curved spaces. A plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely far. Planes are used in every area of geometry. For instance, planes can be studied as a topological surface without reference to distances or angles; it can be studied as an affine space, where collinearity and ratios can be studied but not distances; it can be studied as the complex plane using techniques of complex analysis; and so on. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. In modern terms, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the "sides" of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the "vertex" of the angle. In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to study polygons and triangles, as well as forming an object of study in their own right. The study of the angles of a triangle or of angles in a unit circle forms the basis of trigonometry. In differential geometry and calculus, the angles between plane curves or space curves or surfaces can be calculated using the derivative. A curve is a 1-dimensional object that may be straight (like a line) or not; curves in 2-dimensional space are called plane curves and those in 3-dimensional space are called space curves. In topology, a curve is defined by a function from an interval of the real numbers to another space. In differential geometry, the same definition is used, but the defining function is required to be differentiable Algebraic geometry studies algebraic curves, which are defined as algebraic varieties of dimension one. A surface is a two-dimensional object, such as a sphere or paraboloid. In differential geometry and topology, surfaces are described by two-dimensional 'patches' (or neighborhoods) that are assembled by diffeomorphisms or homeomorphisms, respectively. In algebraic geometry, surfaces are described by polynomial equations. A manifold is a generalization of the concepts of curve and surface. In topology, a manifold is a topological space where every point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to Euclidean space. In differential geometry, a differentiable manifold is a space where each neighborhood is diffeomorphic to Euclidean space. Manifolds are used extensively in physics, including in general relativity and string theory. Length, area, and volume describe the size or extant of an object in one dimension, two dimension, and three dimensions respectively. In Euclidean geometry and analytic geometry, the length of a line segment can often be calculated by the Pythagorean theorem. Area and volume can be defined as fundamental quantities separate from length, or they can be described and calculated in terms of lengths in a plane or 3-dimensional space. Mathematicians have found many explicit formulas for area and formulas for volume of various geometric objects. In calculus, area and volume can be defined in terms of integrals, such as the Riemann integral or the Lebesgue integral. The concept of length or distance can be generalized, leading to the idea of metrics. For instance, the Euclidean metric measures the distance between points in the Euclidean plane, while the hyperbolic metric measures the distance in the hyperbolic plane. Other important examples of metrics include the Lorentz metric of special relativity and the semi-Riemannian metrics of general relativity. In a different direction, the concepts of length, area and volume are extended by measure theory, which studies methods of assigning a size or "measure" to sets, where the measures follow rules similar to those of classical area and volume. Congruence and similarity are concepts that describe when two shapes have similar characteristics. In Euclidean geometry, similarity is used to describe objects that have the same shape, while congruence is used to describe objects that are the same in both size and shape. Hilbert, in his work on creating a more rigorous foundation for geometry, treated congruence as an undefined term whose properties are defined by axioms. Congruence and similarity are generalized in transformation geometry, which studies the properties of geometric objects that are preserved by different kinds of transformations. Classical geometers paid special attention to constructing geometric objects that had been described in some other way. Classically, the only instruments allowed in geometric constructions are the compass and straightedge. Also, every construction had to be complete in a finite number of steps. However, some problems turned out to be difficult or impossible to solve by these means alone, and ingenious constructions using parabolas and other curves, as well as mechanical devices, were found. Where the traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line), 2 (a plane) and 3 (our ambient world conceived of as three-dimensional space), mathematicians and physicists have used higher dimensions for nearly two centuries. One example of a mathematical use for higher dimensions is the configuration space of a physical system, which has a dimension equal to the system's degrees of freedom. For instance, the configuration of a screw can be described by five coordinates. In general topology, the concept of dimension has been extended from natural numbers, to infinite dimension (Hilbert spaces, for example) and positive real numbers (in fractal geometry). In algebraic geometry, the dimension of an algebraic variety has received a number of apparently different definitions, which are all equivalent in the most common cases. The theme of symmetry in geometry is nearly as old as the science of geometry itself. Symmetric shapes such as the circle, regular polygons and platonic solids held deep significance for many ancient philosophers and were investigated in detail before the time of Euclid. Symmetric patterns occur in nature and were artistically rendered in a multitude of forms, including the graphics of da Vinci, M.C. Escher, and others. In the second half of the 19th century, the relationship between symmetry and geometry came under intense scrutiny. Felix Klein's Erlangen program proclaimed that, in a very precise sense, symmetry, expressed via the notion of a transformation group, determines what geometry "is". Symmetry in classical Euclidean geometry is represented by congruences and rigid motions, whereas in projective geometry an analogous role is played by collineations, geometric transformations that take straight lines into straight lines. However it was in the new geometries of Bolyai and Lobachevsky, Riemann, Clifford and Klein, and Sophus Lie that Klein's idea to 'define a geometry via its symmetry group' found its inspiration. Both discrete and continuous symmetries play prominent roles in geometry, the former in topology and geometric group theory, the latter in Lie theory and Riemannian geometry. A different type of symmetry is the principle of duality in projective geometry, among other fields. This meta-phenomenon can roughly be described as follows: in any theorem, exchange "point" with "plane", "join" with "meet", "lies in" with "contains", and the result is an equally true theorem. A similar and closely related form of duality exists between a vector space and its dual space. Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. As it models the space of the physical world, it is used in many scientific areas, such as mechanics, astronomy, crystallography, and many technical fields, such as engineering, architecture, geodesy, aerodynamics, and navigation. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of Euclidean concepts such as points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, and analytic geometry. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to study problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, econometrics, and bioinformatics, among others. In particular, differential geometry is of importance to mathematical physics due to Albert Einstein's general relativity postulation that the universe is curved. Differential geometry can either be "intrinsic" (meaning that the spaces it considers are smooth manifolds whose geometric structure is governed by a Riemannian metric, which determines how distances are measured near each point) or "extrinsic" (where the object under study is a part of some ambient flat Euclidean space). Euclidean geometry was not the only historical form of geometry studied. Spherical geometry has long been used by astronomers, astrologers, and navigators. Immanuel Kant argued that there is only one, "absolute", geometry, which is known to be true "a priori" by an inner faculty of mind: Euclidean geometry was synthetic a priori. This view was at first somewhat challenged by thinkers such as Saccheri, then finally overturned by the revolutionary discovery of non-Euclidean geometry in the works of Bolyai, Lobachevsky, and Gauss (who never published his theory). They demonstrated that ordinary Euclidean space is only one possibility for development of geometry. A broad vision of the subject of geometry was then expressed by Riemann in his 1867 inauguration lecture "Über die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen" ("On the hypotheses on which geometry is based"), published only after his death. Riemann's new idea of space proved crucial in Albert Einstein's general relativity theory. Riemannian geometry, which considers very general spaces in which the notion of length is defined, is a mainstay of modern geometry. Topology is the field concerned with the properties of continuous mappings, and can be considered a generalization of Euclidean geometry. In practice, topology often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness. The field of topology, which saw massive development in the 20th century, is in a technical sense a type of transformation geometry, in which transformations are homeomorphisms. This has often been expressed in the form of the saying 'topology is rubber-sheet geometry'. Subfields of topology include geometric topology, differential topology, algebraic topology and general topology. The field of algebraic geometry developed from the Cartesian geometry of co-ordinates. It underwent periodic periods of growth, accompanied by the creation and study of projective geometry, birational geometry, algebraic varieties, and commutative algebra, among other topics. From the late 1950s through the mid-1970s it had undergone major foundational development, largely due to work of Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck. This led to the introduction of schemes and greater emphasis on topological methods, including various cohomology theories. One of seven Millennium Prize problems, the Hodge conjecture, is a question in algebraic geometry. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem uses advanced methods of algebraic geometry for solving a long-standing problem of number theory. In general, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of concepts in commutative algebra such as multivariate polynomials. It has applications in many areas, including cryptography and string theory. Complex geometry studies the nature of geometric structures modelled on, or arising out of, the complex plane. Complex geometry lies at the intersection of differential geometry, algebraic geometry, and analysis of several complex variables, and has found applications to string theory and mirror symmetry. Complex geometry first appeared as a distinct area of study in the work of Bernhard Riemann in his study of Riemann surfaces. Work in the spirit of Riemann was carried out by the Italian school of algebraic geometry in the early 1900s. Contemporary treatment of complex geometry began with the work of Jean-Pierre Serre, who introduced the concept of sheaves to the subject, and illuminated the relations between complex geometry and algebraic geometry. The primary objects of study in complex geometry are complex manifolds, complex algebraic varieties, and complex analytic varieties, and holomorphic vector bundles and coherent sheaves over these spaces. Special examples of spaces studied in complex geometry include Riemann surfaces, and Calabi-Yau manifolds, and these spaces find uses in string theory. In particular, worldsheets of strings are modelled by Riemann surfaces, and superstring theory predicts that the extra 6 dimensions of 10 dimensional spacetime may be modelled by Calabi-Yau manifolds. Discrete geometry is a subject that has close connections with convex geometry. It is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple geometric objects, such as points, lines and circles. Examples include the study of sphere packings, triangulations, the Kneser-Poulsen conjecture, etc. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics. Computational geometry deals with algorithms and their implementations for manipulating geometrical objects. Important problems historically have included the travelling salesman problem, minimum spanning trees, hidden-line removal, and linear programming. Although being a young area of geometry, it has many applications in computer vision, image processing, computer-aided design, medical imaging, etc. Geometric group theory uses large-scale geometric techniques to study finitely generated groups. It is closely connected to low-dimensional topology, such as in Grigori Perelman's proof of the Geometrization conjecture, which included the proof of the Poincaré conjecture, a Millennium Prize Problem. Geometric group theory often revolves around the Cayley graph, which is a geometric representation of a group. Other important topics include quasi-isometries, Gromov-hyperbolic groups, and right angled Artin groups. Convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis and discrete mathematics. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis and important applications in number theory. Convex geometry dates back to antiquity. Archimedes gave the first known precise definition of convexity. The isoperimetric problem, a recurring concept in convex geometry, was studied by the Greeks as well, including Zenodorus. Archimedes, Plato, Euclid, and later Kepler and Coxeter all studied convex polytopes and their properties. From the 19th century on, mathematicians have studied other areas of convex mathematics, including higher-dimensional polytopes, volume and surface area of convex bodies, Gaussian curvature, algorithms, tilings and lattices. Geometry has found applications in many fields, some of which are described below. Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. For instance, the theory of perspective showed that there is more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the origin of projective geometry. Artists have long used concepts of proportion in design. Vitruvius developed a complicated theory of "ideal proportions" for the human figure. These concepts have been used and adapted by artists from Michelangelo to modern comic book artists. The golden ratio is a particular proportion that has had a controversial role in art. Often claimed to be the most aesthetically pleasing ratio of lengths, it is frequently stated to be incorporated into famous works of art, though the most reliable and unambiguous examples were made deliberately by artists aware of this legend. Tilings, or tessellations, have been used in art throughout history. Islamic art makes frequent use of tessellations, as did the art of Escher. Escher's work also made use of hyperbolic geometry. Cézanne advanced the theory that all images can be built up from the sphere, the cone, and the cylinder. This is still used in art theory today, although the exact list of shapes varies from author to author. Geometry has many applications in architecture. In fact, it has been said that geometry lies at the core of architectural design. Applications of geometry to architecture include the use of projective geometry to create forced perspective, the use of conic sections in constructing domes and similar objects, the use of tessellations, and the use of symmetry. The field of astronomy, especially as it relates to mapping the positions of stars and planets on the celestial sphere and describing the relationship between movements of celestial bodies, have served as an important source of geometric problems throughout history. Riemannian geometry and pseudo-Riemannian geometry are used in general relativity. String theory makes use of several variants of geometry, as does quantum information theory. Calculus was strongly influenced by geometry. For instance, the introduction of coordinates by René Descartes and the concurrent developments of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since geometric figures such as plane curves could now be represented analytically in the form of functions and equations. This played a key role in the emergence of infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century. Analytic geometry continues to be a mainstay of pre-calculus and calculus curriculum. Another important area of application is number theory. In ancient Greece the Pythagoreans considered the role of numbers in geometry. However, the discovery of incommensurable lengths contradicted their philosophical views. Since the 19th century, geometry has been used for solving problems in number theory, for example through the geometry of numbers or, more recently, scheme theory, which is used in Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem.

Geometry (from the ; "geo-" "earth", "-metron" "measurement") is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer.

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summarize: "Hour" is a development of the Anglo-Norman'and Middle English ', first attested in the 13th century. It displaced tide tīd, "time" and stound stund, "span of time". The Anglo-Norman term was a borrowing of Old French ', a variant of ', which derived from Latin "" and Greek "hṓrā" (). Like Old English'and ', "hṓrā" was originally a vaguer word for any span of time, including seasons and years. Its Proto-Indo-European root has been reconstructed as "" ("year, summer"), making "hour" distantly cognate with "year". The time of day is typically expressed in English in terms of hours. Whole hours on a 12-hour clock are expressed using the contracted phrase "o'clock", from the older "of clock". (10 am and 10 pm are both read as "ten o'clock".) Hours on a 24-hour clock ("military time") are expressed as "hundred" or "hundred hours". (1000 is read "ten hundred" or "ten hundred hours"; 10 pm would be "twenty-two hundred".) Fifteen and thirty minutes past the hour is expressed as "a quarter past" or "after" and "half past", respectively, from their fraction of the hour. Fifteen minutes before the hour may be expressed as "a quarter to", "of", "till", or "before" the hour. (9:45 may be read "nine forty-five" or "a quarter till ten".) The ancient Greeks and Romans originally divided the day into 12 hours and the night into 3 or 4 night watches. The Greek astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus oversaw the construction of a horologion called the Tower of the Winds in Athens during the first century. This structure tracked a 24-hour day using both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. The night was eventually also divided into 12 hours. The canonical hours were introduced to early Christianity from Second Temple Judaism. By AD 60, the Didache, recommends disciples to pray the Lord's Prayer three times a day; this practice found its way into the canonical hours as well. By the second and third centuries, such Church Fathers as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian wrote of the practice of Morning and Evening Prayer, and of the prayers at the third, sixth and ninth hours. In the early church, during the night before every feast, a vigil was kept. The word "Vigils", at first applied to the Night Office, comes from a Latin source, namely the "Vigiliae" or nocturnal watches or guards of the soldiers. The night from six o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning was divided into four watches or vigils of three hours each, the first, the second, the third, and the fourth vigil. The "Horae" were originally personifications of seasonal aspects of nature, not of the time of day. The list of twelve "Horae" representing the twelve hours of the day is recorded only in Late Antiquity, by Nonnus. The first and twelfth of the "Horae" were added to the original set of ten: Medieval astronomers such as al-Biruni and Sacrobosco, divided the hour into 60 minutes, each of 60 seconds; this derives from Babylonian astronomy, where the corresponding terms denoted the time required for the Sun's apparent motion through the ecliptic to describe one minute or second of arc, respectively. In present terms, the Babylonian degree of time was thus four minutes long, the "minute" of time was thus four seconds long and the "second" 1/15 of a second.) In medieval Europe, the Roman hours continued to be marked on sundials but the more important units of time were the canonical hours of the Orthodox and Catholic Church. During daylight, these followed the pattern set by the three-hour bells of the Roman markets, which were succeeded by the bells of local churches. They rang prime at about 6am, terce at about 9am, sext at noon, nones at about 3pm, and vespers at either 6pm or sunset. Matins and lauds precede these irregularly in the morning hours; compline follows them irregularly before sleep; and the midnight office follows that. Vatican II ordered their reformation for the Catholic Church in 1963, though they continue to be observed in the Orthodox churches. When mechanical clocks began to be used to show hours of daylight or nighttime, their period needed to be changed every morning and evening (for example, by changing the length of their pendula). The use of 24 hours for the entire day meant hours varied much less and the clocks needed to be adjusted only a few times a month. The minor irregularities of the apparent solar day were smoothed by measuring time using the mean solar day, using the Sun's movement along the celestial equator rather than along the ecliptic. The irregularities of this time system were so minor that most clocks reckoning such hours did not need adjustment. However, scientific measurements eventually became precise enough to note the effect of tidal deceleration of the Earth by the Moon, which gradually lengthens the Earth's days. During the French Revolution, a general decimalization of measures was enacted, including decimal time between 1793 and 1795. Under its provisions, the French hour () was of the day and divided formally into 100 decimal minutes (') and informally into 10 tenths ('). This hour was only briefly in official use, being repealed by the same 1795 legislation that first established the metric system. The metric system bases its measurements of time upon the second, defined since 1952 in terms of the Earth's rotation in 1900. Its hours are a secondary unit computed as precisely 3,600 seconds. However, an hour of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used as the basis of most civil time, has lasted 3,601 seconds 27 times since 1972 in order to keep it within 0.9 seconds of universal time, which is based on measurements of the mean solar day at 0° longitude. The addition of these seconds accommodates the very gradual slowing of the rotation of the Earth. In modern life, the ubiquity of clocks and other timekeeping devices means that segmentation of days according to their hours is commonplace. Most forms of employment, whether wage or salaried labour, involve compensation based upon measured or expected hours worked. The fight for an eight-hour day was a part of labour movements around the world. Informal rush hours and happy hours cover the times of day when commuting slows down due to congestion or alcoholic drinks being available at discounted prices. The hour record for the greatest distance travelled by a cyclist within the span of an hour is one of cycling's greatest honours. Many different ways of counting the hours have been used. Because sunrise, sunset, and, to a lesser extent, noon, are the conspicuous points in the day, starting to count at these times was, for most people in most early societies, much easier than starting at midnight. However, with accurate clocks and modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant. Astrolabes, sundials, and astronomical clocks sometimes show the hour length and count using some of these older definitions and counting methods. In ancient and medieval cultures, the counting of hours generally started with sunrise. Before the widespread use of artificial light, societies were more concerned with the division between night and day, and daily routines often began when light was sufficient. "Babylonian hours" divide the day and night into 24 equal hours, reckoned from the time of sunrise. They are so named from the false belief of ancient authors that the Babylonians divided the day into 24 parts, beginning at sunrise. In fact, they divided the day into 12 parts (called "kaspu" or "double hours") or into 60 equal parts. Sunrise marked the beginning of the first hour, the middle of the day was at the end of the sixth hour and sunset at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the duration of hours varied with the season. In the Northern hemisphere, particularly in the more northerly latitudes, summer daytime hours were longer than winter daytime hours, each being one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. These variable-length hours were variously known as temporal, unequal, or seasonal hours and were in use until the appearance of the mechanical clock, which furthered the adoption of equal length hours. This is also the system used in Jewish law and frequently called "Talmudic hour" ("Sha'a Zemanit") in a variety of texts. The Talmudic hour is one twelfth of time elapsed from sunrise to sunset, day hours therefore being longer than night hours in the summer; in winter they reverse. The Indic day began at sunrise. The term "hora" was used to indicate an hour. The time was measured based on the length of the shadow at day time. A "hora" translated to 2.5 "pe". There are 60 "pe" per day, 60 minutes per "pe" and 60 "kshana" (snap of a finger or instant) per minute. "Pe" was measured with a bowl with a hole placed in still water. Time taken for this graduated bowl was one "pe". Kings usually had an officer in charge of this clock. In so-called "Italian time", "Italian hours", or "old Czech time", the first hour started with the sunset Angelus bell (or at the end of dusk, i.e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom and geographical latitude). The hours were numbered from 1 to 24. For example, in Lugano, the sun rose in December during the 14th hour and noon was during the 19th hour; in June the sun rose during the 7th hour and noon was in the 15th hour. Sunset was always at the end of the 24th hour. The clocks in church towers struck only from 1 to 12, thus only during night or early morning hours. This manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily know how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light. It was already widely used in Italy by the 14th century and lasted until the mid-18th century; it was officially abolished in 1755, or in some regions customary until the mid-19th century. The system of Italian hours can be seen on a number of clocks in Europe, where the dial is numbered from 1 to 24 in either Roman or Arabic numerals. The St Mark's Clock in Venice, and the Orloj in Prague are famous examples. It was also used in Poland and Bohemia until the 17th century. The Islamic day begins at sunset. The first prayer of the day (maghrib) is to be performed between just after sunset and the end of twilight. Until 1968 Saudi Arabia used the system of counting 24 equal hours with the first hour starting at sunset. For many centuries, up to 1925, astronomers counted the hours and days from noon, because it was the easiest solar event to measure accurately. An advantage of this method (used in the Julian Date system, in which a new Julian Day begins at noon) is that the date doesn't change during a single night's observing. In the modern 12-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2,..., 11. Solar noon is always close to 12 noon (ignoring artificial adjustments due to time zones and daylight saving time), differing according to the equation of time by as much as fifteen minutes either way. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 6 a.m. (, before noon), and sunset around 6 p.m. (, after noon). In the modern 24-hour clock, counting the hours starts at midnight, and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00, again differing according to the equation of time. At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00, and sunset around 18:00. The ancient Egyptians began dividing the night into "" at some time before the compilation of the Dynasty V Pyramid Texts in the 24thcentury. By 2150 (Dynasty IX), diagrams of stars inside Egyptian coffin lids—variously known as "diagonal calendars" or "star clocks"—attest that there were exactly 12 of these. Clagett writes that it is "certain" this duodecimal division of the night followed the adoption of the Egyptian civil calendar, usually placed on the basis of analyses of the Sothic cycle, but a lunar calendar presumably long predated this and also would have had twelve months in each of its years. The coffin diagrams show that the Egyptians took note of the heliacal risings of 36 stars or constellations (now known as "decans"), one for each of the ten-day "weeks" of their civil calendar. (12 sets of alternate "triangle decans" were used for the 5 epagomenal days between years.) Each night, the rising of eleven of these decans were noted, separating the night into twelve divisions whose middle terms would have lasted about 40minutes each. (Another seven stars were noted by the Egyptians during the twilight and predawn periods, although they were not important for the hour divisions.) The original decans used by the Egyptians would have fallen noticeably out of their proper places over a span of several centuries. By the time of (), the priests at Karnak were using water clocks to determine the hours. These were filled to the brim at sunset and the hour determined by comparing the water level against one of its twelve gauges, one for each month of the year. During the New Kingdom, another system of decans was used, made up of 24 stars over the course of the year and 12 within any one night. The later division of the day into 12 hours was accomplished by sundials marked with ten equal divisions. The morning and evening periods when the sundials failed to note time were observed as the first and last hours. The Egyptian hours were closely connected both with the priesthood of the gods and with their divine services. By the New Kingdom, each hour was conceived as a specific region of the sky or underworld through which Ra's solar barge travelled. Protective deities were assigned to each and were used as the names of the hours. As the protectors and resurrectors of the sun, the goddesses of the night hours were considered to hold power over all lifespans and thus became part of Egyptian funerary rituals. Two fire-spitting cobras were said to guard the gates of each hour of the underworld, and Wadjet and the rearing cobra (uraeus) were also sometimes referenced as'from their role protecting the dead through these gates. The Egyptian word for astronomer, used as a synonym for priest, was ', "one of the "wnwt"", as it were "one of the hours". The earliest forms of "" include one or three stars, with the later solar hours including the determinative hieroglyph for "sun". Ancient China divided its day into 100 "marks" running from midnight to midnight. The system is said to have been used since remote antiquity, credited to the legendary Yellow Emperor, but is first attested in Han-era water clocks and in the 2nd-century history of that dynasty. It was measured with sundials and water clocks. Into the Eastern Han, the Chinese measured their day schematically, adding the 20-"ke" difference between the solstices evenly throughout the year, one every nine days. During the night, time was more commonly reckoned during the night by the "watches" of the guard, which were reckoned as a fifth of the time from sunset to sunrise. Imperial China continued to use "ke" and "geng" but also began to divide the day into 12 "double hours" named after the earthly branches and sometimes also known by the name of the corresponding animal of the Chinese zodiac. The first "shi" originally ran from 11pm to 1am but was reckoned as starting at midnight by the time of the History of Song, compiled during the early Yuan. These apparently began to be used during the Eastern Han that preceded the Three Kingdoms era, but the sections that would have covered them are missing from their official histories; they first appear in official use in the Tang-era Book of Sui. Variations of all these units were subsequently adopted by Japan and the other countries of the Sinosphere. The 12 "shi" supposedly began to be divided into 24 hours under the Tang, although they are first attested in the Ming-era Book of Yuan. In that work, the hours were known by the same earthly branches as the "shi", with the first half noted as its "starting" and the second as "completed" or "proper" "shi". In modern China, these are instead simply numbered and described as "little "shi"". The modern "ke" is now used to count quarter-hours, rather than a separate unit. As with the Egyptian night and daytime hours, the division of the day into twelve "shi" has been credited to the example set by the rough number of lunar cycles in a solar year, although the 12-year Jovian orbital cycle was more important to traditional Chinese and Babylonian reckoning of the zodiac. In Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, the traditional system of noting hours is the six-hour clock. This reckons each of a day's 24 hours apart from noon as part of a fourth of the day. 7 am was the first hour of the first half of daytime; 1 pm the first hour of the latter half of daytime; 7 pm the first hour of the first half of nighttime; and 1 am the first hour of the latter half of nighttime. This system existed in the Ayutthaya Kingdom, deriving its current phrasing from the practice of publicly announcing the daytime hours with a gong and the nighttime hours with a drum. It was abolished in Laos and Cambodia during their French occupation and is uncommon there now. The Thai system remains in informal use in the form codified in 1901 by King Chulalongkorn. The Vedas and Puranas employed units of time based on the sidereal day ("nakṣatra ahorātram"). This was variously divided into 30 "muhūtras" of 48 minutes each or 60 "dandas" or "nadís" of 24 minutes each. The solar day was later similarly divided into 60 "ghaṭikás" of about the same duration, each divided in turn into 60 "vinadis". The Sinhalese followed a similar system but called their sixtieth of a day a "peya".

An hour (symbol: h; also abbreviated hr) is a unit of time conventionally reckoned as of a day and scientifically reckoned as 3,599–3,601 seconds, depending on conditions. There are 60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day.

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48

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summarize: At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions. An example of an equation of state correlates densities of gases and liquids to temperatures and pressures, known as the ideal gas law, which is roughly accurate for weakly polar gases at low pressures and moderate temperatures. This equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. Another common use is in modeling the interior of stars, including neutron stars, dense matter (quark–gluon plasmas) and radiation fields. A related concept is the perfect fluid equation of state used in cosmology. Equations of state can also describe solids, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. In a practical context, equations of state are instrumental for PVT calculations in process engineering problems, such as petroleum gas/liquid equilibrium calculations. A successful PVT model based on a fitted equation of state can be helpful to determine the state of the flow regime, the parameters for handling the reservoir fluids, and pipe sizing. Measurements of equation-of-state parameters, especially at high pressures, can be made using lasers. Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662, the Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. Mercury was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube. Then the volume of gas was measured as additional mercury was added to the tube. The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end. Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as: The above relationship has also been attributed to Edme Mariotte and is sometimes referred to as Mariotte's law. However, Mariotte's work was not published until 1676. In 1787 the French physicist Jacques Charles found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to roughly the same extent over the same 80-kelvin interval. Later, in 1802, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature: Dalton's Law of partial pressure states that the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all of the constituent gases alone. Mathematically, this can be represented for "n" species as: In 1834, Émile Clapeyron combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the "ideal gas law". Initially, the law was formulated as "pV" = "R"("T" + 267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius), where "R" is the gas constant. However, later work revealed that the number should actually be closer to 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with 0°C = 273.15K, giving: In 1873, J. D. van der Waals introduced the first equation of state derived by the assumption of a finite volume occupied by the constituent molecules. His new formula revolutionized the study of equations of state, and was most famously continued via the Redlich–Kwong equation of state and the Soave modification of Redlich-Kwong. For a given amount of substance contained in a system, the temperature, volume, and pressure are not independent quantities; they are connected by a relationship of the general form An equation used to model this relationship is called an equation of state. In the following sections major equations of state are described, and the variables used here are defined as follows. Any consistent set of units may be used, although SI units are preferred. Absolute temperature refers to use of the Kelvin (K) or Rankine (°R) temperature scales, with zero being absolute zero. The classical ideal gas law may be written In the form shown above, the equation of state is thus If the calorically perfect gas approximation is used, then the ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows where formula_19 is the density, formula_20 is the adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), formula_21 is the internal energy per unit mass (the "specific internal energy"), formula_22 is the specific heat at constant volume, and formula_23 is the specific heat at constant pressure. Cubic equations of state are called such because they can be rewritten as a cubic function of V. The Van der Waals equation of state may be written: where formula_25 is molar volume. The substance-specific constants formula_26 and formula_27 can be calculated from the critical properties formula_28 and formula_29 (noting that formula_29 is the molar volume at the critical point) as: Also written as Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state was one of the first to perform markedly better than the ideal gas law. In this landmark equation formula_26 is called the attraction parameter and formula_27 the repulsion parameter or the effective molecular volume. While the equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly referenced in text-books and papers for historical reasons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only slightly greater complexity are much more accurate. The van der Waals equation may be considered as the ideal gas law, "improved" due to two independent reasons: With the reduced state variables, i.e. V=V/V, P=P/P and T=T/T, the reduced form of the Van der Waals equation can be formulated: The benefit of this form is that for given T and P, the reduced volume of the liquid and gas can be calculated directly using Cardano's method for the reduced cubic form: For P<1 and T<1, the system is in a state of vapor–liquid equilibrium. The reduced cubic equation of state yields in that case 3 solutions. The largest and the lowest solution are the gas and liquid reduced volume. Introduced in 1949, the Redlich-Kwong equation of state was a considerable improvement over other equations of the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor–liquid equilibria. However, it can be used in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose. The Redlich-Kwong equation is adequate for calculation of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to the critical pressure (reduced pressure) is less than about one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the critical temperature (reduced temperature): Where ω is the acentric factor for the species. This formulation for formula_54 is due to Graboski and Daubert. The original formulation from Soave is: for hydrogen: We can also write it in the polynomial form, with: then we have: where formula_60 is the universal gas constant and Z=PV/(RT) is the compressibility factor. In 1972 G. Soave replaced the 1/ term of the Redlich-Kwong equation with a function α(T,ω) involving the temperature and the acentric factor (the resulting equation is also known as the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation of state; SRK EOS). The α function was devised to fit the vapor pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does fairly well for these materials. Note especially that this replacement changes the definition of "a" slightly, as the formula_61 is now to the second power. The SRK EOS may be written as where where formula_54 and other parts of the SRK EOS is defined in the SRK EOS section. A downside of the SRK EOS, and other cubic EOS, is that the liquid molar volume is significantly less accurate than the gas molar volume. Peneloux et alios (1982) proposed a simple correction for this by introducing a volume translation where formula_66 is an additional fluid component parameter that translates the molar volume slightly. On the liquid branch of the EOS, a small change in molar volume corresponds to a large change in pressure. On the gas branch of the EOS, a small change in molar volume corresponds to a much smaller change in pressure than for the liquid branch. Thus, the perturbation of the molar gas volume is small. Unfortunately, there are two versions that occur in science and industry. In the first version only formula_67 is translated, In the second version both formula_67 and formula_70 are translated, or the translation of formula_67 is followed by a renaming of the composite parameter. This gives The c-parameter of a fluid mixture is calculated by The c-parameter of the individual fluid components in a petroleum gas and oil can be estimated by the correlation where the Rackett compressibility factor formula_75 can be estimated by A nice feature with the volume translation method of Peneloux et al. (1982) is that it does not affect the vapor-liquid equilibrium calculations. This method of volume translation can also be applied to other cubic EOSs if the c-parameter correlation is adjusted to match the selected EOS. In polynomial form: where formula_81 is the acentric factor of the species, formula_60 is the universal gas constant and formula_83 is compressibility factor. The Peng–Robinson equation of state (PR EOS) was developed in 1976 at The University of Alberta by Ding-Yu Peng and Donald Robinson in order to satisfy the following goals: For the most part the Peng–Robinson equation exhibits performance similar to the Soave equation, although it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densities of many materials, especially nonpolar ones. The departure functions of the Peng–Robinson equation are given on a separate article. The analytic values of its characteristic constants are: A modification to the attraction term in the Peng–Robinson equation of state published by Stryjek and Vera in 1986 (PRSV) significantly improved the model's accuracy by introducing an adjustable pure component parameter and by modifying the polynomial fit of the acentric factor. The modification is: where formula_88 is an adjustable pure component parameter. Stryjek and Vera published pure component parameters for many compounds of industrial interest in their original journal article. At reduced temperatures above 0.7, they recommend to set formula_89 and simply use formula_90. For alcohols and water the value of formula_91 may be used up to the critical temperature and set to zero at higher temperatures. A subsequent modification published in 1986 (PRSV2) further improved the model's accuracy by introducing two additional pure component parameters to the previous attraction term modification. The modification is: where formula_88, formula_94, and formula_95 are adjustable pure component parameters. PRSV2 is particularly advantageous for VLE calculations. While PRSV1 does offer an advantage over the Peng–Robinson model for describing thermodynamic behavior, it is still not accurate enough, in general, for phase equilibrium calculations. The highly non-linear behavior of phase-equilibrium calculation methods tends to amplify what would otherwise be acceptably small errors. It is therefore recommended that PRSV2 be used for equilibrium calculations when applying these models to a design. However, once the equilibrium state has been determined, the phase specific thermodynamic values at equilibrium may be determined by one of several simpler models with a reasonable degree of accuracy. One thing to note is that in the PRSV equation, the parameter fit is done in a particular temperature range which is usually below the critical temperature. Above the critical temperature, the PRSV alpha function tends to diverge and become arbitrarily large instead of tending towards 0. Because of this, alternate equations for alpha should be employed above the critical point. This is especially important for systems containing hydrogen which is often found at temperatures far above its critical point. Several alternate formulations have been proposed. Some well known ones are by Twu et all or by Mathias and Copeman. Peng,-Robinson-Babalola equation of state: (PRB) Babalola [ ] modified the Peng–Robinson Equation of state as: formula_96 The attractive force parameter ‘a’, which was considered to be a constant with respect to pressure in Peng–Robinson EOS as well as in other EOS was modified by Babalola. The modification, in which parameter ‘a’ was treated as a variable with respect to pressure for multi component multi-phase high density reservoir systems was to improve accuracy in the prediction of properties of complex reservoir fluids for PVT modeling. The variation was represented with a linear equation: a = aP + a where a and a represent the slope and the intercept respectively of the straight line obtained when values of parameter ‘a’ are plotted against pressure. This modification increases the accuracy of Peng–Robinson equation of state for heavier fluids particularly at pressure ranges (>30MPa) and eliminates the need for tuning the equation of state before use thereby minimizing the cost of using the EOS in the oil industry. The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state was proposed in 1990. The equation seeks to correct a shortcoming in the Peng–Robinson EOS in that there was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term. The EOS accounts for the effect of the shape of a non-polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the addition of an extra term (not shown). The EOS itself was developed through modeling computer simulations and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, and hydrogen bonding. where: and where The characteristic size parameter is related to the shape parameter formula_66 through where Noting the relationships between Boltzmann's constant and the Universal gas constant, and observing that the number of molecules can be expressed in terms of Avogadro's number and the molar mass, the reduced number density formula_104 can be expressed in terms of the molar volume as The shape parameter formula_115 appearing in the Attraction term and the term formula_116 are given by where formula_119 is the depth of the square-well potential and is given by The model can be extended to associating components and mixtures of nonassociating components. Details are in the paper by J.R. Elliott, Jr. "et al." (1990). The Cubic-Plus-Association (CPA) equation of state combines the Soave-Redlich-Kwong equation with an association term from Wertheim theory. The development of the equation began in 1995 as a research project that was funded by Shell, and in 1996 an article was published which presented the CPA equation of state. In the association term formula_130 is the mole fraction of molecules not bonded at site A. where "a" is associated with the interaction between molecules and "b" takes into account the finite size of the molecules, similar to the Van der Waals equation. The reduced coordinates are: Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from statistical mechanics. This equation is also called the Kamerlingh Onnes equation. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. "A" is the first virial coefficient, which has a constant value of 1 and makes the statement that when volume is large, all fluids behave like ideal gases. The second virial coefficient "B" corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, "C" to triplets, and so on. Accuracy can be increased indefinitely by considering higher order terms. The coefficients "B", "C", "D", etc. are functions of temperature only. One of the most accurate equations of state is that from Benedict-Webb-Rubin-Starling shown next. It was very close to a virial equation of state. If the exponential term in it is expanded to two Taylor terms, a virial equation can be derived: Note that in this virial equation, the fourth and fifth virial terms are zero. The second virial coefficient is monotonically decreasing as temperature is lowered. The third virial coefficient is monotonically increasing as temperature is lowered. where Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be found in The Lee-Kesler equation of state is based on the corresponding states principle, and is a modification of the BWR equation of state. Statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT) equations of state use statistical mechanical methods (in particular perturbation theory) to describe the interactions between molecules in a system. The idea of a SAFT equation of state was first proposed by Chapman et al. in 1989, but since then many different SAFT equations of state have been proposed. Often SAFT equations represent molecules as collections of spherical particles that interact with one another. One popular SAFT equation represents molecules as chains composed of spherical segments (PC-SAFT). In general, SAFT equations give more accurate results than traditional cubic equations of state, especially for systems containing liquids or solids. Multiparameter equations of state (MEOS) can be used to represent pure fluids with high accuracy, in both the liquid and gaseous states. MEOS's represent the Helmholtz function of the fluid as the sum of ideal gas and residual terms. Both terms are explicit in reduced temperature and reduced density - thus: where: The reduced density and temperature are typically, though not always, the critical values for the pure fluid. Other thermodynamic functions can be derived from the MEOS by using appropriate derivatives of the Helmholtz function; hence, because integration of the MEOS is not required, there are few restrictions as to the functional form of the ideal or residual terms. Typical MEOS use upwards of 50 fluid specific parameters, but are able to represent the fluid's properties with high accuracy. MEOS are available currently for about 50 of the most common industrial fluids including refrigerants. Mixture models also exist. When considering water under very high pressures, in situations such as underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and sonoluminescence, the stiffened equation of state is often used: where formula_139 is the internal energy per unit mass, formula_140 is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and formula_141 is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules. The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20,000 atmospheres). The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by formula_142. Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is "already" under about 20,000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would when changing from 20,001 to 20,002 atmospheres (2000.1 MPa to 2000.2 MPa). This equation mispredicts the specific heat capacity of water but few simple alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks. An ultrarelativistic fluid has equation of state where formula_41 is the pressure, formula_145 is the mass density, and formula_146 is the speed of sound. The equation of state for an ideal Bose gas is where α is an exponent specific to the system (e.g. in the absence of a potential field, α = 3/2), "z" is exp("μ"/"kT") where "μ" is the chemical potential, Li is the polylogarithm, ζ is the Riemann zeta function, and "T" is the critical temperature at which a Bose–Einstein condensate begins to form. The equation of state from Jones–Wilkins–Lee is used to describe the detonation products of explosives. The ratio formula_149 is defined by using formula_150 = density of the explosive (solid part) and formula_151 = density of the detonation products. The parameters formula_152, formula_153, formula_154, formula_155 and formula_156 are given by several references. In addition, the initial density (solid part) formula_157, speed of detonation formula_158, Chapman–Jouguet pressure formula_159 and the chemical energy of the explosive formula_160 are given in such references. These parameters are obtained by fitting the JWL-EOS to experimental results. Typical parameters for some explosives are listed in the table below. Common abbreviations: formula_161

In physics and thermodynamics, an equation of state is a thermodynamic equation relating state variables which describe the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions, such as pressure, volume, temperature (PVT), or internal energy. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of fluids, mixtures of fluids, solids, and the interior of stars.

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summarize: Contemporary illustration uses a wide range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia, 3D modelling. Depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. Specialist areas include: Technical and scientific illustration communicates information of a technical or scientific nature. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, diagrams. The aim is "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer". Technical and scientific illustration is generally designed to describe or explain subjects to a nontechnical audience, so must provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer's interest and understanding". In contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design and fine art. Today, however, due in part to the growth of graphic novel and video game industries, as well as increased use of illustration in magazines and other publications, illustration is now becoming a valued art form, capable of engaging a global market. Original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwell's painting "Breaking Home Ties" sold in a 2006 Sotheby's auction for USD15.4 million. Many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the industrial processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were individually hand drawn and painted. With the invention of the printing press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed, often illustrated with woodcuts. Some of the earliest illustrations come from the time of ancient Egypt (Khemet) often as hieroglyph. A classic example of illustrations exists from the time of The Tomb of Pharaoh Seti I, circa 1294 BC to 1279 BC,who was father of Ramses II, born 1303 BC. 1600s Japan saw the origination of Ukiyo-e, an influential illustration style characterised by expressive line, vivid colour and subtle tones, resulting from the ink-brushed wood block printing technique. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life. Hokusai’s "The Great Wave of Kanazawa" is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching. In 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake (1757–827), who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality. In Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications. At this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. The British humorous magazine Punch (1841–2002) built on the success of Cruikshank's Comic Almanac (1827–1840) and employed many well-regarded illustrators, including Sir John Tenniel, the Dalziel Brothers, and Georges du Maurier. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators. Historically, Punch was most influential in the 1840s and 1850s. The magazine was the first to use the term "cartoon" to describe a humorous illustration and its widespread use led to John Leech being known as the world's first "cartoonist". In common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from reliance on caricature to sophisticated topical observation. From the early 1800s newspapers, mass-market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color and rendering techniques. These developments in printing effected all areas of literature from cookbooks, photography and travel guides, as well as children's books. Also, due to advances in printing, it became more affordable to produce color photographs within books and other materials. By 1900, almost 100 percent of paper was machine-made, and while a person working by hand could produce 60-100lbs of paper per day, mechanization yielded around 1,000lbs per day. Additionally, in the 50 year period between 1846 and 1916, book production increased 400% and the price of books was cut in half. In America, this led to a "golden age of illustration" from before the 1880s until the early 20th century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time. Among the best-known illustrators of that period were N.C. Wyeth and Howard Pyle of the Brandywine School, James Montgomery Flagg, Elizabeth Shippen Green, J. C. Leyendecker, Violet Oakley, Maxfield Parrish, Jessie Willcox Smith, and John Rea Neill.

An illustration is a decoration, interpretation or visual explanation of a text, concept or process, designed for integration in published media, such as posters, flyers, magazines, books, teaching materials, animations, video games and films. An illustration is typically created by an illustrator. Illustration also means providing an example; either in writing or in picture form.

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summarize: The definitions given above are only valid for circles, spheres and convex shapes. However, they are special cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of "n"-dimensional convex or non-convex object, such as a hypercube or a set of scattered points. The diameter of a subset of a metric space is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset. So, if "A" is the subset, the diameter is If the distance function d is viewed here as having codomain R (the set of all real numbers), this implies that the diameter of the empty set (the case ) equals −∞ (negative infinity). Some authors prefer to treat the empty set as a special case, assigning it a diameter equal to 0, which corresponds to taking the codomain of d to be the set of nonnegative reals. For any solid object or set of scattered points in n-dimensional Euclidean space, the diameter of the object or set is the same as the diameter of its convex hull. In medical parlance concerning a lesion or in geology concerning a rock, the diameter of an object is the supremum of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the object. In differential geometry, the diameter is an important global Riemannian invariant. In plane geometry, a diameter of a conic section is typically defined as any chord which passes through the conic's centre; such diameters are not necessarily of uniform length, except in the case of the circle, which has eccentricity "e" = 0. The symbol or variable for diameter,, is sometimes used in technical drawings or specifications as a prefix or suffix for a number (e.g. "⌀ 55 mm", indicating that it represents diameter. For example, photographic filter thread sizes are often denoted in this way. In German, the diameter symbol (German "") is also used as an average symbol ("Durchschnittszeichen"). It is similar in size and design to, the Latin small letter o with stroke. The diameter symbol ⌀ is distinct from the empty set symbol, from an (italic) uppercase phi, and from the Nordic vowel (Latin capital letter O with stroke). See also slashed zero. The symbol has a Unicode code point at, in the Miscellaneous Technical set. On an Apple Macintosh, the diameter symbol can be entered via the character palette (this is opened by pressing in most applications), where it can be found in the Technical Symbols category. In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using It can be obtained in UNIX-like operating systems using a Compose key by pressing, in sequence, The character will sometimes not display correctly, however, since many fonts do not include it. In many situations the letter ø (the Latin small letter o with stroke) is an acceptable substitute, which in Unicode is. and on a Macintosh by pressing (the letter o, not the number 0). In Unix/Linux/ChromeOS systems, it is generated using or. AutoCAD uses available as a shortcut string. In Microsoft Word the diameter symbol can be acquired by typing 2300 and then pressing Alt+X. In LaTeX the diameter symbol can be obtained with the command codice_1 from the wasysym package.

In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere.

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summarize: An isochoric thermodynamic quasi-static process is characterized by constant volume, i.e., Δ"V" = 0. The process does no pressure-volume work, since such work is defined by where "P" is pressure. The sign convention is such that positive work is performed by the system on the environment. If the process is not quasi-static, the work can perhaps be done in a volume constant thermodynamic process. For a reversible process, the first law of thermodynamics gives the change in the system's internal energy: Replacing work with a change in volume gives Since the process is isochoric, "dV" = 0, the previous equation now gives Using the definition of specific heat capacity at constant volume, Integrating both sides yields Where "c" is the specific heat capacity at constant volume, "T" is the initial temperature and "T" is the final temperature. We conclude with: On a pressure volume diagram, an isochoric process appears as a straight vertical line. Its thermodynamic conjugate, an isobaric process would appear as a straight horizontal line. If an ideal gas is used in an isochoric process, and the quantity of gas stays constant, then the increase in energy is proportional to an increase in temperature and pressure. Take for example a gas heated in a rigid container: the pressure and temperature of the gas will increase, but the volume will remain the same. The ideal Otto cycle is an example of an isochoric process when it is assumed that the burning of the gasoline-air mixture in an internal combustion engine car is instantaneous. There is an increase in the temperature and the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder while the volume remains the same. The noun "isochor" and the adjective "isochoric" are derived from the Greek words ἴσος ("isos") meaning "equal", and χώρα ("khṓra") meaning "space."

An isochoric process, also called a constant-volume process, an isovolumetric process, or an isometric process, is a thermodynamic process during which the volume of the closed system undergoing such a process remains constant. An isochoric process is exemplified by the heating or the cooling of the contents of a sealed, inelastic container: The thermodynamic process is the addition or removal of heat; the isolation of the contents of the container establishes the closed system; and the inability of the container to deform imposes the constant-volume condition. The isochoric process here should be a quasi-static process.

en

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summarize: Isothermal processes can occur in any kind of system that has some means of regulating the temperature, including highly structured machines, and even living cells. Some parts of the cycles of some heat engines are carried out isothermally (for example, in the Carnot cycle). In the thermodynamic analysis of chemical reactions, it is usual to first analyze what happens under isothermal conditions and then consider the effect of temperature. Phase changes, such as melting or evaporation, are also isothermal processes when, as is usually the case, they occur at constant pressure. Isothermal processes are often used and a starting point in analyzing more complex, non-isothermal processes. Isothermal processes are of special interest for ideal gases. This is a consequence of Joule's second law which states that the internal energy of a fixed amount of an ideal gas depends only on its temperature. Thus, in an isothermal process the internal energy of an ideal gas is constant. This is a result of the fact that in an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces. Note that this is true only for ideal gases; the internal energy depends on pressure as well as on temperature for liquids, solids, and real gases. In the isothermal compression of a gas there is work done on the system to decrease the volume and increase the pressure. Doing work on the gas increases the internal energy and will tend to increase the temperature. To maintain the constant temperature energy must leave the system as heat and enter the environment. If the gas is ideal, the amount of energy entering the environment is equal to the work done on the gas, because internal energy does not change. For isothermal expansion, the energy supplied to the system does work on the surroundings. In either case, with the aid of a suitable linkage the change in gas volume can perform useful mechanical work. For details of the calculations, see calculation of work. For an adiabatic process, in which no heat flows into or out of the gas because its container is well insulated, "Q" = 0. If there is also no work done, i.e. a free expansion, there is no change in internal energy. For an ideal gas, this means that the process is also isothermal. Thus, specifying that a process is isothermal is not sufficient to specify a unique process. For the special case of a gas to which Boyle's law applies, the product "pV" is a constant if the gas is kept at isothermal conditions. The value of the constant is "nRT", where "n" is the number of moles of gas present and "R" is the ideal gas constant. In other words, the ideal gas law "pV" = "nRT" applies. Therefore: holds. The family of curves generated by this equation is shown in the graph in Figure 1. Each curve is called an isotherm. Such graphs are termed indicator diagrams and were first used by James Watt and others to monitor the efficiency of engines. The temperature corresponding to each curve in the figure increases from the lower left to the upper right. Log(p1v1) In thermodynamics, the reversible work involved when a gas changes from state "A" to state "B" is For an isothermal, reversible process, this integral equals the area under the relevant pressure-volume isotherm, and is indicated in purple in Figure 2 for an ideal gas. Again, "p" = applies and with "T" being constant (as this is an isothermal process), the expression for work becomes: By convention, work is defined as the work on the system by its surroundings. If, for example, the system is compressed, then the work is positive and the internal energy of the system increases. Conversely, if the system expands, it does work on the surroundings and the internal energy of the system decreases. It is also worth noting that for ideal gases, if the temperature is held constant, the internal energy of the system also is constant, and so Δ"U" = 0. Since the First Law of Thermodynamics states that Δ"U" = "Q" + "W" (IUPAC convention), it follows that "Q" = −"W" for the isothermal compression or expansion of ideal gases. The reversible expansion of an ideal gas can be used as an example of work produced by an isothermal process. Of particular interest is the extent to which heat is converted to usable work, and the relationship between the confining force and the extent of expansion. During isothermal expansion, both and change along an isotherm with a constant product. Consider a working gas in a cylindrical chamber 1 m high and 1 m area at 400 K in static equilibrium. The surroundings consist of air at 300 K and 1 atm pressure (designated as ). The working gas is confined by a piston connected to a mechanical device that exerts a force sufficient to create a pressure of 2 atm (state ). For any change in state that causes a force decrease, the gas will expand and perform work on the surroundings. Isothermal expansion continues as long as the applied force decreases and appropriate heat is added to keep = 2. The expansion is reversible if the piston motion is sufficiently slow such that at each instant the gas temperature and pressure is uniform and conforms to the ideal gas law. Figure 3 shows the relationship for = 2 for isothermal expansion from 2 atm (state ) to 1 atm (state ). The work done (designated formula_8) has two components. First, "expansion" work against the surrounding atmosphere pressure (designated as ), and second, usable "mechanical" work (designated as ). The output here could be movement of the piston used to turn a crank-arm, which would then turn a pulley capable of lifting water out of flooded salt mines. The system attains state ( = 1 atm and = 2 m) when the applied force reaches zero. At that point, formula_8 equals –140.5 kJ, and is –101.3 kJ. By difference, = –39.1 kJ, which is 27.9% of the heat supplied to the process. This is the maximum amount of usable mechanical work obtainable from the process at the stated conditions. The percentage of is a function of and, and approaches 100% as approaches zero. To pursue the nature of isothermal expansion further, note the red line on Figure 3. The fixed value of causes an exponential increase in piston rise vs. pressure decrease. For example, a pressure decrease from 2 to 1.9 atm causes a piston rise of 0.0526 m. In comparison, a pressure decrease from 1.1 to 1 atm causes a piston rise of 0.1818 m. Isothermal processes are especially convenient for calculating changes in entropy since, in this case, the formula for the entropy change, Δ"S", is simply where "Q" is the heat transferred reversibly to the system and "T" is absolute temperature. This formula is valid only for a hypothetical reversible process; that is, a process in which equilibrium is maintained at all times. A simple example is an equilibrium phase transition (such as melting or evaporation) taking place at constant temperature and pressure. For a phase transition at constant pressure, the heat transferred to the system is equal to the enthalpy of transformation, Δ"H", thus "Q" = Δ"H". At any given pressure, there will be a transition temperature, "T", for which the two phases are in equilibrium (for example, the normal boiling point for vaporization of a liquid at one atmosphere pressure). If the transition takes place under such equilibrium conditions, the formula above may be used to directly calculate the entropy change Another example is the reversible isothermal expansion (or compression) of an ideal gas from an initial volume "V" and pressure "P" to a final volume "V" and pressure "P". As shown in Calculation of work, the heat transferred to the gas is This result is for a reversible process, so it may be substituted in the formula for the entropy change to obtain Since an ideal gas obeys Boyle's Law, this can be rewritten, if desired, as Once obtained, these formulas can be applied to an irreversible process, such as the free expansion of an ideal gas. Such an expansion is also isothermal and may have the same initial and final states as in the reversible expansion. Since entropy is a state function, the change in entropy of the system is the same as in the reversible process and is given by the formulas above. Note that the result "Q" = 0 for the free expansion can not be used in the formula for the entropy change since the process is not reversible. The difference between the reversible and free expansions is found in the entropy of the surroundings. In both cases, the surroundings are at a constant temperature, "T", so that Δ"S" = −; the minus sign is used since the heat transferred to the surroundings is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the heat, "Q", transferred to the system. In the reversible case, the change in entropy of the surroundings is equal and opposite to the change in the system, so the change in entropy of the universe is zero. In the free expansion, "Q" = 0, so the entropy of the surroundings does not change and the change in entropy of the universe is equal to ΔS for the system. The adjective "isothermal" is derived from the Greek words ἴσος" ("isos") meaning "equal", and θέρμη ("therme") meaning "heat."

An isothermal process is a change of a "system", in which the temperature remains constant: Δ"T" =0. This typically occurs when a system is in contact with an outside thermal reservoir (heat bath), and the change in the system will occur slowly enough to allow the system to continue to adjust to the temperature of the reservoir through heat exchange. In contrast, an "adiabatic process" is where a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings ("Q" = 0). In other words, in an isothermal process, the value Δ"T" = 0 and therefore the change in internal energy Δ"U" = 0 (only for an ideal gas) but Q ≠ 0, while in an adiabatic process, Δ"T" ≠ 0 but Q = 0.

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summarize: Hrozný was born in Lysá nad Labem, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary. In the town of Kolín he learned Hebrew and Arabic. At the University of Vienna, he studied Akkadian, Aramaic, Ethiopian, Sumerian and Sanskrit, as well as the cuneiform used in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia and Persia. He also studied orientalism at Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1905, following excavations in Palestine, he became Professor at the University of Vienna. In 1906, at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale, about 200 km east of Ankara) a German expedition found the archives of the Hittite kings in cuneiform, but in an unknown language. While on active duty in the Austro-Hungarian army during World War I, Hrozný published in 1917 a description of the language showing that it belonged to the Indo-European family. In 1925 Hrozný led a Czech archaeological team that discovered 1000 cuneiform tablets containing contracts and letters of Assyrian merchants in the Turkish village of Kültepe, and excavated the nearby ancient Hittite city of Kanesh. In 1929, Hrozný founded "Archiv Orientální", which became one of the leading journals for Oriental Studies. Later in his life, he tried to decipher the hieroglyphic script used by the Hittites and scripts used in ancient India and Crete, but failed in his effort. From 1919 to 1952, he was a Professor of cuneiform research and ancient Oriental history at the Charles University in Prague. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia he was made rector of the Charles University, holding that post in 19391940. In that capacity, he helped some students escape arrest during an incident in 1939, stating to the German officer in charge that the Germans had no legal right to pursue students on the independent university's territory. A heart attack in 1944 ended his scientific work. To solve the mystery about the Hittite language, Bedřich Hrozný used two sentences that appeared in a text that reads: nu NINDA-an ezzatteni watar-ma ekutteni. It was known at that time that the ideogram for NINDA meant bread in Sumerian. Hrozný thought that the suffix "-an" was perhaps the Hittite accusative. Then, he assumed that the second word, "ed-/-ezza", had something to do with the bread and assumed that it could be the verb "to eat". The comparison with the Latin "edo", the English "eat" and the German "essen" led to the assumption that NINDA-an ezzatteni means "you will eat bread". In the second sentence, Hrozný was struck by the word "watar" that has similarities to the English "water" and German "Wasser". The last word of the second sentence, "ekutteni", had the stem "eku-", which seemed to resemble the Latin "aqua" (water). So, he translated the second sentence as "you will drink water". Hrozny soon realized that the Hittites were speaking an Indo-European language, making it much easier to decipher and read their cuneiform tablets. Using these insights, Hrozný continued his work and was able to publish the Hittite grammar in 1917.

Bedřich (Friedrich) Hrozný (; May 6, 1879 – December 12, 1952) was a Czech orientalist and linguist. He contributed to the decipherment of the ancient Hittite language, identified it as an Indo-European language and laid the groundwork for the development of Hittitology.

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summarize: Although a century can mean any arbitrary period of 100 years, there are two viewpoints on the nature of standard centuries. One is based on strict construction, while the other is based on popular perspective (general usage). According to the strict construction of the Gregorian calendar, the 1st century AD began with 1 AD and ended with 100 AD, with the same pattern continuing onward. In this model, the "n"-th century started/will start on the year "(100 × n) − 99" and ends in "100 × n". Because of this, a century will only include one year, the centennial year, that starts with the century's number (e.g. 1900 was the last year of the 19th century). In general usage, centuries are built by grouping years based on their shared digits. In this model, the 'n' -th century started/will start on the year "(100 x n) - 100" and ends in "(100 x n) - 1". For example, the 20th century is generally regarded as from 1900 to 1999, inclusive. This is sometimes known as the odometer effect. The astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 systems both contain a year zero, so the first century begins with the year zero, rather than the year one. Informally, years may be referred to in groups based on the hundreds part of the year. In this system, the years 1900–1999 are referred to as the "nineteen hundreds" ("1900s"). Aside from English usage, this system is used in Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Finnish and Hungarian. The Swedish "nittonhundratalet" (or "1900-talet"), Danish "nittenhundredetallet" (or "1900-tallet"), Norwegian "nittenhundretallet" (or " 1900-tallet"), Finnish "tuhatyhdeksänsataaluku" (or "1900-luku") and Hungarian "ezerkilencszázas évek" (or "1900-as évek") refer unambiguously to the years 1900–1999. Italian also has a quite similar alternative naming system but it only expresses the hundreds and omits the word for “thousand”. This system mainly functions from the 11th to the 20th century: Such Italian namings are borrowed in many other languages when referring to the history of Italy. While the century has been commonly used in the West, other cultures and calendars have utilized differently sized groups of years in a similar manner. The Hindu calendar, in particular, summarizes its years into groups of 60, while the Aztec calendar considers groups of 52.

A century is a period of 100 years. Centuries are numbered ordinally in English and many other languages. The word "century" comes from the Latin "centum", meaning "one hundred". "Century" is sometimes abbreviated as c.

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summarize: In European history, the 11th century is regarded as the beginning of the High Middle Ages, an age subsequent to the Early Middle Ages. The century began while the "translatio imperii" of 962 was still somewhat novel and ended in the midst of the Investiture Controversy. It saw the final Christianisation of Scandinavia and the emergence of the Peace and Truce of God movements, the Gregorian Reforms, and the Crusades which revitalised a church and a papacy that had survived tarnished by the tumultuous 10th century. In 1054, the Great Schism rent the church in two, however. In Germany, the century was marked by the ascendancy of the Holy Roman Emperors, who hit their high-water mark under the Salians. In Italy, it opened with the integration of the kingdom into the empire and the royal palace at Pavia was summoned in 1024. By the end of the century, Lombard and Byzantine rule in the Mezzogiorno had been usurped by the Normans and the power of the territorial magnates was being replaced by that of the citizens of the cities in the north. In Britain, it saw the transformation of Scotland into a single, more unified and centralised kingdom and the Norman conquest of England in 1066. The social transformations wrought in these lands brought them into the fuller orbit of European feudal politics. In France, it saw the nadir of the monarchy and the zenith of the great magnates, especially the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, who could thus foster such distinctive contributions of their lands as the pious warrior who conquered Britain, Italy, and the East and the impious peacelover, the troubadour, who crafted out of the European vernacular its first great literary themes. There were also the first figures of the intellectual movement known as Scholasticism, which emphasized dialectic arguments in disputes of Christian theology as well as classical philosophy. In Spain, the century opened with the successes of the last caliphs of Córdoba and ended in the successes of the Almoravids. In between was a period of Christian unification under Navarrese hegemony and success in the Reconquista against the taifa kingdoms that replaced the fallen caliphate. In China, there was a triangular affair of continued war and peace settlements between the Song dynasty, the Tanguts-led Western Xia in the northwest, and the Khitans of the Liao dynasty in the northeast. Meanwhile, opposing political factions evolved at the Song imperial court of Kaifeng. The political reformers at court, called the New Policies Group (新法, Xin Fa), were led by Emperor Shenzong of Song and the Chancellors Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi, while the political conservatives were led by Chancellor Sima Guang and Empress Dowager Gao, regent of the young Emperor Zhezong of Song. Heated political debate and sectarian intrigue followed, while political enemies were often dismissed from the capital to govern frontier regions in the deep south where malaria was known to be very fatal to northern Chinese people (see History of the Song dynasty). This period also represents a high point in classical Chinese science and technology, with figures such as Su Song and Shen Kuo, as well as the age where the matured form of the Chinese pagoda was accomplished in Chinese architecture. In India, the Chola Dynasty reached its height of naval power under leaders such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, dominating southern India (Tamil Nadu), Sri Lanka, and regions of South East Asia. They also sent raids into what is now Thailand. In Japan, the Fujiwara clan dominated central politics by acting as imperial regents, controlling the actions of the Emperor of Japan, who acted merely as a 'puppet monarch' during the Heian period. In the Middle East, the Fatimid Empire of Egypt reached its zenith only to face steep decline, much like the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the century. The Seljuks came to prominence while the Abbasid caliphs held traditional titles without real, tangible authority in state affairs. In Nigeria, formation of city states, kingdoms and empires, including Hausa kingdoms and Borno dynasty in north, Oyo and Benin kingdoms in south. In Korea, the rulers of the Goryeo Kingdom were able to concentrate more central authority into their own hands than in that of the nobles, and were able to fend off two Khitan invasions with their armies.

The 11th century is the period from 1001 to 1100 in accordance with the Julian calendar, and the 1st century of the 2nd millennium.

en

26

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summarize: Around the 9th century the Edo people of what is now southeastern Nigeria developed bronze casts of humans, animals, and legendary creatures. These bronzes, which were used as vessels, amulets, pendants, and sacrificial tools, are among the earliest made bronzes ever found in Nigeria. Most items were part of a burial of a nobleman culture in the northern part of benin empire. Evidence of long distance trade between Benin and Portugal was also discovered through the thousands of glass beads found at Old Cairo at the workshops of Fustat. The development of the Benin Kingdom can be attributed to the proficiency at advanced metallurgy seen in the bronze jewellery crafted by local artisans. The Ghana (Wagadu) Empire (before c. 830 until c. 1235) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali. It is considered the first of the Sahelian Kingdoms, which would exist in some form until the early 20th century. Britain experienced a great influx of Viking peoples in the 9th century as the Viking Age continued from the previous century. The kingdoms of the Heptarchy were gradually conquered by the Danes, who set up Anglo-Saxon puppet rulers in each kingdom. This invasion was achieved by a huge military force known as the Great Heathen Army, which was supposedly led by Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, and Guthrum. This Danish army first arrived in Britain in 865 in East Anglia. After conquering that kingdom, the army proceeded to capture the city of York (Jorvik) and establish the kingdom of Jorvik. The Danes went on to subjugate the kingdom of Northumbria and to take all but the western portion of Mercia. The remaining kingdom of Wessex was the only kingdom of the Heptarchy left. Alfred the Great managed to maintain his kingdom of Wessex and push back the Viking incursions, relieving the neighbouring kingdoms from the threat of the Danes following his famous victory over them at the Battle of Ethandun in 878. Alfred re-established Anglo-Saxon rule over the western half of Mercia, and the Danelaw was established which separated Mercia into halves, the eastern half remaining under the control of the Danes. Ireland was also affected by the Viking expansion across the North Sea. Extensive raids were carried out all along the coast and eventually permanent settlements were established, such as that of Dublin in 841. Particular targets for these raids were the monasteries on the western coast of Ireland, as they provided a rich source for loot. On such raids the Vikings set up impermanent camps, which were called longphorts by the Irish—this period of Viking raids on the coasts of Ireland has been named the longphort phase after these types of settlements. Ireland in the 9th century was organised into an amalgam of small kingdoms, called tuatha. These kingdoms were sometimes grouped together and ruled by a single, provincial ruler. If such a ruler could establish and maintain authority over a portion of these tuatha, he was sometimes granted the title of High King. Scotland also experienced significant Viking incursions during the 9th century. The Vikings established themselves in coastal regions, usually in northern Scotland, and in the northern islands such as Orkney and Shetland. The Viking invasion and settlement in Scotland provided a contributing factor in the collapse of the kingdoms of the Picts, who inhabited most of Scotland at the time. Not only were the Pictish realms either destroyed or severely weakened, the Viking invasion and settlement may have been the reason for the movement of Kenneth MacAlpin, the king of Dál Riata at that time. The kingdom of Dál Riata was located on the western coast of Scotland, and Viking incursions destroyed it after the death of its previous king, Áed mac Boanta in 839, according to the Annals of Ulster. This may have caused the new king, MacAlpin, to move to the east, and conquer the remnants of the Pictish realms. MacAlpin became king of the Picts in 843 and later kings would be titled as the King of Alba or King of Scots.

The 9th century was a period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar. The field of algebra was founded by the Muslim polymath Al-Khwarizmi. The battle between the Abbasid Caliph Al-Ma'mun and Islamic Scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal occurred.

en

44

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summarize: The first electronics appeared in the 19th century, with the introduction of the electric relay in 1835, the telegraph and its Morse code protocol in 1837, the first telephone call in 1876, and the first functional light bulb in 1878. The 19th century was an era of rapidly accelerating scientific discovery and invention, with significant developments in the fields of mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, electricity, and metallurgy that laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to continental Europe, North America and Japan. The Victorian era was notorious for the employment of young children in factories and mines, as well as strict social norms regarding modesty and gender roles. Japan embarked on a program of rapid modernization following the Meiji Restoration, before defeating China, under the Qing Dynasty, in the First Sino-Japanese War. and the understanding of human anatomy and disease prevention took place in the 19th century, and were partly responsible for rapidly accelerating population growth in the western world. Europe's population doubled during the 19th century, from approximately 200 million to more than 400 million. The introduction of railroads provided the first major advancement in land transportation for centuries, changing the way people lived and obtained goods, and fuelling major urbanization movements in countries across the globe. Numerous cities worldwide surpassed populations of a million or more during this century. London became the world's largest city and capital of the British Empire. Its population increased from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. The last remaining undiscovered landmasses of Earth, including vast expanses of interior Africa and Asia, were explored during this century, and with the exception of the extreme zones of the Arctic and Antarctic, accurate and detailed maps of the globe were available by the 1890s. Liberalism became the pre-eminent reform movement in Europe. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain and France stepped up the battle against the Barbary pirates and succeeded in stopping their enslavement of Europeans. The UK's Slavery Abolition Act charged the British Royal Navy with ending the global slave trade. The first colonial empire in the century to abolish slavery was the British, who did so in 1834. America's 13th Amendment following their Civil War abolished slavery there in 1865, and in Brazil slavery was abolished in 1888 (see Abolitionism). Similarly, serfdom was abolished in Russia in 1861. The 19th century was remarkable in the widespread formation of new settlement foundations which were particularly prevalent across North America and Australia, with a significant proportion of the two continents' largest cities being founded at some point in the century. Chicago in the United States and Melbourne in Australia were non-existent in the earliest decades but grew to become the 2nd largest cities in the United States and British Empire respectively by the end of the century. In the 19th century, approximately 70 million people left Europe, with most migrating to the United States. The 19th century also saw the rapid creation, development, and codification of many sports, particularly in Britain and the United States. Association football, rugby union, baseball and many other sports were developed during the 19th century, while the British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world. Also, women's fashion was a very sensitive topic during this time, as women showing their ankles was viewed to be scandalous. It also marks the fall of the Ottoman rule of the Balkans which led to the creation of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Romania as a result of the second Russo-Turkish War, which in itself followed the great Crimean War. The Napoleonic Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1803 to 1815 pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European powers formed into various coalitions, financed and usually led by the United Kingdom. The wars stemmed from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and its resultant conflict. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte gained power in France in 1799. In 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French. In 1805, the French victory over an Austrian-Russian army at the Battle of Austerlitz ended the War of the Third Coalition. As a result of the Treaty of Pressburg, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved. Later efforts were less successful. In the Peninsular War, France unsuccessfully attempted to establish Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain. In 1812, the French invasion of Russia had massive French casualties, and was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. In 1814, after defeat in the War of the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon abdicated and was exiled to Elba. Later that year, he escaped exile and began the Hundred Days before finally being defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean. After Napoleon's defeat, the Congress of Vienna was held to determine new national borders. The Concert of Europe attempted to preserve this settlement was established to preserve these borders, with limited impact. Most countries in Central America and South America obtained independence from colonial overlords during the 19th century. In 1804, Haiti gained independence from France. In Mexico, the Mexican War of Independence was a decade-long conflict that ended in Mexican independence in 1821. Due to the Napoleonic Wars, the royal family of Portugal relocated to Brazil from 1808–1821, leading to Brazil having a separate monarchy from Portugal. The Federal Republic of Central America gained independence from Spain in 1821 and from Mexico in 1823. After several rebellions, by 1841 the federation had dissolved into the independent countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In 1830, the post-colonial nation of Gran Colombia dissolved and the nations of Colombia (including modern-day Panama), Ecuador, and Venezuela took its place. The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation states. The first revolution began in January in Sicily. Revolutions then spread across Europe after a separate revolution began in France in February. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. According to Evans and von Strandmann (2000), some of the major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press, other demands made by the working class, the upsurge of nationalism, and the regrouping of established government forces. The abolitionism movement achieved success in the 19th century. The Atlantic slave trade was abolished in 1808, and by the end of the century, almost every government had banned slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 banned slavery throughout the British Empire, and the Lei Áurea abolished slavery in Brazil in 1888. Abolitionism in the United States continued until the end of the American Civil War. Among others Frederick Douglass, and Harriet Tubman, were two of many American Abolitionists who helped win the fight against slavery. Douglass was an articulate orator and incisive antislavery writer; while Tubman's efforts was by using a network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad. The American Civil War took place from 1861–1865. Eleven southern states seceded from the United States, largely over concerns related to slavery. In 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln issued a preliminary on September 22, 1862 warning that in all states still in rebellion (Confederacy) on January 1, 1863, he would declare their slaves "then, thenceforward, and forever free." The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1865, officially abolished slavery in the entire country. Five days after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, Lincoln was assassinated by actor and Confederate sympathiser John Wilkes Booth. In 1830, Greece became the first country to break away from the Ottoman Empire after the Greek War of Independence. In 1831, the Great Bosnian uprising against Ottoman rule occurred. In 1817, the Principality of Serbia became suzerain from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1867, it passed a Constitution which defined its independence from the Ottoman Empire. In 1876, Bulgarians instigate the April Uprising against Ottoman rule. Following the Russo-Turkish War, the Treaty of Berlin recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. Bulgaria becomes autonomous. The Taiping Rebellion was the bloodiest conflict of the 19th century, leading to the deaths of 20 million people. Its leader, Hong Xiuquan, declared himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ and developed a new Chinese religion known as the God Worshipping Society. After proclaiming the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, the Taiping army conquered a large part of China, capturing Nanjing in 1853. In 1864, after the death of Hong Xiuquan, Qing forces recaptured Nanjing and ended the rebellion. During the Edo period, Japan largely pursued an isolationist foreign policy. In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry threatened the Japanese capital Edo with gunships, demanding that they agree to open trade. This led to the opening of trade relations between Japan and foreign countries, with the policy of Sakoku formally ended in 1854. By 1872, the Japanese government under Emperor Meiji had eliminated the "daimyō" system and established a strong central government. Further reforms included the abolishment of the samurai class, rapid industrialization and modernization of government, closely following European models. In 1862, France gained its first foothold in Southeast Asia, and in 1863 France annexes Cambodia. In Africa, European exploration and technology led to the colonization of almost the entire continent by 1898. New medicines such as quinine and more advanced firearms allowed European nations to conquer native populations. Motivations for the Scramble for Africa included national pride, desire for raw materials, and Christian missionary activity. Britain seized control of Egypt to ensure control of the Suez Canal. France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany also had substantial colonies. The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 attempted to reach agreement on colonial borders in Africa, but disputes continued, both amongst European powers and in resistance by the native population. In 1867, diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley region of South Africa. In 1886, gold was discovered in Transvaal. This led to colonization in Southern Africa by the British and business interests, led by Cecil Rhodes. The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher. Among the most influential ideas of the 19th century were those of Charles Darwin (alongside the independent researches of Alfred Russel Wallace), who in 1859 published the book "The Origin of Species", which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection. Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the germ theory of disease. Following this, Louis Pasteur made the first vaccine against rabies, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry of crystals. In chemistry, Dmitri Mendeleev, following the atomic theory of John Dalton, created the first periodic table of elements. In physics, the experiments, theories and discoveries of Michael Faraday, André-Marie Ampère, James Clerk Maxwell, and their contemporaries led to the creation of electromagnetism as a new branch of science. Thermodynamics led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy was defined. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about: Thomas Alva Edison gave the world a practical everyday lightbulb. Nikola Tesla pioneered the induction motor, high frequency transmission of electricity, and remote control. Other new inventions were electrical telegraphy and the telephone. On the literary front the new century opens with romanticism, a movement that spread throughout Europe in reaction to 18th-century rationalism, and it develops more or less along the lines of the Industrial Revolution, with a design to react against the dramatic changes wrought on nature by the steam engine and the railway. William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge are considered the initiators of the new school in England, while in the continent the German "Sturm und Drang" spreads its influence as far as Italy and Spain. French arts had been hampered by the Napoleonic Wars but subsequently developed rapidly. Modernism began. The Goncourts and Émile Zola in France and Giovanni Verga in Italy produce some of the finest naturalist novels. Italian naturalist novels are especially important in that they give a social map of the new unified Italy to a people that until then had been scarcely aware of its ethnic and cultural diversity. There was a huge literary output during the 19th century. Some of the most famous writers included the Russians Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol, Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov and Fyodor Dostoyevsky; the English Charles Dickens, John Keats, Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Jane Austen; the Scottish Sir Walter Scott; the Irish Oscar Wilde; the Americans Edgar Allan Poe, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Mark Twain; and the French Victor Hugo, Honoré de Balzac, Jules Verne, Alexandre Dumas and Charles Baudelaire. Some American literary writers, poets and novelists were: Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Harriet Ann Jacobs, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Joel Chandler Harris, and Emily Dickinson to name a few. The Realism and Romanticism of the early 19th century gave way to Impressionism and Post-Impressionism in the later half of the century, with Paris being the dominant art capital of the world. In the United States the Hudson River School was prominent. 19th-century painters included: Sonata form matured during the Classical era to become the primary form of instrumental compositions throughout the 19th century. Much of the music from the 19th century was referred to as being in the Romantic style. Many great composers lived through this era such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner. The list includes: The 19th century was host to a variety of religious and philosophical thinkers, including:

The 19th (nineteenth) century was a century that began on January 1, 1801, and ended on December 31, 1900. The 19th century saw large amounts of social change; slavery was abolished, and the First and Second Industrial Revolutions (which also overlap with the 18th and 20th centuries, respectively) led to massive urbanization and much higher levels of productivity, profit and prosperity. The Islamic gunpowder empires were formally dissolved and European imperialism brought much of South Asia, Southeast Asia and almost all of Africa under colonial rule.

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2358, 19879, 3395, 25737, 14713, 4, 678, 2684, 39666, 1916, 47, 70, 14098, 46684, 5, 581, 953, 927, 142642, 2843, 24124, 70, 25545, 166635, 4, 34754, 4, 136, 27044, 41274, 111, 5941, 29681, 4, 106480, 23, 130891, 136, 70, 14098, 46684, 5, 56187, 101740, 4, 132715, 69941, 4, 178663, 136, 5941, 3789, 29681, 3542, 126809, 20271, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 4, 12960, 70, 56101, 145359, 33493, 3674, 70, 25545, 93403, 111, 29681, 6044, 237, 13625, 27853, 47, 5941, 12921, 63920, 111, 70, 8999, 5, 22376, 4, 24793, 25, 7, 54543, 509, 10, 4552, 191125, 28451, 20271, 903, 1733, 4, 237, 24793, 141377, 2363, 142, 8828, 7, 509, 21455, 297, 47, 186, 98881, 10821, 5, 1650, 2843, 16188, 7, 70, 6817, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 79986, 111, 70, 57116, 7, 3129, 12441, 47, 70, 166635, 111, 80380, 4, 104315, 4, 209123, 136, 16554, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 70, 17932, 51211, 31, 9, 42671, 301, 1495, 5550, 4, 3129, 23, 68034, 134629, 70, 6782, 112924, 66, 5550, 5, 581, 113157, 1771, 34210, 3542, 10, 36549, 111, 13036, 79612, 7, 1295, 8719, 363, 47, 543, 1837, 13380, 1916, 70, 92265, 145359, 136, 6863, 756, 3387, 4, 12441, 390, 113157, 87, 4, 26548, 10, 14838, 41039, 26518, 10298, 53, 111, 28811, 14537, 7, 100, 4806, 3934, 67842, 5798, 150, 5256, 4, 82466, 71, 136, 56104, 12441, 390, 70, 14098, 117604, 5, 581, 1631, 7, 78114, 71, 1295, 70, 51, 107, 86918, 71, 167956, 7, 137272, 678, 70, 92265, 135555, 136, 6863, 31805, 660, 79612, 5, 360, 70, 7103, 125458, 111, 70, 92265, 135555, 4, 113157, 80469, 30738, 21647, 297, 14537, 23, 9942, 23, 729, 5046, 5, 360, 543, 7709, 4, 764, 8374, 157272, 66570, 31678, 56, 748, 111, 70, 92265, 5, 360, 543, 8194, 4, 70, 92265, 91375, 53, 645, 142, 66724, 19, 9, 92141, 39209, 187, 1176, 99, 70, 99381, 111, 5489, 720, 89191, 134620, 70, 5550, 111, 70, 198387, 1311, 1799, 1363, 5, 1301, 10, 16750, 111, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 21072, 13593, 4, 70, 152239, 12610, 145359, 509, 26725, 141, 4126, 5, 147466, 79825, 3542, 40715, 65771, 5, 360, 70, 4267, 99076, 320, 5550, 4, 9942, 51, 226534, 7, 126351, 81887, 297, 47, 137633, 33876, 80469, 30738, 237, 18813, 111, 84740, 5, 360, 543, 1530, 4, 70, 92265, 116000, 191, 111, 49002, 1902, 106750, 92265, 63044, 2449, 4, 136, 509, 10, 174548, 6275, 23, 70, 113157, 1771, 34210, 5, 360, 543, 2592, 4, 7103, 8, 88981, 23, 70, 5550, 111, 70, 84247, 927, 1311, 1799, 1363, 4, 113157, 1563, 18601, 3674, 136, 509, 1119, 14, 6259, 47, 540, 402, 5, 147466, 450, 6602, 4, 764, 144281, 71, 1119, 1340, 136, 80723, 70, 49083, 2822, 97292, 8108, 77681, 8035, 8, 88981, 297, 99, 70, 99381, 111, 27646, 47673, 136, 1119, 14, 6259, 47, 12190, 89408, 4, 142, 90695, 23, 70, 25134, 142740, 55609, 5, 24372, 113157, 25, 7, 8, 88981, 4, 70, 77699, 111, 181103, 509, 34658, 47, 83324, 3525, 15889, 132988, 7, 5, 581, 98027, 111, 14713, 81887, 297, 47, 479, 86687, 903, 9615, 19929, 509, 170920, 47, 479, 86687, 6097, 132988, 7, 4, 678, 84046, 24725, 5, 17006, 76726, 23, 15881, 21629, 136, 25134, 21629, 113054, 297, 23, 215131, 1295, 190070, 645, 1484, 6468, 20271, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 5, 360, 543, 7709, 4, 4368, 118, 21647, 297, 23, 215131, 1295, 9942, 5, 360, 82167, 4, 70, 181815, 5550, 111, 213867, 329, 509, 10, 8, 23662, 9, 10617, 79612, 450, 134620, 23, 181815, 23, 215131, 23, 543, 3117, 5, 786, 13, 47, 70, 113157, 1771, 34210, 4, 70, 121678, 14449, 111, 15604, 456, 116292, 297, 47, 30089, 1295, 543, 8318, 132869, 3117, 4, 105207, 47, 30089, 19441, 10, 84797, 185610, 53, 1295, 15604, 5, 581, 18767, 47806, 111, 15881, 21629, 21647, 297, 23, 215131, 1295, 84740, 23, 543, 3117, 136, 1295, 82167, 23, 543, 3742, 5, 24372, 40368, 214267, 17514, 4, 390, 543, 8894, 70, 37846, 1363, 1902, 26725, 141, 4126, 3934, 70, 41371, 76726, 111, 190537, 4, 540, 61356, 4, 191019, 4, 218334, 4, 136, 23047, 92051, 5, 360, 149635, 4, 70, 1305, 9, 22796, 93, 289, 64857, 111, 14091, 74291, 26725, 141, 4126, 136, 70, 24, 5256, 111, 74291, 15, 216561, 5744, 9, 5636, 149674, 247, 167844, 4, 136, 68570, 34739, 6863, 3687, 5, 581, 135555, 7, 111, 129706, 3542, 10, 36549, 111, 68894, 1257, 82463, 1405, 7, 87420, 14713, 23, 129706, 5, 581, 98834, 7, 3542, 85590, 538, 139869, 136, 26697, 23, 31425, 4, 678, 70, 10, 464, 111, 49146, 6496, 70, 10332, 185610, 21533, 45646, 7, 136, 105233, 41371, 64857, 117249, 5, 581, 5117, 98834, 80723, 23, 18982, 23, 63457, 20102, 5, 135555, 7, 7068, 93403, 36880, 14713, 7103, 10, 84797, 98834, 80723, 23, 9942, 23, 22482, 5, 9578, 836, 76726, 3542, 195052, 4, 1284, 678, 110, 60505, 1363, 707, 57476, 1363, 54940, 2363, 107013, 98834, 11, 10484, 5, 129551, 47, 122841, 136, 542, 42233, 5761, 138660, 4, 3060, 111, 70, 13036, 22231, 1916, 120103, 3542, 38134, 21329, 712, 45, 1192, 1814, 1021, 10763, 678, 68894, 133465, 4, 35968, 7, 100, 1286, 105226, 23, 27759, 136, 53397, 15182, 2408, 4, 35968, 7, 100, 147452, 111, 70, 24234, 4, 3789, 35968, 7, 7228, 390, 70, 20697, 18507, 4, 70, 1257, 7102, 429, 111, 15889, 8780, 4, 136, 70, 456, 51588, 214, 111, 170920, 27759, 84616, 5, 581, 10, 40285, 56068, 39, 112664, 69307, 71, 36272, 23, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 5, 581, 142740, 94859, 52350, 509, 10, 40285, 67175, 23, 543, 8318, 4, 136, 390, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 142642, 4, 39555, 11907, 27759, 1902, 4599, 14534, 94859, 1294, 5, 581, 69125, 26976, 62, 40285, 1363, 25515, 111, 543, 9185, 4599, 14534, 94859, 1294, 87420, 70, 56101, 145359, 4, 136, 70, 9335, 3566, 3408, 11, 10, 40285, 67175, 94859, 1294, 23, 30089, 23, 142399, 5, 62, 40285, 56068, 39, 23, 70, 14098, 46684, 136475, 24189, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 15672, 18543, 5550, 5, 2022, 4021, 27060, 120025, 92, 120469, 7, 4, 136, 138459, 126, 1371, 275, 669, 4, 3542, 6626, 111, 5941, 15672, 62, 40285, 56068, 933, 2750, 104902, 19916, 70, 78431, 26548, 94859, 1294, 5, 120469, 7, 509, 142, 88353, 67, 707, 4597, 136, 30041, 29888, 2874, 29505, 26976, 6, 70035, 74, 12960, 1371, 275, 669, 25, 7, 79825, 509, 390, 17368, 10, 33120, 111, 2874, 29505, 26976, 177500, 7, 136, 46002, 18276, 7, 51529, 237, 70, 9626, 64330, 85736, 52562, 5, 581, 15672, 18543, 5550, 34739, 3687, 1295, 153774, 132869, 12424, 5, 96129, 33, 127067, 9022, 117249, 40, 37534, 297, 1295, 70, 14098, 46684, 4, 21334, 538, 645, 50509, 7, 62548, 47, 94859, 1294, 5, 360, 141745, 4, 34202, 58480, 138319, 31089, 71, 70, 241, 669, 25258, 2320, 1250, 60397, 2320, 5, 138319, 31089, 71, 10, 118276, 53, 98, 6088, 24470, 195616, 1631, 592, 450, 23, 756, 117249, 7464, 23, 214267, 1830, 15, 11935, 83252, 11, 2408, 16, 98, 18982, 106, 4, 141745, 4, 764, 2806, 159978, 2363, 94859, 7, 44, 92733, 4, 70, 3956, 2472, 19364, 4, 136, 136993, 4092, 1242, 581, 19669, 42, 8927, 927, 62, 25965, 674, 47, 70, 163965, 4, 12540, 47314, 23, 163140, 4, 51521, 538, 10, 40285, 67175, 94859, 1294, 23, 70, 64194, 23295, 5, 156615, 13312, 7103, 12452, 241, 5, 19824, 613, 18280, 2822, 99, 5659, 31, 97705, 425, 52341, 23923, 4, 118623, 4, 138319, 509, 110938, 27686, 390, 39329, 136, 102668, 21927, 67, 52193, 100231, 56, 4939, 18899, 9248, 58800, 127, 5, 360, 149635, 4, 200955, 100512, 70, 5117, 23295, 47, 36356, 16065, 1295, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 7103, 70, 160600, 5550, 111, 213867, 329, 5, 360, 543, 5016, 4, 70, 32774, 55124, 66, 75, 22876, 214, 26548, 180, 139891, 79986, 74918, 2822, 5, 360, 543, 2489, 4, 70, 109411, 2481, 111, 80380, 100512, 166, 56365, 73, 1295, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 4, 136, 23, 171512, 4, 442, 115081, 10, 163965, 3129, 61924, 71, 6863, 23, 215131, 1295, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 5, 360, 157313, 4, 104315, 1779, 23, 1084, 42118, 70, 7071, 345, 22876, 214, 26548, 180, 139891, 79986, 5, 77168, 214, 70, 51211, 31, 9, 42671, 301, 1495, 5550, 4, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 10271, 125296, 71, 70, 23113, 23, 215131, 111, 70, 109411, 2481, 111, 80380, 4, 209123, 136, 16554, 5, 104315, 24209, 7, 58963, 10821, 5, 581, 24742, 214, 169116, 45486, 509, 70, 59714, 14, 525, 79612, 111, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 4, 105207, 47, 70, 47219, 7, 111, 387, 19879, 3395, 5, 1650, 7, 57724, 4, 34854, 25356, 30871, 5601, 4, 159978, 71, 66570, 70, 27150, 56, 82953, 111, 9716, 46056, 136, 126809, 10, 3525, 76438, 42615, 51529, 237, 70, 3430, 145062, 3767, 26783, 67081, 5, 24372, 502, 164779, 214, 70, 137633, 674, 111, 70, 24742, 214, 179030, 538, 117604, 23, 543, 11703, 4, 70, 24742, 214, 187, 1176, 158, 944, 2822, 10, 21334, 2831, 111, 9098, 4, 3540, 109561, 37226, 91577, 23, 543, 14226, 5, 360, 159992, 4, 7103, 70, 47219, 111, 34854, 25356, 30871, 5601, 4, 2396, 214, 84616, 173915, 987, 297, 37226, 91577, 136, 134620, 70, 214267, 1830, 5, 133698, 70, 241, 246, 14922, 4, 15758, 21334, 538, 237360, 71, 142, 6, 219488, 1419, 110613, 44930, 5, 360, 543, 14226, 4, 14098, 46684, 19295, 53, 3288, 74445, 107, 115136, 313, 5, 165956, 120332, 33, 297, 70, 148926, 10323, 241, 246, 678, 17863, 16070, 7, 4, 35968, 214, 450, 1836, 53520, 47, 9803, 52350, 5, 3293, 12441, 47, 70, 73432, 111, 52350, 91582, 17721, 15758, 136, 110613, 76726, 4, 678, 70, 44930, 111, 22568, 38067, 23113, 538, 134620, 23, 543, 12338, 5, 3311, 170612, 4, 70, 148926, 27759, 1379, 31678, 56, 748, 11204, 658, 1902, 27169, 3674, 70, 44, 14093, 1176, 69376, 58, 5426, 136, 170920, 10, 37515, 9879, 27759, 5, 27766, 9319, 17690, 7, 99201, 70, 63586, 15227, 674, 111, 70, 50438, 8287, 18507, 4, 25545, 25297, 47691, 136, 5744, 47691, 111, 27759, 4, 20903, 538, 25632, 28811, 115774, 5, 360, 195616, 4, 9942, 21647, 297, 6863, 5117, 57616, 16200, 23, 25134, 13, 4438, 14237, 4, 136, 23, 141745, 9942, 42230, 31195, 105228, 5, 360, 36941, 4, 28811, 64222, 1363, 136, 55556, 12441, 47, 70, 46512, 47691, 111, 39555, 70, 64194, 72852, 390, 117752, 5, 2356, 54411, 7, 6044, 237, 569, 85963, 136, 1286, 175961, 11476, 56859, 7, 107003, 28811, 24, 5256, 47, 158, 27227, 24, 4935, 43904, 7, 5, 180252, 7, 100, 70, 38213, 11, 40099, 100, 36941, 99201, 15889, 30310, 4, 104851, 100, 49649, 76319, 4, 136, 14949, 29752, 6635, 103488, 5, 130891, 40, 29367, 6226, 111, 61527, 47, 63284, 6226, 111, 70, 1832, 1255, 73908, 5, 9942, 4, 199458, 4, 15604, 4, 136, 102126, 2843, 1902, 193984, 46512, 3387, 5, 581, 10271, 114732, 111, 166555, 132869, 12951, 81887, 297, 47, 58359, 106689, 98, 190070, 132988, 7, 23, 36941, 4, 1284, 167956, 7, 136475, 4, 15044, 54940, 271, 28811, 14537, 7, 136, 23, 39746, 7154, 390, 70, 24, 4935, 43904, 5, 360, 171512, 4, 879, 15882, 7, 3542, 134053, 23, 70, 8268, 1297, 4293, 10776, 111, 25134, 36941, 5, 360, 145769, 4, 86761, 509, 134053, 23, 11062, 330, 289, 5, 3293, 12441, 47, 46512, 47691, 23, 174715, 36941, 390, 70, 56101, 136, 8063, 33946, 7, 4, 12441, 390, 124532, 141, 97360, 90, 5, 581, 953, 927, 142642, 24124, 70, 127319, 111, 41664, 237, 10, 40124, 74, 70, 13579, 172647, 509, 43780, 297, 23, 543, 9185, 390, 25031, 601, 1106, 19256, 4, 3129, 33662, 91995, 71, 70, 114210, 13579, 111, 15, 84832, 16, 6, 119598, 56, 5, 2022, 4021, 70, 2684, 26794, 80973, 25647, 111, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 3542, 8382, 111, 28166, 131455, 15, 11, 10617, 8752, 70, 41371, 25188, 90, 111, 74733, 13832, 1428, 23706, 8509, 247, 2750, 23, 192888, 91376, 70, 12877, 44, 3957, 119862, 111, 24990, 3387, 830, 3129, 65508, 71, 70, 6528, 111, 28, 137089, 390, 6083, 132216, 5, 116267, 5526, 3551, 10015, 23, 54411, 136, 333, 25443, 3542, 70, 65771, 79825, 47, 23534, 70, 117979, 154453, 111, 70997, 5, 77168, 214, 903, 4, 37405, 3805, 11685, 7228, 70, 5117, 51294, 13, 26548, 96877, 90, 4, 136, 2843, 7228, 5941, 103882, 3387, 23, 70, 44457, 111, 290, 6133, 1294, 4, 26719, 70, 237, 53, 3019, 15123, 111, 224128, 7, 5, 360, 290, 6133, 1294, 4, 170467, 276, 217822, 334, 4, 25632, 70, 34627, 1771, 154453, 111, 4939, 10017, 1507, 4, 75935, 70, 5117, 120164, 23180, 111, 80854, 5, 360, 6, 34053, 27744, 7, 4, 70, 28007, 7, 4, 3790, 10484, 136, 103882, 3387, 111, 11617, 40236, 5636, 4, 51575, 9, 63344, 13, 62, 2676, 10389, 4, 14631, 82366, 7190, 9920, 19256, 4, 136, 2363, 158, 99736, 11, 10484, 12441, 47, 70, 166635, 111, 77556, 155116, 8780, 237, 10, 3525, 32845, 206, 111, 41664, 5, 204611, 242554, 7, 12441, 47, 142, 100094, 111, 80097, 136, 70, 110, 1363, 111, 48302, 509, 61924, 71, 5, 64511, 127308, 7, 26698, 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summarize: A process without transfer of heat or matter to or from a system, so that, is called adiabatic, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated. The assumption that a process is adiabatic is a frequently made simplifying assumption. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system. The assumption of adiabatic isolation is useful and often combined with other such idealizations to calculate a good first approximation of a system's behaviour. For example, according to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium, and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as, where is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume ( ) and is the pressure of the gas. For a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as :, where denotes the change of the system's internal energy, the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and the work done by the system on its surroundings. Naturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced). The transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, no entropy is produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by ). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation. The other extreme kind of work is isochoric work (), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with, as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent. The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased from work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it. Adiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Due to this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds. Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically cooling fluid. (See heat death of the universe.) Rising magma also undergoes adiabatic cooling before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites. In the Earth's convecting mantle (the asthenosphere) beneath the lithosphere, the mantle temperature is approximately an adiabat. The slight decrease in temperature with shallowing depth is due to the decrease in pressure the shallower the material is in the Earth. Such temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes. In practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist. The mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation where is pressure, is volume, and for this case, where For a monatomic ideal gas,, and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air). Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases. For reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that where "T" is an absolute temperature. This can also be written as The compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1 L = 1000 cm = 0.001 m); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with 5 degrees of freedom, and so ); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1 L volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1 L by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27 °C, or 300 K, and a pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure). so our adiabatic constant for this example is about 6.31 Pa m. The gas is now compressed to a 0.1 L (0.0001 m) volume (we will assume this happens quickly enough that no heat can enter or leave the gas through the walls). The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown so solving for "P": or 25.1 bar. Note that this pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the gas temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure. We can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, "PV" = "nRT" ("n" is amount of gas in moles and "R" the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100 kPa of pressure, 1 L volume, and 300 K of temperature, our experimental constant ("nR") is: We know the compressed gas has = 0.1 L and =, so we can solve for temperature: That is a final temperature of 753 K, or 479 °C, or 896 °F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 16:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas temperature, which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel. For an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible. The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero,. Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics, where is the change in the internal energy of the system and is work done "by" the system. Any work () done must be done at the expense of internal energy, since no heat is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work done "by" the system is defined as However, does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with. It is desired to know how the values of and relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas ( recall ideal gas law ) the internal energy is given by where is the number of degrees of freedom divided by two, is the universal gas constant and is the number of moles in the system (a constant). Differentiating equation (3) yields Equation (4) is often expressed as because. Now substitute equations (2) and (4) into equation (1) to obtain factorize : and divide both sides by : After integrating the left and right sides from to and from to and changing the sides respectively, Exponentiate both sides, substitute with, the heat capacity ratio and eliminate the negative sign to obtain Therefore, and Substituting the ideal gas law into the above, we obtain which simplifies to The change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to At the same time, the work done by the pressure–volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to Since we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true By the previous derivation, Rearranging (4) gives Substituting this into (2) gives Integrating we obtain the expression for work, Substituting in second term, Rearranging, Using the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases), By the continuous formula, or Substituting into the previous expression for, Substituting this expression and (1) in (3) gives Simplifying, An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a "P"–"V" diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where "PV" becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important. The right diagram is a "P"–"V" diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms: The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves. The adiabats are isentropic. Volume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis. The term "adiabatic" () is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος "impassable" (used by Xenophon of rivers). It is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866), and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine). The etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall. The Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- ("not") and διαβατός, "passable", in turn deriving from διά ("through"), and βαῖνειν ("to walk, go, come"). The adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work. Energy can enter or leave a thermodynamic system enclosed by walls that prevent mass transfer only as heat or work. Therefore, a quantity of work in such a system can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first limb is an isochoric adiabatic work process increasing the system's internal energy; the second, an isochoric and workless heat transfer returning the system to its original state. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity. In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat", which he later called an adiabatic curve. Besides its two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs. For the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan, by Carathéodory, and by Born. The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis. In the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was not yet fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable but, rather, a variable that describes a transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view. This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word "adiabatic" is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be "adiabatic", though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. Quantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word "adiabatic" in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word "adiabatic" can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines. On the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done "adiabatically". The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes "Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation that is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically." On the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it randomly changes the occupation numbers of the eigenstates, as well as changing their shapes. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be "adiabatic", and the contrary word "diabatic" is applied to it. One might guess that perhaps Clausius, if he were confronted with this, in the now-obsolete language he used in his day, would have said that "internal work" was done and that 'heat was generated though not transferred'. In classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage. Thus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above.

An adiabatic process occurs without transferring heat or mass between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. Unlike an isothermal process, an adiabatic process transfers energy to the surroundings only as work. It also conceptually undergirds the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics and is therefore a key thermodynamic concept.

en

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summarize: In both Ancient and Modern Greek, the letters of the Greek alphabet have fairly stable and consistent symbol-to-sound mappings, making pronunciation of words largely predictable. Ancient Greek spelling was generally near-phonemic. For a number of letters, sound values differ considerably between Ancient and Modern Greek, because their pronunciation has followed a set of systematic phonological shifts that affected the language in its post-classical stages. Among consonant letters, all letters that denoted voiced plosive consonants () and aspirated plosives () in Ancient Greek stand for corresponding fricative sounds in Modern Greek. The correspondences are as follows: Among the vowel symbols, Modern Greek sound values reflect the radical simplification of the vowel system of post-classical Greek, merging multiple formerly distinct vowel phonemes into a much smaller number. This leads to several groups of vowel letters denoting identical sounds today. Modern Greek orthography remains true to the historical spellings in most of these cases. As a consequence, the spellings of words in Modern Greek are often not predictable from the pronunciation alone, while the reverse mapping, from spelling to pronunciation, is usually regular and predictable. The following vowel letters and digraphs are involved in the mergers: Modern Greek speakers typically use the same, modern symbol–sound mappings in reading Greek of all historical stages. In other countries, students of Ancient Greek may use a variety of conventional approximations of the historical sound system in pronouncing Ancient Greek. Several letter combinations have special conventional sound values different from those of their single components. Among them are several digraphs of vowel letters that formerly represented diphthongs but are now monophthongized. In addition to the four mentioned above (), there is also, and, pronounced. The Ancient Greek diphthongs, and are pronounced, and in Modern Greek. In some environments, they are devoiced to, and respectively. The Modern Greek consonant combinations and stand for and (or and ) respectively; stands for and stands for. In addition, both in Ancient and Modern Greek, the letter, before another velar consonant, stands for the velar nasal ; thus and are pronounced like English. In analogy to and, is also used to stand for. There are also the combinations and. In the polytonic orthography traditionally used for ancient Greek, the stressed vowel of each word carries one of three accent marks: either the acute accent (), the grave accent (), or the circumflex accent ( or ). These signs were originally designed to mark different forms of the phonological pitch accent in Ancient Greek. By the time their use became conventional and obligatory in Greek writing, in late antiquity, pitch accent was evolving into a single stress accent, and thus the three signs have not corresponded to a phonological distinction in actual speech ever since. In addition to the accent marks, every word-initial vowel must carry either of two so-called "breathing marks": the rough breathing (), marking an sound at the beginning of a word, or the smooth breathing (), marking its absence. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, also carries a rough breathing in word-initial position. If a rho was geminated within a word, the first always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing (ῤῥ) leading to the transliteration rrh. The vowel letters carry an additional diacritic in certain words, the so-called iota subscript, which has the shape of a small vertical stroke or a miniature below the letter. This iota represents the former offglide of what were originally long diphthongs, (i.e. ), which became monophthongized during antiquity. Another diacritic used in Greek is the diaeresis (), indicating a hiatus. This system of diacritics was first developed by the scholar Aristophanes of Byzantium ( 257 – 185/180 BC), who worked at the Musaeum in Alexandria during the third century BC. Aristophanes of Byzantium also was the first to divide poems into lines, rather than writing them like prose, and also introduced a series of signs for textual criticism. In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute (also known in this context as "tonos", i.e. simply "accent"), marking the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, and occasionally the diaeresis to distinguish diphthongal from digraph readings in pairs of vowel letters, making this monotonic system very similar to the accent mark system used in Spanish. The polytonic system is still conventionally used for writing Ancient Greek, while in some book printing and generally in the usage of conservative writers it can still also be found in use for Modern Greek. Although it is not a diacritic, the comma has a similar function as a silent letter in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing ("ó,ti", "whatever") from ("óti", "that"). There are many different methods of rendering Greek text or Greek names in the Latin script. The form in which classical Greek names are conventionally rendered in English goes back to the way Greek loanwords were incorporated into Latin in antiquity. In this system, is replaced with, the diphthongs and are rendered as and (or ) respectively; and and are simplified to and respectively. Smooth breathing marks are usually ignored and rough breathing marks are usually rendered as the letter. In modern scholarly transliteration of Ancient Greek, will usually be rendered as, and the vowel combinations as respectively. The letters and are generally rendered as and ; as either or ; and word-initial as. Multiple different transcription conventions exist for Modern Greek. These differ widely, depending on their purpose, on how close they stay to the conventional letter correspondences of Ancient Greek-based transcription systems, and to what degree they attempt either an exact letter-by-letter transliteration or rather a phonetically-based transcription. Standardized formal transcription systems have been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (as ISO 843), by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names, by the Library of Congress, and others. During the Mycenaean period, from around the sixteenth century to the twelfth century BC, Linear B was used to write the earliest attested form of the Greek language, known as Mycenaean Greek. This writing system, unrelated to the Greek alphabet, last appeared in the thirteenth century BC. In the late ninth century BC or early eighth century BC, the Greek alphabet emerged. The period between the use of the two writing systems, during which no Greek texts are attested, is known as the Greek Dark Ages. The Greeks adopted the alphabet from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, one of the closely related scripts used for the West Semitic languages, calling it Φοινικήια γράμματα 'Phoenician letters'. However, the Phoenician alphabet is limited to consonants. When it was adopted for writing Greek, certain consonants were adapted to express vowels. The use of both vowels and consonants makes Greek the first alphabet in the narrow sense, as distinguished from the abjads used in Semitic languages, which have letters only for consonants. Greek initially took over all of the 22 letters of Phoenician. Five were reassigned to denote vowel sounds: the glide consonants ("yodh") and ("waw") were used for [i] (Ι, "iota") and [u] (Υ, "upsilon") respectively; the glottal stop consonant ("aleph") was used for [a] (Α, "alpha"); the pharyngeal ("ʿayin") was turned into [o] (Ο, "omicron"); and the letter for ("he") was turned into [e] (Ε, "epsilon"). A doublet of waw was also borrowed as a consonant for [w] (Ϝ, digamma). In addition, the Phoenician letter for the emphatic glottal ("heth") was borrowed in two different functions by different dialects of Greek: as a letter for /h/ (Η, heta) by those dialects that had such a sound, and as an additional vowel letter for the long (Η, eta) by those dialects that lacked the consonant. Eventually, a seventh vowel letter for the long (Ω, omega) was introduced. Greek also introduced three new consonant letters for its aspirated plosive sounds and consonant clusters: Φ ("phi") for, Χ ("chi") for and Ψ ("psi") for. In western Greek variants, Χ was instead used for and Ψ for. The origin of these letters is a matter of some debate. Three of the original Phoenician letters dropped out of use before the alphabet took its classical shape: the letter Ϻ ("san"), which had been in competition with Σ ("sigma") denoting the same phoneme /s/; the letter Ϙ ("qoppa"), which was redundant with Κ ("kappa") for /k/, and Ϝ ("digamma"), whose sound value /w/ dropped out of the spoken language before or during the classical period. Greek was originally written predominantly from right to left, just like Phoenician, but scribes could freely alternate between directions. For a time, a writing style with alternating right-to-left and left-to-right lines (called "boustrophedon", literally "ox-turning", after the manner of an ox ploughing a field) was common, until in the classical period the left-to-right writing direction became the norm. Individual letter shapes were mirrored depending on the writing direction of the current line. There were initially numerous local (epichoric) variants of the Greek alphabet, which differed in the use and non-use of the additional vowel and consonant symbols and several other features. Epichoric alphabets are commonly divided into four major types according to their different treatments of additional consonant letters for the aspirated consonants (/ph, kh/) and consonant clusters (/ks, ps/) of Greek. These four types are often conventionally labelled as "green", "red", "light blue" and "dark blue" types, based on a colour-coded map in a seminal 19th-century work on the topic, "Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets" by Adolf Kirchhoff (1867). The "green" (or southern) type is the most archaic and closest to the Phoenician. The "red" (or western) type is the one that was later transmitted to the West and became the ancestor of the Latin alphabet, and bears some crucial features characteristic of that later development. The "blue" (or eastern) type is the one from which the later standard Greek alphabet emerged. Athens used a local form of the "light blue" alphabet type until the end of the fifth century BC, which lacked the letters Ξ and Ψ as well as the vowel symbols Η and Ω. In the Old Attic alphabet, stood for and for. was used for all three sounds (correspondinɡ to classical respectively), and was used for all of (corresponding to classical respectively). The letter (heta) was used for the consonant. Some variant local letter forms were also characteristic of Athenian writing, some of which were shared with the neighboring (but otherwise "red") alphabet of Euboia: a form of that resembled a Latin "L" () and a form of that resembled a Latin "S" (). <nowiki>*</nowiki>Upsilon is also derived from waw (). The classical twenty-four-letter alphabet that is now used to represent the Greek language was originally the local alphabet of Ionia. By the late fifth century BC, it was commonly used by many Athenians. In 403 BC, at the suggestion of the archon Eucleides, the Athenian Assembly formally abandoned the Old Attic alphabet and adopted the Ionian alphabet as part of the democratic reforms after the overthrow of the Thirty Tyrants. Because of Eucleides's role in suggesting the idea to adopt the Ionian alphabet, the standard twenty-four-letter Greek alphabet is sometimes known as the "Eucleidean alphabet". Roughly thirty years later, the Eucleidean alphabet was adopted in Boeotia and it may have been adopted a few years previously in Macedonia. By the end of the fourth century BC, it had displaced local alphabets across the Greek-speaking world to become the standard form of the Greek alphabet. When the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, they took over not only the letter shapes and sound values, but also the names by which the sequence of the alphabet could be recited and memorized. In Phoenician, each letter name was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus "ʾaleph", the word for "ox", was used as the name for the glottal stop, "bet", or "house", for the sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, "ʾaleph, bet, gimel" became "alpha, beta, gamma". The Greek names of the following letters are more or less straightforward continuations of their Phoenician antecedents. Between Ancient and Modern Greek, they have remained largely unchanged, except that their pronunciation has followed regular sound changes along with other words (for instance, in the name of "beta", ancient /b/ regularly changed to modern /v/, and ancient /ɛː/ to modern /i/, resulting in the modern pronunciation "vita"). The name of lambda is attested in early sources as besides ; in Modern Greek the spelling is often, reflecting pronunciation. Similarly, iota is sometimes spelled in Modern Greek ( is conventionally transcribed word-initially and intervocalically before back vowels and ). In the tables below, the Greek names of all letters are given in their traditional polytonic spelling; in modern practice, like with all other words, they are usually spelled in the simplified monotonic system. In the cases of the three historical sibilant letters below, the correspondence between Phoenician and Ancient Greek is less clear, with apparent mismatches both in letter names and sound values. The early history of these letters (and the fourth sibilant letter, obsolete san) has been a matter of some debate. Here too, the changes in the pronunciation of the letter names between Ancient and Modern Greek are regular. In the following group of consonant letters, the older forms of the names in Ancient Greek were spelled with, indicating an original pronunciation with "-ē". In Modern Greek these names are spelled with. The following group of vowel letters were originally called simply by their sound values as long vowels: ē, ō, ū, and. Their modern names contain adjectival qualifiers that were added during the Byzantine period, to distinguish between letters that had become confusable. Thus, the letters and, pronounced identically by this time, were called "o mikron" ("small o") and "o mega" ("big o") respectively. The letter was called "e psilon" ("plain e") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph, while, similarly,, which at this time was pronounced, was called "y psilon" ("plain y") to distinguish it from the identically pronounced digraph. Some dialects of the Aegean and Cypriot have retained long consonants and pronounce and ; also, has come to be pronounced in Cypriot. Like Latin and other alphabetic scripts, Greek originally had only a single form of each letter, without a distinction between uppercase and lowercase. This distinction is an innovation of the modern era, drawing on different lines of development of the letter shapes in earlier handwriting. The oldest forms of the letters in antiquity are majuscule forms. Besides the upright, straight inscriptional forms (capitals) found in stone carvings or incised pottery, more fluent writing styles adapted for handwriting on soft materials were also developed during antiquity. Such handwriting has been preserved especially from papyrus manuscripts in Egypt since the Hellenistic period. Ancient handwriting developed two distinct styles: uncial writing, with carefully drawn, rounded block letters of about equal size, used as a book hand for carefully produced literary and religious manuscripts, and cursive writing, used for everyday purposes. The cursive forms approached the style of lowercase letter forms, with ascenders and descenders, as well as many connecting lines and ligatures between letters. In the ninth and tenth century, uncial book hands were replaced with a new, more compact writing style, with letter forms partly adapted from the earlier cursive. This minuscule style remained the dominant form of handwritten Greek into the modern era. During the Renaissance, western printers adopted the minuscule letter forms as lowercase printed typefaces, while modelling uppercase letters on the ancient inscriptional forms. The orthographic practice of using the letter case distinction for marking proper names, titles etc. developed in parallel to the practice in Latin and other western languages. The Greek alphabet was the model for various others: The Armenian and Georgian alphabets are almost certainly modeled on the Greek alphabet, but their graphic forms are quite different. Apart from the daughter alphabets listed above, which were adapted from Greek but developed into separate writing systems, the Greek alphabet has also been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages. For some of them, additional letters were introduced. Greek symbols are used as symbols in mathematics, physics and other sciences. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation. Greek letters are used to denote the brighter stars within each of the eighty-eight constellations. In most constellations, the brightest star is designated Alpha and the next brightest Beta etc. For example, the brightest star in the constellation of Centaurus is known as Alpha Centauri. For historical reasons, the Greek designations of some constellations begin with a lower ranked letter. Several Greek letters are used as phonetic symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Several of them denote fricative consonants; the rest stand for variants of vowel sounds. The glyph shapes used for these letters in specialized phonetic fonts is sometimes slightly different from the conventional shapes in Greek typography proper, with glyphs typically being more upright and using serifs, to make them conform more with the typographical character of other, Latin-based letters in the phonetic alphabet. Nevertheless, in the Unicode encoding standard, the following three phonetic symbols are considered the same characters as the corresponding Greek letters proper: On the other hand, the following phonetic letters have Unicode representations separate from their Greek alphabetic use, either because their conventional typographic shape is too different from the original, or because they also have secondary uses as regular alphabetic characters in some Latin-based alphabets, including separate Latin uppercase letters distinct from the Greek ones. The symbol in Americanist phonetic notation for the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is the Greek letter lambda, but in the IPA. The IPA symbol for the palatal lateral approximant is, which looks similar to lambda, but is actually an inverted lowercase "y". Greek letters were also used to write numbers. In the classical Ionian system, the first nine letters of the alphabet stood for the numbers from 1 to 9, the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 10, from 10 to 90, and the next nine letters stood for the multiples of 100, from 100 to 900. For this purpose, in addition to the 24 letters which by that time made up the standard alphabet, three otherwise obsolete letters were retained or revived: digamma for 6, koppa for 90, and a rare Ionian letter for [ss], today called sampi, for 900. This system has remained in use in Greek up to the present day, although today it is only employed for limited purposes such as enumerating chapters in a book, similar to the way Roman numerals are used in English. The three extra symbols are today written as, and respectively. To mark a letter as a numeral sign, a small stroke called "keraia" is added to the right of it. In North America, many college fraternities and sororities are named with combinations of Greek letters, and are hence also known as "Greek letter organizations". This naming tradition was initiated by the foundation of the Phi Beta Kappa Society at the College of William and Mary in 1776. The name of this fraternal organization is an acronym for the ancient Greek phrase Φιλοσοφία Βίου Κυβερνήτης ("Philosophia Biou Kybernētēs"), which means "Love of wisdom, the guide of life" and serves as the organization's motto. Sometimes early fraternal organizations were known by their Greek letter names because the mottos that these names stood for were secret and revealed only to members of the fraternity. The Greek letter names of most fraternal organizations today are meaningless and do not stand for anything, which Caroline Winterer states is "understandable, considering that general knowledge of the ancient Greek alphabet and language has almost entirely vanished." Different chapters within the same fraternity are almost always (with a handful of exceptions) designated using Greek letters as serial numbers. The founding chapter of each respective organization is its A chapter. As an organization expands, it establishes a B chapter, a Γ chapter, and so on and so forth. In an organization that expands to more than 24 chapters, the chapter after Ω chapter is AA chapter, followed by AB chapter, etc. Each of these is still a "chapter Letter", albeit a double-digit letter just as 10 through 99 are double-digit numbers. The Roman alphabet has a similar extended form with such double-digit letters when necessary, but it is used for columns in a table or chart rather than chapters of an organization. Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode. For computer usage, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in. The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports both the monotonic and polytonic orthographies. For the range A0–FF (hex), it follows the Unicode range 370–3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, 1⁄2, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings, it is equal to ASCII for 00–7F (hex). Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. Most current text rendering engines do not render diacritics well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be "represented" as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well:. There are two main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols. This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly, most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block (U+03E2 to U+03EF). To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF). Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language: IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternative interpretation for ß).

The Greek alphabet has been used to write the Greek language since the late ninth or early eighth century BC. It is derived from the earlier Phoenician alphabet, and was the first alphabetic script in history to have distinct letters for vowels as well as consonants. In Archaic and early Classical times, the Greek alphabet existed in many different local variants, but, by the end of the fourth century BC, the Euclidean alphabet, with twenty-four letters, ordered from alpha to omega, had become standard and it is this version that is still used to write Greek today. These twenty-four letters (each in uppercase and lowercase forms) are:,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, /ς,,,,,, and.

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47, 2367, 79385, 1836, 81887, 40101, 142, 24763, 31330, 9, 1272, 9, 63049, 3900, 39798, 2320, 707, 43257, 10, 24089, 18, 71407, 9, 77007, 30334, 59478, 5, 20744, 29367, 23113, 30334, 59478, 76519, 765, 2809, 61924, 71, 390, 70, 8357, 173101, 100, 20744, 47691, 15, 162, 17408, 382, 133029, 4, 390, 70, 14098, 145704, 10760, 111, 70523, 7, 98, 153925, 289, 15757, 7, 4, 390, 70, 103835, 111, 77699, 4, 136, 27060, 5, 133698, 70, 2646, 44881, 5073, 14922, 4, 1295, 10932, 70, 37195, 8927, 927, 142642, 47, 70, 808, 8420, 2480, 127, 142642, 77269, 4, 16777, 147, 335, 509, 11814, 47, 33022, 70, 67896, 150, 525, 243, 525, 297, 3173, 111, 70, 160600, 46876, 4, 51529, 237, 2646, 44881, 5073, 160600, 5, 3293, 32562, 5426, 4, 51, 174822, 47, 70, 160600, 6, 229231, 4, 4568, 118775, 23, 70, 6, 95037, 8927, 927, 142642, 77269, 5, 360, 70, 72399, 14610, 927, 142642, 77269, 707, 39395, 136659, 127, 142642, 77269, 4, 70, 160600, 6, 229231, 74216, 71, 5, 581, 14922, 17721, 70, 4527, 111, 70, 6626, 32562, 76519, 4, 20271, 3129, 110, 160600, 7986, 7, 621, 243, 525, 297, 4, 83, 51529, 237, 70, 160600, 49721, 62, 4188, 5, 581, 160600, 7, 30666, 297, 70, 6, 229231, 1295, 70, 110680, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 6, 229231, 4, 1632, 111, 70, 20903, 538, 62548, 26499, 7, 11814, 100, 70, 10542, 84420, 9523, 46876, 7, 4, 159029, 442, 8956, 8563, 1598, 5463, 9496, 6, 225567, 242, 683, 497, 13, 4158, 66, 120820, 25, 5, 33306, 4, 70, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 6, 229231, 83, 84046, 47, 158, 1681, 10840, 5, 14847, 442, 509, 30666, 297, 100, 32562, 160600, 4, 24233, 158, 1681, 10840, 3542, 39908, 297, 47, 36510, 2244, 8420, 7, 5, 581, 4527, 111, 15044, 2244, 8420, 7, 136, 158, 1681, 10840, 30482, 160600, 70, 5117, 6, 229231, 23, 70, 653, 118201, 10422, 4, 237, 157167, 67175, 1295, 70, 1563, 11315, 7, 11814, 23, 84420, 9523, 46876, 7, 4, 3129, 765, 120820, 4734, 100, 158, 1681, 10840, 5, 160600, 61475, 538, 34739, 645, 756, 111, 70, 1039, 120820, 111, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 5, 156615, 3542, 456, 162, 31304, 297, 47, 8, 48345, 2244, 8420, 102678, 12, 70, 1978, 112, 158, 1681, 10840, 24073, 53, 69812, 18939, 136, 24073, 634, 434, 18939, 3542, 11814, 100, 378, 14, 268, 15, 15471, 4, 44, 846, 102, 18939, 136, 378, 34, 268, 15, 16353, 4, 44, 2037, 172, 4759, 18939, 107013, 538, 74, 70, 16712, 18, 1803, 7279, 158, 1681, 1236, 24073, 1935, 11727, 18939, 509, 11814, 100, 378, 11, 268, 15, 9364, 4, 44, 289, 14612, 58, 3142, 70, 189258, 53, 23023, 289, 24073, 244326, 11, 9298, 18939, 509, 69347, 3934, 378, 31, 268, 15, 10350, 4, 44, 31, 187840, 19, 58, 3142, 136, 70, 31330, 100, 24073, 1106, 18939, 509, 69347, 3934, 378, 13, 268, 15, 7634, 4, 44, 13, 15759, 4759, 51029, 62, 41929, 18, 111, 259, 434, 509, 2843, 3017, 15555, 297, 237, 10, 158, 1681, 1236, 100, 378, 434, 268, 15, 3, 4, 1466, 36557, 194, 360, 66044, 4, 70, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 31330, 100, 70, 352, 14612, 9523, 16712, 18, 1803, 24073, 1448, 127, 18939, 509, 3017, 15555, 297, 23, 6626, 12921, 32354, 7, 390, 12921, 220734, 7, 111, 160600, 12, 237, 10, 31330, 100, 248, 127, 64, 15, 11293, 4, 79877, 16, 390, 8382, 220734, 7, 450, 1902, 6044, 10, 45730, 4, 136, 237, 142, 78301, 2244, 8420, 31330, 100, 70, 4989, 15, 11293, 4, 522, 16, 390, 8382, 220734, 7, 450, 21, 76622, 70, 158, 1681, 1236, 5, 215100, 538, 4, 10, 59671, 927, 2244, 8420, 31330, 100, 70, 4989, 15, 20723, 4, 99245, 16, 509, 65508, 71, 5, 160600, 2843, 65508, 71, 17262, 3525, 158, 1681, 1236, 120820, 100, 6863, 44654, 3674, 17179, 29888, 102678, 136, 158, 1681, 1236, 234737, 7, 12, 8956, 24073, 19379, 18939, 100, 4, 9951, 24073, 1861, 18939, 100, 136, 72611, 24073, 15759, 18939, 100, 5, 360, 171827, 160600, 20117, 7, 4, 9951, 509, 64457, 11814, 100, 136, 72611, 100, 5, 581, 59665, 111, 6097, 120820, 83, 10, 26866, 111, 3060, 29865, 5, 129335, 111, 70, 7311, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 120820, 36069, 20051, 1810, 111, 4527, 8108, 70, 6, 229231, 34739, 6863, 54704, 289, 115700, 12, 70, 31330, 6, 3, 24073, 1462, 74054, 3129, 1902, 2809, 23, 130412, 678, 5127, 24073, 20561, 192, 18939, 8, 157, 1916, 70, 5701, 24089, 282, 248, 7, 64, 74, 70, 31330, 6, 3, 24073, 864, 83672, 74054, 3129, 509, 4842, 35405, 18, 678, 5628, 24073, 161, 7495, 18939, 100, 248, 92, 64, 4, 136, 6, 3, 24073, 4803, 36557, 74054, 124901, 45730, 34292, 248, 434, 64, 36069, 20051, 1810, 111, 70, 113091, 19, 46876, 8108, 707, 20271, 70, 54704, 289, 14922, 5, 160600, 509, 7311, 538, 59121, 156531, 660, 538, 1295, 7108, 47, 25737, 4, 1660, 1884, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 4, 1284, 6, 34601, 7, 5809, 4092, 538, 75939, 13, 17721, 48225, 7, 5, 1326, 10, 1733, 4, 10, 32562, 20623, 678, 75939, 214, 7108, 9, 188, 9, 133, 2480, 136, 25737, 9, 188, 9, 54969, 124519, 15, 85763, 297, 44, 12630, 6639, 20133, 4445, 830, 218500, 44, 17574, 9, 987, 592, 830, 7103, 70, 144996, 111, 142, 36, 425, 6456, 72089, 214, 10, 44457, 16, 509, 39210, 4, 24189, 23, 70, 54704, 289, 14922, 70, 25737, 9, 188, 9, 54969, 32562, 48225, 100512, 70, 22599, 5, 154966, 31330, 115700, 7, 3542, 191551, 297, 8, 96819, 98, 70, 32562, 48225, 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58, 15, 748, 127067, 9022, 16, 10644, 83, 70, 2684, 187, 1436, 1771, 136, 20903, 271, 47, 70, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 5, 581, 44, 2822, 58, 15, 748, 171827, 16, 10644, 83, 70, 1632, 450, 509, 14432, 71872, 3674, 47, 70, 10542, 136, 100512, 70, 6, 60502, 1290, 111, 70, 42845, 6, 229231, 4, 136, 81148, 7, 3060, 106157, 66139, 62816, 48242, 111, 450, 14432, 34754, 5, 581, 44, 143802, 58, 15, 748, 8394, 48850, 16, 10644, 83, 70, 1632, 1295, 3129, 70, 14432, 5570, 160600, 6, 229231, 74216, 71, 5, 94100, 7, 11814, 10, 4000, 3173, 111, 70, 44, 20016, 57571, 58, 6, 229231, 10644, 24189, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 809, 2480, 127, 142642, 77269, 4, 3129, 21, 76622, 70, 120820, 62891, 136, 72611, 237, 5299, 237, 70, 2244, 8420, 26582, 7, 1700, 136, 6, 20723, 5, 360, 70, 25074, 9208, 1771, 6, 229231, 4, 192942, 100, 136, 100, 5, 509, 11814, 100, 756, 17262, 102678, 15, 32399, 18908, 3035, 245778, 47, 54704, 289, 107013, 538, 247, 136, 509, 11814, 100, 756, 111, 15, 32399, 18908, 6238, 47, 54704, 289, 107013, 538, 194, 581, 31330, 15, 1448, 11, 16, 509, 11814, 100, 70, 158, 1681, 1236, 5, 31384, 20117, 4000, 31330, 3173, 7, 3542, 2843, 62816, 48242, 111, 94100, 3378, 32562, 4, 3060, 111, 3129, 3542, 99764, 678, 70, 208244, 214, 15, 8789, 120262, 44, 2822, 18939, 6, 229231, 111, 5177, 837, 399, 12, 10, 3173, 111, 450, 102337, 40099, 71, 10, 42845, 44, 866, 58, 15, 16, 136, 10, 3173, 111, 450, 102337, 40099, 71, 10, 42845, 44, 294, 58, 15, 194, 4426, 157, 13691, 2740, 1639, 42946, 157, 13691, 2740, 53234, 172, 4759, 83, 2843, 16406, 4126, 1295, 259, 434, 15, 194, 581, 54704, 289, 214075, 9, 160018, 9, 63049, 6, 229231, 450, 83, 5036, 11814, 47, 33636, 70, 160600, 46876, 509, 7311, 538, 70, 4000, 6, 229231, 111, 87, 43265, 5, 3311, 70, 72399, 809, 2480, 127, 142642, 77269, 4, 442, 509, 39210, 538, 11814, 390, 5941, 94100, 72004, 5, 360, 1112, 363, 77269, 4, 99, 70, 199015, 111, 70, 187, 81941, 5177, 11030, 17996, 4, 70, 94100, 3378, 151169, 53, 23113, 538, 32997, 297, 70, 25074, 9208, 1771, 6, 229231, 136, 30666, 297, 70, 37859, 3378, 6, 229231, 237, 2831, 111, 70, 139869, 17690, 7, 7103, 70, 645, 927, 15555, 111, 70, 19669, 42, 939, 54114, 10840, 5, 88949, 111, 5177, 11030, 17996, 25, 7, 31486, 23, 42459, 214, 70, 6528, 47, 30666, 70, 37859, 3378, 6, 229231, 4, 70, 5570, 214075, 9, 160018, 9, 63049, 160600, 6, 229231, 83, 68018, 51529, 237, 70, 44, 52283, 11030, 130265, 6, 229231, 740, 627, 72089, 538, 6, 95037, 939, 5369, 14432, 4, 70, 5177, 11030, 130265, 6, 229231, 509, 30666, 297, 23, 2460, 20756, 4526, 136, 442, 1543, 765, 2809, 30666, 297, 10, 10846, 5369, 198395, 23, 217891, 5, 3311, 70, 3564, 111, 70, 22759, 927, 142642, 77269, 4, 442, 1902, 2837, 23935, 71, 4000, 6, 229231, 7, 36880, 70, 160600, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 8999, 47, 24209, 70, 5570, 3173, 111, 70, 160600, 6, 229231, 5, 14847, 70, 160600, 7, 30666, 297, 70, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 6, 229231, 4, 1836, 34739, 645, 959, 4734, 70, 31330, 115700, 7, 136, 45730, 142424, 4, 1284, 2843, 70, 123055, 390, 3129, 70, 40, 944, 3956, 111, 70, 6, 229231, 5809, 186, 24862, 3674, 136, 40765, 29367, 5, 360, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 4, 12638, 31330, 9351, 509, 10, 2565, 450, 80723, 678, 70, 45730, 33636, 297, 390, 450, 31330, 74, 4911, 7, 44, 246691, 1935, 11727, 830, 70, 2565, 100, 44, 17574, 830, 509, 11814, 237, 70, 9351, 100, 70, 16712, 18, 1803, 7279, 4, 44, 4626, 830, 707, 44, 23923, 830, 100, 70, 45730, 4, 136, 221, 98, 5, 14847, 70, 120820, 3542, 30666, 297, 390, 70, 160600, 7, 4, 2684, 111, 70, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 123055, 3542, 76104, 297, 707, 73197, 297, 161549, 47, 11177, 160600, 6, 75189, 25443, 74, 4911, 7, 4, 44, 246691, 1935, 11727, 4, 1600, 4, 41810, 583, 58, 100512, 44, 289, 14612, 4, 51703, 4, 87506, 740, 581, 160600, 123055, 111, 70, 25632, 120820, 621, 1286, 707, 40715, 80560, 2472, 19364, 9454, 5256, 111, 2363, 66084, 13, 4158, 66, 177047, 16037, 5, 6300, 1177, 33, 893, 45964, 136, 18799, 160600, 4, 1836, 765, 47143, 297, 21334, 538, 51, 152028, 71, 4, 40494, 450, 2363, 92217, 1363, 1556, 134629, 20324, 45730, 65572, 33233, 678, 3789, 34153, 15, 2472, 110527, 4, 23, 70, 9351, 111, 44, 59865, 830, 142, 45964, 248, 275, 64, 186085, 98816, 47, 5744, 248, 334, 64, 4, 136, 142, 45964, 248, 171522, 233844, 64, 47, 5744, 248, 14, 64, 4, 16750, 214, 23, 70, 5744, 92217, 1363, 44, 16741, 51029, 581, 9351, 111, 21, 6492, 85, 83, 243, 525, 297, 23, 39395, 97264, 237, 30338, 988, 2819, 23, 18799, 160600, 70, 10010, 2069, 83, 27983, 4, 44961, 214, 92217, 1363, 5, 209683, 538, 4, 17, 6792, 83, 68018, 160093, 297, 23, 18799, 160600, 15, 83, 101805, 25958, 30334, 34601, 71, 2565, 9, 943, 118, 25958, 136, 1940, 965, 6827, 71407, 8108, 4420, 2244, 8420, 7, 136, 6, 194, 360, 70, 23180, 7, 35064, 4, 70, 160600, 123055, 111, 756, 120820, 621, 34475, 23, 2363, 89160, 35874, 188, 6402, 10010, 2069, 74, 23, 5744, 41361, 4, 1884, 678, 756, 3789, 34153, 4, 1836, 621, 56104, 160093, 297, 23, 70, 112892, 1029, 297, 182902, 1771, 5426, 5, 360, 70, 50218, 111, 70, 17262, 186768, 37282, 30614, 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summarize: Tadeáš Hájek was the son of Šimon Hájek (ca. 1485–1551) from an old Prague family. He was ennobled in 1554 by Ferdinand I of Germany, knighted in 1571 by Maximilian II, later made knight of the Holy Roman Empire by Rudolf II. He had three wives, three sons, and one daughter. In 1548–1549, he studied medicine and astronomy in Vienna and graduated in 1550, receiving his Masters ""in artibus"" in 1551. In 1554 he studied medicine in Bologna and went to Milan the same year to listen to lectures by Girolamo Cardano, but he soon returned to Prague, where he became a professor of mathematics at the Charles University of Prague in 1555. He published the "Aphorismi Metoposcopici" in 1561, dealing with divination and diagnosis by interpreting lines on the forehead. He triangulated the area around Prague and co-authored a map of it in 1563; the map is unfortunately lost now. In 1564 he received the Emperor's privilege stating that no astrological prognostication could be printed in Prague before he had seen and approved it. In 1566–1570, he served as an army doctor in Austria and Hungary during the war with the Ottoman Empire. He published his studies of a supernova in the constellation Cassiopeia in 1572. Tadeáš Hájek was in frequent scientific correspondence with the recognized astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) and played an important role in persuading Rudolph II to invite Brahe (and later Kepler) to Prague. His voluminous writings in Latin were mostly concerned with astronomy and many regarded him as the greatest astronomer of his time. Besides his work, Tadeáš Hájek eagerly collected manuscripts, especially those by Copernicus. Throughout his life he also published numerous astrological prognostics in Czech language and that is why he was until recently viewed as an "occultist" rather than a great scientist. He corresponded with John Dee as a result of their common interest in Euclid and geometry. The lunar crater "Hagecius" and the asteroid "1995 Hajek" are named in his honour.

Tadeáš Hájek z Hájku () (1 December 1525 in Prague – 1 September 1600 in Prague), also known as Tadeáš Hájek of Hájek, Thaddaeus Hagecius ab Hayek or Thaddeus Nemicus, was a Czech naturalist, personal physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II and an astronomer in the Kingdom of Bohemia.

en

59

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summarize: To find the molar specific heat capacity of the gas involved, the following equations apply for any general gas that is calorically perfect. The property "γ" is either called the adiabatic index or the heat capacity ratio. Some published sources might use "k" instead of "γ". Molar isochoric specific heat: Molar isobaric specific heat: The values for "γ" are "γ" = for diatomic gases like air and its major components, and "γ" = for monatomic gases like the noble gases. The formulas for specific heats would reduce in these special cases: Monatomic: Diatomic: An isobaric process is shown on a "P"–"V" diagram as a straight horizontal line, connecting the initial and final thermostatic states. If the process moves towards the right, then it is an expansion. If the process moves towards the left, then it is a compression. The motivation for the specific sign conventions of thermodynamics comes from early development of heat engines. When designing a heat engine, the goal is to have the system produce and deliver work output. The source of energy in a heat engine, is a heat input. If the volume compresses (Δ"V" = final volume − initial volume < 0), then "W" < 0. That is, during isobaric compression the gas does negative work, or the environment does positive work. Restated, the environment does positive work on the gas. If the volume expands (Δ"V" = final volume − initial volume > 0), then "W" > 0. That is, during isobaric expansion the gas does positive work, or equivalently, the environment does negative work. Restated, the gas does positive work on the environment. If heat is added to the system, then "Q" > 0. That is, during isobaric expansion/heating, positive heat is added to the gas, or equivalently, the environment receives negative heat. Restated, the gas receives positive heat from the environment. If the system rejects heat, then "Q" < 0. That is, during isobaric compression/cooling, negative heat is added to the gas, or equivalently, the environment receives positive heat. Restated, the environment receives positive heat from the gas. An isochoric process is described by the equation "Q" = Δ"U". It would be convenient to have a similar equation for isobaric processes. Substituting the second equation into the first yields The quantity "U" + "pV" is a state function so that it can be given a name. It is called enthalpy, and is denoted as "H". Therefore, an isobaric process can be more succinctly described as Enthalpy and isochoric specific heat capacity are very useful mathematical constructs, since when analyzing a process in an open system, the situation of zero work occurs when the fluid flows at constant pressure. In an open system, enthalpy is the quantity which is useful to use to keep track of energy content of the fluid. The reversible expansion of an ideal gas can be used as an example of an isobaric process. Of particular interest is the way heat is converted to work when expansion is carried out at different working gas/surrounding gas pressures. In the first process example, a cylindrical chamber 1 m in area encloses 81.2438 mol of an ideal diatomic gas of molecular mass 29 g mol at 300 K. The surrounding gas is at 1 atm and 300 K, and separated from the cylinder gas by a thin piston. For the limiting case of a massless piston, the cylinder gas is also at 1 atm pressure, with an initial volume of 2 m. Heat is added slowly until the gas temperature is uniformly 600 K, after which the gas volume is 4 m and the piston is 2 m above its initial position. If the piston motion is sufficiently slow, the gas pressure at each instant will have practically the same value ("p" = 1 atm) throughout. For a thermally perfect diatomic gas, the molar specific heat capacity at constant pressure ("c") is / or 29.1006 J mol deg. The molar heat capacity at constant volume ("c") is / or 20.7862 J mol deg. The ratio formula_15 of the two heat capacities is 1.4. The heat "Q" required to bring the gas from 300 to 600 K is The increase in internal energy is Therefore, formula_18 Also formula_19, which of course is identical to the difference between Δ"H" and Δ"U". Here, work is entirely consumed by expansion against the surroundings. Of the total heat applied (709.3 kJ), the work performed (202.7 kJ) is about 28.6% of the supplied heat. The second process example is similar to the first, except that the massless piston is replaced by one having a mass of 10,332.2 kg, which doubles the pressure of the cylinder gas to 2 atm. The cylinder gas volume is then 1 m at the initial 300 K temperature. Heat is added slowly until the gas temperature is uniformly 600 K, after which the gas volume is 2 m and the piston is 1 m above its initial position. If the piston motion is sufficiently slow, the gas pressure at each instant will have practically the same value ("p" = 2 atm) throughout. Since enthalpy and internal energy are independent of pressure, As in the first example, about 28.6% of the supplied heat is converted to work. But here, work is applied in two different ways: partly by expanding the surrounding atmosphere and partly by lifting 10,332.2 kg a distance "h" of 1 m. Thus half the work lifts the piston mass (work of gravity, or “useable” work), while the other half expands the surroundings. The results of these two process examples illustrate the difference between the fraction of heat converted to usable work ("mg"Δ"h)" vs. the fraction converted to pressure-volume work done against the surrounding atmosphere. The usable work approaches zero as the working gas pressure approaches that of the surroundings, while maximum usable work is obtained when there is no surrounding gas pressure. The ratio of all work performed to the heat input for ideal isobaric gas expansion is A given quantity (mass "m") of gas in a changing volume produces a change in density "ρ". In this context the ideal gas law is written where "T" is thermodynamic temperature and "M" is molar mass. When R and M are taken as constant, then pressure "P" can stay constant as the density-temperature quadrant undergoes a squeeze mapping. The adjective "isobaric" is derived from the Greek words ἴσος" ("isos") meaning "equal", and βάρος ("baros") meaning "weight."

An Isobaric process is a thermodynamic process in which the pressure stays constant: Δ"P" = 0. The heat transferred to the system does work, but also changes the internal energy of the system. This article uses the physics sign convention for work, where positive work is work done by the system. Using this convention, by the first law of thermodynamics,

en

71

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summarize: The name of the city is derived from the name of the creek Trnava. It comes from the Old Slavic/Slovak word "tŕň" ("thornbush") which characterized the river banks in the region. Many towns in Central Europe have a similar etymology including Trnovo in Slovakia as well as Tarnów (Poland), Tarnow (Germany), Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria), Trnavac (Serbia), and Tyrnavos (Greece) among others. In the Hungarian language, the original name had gradually evolved into "Tyrna" which influenced also later German and Latin forms. When it developed into an important market town, it received the Hungarian name of "Szombathely" ("Sumbot" 1211) referring to the weekly market fairs held on Saturdays (). However, this name was only used by the royal chamber, as is indicated by the adoption of the Slovak name rather than the Hungarian name by German newcomers after the Mongol invasion. The varieties of the name in different languages include ; (from the 14th century onward) and. Permanent settlements on the city's territory are known from the Neolithic period onwards. During the Middle Ages, an important market settlement arose here at the junction of two important roads – from Bohemia to Hungary and from the Mediterranean to Poland. The first written reference to Trnava dates from 1211. In 1238, Trnava was the first town in (present-day) Slovakia to be granted a town charter (civic privileges) by the king. The former agricultural center gradually became a center of manufacture, trade, and crafts. By the early 13th century, the king of Hungary had invited numerous Germans to settle in Trnava; this settlement increased after the Tatar invasion in 1242. At the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, a part of Trnava was enclosed by very long city walls. The original Slovak market settlement and the Germans stayed behind this wall. Trnava was also the place of many important negotiations: Charles I, the king of Hungary, signed here a currency agreement with the Czech King John of Luxemburg in 1327, and King Louis I (who often stayed in the town and died there in 1380) signed a friendship agreement with Emperor Charles IV there in 1360. The temporary German majority in Trnava's population yielded in favour of the Slovaks during the campaigns undertaken by the Czech Hussites in the 15th century. In April 1430, the Hussites penetrated close to the town and defeated the Hungarian army in the Battle of Trnava. However, they suffered heavy losses and withdrew to Moravia. On 24 Jun 1432 a small group of Hussites masked as tradesmen entered the town, overcame the guards in the night and captured the town without a fight. Then, they made Trnava the center of their campaigns in northwestern Kingdom of Hungary from 1432 to 1435. The town, along with the rest of the territory of present-day Slovakia, gained importance after the conquest of most of what is today Hungary by the Ottoman Empire in 1541, when Trnava became the see (1541–1820) of the Archbishopric of Esztergom (before 1541 and after 1820 the see was the town of Esztergom, which was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1543). The cathedrals of the archbishopric were the Saint John the Baptist Cathedral and the Saint Nicholas Cathedral in the town. Many ethnic Hungarians fleeing from the Turks moved to the town after 1541 from present-day Hungary. In the 16th and especially the 17th century, Trnava was an important center of the Counter-Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary (at the time largely identical with the territory of present-day Slovakia and a strip of western Hungary). The Archbishop Nicolas Oláh invited the Jesuits to Trnava in 1561 in order to develop the municipal school system. Subsequently, he had a seminary opened in 1566 and in 1577 Trnava's priest Nicolas Telegdi founded a book-printing house in the town. The first Catholic Bible translation into Hungarian (based on the Latin Vulgate) was also completed in the town by the Jesuit György Káldi who was born there in 1573. The 17th century was also characterized by many anti-Habsburg uprisings in the country – these revolts of Stephen Bocskay, Gabriel Bethlen, George I Rákóczi, and Imre Thököly negatively affected Trnava's life. On 26 December 1704 Francis II Rákóczi's army suffered a decisive defeat against the Imperial Army, led by Sigbert Heister, near Trnava. The Jesuit Trnava University (1635–1777), the only university of the Kingdom of Hungary at that time, was founded by Archbishop Péter Pázmány. Founded to support the Counter-Reformation, Trnava University soon became a center of Slovak education and literature, since most of the teachers, one half of the students and the majority of the town's inhabitants were Slovaks. Pázmány himself was instrumental in promoting the usage of the Slovak language instead of the Czech language and had his work ""Isteni igazságra vezető kalauz"" (Guide to the Truth of God) and several of his sermons translated into Slovak. From the late 18th century Trnava became a center of the literary and artistic Slovak National Revival. The first standard codification of the Slovak language (by the priest Anton Bernolák in 1787) was based on the Slovak dialect used in the region of Trnava. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Richard Guyon's army fought here with an Austrian army on 14 December, in 1848. The importance of the town decreased in the early 19th century, when the university was moved to Buda (today: Eötvös Loránd University) and the see of the archbishopric moved back to Esztergom. It increased however partly again after 1844, when Trnava was connected with Bratislava through the first railway line in the Kingdom of Hungary, which was a horse railway (steam engines were used since 1872). The railway connection launched a modernization of the town, which started with the erection of a big sugar factory, a malt-house and of the Coburgh's factory (later referred to as "Trnavské automobilové závody", i.e. "Trnava Car Factory"). The ("Spolok sv. Vojtecha"), founded in 1870 when the Slovak foundation (Matica slovenská) was prohibited by the Hungarian authorities, kept up the Slovak national conscience at a time of strong Magyarisation in Hungary. In the 19th but mainly in the early 20th century the town grew behind its city walls and a part of the wall was demolished in the 19th century, but most of it is still well-preserved. Until World War II, Trnava was also home to a sizable Jewish minority. Their freedom to move was restricted as early as in 1495 and from 1539 to 1800. After the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, Trnava was one of the most industrialized cities of Slovakia. During World War II, Trnava was liberated on 1 April 1945 by troops of the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front. In 1977, by a decision of Pope Paul VI, Trnava became the see of a separate Slovak archbishopric (although the seat moved to Bratislava in 2008, the city still remains a seat of its own archbishopric). With the establishment of this archbishopric, Slovakia became independent of Hungary again also in terms of church administration for the first time in centuries. After the establishment of Slovakia (1993), Trnava became the capital of the newly created Trnava Region in 1996. The French car manufacturer PSA Peugeot Citroën began construction of a large automobile plant in Trnava in 2003. Trnava lies at an altitude of above sea level and covers an area of. It is located in the Danubian Lowland on the Trnávka river, around north-east of Bratislava, west of Nitra and around from the Czech border. The closest mountain ranges are the Little Carpathians to the west and the Považský Inovec to the north-east of the city. Trnava lies in the north temperate zone and has a continental climate with four distinct seasons. It is characterized by a significant variation between hot summers and cold winters. As early as in the Middle Ages, Trnava was an important centre of Gothic religious and lay architecture – St. Nicolas's Church, St. Helen's Church and several church monastery complexes (Clarist, Franciscan and Dominican) were built in this period. The Renaissance (16th century) added a town tower to Trnava's silhouette. Nicolas Oláh ordered the erection of the Seminary and Archbishop's Palace. Péter Bornemisza and, the leading personalities of the Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary, were active in Trnava for a short time. The town ramparts were rebuilt to a Renaissance fortification as a reaction to the approaching Turkish danger from the south. The 17th century was characterized by the construction of the Paulinian Church that bears badges of Silesian Renaissance. Trnava was gradually redesigned to Baroque. The erection of the St. John the Baptist Church and of the university campus launched a building rush that continued with the reconstruction of the Franciscan and Clarist's complexes. Builders and artists called to build the university also participated in improvements of the burgher architecture. The Holy Trinity Statue and the group of statues of St. Joseph, the Ursulinian and Trinitarian Church and Monastery are of recent construction. The District hospital was built 1824. The building of the theatre started in May 1831 and the first performance was played at Christmas. Both of the Trnava synagogues, historical structures with oriental motifs, date back to the 19th century. The Synagogue Status Quo Ante currently houses the Jána Koniareka art gallery. In 2016, Robert Sajtlava, a local resident, renovated a 19th-century Orthodox Synagogue which was falling into disrepair into a chic, modern cafe named Synagoga Cafe. Critics view the business as an example of exploitative cultural appropriation in the wake of the Holocaust, where the former occupants were sent to concentration camps. Whereas, advocates argue that it reflects respect and nostalgia for Jews in addition to providing a vehicle for at least some preservation of the heritage site. The rise of Trnava is closely related to "Latin Guests", the romance newcomers probably from present-day Belgium (Walloons). In 1238, the expansion of the town was supported by the decree about a free movement to Trnava. In the Middle Ages, "German Guests" played a main role in the social composition of the town and they dominated also in trade and town administration. The decline of the German population and a permanent change of the ethnic composition dates back to the occupation of the town by the Hussite army (1432-1435). Nevertheless, the continuity of the original Slovak population was not interrupted and the Slovaks have intensively tried to achieve representation in the town council. Repeated conflicts between Germans and Slovaks were resolved in 1486 by the king Matthias Corvinus. In this time, the dominant language in the town was already Slovak. A presence of the Jewish community is well documented from the 14th century. The medieval Hungarian population was represented only by several families, more Hungarians settled in town after the Battle of Mohács (1526). The ethnic tension had to be again resolved by the king. The Hungarians were made equal to the Slovaks and the Germans by Ferdinand I, who also ordered parity representation of all three nationalities in the administration (4 April 1551). The estimated size of the population in the 16th century was 2,000-3,000 citizens. At the end of the Middle Ages, the town was inhabited by cca 5,000 people including those living in suburbs behind the city walls. According to the last census from 2001, Trnava had 70,286 inhabitants, while according to the estimate from 2006, Trnava had 68,466 inhabitants with an average age of 37.3 years. In 2018, it had 65,207 inhabitants. Nationality (2001 census): Age: The current government structure has been in place since 1990, and is composed of a mayor ("primátor") and of a city council ("Mestské zastupiteľstvo"), which in turn leads a city board ("Mestská rada") and city commissions ("Komisie mestského zastupiteľstva"). The mayor is the city's top executive officer, elected for a four-year term; the current mayor is Peter Brocka, who is serving his first term and was inaugurated to function on 12 December 2014. The city council is the highest legislative body of the city, represented by 31 councillors, elected to a concurrent term with the mayor's. Since 2002, Trnava is divided into six urban districts, with area and further sub-units in parentheses: However, compared to the present-day total area of 71.53 km, the city used to have a larger area. Its height was in the 1970s, when it annexed villages of Modranka, Biely Kostol and Hrnčiarovce nad Parnou, reaching an area of almost 90 km. The latter two separated in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Trnava is the seat of two universities: University of Trnava (present) with 7,159 students, including 446 doctoral students. and of the University of St. Cyril and Methodius, with 6,833 students. The city's system of primary education consists of nine public schools and one religious primary school with a total of 5,422 pupils enrolled in 2006. Secondary education is represented by four gymnasia with 2,099 students, 7 specialized high schools with 3,212 students, and 6 vocational schools with 3,697 students. The city lies at the crossroads of two roads of international importance; from the Czech Republic to southern Slovakia and from Bratislava to northern Slovakia. The D1 motorway connects the city to Bratislava, Trenčín and Žilina and the R1 expressway connects it to Nitra. A part of a planned bypass is currently under construction. The city also has an important station on the Bratislava–Žilina railway, with two tracks from Sereď and Kúty (near the Czech border) ending in the city. Although there is a small airstrip at the north-eastern edge, the closest international airports are in Bratislava and Vienna. The city also operates a public transport service, currently with 16 lines. Trnava is twinned with:

Trnava (, ;, also known by other alternative names) is a city in western Slovakia, to the north-east of Bratislava, on the Trnávka river. It is the capital of a "kraj" (Trnava Region) and of an "okres" (Trnava District). It is the seat of a Roman Catholic archbishopric (1541–1820 and then again since 1977). The city has a historic center. Because of the many churches within its city walls, Trnava has often been called ""parva Roma"", i.e. "Little Rome", or more recently, the "Slovak Rome".

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summarize: The BIPM specifies twenty prefixes for the International System of Units (SI). Each prefix name has a symbol that is used in combination with the symbols for units of measure. For example, the symbol for "kilo-" is k, and is used to produce km, kg, and kW, which are the SI symbols for kilometre, kilogram, and kilowatt, respectively. Except for the early prefixes of "kilo-", "hecto-", and "deca-", the symbols for the multiplicative prefixes are uppercase letters, and those for the fractional prefixes are lowercase letters. There is a Unicode symbol for micro "μ" for use if the Greek letter "μ" is unavailable. When both are unavailable, the visually similar lowercase Latin letter "u" is commonly used instead. SI unit symbols are never in italics. Prefixes corresponding to an integer power of one thousand are generally preferred. Hence 100 m is preferred over 1 hm (hectometre) or 10 dam (decametres). The prefixes "hecto-", "deca-", "deci-", and "centi-" are commonly used for everyday purposes, and the centimetre (cm) is especially common. However, some modern building codes require that the millimetre be used in preference to the centimetre, because "use of centimetres leads to extensive usage of decimal points and confusion". Prefixes may not be used in combination. This also applies to mass, for which the SI base unit (kilogram) already contains a prefix. For example, milligram (mg) is used instead of microkilogram (μkg). In the arithmetic of measurements having units, the units are treated as multiplicative factors to values. If they have prefixes, all but one of the prefixes must be expanded to their numeric multiplier, except when combining values with identical units. Hence: When powers of units occur, for example, squared or cubed, the multiplicative prefix must be considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation: The use of prefixes can be traced back to the introduction of the metric system in the 1790s, long before the 1960 introduction of the SI. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, whether officially included in the SI or not (e.g., millidynes and milligauss). Metric prefixes may also be used with non-metric units. The choice of prefixes with a given unit is usually dictated by convenience of use. Unit prefixes for amounts that are much larger or smaller than those actually encountered are seldom used. The units kilogram, gram, milligram, microgram, and smaller are commonly used for measurement of mass. However, megagram, gigagram, and larger are rarely used; tonnes (and kilotonnes, megatonnes, etc.) or scientific notation are used instead. Megagram and teragram are occasionally used to disambiguate the metric tonne from other units with the name "ton". The kilogram is the only base unit of the International System of Units that includes a metric prefix. The litre (equal to a cubic decimetre), millilitre (equal to a cubic centimetre), microlitre, and smaller are common. In Europe, the centilitre is often used for packaged products such as wine and the decilitre is used less frequently. Larger volumes are usually denoted in kilolitres, megalitres or gigalitres, or else in cubic metres (1 cubic metre = 1 kilolitre) or cubic kilometres (1 cubic kilometre = 1 teralitre). For scientific purposes, the cubic metre is usually used. The kilometre, metre, centimetre, millimetre, and smaller are common. (However, the decimetre is rarely used.) The micrometre is often referred to by the non-SI term "micron". In some fields, such as chemistry, the ångström (equal to 0.1 nm) historically competed with the nanometre. The femtometre, used mainly in particle physics, is sometimes called a fermi. For large scales, megametre, gigametre, and larger are rarely used. Instead, non-metric units are used, such as the solar radius, astronomical units, light years, and parsecs; the astronomical unit is mentioned in the SI standards as an accepted non-SI unit. Prefixes for the SI standard unit second are most commonly encountered for quantities less than one second. For larger quantities, the system of minutes (60 seconds), hours (60 minutes) and days (24 hours) is accepted for use with the SI and more commonly used. When speaking of spans of time, the length of the day is usually standardized to seconds so as not to create issues with the irregular leap second. Larger multiples of the second such as kiloseconds and megaseconds are occasionally encountered in scientific contexts, but are seldom used in common parlance. For long-scale scientific work, particularly in astronomy, the Julian year or "annum" is a standardized variant of the year, equal to exactly SI seconds (365 days, 6 hours). The unit is so named because it was the average length of a year in the Julian calendar. Long time periods are then expressed by using metric prefixes with the annum, such as megaannum or gigaannum. The SI unit of angle is the radian, but degrees, minutes, and seconds see some scientific use. Official policy also varies from common practice for the degree Celsius (°C). NIST states: "Prefix symbols may be used with the unit symbol °C and prefix names may be used with the unit name "degree Celsius". For example, 12 m°C (12 millidegrees Celsius) is acceptable." In practice, it is more common for prefixes to be used with the kelvin when it is desirable to denote extremely large or small absolute temperatures or temperature differences. Thus, temperatures of star interiors may be given in units of MK (megakelvins), and molecular cooling may be described in mK (millikelvins). In use the joule and kilojoule are common, with larger multiples seen in limited contexts. In addition, the kilowatt hour, a composite unit formed from the kilowatt and hour, is often used for electrical energy; other multiples can be formed by modifying the prefix of watt (e.g. terawatt hour). There exist a number of definitions for the non-SI unit, the calorie. There are gram calories and kilogram calories. One kilogram calorie, which equals one thousand gram calories, often appears capitalized and without a prefix (i.e. "Cal") when referring to "dietary calories" in food. It is common to apply metric prefixes to the gram calorie, but not to the kilogram calorie: thus, 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal. Metric prefixes are widely used outside the system of metric units. Common examples include the megabyte and the decibel. Metric prefixes rarely appear with imperial or US units except in some special cases (e.g., microinch, kilofoot, kilopound). They are also used with other specialized units used in particular fields (e.g., megaelectronvolt, gigaparsec, millibarn). They are also occasionally used with currency units (e.g., gigadollar), mainly by people who are familiar with the prefixes from scientific usage. In astronomy, geology, and paleontology, the year, with symbol a (from the Latin "annus"), is commonly used with metric prefixes: ka, Ma, and Ga. Official policies about the use of SI prefixes with non-SI units vary slightly between the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). For instance, the NIST advises that 'to avoid confusion, prefix symbols (and prefix names) are not used with the time-related unit symbols (names) min (minute), h (hour), d (day); nor with the angle-related symbols (names) ° (degree), ′ (minute), and ′′ (second)', whereas the BIPM adds information about the use of prefixes with the symbol "as" for arcsecond when they state: 'However astronomers use milliarcsecond, which they denote mas, and microarcsecond, μas, which they use as units for measuring very small angles.' When a metric prefix is affixed to a root word, the prefix carries the stress, while the root drops its stress but retains a full vowel in the syllable that is stressed when the root word stands alone. For example, "kilobyte" is, with stress on the first syllable. However, units in common use outside the scientific community may be stressed idiosyncratically. In English-speaking countries, "kilometre" is the most conspicuous example. It is often pronounced, with reduced vowels on both syllables of "metre". This stress is not applied to other multiples or sub-multiples of metre, or to other units prefixed with "kilo-". The prefix "giga" is usually pronounced in English as, with hard ⟨g⟩ as in "get", but sometimes, with soft ⟨g⟩ as in "gin". The LaTeX typesetting system features an "SIunitx" package in which the units of measurement are spelled out, for example, codice_1 formats as "3 THz". Some of the prefixes formerly used in the metric system have fallen into disuse and were not adopted into the SI. The decimal prefix "myria-" (sometimes also written as "myrio-") (ten thousand) as well as the binary prefixes "double-" and "demi-", denoting a factor of 2 and (one half), respectively, were parts of the original metric system adopted by France in 1795. These were not retained when the SI prefixes were internationally adopted by the 11th CGPM conference in 1960. Other metric prefixes used historically include hebdo- (10) and micri- (10). Double prefixes have been used in the past, such as "micromillimetres" or'millimicrons' (now nanometres), "micromicrofarads" (now picofarads), "kilomegatons" (now gigatons), "hectokilometres" (now 100 kilometres) and the derived adjective "hectokilometric" (typically used for qualifying the fuel consumption measures). These are not compatible with the SI. Other obsolete double prefixes included "decimilli-" (10), which was contracted to "dimi-" and standardized in France up to 1961. Although the "yotta-" prefix is large, the field of computer data is likely to approach values reaching or exceeding yottabytes in the future. Thus, various proposals for a prefix beyond "yotta-" have been put forth. In 2010, UC Davis student Austin Sendek started a petition to designate "hella" as the SI prefix for one octillion (short scale; long scale: quadrilliard; 10). The petition gathered over supporters by circulating through Facebook and media coverage. It was also adopted by Google and Wolfram Alpha. A proposal made to the BIPM is ronna (R) for, quecca (Q) for, ronto (r) for and quecto (q) for. In written English, the symbol "K" is often used informally to indicate a multiple of thousand in many contexts. For example, one may talk of a "40K salary" (), or call the Year 2000 problem the "Y2K problem". In these cases, an uppercase K is often used with an implied unit (although it could then be confused with the symbol for the kelvin temperature unit if the context is unclear). This informal postfix is read or spoken as "thousand" or "grand", or just "k". The financial and general news media mostly use m/M, b/B and t/T as abbreviations for million, billion (10) and trillion (10), respectively, for large quantities, typically currency and population. The medical and automotive fields in the United States use the abbreviations "cc" or "ccm" for cubic centimetres. 1 cubic centimetre is equivalent to 1 millilitre. For nearly a century, engineers used the abbreviation "MCM" to designate a "thousand circular mils" in specifying the cross-sectional area of large electrical cables. Since the mid-1990s, "kcmil" has been adopted as the official designation of a thousand circular mils, but the designation "MCM" still remains in wide use. A similar system is used in natural gas sales in the United States: "m" (or "M") for thousands and "mm" (or "MM") for millions of British thermal units or therms, and in the oil industry, where "MMbbl" is the symbol for "millions of barrels". This usage of the capital letter "M" for "thousand" is from Roman numerals, in which "M" means 1000. In some fields of information technology, it has been common to designate non-decimal multiples based on powers of 1024, rather than 1000, for some SI prefixes ("kilo-", "mega-", "giga-"), contrary to the definitions in the International System of Units (SI). This practice was once sanctioned by some industry associations, including JEDEC. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the system of binary prefixes ("kibi-", "mebi-", "gibi-", etc.) for this purpose.

A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or fraction of the unit. While all metric prefixes in common use today are decadic, historically there have been a number of binary metric prefixes as well. Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to the unit symbol. The prefix "kilo-", for example, may be added to "gram" to indicate "multiplication" by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix "milli-", likewise, may be added to "metre" to indicate "division" by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of a metre.

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summarize: The word "polygon" derives from the Greek adjective πολύς ("polús") "much", "many" and γωνία ("gōnía") "corner" or "angle". It has been suggested that γόνυ ("gónu") "knee" may be the origin of "gon". Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides. See the table below. Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity: Euclidean geometry is assumed throughout. Any polygon has as many corners as it has sides. Each corner has several angles. The two most important ones are: In this section, the vertices of the polygon under consideration are taken to be formula_6 in order. For convenience in some formulas, the notation will also be used. If the polygon is non-self-intersecting (that is, simple), the signed area is or, using determinants where formula_9 is the squared distance between formula_10 and formula_11 The signed area depends on the ordering of the vertices and of the orientation of the plane. Commonly, the positive orientation is defined by the (counterclockwise) rotation that maps the positive -axis to the positive -axis. If the vertices are ordered counterclockwise (that is, according to positive orientation), the signed area is positive; otherwise, it is negative. In either case, the area formula is correct in absolute value. This is commonly called the shoelace formula or Surveyor's formula. The area "A" of a simple polygon can also be computed if the lengths of the sides, "a", "a",..., "a" and the exterior angles, "θ", "θ",..., "θ" are known, from: The formula was described by Lopshits in 1963. If the polygon can be drawn on an equally spaced grid such that all its vertices are grid points, Pick's theorem gives a simple formula for the polygon's area based on the numbers of interior and boundary grid points: the former number plus one-half the latter number, minus 1. In every polygon with perimeter "p" and area "A ", the isoperimetric inequality formula_13 holds. For any two simple polygons of equal area, the Bolyai–Gerwien theorem asserts that the first can be cut into polygonal pieces which can be reassembled to form the second polygon. The lengths of the sides of a polygon do not in general determine its area. However, if the polygon is cyclic then the sides "do" determine the area. Of all "n"-gons with given side lengths, the one with the largest area is cyclic. Of all "n"-gons with a given perimeter, the one with the largest area is regular (and therefore cyclic). Many specialized formulas apply to the areas of regular polygons. The area of a regular polygon is given in terms of the radius "r" of its inscribed circle and its perimeter "p" by This radius is also termed its apothem and is often represented as "a". The area of a regular "n"-gon with side "s" inscribed in a unit circle is The area of a regular "n"-gon in terms of the radius "R" of its circumscribed circle and its perimeter "p" is given by The area of a regular "n"-gon inscribed in a unit-radius circle, with side "s" and interior angle formula_17 can also be expressed trigonometrically as The area of a self-intersecting polygon can be defined in two different ways, giving different answers: Using the same convention for vertex coordinates as in the previous section, the coordinates of the centroid of a solid simple polygon are In these formulas, the signed value of area formula_21 must be used. For triangles (), the centroids of the vertices and of the solid shape are the same, but, in general, this is not true for. The centroid of the vertex set of a polygon with vertices has the coordinates The idea of a polygon has been generalized in various ways. Some of the more important include: The word "polygon" comes from Late Latin "polygōnum" (a noun), from Greek πολύγωνον ("polygōnon/polugōnon"), noun use of neuter of πολύγωνος ("polygōnos/polugōnos", the masculine adjective), meaning "many-angled". Individual polygons are named (and sometimes classified) according to the number of sides, combining a Greek-derived numerical prefix with the suffix "-gon", e.g. "pentagon", "dodecagon". The triangle, quadrilateral and nonagon are exceptions. Beyond decagons (10-sided) and dodecagons (12-sided), mathematicians generally use numerical notation, for example 17-gon and 257-gon. Exceptions exist for side counts that are more easily expressed in verbal form (e.g. 20 and 30), or are used by non-mathematicians. Some special polygons also have their own names; for example the regular star pentagon is also known as the pentagram. To construct the name of a polygon with more than 20 and less than 100 edges, combine the prefixes as follows. The "kai" term applies to 13-gons and higher and was used by Kepler, and advocated by John H. Conway for clarity to concatenated prefix numbers in the naming of quasiregular polyhedra. Polygons have been known since ancient times. The regular polygons were known to the ancient Greeks, with the pentagram, a non-convex regular polygon (star polygon), appearing as early as the 7th century B.C. on a krater by Aristophanes, found at Caere and now in the Capitoline Museum. The first known systematic study of non-convex polygons in general was made by Thomas Bradwardine in the 14th century. In 1952, Geoffrey Colin Shephard generalized the idea of polygons to the complex plane, where each real dimension is accompanied by an imaginary one, to create complex polygons. Polygons appear in rock formations, most commonly as the flat facets of crystals, where the angles between the sides depend on the type of mineral from which the crystal is made. Regular hexagons can occur when the cooling of lava forms areas of tightly packed columns of basalt, which may be seen at the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, or at the Devil's Postpile in California. In biology, the surface of the wax honeycomb made by bees is an array of hexagons, and the sides and base of each cell are also polygons. In computer graphics, a polygon is a primitive used in modelling and rendering. They are defined in a database, containing arrays of vertices (the coordinates of the geometrical vertices, as well as other attributes of the polygon, such as color, shading and texture), connectivity information, and materials. Any surface is modelled as a tessellation called polygon mesh. If a square mesh has points (vertices) per side, there are "n" squared squares in the mesh, or 2"n" squared triangles since there are two triangles in a square. There are vertices per triangle. Where "n" is large, this approaches one half. Or, each vertex inside the square mesh connects four edges (lines). The imaging system calls up the structure of polygons needed for the scene to be created from the database. This is transferred to active memory and finally, to the display system (screen, TV monitors etc.) so that the scene can be viewed. During this process, the imaging system renders polygons in correct perspective ready for transmission of the processed data to the display system. Although polygons are two-dimensional, through the system computer they are placed in a visual scene in the correct three-dimensional orientation. In computer graphics and computational geometry, it is often necessary to determine whether a given point "P" = ("x","y") lies inside a simple polygon given by a sequence of line segments. This is called the point in polygon test.

In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed polygonal chain or "polygonal circuit". The solid plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two together, may be called a polygon.

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summarize: The word "sport" comes from the Old French "desport" meaning "leisure", with the oldest definition in English from around 1300 being "anything humans find amusing or entertaining". Other meanings include gambling and events staged for the purpose of gambling; hunting; and games and diversions, including ones that require exercise. Roget's defines the noun sport as an "activity engaged in for relaxation and amusement" with synonyms including diversion and recreation. The singular term "sport" is used in most English dialects to describe the overall concept (e.g. "children taking part in sport"), with "sports" used to describe multiple activities (e.g. "football and rugby are the most popular sports in England"). American English uses "sports" for both terms. The precise definition of what separates a sport from other leisure activities varies between sources. The closest to an international agreement on a definition is provided by SportAccord, which is the association for all the largest international sports federations (including association football, athletics, cycling, tennis, equestrian sports, and more), and is therefore the "de facto" representative of international sport. SportAccord uses the following criteria, determining that a sport should: They also recognise that sport can be primarily physical (such as rugby or athletics), primarily mind (such as chess or Go), predominantly motorised (such as Formula 1 or powerboating), primarily co-ordination (such as billiard sports), or primarily animal-supported (such as equestrian sport). The inclusion of mind sports within sport definitions has not been universally accepted, leading to legal challenges from governing bodies in regards to being denied funding available to sports. Whilst SportAccord recognises a small number of mind sports, it is not open to admitting any further mind sports. There has been an increase in the application of the term "sport" to a wider set of non-physical challenges such as video games, also called esports, especially due to the large scale of participation and organised competition, but these are not widely recognised by mainstream sports organisations. According to Council of Europe, European Sports Charter, article 2.i, Sport' means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels." There are opposing views on the necessity of competition as a defining element of a sport, with almost all professional sports involving competition, and governing bodies requiring competition as a prerequisite of recognition by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) or SportAccord. Other bodies advocate widening the definition of sport to include all physical activity. For instance, the Council of Europe include all forms of physical exercise, including those competed just for fun. In order to widen participation, and reduce the impact of losing on less able participants, there has been an introduction of non-competitive physical activity to traditionally competitive events such as school sports days, although moves like this are often controversial. In competitive events, participants are graded or classified based on their "result" and often divided into groups of comparable performance, (e.g. gender, weight and age). The measurement of the result may be objective or subjective, and corrected with "handicaps" or penalties. In a race, for example, the time to complete the course is an objective measurement. In gymnastics or diving the result is decided by a panel of judges, and therefore subjective. There are many shades of judging between boxing and mixed martial arts, where victory is assigned by judges if neither competitor has lost at the end of the match time. Artifacts and structures suggest sport in China as early as 2000 BC. Gymnastics appears to have been popular in China's ancient past. Monuments to the Pharaohs indicate that a number of sports, including swimming and fishing, were well-developed and regulated several thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt. Other Egyptian sports included javelin throwing, high jump, and wrestling. Ancient Persian sports such as the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh had a close connection to warfare skills. Among other sports that originated in ancient Persia are polo and jousting. A wide range of sports were already established by the time of Ancient Greece and the military culture and the development of sport in Greece influenced one another considerably. Sport became such a prominent part of their culture that the Greeks created the Olympic Games, which in ancient times were held every four years in a small village in the Peloponnesus called Olympia. Sports have been increasingly organised and regulated from the time of the ancient Olympics up to the present century. Industrialisation has brought increased leisure time, letting people attend and follow spectator sports and participate in athletic activities. These trends continued with the advent of mass media and global communication. Professionalism became prevalent, further adding to the increase in sport's popularity, as sports fans followed the exploits of professional athletes – all while enjoying the exercise and competition associated with amateur participation in sports. Since the turn of the 21st century, there has been increasing debate about whether transgender sportspersons should be able to participate in sport events that conform with their post-transition gender identity. Sportsmanship is an attitude that strives for fair play, courtesy toward teammates and opponents, ethical behaviour and integrity, and grace in victory or defeat. Sportsmanship expresses an aspiration or ethos that the activity will be enjoyed for its own sake. The well-known sentiment by sports journalist Grantland Rice, that it's "not that you won or lost but how you played the game", and the modern Olympic creed expressed by its founder Pierre de Coubertin: "The most important thing... is not winning but taking part" are typical expressions of this sentiment. Key principles of sport include that the result should not be predetermined, and that both sides should have equal opportunity to win. Rules are in place to ensure fair play, but participants can break these rules in order to gain advantage. Participants may cheat in order to unfairly increase their chance of winning, or in order to achieve other advantages such as financial gains. The widespread existence of gambling on the results of sports fixtures creates a motivation for match fixing, where a participant or participants deliberately work to ensure a given outcome rather than simply playing to win. The competitive nature of sport encourages some participants to attempt to enhance their performance through the use of medicines, or through other means such as increasing the volume of blood in their bodies through artificial means. All sports recognised by the IOC or SportAccord are required to implement a testing programme, looking for a list of banned drugs, with suspensions or bans being placed on participants who test positive for banned substances. Violence in sports involves crossing the line between fair competition and intentional aggressive violence. Athletes, coaches, fans, and parents sometimes unleash violent behaviour on people or property, in misguided shows of loyalty, dominance, anger, or celebration. Rioting or hooliganism by fans in particular is a problem at some national and international sporting contests. Female participation in sports continues to rise alongside the opportunity for involvement and the value of sports for child development and physical fitness. Despite gains during the last three decades, a gap persists in the enrollment figures between male and female players. Female players account for 39% of the total participation in US interscholastic athletics. Gender balance has been accelerating from a 32% increase in 1973–74 to a 63% increase in 1994–95. Hessel (2000). Youth sport presents children with opportunities for fun, socialisation, forming peer relationships, physical fitness, and athletic scholarships. Activists for education and the war on drugs encourage youth sport as a means to increase educational participation and to fight the illegal drug trade. According to the Center for Injury Research and Policy at Nationwide Children's Hospital, the biggest risk for youth sport is death or serious injury including concussion. These risks come from running, basketball, association football, volleyball, gridiron, gymnastics, and ice hockey. Youth sport in the US is a $15 billion industry including equipment up to private coaching. Disabled sports also adaptive sports or parasports, are sports played by persons with a disability, including physical and intellectual disabilities. As many of these are based on existing sports modified to meet the needs of persons with a disability, they are sometimes referred to as "adapted sports". However, not all disabled sports are adapted; several sports that have been specifically created for persons with a disability have no equivalent in able-bodied sports. The competition element of sport, along with the aesthetic appeal of some sports, result in the popularity of people attending to watch sport being played. This has led to the specific phenomenon of spectator sport. Both amateur and professional sports attract spectators, both in person at the sport venue, and through broadcast media including radio, television and internet broadcast. Both attendance in person and viewing remotely can incur a sometimes substantial charge, such as an entrance ticket, or pay-per-view television broadcast. It is common for popular sports to attract large broadcast audiences, leading to rival broadcasters bidding large amounts of money for the rights to show certain fixtures. The football World Cup attracts a global television audience of hundreds of millions; the 2006 final alone attracted an estimated worldwide audience of well over 700 million and the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final attracted an estimated audience of 135 million in India alone. In the United States, the championship game of the NFL, the Super Bowl, has become one of the most watched television broadcasts of the year. Super Bowl Sunday is a "de facto" national holiday in America; the viewership being so great that in 2015, advertising space was reported as being sold at $4.5m for a 30-second slot. Sport can be undertaken on an amateur, professional or semi-professional basis, depending on whether participants are incentivised for participation (usually through payment of a wage or salary). Amateur participation in sport at lower levels is often called "grassroots sport". The popularity of spectator sport as a recreation for non-participants has led to sport becoming a major business in its own right, and this has incentivised a high paying professional sport culture, where high performing participants are rewarded with pay far in excess of average wages, which can run into millions of dollars. Some sports, or individual competitions within a sport, retain a policy of allowing only amateur sport. The Olympic Games started with a principle of amateur competition with those who practised a sport professionally considered to have an unfair advantage over those who practised it merely as a hobby. From 1971, Olympic athletes were allowed to receive compensation and sponsorship, and from 1986, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, with the exceptions of boxing, and wrestling. Technology plays an important part in modern sport. With it being a necessary part of some sports (such as motorsport), it is used in others to improve performance. Some sports also use it to allow off-field decision making. Sports science is a widespread academic discipline, and can be applied to areas including athlete performance, such as the use of video analysis to fine-tune technique, or to equipment, such as improved running shoes or competitive swimwear. Sports engineering emerged as a discipline in 1998 with an increasing focus not just on materials design but also the use of technology in sport, from analytics and big data to wearable technology. In order to control the impact of technology on fair play, governing bodies frequently have specific rules that are set to control the impact of technical advantage between participants. For example, in 2010, full-body, non-textile swimsuits were banned by FINA, as they were enhancing swimmers' performances. The increase in technology has also allowed many decisions in sports matches to be taken, or reviewed, off-field, with another official using instant replays to make decisions. In some sports, players can now challenge decisions made by officials. In Association football, goal-line technology makes decisions on whether a ball has crossed the goal line or not. The technology is not compulsory, but was used in the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil, and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada, as well as in the Premier League from 2013–14, and the Bundesliga from 2015–16. In the NFL, a referee can ask for a review from the replay booth, or a head coach can issue a challenge to review the play using replays. The final decision rests with the referee. A video referee (commonly known as a Television Match Official or TMO) can also use replays to help decision-making in rugby (both league and union). In international cricket, an umpire can ask the Third umpire for a decision, and the third umpire makes the final decision. Since 2008, a decision review system for players to review decisions has been introduced and used in ICC-run tournaments, and optionally in other matches. Depending on the host broadcaster, a number of different technologies are used during an umpire or player review, including instant replays, Hawk-Eye, Hot Spot and Real Time Snickometer. Hawk-Eye is also used in tennis to challenge umpiring decisions. Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth to positive adult role models and provide positive development opportunities, as well as promote the learning and application of life skills. In recent years the use of sport to reduce crime, as well as to prevent violent extremism and radicalization, has become more widespread, especially as a tool to improve self-esteem, enhance social bonds and provide participants with a feeling of purpose. There is no high-quality evidence that shows the effectiveness of interventions to increase sports participation of the community in sports such as mass media campaigns, educational sessions, and policy changes. There is also no high-quality studies that investigate the effect of such interventions in promoting healthy behavior change in the community. Benito Mussolini used the 1934 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Italy, to showcase Fascist Italy. Adolf Hitler also used the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, and the 1936 Winter Olympics held in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, to promote the Nazi ideology of the superiority of the Aryan race, and inferiority of the Jews and other "undesirables". Germany used the Olympics to give of itself a peaceful image while it was very actively preparing the war. When apartheid was the official policy in South Africa, many sports people, particularly in rugby union, adopted the conscientious approach that they should not appear in competitive sports there. Some feel this was an effective contribution to the eventual demolition of the policy of apartheid, others feel that it may have prolonged and reinforced its worst effects. In the history of Ireland, Gaelic sports were connected with cultural nationalism. Until the mid-20th century a person could have been banned from playing Gaelic football, hurling, or other sports administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) if she/he played or supported Association football, or other games seen to be of British origin. Until recently the GAA continued to ban the playing of football and rugby union at Gaelic venues. This ban, also known as Rule 42, is still enforced, but was modified to allow football and rugby to be played in Croke Park while Lansdowne Road was redeveloped into Aviva Stadium. Until recently, under Rule 21, the GAA also banned members of the British security forces and members of the RUC from playing Gaelic games, but the advent of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 led to the eventual removal of the ban. Nationalism is often evident in the pursuit of sport, or in its reporting: people compete in national teams, or commentators and audiences can adopt a partisan view. On occasion, such tensions can lead to violent confrontation among players or spectators within and beyond the sporting venue, as in the Football War. These trends are seen by many as contrary to the fundamental ethos of sport being carried on for its own sake and for the enjoyment of its participants. Sport and politics collided in the 1972 Olympics in Munich. Masked men entered the hotel of the Israeli Olympic team and killed many of their men. This was known as the Munich massacre. A study of US elections has shown that the result of sports events can affect the results. A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences showed that when the home team wins the game before the election, the incumbent candidates can increase their share of the vote by 1.5 percent. A loss had the opposite effect, and the effect is greater for higher-profile teams or unexpected wins and losses. Also, when Washington Redskins win their final game before an election, then the incumbent President is more likely to win, and if the Redskins lose, then the opposition candidate is more likely to win; this has become known as the Redskins Rule. Étienne de La Boétie, in his essay "Discourse on Voluntary Servitude" describes athletic spectacles as means for tyrants to control their subjects by distracting them. Do not imagine that there is any bird more easily caught by decoy, nor any fish sooner fixed on the hook by wormy bait, than are all these poor fools neatly tricked into servitude by the slightest feather passed, so to speak, before their mouths. Truly it is a marvelous thing that they let themselves be caught so quickly at the slightest tickling of their fancy. Plays, farces, spectacles, gladiators, strange beasts, medals, pictures, and other such opiates, these were for ancient peoples the bait toward slavery, the price of their liberty, the instruments of tyranny. By these practices and enticements the ancient dictators so successfully lulled their subjects under the yoke, that the stupefied peoples, fascinated by the pastimes and vain pleasures flashed before their eyes, learned subservience as naïvely, but not so creditably, as little children learn to read by looking at bright picture books. Sport was an important form of worship in Ancient Greek religion. The ancient Olympic Games, called the Olympiad, were held in honour of the head deity, Zeus, and featured various forms of religious dedication to him and other gods. As many Greeks travelled to see the games, this combination of religion and sport also served as a way of uniting them. The practice of athletic competitions has been criticised by some Christian thinkers as a form of idolatry, in which "human beings extol themselves, adore themselves, sacrifice themselves and reward themselves." Sports are seen by these critics as a manifestation of "collective pride" and "national self-deification" in which feats of human power are idolized at the expense of divine worship. Tertullian condemns the athletic performances of his day, insisting "the entire apparatus of the shows is based upon idolatry." The shows, says Tertullian, excite passions foreign to the calm temperament cultivated by the Christian: God has enjoined us to deal calmly, gently, quietly, and peacefully with the Holy Spirit, because these things are alone in keeping with the goodness of His nature, with His tenderness and sensitiveness.... Well, how shall this be made to accord with the shows? For the show always leads to spiritual agitation, since where there is pleasure, there is keenness of feeling giving pleasure its zest; and where there is keenness of feeling, there is rivalry giving in turn its zest to that. Then, too, where you have rivalry, you have rage, bitterness, wrath and grief, with all bad things which flow from them – the whole entirely out of keeping with the religion of Christ. Popularity in 2018 of major sports by size of fan base: Related topics

Sport includes all forms of competitive physical activity or games which, through casual or organized participation, at least in part aim to use, maintain or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants, and in some cases, entertainment for spectators. Sports can bring positive results to one's physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a "match") is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a "tie" or "draw", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs.

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summarize: In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was ("Athênai", in Classical Attic) a plural. In earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as ("Athḗnē"). It was possibly rendered in the plural later on, like those of ("Thêbai") and ("Μukênai"). The root of the word is probably not of Greek or Indo-European origin, and is possibly a remnant of the Pre-Greek substrate of Attica. In antiquity, it was debated whether Athens took its name from its patron goddess Athena (Attic, "Athēnâ", Ionic, "Athḗnē", and Doric, "Athā́nā") or Athena took her name from the city. Modern scholars now generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city, because the ending -"ene" is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. During the medieval period, the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as. However, after the establishment of the modern Greek state, and partly due to the conservatism of the written language, became again the official name of the city and remained so until the abandonment of Katharevousa in the 1970s, when Ἀθήνα, "Athína", became the official name. According The oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist, which has been dated to between the 11th and 7th millennia BC. Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 5,000 years. By 1400 BC the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress, whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls. Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were pure Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years afterwards. Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region. The leading position of Athens may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta. By the 6th century BC, widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon. These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in 508 BC. Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet, and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule. In the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars Athens, together with Sparta, led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians, defeating them decisively at Marathon in 490 BC, and crucially at Salamis in 480 BC. However, this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year, after a heroic but ultimately failed resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians. The decades that followed became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy, during which time Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece, with its cultural achievements laying the foundations for Western civilization. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished in Athens during this time, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates. Athens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the Athens Basin or the Attica Basin (). The basin is bounded by four large mountains: Mount Aigaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Pentelicus to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east. Beyond Mount Aegaleo lies the Thriasian plain, which forms an extension of the central plain to the west. The Saronic Gulf lies to the southwest. Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains (), and has been declared a national park. Athens is built around a number of hills. Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin. The meteorology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon which, along with the Greek Government's difficulties controlling industrial pollution, was responsible for the air pollution problems the city has faced. This issue is not unique to Athens; for instance, Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer from similar atmospheric inversion problems. The Cephissus river, the Ilisos and the Eridanos stream are the historical rivers of Athens. By the late 1970s, the pollution of Athens had become so destructive that according to the then Greek Minister of Culture, Constantine Trypanis, "...the carved details on the five the caryatids of the Erechtheum had seriously degenerated, while the face of the horseman on the Parthenon's west side was all but obliterated." A series of measures taken by the authorities of the city throughout the 1990s resulted in the improvement of air quality; the appearance of smog (or "nefos" as the Athenians used to call it) has become less common. Measures taken by the Greek authorities throughout the 1990s have improved the quality of air Athens ranks in the lowest percentage for the risk on frequency and severity of terrorist attacks according to the EU Global Terrorism Database (EIU 2007-2016 calculations). The city also ranked 35th in Digital Security, 21st on Health Security, 29th on Infrastructure Security and 41st on Personal Security globally Athens has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: "Csa"). The dominant feature of Athens' climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild winters with moderate rainfall. With an average of of yearly precipitation, rainfall occurs largely between the months of October and April. July and August are the driest months when thunderstorms occur sparsely. Furthermore, some coastal areas of Athens, known as the Athens Riviera have a hot semi-arid climate ("BSh") according to the climate atlas published by the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (H.N.M.S). Owing to the rain shadow of the Pindus Mountains, annual precipitation of Athens is lower than most other parts of Greece, especially western Greece. As an example, Ioannina receives around per year, and Agrinio around per year. Daily average highs for July The Municipality of Athens, the City Centre of the Athens Urban Area, is divided into several districts: Omonoia, Syntagma, Exarcheia, Agios Nikolaos, Neapolis, Lykavittos, Lofos Strefi, Lofos Finopoulou, Lofos Filopappou, Pedion Areos, Metaxourgeio, Aghios Kostantinos, Larissa Station, Kerameikos, Psiri, Monastiraki, Gazi, Thission, Kapnikarea, Aghia Irini, Aerides, Anafiotika, Plaka, Acropolis, Pnyka, Parnitha National Park is punctuated by well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves dotting the protected area. Hiking and mountain-biking in all four mountains are popular outdoor activities for residents of the city. The National Garden of Athens was completed in 1840 and is a green refuge of 15.5 hectares in the centre of the Greek capital. It is to be found between the Parliament and Zappeion buildings, the latter of which maintains its own garden of seven hectares. Parts of the City Centre have been redeveloped under a masterplan called the "Unification of Archeological Sites of Athens", which has also gathered funding from the EU to help enhance the project. The landmark Dionysiou Areopagitou Street has been pedestrianised, The Athens Metropolitan Area consists of 58 densely populated municipalities, sprawling around the Municipality of Athens (the City Centre) in virtually all directions. For the Athenians, all the urban municipalities surrounding the City Centre are called suburbs. According to their geographic location in relation to the City of Athens, the suburbs are divided into four zones; the northern suburbs (including Agios Stefanos, Dionysos, Ekali, Nea Erythraia, Kifissia, Kryoneri, Maroussi, Pefki, Lykovrysi, Metamorfosi, Nea Ionia, Nea Filadelfeia, Irakleio, Vrilissia, Melissia, Penteli, Chalandri, Agia Paraskevi, Gerakas, Pallini, Galatsi, Psychiko and Filothei); the southern suburbs (including Alimos, Nea Smyrni, Moschato, Tavros, Agios Ioannis Rentis, Kallithea, Piraeus, Agios Dimitrios, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Lagonisi, Saronida, Argyroupoli, Ilioupoli, Varkiza, Voula, Vari and Vouliagmeni); the eastern suburbs (including Zografou, Dafni, Vyronas, Kaisariani, Cholargos and Papagou); and the western suburbs (including Peristeri, Ilion, Egaleo, Koridallos, Agia Varvara, Keratsini, Perama, Nikaia, Drapetsona, Chaidari, Petroupoli, Agioi Anargyroi, Ano Liosia, Aspropyrgos, Eleusina, Acharnes and The large City Centre () of the Greek capital falls directly within the Municipality of Athens or Athens Municipality ()—also City of Athens. Athens Municipality is the largest in population size in Greece. Piraeus also forms a significant city centre on its own, within the Athens Urban Area and it is the second largest in population size within it, with Peristeri, Kallithea and Kypseli following. The Athens Urban Area (), also known as Urban Area of the Capital (), today consists of 40 municipalities, 35 of which make up what is referred to as the Greater Athens municipalities, located within 4 regional units (North Athens, West Athens, Central Athens, South Athens); and a further 5, which make up the Greater Piraeus municipalities, located within the regional unit of Piraeus as mentioned above. The densely built up urban area of the Greek capital sprawls across throughout the Attica Basin and has a total population of 3,074,160 (in 2011). The Athens Municipality forms the core and center of Greater Athens, which in its The Athens Metropolitan Area (), also commonly known in English as Greater Athens, spans within the Attica region and includes a total of 58 municipalities, which are organized in seven regional units (those outlined above, along with East The Municipality of Athens has an official population of 664,046 people. The four regional units that make up what is referred to as Greater Athens have a combined population of 2,640,701. They together with the regional unit of Piraeus (Greater Piraeus) make up the dense Athens Urban Area which reaches a total population of 3,090,508 inhabitants (in 2011). As Eurostat the FUA of Athens had in 2013 3,828,434 inhabitants, being apparently decreasing compared with the pre-economic crisis date of 2009 (4,164,175) The Athens Metropolitan Area, with an area of and inhabited by 3,753,783 people in 2011, consists of the Athens Urban Area with the addition of the Mycenean Athens in 1600–1100 BC could have reached the size of Tiryns; that would put the population at the range of 10,000–15,000. During the Greek Dark Ages the population of Athens was around 4,000 people. In 700 BC the population grew to 10,000. In 500 BC the area probably contained 200,000 people. During the classical period the city's population is estimated from 150,000–350,000 and up to 610,000 according to Thucydides. When Demetrius of Phalerum conducted a population census in 317 BC the population was 21,000 free citizens, plus 10,000 resident aliens and 400,000 slaves. This suggests a total population of 431,000. This figure is highly suspect because of the lopsided number of slaves and does not include free women and children and resident foreigners: an estimated based on Thucydides is: 40,000 male citizens, 100,000 family members, 70,000 metics (resident foreigners) and 150,000-400,000 slaves. However the numbers would include all of Athenian territory which consisted Athens became the capital of Greece in 1834, following Nafplion, which was the provisional capital from 1829. The municipality (City) of Athens is also the capital of the Attica region. The term "Athens" can refer either to the Municipality of Athens, to Greater Athens, or to the entire Athens Urban Area. Athens is twinned with: Athens is the financial capital of Greece. According to data from 2014, Athens as a metropolitan economic area produced 130 billion US-dollars as GDP in PPP, which consists nearly a half of the production for the whole country. In the list with the strongest economic metropoles of the world Athens was ranked that year 102nd, while the GDP per capita for the same year was 32,000 US-dollars. Athens is one of the major economic centres in south-eastern Europe and is considered as a regional economic power in Europe generally. The port of Piraeus, where big investments by COSCO have already been delivered during the recent decade, the completion of the new Cargo Centre in Thriasion, the expansion of the Athens Metro and the Athens Tram, as well as the projected metropolitan park in Elliniko and other economic projects are the economic landmarks of the upcoming years. Important Greek companies such as Hellenic Aerospace Industry, Mytilineos Holdings, Titan Cement, Hellenic Petroleum, Papadopoulos E.J., Folli Follie, Jumbo S.A., OPAP, and COSMOTE have their headquarters in the metropolitan area of Athens. Multinational companies such as Ericsson, Sony, Siemens, Motorola, Samsung, Microsoft, Novartis, Mondelez, Coca-Cola, etc. have their regional research and development headquarters also there. The banking sector is represented by National Bank of Greece, Alpha Bank, Eurobank, and Piraeus Bank, while the Bank of Greece is also situated in the City Centre. The Athens Stock Exchange, the only in Greece, has been severely hit by the Greek government-debt crisis and the decision of the government to proceed into capital controls during summer 2015. As a whole the economy of Athens and Greece has been severely hit with today's data showing a change from long recession to growth of 1.4% in 2017. Tourism is also a great contributor for the economy of the city, which is considered as one of the top destinations in Europe for city-break tourism and is also the gateway for excursions to the islands or the mainland. Greece attracted 26.5 million visitors in 2015, 30.1 million visitors in 2017 and over 33 million in 2018, making Greece one of the most visited countries in Europe and the world, and contributing 18% to the nation's Gross Domestic Product. Athens welcomed more than 5 million tourists in 2018 and 1,4 million of them were "city-breakers" (in 2013 the city-breakers were only 220.000). Athens is serviced by a variety of transportation means, forming the largest mass transit system of Greece. The Athens Mass Transit System consists of a large bus fleet, a trolleybus fleet that mainly serves Athens's city center, the city's Metro, a Proastiakos service and a tram network, connecting the southern suburbs to the City Centre. OSY () (Odikes Sygkoinonies S.A.) which is subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation), is the main operator of buses and trolleybusses in Athens. Its network consists of about 300 bus lines and 22 trolleybus lines which span the Athens Metropolitan Area, with a fleet of 1,839 buses and 366 trolleybuses. Of those 1,839 buses 416 run on compressed natural gas, The Athens Metro is operated by STASY S.A () (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation) and provides public transport throughout the Athens Urban Area. While its main purpose is transport, it also houses Greek artifacts found during construction of the system. The Athens Metro has an operating staff of 387 and runs three metro lines, namely the line 1 (Green Line), line 2 (Red Line) and line 3 (Blue Line) lines, of which the first was constructed in 1869, and the other two largely during the 1990s, with the initial new sections opened in January 2000. Line 1 mostly runs at ground level and the other two (Line 2 & 3) routes run entirely underground. A fleet of 42 trains, using 252 carriages, operates on the network, with a daily occupancy of 1,353,000 passengers. The "line 1" (Green Line) serves 24 stations, and is the oldest line of the Athens metro network. It runs from Piraeus station to Kifissia station and covers a distance of 25.6-kilometre (15.9 The Athens commuter rail service, referred to as the "Proastiakós", connects Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport to the city of Kiato, west of Athens tram is operated by STASY S.A (Statheres Sygkoinonies S.A) which is a subsidiary company of OASA (Athens urban transport organisation). It has a fleet of 35 Sirio type vehicles which serve 48 stations, employ 345 people with an average daily occupancy of 65,000 passengers. The tram network spans a total length of and covers ten Athenian Athens is served by the Athens International Airport (ATH), located near the town of Spata, in the eastern Messoghia plain, some east of center of Athens. The airport, awarded the "European Airport of the Year 2004" Award, is intended as an expandable hub for air travel in southeastern Europe and was constructed in 51 months, costing 2.2 billion euros. It employs a staff of 14,000. The airport is served by the Metro, the suburban rail, buses to Piraeus port, Athens' City Athens is the hub of the country's national railway system (OSE), connecting the capital with major cities across Greece and abroad (Istanbul, Sofia, Belgrade and Bucharest). The Port of Piraeus is the largest port in Greece and one of the largest in Europe. It is the largest container port in East Two main motorways of Greece begin in Athens, namely the A1/E75, heading north towards Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki; and the border crossing of Evzones and the A8/E94 heading west, towards Greece's third largest city, Patras, which incorporated the GR-8A. Before their completion much of the road traffic used the GR-1 and the GR-8. Athens' Metropolitan Area is served by the motorway network of the Attiki Odos toll-motorway (code: A6). Its main section extends from the western industrial suburb of Elefsina to Athens International Airport; while two beltways, namely the Aigaleo Beltway (A65) and the Hymettus Beltway (A64) serve parts of western and eastern Athens respectively. The span of the Attiki Odos in all its length is, making it the largest metropolitan motorway network in all of Greece. Located on Panepistimiou Street, the old campus of the University of Athens, the National Library, and the Athens Academy form the "Athens Trilogy" built in the mid-19th century. Most of the university's workings have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of Zografou. The second higher education institution in the city is the Athens Polytechnic School, found in Patission Street. This was the location where on 17 November 1973, more than 13 students were killed and hundreds injured inside the university during the Athens Polytechnic uprising, against the military junta that ruled the nation from 21 April 1967 until 23 July 1974. The city is a world centre of archaeological research. Along with national institutions, such as the Athens University and the Archaeological Society, there are multiple archaeological Museums including the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine & Christian Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos, and the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum. The city is also home to Athens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco-Roman and Neoclassical to modern times. They are often to be found in the same areas, as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style. A visitor will quickly notice the absence of tall buildings: Athens has very strict height restriction laws in order to ensure the Acropolis hill is visible throughout the city. For the greatest part of the 19th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens, as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism, especially in the early 20th century. Thus, the Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later in the mid and late 19th century, Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings All over the city can be found several statues or busts. Apart from the neoclassicals by Leonidas Drosis at the Academy of Athens (Plato, Socrates, Apollo, Athena), other notable include the statue of Theseus by Georgios Fytalis at Thiseion, of philhellenes like Lord Byron, George Canning and William Gladstone, the equestrian statue Athens' most Athens has been a destination for travellers since antiquity. Over the past decade, the city's infrastructure and social amenities have improved, in part because of its successful bid to stage the 2004 Olympic Games. The Greek Athens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the ancient Odeon of Herodes Atticus, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year. In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to open air garden cinemas. The city also supports music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall ("Megaro Moussikis"), which attracts world class artists. The Athens Planetarium, located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, in Palaio Faliro is one of the largest and best equipped digital planetaria in the world. The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, inaugurated in 2016, will house the National Library of Greece and the Greek National Opera. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades (Αθηναϊκές καντάδες), based on the Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theatre scene. Notable composers of operettas or nocturnes were Kostas Giannidis, Dionysios Lavrangas, Nikos Hatziapostolou, while Theophrastos Sakellaridis' "The Godson" remains probably the most popular operetta. Despite the fact that the Athenian songs were not autonomous artistic creations (in contrast with the serenades) and despite their original connection with mainly dramatic forms of Art, they eventually became hits as independent songs. Notable actors of Greek operettas, who made also a series of melodies Athens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, serving as home to the most important clubs in Greek sport and housing a large number of sports facilities. The city has also been host to sports events of international importance. Athens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics required the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has since gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadiums in the world, and one of its most interesting modern monuments. The biggest stadium in the country, it hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. Athens' other major stadium, located in the Piraeus area, is the Karaiskakis Stadium, a sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. Athens has hosted the EuroLeague final three times, the first in 1985 and second in 1993, both at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, a large Beside the above clubs, inside the boundaries of Athens Municipality there are some more clubs with presence in national divisions or notable action for short periods. Some of them are PAO Rouf (Rouf) with earlier presence in Gamma Ethniki, Petralona F.C.() (Petralona), football club founded in 1963, with earlier presence in Beta

Athens ( ; ; ) is the capital and largest city in Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, with its recorded history spanning over 3,400 years and its earliest human presence started somewhere between the 11th and 7th millennium BC.

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52

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summarize: Triangles can be classified according to the lengths of their sides: Hatch marks, also called tick marks, are used in diagrams of triangles and other geometric figures to identify sides of equal lengths. A side can be marked with a pattern of "ticks", short line segments in the form of tally marks; two sides have equal lengths if they are both marked with the same pattern. In a Triangles can also be classified according to their internal angles, measured here in degrees. A triangle that has two angles with the same measure also has Triangles are assumed to be two-dimensional plane figures, unless the context provides otherwise (see Non-planar triangles, below). In rigorous treatments, a triangle is therefore called a "2-simplex" (see also Polytope). Elementary facts about triangles were presented by Euclid in books 1–4 of his "Elements", around 300 BC. The sum of the measures of the interior angles of a triangle in Euclidean space is always 180 degrees. This fact is equivalent to Euclid's parallel postulate. This allows determination of the measure of the third angle of any triangle given the measure of two angles. An "exterior angle" of a triangle is an angle that is a linear pair (and hence supplementary) to an interior angle. The measure of an exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two interior angles that are not adjacent to it; this is the exterior angle theorem. The sum of the measures of the three exterior angles (one for each vertex) of any triangle is 360 degrees. Two triangles are said to be "similar" if every angle of one triangle has the same measure as the corresponding angle in the other triangle. The corresponding sides of similar triangles have lengths that are in the same proportion, and this property is also sufficient to establish similarity. Some basic theorems about similar triangles are: Two triangles that are congruent have exactly A central theorem is the Pythagorean theorem, which states in any right triangle, the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other sides. If the hypotenuse has length "c", and the legs have lengths The triangle inequality states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than or equal to the length of the third side. That sum can equal the length Three given angles form a non-degenerate triangle (and indeed an infinitude of them) if and only if both of these conditions hold: (a) each of the angles is positive, and (b) the angles sum to 180°. If degenerate triangles are permitted, angles of 0° are permitted. Three positive angles "α", "β", and "γ", each of them less than 180°, are the angles of a triangle if and only if any one of the following conditions holds: the last equality applying only if none of the angles is 90° (so the tangent function's value is always finite). There are thousands of different constructions that find a special point associated with (and often inside) a triangle, satisfying some unique property: see the article Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers for a catalogue of them. Often they are constructed by finding three lines associated in a symmetrical way with the three sides (or vertices) and then proving that the three lines meet in a single point: an important tool for proving the existence of these is Ceva's theorem, which gives a criterion for determining when three such lines are concurrent. Similarly, lines associated with a triangle are often constructed by proving that three symmetrically constructed points are collinear: here Menelaus' theorem gives a useful general criterion. In this section just a few of the most commonly encountered constructions are explained. A perpendicular bisector of a side of a triangle is a straight line passing through the midpoint of the side and being perpendicular to it, i.e. forming a right angle with it. The three perpendicular bisectors meet in a single point, the triangle's circumcenter, usually denoted by O; this point is the center of the circumcircle, the circle passing through all three vertices. The diameter of this circle, called the "circumdiameter", can be found from the law of sines stated above. The circumcircle's radius is called the "circumradius". Thales' theorem implies that if the circumcenter is located on a side of the triangle, then the opposite angle is a right one. If the circumcenter is located inside the triangle, then the triangle is acute; if the circumcenter is located outside the triangle, then the triangle is obtuse. An altitude of a triangle is a straight line through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e. forming a right angle with) the opposite side. This opposite side is called the "base" of the altitude, and the There are various standard methods for calculating the length of a side or the measure of an angle. Certain methods are suited to calculating values in a right-angled triangle; more complex methods may be required in other situations. In right triangles, the trigonometric ratios of sine, cosine and tangent can be used to find unknown angles and the lengths of unknown sides. The sides of the triangle are known as follows: The "sine" of an angle is the ratio of the length of the opposite side to the length of the hypotenuse. In our case This ratio does not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, as long as it contains the angle "A", since The inverse trigonometric functions can be used to calculate the internal angles for a right angled triangle with the length of any two sides. Arcsin can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the hypotenuse. Arccos can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the adjacent side and the length of the hypotenuse. Arctan can be used to calculate an angle from the length of the opposite side and the length of the adjacent side. In introductory geometry and trigonometry courses, the notation sin, cos, etc., are often used in place of arcsin, arccos, etc. However, the arcsin, arccos, etc., notation is standard in higher mathematics where trigonometric functions are commonly raised to powers, as this avoids confusion between multiplicative inverse and compositional inverse. The law of sines, or sine rule, states that the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of its corresponding opposite angle is constant, that is This ratio is equal to the diameter of the circumscribed circle of the given triangle. Another interpretation of this theorem is that every triangle with angles α, β and γ is similar to a triangle with side lengths equal to sin α, sin β and sin γ. This triangle can be constructed by first constructing a circle of diameter 1, and inscribing in it two of the angles of the triangle. The length of the sides of that triangle will be sin α, sin "Solution of triangles" is the main trigonometric problem: to find missing characteristics of a triangle (three angles, the lengths of the three sides etc.) Calculating the area "T" of a triangle is an elementary problem encountered often in many different situations. The best known and simplest formula is: where "b" is the length of the base of the triangle, and "h" is the height or altitude of the triangle. The term "base" denotes any side, and "height" denotes the length of a perpendicular from the vertex opposite the base onto the line containing the base. In 499 CE Aryabhata, used this illustrated method in the "Aryabhatiya" (section 2.6). Although simple, this formula is only useful if the height can be readily found, which is not always the case. For example, the surveyor of a triangular field might find it relatively easy to measure the length of each side, but relatively difficult to construct a 'height'. Various methods may be used in practice, depending on what is known about the triangle. The following is a selection of frequently used formulae for the area of a triangle. The height of a triangle can be found through the application of trigonometry. "Knowing SAS": Using the labels in the image on the right, the altitude is. Substituting this in the formula formula_26 derived above, the area of the triangle can be expressed as: (where α is The shape of the triangle is determined by the lengths of the sides. Therefore, the area can also be derived The area of a parallelogram embedded in a three-dimensional Euclidean space can be calculated using vectors. Let vectors AB and AC point respectively from "A" to "B" and from "A" to "C". The area of parallelogram "ABDC" is then which is If vertex "A" is located at the origin (0, 0) of a Cartesian coordinate system and the coordinates of the other two vertices are given by and, then the area can be computed as times the absolute value of the determinant For three general vertices, the equation is: which can be written as If the points are labeled sequentially in the counterclockwise direction, the above determinant The area within any closed curve, such as a triangle, is given by the line integral around the curve of the algebraic or signed distance of a point on the curve from an arbitrary oriented straight line "L". Points to the right of "L" as oriented are taken to be at negative distance from "L", while the weight for the integral is taken to be the component of arc length parallel to "L" rather than arc length itself. This method is well suited to computation of the area of an arbitrary polygon. Taking "L" to be the "x"-axis, the line integral between consecutive vertices ("x","y") and ("x","y") is given by the base times the mean height, namely. The sign of the area is an overall indicator of the direction of traversal, with negative area indicating counterclockwise Three formulas have the same structure as Heron's formula but are expressed in terms of different variables. First, denoting the medians from sides "a", "b", and "c" respectively as "m", "m", and "m" and their semi-sum as σ, See Pick's theorem for a technique for finding the area of any arbitrary lattice polygon (one drawn on a grid with vertically and horizontally adjacent lattice Numerous other area formulas exist, such as where "r" is the inradius, and "s" is the semiperimeter (in fact, this formula holds for "all" tangential polygons), and where formula_59 are the radii of the excircles tangent to The area "T" of any triangle with perimeter "p" satisfies with equality holding if and only if the There are infinitely many lines that bisect the area of a triangle. Three of them are the medians, which are the only area bisectors that go through the centroid. Three The formulas in this section are true for all Euclidean triangles. The medians and the sides are related by and and equivalently for "m" and "m". For angle A opposite side "a", the length of the internal angle bisector is given by The following formulas involve the circumradius "R" and the inradius "r": where "h" etc. are the altitudes to Suppose two adjacent but non-overlapping triangles share the same side of length "f" and share the same circumcircle, so that the side of length "f" Let "G" be the centroid of a triangle with vertices "A", "B", and "C", and let "P" be any interior point. Then the distances between the points are related by The sum Carnot's theorem states that the sum of the distances from the circumcenter to the three sides equals the sum of the circumradius and the inradius. Here a segment's length is considered to be negative if and only if the segment lies entirely outside the triangle. This method is especially useful for deducing the properties of more abstract forms of triangles, such as the ones induced by Lie algebras, that otherwise have the same properties as usual triangles. Euler's theorem states that the distance "d" between In addition to the law of sines, the law of Morley's trisector theorem states that in any triangle, the three As discussed above, every triangle has a unique inscribed circle (incircle) that is interior to the triangle and tangent to all three sides. Every triangle has a unique Steiner inellipse which is interior to the triangle and tangent at the midpoints of the sides. Marden's Every convex polygon with area "T" can be inscribed in The Lemoine hexagon is a cyclic hexagon with vertices given by the six intersections of the sides of a triangle with the three lines that Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two "distinct" inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of From an interior point in a reference triangle, the nearest points on the three sides serve as the vertices of the pedal triangle of that point. If the interior point is the circumcenter of the reference triangle, the vertices of the pedal triangle are the midpoints of the reference triangle's sides, and so the The tangential triangle of a reference triangle (other than a right triangle) is the triangle whose sides are on the tangent lines to the reference triangle's circumcircle at its vertices. As mentioned above, every triangle has a unique circumcircle, a circle passing through all three vertices, whose center is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of One way to identify locations of points in (or outside) a triangle is to place the triangle in an arbitrary location and orientation in the Cartesian plane, and to use Cartesian coordinates. While convenient for many purposes, this approach has the A non-planar triangle is a triangle which is not contained in a (flat) plane. Some examples of non-planar triangles in non-Euclidean geometries are spherical triangles in spherical geometry and hyperbolic triangles in hyperbolic geometry. While the measures of the internal angles in planar triangles always sum to 180°, a hyperbolic triangle has measures of angles that sum to less than 180°, and a spherical triangle has measures of angles that sum to more than 180°. A hyperbolic triangle can be obtained by drawing on a negatively curved surface, such as a saddle surface, and a spherical triangle can be obtained by drawing on a positively curved surface such as a sphere. Thus, if one draws a giant triangle on the surface of the Earth, one will find that the sum of the measures of its angles is greater than 180°; in fact it will be between 180° and 540°. In particular it is possible to draw a triangle on a sphere such that the measure of each of its internal angles is equal to 90°, adding Rectangles have been the most popular and common geometric form for buildings since the shape is easy to stack and organize; as a standard, it is easy to design furniture and fixtures to fit inside rectangularly shaped buildings. But triangles, while more difficult to use conceptually, provide a great deal of strength. As computer technology helps architects design creative new buildings, triangular shapes are becoming increasingly prevalent as parts of buildings and as the primary shape for some types of skyscrapers as well as building materials. In Tokyo in 1989, architects had wondered whether it was possible to build a 500-story tower to provide affordable office space for this densely packed city, but with the danger to buildings from earthquakes, architects considered that a triangular shape would be necessary if such a building were to be built. In New York City, as Broadway crisscrosses major avenues, the resulting blocks are cut like triangles, and buildings have been built on these shapes; one such building is the triangularly shaped Flatiron Building which real estate people admit has a "warren of awkward spaces that do not easily accommodate modern office furniture" but that has not prevented the structure from becoming a landmark icon. Designers have made houses in Norway using triangular themes. Triangle shapes have appeared in churches as well as public buildings including colleges as well as supports for innovative home designs. Triangles are sturdy; while a rectangle can collapse into a parallelogram from pressure to one of its points, triangles have a natural strength which supports structures against lateral pressures. A triangle will not change shape unless its sides are bent or extended or broken or if its joints break; in essence, each of the three sides supports the other two. A rectangle, in contrast, is more dependent on the strength of its joints in a structural sense. Some innovative designers have proposed making bricks not out of rectangles, but with triangular shapes which can be combined in three dimensions. It is likely that triangles will be used increasingly in new ways as architecture increases in complexity. It is important to remember that triangles are strong in terms of rigidity, but while packed in a tessellating arrangement triangles are not as strong as hexagons under compression (hence the prevalence of hexagonal forms in nature). Tessellated triangles still maintain superior strength for cantilevering however, and this is the basis for one of the strongest man made structures, the tetrahedral truss.

A triangle is a polygon with three edges and three vertices. It is one of the basic shapes in geometry. A triangle with vertices "A", "B", and "C" is denoted formula_1.

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summarize: Berlin lies in northeastern Germany, east of the River Elbe, that once constituted, together with the River (Saxon or Thuringian) Saale (from their confluence at Barby onwards), the eastern border of the Frankish Realm. While the Frankish Realm was primarily inhabited by Germanic tribes like the Franks and the Saxons, the regions east of the border rivers were inhabited by Slavic tribes. This is why most of the cities and villages in northeastern Germany bear Slavic-derived names (Germania Slavica). Typical Germanised place name suffixes of Slavic origin are "-ow", "-itz", "-vitz", "-witz", "-itzsch" and The earliest evidence of settlements in the area of today's Berlin are remnants of a house foundation dated to 1174, found in excavations in Berlin Mitte, and a wooden beam dated from approximately 1192. The first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920. The central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document, and Berlin, across the Spree in what is now called the Nikolaiviertel, is referenced in a document from 1244. 1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the staple right on the The Thirty Years' War between 1618 and 1648 devastated Berlin. One third of its houses were damaged or destroyed, and the city lost half of its population. Frederick William, known as the "Great Elector", who had succeeded his father George William as ruler in 1640, initiated a policy of promoting immigration and religious tolerance. With the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Frederick William offered asylum to the French Huguenots. By 1700, approximately 30 percent of Berlin's residents were French, because of the Huguenot immigration. Many other immigrants came from Bohemia, Poland, and Salzburg. Since 1618, the Margraviate of Brandenburg had been in personal union with the Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, the dual state formed the Kingdom of Prussia, as Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, crowned himself as king Frederick I in Prussia. Berlin became the In the early 20th century, Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of the First World War in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from. The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned centre of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, technology, arts, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded Berlin is in northeastern Germany, in an area of low-lying marshy woodlands with a mainly flat topography, part of the vast Northern European Plain which stretches all the way from northern France to western Russia. The "Berliner Urstromtal" (an ice age glacial valley), between the low Barnim Plateau to the north and the Teltow plateau to the south, was formed by meltwater flowing from ice sheets at the end of the last Weichselian glaciation. The Spree follows this valley now. In Spandau, a borough in the west of Berlin, the Spree empties into the river Havel, which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is more Berlin has an oceanic climate – (Köppen: "Cfb"), the eastern part of the city has a slight continental influence ("Dfb"), especially in the 0 °C isotherm, one of the changes being the annual rainfall according to the air masses and the greater abundance during a period of the year. This type of climate features moderate summer temperatures but sometimes hot (for being semicontinental) and cold winters but not rigorous most of the time. Due to its transitional climate zones, frosts are common in winter and there are larger temperature differences between seasons than typical for many oceanic climates. Furthermore, Berlin is classified as a temperate continental climate ("Dc") under the Trewartha climate scheme, as well as the suburbs of New York City, although the Berlin's history has left the city with a polycentric organization and a highly eclectic array of architecture and buildings. The city's appearance today is predominantly shaped by the key role it played in Germany's history in the 20th century. Each of the national governments based in Berlin the Kingdom of Prussia, the 2nd German Empire of 1871, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany, East Germany, and now the reunified Germany initiated ambitious reconstruction programs, with each adding its own distinctive style to the city's architecture. Berlin was devastated by bombing raids, fires and street battles during World War II, and many of the buildings that remained after the war were demolished in the The Fernsehturm (TV tower) at Alexanderplatz in Mitte is among the tallest structures in the European Union at. Built in 1969, it is visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin. The city can be viewed from its high observation floor. Starting here the Karl-Marx-Allee heads east, an avenue lined by monumental residential buildings, designed in the Socialist Classicism style. Adjacent to this area is the Rotes Rathaus (City Hall), with its distinctive red-brick architecture. In front of it is the Neptunbrunnen, a fountain featuring a mythological group of Tritons, personifications of the four main Prussian rivers and Neptune on top of it. The Brandenburg Gate is an iconic landmark of Berlin and Germany; it stands as a symbol of eventful European history and of unity and peace. The Reichstag building is the traditional seat of the At the end of 2018, the city-state of Berlin had 3.75 million registered inhabitants in an area of. The city's population density was 4,206 inhabitants per km. Berlin is the most populous city proper in the EU. The urban area of Berlin had about 4.1 million people in 2014 in an area of, making it the sixth most populous urban area in the European Union. The urban agglomeration of the metropolis was home to about 4.5 million in an area of. the functional urban area was home to about 5.2 million people in an area of approximately. The entire Berlin-Brandenburg capital region has a population of more than 6 million in an area of. In 2014, the city state Berlin had 37,368 live births (+6.6%), a record number since 1991. The number of deaths was 32,314. Almost 2.0 million households were counted in the city. 54 percent of them were single-person households. More than 337,000 families with children under the age of 18 lived in Berlin. In 2014 the German capital registered a migration surplus of approximately 40,000 people. National and international migration into the city has a long history. In 1685, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France, the city responded with the Edict of Potsdam, which guaranteed religious freedom and tax-free status to French Huguenot refugees for ten years. The Greater Berlin Act in 1920 incorporated many suburbs and surrounding cities of Berlin. It formed most of the territory that comprises modern Berlin and increased the population from 1.9 million to 4 million. Active immigration and asylum politics in West Berlin triggered waves of immigration in the 1960s and 1970s. Berlin is home to at least 180,000 Turkish and Turkish German residents, making it the largest Turkish community outside of Turkey. In the 1990s the "Aussiedlergesetze" enabled immigration to Germany of some German is the official and predominant spoken language in Berlin. It is a West Germanic language that derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. German is one of 24 languages of the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission. Berlinerisch or Berlinisch is not a dialect linguistically, but has features of Lausitzisch-neumärkisch According to the 2011 census, approximately 37 percent of the population reported being members of a legally-recognized church or religious organization. The rest either did not belong to such an organization, or there was no information available about them. The largest religious denomination recorded in 2010 was the Protestant regional church body – the Evangelical Church of Berlin-Brandenburg-Silesian Upper Lusatia (EKBO) – a United church. EKBO is a member of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD) and Union Evangelischer Kirchen (UEK). According to the EKBO, their membership accounted for 18.7 percent of the local population, while the Roman Catholic Church had 9.1 percent of residents registered as its members. About 2.7% of the population identify with other Christian denominations (mostly Eastern Orthodox, but also various Protestants). According to the Berlin residents register, in 2018 14.9 percent were members of the Evangelical Church, and 8.5 percent were members of the Catholic Church. The government keeps a register of members of these churches for tax purposes, because it collects church tax on behalf of the churches. It does not keep records of members of Since the reunification on 3 October 1990, Berlin has been one of the three city states in Germany among the present 16 states of Germany. The House of Representatives ("Abgeordnetenhaus") functions as the city and state parliament, which currently has 141 seats. Berlin's executive body is the Senate of Berlin ("Senat von Berlin"). The Senate consists of the Governing Mayor ("Regierender Bürgermeister") and up to eight senators holding ministerial positions, one of them holding the title of "Mayor" ("Bürgermeister") as deputy to the Governing Mayor. The total annual state budget of Berlin in 2015 exceeded €24.5 ($30.0) billion Berlin is subdivided into 12 boroughs or districts ("Bezirke"). Each borough has a number of subdistricts or neighborhoods ("Ortsteile"), which have roots in much older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on 1 October 1920. These subdistricts became urbanized and incorporated into the city later on. Many residents strongly identify with their neighbourhoods, colloquially called "Kiez". At present, Berlin Berlin maintains official partnerships with 17 cities. Town twinning between Berlin and other cities began with its sister city Los Angeles in 1967. East Berlin's partnerships were canceled at the time of German reunification but later partially reestablished. West Berlin's partnerships had previously been restricted to the borough level. During the Cold War era, the partnerships had reflected the different power blocs, with West Berlin partnering with capitals in the Western World, and East Berlin mostly partnering Berlin is the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. The President of Germany, whose functions are mainly ceremonial under the German constitution, has their official residence in Bellevue Palace. Berlin is the seat of the German Chancellor (Prime Minister), housed in the Chancellery building, the "Bundeskanzleramt". Facing the Chancellery is the Bundestag, the German Parliament, housed in the renovated Reichstag building since the government's relocation to Berlin in 1998. The Bundesrat ("federal council", performing the function of an upper house) is the representation of the federal states ("Bundesländer") of Germany and has its seat at the former Prussian House of Lords. The total annual federal budget managed by the German government exceeded €310 ($375) billion in In 2018, the GDP of Berlin totaled €147 billion, an increase of 3.1% over the previous year. Berlin's economy is dominated by the service sector, with around 84% of all companies doing business in services. In 2015, the total labour force in Berlin was 1.85 million. The unemployment rate reached a 24-year low in November 2015 and stood at 10.0%. From 2012 to 2015 Berlin, as a German state, had the highest annual employment growth rate. Around 130,000 jobs were added in this period. Important economic sectors in Berlin include life sciences, transportation, information and communication technologies, media and music, advertising and design, biotechnology, environmental services, construction, e-commerce, retail, hotel business, and medical engineering. Research and development have economic significance for the city. Several major corporations like Volkswagen, Pfizer, and SAP operate innovation laboratories in the city. The Science and Business Park in Adlershof is the largest technology park in Germany measured by revenue. Within the Eurozone, Berlin has become a center for business relocation and international investments. Many German and international companies have business or service centers in the city. For several years Berlin has been recognized as a major center of business founders. In 2015 Berlin generated the most venture capital for young startup companies in Europe. Among the 10 largest employers in Berlin are the City-State of Berlin, Deutsche Bahn, the hospital providers Charité and Vivantes, the Federal Government of Germany, the local public transport provider Berlin had 788 hotels with 134,399 beds in 2014. The city recorded 28.7 million overnight hotel stays and 11.9 million hotel guests in 2014. Tourism figures have more than doubled within the last ten years and Berlin has become the third most-visited city destination in Europe. Some of the most visited places in Berlin include: Potsdamer Platz, Brandenburger Tor, the Berlin wall, Alexanderplatz, Museumsinsel, Fernsehturm, the East-Side Gallery, Schloss-Charlottenburg, Zoologischer Garten, Siegessäule, Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer, Mauerpark, Botanical Garden, Französischer Dom, Deutscher Dom and Holocaust-Mahnmal. The largest visitor groups are from Germany, the United Kingdom, the The creative arts and entertainment business is an important part of Berlin's economy. The sector comprises music, film, advertising, architecture, art, design, fashion, performing arts, publishing, R&D, software, TV, radio, and video games. In 2014, around 30,500 creative companies operated in the Berlin-Brandenburg metropolitan region, predominantly SMEs. Generating a revenue of 15.6 billion Euro and 6% of all private economic sales, the Berlin is home to many magazine, newspaper, book and scientific/academic publishers, as well as their associated service industries. In addition around 20 news agencies, more than 90 regional daily newspapers and their websites, as well as the Berlin offices of more than 22 national publications such as Der Spiegel, and Die Zeit re-enforce the capital's position as Germany's epicenter for influential debate. Therefore, many international journalists, bloggers and writers live and work in the city. Berlin is the central location to several international and regional television and radio stations. The public broadcaster RBB has its According to Mercer, Berlin ranked number 13 in the Quality of living city ranking in 2019. According to Monocle, Berlin occupies the position of the 6th most livable city in the world. Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Berlin number 21 of all global cities. Berlin's transport infrastructure is highly complex, providing a diverse range of urban mobility. A total of 979 bridges cross of inner-city waterways. of roads run through Berlin, of which are motorways (). In 2013, 1.344 million motor vehicles Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighboring European countries. Regional rail lines of the provide access to the surrounding regions of Brandenburg and Similarly to other German cities, there is an increasing quantity of intercity bus services. The (BVG) and the (DB) manage several extensive urban Berlin has two commercial international airports. Airport (TXL) is within the city limits, and Airport (SXF) is just outside Berlin's south-eastern border, in the state of Brandenburg. Both airports together handled 29.5 million passengers in 2015. In 2014, 67 airlines served 163 destinations in 50 countries from Berlin. Airport is a focus city for Lufthansa and Eurowings. Schönefeld serves as an important Berlin is well known for its highly developed bicycle lane system. It is estimated Berlin has 710 bicycles per 1000 residents. Around 500,000 daily bike riders accounted for 13% of total traffic in 2010. Cyclists have access to of bicycle paths including From 1865 until 1976 Berlin had an extensive pneumatic postal network, which at its peak in 1940, totalled 400 kilometres length. After 1949 the system was split in two separated networks. The West Berlin system in operation and open for public use until 1963, and for government use until 1972. The East Berlin system which inherited the "Hauptelegraphenamt", the central hub of the system, was in operation until 1976 Berlin's two largest energy provider for private households are the Swedish firm Vattenfall and the Berlin-based company GASAG. Both offer electric power and natural gas supply. Some of the city's electric energy is imported from nearby power plants in southern Brandenburg. Berlin has a long history of discoveries in medicine and innovations in medical technology. The modern history of medicine has been significantly influenced by scientists from Berlin. Rudolf Virchow was the founder of cellular pathology, while Robert Koch developed vaccines for anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis. The Charité complex (Universitätsklinik Charité) is the largest university hospital in Europe, tracing back its origins to the year 1710. The Charité is spread over four sites and Since 2017, the digital television standard in Berlin and Germany is DVB-T2. This system transmits compressed digital audio, digital video and other data in an MPEG transport stream. Berlin has installed several hundred free public Wireless LAN sites across the capital since 2016. The wireless networks are concentrated mostly in central districts; 650 hotspots (325 indoor and 325 , Berlin had 878 schools, teaching 340,658 children in 13,727 classes and 56,787 trainees in businesses and elsewhere. The city has a 6-year primary education program. After completing primary school, students continue to the (a comprehensive school) or (college preparatory school). Berlin has a special bilingual school program in the, in which children are taught the curriculum in German and a foreign language, starting in primary school and continuing in high school. The Französisches Gymnasium Berlin, which was founded in 1689 to teach the children of Huguenot refugees, offers (German/French) instruction. The John F. Kennedy School, a bilingual German–American public school in Zehlendorf, is particularly popular with children of diplomats and the English-speaking expatriate community. 82 teach Latin and 8 teach Classical Greek. The Berlin-Brandenburg capital region is one of the most prolific centres of higher education and research in Germany and Europe. Historically, 40 Nobel Prize winners are affiliated with the Berlin-based universities. The city has four public research universities and more than 30 private, professional, and technical colleges "(Hochschulen)", offering a wide range of disciplines. A record number of 175,651 students were enrolled in the winter term of 2015/16. Among them around The city has a high density of internationally renowned research institutions, such as the Fraunhofer Society, the Leibniz Association, the Helmholtz Association, and the Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities. In 2012, around 65,000 professional scientists were working in research and development in the city. Berlin is one of the knowledge and innovation communities (KIC) of the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT). The Berlin is known for its numerous cultural institutions, many of which enjoy international reputation. The diversity and vivacity of the metropolis led to a trendsetting atmosphere. An innovative music, dance and art scene has developed in the 21st century. Young people, international artists and entrepreneurs continued to settle in the city and made Berlin a popular entertainment center in the world. The expanding cultural performance of the city was underscored by the relocation of the Universal Music Group who decided to move their headquarters to the banks of the River Spree. In 2005, Berlin was named "City of Design" by UNESCO and has been part of the Creative Cities Network ever since. Berlin is home to 138 museums and more than 400 art galleries. Apart from the Museum Island, there are many additional museums in the city. The Gemäldegalerie (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the "old masters" from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the Neue Nationalgalerie (New National Gallery, built by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) specializes in 20th-century European painting. The Hamburger Bahnhof, in Moabit, exhibits a major collection of modern and contemporary art. The expanded Deutsches Historisches Museum re-opened in the Zeughaus with an overview of German history spanning more than a millennium. The Bauhaus Archive is a museum of 20th century design from the famous Bauhaus school. Museum Berggruen houses the collection of noted 20th century collector Heinz Berggruen, and features an extensive assortment of works by Picasso, Matisse, Cézanne, and Giacometti, among others. The Jewish Museum has a standing exhibition on two millennia of German-Jewish history. The German Museum of Technology in Kreuzberg has a large collection of historical technical artifacts. The "Museum für Naturkunde" (Berlin's natural history museum) exhibits natural history near Berlin Berlin's nightlife has been celebrated as one of the most diverse and vibrant of its kind. In the 1970s and 80s the SO36 in Kreuzberg was a centre for punk music and culture. The "SOUND" and the "Dschungel" gained notoriety. Throughout the 1990s, people in their 20s from all over the world, particularly those in Western and Central Europe, made Berlin's club scene a premier nightlife venue. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, and became a fertile ground for underground and counterculture gatherings. The central boroughs are home to many nightclubs, including the Watergate, Tresor and Berghain. The KitKatClub and several other locations are known for their sexually uninhibited parties. Clubs are not required to close at a fixed time during the weekends, and many parties last well into the morning, or even all weekend. The "Weekend Club" near Alexanderplatz features a roof terrace that allows partying at night. Several venues have become a popular stage for the Neo-Burlesque scene. Berlin has a long Berlin is home to 44 theaters and stages. The Deutsches Theater in Mitte was built in 1849–50 and has operated almost continuously since then. The Volksbühne at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz was built in 1913–14, though the company had been founded in 1890. The Berliner Ensemble, famous for performing the works of Bertolt Brecht, was established in 1949. The Schaubühne was founded in 1962 and moved to the building of the former Universum Cinema on Kurfürstendamm in 1981. With a seating capacity of 1,895 and a stage floor of, the Friedrichstadt-Palast in Berlin Mitte is the largest show palace in Europe. Berlin has three major opera houses: the Deutsche Oper, the Berlin State Opera, and the Komische Oper. The Berlin State Opera on Unter den Linden opened in 1742 and is The cuisine and culinary offerings of Berlin vary greatly. Twelve restaurants in Berlin have been included in the Michelin Guide of 2015, which ranks the city at the top for the number of restaurants having this distinction in Germany. Berlin is well known for its offerings of vegetarian and vegan cuisine and is home to an innovative entrepreneurial food scene promoting cosmopolitan flavors, local and sustainable ingredients, pop-up street food markets, supper clubs, as well as food festivals, such as Berlin Food Week. Many local foods originated from north German culinary traditions and include rustic and hearty dishes with pork, goose, fish, peas, beans, cucumbers, or potatoes. Typical Zoologischer Garten Berlin, the older of two zoos in the city, was founded in 1844. It is the most visited zoo in Europe and presents the most diverse range of species in the world. It was the home of the captive-born celebrity polar bear Knut. The city's other zoo, Tierpark Friedrichsfelde, was founded in 1955. Berlin's Botanischer Garten includes the Botanic Museum Berlin. With an area of and around 22,000 different plant species, it is one of the largest and most diverse collections of botanical life in the world. Other gardens in the city include the Britzer Garten, and the Gärten der Welt (Gardens of the World) in Marzahn. The Tiergarten park in Mitte, with landscape Berlin has established a high-profile as a host city of major international sporting events. The city hosted the 1936 Summer Olympics and was the host city for the 2006 FIFA World Cup final. The IAAF World Championships in Athletics was held in the Olympiastadion in 2009. The city hosted the Basketball Euroleague Final Four in 2009 and 2016. and was one of the hosts of the FIBA EuroBasket 2015. In 2015 Berlin became the venue for the UEFA Champions League Final. Berlin will host the 2023 Special Olympics World Summer Games. This will be the first time Germany has ever hosted the Special Olympics World Games. The annual Berlin Marathon a course that holds the most top-10 world record runs and the ISTAF are well-established athletic events in the city. The Mellowpark in Köpenick is one of the biggest skate and BMX parks in Europe. A Fan Fest at Brandenburg Gate, which attracts several hundred-thousand spectators, has become popular during international football competitions, like the UEFA European Championship. In 2013 around 600,000 Berliners were registered in one of the more than 2,300 sport and fitness clubs. The city of Berlin operates more than 60 public indoor and outdoor swimming pools. Berlin is the largest Olympic training centre in Germany. About 500 top athletes (15% of all German top athletes) are based there. Forty-seven elite athletes participated in the 2012 Summer Olympics. Berliners would achieve seven gold, twelve silver and three bronze medals. Several professional clubs representing the most important spectator team sports in Germany have their base in Berlin. The oldest and most popular division-1 team based in Berlin is the football club Hertha BSC. The team represented Berlin as a founding member of the Bundesliga, Germany's highest football league, in 1963. Other professional team sport clubs include:

Berlin (; ) is the capital and largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3,769,495 (2019) inhabitants make it the most populous city proper of the European Union. The city is one of Germany's 16 federal states. It is surrounded by the state of Brandenburg, and contiguous with Potsdam, Brandenburg's capital. The two cities are at the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg capital region, which is, with about six million inhabitants and an area of more than 30,000 km2, Germany's third-largest metropolitan region after the Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-Main regions.

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3387, 70, 19069, 111, 70, 305, 927, 2684, 7334, 2886, 26349, 23, 70, 8999, 5, 109401, 271, 157075, 46640, 30648, 7, 10271, 14012, 952, 111, 756, 7964, 162708, 5, 10271, 25, 7, 6181, 150449, 83, 103210, 27140, 4, 101904, 10, 9789, 37457, 111, 27081, 3268, 2481, 5, 62, 3622, 111, 6, 199439, 6, 80728, 7, 41421, 111, 75414, 9, 60089, 7401, 102966, 5, 111, 33816, 7, 11675, 8305, 10271, 4, 111, 3129, 621, 2926, 102966, 15, 194, 360, 24159, 615, 132993, 19879, 2926, 117001, 14407, 9, 56883, 329, 6, 68823, 124519, 37067, 10271, 678, 756, 111, 70, 13036, 162708, 111, 102126, 136, 678, 5941, 162708, 23, 208244, 214, 28811, 76726, 5, 28379, 6, 68823, 124519, 111, 70, 22691, 17203, 47, 70, 206990, 10776, 7, 111, 177375, 136, 209683, 538, 47, 3789, 30839, 162708, 4, 2685, 83, 142, 118055, 102134, 939, 111, 1940, 60089, 5324, 11374, 5, 581, 15, 571, 79855, 16, 136, 70, 15, 39463, 16, 111240, 40368, 1119, 41745, 272, 27081, 10271, 1556, 6626, 60091, 21640, 146619, 7, 5, 48938, 15, 618, 71956, 16, 83, 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230916, 84125, 5, 581, 21656, 5097, 27140, 15, 193485, 7, 89402, 21656, 5097, 16, 83, 70, 142105, 152363, 17986, 23, 14713, 4, 1152, 21896, 4420, 6863, 59665, 7, 47, 70, 6602, 729, 963, 5, 581, 21656, 5097, 83, 93403, 645, 22759, 15271, 136, 66016, 505, 4, 70, 6338, 113976, 5570, 23, 10271, 136, 102126, 83, 155703, 9, 618, 5442, 3293, 5426, 71872, 7, 375, 11856, 297, 6338, 18215, 4, 6338, 1202, 136, 3789, 2053, 23, 142, 202281, 6181, 75973, 5, 10271, 1556, 20600, 297, 40368, 75281, 4092, 3835, 171918, 48450, 15271, 36880, 70, 10323, 16792, 6360, 581, 135051, 33120, 7, 621, 142156, 297, 153161, 23, 9879, 103724, 7, 74, 42830, 8010, 53370, 7, 6896, 2588, 23, 24401, 136, 112467, 6, 4, 10271, 1902, 6, 200439, 115215, 4, 128169, 84988, 4, 192066, 20020, 23, 17480, 966, 3768, 61112, 136, 9103, 4, 128341, 25550, 13, 90, 23, 108880, 136, 234311, 5, 581, 26349, 1556, 10, 13007, 46799, 158978, 53019, 1528, 5, 24372, 21721, 214, 158978, 10696, 4, 25921, 21342, 47, 70, 15, 11, 199083, 10696, 16, 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summarize: Jarník was born December 22, 1897. He was the son of, a professor of Romance language philology at Charles University, and his older brother, Hertvík Jarník, also became a professor of linguistics. Despite this background, Jarník learned no Latin at his gymnasium (the C.K. české vyšší reálné gymnasium, Ječná, Prague), so when he entered Charles University in 1915 he had to do so as an extraordinary student until he could pass a Latin examination three semesters later. He studied mathematics and physics at Charles University from 1915 to 1919, with Karel Petr as a mentor. After completing his studies, he became an assistant to Jan Vojtěch at the Brno University of Technology, where he also met Mathias Lerch. In 1921 he completed a doctoral degree (RNDr.) at Charles University with a dissertation on Bessel functions supervised by Petr, then returned to Charles University as Petr's assistant. While keeping his position at Charles University, he studied with Edmund Landau at the University of Göttingen from 1923 to 1925 and again from 1927 to 1929. On his first return to Charles University he defended his habilitation, and on his return from the second visit, he was given a chair in mathematics as an extraordinary professor. He was promoted to full professor in 1935 and later served as Dean of Sciences (1947–1948) and Vice-Rector (1950–1953). He retired in 1968. Jarník supervised the dissertations of 16 doctoral students. Notable among these are Miroslav Katětov, a chess master who became rector of Charles University, Jaroslav Kurzweil, known for the Henstock–Kurzweil integral, and Slovak mathematician Tibor Šalát. He died September 22, 1970. Although Jarník's 1921 dissertation, like some of his later publications, was in mathematical analysis, his main area of work was in number theory. He studied the Gauss circle problem and proved a number of results on Diophantine approximation, lattice point problems, and the geometry of numbers. He also made pioneering, but long-neglected, contributions to combinatorial optimization. The Gauss circle problem asks for the number of points of the integer lattice enclosed by a given circle. One of Jarník's theorems (1926), related to this problem, is that any convex curve with length passes through at most points of the integer lattice. The formula_2 in this formula is an instance of Big O notation. Neither the exponent of nor the leading constant of this bound can be improved, as there exist convex curves with this many grid points. Another theorem of Jarník in this area shows that, for any closed convex curve in the plane with a well-defined length, the absolute difference between the area it encloses and the number of integer points it encloses is at most its length. Jarník also published several results in Diophantine approximation, the study of the approximation of real numbers by rational numbers. He proved (1928–1929) that the badly approximable real numbers (the ones with bounded terms in their continued fractions) have Hausdorff dimension one. This is the same dimension as the set of all real numbers, intuitively suggesting that the set of badly approximable numbers is large. He also considered the numbers for which there exist infinitely many good rational approximations, with for a given exponent, and proved (1929) that these have the smaller Hausdorff dimension. The second of these results was later rediscovered by Besicovitch. Besicovitch used different methods than Jarník to prove it, and the result has come to be known as the Jarník–Besicovitch theorem. Jarník's work in real analysis was sparked by finding, in the unpublished works of Bernard Bolzano, a definition of a continuous function that was nowhere differentiable. Bolzano's 1830 discovery predated the 1872 publication of the Weierstrass function, previously considered to be the first example of such a function. Based on his study of Bolzano's function, Jarník was led to a more general theorem: If a real-valued function of a closed interval does not have bounded variation in any subinterval, then there is a dense subset of its domain on which at least one of its Dini derivatives is infinite. This applies in particular to the nowhere-differentiable functions, as they must have unbounded variation in all intervals. Later, after learning of a result by Stefan Banach and Stefan Mazurkiewicz that generic functions (that is, the members of a residual set of functions) are nowhere differentiable, Jarník proved that at almost all points, all four Dini derivatives of such a function are infinite. Much of his later work in this area concerned extensions of these results to approximate derivatives. In computer science and combinatorial optimization, Jarník is known for an algorithm for constructing minimum spanning trees that he published in 1930, in response to the publication of Borůvka's algorithm by another Czech mathematician, Otakar Borůvka. Jarník's algorithm builds a tree from a single starting vertex of a given weighted graph by repeatedly adding the cheapest connection to any other vertex, until all vertices have been connected. The same algorithm was later rediscovered in the late 1950s by Robert C. Prim and Edsger W. Dijkstra. It is also known as Prim's algorithm or the Prim–Dijkstra algorithm. He also published a second, related, paper with (1934) on the Euclidean Steiner tree problem. In this problem, one must again form a tree connecting a given set of points, with edge costs given by the Euclidean distance. However, additional points that are not part of the input may be added to make the overall tree shorter. This paper is the first serious treatment of the general Steiner tree problem (although it appears earlier in a letter by Gauss), and it already contains "virtually all general properties of Steiner trees" later attributed to other researchers. Jarník was a member of the Czech Academy of Sciences and Arts, from 1934 as an extraordinary member and from 1946 as a regular member. In 1952 he became one of the founding members of Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. He was also awarded the Czechoslovak State Prize in 1952. The Vojtěch Jarník International Mathematical Competition, held each year since 1991 in Ostrava, is named in his honor, as is Jarníkova Street in the Chodov district of Prague. A series of postage stamps published by Czechoslovakia in 1987 to honor the 125th anniversary of the Union of Czechoslovak mathematicians and physicists included one stamp featuring Jarník together with Joseph Petzval and Vincenc Strouhal. A conference was held in Prague, in March 1998, to honor the centennial of his birth. Jarník published 90 papers in mathematics, including: He was also the author of ten textbooks in Czech, on integral calculus, differential equations, and mathematical analysis. These books "became classics for several generations of students".

Vojtěch Jarník (; 1897–1970) was a Czech mathematician who worked for many years as a professor and administrator at Charles University, and helped found the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. He is the namesake of Jarník's algorithm for minimum spanning trees.

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summarize: The century had the first global-scale total wars between world powers across continents and oceans in World War I and World War II. Nationalism became a major political issue in the world in the 20th century, acknowledged in international law along with the right of nations to self-determination, official decolonization in the mid-century, and related regional conflicts. The century saw a major shift in the way that many people lived, with changes in politics, ideology, economics, society, culture, science, technology, and medicine. The 20th century may have seen more technological and scientific progress than all the other centuries combined since the dawn of civilization. Terms like "nationalism", "globalism", "environmentalism", "ideology", "world war", "genocide," and "nuclear war" entered common usage. Scientific discoveries, such as the theory of relativity and quantum physics, profoundly changed the foundational models of physical science, forcing scientists to realize that the universe was more complex than previously believed, and dashing the hopes (or fears) at the end of the 19th century that the last few details of scientific knowledge were about to be filled in. It was a century that started with horses, simple automobiles, and freighters but ended with high-speed rail, cruise ships, global commercial air travel and the Space Shuttle. Horses and other pack animals, every society's basic form of personal transportation for thousands of years, were replaced by automobiles and buses within a few decades. These developments were made possible by the exploitation of fossil fuel resources, which offered energy in an easily portable form, but also caused concern about pollution and long-term impact on the environment. Humans explored space for the first time, taking their first footsteps on the Moon. Mass media, telecommunications, and information technology (especially computers, paperback books, public education, and the Internet) made the world's knowledge more widely available. Advancements in medical technology also improved the health of many people: the global life expectancy increased from 35 years to 65 years. Rapid technological advancements, however, also allowed warfare to reach unprecedented levels of destruction. World War II alone killed over 60 million people, while nuclear weapons gave humankind the means to annihilate itself in a short time. However, these same wars resulted in the destruction of the imperial system. For the first time in human history, empires and their wars of expansion and colonization ceased to be a factor in international affairs, resulting in a far more globalized and cooperative world. The last time major powers clashed openly was in 1945, and since then, violence has seen an unprecedented decline. The world also became more culturally homogenized than ever with developments in transportation and communications technology, popular music and other influences of Western culture, international corporations, and what was arguably a truly global economy by the end of the 20th century. Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state. At the beginning of the period, the British Empire was the world's most powerful nation, having acted as the world's policeman for the past century. Fascism, a movement which grew out of post-war angst and which accelerated during the Great Depression of the 1930s, gained momentum in Italy, Germany, and Spain in the 1920s and 1930s, culminating in World War II, sparked by Nazi Germany's aggressive expansion at the expense of its neighbors. Meanwhile, Japan had rapidly transformed itself into a technologically advanced industrial power and, along with Germany and Italy, formed the Axis powers. Japan's military expansionism in East Asia and the Pacific Ocean brought it into conflict with the United States, culminating in a surprise attack which drew the US into World War II. After some years of dramatic military success, Germany was defeated in 1945, having been invaded by the Soviet Union and Poland from the East and by the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and France from the West. After the victory of the Allies in Europe, the war in Asia ended with the Soviet invasion of Manchuria and the dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan by the US, the first nation to develop nuclear weapons and the only one to use them in warfare. In total, World War II left some 60 million people dead. After the war, Germany was occupied and divided between the Western powers and the Soviet Union. East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe became Soviet puppet states under communist rule. Western Europe was rebuilt with the aid of the American Marshall Plan, resulting in a major post-war economic boom, and many of the affected nations became close allies of the United States. With the Axis defeated and Britain and France rebuilding, the United States and the Soviet Union were left standing as the world's only superpowers. Allies during the war, they soon became hostile to one another as their competing ideologies of communism and democratic capitalism proliferated in Europe, which became divided by the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall. They formed competing military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact) which engaged in a decades-long standoff known as the Cold War. The period was marked by a new arms race as the USSR became the second nation to develop nuclear weapons, which were produced by both sides in sufficient numbers to end most human life on the planet had a large-scale nuclear exchange ever occurred. Mutually assured destruction is credited by many historians as having prevented such an exchange, each side being unable to strike first at the other without ensuring an equally devastating retaliatory strike. Unable to engage one another directly, the conflict played out in a series of proxy wars around the world—particularly in China, Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Afghanistan—as the USSR sought to export communism while the US attempted to contain it. The technological competition between the two sides led to substantial investment in research and development which produced innovations that reached far beyond the battlefield, such as space exploration and the Internet. In the latter half of the century, most of the European-colonized world in Africa and Asia gained independence in a process of decolonization. Meanwhile, globalization opened the door for several nations to exert a strong influence over many world affairs. The US's global military presence spread American culture around the world with the advent of the Hollywood motion picture industry, Broadway, rock and roll, pop music, fast food, big-box stores, and the hip-hop lifestyle. Britain also continued to influence world culture, including the "British Invasion" into American music, leading many rock bands from other countries (such as Swedish ABBA) to sing in English. After the Soviet Union collapsed under internal pressure in 1991, most of the communist governments it had supported around the world were dismantled—with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and Laos—followed by awkward transitions into market economies. Following World War II, the United Nations, successor to the League of Nations, was established as an international forum in which the world's nations could discuss issues diplomatically. It enacted resolutions on such topics as the conduct of warfare, environmental protection, international sovereignty, and human rights. Peacekeeping forces consisting of troops provided by various countries, with various United Nations and other aid agencies, helped to relieve famine, disease, and poverty, and to suppress some local armed conflicts. Europe slowly united, economically and, in some ways, politically, to form the European Union, which consisted of 15 European countries by the end of the 20th century. In the last third of the century, concern about humankind's impact on the Earth's environment made environmentalism popular. In many countries, especially in Europe, the movement was channeled into politics through Green parties. Increasing awareness of global warming began in the 1980s, commencing decades of social and political debate. Due to continuing industrialization and expanding trade, many significant changes of the century were, directly or indirectly, economic and technological in nature. Inventions such as the light bulb, the automobile, and the telephone in the late 19th century, followed by supertankers, airliners, motorways, radio, television, antibiotics, nuclear power, frozen food, computers and microcomputers, the Internet, and mobile telephones affected people's quality of life across the developed world. Scientific research, engineering professionalization and technological development—much of it motivated by the Cold War arms race—drove changes in everyday life. At the beginning of the century, strong discrimination based on race and sex was significant in general society. Although the Atlantic slave trade had ended in the 19th century, the fight for equality for non-white people in the white-dominated societies of North America, Europe, and South Africa continued. During the century, the social taboo of sexism fell. By the end of the 20th century, women had the same legal rights as men in many parts of the world, and racism had come to be seen as abhorrent. Attitudes towards homosexuality also began to change in the later part of the century. Communications and information technology, transportation technology, and medical advances had radically altered daily lives. Europe appeared to be at a sustainable peace for the first time in recorded history. The people of the Indian subcontinent, a sixth of the world population at the end of the 20th century, had attained an indigenous independence for the first time in centuries. China, an ancient nation comprising a fifth of the world population, was finally open to the world, creating a new state after the near-complete destruction of the old cultural order. With the end of colonialism and the Cold War, nearly a billion people in Africa were left in new nation states after centuries of foreign domination. The world was undergoing its second major period of globalization; the first, which started in the 18th century, having been terminated by World War I. Since the US was in a dominant position, a major part of the process was Americanization. The influence of China and India was also rising, as the world's largest populations were rapidly integrating with the world economy. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were pressing global issues. The world was still blighted by small-scale wars and other violent conflicts, fueled by competition over resources and by ethnic conflicts. Despots such as Kim Jong-il of North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. Disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. New viruses such as the West Nile virus continued to spread. Malaria and other diseases affected large populations. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS. The virus was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa. Based on research done by climate scientists, the majority of the scientific community consider that in the long term environmental problems may threaten the planet's habitability. One argument is that of global warming occurring due to human-caused emission of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide produced by the burning of fossil fuels. This prompted many nations to negotiate and sign the Kyoto treaty, which set mandatory limits on carbon dioxide emissions. World population increased from about 1.6 billion people in 1901 to 6.1 billion at the century's end. The number of people killed during the century by government actions was in the hundreds of millions. This includes deaths caused by wars, genocide, politicide and mass murders. The deaths from acts of war during the two world wars alone have been estimated at between 50 and 80 million. Political scientist Rudolph Rummel estimated 262,000,000 deaths caused by democide, which excludes those killed in war battles, civilians unintentionally killed in war and killings of rioting mobs. According to Charles Tilly, "Altogether, about 100 million people died as a direct result of action by organized military units backed by one government or another over the course of the century. Most likely a comparable number of civilians died of war-induced disease and other indirect effects." It is estimated that approximately 70 million Europeans died through war, violence and famine between 1914 and 1945. The invention of music recording technologies such as the phonograph record, and dissemination technologies such as radio broadcasting, massively expanded the audience for music. Prior to the 20th century, music was generally only experienced in live performances. Many new genres of music were established during the 20th century. The world's most popular, famous or revered music artists of the 20th century include: Louis Armstrong, Little Richard, Igor Stravinsky, Gustav Mahler, George Gershwin, Sergei Prokofiev, Benjamin Britten, Maurice Ravel, Arnold Schoenberg, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aaron Copland, Béla Bartók, Ernesto Lecuona, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss, Thelonious Monk, Ella Fitzgerald, Duke Ellington, Bing Crosby, ABBA, The Beach Boys, The Beatles, Harry Belafonte, Chuck Berry, James Brown, Miles Davis, Bob Dylan, Jimi Hendrix, Eagles, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Bee Gees, Barbra Streisand, Cher, Nat "King" Cole, Robert Johnson, Led Zeppelin, Leonard Cohen, Queen, Madonna, Bob Marley, Metallica, Charlie Parker, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Frank Sinatra, Stevie Wonder, Radiohead, Aretha Franklin, Tupac Shakur, Nirvana, The Notorious B.I.G., Amr Diab, Fairuz, Umm Kulthum, Abdel Halim Hafez, Randy Newman and many more. Film as an artistic medium was created in the 20th century. The first modern movie theatre was established in Pittsburgh in 1905. Hollywood developed as the center of American film production. While the first films were in black and white, technicolor was developed in the 1920s to allow for color films. Sound films were developed, with the first full-length feature film, "The Jazz Singer", released in 1927. The Academy Awards were established in 1929. Animation was also developed in the 1920s, with the first full-length cel animated feature film "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", released in 1937. Computer-generated imagery was developed in the 1980s, with the first full-length CGI-animated film "Toy Story" was released in 1995. Video games—due to the great technological steps forward in computing since the second post-war period—are the new form of entertainment emerged in the 20th century alongside films. Multiple new fields of mathematics were developed in the 20th century. In the first part of the 20th century, measure theory, functional analysis, and topology were established, and significant developments were made in fields such as abstract algebra and probability. The development of set theory and formal logic led to Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Later in the 20th century, the development of computers led to the establishment of a theory of computation. Other computationally-intense results include the study of fractals and a proof of the four color theorem in 1976. One of the prominent traits of the 20th century was the dramatic growth of technology. Organized research and practice of science led to advancement in the fields of communication, electronics, engineering, travel, medicine, and war. A technological revolution began in the late 20th century, variously called the Digital Revolution, the information revolution, the electronics revolution, the microelectronic revolution, the Information Age, the silicon revolution, the Silicon Age, and/or the third industrial revolution.

The 20th (twentieth) century was a century that began on January 1, 1901 and ended on December 31, 2000. It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium.

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summarize: The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was founded at the congress of the Czechoslovak Social-Democratic Party (Left), held in Prague May 14–16, 1921. "Rudé právo", previously the organ of the Left Social-Democrats, became the main organ of the new party. As a first chairman was elected Václav Šturc, first vice-chairman was Bohumír Šmeral and second vice-chairman was Vaclav Bolen. The party was one of some twenty political parties that competed within the democratic framework of the First Czechoslovak Republic, but it was never in government. In 1925 parliamentary election the party gained 934,223 votes (13.2%, 2nd place) and 41 seats. The party was the Czechoslovak section of the Communist International. As of 1928 the party was the second-largest section of the International, with an estimated membership of around 138,000, more than twice the membership of the French Communist Party and nearly five times the membership of the Communist Party of China at the time. In 1929 Klement Gottwald became party Secretary-General after the purging from it of various oppositional elements some of whom allied themselves to Trotsky and the International Left Opposition. In 1929 parliamentary election the party gained 753,220 votes (10.2%, 4th place) and 30 seats. In 1935 parliamentary election the party held its 30 seats with 849,495 votes (10.32%, 4th place). The party was banned in October 1938, but continued to exist as an underground organisation. Following the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, anti-German protests broke out in Prague in October 1939. In response, the Comintern ordered the party to oppose the protests, which they blamed on "chauvinist elements". During World War II many KSČ leaders sought refuge in the Soviet Union, where they prepared to broaden the party's power base once the war ended. In the early postwar period the Soviet-supported Czechoslovak communists launched a sustained drive that culminated in their seizure of power in 1948. Once in control, KSČ developed an organizational structure and mode of rule patterned closely after those of CPSU. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was in a coalition government from 1945 to 1948. After the war the party grew rapidly, reaching one million members by the time of the 1946 elections: at these elections it became the largest party in Parliament, and party chairman Klement Gottwald became prime minister in a free election. Following the Communist coup d'état of 1948, when free elections and other political freedoms were effectively abolished, power was formally held by the National Front, a coalition in which the KSČ held two-thirds of the seats while the remaining one-third were shared among five other political parties. However, KSČ held a "de facto" absolute monopoly on political power, and the other parties within the National Front were little more than auxiliaries. Even the governmental structure of Czechoslovakia existed primarily to implement policy decisions made within the KSČ. A dispute broke out between Gottwald and the second most-powerful man in the country, party General Secretary Rudolf Slánský, over the extent to which Czechoslovakia should conform with the Soviet model. In 1951, Slánský and several other senior Communists were arrested and charged with participating in a "Trotskyite-Titoite-Zionist conspiracy". They were subjected to a show trial in 1952 (the Prague Trials) and Slánský and 10 other defendants were executed. In the early 1960s, Czechoslovakia underwent an economic downturn, and in 1968, the KSČ was taken over by reformers led by Alexander Dubček. He started a period of liberalization known as the Prague Spring in which he attempted to implement "socialism with a human face". The Soviet Union believed the process of liberalization would end state socialism in the country and on 21 August 1968, Warsaw Pact forces invaded. Subsequently, the Soviet justification for the invasion would become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine. In April 1969, Dubček was removed as party General Secretary (replaced by Gustáv Husák) and expelled in 1970. During the period of normalization that followed, the party was dominated by two factions: moderates and hardliners. Moderates and pragmatists were represented by Gustáv Husák who led the neostalinist wing of KSČ leadership. As a moderate or pragmatic, he was pressed by hardliners, most notably Vasil Biľak. An important Slovak Communist Party functionary from 1943 to 1950, Husák was arrested in 1951 and sentenced to three years, later increased to life imprisonment, for "bourgeois nationalism" during the Stalinist purges of the era. Released in 1960 and rehabilitated in 1963, Husák refused any political position in Antonín Novotný's régime but after Novotný's fall he became deputy prime minister during the Prague Spring. After Dubček's resignation Husák was named KSČ First Secretary in April 1969 and president of the republic in July 1975. Above all, Husák was a survivor who learned to accommodate the powerful political forces surrounding him and he denounced Dubček after 1969. Other prominent moderates/pragmatics who were still in power by 1987 included: These leaders generally supported the reforms instituted under Dubček during the late 1960s but successfully made the transition to orthodox party rule following the invasion and Dubček's decline from power. Subsequently, they adopted a more flexible stance regarding economic reform and dissident activity. Key members of this faction included: These hardliners opposed economic and political reforms and took a harsh stand on dissent. The party's hegemony ended with the Velvet Revolution in 1989. In November, Jakeš and the entire Presidium resigned. Jakeš was succeeded by Karel Urbanek, who only held power for about a month before the party formally abandoned power in December. Later that month, Husák, who retained the presidency after standing down as general secretary, was forced to swear in the country's first non-Communist government in 41 years. At the 18th party congress held November 3–4, 1990, the party was rebaptized as KSČS and became a federation of two parties: the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSČM) and the Communist Party of Slovakia (KSS). Pavol Kanis served as the chairman of the Federal Council of KSČS. However, the two constituent organizations of the federal party were moving in different directions politically and there was great tension between them. KSS, the Slovak constituent party of KSČS, was renamed as Party of the Democratic Left (SDL) on January 26, 1991. Whilst no longer a communist party per se, SDL formally remained as the Slovak constituent party of KSČS. In August 1991, upon the request of SDL, the party mutated into the Federation of the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia and the Party of the Democratic Left ("Federácie KSČM a SDĽ"). KSČM unsuccessfully appealed to two Slovak communist splinter parties, the Communist Party of Slovakia – 91 (KSS '91) and the Union of Communists of Slovakia (ZKS), to join the Federation. At the first SDL congress in December 1991, SDL formally withdrew from the Federation with the KSČM. The Federation was formally declared dissolved in April 1992. KSČ organization was based on the Leninist concept of democratic centralism, which provided for the election of party leaders at all levels but required that each level be fully subject to the control of the next higher unit. Accordingly, party programs and policies were directed from the top, and resolutions of higher organs were unconditionally binding on all lower organs and individual party members. In theory, policy matters were freely and openly discussed at congresses, conferences, membership meetings, and in the party press. In practice, however, these discussions merely reflected decisions made by a small contingent of top party officials. The supreme KSČ organ was the party congress, which normally convened every five years for a session lasting less than one week. An exception was made with respect to the 14th Party Congress, which was held in August 1968 under Dubček's leadership. Held in semi-secrecy in a tractor factory in the opening days of the Soviet occupation, this congress denounced the invasion, and was later declared illegal, its proceedings stricken from party records, and a second, "legal" 14th Party Congress held in May 1971. Subsequent numbered congresses were held in April 1976, April 1981 and March 1986. Party congress theoretically was responsible for making basic policy decisions; in practice, however, it was the Presidium of the Central Committee that held the decision-making and policy-making responsibilities. The congress merely endorsed the reports and directives of the top party leadership. The statutory duties assigned the party congress included determination of the party's domestic and foreign policies; approval of the party program and statutes; and election of the Central Committee and the Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission, as well as discussion and approval of their reports. Between congresses, KSČ's Central Committee (CC) was responsible for directing party activities and implementing general policy decisions. Party statutes also provided that CC functioned as the primary arm of KSČ control over the organs of federal government and the republics, National Front, and all cultural and professional organizations. Party members holding leading positions in these bodies were responsible directly to CC for the implementation of KSČ policies. In addition, CC screened nominations for all important government and party positions and selected the editor-in-chief of "Rudé právo", the principal party newspaper. CC generally met in full session at least twice a year. In 1976, CC had 115 members and 45 candidates; in 1986, these figures were 135 and 62, respectively. In terms of composition, CC normally included leading party and government officials, military officials, and some celebrities. CC, like the party congress, rarely acted as more than a rubber stamp of policy decisions made by KSČ's Presidium, except when factional infighting developed within the Presidium in 1968 and CC assumed crucial importance in resolving the dispute to oust First Secretary Novotný in favour of Dubček. Generally, decisions on which CC voted were reached beforehand so that votes taken at the sessions were unanimous. The Presidium, which conducted party work between full committee sessions, formally was elected by the CC; in reality, top party leaders determined its composition. In 1986, there were 11 full members and 6 candidate members. CC's Secretariat acted as the party's highest administrative authority and as the nerve centre of the party's extensive control mechanism. The Secretariat supervised implementation of decisions made in the Presidium, controlled any movement up and down the party ladder, and directed work within the party and government apparatus. Under Husák, composition of the Secretariat, like that of the Presidium, remained rather constant. Many secretaries were also members of the Presidium. The Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission played a dual role, overseeing party discipline and supervising party finances, but it did not control anything. As an organ for enforcement of party standards, Central Supervisory and Auditing Commission frequently wielded its power to suspend or expel "deviant" party members. It was this commission that directed the massive purges in party membership during the early and late 1970s. Members were elected at each party congress (45 members in 1986). These members then elected from among themselves a chairman, deputy chairmen, and a small presidium. Sub-units of the commission existed at the republic, regional and district levels of the party structure. Other KSČ commissions in 1987 included People's Supervisory Commission, Agriculture and Food Commission, Economic Commission, Ideological Commission, and Youth Commission. In 1987 the party also had 18 departments (agitation and propaganda; agriculture, food industry, forestry and water management; Comecon cooperation; culture; economic administration; economics; education and science; elected state organs; external economic relations; fuels and energy; industry; transport and communications; international affairs; mass media; political organisation; science and technology; social organisations and national committees; state administration; and a general department). In most instances the party departments paralleled agencies and ministries of the government and supervised their activities to ensure conformity with KSČ norms and programmes. Also under CC supervision were two party training centres: the Advanced School of Politics and the Institute of Marxism-Leninism (see below). Down on republic level party structure deviated from the government organisation in that a separate communist party unit existed in the Slovak Socialist Republic (see Communist Party of Slovakia) but not in the Czech Socialist Republic. KSS emerged from World War II as a party distinct from KSČ, but the two were united after the communist takeover in 1948. The reformer movement of the 1960s advocated a return to a system of autonomous parties for the two republics. Bureau for the Conduct of Party Work in the Czech Lands was created as a counterpart to KSS, but it was suppressed after the 1968 invasion and by 1971 had been stricken from party records. KSČ had ten regional subdivisions (seven in the Czech lands, three in Slovakia) identical to "kraje", the ten major governmental administrative divisions. In addition, however, the Prague and Bratislava municipal party organs, because of their size, were given regional status within KSČ. Regional conferences selected regional committees, which in turn selected a leading secretary, a number of secretaries and a regional Supervisory and Auditing Commission. Regional units were broken down into a total of 114 district-level (Czech: "okresní") organisations. District conferences were held simultaneously every two to three years, at which time each conference selected a district committee that subsequently selected a secretariat to be headed by a district secretary. At local level, KSČ was structured according to what it called "territorial and production principle"; basic party units were organised in work sites and residences where there are at least five KSČ members. In enterprises or communities where party membership was more numerous, smaller units functioned under larger city, village or factorywide committees. Highest authority of the local organisation was, theoretically, the monthly membership meeting, attendance at which was a basic duty of every member. Each group selected its own leadership, consisting of a chairman and one or more secretaries. It also named delegates to the conference of the next higher unit, be it at municipal (like in case of larger cities) or district level. Since assuming power in 1948, KSČ had one of the largest per capita membership rolls in the communist world (11 percent of the entire population). The membership roll was often alleged by party ideologues to contain a large component of inactive, opportunistic, and "counterrevolutionary" elements. These charges were used on two occasions, between 1948 and 1950 and again from 1969 to 1971, as a pretext to conduct massive purges of the membership. In the first case, during the great Stalinist purges, nearly 1 million members were removed; in the wake of the Prague Spring and subsequent invasion, about half that number either resigned or were purged from KSČ. Purges following the 1968 invasion hit especially the Czechs, the youth and the blue-collar workers, as well as the intelligentsia within the party membership. By the end of 1970, KSČ had lost approx. 27.8% of its members compared to January 1968 figures as a result of forced removal or voluntary resignation. Despite this attrition, a membership of "almost 1,200,000" was claimed in the spring of 1971 for a country with an estimated population of approx. 14.5 million — still one of the highest Communist party membership rates in the world on a percentage basis at that time. Owing to this membership decline, accelerated recruitment efforts were targeted at youth and factory workers for the rest of the 1970s. The party's membership efforts in the 1980s focused on recruiting politically and professionally qualified people willing to exercise greater activism in implementing the party's program. Party leaders at the 17th Party Congress (1986) urged recruitment of more workers, young people, and women. In 1981 it had 1,538,179 members (10% of the population) KSČ membership was contingent upon completion of a one year period as a candidate member. Candidate members could not vote or be elected to party committees. In addition to candidates for party membership, there were also candidates for party leadership groups from the local levels to the Presidium. These candidates, already party members, were considered interns training for the future assumption of particular leadership responsibilities. Indoctrination and training of party members was one of the basic responsibilities of regional and district organizations, and party training was mostly conducted on these levels. Regional and district units worked with local party organizations in setting up training programs and determining which members would be enrolled in particular courses of study. On the whole, the system of party schooling changed little since it was established in 1949. A district or city organization provided weekly classes in the fundamentals of Marxism-Leninism, history of communism, socialist economics, and current party position on domestic and international affairs. Members training for positions as party functionaries attended seminars at schools for Marxism-Leninism set up in local areas or at more advanced institutes for Marxism-Leninism found in Prague, Brno and Bratislava. The highest level of party training was offered at the Advanced School of Politics in Prague. Designed to train the top echelon of party leadership, the three-year curriculum had the official status of a university program and was said to be one of the best programs in political science in Eastern Europe. These institutions were under the direction of KSČ Central Committee. Because of KSČ's mandate to be a workers' party, questions about social background of party members took on a particular salience. KSČ was often reticent with precise details about its members, and the question of how many in the party actually belonged to the revolutionary proletariat proper became a delicate one. Official statements appeared to overstate the percentage of workers within the party's ranks. Nonetheless, a number of trends were clear. The proportion of workers in KSČ was at its highest (approximately 60% of total membership) after World War II but before the party took power in 1948. After that time, percentage of workers fell steadily to a low of an estimated one-quarter of the membership in 1970. In the early 1970s, government media decried the "grave imbalance," noting that "[the] present class and social structure of party membership is not in conformity with the party's role as a vanguard for the working class." In highly industrialized central Bohemia, for example, only 1 in every 35 workers was party member, while 1 in every 5 administrators was. In 1976, after intensive efforts to recruit workers, number of workers rose to one-third of the KSČ membership, i.e., approx. its 1962 level. In the 1980s, driven by a need for "intensive" economic development, the party relaxed its rigid rule about young workers' priority in admissions and allowed district and regional committees to be flexible in their recruitment policy, as long as the overall proportion of workers did not decrease. Average age of party members showed a comparable trend. In the late 1960s, fewer than 30% of party members were under 35 years of age, nearly 20% were over 60, and roughly half were 45 or older. The quip in 1971, a half-century after the party's founding in Czechoslovakia, was "After fifty years, a party of fifty-year-olds." There was a determined effort to attract younger members to the party in the middle to late 1970s; one strategy was to recruit children of parents who were KSČ members. The party sent letters to the youngsters' schools and their parents' employers, encouraging the children to join. By early 1980 approximately one-third of KSČ members were 35 years of age or younger. In 1983, average age of the "leading cadre" was still estimated at 50. Throughout the 1970s and 80s, government media denounced party members' lack of devotion to the pursuit of KSČ policies and goals. Complaints ranged from members' refusal to display flags from their apartment windows on festive occasions to their failure to show up for party work brigades, attend meetings, or pay dues; a significant minority of members tended to underreport their incomes (the basis for assessing dues). In 1970, after a purge of approximately one-third of the membership, an average of less than half the remaining members attended meetings. Perhaps one-third of members were consistently recalcitrant in participating in KSČ activities. In 1983, one primary party branch in the Prague-West district was so unmoved by admonishments that it had to be disbanded and its members dispersed among other organizations. In part, this was a measure of disaffection with Czechoslovakia's thoroughgoing subservience to Soviet hegemony, a Švejkian response to the lack of political and economic autonomy. It was also a reflection of the purge's targets. Those expelled were often the ideologically motivated, the ones for whom developing socialism with a human face represented a significant goal; those who were simply opportunistic survived the purges more easily. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Official designations of leaders of the KSČ: 1921–1945 General Secretary (; ); 1945–53 Chairman (; ); 1953–1971 First Secretary (;); 1971–1989: General Secretary; 1989–1990 Chairman.

The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (Czech and Slovak: "Komunistická strana Československa", KSČ) was a Communist and Marxist–Leninist political party in Czechoslovakia that existed between 1921 and 1992. It was a member of the Comintern. Between 1929 and 1953, it was led by Klement Gottwald. After its election victory in 1946, it seized power in the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état and established a one-party state allied with the Soviet Union. Nationalization of virtually all private enterprises followed.

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5, 360, 69407, 111, 166577, 4, 21581, 3638, 538, 99201, 105207, 19085, 136, 27759, 51521, 7, 4, 116338, 51521, 7, 4, 136, 3060, 37624, 31075, 5, 21581, 4, 1884, 70, 19085, 158, 19623, 4, 41207, 538, 10, 89829, 237, 1286, 3501, 10, 21922, 1297, 106507, 111, 44930, 115299, 7228, 390, 80584, 8487, 25, 7, 20703, 14, 28483, 4, 40494, 3229, 7808, 43315, 34128, 22553, 214, 126809, 28032, 70, 20703, 14, 28483, 23, 28015, 136, 21581, 41591, 71, 106157, 131011, 23, 166996, 449, 70, 167956, 47, 628, 271, 23972, 196212, 22695, 18, 1554, 23, 1238, 141775, 111, 36658, 9215, 5, 9082, 538, 4, 115299, 98, 3129, 21581, 43374, 71, 3542, 157578, 8108, 12336, 221, 450, 43374, 7, 39958, 99, 70, 104227, 3542, 220, 18092, 223, 5, 581, 20703, 14, 28483, 4, 3129, 55080, 297, 19085, 4488, 17721, 4393, 175352, 104227, 4, 23113, 538, 509, 3163, 89829, 390, 70, 21581, 74, 23, 50081, 4, 2663, 19085, 119893, 83324, 71, 6863, 166577, 5, 360, 21735, 4, 2685, 3542, 534, 4393, 43032, 136, 305, 25469, 13, 43032, 5, 21581, 25, 7, 74302, 18, 10, 89829, 237, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 167375, 86757, 180210, 136, 237, 70, 24030, 13, 11698, 111, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 1119, 41745, 272, 6226, 191619, 5, 581, 74302, 18, 1601, 1824, 297, 208124, 111, 115299, 7228, 23, 70, 20703, 14, 28483, 4, 6226, 6259, 2499, 112664, 1257, 136, 7565, 70, 19085, 21, 70764, 4, 136, 8951, 297, 4488, 28032, 70, 19085, 136, 27759, 20939, 19481, 5, 9626, 20387, 4217, 4, 166577, 111, 70, 74302, 18, 4, 1884, 450, 111, 70, 20703, 14, 28483, 4, 47143, 297, 43257, 53697, 5, 52455, 104463, 3387, 3542, 2843, 43032, 111, 70, 20703, 14, 28483, 5, 581, 15881, 4265, 51858, 53, 136, 21679, 1916, 63871, 112730, 10, 87758, 31486, 4, 645, 21231, 214, 19085, 80244, 136, 1601, 1824, 214, 19085, 82466, 7, 4, 1284, 442, 6777, 959, 6226, 23937, 5, 1301, 142, 7484, 100, 232725, 111, 19085, 5570, 7, 4, 15881, 4265, 51858, 53, 136, 21679, 1916, 63871, 195409, 1225, 7344, 297, 6863, 14537, 47, 45890, 707, 1119, 5310, 44, 118318, 1236, 58, 19085, 43032, 5, 1650, 509, 903, 62458, 450, 8951, 297, 70, 106750, 7398, 4188, 23, 19085, 209274, 20271, 70, 39395, 136, 72399, 19340, 7, 5, 74057, 7, 3542, 3163, 89829, 99, 12638, 19085, 158, 19623, 15, 4633, 43032, 23, 21735, 194, 32255, 43032, 7068, 3163, 89829, 1295, 54940, 61261, 10, 80923, 669, 4, 8, 7077, 53, 80923, 1055, 4, 136, 10, 19336, 113671, 316, 5, 8273, 9, 309, 14481, 111, 70, 62458, 13835, 71, 99, 70, 456, 57964, 4, 18150, 136, 103724, 90926, 111, 70, 19085, 45646, 5, 64511, 80584, 8487, 62458, 7, 23, 22059, 99201, 41021, 25, 7, 4265, 51858, 53, 63871, 4, 40612, 88528, 136, 34562, 63871, 4, 79048, 63871, 4, 24037, 109622, 63871, 4, 136, 116233, 63871, 5, 360, 22059, 70, 19085, 2843, 1902, 543, 130625, 7, 15, 30235, 2320, 136, 51269, 74, 6, 177849, 4, 15381, 53099, 4, 100, 13, 38904, 136, 7401, 24365, 74, 10592, 2271, 57476, 1363, 74, 29394, 74, 25313, 86052, 74, 25313, 7, 74, 53019, 136, 41664, 74, 3163, 89829, 11341, 7484, 7, 74, 173591, 25313, 91582, 74, 160692, 7, 136, 48302, 74, 53099, 74, 6181, 136, 36398, 7, 74, 21640, 103086, 7, 74, 46889, 2450, 74, 68894, 49894, 74, 41664, 136, 55556, 74, 2265, 139240, 136, 15889, 175352, 7, 74, 11341, 86052, 74, 136, 10, 4537, 130625, 194, 360, 2684, 110527, 7, 70, 19085, 130625, 7, 95103, 297, 184641, 136, 39333, 90, 111, 70, 27759, 136, 1601, 1824, 297, 2363, 69924, 47, 63284, 19911, 2481, 678, 80584, 8487, 22599, 7, 136, 26693, 7, 5, 22376, 1379, 21581, 1601, 25826, 3542, 6626, 19085, 23189, 70880, 12, 70, 127596, 19188, 111, 73826, 7, 136, 70, 43975, 111, 66128, 8780, 9, 5267, 694, 8780, 15, 21231, 35064, 194, 49472, 98, 456, 57964, 17366, 19085, 45646, 30170, 27686, 1295, 70, 27759, 49894, 23, 450, 10, 84797, 52287, 271, 19085, 25072, 13835, 71, 23, 70, 154350, 7142, 1419, 47806, 15, 21231, 84158, 271, 31016, 111, 192049, 16, 1284, 959, 23, 70, 103655, 7142, 1419, 47806, 5, 341, 15268, 74216, 71, 1295, 6661, 5550, 1995, 237, 10, 19085, 117781, 1295, 80584, 8487, 4, 1284, 70, 6626, 3542, 25072, 297, 7103, 70, 52287, 271, 5646, 5465, 23, 31100, 5, 581, 17690, 56, 112664, 111, 70, 23936, 7, 204797, 71, 10, 30646, 47, 10, 5426, 111, 58963, 10821, 68036, 100, 70, 6626, 456, 57964, 7, 5, 86907, 100, 70, 1657, 77193, 111, 31016, 27985, 23, 70, 103655, 40530, 509, 75935, 237, 10, 105416, 17365, 47, 341, 15268, 4, 1284, 442, 509, 15811, 11856, 297, 7103, 70, 28015, 116000, 191, 136, 390, 32158, 1902, 2809, 22223, 11960, 1295, 19085, 115923, 5, 80584, 8487, 1902, 1492, 18150, 1614, 428, 25826, 7, 15, 7, 26301, 23, 70, 103655, 33532, 4, 17262, 23, 192049, 16, 31943, 6827, 47, 44, 50140, 13, 830, 70, 1492, 13036, 27759, 289, 86757, 91853, 7, 5, 360, 66044, 4, 49903, 4, 70, 210721, 136, 51864, 14834, 19085, 7484, 7, 4, 6637, 111, 2363, 13267, 4, 3542, 34475, 18150, 10778, 28032, 80584, 8487, 5, 28379, 108870, 7, 133291, 18150, 175352, 7, 4, 3129, 23, 15504, 133291, 10, 105207, 104463, 53, 4, 10, 14012, 111, 104463, 3387, 136, 10, 18150, 4265, 51858, 53, 136, 21679, 1916, 63871, 5, 28379, 25072, 7, 3542, 148431, 7565, 3934, 10, 3622, 111, 44909, 103724, 9, 67919, 15, 441, 731, 206, 12, 44, 685, 2109, 797, 18939, 139240, 5, 59338, 108870, 7, 3542, 34658, 134477, 13, 79850, 11907, 6626, 47, 17262, 5369, 4, 99, 3129, 1733, 12638, 108870, 133291, 10, 103724, 175352, 450, 221419, 538, 133291, 10, 142487, 18, 47, 186, 10336, 297, 390, 10, 103724, 104463, 53, 5, 1913, 4000, 17366, 4, 80584, 8487, 509, 45646, 71, 59499, 47, 2367, 442, 35839, 44, 720, 416, 77275, 136, 36049, 24702, 133, 56128, 62822, 19085, 25072, 7, 3542, 131168, 71, 23, 4488, 15271, 136, 45606, 5170, 7440, 2685, 621, 99, 19713, 43606, 80584, 8487, 43032, 5, 360, 202681, 7, 707, 142080, 7440, 19085, 209274, 509, 1286, 183851, 4, 164917, 25072, 7, 32354, 297, 1379, 150679, 26349, 4, 54427, 707, 31461, 53, 113458, 175352, 7, 5, 19694, 525, 180210, 111, 70, 4000, 49894, 509, 4, 3790, 2264, 71407, 4, 70, 176735, 209274, 41714, 4, 29966, 7154, 99, 3129, 509, 10, 62822, 115, 939, 111, 11907, 32786, 5, 98423, 21115, 133291, 6863, 10002, 133465, 4, 58055, 214, 111, 10, 80923, 669, 136, 1632, 707, 1286, 104463, 3387, 5, 1650, 2843, 24, 4806, 102329, 90, 47, 70, 108870, 111, 70, 11737, 77546, 25072, 4, 186, 442, 99, 14834, 15, 5062, 23, 7225, 111, 150679, 162708, 16, 707, 103724, 17366, 5, 66016, 10, 66596, 214, 14537, 23, 31100, 4, 80584, 8487, 1902, 1632, 111, 70, 142105, 117, 68236, 209274, 21972, 7, 23, 70, 52287, 271, 8999, 27252, 33297, 111, 70, 64194, 43904, 194, 581, 209274, 21972, 509, 27983, 747, 17704, 390, 19085, 5415, 179554, 7, 47, 70541, 10, 21334, 82761, 111, 23, 71232, 4, 125146, 48242, 4, 136, 44, 71013, 56, 107, 137089, 6635, 58, 80854, 5, 32255, 124666, 3542, 11814, 98, 6626, 46505, 7, 4, 17721, 31100, 136, 27631, 136, 13438, 1295, 31060, 47, 32158, 4, 237, 10, 479, 22829, 47, 55080, 106750, 7398, 4188, 111, 70, 209274, 5, 360, 70, 5117, 7225, 4, 20271, 70, 6782, 79062, 1419, 7398, 4188, 4, 110518, 106, 19879, 43032, 3542, 184750, 74, 23, 70, 9908, 111, 70, 210721, 38026, 136, 221419, 116000, 191, 4, 1672, 23552, 450, 14012, 40101, 199747, 297, 707, 3542, 7398, 17704, 1295, 80584, 8487, 5, 16915, 4188, 25632, 70, 28015, 116000, 191, 5962, 41866, 70, 103655, 7, 4, 70, 156206, 136, 70, 57571, 9, 8447, 320, 133325, 4, 237, 5299, 237, 70, 54497, 3478, 28032, 70, 19085, 209274, 5, 3311, 70, 3564, 111, 19340, 4, 80584, 8487, 1902, 72856, 35707, 425, 5, 12498, 11991, 111, 6863, 43032, 154186, 47, 18982, 28015, 26366, 7, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 168861, 49146, 1405, 707, 87093, 6635, 199747, 2320, 5, 262, 61518, 903, 243, 416, 1363, 4, 10, 209274, 111, 44, 289, 840, 18, 25568, 124395, 2389, 58, 509, 63043, 297, 23, 70, 31576, 111, 32158, 100, 10, 23295, 678, 142, 25902, 3674, 43904, 111, 35707, 425, 5, 6370, 758, 19879, 292, 7464, 1632, 111, 70, 167375, 84158, 271, 19085, 209274, 121297, 23, 70, 8999, 98, 10, 169209, 18231, 99, 450, 1733, 5, 180, 14775, 47, 903, 209274, 206398, 4, 197108, 297, 172310, 674, 79825, 3542, 30388, 297, 99, 156206, 136, 31461, 53, 133325, 100, 70, 10588, 111, 70, 19340, 7, 5, 581, 19085, 25, 7, 209274, 79825, 23, 70, 15643, 7, 162393, 98, 172310, 214, 68894, 538, 136, 23182, 538, 217225, 3395, 109269, 47, 81979, 117396, 49980, 8780, 23, 29479, 214, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 1528, 5, 31016, 119893, 99, 70, 729, 927, 31016, 77699, 221094, 104687, 71, 172310, 674, 111, 1286, 133325, 4, 27150, 3395, 4, 136, 24793, 5, 360, 26771, 442, 1902, 10285, 10991, 4, 156918, 43032, 15, 46751, 111, 70, 43904, 16, 80584, 8487, 209274, 509, 102548, 46825, 54799, 21721, 1830, 111, 10, 1632, 6602, 14922, 237, 10, 25469, 13, 32786, 5, 194215, 13, 43032, 5809, 959, 43374, 707, 186, 3163, 89829, 47, 19085, 175352, 7, 5, 360, 66044, 47, 25469, 90, 100, 19085, 209274, 4, 2685, 3542, 2843, 25469, 90, 100, 19085, 133465, 94407, 1295, 70, 4000, 90926, 47, 70, 20703, 14, 28483, 5, 32255, 25469, 90, 4, 21771, 19085, 43032, 4, 3542, 90698, 38478, 7, 23189, 100, 70, 22690, 237259, 111, 17311, 133465, 6, 240906, 5, 360, 29713, 33310, 2320, 136, 23189, 111, 19085, 43032, 509, 1632, 111, 70, 62822, 6, 240906, 111, 18150, 136, 103724, 53702, 7, 4, 136, 19085, 23189, 509, 153161, 55080, 297, 98, 6097, 90926, 5, 28379, 136, 103724, 25072, 7, 79786, 678, 4000, 19085, 53702, 7, 23, 53550, 1257, 23189, 103391, 136, 72694, 214, 3129, 43032, 2806, 186, 22, 27722, 297, 23, 17311, 132073, 111, 35187, 5, 2161, 70, 28271, 4, 70, 5426, 111, 19085, 10696, 214, 98816, 10176, 16792, 442, 509, 170920, 23, 45604, 5, 62, 103724, 707, 26349, 53702, 62952, 5895, 538, 61112, 23, 70, 20531, 7, 111, 66128, 8780, 9, 5267, 694, 8780, 4, 32692, 111, 60013, 8780, 4, 99866, 25313, 7, 4, 136, 43581, 19085, 19069, 98, 85727, 136, 21640, 103086, 7, 5, 74057, 7, 23189, 100, 19069, 7, 237, 19085, 32354, 11, 10484, 29966, 297, 28622, 7, 99, 115215, 100, 66128, 8780, 9, 5267, 694, 8780, 5423, 1257, 23, 4000, 58555, 707, 99, 1286, 175961, 32872, 90, 100, 66128, 8780, 9, 5267, 694, 8780, 14037, 23, 210721, 4, 92981, 136, 51864, 5, 581, 167375, 17366, 111, 19085, 23189, 509, 122399, 99, 70, 127596, 19188, 111, 73826, 7, 23, 210721, 5, 11724, 297, 47, 25550, 70, 2663, 28, 1430, 4759, 111, 19085, 133465, 4, 70, 17262, 9, 46799, 162878, 1902, 70, 51521, 10778, 111, 10, 152363, 1528, 136, 509, 2804, 47, 186, 1632, 111, 70, 2965, 103391, 23, 68894, 41664, 23, 24453, 9022, 14713, 5, 32255, 38016, 7, 3542, 1379, 70, 48225, 111, 80584, 8487, 15881, 148855, 5, 88949, 111, 80584, 8487, 25, 7, 20777, 13, 47, 186, 10, 133325, 25, 19085, 4, 17582, 1672, 2265, 76615, 111, 19085, 43032, 34739, 98, 10, 17311, 39260, 6620, 5, 80584, 8487, 509, 27983, 35425, 16797, 678, 134995, 41653, 1672, 6863, 43032, 4, 136, 70, 9655, 111, 3642, 5941, 23, 70, 19085, 20653, 186, 10617, 297, 47, 70, 98834, 6635, 208539, 29270, 27798, 100512, 10, 71110, 13, 1632, 5, 90512, 63805, 7, 118775, 47, 645, 61340, 70, 169209, 111, 133325, 28032, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 30648, 7, 5, 438, 86, 2347, 9393, 4, 10, 14012, 111, 12768, 7, 3542, 34735, 5, 581, 123875, 111, 133325, 23, 80584, 8487, 509, 99, 6863, 167375, 15, 2631, 64101, 1352, 37838, 30584, 111, 3622, 209274, 16, 7103, 6661, 5550, 1995, 1284, 8108, 70, 19085, 34739, 14537, 23, 31100, 5, 24372, 450, 1733, 4, 169209, 111, 133325, 77736, 2288, 3938, 538, 47, 10, 27226, 111, 142, 25902, 3674, 1632, 9, 167565, 56, 111, 70, 209274, 23, 19340, 5, 360, 70, 39395, 19340, 7, 4, 27759, 2450, 57865, 46572, 70, 44, 125082, 566, 173212, 4, 58, 959, 214, 450, 44, 1065, 2347, 268, 13379, 18507, 136, 2265, 45646, 111, 19085, 209274, 83, 959, 23, 19911, 2481, 678, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 31486, 237, 10, 131, 32116, 100, 70, 20697, 18507, 1242, 360, 103210, 25297, 29367, 9879, 211462, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 4734, 106, 23, 11907, 2273, 133325, 509, 19085, 32786, 4, 12960, 106, 23, 11907, 190, 53294, 7, 509, 5, 360, 28506, 4, 7103, 40894, 13, 79825, 47, 172310, 133325, 4, 14012, 111, 133325, 49175, 47, 1632, 9, 95037, 71, 111, 70, 80584, 8487, 209274, 4, 17, 5, 13, 5, 4, 35707, 425, 5, 6863, 38576, 17366, 5, 360, 70, 15643, 7, 4, 22648, 19, 390, 10, 3871, 100, 44, 29272, 29888, 58, 25313, 34754, 4, 70, 19085, 20648, 297, 6863, 128652, 79986, 1672, 27150, 133325, 25, 25343, 53, 23, 606, 54916, 136, 107003, 103724, 136, 18150, 175352, 7, 47, 186, 110677, 23, 2363, 172310, 674, 44930, 4, 237, 4989, 237, 70, 128512, 123875, 111, 133325, 6777, 959, 227204, 5, 40168, 29838, 32070, 111, 19085, 43032, 168360, 10, 215667, 12768, 5, 360, 70, 72399, 23936, 7, 4, 10846, 56, 3501, 16279, 111, 19085, 43032, 3542, 1379, 2273, 5369, 111, 32070, 4, 110518, 12719, 3542, 645, 1496, 4, 136, 166904, 538, 23552, 3542, 2678, 707, 114210, 5, 581, 569, 254, 23, 32158, 4, 10, 23552, 9, 16797, 44616, 7103, 70, 19085, 25, 7, 14037, 214, 23, 103655, 31, 89262, 15565, 4, 509, 44, 284, 46327, 809, 2480, 53, 5369, 4, 10, 19085, 111, 809, 2480, 53, 9, 46799, 9, 18345, 7, 1242, 8622, 509, 10, 83324, 71, 71834, 47, 110281, 27150, 56, 43032, 47, 70, 19085, 23, 70, 86991, 47, 72399, 19340, 7, 74, 1632, 113857, 509, 47, 172310, 20020, 111, 27863, 2750, 3542, 80584, 8487, 43032, 5, 581, 19085, 9325, 120820, 47, 70, 27150, 37499, 25, 115215, 136, 2363, 27863, 25, 143889, 7, 4, 22, 139108, 66398, 70, 20020, 47, 33284, 5, 3311, 39395, 15643, 189275, 1632, 9, 95037, 71, 111, 80584, 8487, 43032, 3542, 2273, 5369, 111, 32070, 707, 27150, 56, 5, 360, 26819, 4, 83080, 32070, 111, 70, 44, 14507, 6238, 28802, 58, 509, 7464, 25902, 3674, 99, 836, 5, 194397, 6056, 70, 19340, 7, 136, 2248, 7, 4, 27759, 2450, 168, 85018, 71, 19085, 43032, 25, 92635, 111, 30396, 1363, 47, 70, 7398, 68879, 111, 80584, 8487, 102880, 136, 109458, 5, 106320, 85172, 7, 37457, 71, 1295, 43032, 25, 125142, 289, 47, 44116, 49938, 7, 1295, 2363, 127451, 54825, 98, 36162, 13, 46505, 7, 47, 2363, 137578, 47, 7639, 1257, 100, 19085, 4488, 126535, 90, 4, 29966, 41714, 7, 4, 707, 8783, 42604, 74, 10, 88551, 66320, 939, 111, 43032, 17660, 297, 47, 1379, 79770, 2363, 91763, 7, 15, 2347, 18231, 100, 202120, 214, 42604, 194, 360, 19340, 4, 7103, 10, 7398, 429, 111, 189275, 1632, 9, 95037, 71, 111, 70, 209274, 4, 142, 83080, 111, 40715, 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summarize: The periodic trends are based on the Periodic Law, which states that if the chemical elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, many of their properties go through cyclical changes, with elements of similar properties recurring at intervals. For example, after arranging elements in their increasing atomic numbers, many of the physical and chemical properties of Lithium, such as its vigorous reactivity with water, recur in sodium, potassium and caesium. This principle was discovered by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1871 after a number of investigations by scientists in the 19th century. Mendeleev also proposed a periodic system of elements that was based not only on atomic weights but also on chemical and physical properties of the elements and their compounds. In 1913, Henry Moseley determined that periodicity depends on the atomic number rather than atomic weight. Lothar Meyer presented his table several months after Mendeleev, but opposed his Periodic law. Initially, no theoretical explanation for the Periodic Law was available and it was used only as an empirical principle, but, with the development of the quantum mechanics, it became possible to understand the theoretical basis for the Periodic Law. The periodic recurrence of elements with similar physical and chemical properties, when the elements are listed in order of increasing atomic number, results directly from the periodic recurrence of similar electronic configurations in the outer shells of respective atoms. Discovery of Periodic Law constitutes one of the most important events in the history of chemical science. Almost every chemist makes extensive and continued use of Periodic Law. Periodic Law also led to the development of the periodic table, which is widely used nowadays. The atomic radius is the distance from the atomic nucleus to the outermost stable electron orbital in an atom that is at equilibrium. The atomic radius tends to decrease across a period from left to right due to the shrinking of the atom because of increasing effective nuclear force on the electrons. The atomic radius usually increases while going down a group due to the addition of a new energy level (shell which causes shrinkage in the size of the atoms across the period). However, atomic radii tend to increase diagonally, since the number of electrons has a larger effect than the sizeable nucleus. For example, lithium (145 picometer) has a smaller atomic radius than magnesium (150 picometer). The atomic radius can be further specified into 4 types as: The ionization potential is the minimum amount of energy required to remove one electron from each atom in a mole of isolated, neutral and gaseous atom. The "first ionization energy" is the energy required to remove the first electron, and generally the "nth ionization energy" is the energy required to remove the atom's "n"th electron, after the ("n"−1) electrons before it has been removed. Trend-wise, ionization energy tends to increase while one progresses across a period because the greater number of protons (higher nuclear charge) attract the orbiting electrons more strongly, thereby increasing the energy required to remove one of the electrons. Ionization energy and ionization potentials are completely different. The potential is an intensive property and it is measured by "volt"; whereas the energy is an extensive property expressed by "eV" or "kJ/mole". As one progresses down a group on the periodic table, the ionization energy will likely decrease since the valence electrons are farther away from the nucleus and experience a weaker attraction to the nucleus's positive charge. There will be an increase of ionization energy from left to right of a given period and a decrease from top to bottom. As a rule, it requires far less energy to remove an outer-shell electron than an inner-shell electron. As a result, the ionization energies for a given element will increase steadily within a given shell, and when starting on the next shell down will show a drastic jump in ionization energy. Simply put, the lower the principal quantum number, the higher the ionization energy for the electrons within that shell. The exceptions are the elements in the boron and oxygen family, which require slightly less energy than the general trend. The electron affinity of an atom can be described either as the energy released by an atom when an electron is added to it, conversely as the energy required to detach an electron from a singly charged anion. The sign of the electron affinity can be quite confusing, as atoms that become more stable with the addition of an electron (and so are considered to have a higher electron affinity) show a decrease in potential energy; i.e. the energy gained by the atom appears to be negative. For atoms that become less stable upon gaining an electron, potential energy increases, which implies that the atom gains energy. In such a case, the atom's electron affinity value is positive. Consequently, atoms with a more negative electron affinity value are considered to have a higher electron affinity (they are more receptive to gaining electrons), and vice versa. However, in the reverse scenario where electron affinity is defined as the energy required to detach an electron from an anion, the energy value obtained will be of the same magnitude but have the opposite sign. This is because those atoms with a high electron affinity are less inclined to give up an electron, and so take more energy to remove the electron from the atom. In this case, the atom with the more positive energy value has a higher electron affinity. As one progresses from left to right across a period, the electron affinity will increase. Although it may seem that fluorine should have the greatest electron affinity, the small size of fluorine generates enough repulsion that chlorine (Cl has the greatest electron affinity). Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract pairs of electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved, using the Pauling scale. Trend-wise, as one moves from left to right across a period in the periodic table, the electronegativity increases due to the stronger attraction that the atoms obtain as the nuclear charge increases. Moving down in a group, the electronegativity decreases due to an increase in the distance between the nucleus and the valence electron shell, thereby decreasing the attraction, making the atom have less of an attraction for electrons or protons. However, in the group (iii) elements electronegativity increases from aluminium to thallium. Valence electrons are the electrons in the outermost electron shell of an isolated atom of an element. Sometimes, it is also regarded as the basis of Modern Periodic Table. In a period, the number of valence electrons increases (mostly for light metal/elements) as we move from left to right side. However, in a group this periodic trend is constant, that is the number of valence electrons remains the same. Valency in the periodic table across a period first increases and then decreases. There is no change going down a group. However, this periodic trend is sparsely followed for heavier elements (elements with atomic number greater than 20), especially for lanthanide and actinide series. The greater the number of core electrons, the greater the shielding of electrons from the core charge of the nucleus. For this reason ionization energy is lower for elements lower down in a group, and polarizability of species is higher for elements lower down in a group. The valency does not change going down a group since the bonding behavior is not affected by the core electrons. However, non-bonding interactions such as those just cited are affected by core electrons. Metallic properties increase down groups as decreasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes the outermost electrons to be loosely bound and thus able to conduct heat and electricity. Across the period, from left to right, increasing attraction between the nuclei and the outermost electrons causes the metallic character to decrease. Non-metallic property increases across a period and decreases down the group due to the same reason due to an increase in nuclear attractive force. Metals are ductile while nonmetals are not.

Periodic trends are specific patterns in the properties of chemical elements that are revealed in the periodic table of elements. Major periodic trends include electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radii, ionic radius, metallic character, and chemical reactivity.

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summarize: The Krnov Synagogue stopped to be used for religious services in autumn 1938, when the Sudetenland was incorporated into Nazi Germany. Not long afterwards, on November 9, 1938, almost all synagogues in the surrounding towns - as anywhere in Nazi Germany - were destroyed during the "Reichskristallnacht" prosecution. However, the Krnov synagogue was saved. End of October 1938, the mayor of Jägerndorf, Oskar König, had received a secret order from Berlin to destroy and burn down the synagogue of his town on November 9. Unwilling to comply, he summoned a meeting of the councillors and informed them about the order he had received. The Sudeten councillors then unanimously accepted the proposal of the builder Franz Irblich to deceive the Nazis: They decided to remove all symbols of the Jewish religion from the building and change it into a town market hall, reporting to Berlin that there was no synagogue in Jägerndorf which could be destroyed. As such the building was used until the end of World War II in 1945. After WWII the German population of Jägerndorf was expelled and the building of the synagogue was first used as a warehouse, than as a regional archive. In July 1997 it was damaged by a flood, two years later it was finally returned to the Jewish community in Olomouc (German: "Olmütz") with no Jewish community in Krnov (Jägerndorf) existing anymore. Between 2003 and 2014 it was thoroughly renovated. Today, credit is given to Franz Irblich to be the savior of the synagogue also by the now Czech town of Krnov. In 1946, Irblich had received a 10 years sentence by a Czechoslovak extraordinary court after accusations of being a Nazi.

The Krnov Synagogue is a synagogue in Krnov (), Czech Republic. The synagogue, also called the temple, was built in 1871. It is located at 28, Barvířská Street near Soukenická Street (formerly "Tempelring", then "Tuchmacherring", then "Gottwaldova třída" ["třída" = avenue]). The exterior of the building with twin towers and round-arched windows is in an eclectic, round-arched, Rundbogenstil neo-romantic style; while the interior is Moorish Revival, especially the wooden carved coffered ceiling (painted in reddish brown) and the arcade of the women's galleries. It is one of only three surviving synagogues in the Moravia-Silesia Region (the others are at Nový Jičín and Český Těšín.)

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summarize: Satriani was born in Westbury, New York of Italian descent. His paternal grandparents were from Piacenza and Bobbio, while his maternal grandparents were from Bari. He was inspired to play guitar at age 14, after hearing of the death of Jimi Hendrix. He has been said to have heard the news during football practice, where he then announced to his coach that he was quitting to become a guitarist. In 1974, Satriani studied music with jazz guitarist Billy Bauer and with reclusive jazz pianist Lennie Tristano. The technically demanding Tristano greatly influenced Satriani's playing. Satriani began teaching guitar, with his most notable student at the time being fellow Long Island native Steve Vai (both also went to the same high school). While he was teaching Vai, he was attending Five Towns College for studies in music. In 1978, Satriani moved to Berkeley, California, to pursue a music career. Soon after arriving in California, he resumed teaching. His students included Steve Vai, Kirk Hammett of Metallica, David Bryson of Counting Crows, Kevin Cadogan from Third Eye Blind, Larry LaLonde of Primus and Possessed, Alex Skolnick of Testament, Rick Hunolt (ex-Exodus), Phil Kettner of Lȧȧz Rockit, Geoff Tyson of T-Ride, Charlie Hunter and David Turin. Satriani started playing in a San Francisco-based band called the Squares, where he continued to network and make musical connections (Squares sound man John Cuniberti co-produced his second album). He was invited to join the Greg Kihn Band, who were on the downside of their career, but whose generosity helped Satriani pay off the overwhelming credit-card debt from recording his first album "Not of This Earth" released in 1986. In 1987, Satriani's second album "Surfing with the Alien" produced radio hits and was the first all-instrumental release to chart so highly in many years. The track "Crushing Day" was featured on the soundtrack of a low-budget film titled "It Takes Two". "Surfing with the Alien" is his most acclaimed work, according to aggregator Acclaimed Music. In 1988 Satriani helped produce the EP "The Eyes of Horror" for the death metal band Possessed. That same year, he also released an EP titled "Dreaming #11", which featured the song "The Crush of Love". In 1989, Satriani released the album "Flying in a Blue Dream". It was said to be inspired by the death of his father, who died in 1989 during the recording of the album. "One Big Rush" featured on the soundtrack to the Cameron Crowe movie "Say Anything...". "The Forgotten Part II" was featured on a Labatt Blue commercial in Canada in 1993. "Can't Slow Down" featured in a car-chase sequence in the Don Johnson-starring show "Nash Bridges". "The Bells of Lal (Part One)" was featured for an eerie scene in the 1996 Billy Bob Thornton movie "Sling Blade", while Carl is sharpening a lawnmower blade to kill the menacing Doyle Hargraves played by Dwight Yoakam. Joe Satriani also sang backing vocals on the self-titled "Crowded House" album. Satriani was a friend of Mitchell Froom. In 1992, Satriani released "The Extremist", his most commercially successful album to date. Radio stations across the US picked up "Summer Song", which got a major boost when Sony used it in a major commercial campaign for their Discman portable CD players. "Cryin'", "Friends", and the title track were regional hits on radio. In late 1993, Satriani joined Deep Purple as a temporary replacement for departed guitarist Ritchie Blackmore during the band's Japanese tour. The concerts were a success, and Satriani was asked to join the band permanently, but he declined, having just signed a multialbum solo deal with Sony, and Steve Morse took the guitarist slot in Deep Purple. In 1996, Satriani founded the G3, a concert tour intended to feature a trio of guitarists. The original lineup featured Satriani, Steve Vai, and Eric Johnson. The G3 tour has continued periodically since its inaugural version, with Satriani the only permanent member. Other guitarists who have performed in G3 include among others: Yngwie Malmsteen, John Petrucci, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Robert Fripp, Andy Timmons, Uli Jon Roth, Michael Schenker, Adrian Legg, Paul Gilbert, Steve Morse, and Steve Lukather. In 1998, Satriani recorded and released "Crystal Planet", followed up with "Engines of Creation", one of his more experimental works featuring the electronica genre. Two shows at the Fillmore West in San Francisco were recorded in December 2000 and released as "Live in San Francisco", a two-disc live album and DVD. Satriani regularly recorded and released evolving music, including "Strange Beautiful Music" in 2002 and "Is There Love in Space?" in 2004. In May 2005, Satriani toured India for the first time, playing concerts in Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai. In 2006, Satriani recorded and released "Super Colossal" and "Satriani Live!", another two-disc live album and DVD recorded May 3, 2006, at the Grove in Anaheim, California. In 2006, Satriani signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a nonprofit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underserved public schools throughout the U.S. Satriani has personally delivered instruments to children in the program through a charity raffle for the organization, and like Steve Vai, sits on its board of directors as an honorary member. On August 7, 2007, Epic/Legacy Recordings re-released "Surfing with the Alien" to celebrate the 20th anniversary of its release. This was a two-disc set that includes a remastered album and a DVD of a never-before-seen live show filmed at the Montreux Jazz Festival in 1988. Satriani's next album "Professor Satchafunkilus and the Musterion of Rock", was released on April 1, 2008. Satriani released a live DVD recording of a concert in Paris titled "" and a companion two-CD set on February 2, 2010. In March 2010 Satriani participated with other guitarists in the Experience Hendrix Tribute Tour, performing music written and inspired by Jimi Hendrix. On December 4, 2008, Satriani filed a copyright infringement suit against Coldplay in the United States District Court for the Central District of California. Satriani's suit claims that the Coldplay song "Viva la Vida" includes "substantial original portions" of the Satriani song "If I Could Fly" from his 2004 album, "Is There Love in Space?". The Coldplay song in question received two Grammy Awards for Song of the Year. Coldplay denied the allegation. An unspecified settlement was reached between the parties. In 2009, he played two characters in season three of Adult Swim's "Metalocalypse". In May 2010, Satriani announced he was about to enter the studio to record a solo album, and dates were released for an autumn tour. He also said that demos had been recorded for a second Chickenfoot album. Satriani released his 13th studio album, "Black Swans and Wormhole Wizards", on October 5, 2010. Satriani released the DVD/Blu-ray of his three-dimensional concert film "" on April 24, 2012, after its limited showing in theaters. The film was shot in December 2010 in Montreal and was directed by award-winning filmmakers François and Pierre Lamoureux. Satchurated 3D is the first Blu-ray concert film available with Dolby TrueHD 7.1. On May 7, 2013 Satriani released his 14th studio album, titled "Unstoppable Momentum". A career retrospective box set titled "", which contains remastered editions of every studio album from "Not of This Earth" to "Unstoppable Momentum", was released on April 22, 2014. A book titled "Strange Beautiful Music: A Memoir" was also released to coincide with the release of the box set. In August 2014, Satriani participated in the G4 Experience—a week-long guitar camp—with fellow guitarists Paul Gilbert and Andy Timmons, and keyboardist Mike Keneally. In February 2015, the first dates were announced for the Shockwave World Tour, in support of Satriani's 15th studio album, slated for release in July. "Shockwave Supernova" was released on July 24, 2015. The album was conceived after Satriani found himself playing guitar with his teeth a lot during the "Unstoppable Momentum" tour, and had a daydream about an alter ego, "Shockwave Supernova", making him do it. On September 16, 2017, Satriani teased his upcoming 16th studio album, "What Happens Next", through social media. The album was released on January 12, 2018. He collaborated with former Deep Purple bassist Glenn Hughes and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith, two Rock and Roll Hall of Fame members. In April 2020, he released the new LP "Shapeshifting". On May 29, 2008, Satriani was revealed to have been involved in a new hard rock band called Chickenfoot with former Van Halen members Sammy Hagar and Michael Anthony, and Red Hot Chili Peppers drummer Chad Smith. The band features Hagar on vocals, Satriani on guitar, Anthony on bass, and Smith on drums. Their eponymous debut album was released on June 5, 2009. The first single and video released was the track "Oh Yeah", which was played on "The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien" on June 5, 2009. Satriani received a co-writing credit on all the songs on the band's debut album. "Broken Records" magazine asked Satriani about his new band, and he enthusiastically mentioned, "it was great fun" and it gives him a "kick in the music bone" to play with such great talent. He said it felt natural to step back and play more rhythm than solo guitar. Chickenfoot's second album, "Chickenfoot III", was released on September 27, 2011. Its first single was the track "Bigfoot". In its first week of release, it charted number 9. Satriani is credited on many other albums, including guitar duties on shock rocker Alice Cooper's 1991 album "Hey Stoopid", Spinal Tap's 1992 album "Break Like the Wind", Blue Öyster Cult's 1988 album "Imaginos", and band members Stu Hamm and Gregg Bissonette's solo albums. He was credited with singing background vocals on the 1986 debut album by Crowded House. In 2003, he played lead guitar on The Yardbirds's release "Birdland". In 2006, he made appearances on tracks for Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan's solo CD/DVD dual disc "Gillan's Inn". On Dream Theater's 2007 album "Systematic Chaos", Satriani contributed spoken lyrics to the song "Repentance". Satriani contributed a guitar solo to Jordan Rudess' 2004 solo release "Rhythm of Time". He composed much of the soundtrack for the racing video game "" while "Crowd Chant" was featured in "NHL 2K10" and "Madden NFL 11". He has starred in feature films, including 2006 Christopher Guest film "For Your Consideration" as the guitarist in the band that played for the late-night show. He appeared as himself in the film "Moneyball", playing "The Star-Spangled Banner". The "American Dad" episode "Why Can't We Be Friends" featured the song "Always with Me, Always with You". The song was also sampled in the Nicki Minaj single "Right Thru Me". Satriani joined Chickenfoot in voicing themselves in the "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" episode "IAMAPOD". Satriani is considered a highly technical guitarist, and has been referred to as a top guitar virtuoso. Satriani has mastered many performance techniques on electric guitar, including legato, two-handed tapping and arpeggio tapping, volume swells, harmonics and extreme whammy bar effects. During fast passages, Satriani favors a legato technique (achieved primarily through hammer-ons and pull-offs) that yields smooth and flowing runs. He is also adept at other speed-related techniques such as rapid alternate picking and sweep picking. Satriani was influenced by Jimi Hendrix, English rock guitarists such as Brian May, Eric Clapton, Jimmy Page, Ritchie Blackmore, and Jeff Beck, as well as jazz fusion guitarist Allan Holdsworth. Satriani endorses Ibanez's JS Series guitars, and the Marshall JVM410HJS guitar amplifier. Both lines were designed specifically as signature products for Satriani. The Ibanez JS1 (the original JS model) was based on, and replaced, the Ibanez 540 Radius model that Satriani first endorsed. Many of his guitars are made by Ibanez, including the JS1000, and JS1200. These guitars typically feature the DiMarzio PAF Pro (which he used up until 1993 in both the neck and bridge positions), the DiMarzio Fred (which he used in the bridge position from 1993 to 2005), and the Mo' Joe and the Paf Joe (which he uses in the bridge and neck positions, respectively, from 2005 to present day). He has more recently introduced the Satch Track single coil pickup which he used in his Humbucker/Single coil equipped signature Ibanez guitars. He has since replaced the Satch Track with the Sustainiac. The JS line of guitars is his signature line with the JS1000, JS1200, JS2400, JSBDG, and JS20th using Ibanez's original Edge double locking tremolo bridge. The JS100 and JS120s both use Ibanez's Edge 3 tremolo bridge. The JS1600 is a fixed bridge guitar with no tremolo system. The guitar he was most associated with during the 90s was a chrome-finished guitar nicknamed "Chrome Boy". This instrument can be seen on the "Live in San Francisco" DVD. However, the guitar used for most of the concert was in fact a lookalike nicknamed "Pearly," which featured Seymour Duncan Pearly Gates pickups. Satriani uses a number of other JS models such as the JS double neck model, JS700 (primary axe on the self-titled CD and seen on the 1995 tour "Joe Satriani," which features a fixed bridge, P-90 pickups, and a matching mahogany body and neck), JS6/JS6000 (natural body), JS1 (the original JS model), JS2000 (fixed bridge model), a variety of JS100s, JS1000s and JS1200s with custom paint work, and a large amount of prototype JSs. All double locking bridges have been the original Edge tremolo, not the newer models, which point to a more custom guitar than the "off the shelf" models. Satriani played a red 7-string JS model, seen in the "G3 Live in Tokyo" DVD from 2005. He also has a prototype 24-fret version of the JS—now called the JS-2400—which he has used with Chickenfoot. As of late he has used other prototypes featuring a Sustainiac (as mentioned above) or a JS model with three single coil-sized humbucker pickups. Satriani's guitars are usually equipped with his signature DiMarzio humbucker pickups, Mo' Joe and PAF Joe, and his 24-fret JS model features a signature single-coil sized humbucker called the Satch Track in the neck position. Some of his guitars are still equipped with the pickup models he favored in the past, the DiMarzio FRED and PAF Pro pickups. Satriani has used a wide variety of guitar amps, using Marshall for his main amplifier (notably the limited edition blue coloured 6100 LM model) up until 2001, and his Peavey signature series amps, the Peavey JSX, up until his time with Chickenfoot. The JSX began life as a prototype Peavey XXX and developed into the Joe Satriani signature Peavey model. However he still used distortion pedals with the clean channel rather than the built-in overdrive channels. Satriani has used other amplifiers over the years in the studio, such as the Peavey 5150 (used to record the song 'Crystal Planet'), Cornford, and the Mesa/Boogie Mark IIC+ (used to record the song 'Flying in a Blue Dream'), amongst others. He has recently switched to the Marshall JVM series, having used a modified JVM 410H in his Black Swans and Wormhole Wizards tour in 2010 and with Chickenfoot in 2010 and 2011. These modified JVM Marshall amps were prototypes for a signature amp that Marshall scheduled for release in 2011. They replaced the reverb with noise gates that eliminate lag when switching channels. The clean channel was replaced by the clean channel of a 6100 LM model, which Satriani likes as an option to use distortion pedals with. The orange od channel and the modern red overdrive channel have been better matched with each other as Satriani claims to prefer the organic overdrive of the JVM over pedals. The red overdrive channel was modified for a beefy rock rather than a nu metal sound. The effect loop has been simplified to be serial only. Satriani has used many amps in the studio when recording, including the Peavey Classic. He used Marshall heads and cabinets, including live, prior to his Peavey endorsement. Recently Satriani used the JSX head through a Palmer Speaker Simulator. He has released a Class-A 5-watt tube amp called the "Mini Colossal". In 2009, Satriani split from Peavey, and returned to using Marshall amps. Live, he has been using a Marshall JVM410JS since 2009. His effects pedals include the Vox wah, Dunlop Cry Baby wah, RMC Wizard Wah, DigiTech Whammy, BK Butler Tube Driver, BOSS DS-1, BOSS CH-1, BOSS CE-2, BOSS DD-2 and a standard BOSS DD-3 (used together to emulate reverb effects), BOSS BF-3, BOSS OC-2, Barber Burn Drive Unit, Fulltone Deja Vibe, Fulltone Ultimate Octave, and Electro-Harmonix POG (Polyphonic Octave Generator), the latter being featured prominently on the title cut to his 2006 "Super Colossal". He collaborated with Vox on a range of signature effects stompboxes. These include the "Satchurator" and "Ice 9" distortions, the "Time Machine" delay, and the "Big Bad Wah." His 2000 guitar rig has been documented in detail. Satriani's work frequently makes references to various science fiction stories and ideas. "Surfing with the Alien," "Back to Shalla-Bal," and "The Power Cosmic 2000" refer to the comic book character Silver Surfer, while "Ice 9" refers to the secret government ice weapon in Kurt Vonnegut's "Cat's Cradle". "Borg Sex" is a reference to "Star Trek", which features a homogeneous cybernetic race known as the Borg. His albums and songs often have other-worldly titles, such as "Not of this Earth", "Crystal Planet", "Is There Love in Space?", and "Engines of Creation". On the album "Super Colossal", the song titled "Crowd Chant" was originally called "Party on the Enterprise". It would have featured sampled sounds from the "Starship Enterprise" from "". But as Satriani explained in a podcast, legal issues regarding the samples could not be resolved, and he was unable to get permission to use them. He then removed the sounds from the song and called it "Crowd Chant". Its ending theme was inspired by composer Gabriel Fauré's "Pavane in F-sharp minor, Op. 50". The song is used as goal celebration music for a number of National Hockey League and Major League Soccer teams including the Minnesota Wild (NHL), New York Islanders (NHL), and New England Revolution (MLS). The song is also used in the 2K Sports hockey video game "NHL 2k10". "Redshift Riders," another song on the "Super Colossal" album is, "...based on the idea that in the future, when people can travel throughout space, they will theoretically take advantage of the cosmological redshift effect so they can be swung around large planetary objects and get across [the] universe a lot faster than normal," Satriani said in a podcast about the song. On the album "Professor Satchafunkilus and the Musterion of Rock" the song "I Just Wanna Rock" is about a giant robot on the run who happens to stumble upon a rock concert. Originated by the now-defunct magazine BAM in 1977 as the Bay Area Music Awards, the "Bammies" were expanded and renamed in 1998 to honor music across California. Satriani has the fourth most Grammy Award nominations (15, after Brian McKnight, Snoop Dogg and Zubin Mehta) of any artist without winning. See further artists.

Joseph Satriani (born July 15, 1956) is an American musician, composer, songwriter, and guitar teacher. Early in his career, Satriani worked as a guitar instructor, with many of his former students achieving fame, such as Steve Vai, Larry LaLonde, Rick Hunolt, Kirk Hammett, Andy Timmons, Charlie Hunter, Kevin Cadogan, and Alex Skolnick; he then went on to have a successful solo music career. He is a 15-time Grammy Award nominee and has sold over 10 million albums, making him the best-selling instrumental rock guitarist of all time.

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summarize: The island is mountainous, and Japan's most active volcano, Mt Aso at, is on Kyushu. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso, in central Kyushu. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. Kyushu is the nearest to the Asian continent which made it the gateway to Japan. The name "Kyūshū" comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island: Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, and Satsuma. Today's is a politically defined region that consists of the seven prefectures on the island of Kyushu (which also includes the former Tsushima and Iki as part of Nagasaki), plus Okinawa Prefecture to the south: Kyushu has 10.3 percent of the population of Japan. Most of Kyushu's population is concentrated along the northwest, in the cities of Fukuoka and Kitakyushu, with population corridors stretching southwest into Sasebo and Nagasaki and south into Kumamoto and Kagoshima. Except for Oita and Miyazaki, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population. Kyushu is described as a stronghold of the Liberal Democratic Party. Parts of Kyushu have a subtropical climate, particularly Miyazaki prefecture and Kagoshima prefecture. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; also, silk is widely produced. The island is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, and metal processing. In 2010, the graduate employment rate in the region was the lowest nationwide, at 88.9%. Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the northern part of the island, around Beppu. The springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile microorganisms, which are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments. Major universities and colleges in Kyushu: The island is linked to the larger island of Honshu by the Kanmon Tunnels, which carry both the San'yō Shinkansen and non-Shinkansen trains of the Kyushu Railway Company, as well as vehicular, pedestrian, and bicycle traffic. The Kanmon Bridge also connects the island with Honshu. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company, and Nishitetsu Railway.

In the 8th-century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region., Kyushu has a population of 12,970,479 and covers.

en

28

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summarize: Human habitation in the North American polar region goes back at least 50,000–17,000 years ago, during the Wisconsin glaciation. At this time, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the Bering land bridge that joined Siberia to northwestern North America (Alaska), leading to the Settlement of the Americas. Paleo-Eskimo groups included the Pre-Dorset (); the Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500–800 BC); the Independence I and Independence II cultures of northeastern Canada and Greenland ( and ); the Groswater of Labrador and Nunavik, and the Dorset culture (500 BC to AD 1500), which spread across Arctic North America. The Dorset were the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture in the Arctic before the migration east from present-day Alaska of the Thule, the ancestors of the modern Inuit. The Thule Tradition lasted from about 200 BC to AD 1600 around the Bering Strait, the Thule people being the prehistoric ancestors of the Inuit who now live in Northern Labrador. For much of European history, the north polar regions remained largely unexplored and their geography conjectural. Pytheas of Massilia recorded an account of a journey northward in 325 BC, to a land he called "Eschate Thule", where the Sun only set for three hours each day and the water was replaced by a congealed substance "on which one can neither walk nor sail". He was probably describing loose sea ice known today as "growlers" or "bergy bits"; his "Thule" was probably Norway, though the Faroe Islands or Shetland have also been suggested. Early cartographers were unsure whether to draw the region around the North Pole as land (as in Johannes Ruysch's map of 1507, or Gerardus Mercator's map of 1595) or water (as with Martin Waldseemüller's world map of 1507). The fervent desire of European merchants for a northern passage, the Northern Sea Route or the Northwest Passage, to "Cathay" (China) caused water to win out, and by 1723 mapmakers such as Johann Homann featured an extensive "Oceanus Septentrionalis" at the northern edge of their charts. The few expeditions to penetrate much beyond the Arctic Circle in this era added only small islands, such as Novaya Zemlya (11th century) and Spitzbergen (1596), though since these were often surrounded by pack-ice, their northern limits were not so clear. The makers of navigational charts, more conservative than some of the more fanciful cartographers, tended to leave the region blank, with only fragments of known coastline sketched in. This lack of knowledge of what lay north of the shifting barrier of ice gave rise to a number of conjectures. In England and other European nations, the myth of an "Open Polar Sea" was persistent. John Barrow, longtime Second Secretary of the British Admiralty, promoted exploration of the region from 1818 to 1845 in search of this. In the United States in the 1850s and 1860s, the explorers Elisha Kane and Isaac Israel Hayes both claimed to have seen part of this elusive body of water. Even quite late in the century, the eminent authority Matthew Fontaine Maury included a description of the Open Polar Sea in his textbook "The Physical Geography of the Sea" (1883). Nevertheless, as all the explorers who travelled closer and closer to the pole reported, the polar ice cap is quite thick, and persists year-round. Fridtjof Nansen was the first to make a nautical crossing of the Arctic Ocean, in 1896. The first surface crossing of the ocean was led by Wally Herbert in 1969, in a dog sled expedition from Alaska to Svalbard, with air support. The first nautical transit of the north pole was made in 1958 by the submarine USS "Nautilus", and the first surface nautical transit occurred in 1977 by the icebreaker NS Arktika. Since 1937, Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice stations have extensively monitored the Arctic Ocean. Scientific settlements were established on the drift ice and carried thousands of kilometers by ice floes. In World War II, the European region of the Arctic Ocean was heavily contested: the Allied commitment to resupply the Soviet Union via its northern ports was opposed by German naval and air forces. Since 1954 commercial airlines have flown over the Arctic Ocean (see Polar route). The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about, almost the size of Antarctica. The coastline is long. It is the only ocean smaller than Russia, which has a land area of. It is surrounded by the land masses of Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands. It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other tributary bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea. Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland (territory of the Kingdom of Denmark), Canada and the United States. There are several ports and harbors around the Arctic Ocean In Alaska, the main ports are Barrow () and Prudhoe Bay (). In Canada, ships may anchor at Churchill (Port of Churchill) () in Manitoba, Nanisivik (Nanisivik Naval Facility) () in Nunavut, Tuktoyaktuk () or Inuvik () in the Northwest Territories. In Greenland, the main port is at Nuuk (Nuuk Port and Harbour) (). In Norway, Kirkenes () and Vardø () are ports on the mainland. Also, there is Longyearbyen () on Svalbard, a Norwegian archipelago, next to Fram Strait. In Russia, major ports sorted by the different sea areas are: The ocean's Arctic shelf comprises a number of continental shelves, including the Canadian Arctic shelf, underlying the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and the Russian continental shelf, which is sometimes simply called the "Arctic Shelf" because it is greater in extent. The Russian continental shelf consists of three separate, smaller shelves, the Barents Shelf, Chukchi Sea Shelf and Siberian Shelf. Of these three, the Siberian Shelf is the largest such shelf in the world. The Siberian Shelf holds large oil and gas reserves, and the Chukchi shelf forms the border between Russian and the United States as stated in the USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement. The whole area is subject to international territorial claims. An underwater ridge, the Lomonosov Ridge, divides the deep sea North Polar Basin into two oceanic basins: the Eurasian Basin, which is between deep, and the Amerasian Basin (sometimes called the North American, or Hyperborean Basin), which is about deep. The bathymetry of the ocean bottom is marked by fault block ridges, abyssal plains, ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is. The deepest point is Molloy Hole in the Fram Strait, at about. The two major basins are further subdivided by ridges into the Canada Basin (between Alaska/Canada and the Alpha Ridge), Makarov Basin (between the Alpha and Lomonosov Ridges), Amundsen Basin (between Lomonosov and Gakkel ridges), and Nansen Basin (between the Gakkel Ridge and the continental shelf that includes the Franz Josef Land). The crystalline basement rocks of mountains around the Arctic Ocean were recrystallized or formed during the Ellesmerian orogeny, the regional phase of the larger Caledonian orogeny in the Paleozoic. Regional subsidence in the Jurassic and Triassic led to significant sediment deposition, creating many of the reservoir for current day oil and gas deposits. During the Cretaceous the Canadian Basin opened and tectonic activity due to the assembly of Alaska caused hydrocarbons to migrate toward what is now Prudhoe Bay. At the same time, sediments shed off the rising Canadian Rockies building out the large Mackenzie Delta. The rifting apart of the supercontinent Pangea, beginning in the Triassic opened the early Atlantic Ocean. Rifting then extended northward, opening the Arctic Ocean as mafic oceanic crust material erupted out of a branch of Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Amerasia Basin may have opened first, with the Chulkchi Borderland moved along to the northeast by transform faults. Additional spreading helped to create the "triple-junction" of the Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge in the Late Cretaceous. Throughout the Cenozoic, the subduction of the Pacific plate, the collision of India with Eurasia and the continued opening of the North Atlantic created new hydrocarbon traps. The seafloor began spreading from the Gakkel Ridge in the Paleocene and Eocene, causing the Lomonosov Ridge to move farther from land and subside. Because of sea ice and remote conditions, the geology of the Arctic Ocean is still poorly explored. ACEX drilling shed some light on the Lomonosov Ridge, which appears to be continental crust separated from the Barents-Kara Shelf in the Paleocene and then starved of sediment. It may contain up to 10 billion barrels of oil. The Gakkel Ridge rift is also poorly understand and may extend into the Laptev Sea. In large parts of the Arctic Ocean, the top layer (about ) is of lower salinity and lower temperature than the rest. It remains relatively stable, because the salinity effect on density is bigger than the temperature effect. It is fed by the freshwater input of the big Siberian and Canadian streams (Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Mackenzie), the water of which quasi floats on the saltier, denser, deeper ocean water. Between this lower salinity layer and the bulk of the ocean lies the so-called halocline, in which both salinity and temperature rise with increasing depth. Because of its relative isolation from other oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It resembles some hydrological features of the Mediterranean Sea, referring to its deep waters having only limited communication through the Fram Strait with the Atlantic Basin, "where the circulation is dominated by thermohaline forcing”. The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18.07×10 km, equal to about 1.3% of the World Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominately cyclonic on the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian Basin. Water enters from both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins around depth. It is composed of the densest water in the World Ocean and has two main sources: Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea Deep Water. Water in the shelf region that begins as inflow from the Pacific passes through the narrow Bering Strait at an average rate of 0.8 Sverdrups and reaches the Chukchi Sea. During the winter, cold Alaskan winds blow over the Chukchi Sea, freezing the surface water and pushing this newly formed ice out to the Pacific. The speed of the ice drift is roughly 1–4 cm/s. This process leaves dense, salty waters in the sea that sink over the continental shelf into the western Arctic Ocean and create a halocline. This water is met by Greenland Sea Deep Water, which forms during the passage of winter storms. As temperatures cool dramatically in the winter, ice forms and intense vertical convection allows the water to become dense enough to sink below the warm saline water below. Arctic Bottom Water is critically important because of its outflow, which contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth range of is a water mass referred to as Atlantic Water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling and sinking to form the deepest layer of the halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin counter-clockwise. This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean, equalling about 10 times that of the Pacific inflow, and it creates the Arctic Ocean Boundary Current. It flows slowly, at about 0.02 m/s. Atlantic Water has the same salinity as Arctic Bottom Water but is much warmer (up to 3 °C). In fact, this water mass is actually warmer than the surface water, and remains submerged only due to the role of salinity in density. When water reaches the basin it is pushed by strong winds into a large circular current called the Beaufort Gyre. Water in the Beaufort Gyre is far less saline than that of the Chukchi Sea due to inflow from large Canadian and Siberian rivers. The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and is found from. The most important feature of this water mass is a section referred to as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the Siberian Shelf. As it is entrained, it cools and acts a heat shield for the surface layer. This insulation keeps the warm Atlantic Water from melting the surface ice. Additionally, this water forms the swiftest currents of the Arctic, with speed of around 0.3–0.6 m/s. Complementing the water from the canyons, some Pacific water that does not sink to the shelf region after passing through the Bering Strait also contributes to this water mass. Waters originating in the Pacific and Atlantic both exit through the Fram Strait between Greenland and Svalbard Island, which is about deep and wide. This outflow is about 9 Sv. The width of the Fram Strait is what allows for both inflow and outflow on the Atlantic side of the Arctic Ocean. Because of this, it is influenced by the Coriolis force, which concentrates outflow to the East Greenland Current on the western side and inflow to the Norwegian Current on the eastern side. Pacific water also exits along the west coast of Greenland and the Hudson Strait (1–2 Sv), providing nutrients to the Canadian Archipelago. As noted, the process of ice formation and movement is a key driver in Arctic Ocean circulation and the formation of water masses. With this dependence, the Arctic Ocean experiences variations due to seasonal changes in sea ice cover. Sea ice movement is the result of wind forcing, which is related to a number of meteorological conditions that the Arctic experiences throughout the year. For example, the Beaufort High—an extension of the Siberian High system—is a pressure system that drives the anticyclonic motion of the Beaufort Gyre. During the summer, this area of high pressure is pushed out closer to its Siberian and Canadian sides. In addition, there is a sea level pressure (SLP) ridge over Greenland that drives strong northerly winds through the Fram Strait, facilitating ice export. In the summer, the SLP contrast is smaller, producing weaker winds. A final example of seasonal pressure system movement is the low pressure system that exists over the Nordic and Barents Seas. It is an extension of the Icelandic Low, which creates cyclonic ocean circulation in this area. The low shifts to center over the North Pole in the summer. These variations in the Arctic all contribute to ice drift reaching its weakest point during the summer months. There is also evidence that the drift is associated with the phase of the Arctic Oscillation and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation. Much of the Arctic Ocean is covered by sea ice that varies in extent and thickness seasonally. The mean extent of the ice has been decreasing since 1980 from the average winter value of at a rate of 3% per decade. The seasonal variations are about with the maximum in April and minimum in September. The sea ice is affected by wind and ocean currents, which can move and rotate very large areas of ice. Zones of compression also arise, where the ice piles up to form pack ice. Icebergs occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island, and icebergs are formed from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada. Icebergs are not sea ice but may become embedded in the pack ice. Icebergs pose a hazard to ships, of which the "Titanic" is one of the most famous. The ocean is virtually icelocked from October to June, and the superstructure of ships are subject to icing from October to May. Before the advent of modern icebreakers, ships sailing the Arctic Ocean risked being trapped or crushed by sea ice (although the "Baychimo" drifted through the Arctic Ocean untended for decades despite these hazards). Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciation, the Arctic Ocean is contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme cold, frequent low-level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions. Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by continuous daylight (midnight sun), and temperatures can rise above the melting point (. Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or snow. It is cloudy year-round, with mean cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to over 80% in summer. The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Because the Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater, the temperature must reach before freezing occurs. The density of sea water, in contrast to fresh water, increases as it nears the freezing point and thus it tends to sink. It is generally necessary that the upper of ocean water cools to the freezing point for sea ice to form. In the winter the relatively warm ocean water exerts a moderating influence, even when covered by ice. This is one reason why the Arctic does not experience the extreme temperatures seen on the Antarctic continent. There is considerable seasonal variation in how much pack ice of the Arctic ice pack covers the Arctic Ocean. Much of the Arctic ice pack is also covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about over the frozen ocean. The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly in the past. As recently as 55 million years ago, during the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, the region reached an average annual temperature of. The surface waters of the northernmost Arctic Ocean warmed, seasonally at least, enough to support tropical lifeforms (the dinoflagellates "Apectodinium augustum") requiring surface temperatures of over. Due to the pronounced seasonality of 2-6 months of midnight sun and polar night in the Arctic Ocean, the primary production of photosynthesizing organisms such as ice algae and phytoplankton is limited to the spring and summer months (March/April to September). Important consumers of primary producers in the central Arctic Ocean and the adjacent shelf seas include zooplankton, especially copepods ("Calanus finmarchicus", "Calanus glacialis", and "Calanus hyperboreus") and euphausiids, as well as ice-associated fauna (e.g., amphipods). These primary consumers form an important link between the primary producers and higher trophic levels. The composition of higher trophic levels in the Arctic Ocean varies with region (Atlantic side vs. Pacific side), and with the sea-ice cover. Secondary consumers in the Barents Sea, an Atlantic-influenced Arctic shelf sea, are mainly sub-Arctic species including herring, young cod, and capelin. In ice-covered regions of the central Arctic Ocean, polar cod is a central predator of primary consumers. The apex predators in the Arctic Ocean - Marine mammals such as seals, whales, and polar bears, prey upon fish. Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem, and it is especially exposed to climate change, because it warms faster than the rest of the world. Lion's mane jellyfish are abundant in the waters of the Arctic, and the banded gunnel is the only species of gunnel that lives in the ocean. Petroleum and natural gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, fish, seals and whales can all be found in abundance in the region. The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also the focus of a mounting dispute between the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, and Denmark. It is significant for the global energy market because it may hold 25% or more of the world's undiscovered oil and gas resources. The Arctic ice pack is thinning, and a seasonal hole in the ozone layer frequently occurs. Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice reduces the planet's average albedo, possibly resulting in global warming in a positive feedback mechanism. Research shows that the Arctic may become ice-free in the summer for the first time in human history by 2040. Estimates vary for when the last time the Arctic was ice-free: 65 million years ago when fossils indicate that plants existed there to as recently as 5,500 years ago; ice and ocean cores going back 8,000 years to the last warm period or 125,000 during the last intraglacial period. Warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh meltwater to enter the north Atlantic, possibly disrupting global ocean current patterns. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue. As the extent of sea ice diminishes and sea level rises, the effect of storms such as the Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 on open water increases, as does possible salt-water damage to vegetation on shore at locations such as the Mackenzie's river delta as stronger storm surges become more likely. Global warming has increased encounters between polar bears and humans. Reduced sea ice due to melting is causing polar bears to search for new sources of food. Beginning in December 2018 and coming to an apex in February 2019, a mass invasion of polar bears into the archipelago of Novaya Zemlya caused local authorities to declare a state of emergency. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes and public buildings and inhabited areas. Sea ice, and the cold conditions it sustains, serves to stabilize methane deposits on and near the shoreline, preventing the clathrate breaking down and outgassing methane into the atmosphere, causing further warming. Melting of this ice may release large quantities of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas into the atmosphere, causing further warming in a strong positive feedback cycle and marine genus and species to become extinct. Other environmental concerns relate to the radioactive contamination of the Arctic Ocean from, for example, Russian radioactive waste dump sites in the Kara Sea Cold War nuclear test sites such as Novaya Zemlya, Camp Century's contaminants in Greenland, or radioactive contamination from Fukushima. On 16 July 2015, five nations (United States of America, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark/Greenland) signed a declaration committing to keep their fishing vessels out of a 1.1 million square mile zone in the central Arctic Ocean near the North Pole. The agreement calls for those nations to refrain from fishing there until there is better scientific knowledge about the marine resources and until a regulatory system is in place to protect those resources.

The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans. It is also known as the coldest of all the oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Sea. It is sometimes classified as an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean, and it is also seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.

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summarize: Bosnia has been inhabited since Neolithic times. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 2nd century, and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area and large parts of the former Western Empire for the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. The Slavs, a migratory people from southeastern Europe, were allied by the Eurasian Avars in the 6th century, and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and 7th centuries, settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. More South Slavs came in a second wave, and according to some scholars were invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Around this time the Eastern Romans speaking Latin were evolving into what was called in later centuries as the Byzantine Empire, speaking the Greek (named for the ancient city of Byzantium, now the capital of Constantinople since the 330s, established by Emperor Constantine the Great). Modern knowledge of Bosnia in the western Balkans during the Dark Ages is patchy. Upon the looter invasions by the Avars and Slavs from 6th-9th century, bringing Slavic languages, both probably gave way to feudalism only with the might by the Frankish penetrating into the region in the late 9th century (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal entity). It was also around this time that the Bosnians were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast. In addition to the Slavic-speaking population, a good number of romanized people remained in south Bosnia by the year 1000. Speaking a Balkan Romance language (related to Romanian), and having retreated into mountainous areas and adopted a pastoralist way of life, they became known as "Vlachs". With time they assimilated, though maintaining specific customs, and the word Vlach came to indicate any shepherd. Being well-versed with horse breeding, Vlachs came to dominate trade and caravan from coastal merchant town towards the interior, growing prosperous and coming to dominate entire regions of Hum, thus merging in Bosnia's medieval feudal society. It is only from the 9th century that Frankish and Byzantine sources begin to mention early Slavic polities in the region. In this regard, the earliest widely acknowledged reference to Bosnia dates from the 10th century "De Administrando Imperio" written by Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, during which period Bosnia is briefly a part of the short-lived Serbian state of Časlav, after whose death in battle in about 960, much of Bosnia finds itself briefly incorporated into the Croatian state of Krešimir II. Shortly thereafter, in 997, Samuel of Bulgaria marches through Bosnia and asserts his over-lordship in parts of it, however, only to be defeated by the Byzantine Empire in 1018 which annexes Bulgaria and asserts its suzerainty in Bosnia. This lasted until later in the century when some parts of Bosnia are briefly incorporated into Croatia and others into Duklja from which the latter Bosnia appears to have seceded in about 1101, upon which Bosnia's bans tried to rule for themselves. However, they all too often found themselves in a tug-of-war between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. In the year of 1137, Hungary annexes most of Bosnia, then briefly losing her in 1167 to the Byzantine Empire before regaining her in 1180. Thus, prior to 1180 and the reign of Ban Kulin parts of Bosnia were briefly found in Serb or Croat units, but neither neighbor had held the Bosnians long enough to acquire their loyalty or to impose any serious claim to Bosnia. The first recorded Ban (viceroy) was Ban Borić, vassal to the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a succession crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1167, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and eventually emplaced their own vassal as Ban – the native Ban Kulin (r. 1180-1204). However, this vassalage was largely nominal, and Bosnia had for all practical purposes made itself into an independent state under Kulin. Ban Kulin presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254, which also fostered the schism of the Bosnian Church. Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in 1377. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463, while resistance was active and fierce for a few more centuries. Southern regions of Bosnia, nowadays known as "Herzegovina" would follow in 1483, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527. The Ottoman conquest of Bosnia marked a new era in the country's history and introduced tremendous changes in the political and cultural landscape of the region. Although the kingdom had been crushed and its high nobility executed, the Ottomans nonetheless allowed for the preservation of Bosnia's identity by incorporating it as an integral province of the Ottoman Empire with its historical name and territorial integrity - a unique case among subjugated states in the Balkans. Within this sandžak (and eventual vilayet) of Bosnia, the Ottomans introduced a number of key changes in the territory's socio-political administration; including a new landholding system, a reorganization of administrative units, and a complex system of social differentiation by class and religious affiliation. The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics. A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest ethno-religious group (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam), while a significant number of Sephardi Jews arrived following their expulsion from Spain in the late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, although on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded and their numbers dwindled. The Orthodox community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and southeastern Bosnia, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the 19th century. Meanwhile, the native schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether. As the Ottoman Empire thrived and expanded into Central Europe, Bosnia was relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a prolonged period of general welfare and prosperity. A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into major regional centers of trade and urban culture. Within these cities, various Sultans and governors financed the construction of many important works of Bosnian architecture (such as the Stari most and Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque). Furthermore, numerous Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time. Bosnian soldiers formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, two decisive military victories, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military bureaucracy to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals, generals, and grand viziers. Many Bosnians also made a lasting impression on Ottoman culture, emerging as mystics, scholars, and celebrated poets in the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages. By the late 17th century, however, the Ottoman Empire's military misfortunes caught up with the country, and the conclusion of the Great Turkish War with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 once again made Bosnia the empire's westernmost province. But they allowed some of the Bosnian tribes to immigrate into the Arabian countries (Palestine, Jordan). The following hundred years were marked by further military failures, numerous revolts within Bosnia, and several outbursts of plague. According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–39) translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battle since they "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege of Osterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress. Bosnian Muslim women and men were among the casualties during the Battle of Osterwitchatyk. Bosnian Muslim women fought in the defense of the fortress of Būzin (Büzin). Women and men resisted the Austrians at the Chetin (Çetin) Fortress. The women of the Bosnians were deemed to be militaristic according to non-Ottoman records of the war between the Ottomans and Austrians and they played a role in the Bosnian success in battle against the Austrian attackers. Yeni Pazar, Izvornik, Östroviç-i âtık, Çetin, Būzin, Gradişka, and Banaluka were struck by the Austrians. A French account described the bravery in battle of Bosnian Muslim women who fought in the war. The Porte's efforts at modernizing the Ottoman state were met with great hostility in Bosnia, where local aristocrats stood to lose much through the proposed reforms. This, combined with frustrations over political concessions to nascent Christian states in the east, culminated in a famous (albeit ultimately unsuccessful) revolt by Husein Gradaščević in 1831. Related rebellions would be extinguished by 1850. A renewed effort at Ottoman reforms occurred in the 1860s under the leadership of the governor Topal Şerif Osman occurred, as he founded a provincial printing press in 1866 that published in both Ottoman Turkish and Bosnian. Later, agrarian unrest eventually sparked the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. While violent revolt prompted many to disparage Ottoman rule, it was in fact Ottoman reforms in the realm of cultural production and education that "created the conditions for greater intellectual production that continued during the Habsburg era." Though an Austria-Hungary military force quickly subjugated initial armed resistance upon take-over, tensions remained in certain parts of the country (particularly Herzegovina) and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. However, a state of relative stability was reached soon enough and Austro-Hungarian authorities were able to embark on a number of social and administrative reforms which intended to make Bosnia and Herzegovina into a "model colony". With the aim of establishing the province as a stable political model that would help dissipate rising South Slav nationalism, Habsburg rule did much to codify laws, to introduce new political practices, and generally to provide for modernization. The Habsburgs took special care to integrate local Muslims into the fabric of empire, continuing, for example, to publish a provincial yearbook—much like the Ottomans—in Turkish for over a decade after the end of Ottoman rule. Many local officials moreover stayed the same, with the Mehmed-Beg Kapetanović Ljubušak, for example, remaining the mayor of Sarajevo under both polities and, moreover, obtaining the very same level of honor from both the Ottomans and the Habsburgs, with a Third Class Order of Mecidiye and an Order of the Iron Crown Third Class, respectively. All of this amounted to what one historian has called an "almost seamless transition from one empire to another." Although successful economically, Austro-Hungarian policy - which focused on advocating the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation (largely favored by the Muslims) - failed to curb the rising tides of nationalism. The concept of Croat and Serb nationhood had already spread to Bosnia and Herzegovina's Catholics and Orthodox communities from neighboring Croatia and Serbia in the mid 19th century, and was too well-entrenched to allow for the widespread acceptance of a parallel idea of Bosnian nationhood. By the latter half of the 1910s, nationalism was an integral factor of Bosnian politics, with national political parties corresponding to the three groups dominating elections. The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to formally annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 (the Bosnian Crisis) added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists. The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914, when a Young Bosnia revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo. The event set off a chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I. Although 10% of the Bosniak population died serving in the armies or being killed by the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed. Following World War I, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over the Agrarian Reform of 1918–19 manifested through mass colonization and property confiscation; also formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions. The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the overall political atmosphere. Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched the country's traditional boundary as a whole. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity. Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia. However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the joining of the Tripartite Pact, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941. Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). The NDH rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution and genocide. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated. Hundreds of thousands of Serbs died either in Ustaše concentration camps or in widespread mass killings by Ustaše militia. Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks, a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous 'Greater Serbian' state. The Chetniks were responsible for widespread persecution and murder of non-Serbs and communist sympathizers, with the Muslim population of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Sandžak being a primary target. Once captured, Muslim villages were systematically massacred by the Chetniks. The total estimate of Muslims killed by Chetniks is between 80,000 and 100,000, most likely about 86,000 or 6.7 percent of their population (8.1 percent in Bosnia and Herzegovina alone). Several Bosnian Muslim paramilitary units joined the NDH forces to counter their own persecution in the hands of the Serbs in Bosnia. On 12 October 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše, made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and the wider Muslim population, presented information about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity. According to the US Holocaust Museum, 320,000-340,000 ethnic Serbs were murdered. According to the Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum and Research Center, "More than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in horribly sadistic ways, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert" during WWII in the Independent State of Croatia (modern day Croatia and Bosnia). Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against Axis, Ustaše, and Chetnik forces. They too, committed numerous atrocities, mainly against political opponents of all ethnicities. Some Bosnian Muslims joined the SS Handschar division, an SS division of the Nazis that pledged allegiance to both Adolf Hitler and NDH leader, Ante Pavelić. The division was the first SS division which was constituted of non-Germans. On 25 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans. On 6 April 1945 Sarajevo was captured by the Partisans. The end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state. Because of its central geographic position within the for much of the 1950s and 1960s, the 1970s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic could not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. The first multi-party parliamentary elections held on 18 and 25 November 1990 led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). A declaration of sovereignty on 15 October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia on 29 February and 1 March 1992. The referendum was boycotted by the great majority of Bosnian Serbs, so with a voter turnout of 64%, 98% of which voted in favor of the proposal. Bosnia and Herzegovina became an independent state on 3 March 1992. While the first casualty of the war is debated, significant Serbian offensives began in March 1992 in Eastern and Northern Bosnia. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosniak villages around Čapljina on 7 March 1992 and around Bosanski Brod and Goražde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian woman on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs, is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities. Open warfare began in Sarajevo on 6 April. International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina meant that the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) officially withdrew from the republic's territory, although their Bosnian Serb members merely joined the Army of Republika Srpska. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by the Serbs. In March 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the Bosniak and ethnic-Croatian leaders led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This, along with international outrage at Serb war crimes and atrocities (most notably the Srebrenica massacre of as many as 8,000 Bosniak males in July 1995) helped turn the tide of war. The signing of the Dayton Agreement in Paris by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Yugoslavia (Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The three years of war and bloodshed had left between 90,000 and 110,000 people killed and more than 2 million displaced. Since its 1992 independence and the 1995 Constitutional framework of the Dayton Agreement, Bosnia and Herzegovina has followed a path of state-building, while remaining under final international supervision through the figure of the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federation of two Entities - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska, as well as the district of Brčko. Each of the Entities has its own Constitution and extensive legislative powers. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a potential candidate country for accession into the EU; the EU-BiH Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) was signed in 2008 and entered into force in June 2015. Bosnia and Herzegovina submitted its formal application for EU membership on 15 February 2016; the EU Council conditioned its consideration to further progress on the implementation of the Reform Agenda, as well as to the adaptation of the SAA to take into account the EU accession of Croatia, and to an agreement on a functioning Coordination Mechanism on EU matters. These conditions were fulfilled by the Summer 2016. The accession of Bosnia and Herzegovina to NATO is in the negotiation phase, and a Membership Action Plan was signed in April 2010. It requires Bosnia and Herzegovina to define the issue of property over defence assets before NATO may consider the next steps. Bosnian political parties have different attitudes towards NATO: while Bosniak and Bosnian Croat parties support it, Bosnian Serb parties are more cautious and, while not opposing it in principle, require it to be put to a referendum first. On 4 February 2014, the protests against the government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, one of the country's two entities, began in the northern town of Tuzla. Workers from several factories which were privatised and which have now gone bankrupt united to demand action over jobs, unpaid salaries and pensions. Soon protests spread to the rest of the Federation, with violent clashes reported in close to 20 towns, the biggest of which were Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar, Bihać, Brčko and Tuzla. The Bosnian news media reported that hundreds of people had been injured during the protests, including dozens of police officers, with bursts of violence in Sarajevo, in the northern city of Tuzla, in Mostar in the south, and in Zenica in central Bosnia. The same level of unrest or activism did not occur in the Republika Srpska, but hundreds of people also gathered in support of protests in the town of Banja Luka against its separate government. The protests marked the largest outbreak of public anger over high unemployment and two decades of political inertia in the country since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995.

Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes referred to simply as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. It has had permanent settlement since the Neolithic Age. By the early historical period it was inhabited by Illyrians and Celts. Christianity arrived in the 1st century, and by the 4th century the area became part of the Western Roman Empire. Germanic tribes invaded soon after, followed by Slavs in the 6th Century. In 1136, Béla II of Hungary invaded Bosnia and created the title "Ban of Bosnia" as an honorary title for his son Ladislaus II of Hungary. During this time, Bosnia became virtually autonomous, and was eventually proclaimed a kingdom in 1377. The Ottoman Empire followed in 1463 and lasted over 400 years. They wrought great changes to the political and administrative system, introduced land reforms, and class and religious distinctions. A series of uprisings began 1831, which culminated in the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929 brought the redrawing of administrative regions into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, and removed any trace of Bosnian identity. The kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, and Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), which led to widespread persecution and genocide. Three years of war began in 1992 which caused around 100,000 deaths and 2 million refugees.

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7, 111503, 8305, 85689, 3387, 678, 110663, 136, 2609, 3466, 5, 18763, 79986, 2843, 94419, 70, 4034, 111, 10, 17340, 7864, 53, 678, 70, 55124, 66, 84084, 4, 142, 23, 15386, 79357, 14949, 19216, 18, 90698, 3688, 70760, 390, 15044, 70, 12610, 129574, 136, 24453, 9022, 12426, 7352, 17574, 106820, 90, 5, 360, 57553, 47, 112465, 66, 81887, 7, 47, 4527, 106820, 44951, 7, 118861, 70, 31089, 237, 10, 3917, 47, 456, 164779, 95934, 38529, 939, 645, 55124, 11, 4, 11084, 73, 34658, 10, 215394, 111, 4000, 106820, 119893, 47, 10670, 85018, 70, 3688, 4861, 23, 427, 38775, 262, 61518, 903, 4, 112465, 66, 130970, 7, 47143, 297, 51, 152028, 71, 4989, 7103, 11084, 73, 25, 7, 47219, 23, 427, 7709, 4, 259, 592, 4734, 7103, 142, 51, 226534, 7, 7844, 116000, 191, 23, 427, 12338, 4, 3129, 2843, 1738, 56, 297, 70, 5094, 8780, 111, 70, 55124, 66, 84084, 5, 55124, 66, 32692, 1295, 7068, 24189, 70, 39395, 616, 927, 142642, 509, 94419, 390, 70, 14537, 151994, 17721, 70, 85074, 95286, 136, 19856, 46903, 5524, 87143, 5, 3293, 79612, 21449, 47, 142, 3564, 23, 702, 4015, 4, 3229, 228028, 1995, 19856, 46903, 5524, 100512, 4599, 5, 3311, 70, 1733, 111, 1919, 47219, 23, 702, 14226, 4, 764, 1902, 214493, 297, 23, 3398, 3355, 214, 43396, 90, 47, 70, 144477, 136, 65272, 4, 237, 5299, 237, 825, 22462, 5246, 136, 63920, 111, 100974, 4526, 5, 1529, 509, 214493, 297, 390, 1919, 53297, 145204, 384, 130786, 265, 2750, 4, 25632, 10, 85673, 297, 151994, 678, 110, 83259, 136, 1940, 9, 212122, 22223, 2242, 4, 21647, 297, 4393, 6226, 111, 70, 23295, 23, 702, 18197, 5, 9626, 384, 130786, 265, 4, 55124, 11, 3514, 434, 23, 15044, 13267, 136, 14537, 4, 77681, 141753, 142, 41371, 60097, 3815, 23, 702, 14546, 5, 77168, 214, 1919, 47219, 23, 702, 12183, 49903, 4, 55124, 11, 77736, 3934, 10, 4989, 14922, 111, 206398, 5, 581, 180, 139891, 145359, 1902, 21771, 26859, 6863, 158, 75616, 111, 14713, 136, 87279, 10, 13036, 120332, 47, 70, 57116, 7, 87420, 70, 5117, 23552, 111, 70, 423, 927, 142642, 5, 201106, 4, 7103, 8, 23662, 7, 111, 68894, 136, 2265, 23, 271, 41159, 4, 55124, 11, 51521, 538, 77736, 23, 616, 15748, 4, 12960, 39746, 7154, 509, 36457, 136, 38781, 329, 100, 10, 10846, 1286, 202032, 90, 5, 174715, 10776, 7, 111, 55124, 11, 4, 134523, 5636, 7, 51529, 237, 44, 25178, 731, 12074, 885, 58, 2806, 28960, 23, 616, 17168, 4, 678, 10, 112465, 66, 9, 12620, 297, 19574, 590, 3674, 44, 140752, 72173, 117604, 58, 8035, 70, 4568, 47, 42593, 10591, 275, 23, 423, 3768, 5, 581, 180, 139891, 158, 75616, 111, 55124, 11, 94419, 10, 3525, 1615, 23, 70, 23295, 25, 7, 32692, 136, 65508, 71, 59897, 4017, 223, 65572, 23, 70, 68894, 136, 15380, 212790, 111, 70, 10776, 5, 106073, 70, 60097, 3815, 1902, 2809, 134616, 297, 136, 6863, 11192, 110, 83259, 71924, 297, 4, 70, 71047, 47126, 351, 13, 2347, 9393, 107003, 100, 70, 122785, 1363, 111, 55124, 11, 25, 7, 182324, 390, 49504, 1916, 442, 237, 142, 28970, 140280, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 678, 6863, 186768, 9351, 136, 53732, 9114, 2481, 20, 10, 36998, 7225, 54940, 1614, 461, 208, 3674, 117249, 23, 70, 57116, 7, 5, 17106, 73, 903, 19096, 869, 344, 15, 2940, 57693, 42867, 25983, 16, 111, 55124, 11, 4, 70, 71047, 47126, 65508, 71, 10, 14012, 111, 22799, 65572, 23, 70, 181991, 53, 25, 7, 30355, 9, 170272, 289, 86052, 74, 26719, 10, 3525, 3551, 16200, 214, 5426, 4, 10, 206431, 1363, 111, 86757, 25072, 7, 4, 136, 10, 27140, 5426, 111, 2265, 99710, 2320, 390, 18507, 136, 167821, 261, 67666, 2320, 5, 581, 22759, 202032, 90, 111, 180, 139891, 79986, 2843, 1902, 10, 211228, 24725, 98, 55124, 11, 25, 7, 43904, 3249, 9, 2037, 4, 3129, 98816, 40368, 20028, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 70, 352, 95972, 25, 7, 158, 75616, 7, 4, 103351, 1631, 7, 678, 28811, 14537, 7, 4, 212416, 7, 4, 136, 83063, 4439, 5, 62, 24, 4935, 187414, 238, 9, 9217, 11, 6048, 22458, 26908, 74216, 71, 136, 155605, 100512, 70, 142105, 82, 127, 157, 9, 226572, 223, 21115, 15, 24931, 538, 237, 10, 16750, 111, 10, 128839, 538, 9588, 214, 14012, 111, 142477, 7, 47, 3726, 247, 12960, 10, 88551, 14012, 111, 21693, 25612, 14, 845, 19725, 174920, 25632, 2363, 14700, 202, 6889, 1295, 84740, 23, 70, 72399, 423, 927, 142642, 5, 581, 55124, 66, 14949, 142080, 2843, 122446, 13036, 65572, 5, 581, 55124, 66, 116668, 10133, 15, 2940, 70, 129574, 43904, 237, 10, 28271, 16, 3542, 30312, 390, 51521, 109343, 8, 7612, 13, 4, 102971, 98, 70, 61585, 6097, 142027, 7, 3542, 27983, 2837, 107, 42077, 297, 136, 2363, 101935, 104, 50777, 6259, 5, 581, 12426, 7352, 17574, 26908, 23, 55124, 11, 4, 61475, 538, 17438, 14534, 47, 47820, 3081, 27533, 136, 127067, 13, 11, 48850, 55124, 11, 4, 93403, 87420, 70, 23295, 20271, 903, 14922, 136, 23409, 98, 47, 16981, 35845, 78737, 2481, 24189, 70, 953, 927, 142642, 5, 1215, 66, 204610, 4, 70, 24, 4935, 23439, 7, 47148, 55124, 66, 84084, 213566, 297, 144, 239483, 5, 1301, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 6, 68332, 4126, 136, 71062, 297, 3934, 15881, 14713, 4, 55124, 11, 509, 28702, 13, 4126, 111, 70, 81147, 7, 111, 8035, 10, 12912, 6815, 140280, 136, 122446, 10, 85673, 297, 14922, 111, 4537, 2950, 44937, 136, 78737, 2481, 5, 62, 14012, 111, 162708, 4, 6044, 237, 69833, 136, 103901, 4, 3542, 170920, 136, 3514, 434, 3934, 13036, 18150, 27585, 7, 111, 52350, 136, 27081, 29394, 5, 17106, 73, 6097, 162708, 4, 67842, 26672, 7, 136, 23607, 4295, 82466, 71, 70, 50961, 111, 5941, 5526, 43240, 111, 55124, 66, 6, 159958, 15, 7, 12665, 237, 70, 4612, 14, 2684, 136, 121689, 20387, 65381, 9, 43934, 25, 7, 8455, 944, 194, 27766, 9319, 17678, 4, 183851, 55124, 10133, 112730, 26794, 80973, 31486, 7, 23, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 25, 7, 15380, 136, 68894, 32692, 20271, 903, 1733, 5, 55124, 66, 79063, 1314, 100, 4806, 10, 21334, 82761, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 30648, 7, 23, 70, 133868, 7, 111, 61148, 71479, 136, 8815, 118481, 44457, 4, 6626, 125189, 13, 116338, 91375, 3387, 4, 12960, 183851, 3789, 55124, 10133, 49175, 8305, 70, 30648, 7, 111, 70, 180, 139891, 116338, 57495, 15182, 2408, 47, 36, 143414, 53, 70, 167375, 19069, 7, 111, 14537, 23, 70, 145359, 4, 26719, 61113, 8080, 4, 4537, 7, 4, 136, 9963, 27659, 33843, 5, 52455, 55124, 10133, 2843, 7228, 10, 6, 120027, 49128, 98, 180, 139891, 29394, 4, 50419, 9966, 237, 759, 28692, 7, 4, 191225, 7, 4, 136, 176016, 71, 30260, 7, 23, 70, 43563, 1495, 4, 197212, 4, 136, 57309, 66, 46876, 7, 5, 3311, 70, 72399, 729, 927, 142642, 4, 49903, 4, 70, 180, 139891, 145359, 25, 7, 116338, 1239, 17883, 1811, 7, 156892, 1257, 678, 70, 23295, 4, 136, 70, 93192, 111, 70, 32774, 43563, 1495, 5550, 678, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 17038, 31, 147595, 23, 611, 5046, 24145, 13438, 7228, 55124, 11, 70, 352, 95972, 25, 7, 171827, 840, 18, 140280, 5, 4966, 1836, 107003, 3060, 111, 70, 55124, 66, 109120, 90, 47, 194704, 67, 3934, 70, 88172, 19, 76726, 15, 81841, 525, 1212, 4, 44532, 194, 581, 25632, 75281, 5369, 3542, 94419, 390, 53333, 116338, 137578, 7, 4, 183851, 52831, 933, 28032, 55124, 11, 4, 136, 40368, 1810, 5992, 271, 7, 111, 3412, 6261, 5, 129551, 47, 142, 180, 139891, 22458, 15426, 111, 70, 5489, 2955, 9, 92141, 39209, 1104, 42671, 301, 1495, 5550, 21067, 5843, 1104, 112227, 3900, 143, 3674, 3934, 14941, 390, 313, 5, 7868, 2189, 4, 55124, 66, 22458, 24793, 5775, 46526, 23, 133868, 16792, 1836, 44, 2263, 3181, 2822, 70, 116252, 111, 40814, 90, 58, 26548, 70, 66724, 19, 30839, 7, 99, 70, 1329, 429, 111, 180, 1515, 131519, 9, 11, 53599, 15, 8655, 9297, 199861, 9, 14, 3797, 38362, 16, 100, 87463, 5, 55124, 66, 22458, 24793, 136, 453, 3542, 54940, 70, 63044, 2449, 20271, 70, 99381, 111, 180, 1515, 131519, 11, 53599, 5, 55124, 66, 22458, 24793, 5775, 46526, 23, 70, 165815, 111, 70, 100, 87463, 111, 111744, 7299, 15, 571, 31376, 73, 194, 58373, 136, 453, 39746, 297, 70, 66724, 1779, 99, 70, 5024, 2311, 15, 11384, 35268, 16, 1326, 87463, 5, 581, 24793, 111, 70, 55124, 10133, 3542, 8, 195, 297, 47, 186, 33796, 48242, 59499, 47, 351, 9, 670, 139891, 115923, 111, 70, 1631, 17721, 70, 71047, 47126, 136, 66724, 1779, 136, 1836, 112730, 10, 31486, 23, 70, 55124, 66, 36272, 23, 133868, 26548, 70, 66724, 19, 52875, 1314, 5, 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4792, 289, 92626, 3190, 46168, 74918, 2822, 4, 237, 764, 14037, 297, 10, 84773, 2448, 1916, 24234, 23, 176284, 450, 91376, 23, 15044, 180, 139891, 43563, 1495, 136, 55124, 66, 5, 147466, 4, 48853, 9893, 51, 56644, 155605, 131999, 297, 70, 47820, 3081, 67777, 66, 214267, 1830, 4, 10, 38134, 21329, 712, 16320, 36800, 75, 22876, 214, 4, 23, 168707, 5, 581, 79612, 25545, 538, 93403, 136, 21449, 47, 83687, 40368, 57116, 117249, 136, 32774, 17170, 7, 4, 3129, 155605, 168861, 70, 71047, 47126, 47, 405, 112, 86052, 111, 70, 23295, 47, 66724, 9, 841, 1619, 6635, 8305, 70, 4804, 67530, 111, 10271, 23, 153459, 5, 51404, 48673, 52831, 18, 105876, 297, 5941, 47, 128994, 429, 180, 139891, 79986, 4, 442, 509, 23, 15824, 180, 139891, 17690, 7, 23, 70, 2773, 39, 111, 15380, 36049, 136, 53019, 450, 44, 7612, 27686, 70, 27289, 100, 117396, 91768, 289, 36049, 450, 136475, 20271, 70, 235477, 1615, 1242, 145733, 142, 66724, 9, 841, 1619, 6635, 116338, 37772, 69405, 1614, 461, 208, 3674, 61475, 187, 4806, 39746, 7154, 54799, 5646, 9, 5465, 4, 63672, 7, 47143, 297, 23, 24233, 63920, 111, 70, 23295, 15, 15866, 25667, 538, 47820, 3081, 27533, 16, 136, 10, 46889, 66399, 2320, 111, 156531, 660, 538, 22458, 109091, 37379, 7, 74918, 2822, 5, 33306, 4, 10, 11341, 111, 35845, 40780, 53, 509, 157578, 33662, 20174, 136, 5489, 2955, 9, 841, 28391, 9893, 207048, 3542, 19048, 47, 352, 1299, 92, 98, 10, 14012, 111, 2265, 136, 86757, 17690, 7, 3129, 179140, 47, 3249, 55124, 11, 136, 47820, 3081, 27533, 3934, 10, 44, 51734, 46512, 53, 740, 17106, 70, 10, 464, 111, 137633, 214, 70, 140280, 237, 10, 144142, 68894, 3299, 450, 2806, 4358, 109091, 106154, 9588, 214, 25134, 69125, 15889, 8780, 4, 235477, 79986, 6777, 5045, 47, 27044, 40383, 131703, 4, 47, 65508, 3525, 68894, 41361, 7, 4, 136, 137567, 47, 22691, 100, 5744, 47691, 5, 581, 235477, 7, 34739, 5361, 517, 47, 78779, 13, 4000, 22458, 7, 3934, 70, 109379, 111, 352, 95972, 4, 19686, 214, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 47, 80299, 10, 84773, 6602, 14137, 2451, 561, 206, 1884, 70, 71047, 47126, 2451, 73, 43563, 1495, 100, 645, 10, 8, 23662, 7103, 70, 3564, 111, 180, 139891, 79986, 5, 52455, 4000, 51521, 7, 1286, 5465, 24765, 297, 70, 5701, 4, 678, 70, 30191, 4806, 9, 6766, 177, 13661, 126, 111692, 54820, 34, 146112, 4, 100, 27781, 4, 47143, 214, 70, 15333, 111, 69833, 1379, 15044, 89233, 7, 136, 4, 1286, 5465, 4, 113054, 214, 70, 4552, 5701, 17366, 111, 20338, 1295, 15044, 70, 71047, 47126, 136, 70, 235477, 7, 4, 678, 10, 198387, 35014, 81206, 111, 1215, 318, 79135, 136, 142, 81206, 111, 70, 70599, 174462, 198387, 35014, 4, 107013, 538, 5, 3164, 111, 903, 41170, 297, 47, 2367, 1632, 4816, 19, 1556, 35839, 142, 44, 289, 840, 18, 40, 302, 9393, 149307, 1295, 1632, 352, 95972, 47, 15700, 1242, 106073, 65771, 25313, 25958, 4, 5489, 2955, 9, 841, 28391, 9893, 44930, 20, 3129, 162393, 98, 606, 38965, 26518, 70, 6397, 111, 10, 97308, 1419, 136, 6024, 9, 70547, 90, 30283, 55124, 66, 64857, 15, 320, 2679, 53, 10862, 297, 390, 70, 22458, 7, 16, 20, 165523, 47, 9709, 275, 70, 9588, 214, 2936, 90, 111, 15889, 8780, 5, 581, 23755, 111, 24727, 257, 136, 5406, 275, 64857, 44462, 1902, 21771, 93403, 47, 55124, 11, 136, 47820, 3081, 27533, 25, 7, 129574, 7, 136, 12426, 7352, 17574, 142080, 1295, 208244, 214, 143516, 136, 80380, 23, 70, 4122, 953, 927, 142642, 4, 136, 509, 5792, 5299, 9, 22089, 19, 74694, 47, 63769, 100, 70, 38134, 21329, 712, 26946, 7154, 111, 10, 95103, 6528, 111, 55124, 66, 64857, 44462, 5, 3311, 70, 21, 3055, 23552, 111, 70, 64972, 7, 4, 15889, 8780, 509, 142, 28970, 31461, 111, 55124, 66, 44951, 7, 4, 678, 15889, 68894, 68036, 42518, 214, 47, 70, 17262, 94407, 35462, 1916, 81843, 7, 5, 581, 6528, 111, 10, 51, 47314, 25134, 187414, 238, 11341, 15, 46280, 71407, 84751, 47, 186, 13986, 147, 31251, 297, 390, 41371, 80380, 16, 100512, 10, 5700, 68894, 5415, 25443, 23, 70, 10776, 99, 903, 1733, 4, 26719, 23, 55124, 11, 136, 47820, 3081, 27533, 5, 581, 5489, 2955, 9, 841, 28391, 9893, 27759, 25, 7, 51957, 47, 23113, 538, 3398, 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summarize: The name "slapstick" originates from the Italian "Batacchio" or "Bataccio" – called the "slap stick" in English – a club-like object composed of two wooden slats used in "commedia dell'arte". When struck, the Batacchio produces a loud smacking noise, though it is only a little force that is transferred from the object to the person being struck. Actors may thus hit one another repeatedly with great audible effect while causing no damage and only very minor, if any, pain. Along with the inflatable bladder (of which the whoopee cushion is a modern variant), it was among the earliest special effects. Slapstick comedy's history is measured in centuries. Shakespeare incorporated many chase scenes and beatings into his comedies, such as in his play "The Comedy of Errors". In early 19th-century England, pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy, while comedy routines also featured heavily in British music hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s. In Punch and Judy shows, which first appeared in England on 9 May 1662, a large slapstick is wielded by Punch against the other characters. British comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby and Dan Leno. The influential English music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the young comedians who worked for him as part of "Fred Karno's Army". Chaplin's fifteen-year music hall career inspired the comedy in all his later film work, especially as pantomimicry. In a biography of Karno, Laurel stated: "Fred Karno didn't teach Charlie [Chaplin] and me all we know about comedy. He just taught us most of it". American film producer Hal Roach described Karno as "not only a genius, he is the man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him." Building on its later popularity in the 19th and early 20th-century ethnic routines of the American vaudeville house, the style was explored extensively during the "golden era" of black and white, silent movies directed by figures Mack Sennett and Hal Roach and featuring such notables as Charlie Chaplin, Mabel Normand, Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers and the Keystone Cops. Silent slapstick comedy was also popular in early French films and included films by Max Linder, Charles Prince, and Sarah Duhamel. Slapstick also became a common element in animated cartoons starting in the 1930; examples include Disney's "Goofy" shorts, Walter Lantz's Woody Woodpecker and The Beary Family, MGM's "Tom and Jerry", the unrelated Tom and Jerry cartoons of Van Beuren Studios, Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies", MGM's "Barney Bear", and Tex Avery's "Screwy Squirrel". Slapstick was later used in Japanese Tokusatsu TV "Kamen Rider Drive" and in the United States used in the two 1960s TV series, "Gilligan's Island", and "Batman". Slapstick continues to maintain a presence in modern comedy that draws upon its lineage, running in film from Buster Keaton and Louis de Funès to Jerry Lewis and Mel Brooks to the television series "Jackass" and comedy movies by the Farrelly Brothers, and in live performance from Weber and Fields to Jackie Gleason to Rowan Atkinson. In England, slapstick was a main element of the Monty Python comedy troupe and in television series such as "Fawlty Towers" and "The Benny Hill Show". Slapstick has remained a popular art form to the present day including "The Simpsons".

Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. Slapstick may involve both intentional violence and violence by mishap, often resulting from inept use of props such as saws and ladders.

en

43

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