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0 | Lamiales | The order Lamiales is a taxon in the asterid group of dicotyledonous flowering plants. It includes approximately 11,000 species divided into about 10 families. Well-known members of this order include the lavender, the lilac, the olive, the jasmine, the ash tree, the teak, the snapdragon, and a number of table herbs such as mint, basil, and rosemary. Characteristics Species in this order typically have the following characteristics, although there are exceptions to all of them: superior ovary composed of two fused carpels five petals fused into a tube bilaterally symmetrical, often bilabiate corollas four (or fewer) fertile stamens Taxonomic history Lamiales formerly had a restricted circumscription (e.g., by Arthur Cronquist) that included the major families Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Verbenaceae, and Boraginaceae plus a few smaller families. Recent phylogenetic work has shown that Lamiales is polyphyletic with respect to order Scrophulariales and the two groups are now usually combined in a single order that also includes the former orders Hippuridales and Plantaginales. Lamiales has become the preferred name for this much larger combined group. The placement of Boraginaceae is unclear but phylogenetic work shows that this family does not belong in Lamiales. Also, the circumscription of family Scrophulariaceae, formerly a paraphyletic group defined primarily by plesiomorphic characters and from within which numerous other families of the Lamiales were derived, has been radically altered to create a number of smaller, better-defined and putatively monophyletic families. External links Lamiales A parsimony analysis of the Asteridae sensu lato based on rbcL sequences Distintegration of the Scrophulariaceae (deals with relationships throughout Lamiales) http://www.itis.usda.gov of 2002-05-31 TSN: 500018 L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. http://delta-intkey.com http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/vascular/acanth.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52e.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d52/52efam.htm 2002-09-06 http://www.science.siu.edu/parasitic-plants/Relation-Scroph.html http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/web.dbs/genlist.html 2002-09-06 | Lamiales |@lemmatized order:6 lamiales:8 taxon:1 asterid:1 group:4 dicotyledonous:1 flowering:1 plant:3 include:4 approximately:1 specie:2 divide:1 family:8 well:1 know:1 member:1 lavender:1 lilac:1 olive:1 jasmine:1 ash:1 tree:1 teak:1 snapdragon:1 number:2 table:1 herb:1 mint:1 basil:1 rosemary:1 characteristic:2 typically:1 following:1 although:1 exception:1 superior:1 ovary:1 compose:1 two:2 fused:1 carpel:1 five:1 petal:1 fuse:1 tube:1 bilaterally:1 symmetrical:1 often:1 bilabiate:1 corolla:1 four:1 fertile:1 stamen:1 taxonomic:1 history:1 formerly:2 restrict:1 circumscription:2 e:1 g:1 arthur:1 cronquist:1 major:1 lamiaceae:1 labiatae:1 verbenaceae:1 boraginaceae:2 plus:1 small:2 recent:1 phylogenetic:2 work:2 show:2 polyphyletic:1 respect:1 scrophulariales:1 usually:1 combine:2 single:1 also:2 former:1 hippuridales:1 plantaginales:1 become:1 preferred:1 name:1 much:1 large:1 placement:1 unclear:1 belong:1 scrophulariaceae:2 paraphyletic:1 define:2 primarily:1 plesiomorphic:1 character:1 within:1 numerous:1 derive:1 radically:1 alter:1 create:1 good:1 putatively:1 monophyletic:1 external:1 link:1 parsimony:1 analysis:1 asteridae:1 sensu:1 lato:1 base:1 rbcl:1 sequence:1 distintegration:1 deal:1 relationship:1 throughout:1 http:7 www:6 itis:1 usda:1 gov:1 tsn:1 l:1 watson:1 j:1 dallwitz:1 onwards:1 flower:1 description:1 illustration:1 identification:1 information:1 retrieval:1 delta:1 intkey:1 com:1 biologie:3 uni:3 hamburg:3 de:3 b:3 online:3 vascular:1 acanth:1 htm:3 science:1 siu:1 edu:1 parasitic:1 relation:1 scroph:1 html:2 rbgkew:1 org:1 uk:1 web:1 db:1 genlist:1 |@bigram flowering_plant:1 bilaterally_symmetrical:1 family_lamiaceae:1 radically_alter:1 external_link:1 sensu_lato:1 http_www:6 usda_gov:1 j_dallwitz:1 dallwitz_onwards:1 information_retrieval:1 |
1 | Carbohydrate | Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. It is composed of a molecule of D-galactose and a molecule of D-glucose bonded by a β-1-4 glycosidic linkage. Carbohydrates or saccharides are the most abundant of the four major classes of biomolecules. They fill numerous roles in living things, such as the storage and transport of energy (eg: starch, glycogen) and structural components (eg: cellulose in plants and chitin). Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Carbohydrates make up most of the organic matter on Earth because of their extensive roles in all forms of life. First, carbohydrates serve as energy stores, fuels, and metabolic intermediates. Second, ribose and deoxyribose sugars form part of the structural framework of RNA and DNA. Third, polysaccharides are structural elements in the cell walls of bacteria and plants. In fact, cellulose, the main constituent of plant cell walls, is one of the most abundant organic compounds in the biosphere. Fourth, carbohydrates are linked to many proteins and lipids, where they play key roles in mediating interactions among cells and interactions between cells and other elements in the cellular environment. Chemically, carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group. The basic carbohydrate units are called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. The general stoichiometric formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C·H2O)n, where n is any number of three or greater; however, not all carbohydrates conform to this precise stoichiometric definition (eg: uronic acids, deoxy-sugars such as fucose), nor are all chemicals that do conform to this definition automatically classified as carbohydrates. Matthews, C. E.; K. E. Van Holde; K. G. Ahern (1999) Biochemistry. 3rd edition. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-3066-6 Monosaccharides can be linked together into what are called polysaccharides (or oligosaccharides) in almost limitless ways. Many carbohydrates contain one or more modified monosaccharide units that have had one or more groups replaced or removed. For example, deoxyribose, a component of DNA, is a modified version of ribose; chitin is composed of repeating units of N-acetylglucosamine, a nitrogen-containing form of glucose. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of carbohydrates very often end in the suffix -ose. Monosaccharides D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6. The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group, and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. The general chemical formula of an unmodified monosaccharide is (C•H2O)n, where n is any number of three or greater. Classification of monosaccharides The α and β anomers of glucose. Note the position of the anomeric carbon (red or green) relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they are either on the opposite sides (α), or the same side (β). Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: the placement of its carbonyl group, the number of carbon atoms it contains, and its chiral handedness. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on. These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone). Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereocenters with two possible configurations each (R or S). Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula. The aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H2O)6, of which all but two of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 24 = 16 possible stereoisomers. In the case of glyceraldehyde, an aldotriose, there is one pair of possible stereoisomers, which are enantiomers and epimers. 1,3-dihydroxyacetone, the ketose corresponding to the aldose glyceraldehyde, is a symmetric molecule with no stereocenters). The assignment of D or L is made according to the orientation of the asymmetric carbon furthest from the carbonyl group: in a standard Fischer projection if the hydroxyl group is on the right the molecule is a D sugar, otherwise it is an L sugar. Because D sugars are biologically far more common, the D is often omitted Conformation |Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form. The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms. Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms, respectively, and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form. During the conversion from straight-chain form to cyclic form, the carbon atom containing the carbonyl oxygen, called the anomeric carbon, becomes a chiral center with two possible configurations: the oxygen atom may take a position either above or below the plane of the ring. The resulting possible pair of stereoisomers are called anomers. In the α anomer, the -OH substituent on the anomeric carbon rests on the opposite side (trans) of the ring from the CH2OH side branch. The alternative form, in which the CH2OH substituent and the anomeric hydroxyl are on the same side (cis) of the plane of the ring, is called the β anomer. You can remember that the β anomer is cis by the mnemonic, "It's always better to βe up". Because the ring and straight-chain forms readily interconvert, both anomers exist in equilibrium. Use in living organisms Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not immediately needed by many cells they are often converted to more space efficient forms, often polysaccharides. In many animals, including humans, this storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. Disaccharides Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right). Two joined monosaccharides are called a disaccharide and these are the simplest polysaccharides. Examples include sucrose and lactose. They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11. Although there are numerous kinds of disaccharides, a handful of disaccharides are particularly notable. Sucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide, and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule. The systematic name for sucrose, O-α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-D-fructofuranoside, indicates four things: Its monosaccharides: glucose and fructose Their ring types: glucose is a pyranose, and fructose is a furanose How they are linked together: the oxygen on carbon number 1 (C1) of α-D-glucose is linked to the C2 of D-fructose. The -oside suffix indicates that the anomeric carbon of both monosaccharides participates in the glycosidic bond. Lactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in mammalian milk. The systematic name for lactose is O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1→4)-D-glucopyranose. Other notable disaccharides include maltose (two D-glucoses linked α-1,4) and cellulobiose (two D-glucoses linked β-1,4). Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin. Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between two and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary according to personal opinion. Examples of oligosaccharides include the disaccharides mentioned above, the trisaccharide raffinose and the tetrasaccharide stachyose. Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of protein posttranslational modification. Such posttranslational modifications include the Lewis and ABO oligosaccharides responsible for blood group classifications and so of tissue incompatibilities, the alpha-Gal epitope responsible for hyperacute rejection in xenotransplanation, and O-GlcNAc modifications. Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymers. Their function in living organisms is usually either structure or storage related. Starch (a polymer of glucose) is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, sometimes called 'animal starch'. Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is claimed to be the most abundant organic molecule on earth. N.A.Campbell (1996) Biology (4th edition). Benjamin Cummings NY. p.23 ISBN 0-8053-1957-3 It has many uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon (via the viscose process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin's structure has a similar structure, but has nitrogen containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It also has multiple uses, including surgical threads. Other polysaccharides include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, mannan, fucoidan, and galactomannan. Nutrition Grain products: rich sources of complex and simple carbohydrates Foods high in carbohydrates include breads, pastas, beans, potatoes, bran, rice and cereals. Most such foods are high in starch. Carbohydrates require less water to digest than proteins or fats and are the most common source of energy in living things. Proteins and fat are necessary building components for body tissue and cells and are also a source of energy for most organisms. Carbohydrates are not essential nutrients in humans: the body can obtain all its energy from protein and fats Is dietary carbohydrate essential for human nutrition? - Westman 75 (5): 951 - American Journal of Clinical Nutrition A High-Protein, High-Fat, Carbohydrate-Free Diet Reduces Energy Intake, Hepatic Lipogenesis, and Adiposity in Rats - Pichon et al. 136 (5): 1256 - Journal of Nutrition . However, the brain and neurons generally cannot burn fat and need glucose for energy; the body can make some glucose from a few of the amino acids in protein and also from the glycerol backbone in triglycerides. Carbohydrate contains 3.75 and proteins 4 calories per gram, respectively, while fats contain 9 calories per gram. In the case of protein, this is somewhat misleading as only some amino acids are usable for fuel. Likewise, in humans, only some carbohydrates are usable for fuel; many monosaccharides and some disaccharides. Other carbohydrate types can be used, but only with the assistance of gut bacteria. Ruminants and termites can even process cellulose, which is indigestible to other organisms. Based on the effects on risk of heart disease and obesity, the Institute of Medicine recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of dietary energy from carbohydrates. Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Page 769. ISBN 0-309-08537-3 The Food and Agriculture Organization and World Health Organization jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates, but only 10% directly from sugars (their term for simple carbohydrates). Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. Pages 55-56. ISBN 92-4-120916-X Classification Carbohydrates can be classified as simple (monosaccharides and disaccharides) or complex (oligosaccharides and polysaccharides). The term complex carbohydrate was first used in the Senate Select Committee publication Dietary Goals for the United States (1977), where it denoted "fruit, vegetables and whole-grains". Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), Carbohydrates in human nutrition, chapter 1. ISBN 92-5-104114-8. Dietary guidelines generally recommend that complex carbohydrates, and such nutrient-rich simple carbohydrate sources such as fruit (glucose or fructose) and dairy products (lactose) make up the bulk of carbohydrate consumption. This excludes such sources of simple sugars as candy and sugary drinks. The USDA's Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005 dispensed with the simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole grains. DHHS and USDA, Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005, Chapter 7 Carbohydrates The glycemic index and glycemic load concepts have been developed to characterize food behavior during human digestion. They rank carbohydrate-rich foods based on the rapidity of their effect on blood glucose levels. The insulin index is a similar, more recent classification method which ranks foods based on their effects on blood insulin levels, which are caused by glucose (or starch) and some amino acids in food. Glycemic index is a measure of how quickly food glucose is absorbed, while glycemic load is a measure of the total absorbable glucose in foods. Metabolism Catabolism Catabolism is the metabolic reaction cells undergo in order to extract energy. There are two major metabolic pathways of monosaccharide catabolism: Glycolysis Citric acid cycle Oligo/polysaccharides are cleaved first to smaller monosaccharides by enzymes called Glycoside hydrolases. The monosaccharide units can then enter into monosaccharide catabolism. In some cases, as with humans, not all carbohydrate types are usable as the digestive and metabolic enzymes necessary are not present. For instance, neither horses nor humans nor cats can digest and use cellulose, but ruminants and termites can. Carbohydrate chemistry Carbohydrates are reactants in many organic reactions. For example: Carbohydrate acetalisation Cyanohydrin reaction Lobry-de Bruyn-van Ekenstein transformation Amadori rearrangement Nef reaction Wohl degradation Koenigs-Knorr reaction See also Biochemistry Bioplastic Gluconeogenesis Glycolipid Glycoprotein Low-carbohydrate diet No-carbohydrate diet Macromolecules Nutrition Pentose phosphate pathway Photosynthesis Sugar References Footnotes α. Means 'hydrates of carbon' β. The word comes from the Greek σάκχαρον, sákcharon, meaning "sugar") External links Carbohydrates, including interactive models and animations (Requires MDL Chime) IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature Carbohydrates detailed Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Consortium for Functional Glycomics | Carbohydrate |@lemmatized lactose:5 disaccharide:13 find:4 milk:2 compose:7 molecule:9 galactose:3 glucose:29 bond:5 β:8 glycosidic:4 linkage:2 carbohydrate:43 saccharide:1 abundant:4 four:3 major:4 class:2 biomolecules:1 fill:1 numerous:2 role:5 living:4 thing:3 storage:4 transport:2 energy:12 eg:3 starch:7 glycogen:4 structural:4 component:4 cellulose:7 plant:7 chitin:4 additionally:1 derivative:1 play:2 working:1 process:3 immune:1 system:2 fertilization:1 pathogenesis:1 blood:4 clotting:1 development:1 make:7 organic:5 matter:1 earth:2 extensive:1 form:18 life:2 first:4 carbohydrates:4 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2 | East_Germany | The German Democratic Republic (GDR; , DDR; more commonly known in English as East Germany) was a self-declared socialist state (but often referred to in the West as a "communist state") in the Eastern Bloc created in the Soviet Zone of occupied Germany and the Soviet sector of occupied Berlin. The German Democratic Republic existed from 7 October 1949 until 3 October 1990, when its re-established states acceded to the adjacent Federal Republic of Germany, thus producing the current form of the state of Germany. In 1955, the Soviet Union declared that the Republic was fully sovereign. However, Soviet occupation troops remained in East German territory, based on the four-power Potsdam Agreement, while British, Canadian, French and American forces remained in the Federal Republic of Germany in the West. Berlin, completely surrounded by East German territory, was similarly divided with British, French and U.S. garrisons in West Berlin and Soviet forces in East Berlin. Berlin in particular became the focal point of Cold War tensions. East Germany was a member of the Warsaw Pact and a close ally of the Soviet Union. Following the initial opening of sections of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989, new elections were held on 18 March 1990, and the governing party, the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, lost its majority in the Volkskammer (the East German parliament) soon after. On 23 August, the Volkskammer decided that the Republic would recreate the five pre-war states (which had been dissolved in 1952), which would join the Federal Republic of Germany on 3 October 1990. As a result of the reunification on that date, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist. Ernst Thälmann Island off the coast of Cuba, which could be regarded as part of East Germany is not covered by the Unification Treaty. So one could argue, the GDR still exists on this island, albeit without population. History See also History of Germany At the Potsdam Conference the Allies de-facto annexed the provinces and regions of Germany east of the Oder-Neisse line. Before the end of World War II, the region that later would be known as East Germany was actually situated in the center of the German state and therefore was known as "Mitteldeutschland" (Central or Middle Germany). To the east of the Oder and Neisse rivers were the extensive Prussian provinces of Pomerania, East Prussia, West Prussia, Posen, Upper Silesia and Lower Silesia, and the eastern Neumark of Brandenburg. During World War II, Allied leaders decided at the Yalta Conference that the post-war Polish border would be moved westward to the Oder-Neisse line to compensate Poland for the loss of its eastern territories to the Soviet Union. As a result, Germany lost most of its eastern provinces, and the former "Middle Germany" was now the de facto eastern limit of the German nation. Discussions at Yalta and Potsdam also outlined the planned occupation and administration of post-war Germany under a four-power Allied Control Council, or ACC, composed of the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. At the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945, following the end of fighting in Europe, France, the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union decided to divide Germany into four occupation zones. Each country would control a part of Germany until its sovereignty was restored. The Länder (states) of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, fell in the Soviet Zone of Germany (in German: Sowjetische Besatzungszone, or SBZ). Soviet objections to economic and political changes in western (US, UK, and French) occupation zones led to Soviet withdrawal from the ACC in 1948 and subsequent evolution of the SBZ into East Germany, including the Soviet sector of Berlin. Concurrently, the Western occupation zones consolidated to form West Germany (or the Federal Republic of Germany, FRG). Three German states and divided Berlin in late 1949. The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) consists of the American, British and French Zones (without the Saarland). The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) is formed from the Soviet Zone. Officially, both the western Allies and the Communists committed to maintaining a unified Germany after the war in the Potsdam Agreement, at least on paper. The 1952 Stalin Note proposed German reunification and superpower disengagement from Central Europe, but the United States and its allies rejected the offer. Stalin died in early 1953. Though powerful Soviet politician Lavrenty Beria briefly pursued the idea of German unification once more following Stalin's death, he was arrested and removed from office in a coup d'etat in mid-1953. His successor, Nikita Khrushchev, firmly rejected the idea of handing eastern Germany over to be annexed, marking the end of any serious consideration of the unification idea until the collapse of the Communist East German government in late 1989. Just as Germany was divided after the war, Berlin, the former capital of Germany, was divided into four sectors. East Germany and the rest of the Eastern bloc considered East Berlin to be the capital of East Germany, although the legality of this was disputed by the western Allies, as the entire city was formally considered an occupied territory governed by martial law through the Allied Control Council. In practice, the Allied Control Council quickly became moot as the Cold War intensified, and the eastern government ignored the technical legal restrictions on how East Berlin could be used. Conflict over the status of West Berlin led to the Berlin Blockade, when the Soviet government prohibited overland transit between the western zones of Germany and West Berlin, prompting the massive Berlin Airlift. At the end of the war, Soviet authorities forcibly unified members of the Communist Party of Germany and Social Democratic Party in the Socialist Unity Party (SED), which swept to victory in 1946 elections with the help of Soviet pressure and propaganda about the Nazi atrocities. All property and industry was nationalized under their government, and the German Democratic Republic was declared on October 7, 1949, with a new constitution which enshrined socialism and gave the SED power over a National Front among the different political parties, with "unity lists" put forth by the SED which ensured their control. The first leader of East Germany was Wilhelm Pieck, the first (and as it turned out, only) President of the Republic. However, after 1950 the real power rested with Walter Ulbricht, first secretary of the Socialist Unity Party, the ruling Communist party. Until 1952, the GDR consisted of the German states of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Thuringia, Saxony and the capital, East Berlin. These divisions roughly corresponded to prewar states (Länder) and provinces (Provinzen) in the area of Eastern Germany administered by the Soviet Union under the terms of the postwar Potsdam Agreement. Two small remnants of states annexed by Poland after the war (Pomerania and Lower Silesia) remained in the GDR and were attached to neighboring territories. In the administrative reform of 1952, the states were abolished and replaced with 14 smaller districts. The districts were named after their capitals: Rostock, Neubrandenburg, Schwerin, Potsdam, Frankfurt (Oder), Magdeburg, Cottbus, Halle, Leipzig, Erfurt, Dresden, Karl-Marx-Stadt (named Chemnitz until 1953 and again after 1990), Gera, and Suhl. East Berlin was recognized as a district in 1961. On 16 June 1953, following a production quota increase of 10 percent for workers building East Berlin's new boulevard the Stalinallee, (today's Karl-Marx-Allee), demonstrations by disgruntled workers broke out in East Berlin. The next day the protests spread across East Germany with more than a million on strike and demonstrations in 700 communities. Fearing revolution the government requested the aid of Soviet occupation troops and on the morning of the 18th tanks and soldiers were dispatched who dealt harshly with protesters. The result was some fifty deaths and a wave of arrests and jail sentences numbering over 10,000. East Berlin 17 June 1953: Stones Against Tanks, Deutsche Welle, Accessed 2007-05-16 Transit between West and East Berlin was relatively free at the time, meaning that the protests and the harsh Soviet reaction unfolded in full view of many western observers. See Uprising of 1953 in East Germany. Soviet war reparations, extracted entirely from the eastern occupation zone, had a substantial impact on the East German economy. During the early stages of the occupation (in particular 1945 and 1946), the Red Army seized around a third of the industrial equipment from eastern Germany to be shipped back to the Soviet Union, with a further $10bn in reparations extracted by the early 1950s in the form of agricultural and industrial products. Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 167-9 The increasing economic prosperity of West Germany led large numbers of East Germans to flee to the West. Since the 1940s, East Germans had been leaving the Soviet zone of Germany to emigrate to the west. The ongoing emigration of East Germans further strained the East German economy. The border between the two German states was largely closed by the mid-1950s (see Inner German border). Due to the lure of higher salaries in the West and political oppression in the East, many skilled workers (such as doctors) crossed into the West, causing a 'brain drain' in the East. However, on the night of 13 August 1961, East German troops sealed the border between West and East Berlin and started to build the Berlin Wall, literally and physically enclosing West Berlin. Travel was greatly restricted into, and out of, East Germany. A highly effective security force called the Stasi monitored the lives of East German citizens to suppress dissenters through its network of informants and agents. In 1971, Ulbricht was forced out as head of state under Soviet pressure, and replaced by Erich Honecker. Ulbricht had experimented with a few reforms, but Honecker tightened the reins and imposed a new constitution that used the word "German" sparingly and defined the country as a "republic of workers and peasants." East Germany was generally regarded as the most economically advanced member of the Warsaw Pact. Until the 1970s, West Germany regarded East Germany as an illegally constituted state, and under the Hallstein Doctrine refused to have diplomatic relations with any country (except the Soviet Union) that recognized East Germany as a separate country. In the early 1970s, Ostpolitik led by Willy Brandt led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalize relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. Competition with the West was also conducted on a sporting level. East German athletes dominated several Olympic disciplines. Of special interest was the only football match ever to occur between West and East Germany, a first round match during the 1974 World Cup. Though West Germany was the host and the eventual champion, East beat West 1-0. In 1989, following widespread public anger over the results of local government elections that spring, many citizens applied for exit visas, or left the country illegally. In August 1989 Hungary removed its border restrictions and unsealed its border and more than 13,000 people left East Germany by crossing the "green" border via Czechoslovakia into Hungary and then on to Austria and West Germany. The Berlin Wall (1961–1989) German Notes, Accessed 2006-10-24 Many others demonstrated against the ruling party, especially in the city of Leipzig. Kurt Masur, the conductor of the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra led local negotiations with the government, and held town meetings in the concert hall. Darnton, Robert, Berlin Journal (New York, 1992, W.W. Norton) pp.98–99 The demonstrations eventually led Erich Honecker to resign in October, and he was replaced by a slightly more liberal Communist, Egon Krenz. On 9 November 1989, a few sections of the Berlin Wall were opened, resulting in thousands of East Germans crossing into West Berlin and West Germany for the first time. Soon, the governing party of East Germany resigned. Although there were some small attempts to create a permanent, democratic East Germany, these were soon overwhelmed by calls for unification with West Germany. After some negotiations (2+4 Talks, involving the two German states and the former Allied Powers United States, France, United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union), conditions for German unification were agreed upon. East Germany recreated the original five states that had been abolished in 1952. On 3 October 1990, the five East German states officially joined the Federal Republic of Germany, while East and West Berlin united as a third city-state (in the same manner as Bremen and Hamburg). To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and West Germany (for example, in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The Eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. Politics The SED emblem represented the handshake between Communist Wilhelm Pieck and Social Democrat Otto Grotewohl when their parties merged in 1946 Political organization The ruling political party in East Germany was the Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany, SED). It was created in 1946 through the Soviet-directed merger of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone. The Potsdam Agreement committed the Soviets to supporting a democratic form of government in Germany, and, unlike some Warsaw Pact countries, other political parties were permitted. All parties operating in East Germany were obliged to join the National Front of Democratic Germany, ostensibly a united coalition of anti-fascist political parties. It was completely controlled by the SED. Members included: Christlich-Demokratische Union Deutschlands (Christian Democratic Union of Germany, CDU), merged with the West-German CDU after reunification Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands (Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany, DBD). This party was of special importance because of farmers' role in the economy. The party merged with the West German CDU after reunification. Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands (Liberal Democratic Party of Germany, LDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands (National Democratic Party of Germany, NDPD), merged with the West German FDP after reunification. Elections took place to a parliament called the Volkskammer, but were effectively controlled by the SED/state hierarchy, as Hans Modrow has noted. Elections were held in less-than-secret conditions, with voters given the choice of approving or rejecting "unity lists" put forward by the National Front. As was the case in most Communist countries, approval rates of 90 percent or more were routine. Palast der Republik, the seat of the Volkskammer The Volkskammer also included representatives from the mass organisations like the Free German Youth (Freie Deutsche Jugend or FDJ), or the Free German Trade Union Federation. In an attempt to include women in the political life of East Germany, there was a Democratic Women's Federation of Germany, with seats in the Volkskammer. Important non-parliamentary mass organisations in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association (Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund or DTSB), and People's Solidarity (Volkssolidarität, an organisation for the elderly). Another society of note was the Society for German-Soviet Friendship. A highly effective secret police force called the Stasi infiltrated and reported on most private activity in East Germany, limiting opportunity for non-sanctioned political organisation. All formal organisations except for churches were directly controlled by the East German government. Churches were permitted to operate more or less free from government control, as long as they abstained from political activity. Following German reunification, the SED was renamed the "Party of Democratic Socialism" (PDS) which subsequently merged with the West German WASG to form the Left Party (Die Linke). The Left Party continues to be a political force in many parts of Germany, albeit drastically less powerful than the SED. Persons of note in East Germany Political representatives Hermann Axen, editor-in-chief of the SED paper "Neues Deutschland" 1956–1978, SED secretary for international relations 1966-1989 Johannes R. Becher, first minister for culture 1954–1958, wrote the lyrics of the national anthem Hilde Benjamin, Vice President of the GDR Supreme Court 1949–1953, Minister of Justice 1953–1967, dubbed "red guillotine" for her relentless persecution of political opponents Otto Grotewohl, Chairman of the East German SPD 1945–1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946–1954; Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1949–1964 Erich Honecker, General Secretary of the SED Central Committee 1971–1989; Chairman of the Council of State 1976–1989 Margot Honecker née Feist, minister for education 1963–1989 Heinz Kessler, Minister of Defence 1985–1989 (deputy minister since 1957) Egon Krenz, General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and chairman of Council of State from October to December 1989; he had been Honnecker's deputy and "crown prince" since 1983 Erich Mielke, Minister of State Security 1957–1989 Günter Mittag, SED secretary for economics 1962–1973, 1976–1989 Hans Modrow, SED district secretary for Dresden 1973–1989, last SED prime minister November 1989 – March 1990 Wilhelm Pieck, Chairman of the East German KPD 1945–1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946–1954; State President 1949–1960 Günter Schabowski, SED district secretary for Berlin 1985–1989; as party spokesperson he caused the fall of the Berlin wall Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski, head of the department of "commercial coordination" in the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Karl Schirdewan, SED secretary 1953–1958, dismissed for "faction building" Horst Sindermann, Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1973–1976; president of parliament 1976–1989 Karl-Eduard von Schnitzler, telecaster on East German television, infamous for his propaganda programme "Der schwarze Kanal" Willi Stoph, Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) 1964–1973 and 1976–1989; Chairman of the Council of State 1973–1976 Harry Tisch, head of the Free German Trade Union Federation 1975–1989 Walter Ulbricht, General Secretary of the SED Central Committee 1950–1971; Chairman of the Council of State 1960–1973) Markus "Mischa" Wolf, head of the GDR's foreign intelligence department 1952–1986 Other notable East Germans Culture Johannes R. Becher, East German poet and politician (writer of the national anthem of the GDR) Jurek Becker, writer ("Jacob the Liar") Frank Beyer, film director Wolf Biermann, singer/songwriter and dissident, citizenship withdrawn in 1976 when he was on tour in West Germany Thomas Brasch, writer, poet and dramatist Bertolt Brecht, dramatist, poet and director, reopened the "Berliner Ensemble" in 1949, moved back to East Germany from America after persecution by House Un-American Activities Committee. Ernst Busch (1900–1980), actor and singer Hanns Eisler, composer (national anthem of the GDR) Fritz Geißler, composer Erwin Geschonneck, actor ("Jacob the Liar") Peter Hacks, dramatist John Heartfield, photographer Bernhard Heisig, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Gustav Just, journalist Hermann Kant, writer ("Der Aufenthalt") Manfred Krug, actor and jazz singer Kurt Masur, conductor and political activist Wolfgang Mattheuer, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Armin Mueller-Stahl, actor Heiner Müller, writer and dramatist, worked with the director Benno Besson at Volksbühne Erwin Strittmatter, writer ("Der Laden") Werner Tübke, painter ("Leipziger Schule") Christa Wolf, writer ("Kassandra") Paul Van Dyk, DJ & Artist Politics Rudolf Bahro, journalist and politician Ibrahim Böhme, first chairman of the East German Social Democrats in 1989–1990, resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer Bärbel Bohley, opposition figure (co-founders of the Initiative for Peace and Human Rights and the New Forum) Rainer Eppelmann, Protestant pastor and opposition figure, minister for defence and disarmament from March to October 1990 Gregor Gysi, lawyer to artists, chairman of the SED/PDS November 1989–1998 Wolfgang Harich, intellectual and East German dissident (sentenced to prison for counterrevolutionary activities) Robert Havemann, communistic resistance fighter in World War 2 and East German dissident (was put under house arrest from 1976 until his death in 1982) Walter Janka, communist resistance fighter in WW2 and East German dissident (sentenced in 1957 for "counterrevolutionary activities") Lothar de Maizière, first (and only) freely elected prime minister, from April to 3 October 1990 and Federal Minister for Special Affairs of Germany from 3 October 1990 (but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer) Markus Meckel, Protestant pastor, deputy chairman of the East German Social Democrats 1989–1990, GDR foreign minister from April to August 1990 Wolfgang Schnur, lawyer to dissidents, opposition politician (Democratic Awakening in 1990, but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer) Science Manfred von Ardenne, physicist and inventor Klaus Fuchs, Nuclear physicist and spy Sigmund Jähn, cosmonaut, first German in space Peggy Jungke, east German scientist Sport Uwe Ampler, racing cyclist Karin Büttner-Janz, gymnast Ernst Degner, Grand Prix motorcycle road racer Uwe Raab, racing cyclist Olaf Ludwig, racing cyclist Jürgen Sparwasser, football player Katarina Witt, figure skater Major cities in East Germany (With est. 1988 populations) Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR (English: Berlin, Capital of the GDR) (1,200,000) Leipzig* (556,000) Dresden* (520,000) Karl-Marx-Stadt* (317,000) Magdeburg* (290,000) Rostock* (250,000) Halle (Saale)* (236,000) Erfurt* (215,000) Potsdam* (140,000) Gera* (131,000) Schwerin* (130,000) Cottbus* (125,000) Zwickau (120,000) Jena (107,000) Dessau (105,000) * "Bezirksstadt" (centre of district) Military Soldiers of the Nationale Volksarmee marching at a changing-of-the-guard ceremony in Berlin. Like all Soviet bloc countries, East Germany had its own armed forces, known as the Nationale Volksarmee (National People's Army - NVA) with four branches of service. Since East Germany was at the frontline of the Cold War, the GDR's military was considered to be the most advanced in the whole Warsaw Pact, excluding the Soviet Union. It was battle ready at all times, ready to be mobilized in a future war with NATO. The NVA was divided into the following four branches: Army (Landstreitkräfte) Navy (Volksmarine - People's Navy) Air Force/Air Defence (Luftstreitkräfte/Luftverteidigung) Border Troops of the GDR (Grenztruppen der DDR) In addition, the GDR possessed various paramilitary forces in reserve in case war broke out, such as the "Combat Groups of the Working Class" (Kampfgruppen der Arbeiterklasse) and in some cases, the Stasi. All young East German men had to join the NVA. Attendance was compulsory for 18 months, except for serious medical reasons. As an alternative to military service for conscientious objectors, the so-called Baueinheiten (construction units) were created in 1964 under pressure from the national Protestant church. However, service in the Baueinheiten was strongly discouraged; these soldiers were subjected to various forms of harassment during their service, and there were also consequences after their term of service was complete - e.g., denial or difficulty in obtaining admission to higher education, etc. East Germany alone offered alternative service for COs among Eastern Bloc countries. Administrative divisions Subdivisions of the German Democratic Republic from 1952 In 1952, as part of the reforms designed to centralize power in the hands of the SED's Politbüro, the five Länder of East Germany were abolished, and East Germany was divided into fifteen Bezirke (districts), each named after the largest city: the northern Land Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was divided between the Bezirke Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg; Brandenburg (surrounding Berlin) was reorganized into the Bezirke of Potsdam, Frankfurt (Oder) and Cottbus; Saxony-Anhalt split into the Bezirke of Halle and Magdeburg; the south-western Land Thuringia became the Bezirke of Erfurt, Gera and Suhl; finally, the south-eastern Land Saxony was divided between Leipzig, Dresden and Karl-Marx-Stadt (formerly and following the GDR's collapse again known as Chemnitz). The GDR capital, East Berlin formed the 15th Bezirk, though it retained a special legal status in the GDR until 1968, when East Berliners voted with the rest of the GDR to approve the draft of the new constitution. From this point onwards, irrespective of the Four Power Status and the western allies' objections that East Berlin was merely the Soviet occupied sector of the German capital, East Berlin was treated as a Bezirk like any other. Demographics The East German population declined steadily throughout its existence, from 19 million in 1948 to 16 million in 1990. Around 4 million of the 1948 population had been expelled from the former German territories beyond East Germany's eastern border. East Germany : country population This was primarily a result of emigration – about one quarter of East Germans left the country. Germany Population - Historical Background Economy Economic activity in the GDR. East Germany's economy had a poor start in the aftermath of World War II's devastation. During 1945 and 1946 the Soviet Army had dismantled train lines and factories. By the early 1950s the Soviet Union had seized reparations in form of agricultural and industrial products and demanded further heavy reparation payments. Norman M. Naimark. The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Harvard University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-674-78405-7 pp. 167-9 Furthermore, Lower Silesia, which contained coal mines, and Stettin, a prominent natural port, were given to Poland. Like other East European socialist states, East Germany had a centrally planned economy, similar to the one in the former Soviet Union, in contrast to the market economies or mixed economies of most Western states. The GDR became a member of the COMECON trading block in 1950. The state established production targets and prices and allocated resources, codifying these decisions in a comprehensive plan or set of plans. The means of production were almost entirely state owned. In 1985, for example, state-owned enterprises or collectives earned 96.7 percent of total net national income. To secure constant prices for inhabitants, the state bore 80% of costs of basic supplies, from bread to housing. The per capita income in 1984 was an estimated $9,800 (approximately $21,000 in 2008 dollars), though the currency conversion used to create this figure is difficult to conduct. In 1976 average annual GDP growth was roughly 5.9%. Examples of products exported were cameras under the Praktica brand, automobiles under the Trabant, Wartburg and IFA brands, hunting rifles, sextants and watches. To the East German consumer, there were always shortages. Until 1960s there were shortages of basic products like sugar and coffee, although there were some disparities; whilst coffee stayed expensive (approx. 1US$ for 200g), rolls were less then a cent. The lead time for a new Wartburg was around 13 years in 1989. East Germans with friends or relatives in the West (or other access to hard currency), and the necessary Staatsbank foreign currency account, could buy both Western products and East German products only intended for export at the Intershop. Other ways of accessing rare consumer goods was through the Danish company Jauerfood, or via the mail-order gift company Genex. The Trabant was the most important car manufactured in the DDR. The ultimate directing force in the economy, as in every aspect of the society, was the Socialist Unity Party of Germany (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (SED), particularly its top leadership. The party exercised its leadership role formally during the party congress, when it accepted the report of the general secretary, and when it adopted the draft plan for the upcoming five-year period. The private sector of the economy was small but not entirely insignificant. In 1985 about 2.8 percent of the net national product came from private enterprises. The private sector included private farmers and gardeners; independent craftsmen, wholesalers, and retailers; and individuals employed in so-called free-lance activities (artists, writers, and others). Although self-employed, such individuals were strictly regulated; in some cases the tax rate exceeded 90%. In 1985, for the first time in many years, the number of individuals working in the private sector increased slightly. According to East German statistics, in 1985 there were about 176,800 private entrepreneurs, an increase of about 500 over 1984. Certain private sector activities were quite important to the system because those craftsmen provided scarce spare parts, the production of which was a common shortcoming of the GDR's planned economy. Culture Music Artists were expected to sing songs only in German at first, which changed with the end of the sixties. This seemed a logical constraint by the Party leaders but it was rather unpopular among young people. There were strict rules that regulated that all artistic activity ought to be censored for any open or implied anti-socialist tendencies. The band Renft, for example, was prone to political misbehaviour, which eventually led to its split. The Puhdys and Karat were some of the most popular mainstream bands, managing to hint at critical thoughts in their lyrics without being explicit. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as Neues Leben and Magazin. Other popular rock bands were Wir, Dean Reed, City, Silly and Pankow. Most of these artists recorded on the state-owned AMIGA label. Influences from the West were heard everywhere, because TV and radio that came from the Klassenfeind (class enemy, meaning "enemy of the working class") could be received in many parts of the East, too (a notorious exception being Dresden, with its geographically disadvantageous position in the Elbe valley, giving it the nickname of “Valley of the Clueless” -although limited reception of Western radio was still possible there). The Western influence led to the formation of more "underground" groups with a decisively western-oriented sound. A few of these bands were Die Skeptiker, Die Art and Feeling B. Additionally, hip hop culture reached the ears of the East German youth. With videos such as Beat Street and Wild Style, young East Germans were able to develop a hip hop culture of their own. Brown, Timothy S. “‘Keeping it Real’ in a Different ‘Hood: (African-) Americanization and Hip-hop in Germany.” In The Vinyl Ain’t Final: Hip Hop and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture, ed. by Dipannita Basu and Sidney J. Lemelle, pp.137-150. London; A East Germans accepted hip hop as more than just a music form. The entire street culture surrounding rap entered the region and became an outlet for oppressed youth. Elfein, Dietmar. From Krauts with Atittudes to Turks with Attitudes: Some a Aspects of Hip-Hop History in Germany. pp.225-265 Popular Music vol. 17:3. October 1998. Classical music was highly supported, so that there existed over 50 classical symphony orchestras in a country with a population of about 16 million. See also: Thomanerchor Leipzig Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden Berliner Sinfonie Orchester Staatsoper Unter den Linden Berlin Johann Sebastian Bach was born in East German territory and his birthplace in Eisenach was turned into a museum of his life, which, among other things, included more than 300 instruments from Bach's life. In 1980 this museum was receiving more than 70,000 visitors annually. In Leipzig, an enormous archive with recordings of all of Bach's music was compiled, along with many historical documents and letters both to and from him. Every other year, school children from across East Germany gathered for a Bach competition held in East Berlin. Every four years an international Bach competition for keyboard and strings was held. Theatre East German theatre was originally dominated by Bertolt Brecht, who brought back many artists out of exile and reopened the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm with his Berliner Ensemble. Alternatively, other influences tried to establish a "Working Class Theatre", played for the working class by the working class. After Brecht's death, conflicts began to arise between his family (around Helene Weigel) and other artists about Brecht's heritage. Heinz Kahlau, Slatan Dudow, Erwin Geschonneck, Erwin Strittmatter, Peter Hacks, Benno Besson, Peter Palitzsch and Ekkehard Schall were considered to be among Bertolt Brecht's scholars and followers. In the 1950s the Swiss director Benno Besson with the Deutsches Theater successfully toured Europe and Asia including Japan with "The Dragon" by Jewgenij Schwarz. In the 1960s, he became the Intendant of the Volksbühne often working with Heiner Müller. After 1975 many artists left the GDR due to increasing censorship. A parallel theatre scene sprung up, creating theatre "outside of Berlin" in which artists played at provincial theatres. For example Peter Sodann founded the neues theater in Halle/Saale and Frank Castorf at the theater Anklam. Theatre and Cabaret had high status in the GDR, which allowed it to be very pro-active. This often brought it into confrontation with the State. Benno Besson once said: "In contrast to artists in the west, they took us seriously, we had a bearing." Important theatres: Deutsches Theater Deutsches Theater: Home Berliner Ensemble Das BE - ein Theater für Zeitgenossen Volksbühne Volksbühne Berlin Maxim Gorki Theater www.gorki.de Cinema In the GDR, the movie industry was very active. The head-group for film-productions was the DEFA DEFA - Stiftung - Home , Deutsche Film AG, which was subdivided in different local groups, for example Gruppe Berlin, Gruppe Babelsberg or Gruppe Johannisthal, where the local teams shot and produced films. Besides folksy movies, the movie-industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children's movies ("Das kalte Herz", film versions of the Brothers Grimm fairy-tales and modern productions such as "Das Schulgespenst"). Frank Beyer's "Jakob der Lügner" (Jacob the Liar; about persecution of Jews in Third Reich) and, "Fünf Patronenhülsen"(Five Bullet Shells) about resistance against fascism, became internationally famous. Movies about problems of everyday life such as "Die Legende von Paul und Paula" (directed by Heiner Carow) and "Solo Sunny" (directed by Konrad Wolf and Wolfgang Kohlhaase) were also very popular. The film industry was remarkable for its production of Ostern, or Western-like movies. Indians in these films often took the role of displaced people who fight for their rights, in contrast to the American westerns of the time, where Indians were often either not mentioned at all or are portrayed as the villains. Yugoslavians were often cast as the Indians, due to the small number of American Indians in eastern Europe. Gojko Mitić was well-known in these roles, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief ("Die Söhne der großen Bärin" directed by Josef Mach). He became an honorary Sioux chief when he visited the United States of America in the 90s and the television crew accompanying him showed the tribe one of his movies. American actor and singer Dean Reed, an expatriate who lived in East Germany, also starred in several films. These films were part of the phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of America. See also Spaghetti Western and the West German Winnetou films (adaptations of novels of Karl May). Because of censorship a certain number of very remarkable movies were forbidden at this time and reissued after the Wende in 1990. Examples are "Spur der Steine" (directed by Frank Beyer) and "Der geteilte Himmel" (directed by Konrad Wolf). Cinemas in the GDR also showed foreign films. Czechoslovak and Polish productions were more common, but also certain western movies were shown, but the numbers were limited because it cost foreign exchange to buy the licences. Further, movies representing or glorifying capitalistic ideology were not bought. Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish "Olsen Gang" or movies with the French comedian Louis de Funès. Jazz Sports For a small country, the people of East Germany achieved some remarkable results in many sports including cycling, weightlifting, swimming, track and field, boxing, skating and other winter sports. One reason for the success was the leadership of Dr. Manfred Hoeppner which started in the late 1960s. Another supporting reason was Anabolic steroid doping, which has been the most detected doping substances in IOC-accredited laboratories for many years Hartgens and Kuipers (2004), p. 515 and is now banned by all major sporting bodies. It allowed East Germany, with its small population, to become a world leader in the following two decades, winning a large number of Olympic and world gold medals and records. Tagliabue, John. - "Political Pressure Dismantles East German Sports Machine" - New York Times - 12 February 1991 | Janofsky, Michael. - "OLYMPICS; Coaches Concede That Steroids Fueled East Germany's Success in Swimming" - New York Times - 3 December 1991 | Kirschbaum, Erik. - "East German dope still leaves tracks" - Rediff from Reuters - 15 September 2000 | Ungerleider, Steven (2001). Faust's Gold: Inside The East German Doping Machine. Thomas Dunne Books ISBN 0312269773 | "Little blue pills and a lot of gold..." - Shorel.com | Culture & Lifestyle: "Sports Doping Statistics Reach Plateau in Germany" - Deutsche Welle - 26 February 2003 | "The East German Doping Machine" - International Swimming Hall of Fame | Culture & Lifestyle: "East Germany's Doping Legacy Returns" - Deutsche Welle - 10 January 2004 | Longman, Jere. - "East German Steroids' Toll: 'They Killed Heidi'" - New York Times - 26 January 2004 | Harding, Luke. - "Forgotten victims of East German doping take their battle to court" - The Guardian - 1 November 2005 | Jackson, Guy. Winning at Any Cost?: "Doping for glory in East Germany" - UNESCO - September 2006 | "Ex-East German athletes compensated for doping" - Associated Press - (c/o ESPN) - 13 December 2006 | "East German doping victims to get compensation" - Associated Press - (c/o CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation) - 13 December 2006 | Starcevic, Nesha. - "East German doping victims to get compensation" - Associated Press - (c/o San Diego Union-Tribune) - 13 December 2006 | "Germany completes $4.1M payout to doping victims" - USA Today - 11 October 2007 | "East Germany’s Secret Doping Program" - Secrets of the Dead - Thirteen/WNET - 7 May 2008 Another factor for success was the furtherance-system for young people in GDR. When some children were aged around 6 until 10 years old (or older) sport-teachers at school were encouraged to look for certain talents in every pupil. For older pupils it was possible to attend grammar-schools with a focus on sports (for example sailing, football and swimming). This policy was also used for talented pupils with regard to music or mathematics. Sports clubs were highly subsidized, especially sports in which it was possible to get international fame. For example, the major leagues for ice hockey and basketball just included each 2 teams (excluding the school and university sport). Football (soccer) was the most popular sport. Club football sides like Dynamo Dresden, 1. FC Magdeburg, FC Carl Zeiss Jena, 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo did have some success in European competition. Many East German players became integral parts of the reunified national football team, for example Matthias Sammer and Ulf Kirsten. Other sports enjoyed great popularity like figure skating, especially because of sportswomen like Katharina Witt. East Germans patriotically supported their athletes to success in international competitions for similar reasons as those in other countries, and this no doubt played its part in the success that state enjoyed. However, as with other Soviet states, a widely held perception existed that international athletic success advertised their political and economic system to a worldwide audience. In the special case of East Germany, being the minority section of the divided Cold War era Germany, the particular success of that state was considered to foster international acceptance of the GDR as a state in its own right. Stamps and philately Stamp celebrating the GDR's 25th anniversary in 1974. Communist States gave much importance to philately and the GDR was one of those which printed the most beautiful stamps. However, their philatelic value was sometimes questioned in the West since GDR stamps were usually part of a 3- or 4-stamp series and one of them would be very difficult to find and then would acquire an expensive value in the philatelic market. Television and radio Television and radio in East Germany was state controlled. Rundfunk der DDR was the official radio broadcasting organisation from 1952 until German reunification. The organization was based in the Funkhaus Nalepastraße in East Berlin. Deutscher Fernsehfunk (DFF), from 1972–1990 known as Fernsehen der DDR or DDR-FS, was the state television broadcaster from 1952. Telecommunications By the mid-1980s, East Germany possessed a well-developed communications system. There were approximately 3.6 million telephones in usage (21.8 for every 100 inhabitants), and 16,476 telex stations. Both of these networks were run by the Deutsche Post der DDR (East German Post Office). East Germany was assigned telephone country code 37; in 1991, several months after reunification, East German telephone exchanges were incorporated into country code 49. An unusual feature of the telephone network was that in most cases, direct dialing for long distance calls was not possible. Although area codes were assigned to all major towns and cities, they were only used for switching international calls. Instead, each location had its own list of dialing codes - with shorter codes for local calls, and longer codes for long distance calls. This was due to the way the calls were routed over the trunk network. After reunification, the existing network was largely replaced, and area codes and dialing became standardised. In 1976 East Germany inaugurated the operation of a ground-based radio station at Fürstenwalde for the purpose of relaying and receiving communications from Soviet satellites, and serve as a participant in the international telecommunications organization established by the Soviet government, Intersputnik. Holidays Date English Name German Name Remarks 1 January New Year's Day Neujahr Moveable feast Good Friday Karfreitag Moveable feast Easter Sunday Ostersonntag Moveable feast Easter Monday Ostermontag Was not an official Holiday after 1967. 1 May May Day Tag der Arbeit International Workers' Day 8 May Victory in Europe Day Tag der Befreiung The translation means "Day of Liberation" Moveable feast Father's Day / Ascension Day Vatertag / Christi Himmelfahrt Thursday after the 5th Sunday after Easter. Was not an official Holiday after 1967. Moveable feast Whitmonday Pfingstmontag 50 days after Easter Sunday 7 October Republic Day Tag der Republik National holiday 25 December First Day of Christmas 1. Weihnachtsfeiertag 26 December Second Day of Christmas 2. Weihnachtsfeiertag See also Germany West Germany History of Germany since 1945 History of East Germany Leaders of East Germany Berlin East Berlin West Berlin Ministerrat Berlin Wall Armed Forces National People's Army Landstreitkräfte Luftstreitkräfte Volksmarine Grenztruppen Stasi Volkspolizei Conscientious objection in East Germany Media Broadcasting in East Germany Cold War propaganda in Germany Aktuelle Kamera, GDR's main TV news show Radio Berlin International Der Tunnel, a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel Transport Transport in the German Democratic Republic Deutsche Reichsbahn - The railway company of the GDR Interflug - The airline of the GDR Trabant Barkas Wartburg Other Sportvereinigung (SV) Dynamo Iron Curtain Tourism in East Germany GDR jokes Ostalgie Palast der Republik Dean Reed Highest point: Fichtelberg (1,214 m) Education in the German Democratic Republic References Thomas A. Baylis, David H Childs and Marilyn Rueschemeyer, eds.; East Germany in Comparative Perspective Routledge. 1989 Fulbrook, Mary. The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker Yale University Press, 2005. 352 pp. ISBN 0-300-10884-2. Fulbrook; Mary. Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949-1989 Oxford University Press, 1995 William Glenn Gray; Germany's Cold War: The Global Campaign to Isolate East Germany, 1949–1969 University of North Carolina Press. 2003 Jonathan Grix; The Role of the Masses in the Collapse of the GDR Macmillan, 2000 Konrad H. Jarausch and Eve Duffy; Dictatorship as Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR Berghahn Books, 1999 Andrew I. Port, Conflict and Stability in the German Democratic Republic Cambridge University Press, 2007. Jonathan R. Zatlin, The Currency of Socialism - Money and Political Culture in East Germany. Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN 0521869560 Notes External links AHF - Nationale Volksarmee (NVA) Auferstanden aus Ruinen Translations of propaganda materials from the GDR. 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3 | İsmet_İnönü | Mustafa İsmet İnönü (September 24 1884 – December 25, 1973) was a Turkish Army General, TSK Genel Kurmay Baskanlari Prime Minister and the second President of the Republic of Turkey. He is widely referred to as "Milli Şef" (National Chief), a title he bestowed upon himself when he was elected as the President of Turkey in 1938. Family and early life He was born in İzmir to a family originally from Malatya with mixed Turkish-Kurdish heritage. The Young Turks – Children of the Borderlands? - Erik Jan Zürcher (Universiteit Leiden) Ismet Inonu: The Making of a Turkish Statesman - Metin Heper / Brill Academic Publishers His father was Hacı Reşid Bey, a member of the Ottoman bureaucracy, an examining magistrate born in Malatya, and his mother was Cevriye Hanım, daughter of Russo-Turkish War refugees from Bulgaria. Due to his father's assignments, the family moved from one city to another. Thus, İsmet İnönü completed his primary education in Sivas. For more than half his life, İsmet İnönü was known as İsmet Pasha. He changed his name in the early 1930s when President Atatürk decreed that all his countrymen had to have surnames. İsmet Pasha decided to take as his surname "İnönü", from the Central Anatolian town where he commanded the Turkish forces in his greatest battles as a general, known as the First Battle of İnönü and Second Battle of İnönü, victories which played an important role in the Turkish War of Independence. His son, Erdal İnönü, was a Wigner medal winner mathematical physicist and a former deputy prime minister of Turkey, as well as the former leader of the Social Democracy Party and the Social Democratic Populist Party, and the honorary leader of the Social Democratic People's Party. Early military career İnönü graduated from the Military Academy in 1903 as gunnery officer, and received his first military assignment in the Ottoman army. He joined the Committee of Union and Progress. He won his first military victories by suppressing two major revolts against the struggling Ottoman Empire, first in Rumelia and later in Yemen, whose leader was Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din. He served as a military officer during the Balkan Wars on the Ottoman-Bulgarian front. During World War I, he served as a miralay (colonel) on the Ottoman eastern front in Syria, and was later appointed as the commander of the western fronts. He worked together with Mustafa Kemal Pasha during his assignment at the Caucasus front. Independence war After losing the Battle of Megiddo against General Edmund Allenby during the last days of World War I, he went to Anatolia to join the Turkish nationalist movement and was appointed the commander of the Turkish Western Army, a position in which he remained during the Turkish War of Independence. He was promoted to brigadier general after the "Battles of İnönü", in which he successfully defeated the Greek Army in western Anatolia. During the Turkish War of Independence he was also a member of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara. İnönü was replaced by Fevzi Paşa as the Chief of Staff of the Turkish Army after the Turkish army lost a battle against the advancing Greek Army in July 1921, as a result of which the cities Afyon, Kütahya and Eskişehir were lost. Later, he was appointed as the chief negotiator of the Turkish delegation at the Treaty of Lausanne. He became famous for his resolve and stubbornness in defending Turkey's demands while conceding very little to the other side at the negotiating table, causing the peace conference to last longer than expected. Partially deaf, İnönü simply turned off his hearing aid when the British foreign secretary, Lord Curzon, launched into lengthy speeches opposing Turkish demands for recognition of the national pact, and then would restate the Turkish position as if the British foreign secretary had not said a thing. Political career İnönü later served as the Prime Minister of Turkey for several terms, maintaining the system that Atatürk had put in place. He acted after every major crisis (such as the rebellion of Sheikh Said or the attempted assassination of Atatürk in İzmir) to restore peace in the country. He tried to manage the economy with heavy-handed government intervention, especially after the 1929 economic crisis, by implementing an economic plan inspired by the Five Year Plan of the Soviet Union. In doing so, he took much private property under government control. Due to his efforts, to this day, more than 70% of land in Turkey is still owned by the state, resembling the now-defunct Soviet Union. Desiring a more liberal economic system, Atatürk forced Inönü , from the government leadership in 1937 and appointed Celal Bayar, the founder of the first Turkish bank Türkiye İş Bankası as Prime Minister. "National Chief" period Churchill secretly meets with Inönü inside a train wagon at the Yenice Station 23 kilometers outside of Adana, Turkey, on January 30, 1943 After the death of Atatürk, Inönü was viewed as the most appropriate candidate to succeed him, and was elected the second President of the Republic of Turkey and enjoyed the official title of "Milli Şef", i.e. "National Chief". World War II broke out in the first year of his presidency, and both the Allies and the Axis pressured Inönü to bring Turkey into the war on their side. The Germans sent Franz von Papen to Ankara, while Winston Churchill secretly met with Inönü inside a train wagon near Adana on January 30, 1943. Inönü later met with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference on December 4-6, 1943. Until 1941, both Roosevelt and Churchill thought that Turkey's continuing neutrality would serve the interests of the Allies by blocking the Axis from reaching the strategic oil reserves of the Middle East. But the early victories of the Axis up to the end of 1942 caused Roosevelt and Churchill to re-evaluate a possible Turkish participation in the war on the side of the Allies. Turkey had maintained a decently-sized Army and Air Force throughout the war, and Churchill wanted the Turks to open a new front in the Balkans. Roosevelt, on the other hand, still believed that a Turkish attack would be too risky, and an eventual Turkish failure would have disastrous effects for the Allies. Inönü knew very well the hardships which his country had suffered during decades of incessant war between 1908 and 1922 and was determined to keep Turkey out of another war as long as he could. The young Turkish Republic was still re-building, recovering from the losses due to earlier wars, and lacked any modern weapons and the infrastructure to enter a war to be fought along and possibly within its borders. Inönü also wanted assurances on financial and military aid for Turkey, as well as a guarantee that the United States and the United Kingdom would stand beside Turkey in the event of a Soviet invasion of the Turkish Straits after the war. The fear of Soviet invasion and Stalin's unconcealed desire to control the Turkish Straits eventually caused Turkey to give up its principle of neutrality in foreign relations and join NATO in 1952. The economic conditions in Turkey during his Presidency can be described as "depression", as evidenced by the negative economic growth between 1938 to 1950 http://www.ggdc.net/Maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_03-2007.xls , which may explain why he could not win any democratic elections (in 1950, 1954, 1957, 1961, 1965 and 1969) in his country. Yet, overcoming strong opposition within his own party, he still switched Turkey to a multi-party democracy which allowed the previously mentioned elections to be held in the first place. He probably is the only leader in the World History who gave up absolute ruling power and continue as the leader of the opposition party. It may be that Inönü's greatest political achievement was keeping his country out of World War II until February 1945, when Turkey entered the war on the side of the Allies against Germany and Japan. Multi party period İnönü's tomb at Anıtkabir Under international pressure to transform the country to a democratic state, Inönü resided over the infamous 1946 elections, in which votes were cast in the open with onlookers (most probably secret police) able to observe to which party the voters had cast their votes and ballots were tallied behind closed doors by only his own party's officials. In 1950, his party lost the first free elections in Turkish history, and Inönü presided over the peaceful transfer of power to the Democratic Party of Adnan Menderes. İnönü served for ten years as the leader of the opposition before returning to power as Prime Minister after the 1961 election, held after the military coup-d'etat in 1960 in which he allegedly conspired. Although the opposition was imprisoned during the 1961 elections, he still did not win a majority and had to form coalition governments until the 1965 elections. He lost both the 1965 and 1969 general elections to Süleyman Demirel and then in 1972 he lost his party's leadership race to Bülent Ecevit. Ismet Inönü was by the standards of his time a highly educated man, speaking Arabic, English, French and German in addition to his native Turkish. İnönü died in 1973. He was interred next to Atatürk's mausoleum at Anıtkabir in Ankara and a massive tomb was constructed there. Legacy İnönü University in Malatya is named after him, as is a stadium in Istanbul, home of the Beşiktaş football club. Media Image:IsmetInonu1963.ogg (The sound file of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Kemal Atatürk, November 10, 1963) Image:IsmetInonu1963 text.pdf (The Text of the message by President İsmet İnönü on Atatürk) See also Pembe Köşk - Private home from 1925 to 1973 Çankaya Köşkü - The Presidency of the Republic of Turkey References | İsmet_İnönü |@lemmatized mustafa:2 smet:7 nönü:18 september:1 december:2 turkish:25 army:8 general:5 tsk:1 genel:1 kurmay:1 baskanlari:1 prime:5 minister:5 second:4 president:6 republic:4 turkey:19 widely:1 refer:1 milli:2 şef:2 national:5 chief:5 title:2 bestow:1 upon:1 elect:2 family:3 early:5 life:2 bear:2 zmir:2 originally:1 malatya:3 mixed:1 kurdish:1 heritage:1 young:2 turk:2 child:1 borderland:1 erik:1 jan:1 zürcher:1 universiteit:1 leiden:1 ismet:2 inonu:1 making:1 statesman:1 metin:1 heper:1 brill:1 academic:1 publisher:1 father:2 hacı:1 reşid:1 bey:1 member:2 ottoman:5 bureaucracy:1 examine:1 magistrate:1 mother:1 cevriye:1 hanım:1 daughter:1 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4 | Dieting | Dieting is the practice of ingesting food in a regulated fashion to achieve or maintain a controlled weight. In most cases the goal is weight loss in those who are overweight or obese, but some athletes aspire to gain weight (usually in the form of muscle) and diets can also be used to maintain a stable body weight. Diets to promote weight loss are generally divided into four categories: low-fat, low-carbohydrate, low-calorie, and very low calorie. A meta-analysis of six randomized controlled trials found no difference between the main diet types (low calorie, low carbohydrate, and low fat), with a 2–4 kilogram weight loss in all studies. At two years all diet types cause equal weight loss irrespective of the macronutrients emphasized. Types of dieting There are several kinds of diets: Weight-loss diets restrict the intake of specific foods, or food in general, to reduce body weight. What works to reduce body weight for one person will not necessarily work for another, due to metabolic differences and lifestyle factors. Also, for a variety of reasons, most people find it difficult to maintain significant weight loss over time. Among individuals that have lost 10% or more of body weight, only 20% are able to maintain that weight loss for a full year. Athletes participating in professional sports may sometimes undertake weight-gain diets to increase their body mass and gain advantage in their field. Individuals who are underweight, such as those recovering from anorexia nervosa or starvation, may adopt weight-gain diets which, unlike those of athletes, have the goal of restoring normal levels of body fat, muscle, and stores of essential nutrients. Actors, and people participating in similar activities, may pursue weight loss or gain in order to better portray a particular role. In children and young adults Receiving adequate nutrition through a well-balanced diet is crucial during childhood and adolescence. Some diets can deprive the body of necessary nutrients, for instance lipids. In addition, there are some indications that the harmful effects of starvation or extreme dieting during adolescence exceed the expected benefits, sometimes even leading to increased weight gains. Research shows that putting children on starvation or extreme diets can be harmful. The brain is unable to learn how to correlate taste with nutritional value, which is why such children may consistently overeat later in their life despite adequate nutritional intake. Diet food 'may fuel obesity risk in young Thermoregulation As endotherms, humans expend energy to maintain our blood temperature at body temperature, which is approximately 37 °C (98.6 °F). This is accomplished by metabolism and blood circulation, by shivering to stay warm, and by sweating to stay cool. Thermoregulation In addition to thermoregulation, humans expend energy keeping the vital organs (especially the lungs, heart and brain) functioning. Except when sleeping, our skeletal muscles are working, typically to maintain upright posture. The average work done just to stay alive is the basal metabolic rate. Physical exercise Physical exercise is an important complement to dieting in securing weight loss. Aerobic exercise is also an important part of maintaining normal good health, especially the muscular strength of the heart. Though the energy for muscle activity is primarily derived from the glycogen stored in the body, continued activity results in an increased use of the fatty acids as well. After the available glycogen stores are exhausted, fatty acids alone are used J. G. Salway, D. K. Granner: "Metabolism at a Glance", page 52. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004. . It is often recommended that muscle activity be maintained for 20 minutes or more for increased usage of fatty acids. The energy burnt during physical exercise has only a limited effect on weight loss, since an hour of aerobic exercise for a man in reasonable physical shape would burn about 2 megajoules (500 kilocalories), which is equivalent to only 60 grams (2 oz) of fat. Both aerobic and anaerobic exercise would increase the basal metabolic rate (BMR) for some time after exercising. This leads to an additional caloric loss. Fat loss versus muscle loss Weight loss typically involves the loss of fat, water and muscle. Overweight people, or people suffering from obesity, typically aim to reduce the percentage of body fat. Additionally, as muscle tissue is denser than fat, fat loss results in increased loss of body volume compared with muscle loss. Reducing even 10% body fat can therefore have a dramatic effect on a person's body shape . To determine the proportion of weight loss that is due to decreased fat tissue, various methods of measuring body fat percentage have been developed. Muscle loss during weight loss can be restricted by regularly lifting weights (or doing push-ups and other strength-oriented calisthenics) and by maintaining sufficient protein intake. Those on low-carbohydrate diets, and those doing particularly strenuous exercise, may wish to increase their protein intake. According to the National Academy of Sciences, the Dietary Reference Intake for protein is "0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight for adults." Excessive protein intake, may cause liver and kidney problems and may be a risk factor for heart disease. . There is no conclusive evidence that moderately high protein diets in healthy individuals are dangerous, it has only been shown that these diets are dangerous in individuals who already have kidney and liver problems. Energy obtained from food The energy intake from food is limited by the efficiency of digestion and the efficiency of utilization. The efficiency of digestion is largely dependent on the type of food being eaten, while efficiency of utilization is affected by individual factors, including body weight and hormones. The effects of chewing, especially in elderly people, have been shown to affect the intake of micronutrients. However, there was no significant effect on the intake of macronutrients, such as sugars, fats, and proteins Ildebrando appollonio, Corrado Carabellese, Alessandra Frattola, Marco Trabucchi: "Influence of dental status on dietary intake and survival in community-dwelling elderly subjects". Oxford University Press, 1997. . Proper nutrition Food provides nutrients from six broad classes: proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, dietary minerals, and water. Carbohydrates are metabolized to provide energy. Proteins provide amino acids, which are required for cell construction, especially for the construction of muscle cells. Essential fatty acids are required for brain and cell membrane construction. Vitamins and trace minerals help maintain proper electrolyte balance and are required for many metabolic processes. Dietary fiber is another food component which influences health even though it is not actually absorbed into the body. Any diet that fails to meet minimum nutritional requirements can threaten general health (and physical fitness in particular). If a person is not well enough to be active, weight loss and good quality of life will be unlikely. The National Academy of Sciences and the World Health Organization publish guidelines for dietary intakes of all known essential nutrients. Sometimes dieters will ingest excessive amounts of vitamin and mineral supplements. While this is usually harmless, some nutrients are dangerous. Men (and women who don't menstruate) need to be wary of iron poisoning. Retinol (oil-soluble vitamin A) is toxic in large doses. As a general rule, most people can get the nutrition they need from foods. In any event, a multivitamin taken once a day will suffice for the majority of the population. Weight-loss diets which manipulate the proportion of macronutrients (low-fat, low-carbohydrate, etc.) have not been found to be more effective than diets which maintain a typical mix of foods with smaller portions and perhaps some substitutions (e.g. low-fat milk, or less salad dressing). Extreme diets may, in some cases, lead to malnutrition. How the body gets rid of fat All body processes require energy to run properly. When the body is expending more energy than it is taking in (e.g. when exercising), the body's cells rely on internally stored energy sources, like complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source the body turns to is glycogen (by glycogenolysis). Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, where 65% of it is stored in skeletal muscles and the rest in the liver (totaling about 2000 kcal in the whole body). It is created from the excess of ingested macronutrients, mainly carbohydrates. When those sources are nearly depleted, the body begins lipolysis, the mobilization and catabolism of fat stores for energy. In this process, fats, obtained from adipose tissue, or fat cells, are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, which can be used to make energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system. Fats are also secreted by the sebaceous glands (in the skin). Psychological aspects of weight-loss dieting Diets affect the "energy in" component of the energy balance by limiting or altering the distribution of foods. Techniques that affect the appetite can limit energy intake by affecting the desire to overeat. Cognitive Behavior Therapy has been effective in producing long term weight loss L. Stahre et al., "A short-term cognitive group treatment program gives substantial weight reduction up to 18 months from the end of treatment. A randomized controlled trial." Eating and Weight Disorders. Vol. 10. p 51-58 (2005) . Judith S. Beck has been one of the most prominent practitioners and writers to bring this method to a popular audience. Consumption of low-energy, fiber-rich foods, such as non-starchy vegetables, is effective in obtaining satiation (the feeling of "fullness"). Exercise is also useful in controlling appetite as is drinking water and sleeping. The use of drugs to control appetite is also common. Stimulants are often taken as a means to suppress hunger in people who are dieting. Ephedrine (through facilitating the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline) stimulates the alpha(1)-adrenoreceptor subtype, which is known to act as an anorectic. L-Phenylalanine, an amino acid found in whey protein powders also has the ability to suppress appetite by increasing the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) which sends a satiety signal to the brain. Weight loss groups There exist both profit-oriented and non-profit weight loss organizations who assist people in their weight loss efforts. An example of the former is Weight Watchers; examples of the latter include Overeaters Anonymous, as well as a multitude of non-branded support groups run by local churches, hospitals, and like-minded individuals. These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on twelve-step programs, while others are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking. Most groups leverage the power of group meetings to provide counseling, emotional support, problem-solving, and useful information. Food diary A July 2008 study, published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, showed dieters who keep a daily food diary (or diet journal) of what they eat lose twice as much weight as those who do not. The researchers concluded, "It seems that the simple act of writing down what you eat encourages people to consume fewer calories." Diet journaling software and websites have become popular to help people track calorie consumption, calorie burning, weight loss goals, and nutritional balance. Medications Certain medications can be prescribed to assist in weight loss. The most recent prescription weight loss medication released is Acomplia (generic name Rimonabant), manufactured by Sanofi Aventis. Used to treat obesity in persons with a BMI ( body mass index) of 30 or above as well as for smoking cessation treatments, Acomplia is still pending FDA approval for use in the United States. Other weight loss medications, like amphetamines, are dangerous and are now banned for casual weight loss. Some supplements, including those containing vitamins and minerals, may not be effective for losing weight. Diuretics Diuretics induce weight loss through the excretion of water. These medication or herbs will reduce the amount that a body weighs, but will have no effect on an individual's body fat. Diuretics can thicken the blood, cause cramping, kidney and liver damage. There was even a report of a woman who died of swelling in her brain after she drank a large amount of water over a short period of time, while being on a special water diet. Woman Dies Because Of Water Diet Stimulants Stimulants such as ephedrine or synephrine work to increase the basal metabolic rate and reduce appetite. Dangers of fasting Lengthy fasting can be dangerous due to the risk of malnutrition and should be carried out under medical supervision. During prolonged fasting or very low calorie diets the reduction of blood glucose, the preferred energy source of the brain, causes the body to deplete its glycogen stores. Once glycogen is depleted the body begins to fuel the brain using ketones, while also metabolize body protein (including but not limited to skeletal muscle) to be used to synthesize sugars for use as energy by the rest of the body. Most experts believe that a prolonged fast can lead to muscle wasting although some dispute this. The use of short-term fasting, or various forms of intermittent fasting have been used as a form of dieting to circumvent this issue. Side effects Dieting, especially extreme food-intake reduction and rapid weight loss, can have the following side effects: Prolonged hunger Depression Reduced sex drive Fatigue Irritability Fainting Sinus problems (especially post-nasal drip) Muscle atrophy Rashes Acidosis Bloodshot eyes Gallbladder disease Seizures Malnutrition, possibly leading to death Subsequent weight gain Low carbohydrate versus low fat Many studies have focused on diets that reduce calories via a low-carbohydrate (Atkins diet, Scarsdale diet, Zone diet) diet versus a low-fat diet (LEARN diet, Ornish diet). The Nurses' Health Study, an observational cohort study, found that low carbohydrate diets based on vegetable sources of fat and protein are associated with less coronary heart disease. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials by the international Cochrane Collaboration in 2002 concluded that fat-restricted diets are no better than calorie restricted diets in achieving long term weight loss in overweight or obese people. A more recent meta-analysis that included randomized controlled trials published after the Cochrane review Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers,...[JAMA. 2005] - PubMed Result found that "low-carbohydrate, non-energy-restricted diets appear to be at least as effective as low-fat, energy-restricted diets in inducing weight loss for up to 1 year. However, potential favorable changes in triglyceride and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol values should be weighed against potential unfavorable changes in low-density lipoprotein cholesterol values when low-carbohydrate diets to induce weight loss are considered." The Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial found that a diet of total fat to 20% of energy and increasing consumption of vegetables and fruit to at least 5 servings daily and grains to at least 6 servings daily resulted in: no reduction in cardiovascular disease an insignificant reduction in invasive breast cancer no reductions in colorectal cancer Additional recent randomized controlled trials have found that: A comparison of Atkins, Zone diet, Ornish diet, and LEARN diet in premenopausal women found the greatest benefit from the Atkins diet. The choice of diet for a specific person may be influenced by measuring the individual's insulin secretion: In young adults "Reducing glycemic [carbohydrate] load may be especially important to achieve weight loss among individuals with high insulin secretion." This is consistent with prior studies of diabetic patients in which low carbohydrate diets were more beneficial. The American Diabetes Association released for the first time a recommendation (in its January 2008 Clinical Practice Recommendations) for a low carbohydrate diet to reduce weight for those with or at risk of Type 2 diabetes. Low glycemic index "The glycemic index factor is a ranking of foods based on their overall effect on blood sugar levels. Low glycemic index foods, such as lentils, provide a slower more consistent source of glucose to the bloodstream, thereby stimulating less insulin release than high glycaemic index foods, such as white bread." The glycemic load is "the mathematical product of the glycemic index and the carbohydrate amount". In a randomized controlled trial that compared four diets that varied in carbohydrate amount and glycemic index found complicated results : Diet 1 and 2 were high carbohydrate (55% of total energy intake) Diet 1 was high-glycemic index Diet 2 was low-glycemic index Diet 3 and 4 were high protein (25% of total energy intake) Diet 3 was high-glycemic index Diet 4 was low-glycemic index Diets 2 and 3 lost the most weight and fat mass; however, low density lipoprotein fell in Diet 2 and rose in Diet 3. Thus the authors concluded that the high-carbohydrate, low-glycemic index diet was the most favorable. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that low glycemic index or low glycemic load diets led to more weight loss and better lipid profiles. However, the Cochrane Collaboration grouped low glycemic index and low glycemic load diets together and did not try to separate the effects of the load versus the index. See also Body image Eating disorder Crash diet Dietitian Food Balance Wheel Food faddism Healthy diet List of diets National Weight Control Registry Nutritional rating systems Nutrition scale Underweight References American Dietetic Association. 2003. Position paper on vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 103:748-765. Curley, Sandra and Mark,The Natural Guide to Good Health. Lafayette, Louisiana. Supreme Publishing 1990 Dansinger, M.L., Gleason, J. L., Griffith, J.L., et al., "One Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk", Presented at the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions November 12, 2003 in Orlando, Florida.) Davis, B. and Melina, V. 2000. Becoming Vegan. pg. 22. Wansink, B. Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than We Think, New York: Bantam Dell (2006). Cheraskin, Emmanuel, M.D., D.M.D.. . “The Breakfast/Lunch/Dinner Ritual”, Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine Vol.8, No.1, 1993. Appleton, Nancy, Ph.D., “Nibbling, Grazing and Frequent Meals”. External links The food pyramid: Video lectures at the Harvard School of public health Drinking water and Weight Loss A PBS Frontline interview with Prof. Walter Willett, Chair of Harvard's nutrition department Exercise and Weight Loss Calculate your BMI | Dieting |@lemmatized dieting:3 practice:3 ingest:2 food:23 regulated:1 fashion:1 achieve:3 maintain:11 controlled:1 weight:58 case:2 goal:3 loss:42 overweight:3 obese:2 athlete:3 aspire:1 gain:7 usually:2 form:3 muscle:15 diet:71 also:9 use:12 stable:1 body:33 promote:1 generally:1 divide:1 four:2 category:1 low:34 fat:30 carbohydrate:20 calorie:9 meta:4 analysis:4 six:2 randomized:3 control:10 trial:7 find:10 difference:2 main:1 type:5 kilogram:2 study:6 two:1 year:4 cause:4 equal:1 irrespective:1 macronutrients:4 emphasize:1 several:1 kind:1 restrict:6 intake:15 specific:2 general:3 reduce:10 work:5 one:3 person:5 necessarily:1 another:2 due:3 metabolic:5 lifestyle:1 factor:4 variety:1 reason:1 people:11 difficult:1 significant:2 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5 | Noble_gas | Group → 18 ↓ Period 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Legend Noble gas Gas Primordial element From decay Synthetic The noble gases are a group of chemical elements with very similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases, with a very low chemical reactivity. They are placed in group 18 (8A) of the periodic table (previously known as group 0). The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). So far, three atoms of the next member of the group, ununoctium (Uuo) have been synthesized in a supercollider, but very little is known of that element's properties because of the tiny amount produced and its short half-life. The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been prepared. The melting and boiling points for each noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 °C (18 °F); consequently, they are liquids only over a small temperature range. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is typically separated from natural gas, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia, the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons. History Noble gas is translated from the German noun , first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the term "noble metals", such as gold, which were associated with wealth and nobility, and also have low reactivity. The noble gases have also been referred to as inert gases, but this label is now deprecated as many noble gas compounds are now known. Rare gases is another term that was used, but this is also inaccurate because argon forms a fairly considerable part (0.94% by volume, 1.3% by mass) of the Earth's atmosphere. Helium was first detected in the Sun due to its characteristic spectral lines. Pierre Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer were the first to discover a noble gas on August 18, 1868 while looking at the chromosphere of the Sun, and named it helium after the Greek word for the Sun, ( or ). Oxford English Dictionary (1989), s.v. "helium". Retrieved December 16, 2006, from Oxford English Dictionary Online. Also, from quotation there: Thomson, W. (1872). Rep. Brit. Assoc. xcix: "Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium." Before them, in 1784, the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish had discovered that air contains a small proportion of a substance less reactive than nitrogen. A century later, in 1895, Lord Rayleigh discovered that samples of nitrogen from the air were of a different density than nitrogen resulting from chemical reactions. Along with scientist William Ramsay at University College, London, Lord Rayleigh theorized that the nitrogen extracted from air was mixed with another gas, leading to an experiment that successfully isolated a new element, argon, from the Greek word (, "inactive"). With this discovery, they realized an entire class of gases was missing from the periodic table. During his search for argon, Ramsay also managed to isolate helium for the first time while heating cleveite, a mineral. In 1902, having accepted the evidence for the elements helium and argon, Dmitri Mendeleev included these noble gases as group 0 in his arrangement of the elements, which would later become the periodic table. Ramsay continued to search for these gases using the method of fractional distillation to separate liquid air into several components. In 1898, he discovered the elements krypton, neon, and xenon, and named them after the Greek words (, "hidden"), (, "new"), and (, "stranger"), respectively. Radon was first identified in 1898 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn, and was named radium emanation, but was not considered a noble gas until 1904 when its characteristics were found to be similar to those of other noble gases. Rayleigh and Ramsay received the 1904 Nobel Prizes in Physics and in Chemistry, respectively, for their discovery of the noble gases; in the words of J. E. Cederblom, then president of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, "the discovery of an entirely new group of elements, of which no single representative had been known with any certainty, is something utterly unique in the history of chemistry, being intrinsically an advance in science of peculiar significance". The discovery of the noble gases aided in the development of a general understanding of atomic structure. In 1895, French chemist Henri Moissan attempted to form a reaction between fluorine, the most electronegative element, and argon, one of the noble gases, but failed. Scientists were unable to prepare compounds of argon until the end of the 20th century, but these attempts helped to develop new theories of atomic structure. Learning from these experiments, Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed in 1913 that the electrons in atoms are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus, and that for all noble gases except helium the outermost shell always contains eight electrons. In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis formulated the octet rule, which concluded an octet of electrons in the outer shell was the most stable arrangement for any atom; this arrangement caused them to be unreactive with other elements since they did not require any more electrons to complete their outer shell. It was not until 1962 that Neil Bartlett discovered the first chemical compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate. Compounds of other noble gases were discovered soon after: in 1962 for radon, radon fluoride, and in 1963 for krypton, krypton difluoride (). The first stable compound of argon was reported in 2000 when argon fluorohydride (HArF) was formed at a temperature of . In December 1998, scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research working in Dubna, Russia bombarded plutonium (Pu) with calcium (Ca) to produce a single atom of element 114, which they temporarily named ununquadium (Uuq). Preliminary chemistry experiments have indicated this element may be the first superheavy element to show abnormal noble-gas-like properties, even though it is a member of group 14 on the periodic table. In October 2006, scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory successfully created synthetically ununoctium (Uuo), the seventh element in group 18, by bombarding californium (Cf) with calcium (Ca). Physical and atomic properties Property Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Density (g/dm³) 0.1786 0.9002 1.7818 3.708 5.851 9.97 Boiling point (K) 4.4 27.3 87.4 121.5 166.6 211.5 Melting point (K) 0.95 Under pressure of 25 bar 24.7 83.6 115.8 161.7 202.2 Enthalpy of vaporization (kJ/mol) 0.08 1.74 6.52 9.05 12.65 18.1 Solubility in water at 20 °C (cm3/kg) 8.61 10.5 33.6 59.4 108.1 230 Atomic number 2 10 18 36 54 86 Atomic radius (calculated) (pm) 31 38 71 88 108 120 Ionization energy (kJ/mol) 2372 2080 1520 1351 1170 1037 Allen electronegativity 4.16 4.79 3.24 2.97 2.58 2.60 For more data, see Noble gas (data page). The noble gases have very weak interatomic force, and consequently have very low melting and boiling points. They are all monatomic gases under standard conditions, including the elements with larger atomic masses than many normally solid elements. Helium has several unique qualities when compared with other elements: its boiling and melting points are lower than those of any other known substance; it is the only element known to exhibit superfluidity; it is the only element that cannot be solidified by cooling under standard conditions—a pressure of must be applied at a temperature of to convert it to a solid. The noble gases up to xenon have multiple stable isotopes. Radon has no stable isotopes; its longest-lived isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days and decays to form helium and polonium, which ultimately decays to lead. This is a plot of ionization potential versus atomic number. The noble gases, which are labeled, have the largest ionization potential for each period. The noble gas atoms, like atoms in most groups, increase steadily in atomic radius from one period to the next due to the increasing number of electrons. The size of the atom is related to several properties. For example, the ionization potential decreases with an increasing radius because the valence electrons in the larger noble gases are farther away from the nucleus and are therefore not held as tightly together by the atom. Noble gases have the largest ionization potential among the elements of each period, which reflects the stability of their electron configuration and is related to their relative lack of chemical reactivity. Some of the heavier noble gases, however, have ionization potentials small enough to be comparable to those of other elements and molecules. It was the insight that xenon has an ionization potential similar to that of the oxygen molecule that led Bartlett to attempt oxidizing xenon using platinum hexafluoride, an oxidizing agent known to be strong enough to react with oxygen. Noble gases cannot accept an electron to form stable anions; that is, they have a negative electron affinity. ; The macroscopic physical properties of the noble gases are dominated by the weak van der Waals forces between the atoms. The attractive force increases with the size of the atom as a result of the increase in polarizability and the decrease in ionization potential. This results in systematic group trends: as one goes down group 18, the atomic radius, and with it the interatomic forces, increases, resulting in an increasing melting point, boiling point, enthalpy of vaporization, and solubility. The increase in density is due to the increase in atomic mass. The noble gases are nearly ideal gases under standard conditions, but their deviations from the ideal gas law provided important clues for the study of intermolecular interactions. The Lennard-Jones potential, often used to model intermolecular interactions, was deduced in 1924 by John Lennard-Jones from experimental data on argon before the development of quantum mechanics provided the tools for understanding intermolecular forces from first principles. The theoretical analysis of these interactions became tractable because the noble gases are monatomic and the atoms spherical, which means that the interaction between the atoms is independent of direction, or isotropic. Chemical properties Neon, like all noble gases, has a full valence shell. Noble gases have eight electrons in the outermost shell, except in the case of helium, which has two. The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse. Very little is known about the properties of the most recent member of group 18, ununoctium (Uuo). Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 2 helium 2 10 neon 2, 8 18 argon 2, 8, 8 36 krypton 2, 8, 18, 8 54 xenon 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 86 radon 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 118 ununoctium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 8 The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases. As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation. To do this, the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For example, the electron notation of carbon is 1s²2s²2p², and the noble gas notation is [He]2s²2p². This notation makes it easier to identify elements, and is shorter than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals. Compounds Structure of , one of the first noble gas compounds to be discovered The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although there are some theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity. The reactivity follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn. In 1933, Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. He predicted the existence of krypton hexafluoride () and xenon hexafluoride (), speculated might exist as an unstable compound, and suggested xenic acid could form perxenate salts. These predictions were shown to be generally accurate, except is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable. Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed. Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or oxygen, as in xenon difluoride (), xenon tetrafluoride (), xenon hexafluoride (), xenon tetroxide (), and sodium perxenate (). Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing agents; , in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent. As of 2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified, including organoxenon compounds (those bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen, chlorine, gold, mercury, and xenon itself. Compounds of xenon bound to boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium, copper, and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets. In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon does. However, due to the high radioactivity and short half-life of radon isotopes, only a few fluorides and oxides of radon have been formed in practice. . Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of +2. Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized. Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3 doi:10.1016/S0010-8545(02)00202-3 but are only stable below and respectively). Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine, carbon) as well as some late transition metals (copper, silver, gold) have also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets. Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such as argon fluorohydride (HArF), and some bound to the late transition metals copper, silver, and gold. As of 2007, no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known. The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase. The simplest is the helium hydride molecular ion, HeH+, discovered in 1925. Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium, although it has not been detected yet. In addition to these ions, there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases. These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state; some of them find application in excimer lasers. In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949, consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice. An endohedral fullerene compound containing a noble gas atom Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when , a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as can be formed (the @ notation indicates He is contained inside but not covalently bound to it). As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been obtained. These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom. Bonding in according to the 3-center-4-electron bond model Noble gas compounds such as xenon difluoride () are considered to be hypervalent because they violate the octet rule. Bonding in such compounds can be explained using a 3-center-4-electron bond model. This model, first proposed in 1951, considers bonding of three collinear atoms. For example, bonding in is described by a set of three molecular orbitals (MOs) derived from p-orbitals on each atom. Bonding results from the combination of a filled p-orbital from Xe with one half-filled p-orbital from each F atom, resulting in a filled bonding orbital, a filled non-bonding orbital, and an empty antibonding orbital. The highest occupied molecular orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms. This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high electronegativity of fluorine. The chemistry of heavier noble gases, krypton and xenon, are well established. The chemistry of the lighter ones, argon and helium, is still at an early stage, while a neon compound is still yet to be identified. Occurrence and production The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis. Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field. Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits. The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the base for the potassium-argon dating method. Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust. Radon is formed in the lithosphere as from the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone. Abundance Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon Solar System (for each atom of silicon) 2343 2.148 0.1025 5.515 × 10−5 5.391 × 10−6 – Earth's atmosphere (volume fraction in ppm) 5.20 18.20 9340.00 1.10 0.09 (0.06 – 18) × 10−19 Igneous rock (mass fraction in ppm) 3 × 10−3 7 × 10−5 4 × 10−2 – – 1.7 × 10−10 Gas 2004 price (USD/m3) Helium (industrial grade) 4.20–4.90 Helium (laboratory grade) 22.30–44.90 Argon 2.70–8.50 Neon 60–120 Krypton 400–500 Xenon 4000–5000 Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases, to convert elements to a liquid state, and fractional distillation, to separate mixtures into component parts. Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds. The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the table to the right lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas. Applications Liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners. Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants. In particular, liquid helium, which boils at , is used for superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance. Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen. Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen, due its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis. Due to its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes, and when helium is used to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained. Helium's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as decompression sickness, or the bends. The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best option for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving. The Spirit of Goodyear, one of the iconic Goodyear Blimps Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, helium has replaced hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and incombustibility, despite an 8.6% decrease in buoyancy. In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air-sensitive compounds that are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of very unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures. Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers, and in devices for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber. Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry. 15,000-watt xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX projectors Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs. Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine. The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as neon lights, which produce an orange-red color. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps. The noble gases are used in excimer lasers, which are based on short-lived electronically excited molecules known as excimers. The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2, Kr2 or Xe2, or more commonly, the noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF, KrF, XeF, or XeCl. These lasers produce ultraviolet light which, due to its short wavelength (193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF), allows for high-precision imaging. Excimer lasers have many industrial, medical, and scientific applications. They are used for microlithography and microfabrication, which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture, and for laser surgery, including laser angioplasty and eye surgery. Some noble gases have direct application in medicine. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers. Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its highly solubility in lipids, which makes it more potent than the usual nitrous oxide, and because it is readily eliminated from the body, resulting in faster recovery. Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI. Radon, which is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts, is used in radiotherapy. See also Noble gas (data page), for extended tables of physical properties. Noble metal, for metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation. Inert gas, for any gas that is not reactive under normal circumstances. Notes References | Noble_gas |@lemmatized group:15 period:4 legend:1 noble:82 gas:112 primordial:2 element:30 decay:8 synthetic:1 chemical:15 similar:4 property:11 standard:5 condition:8 odorless:2 colorless:2 monatomic:3 low:13 reactivity:9 place:1 periodic:5 table:7 previously:1 know:11 six:1 occur:2 naturally:2 helium:49 neon:17 ne:2 argon:34 ar:2 krypton:23 kr:2 xenon:41 xe:3 radioactive:4 radon:17 rn:2 far:4 three:4 atom:31 next:2 member:4 ununoctium:4 uuo:3 synthesize:1 supercollider:1 little:5 tiny:1 amount:5 produce:5 short:6 half:4 life:3 well:5 explain:2 modern:2 theory:4 atomic:13 structure:5 outer:3 shell:12 valence:7 electron:25 consider:4 full:6 give:2 tendency:2 participate:2 reaction:3 hundred:3 compound:38 prepare:2 melting:4 boiling:4 point:9 close:1 together:3 differ:1 less:4 c:2 f:2 consequently:3 liquid:9 small:6 temperature:8 range:1 obtain:5 air:8 use:38 method:4 liquefaction:2 fractional:3 distillation:3 typically:2 separate:4 natural:4 usually:1 isolate:4 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disaster:1 lifting:1 lightness:1 incombustibility:1 buoyancy:1 sensitive:2 intermediate:1 carrier:1 chromatography:1 filler:2 thermometer:1 device:1 measure:1 radiation:1 geiger:1 counter:1 chamber:1 commonly:4 shield:1 weld:1 arc:3 cutting:1 metallurgical:1 semiconductor:1 watt:1 lamp:4 imax:1 projector:2 incandescent:1 bulb:2 performance:1 color:3 great:1 efficiency:1 rate:1 evaporation:1 filament:1 halogen:2 glow:1 distinctive:1 discharge:1 orange:1 red:1 continuous:1 spectrum:1 resemble:1 daylight:1 film:1 automobile:1 headlamp:1 electronically:1 dimer:1 xef:1 xecl:1 ultraviolet:1 wavelength:1 nm:2 allow:1 precision:1 medical:2 scientific:1 microlithography:1 microfabrication:1 integrated:1 circuit:1 manufacture:1 surgery:2 angioplasty:1 eye:1 direct:1 medicine:1 sometimes:1 improve:1 ease:1 asthma:1 sufferer:1 potent:1 usual:1 nitrous:1 readily:1 eliminate:1 fast:1 recovery:1 finds:1 hyperpolarized:1 minute:1 radiotherapy:1 extended:1 resistant:1 corrosion:1 normal:1 circumstance:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram monatomic_gas:2 periodic_table:5 helium_neon:8 valence_electron:5 melting_boiling:2 boiling_point:2 neon_argon:7 argon_krypton:8 krypton_xenon:10 fractional_distillation:3 radioactive_decay:2 nitrogen_narcosis:2 inert_gas:2 norman_lockyer:1 chemist_physicist:1 henry_cavendish:1 lord_rayleigh:2 dmitri_mendeleev:1 nobel_prize:1 niels_bohr:1 outermost_shell:3 lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 kj_mol:2 allen_electronegativity:1 stable_isotope:2 ionization_potential:7 oxidizing_agent:1 van_der:1 der_waals:1 intermolecular_interaction:2 lennard_jones:2 quantum_mechanic:1 valence_shell:1 electron_outermost:2 colorless_odorless:1 odorless_tasteless:1 fall_disuse:1 outermost_electron:1 atomic_orbitals:1 linus_pauling:1 fluorine_oxygen:2 electronegative_atom:1 xenon_difluoride:2 bromine_iodine:1 dx_doi:1 argon_argon:1 excimer_laser:3 covalent_bond:1 crystal_lattice:2 organic_inorganic:1 clathrate_hydrate:1 endohedral_fullerene:2 carbon_atom:1 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6 | Clara_Petacci | Clara Petacci (Claretta Petacci) (28 February 1912 – 28 April 1945) was an upper class Roman who became Italian dictator Benito Mussolini's mistress. Her father had been the personal physician to the Pope. She was twenty-nine years younger than Mussolini. Petacci was with Mussolini to the end. On 27 April 1945, when a convoy of escaping Italian Social Republic members, including Mussolini, was captured by Communist partisans, it is said that Petacci was offered the opportunity to go unmolested, but there is no solid evidence for this. On 28 April, she and Mussolini were taken to Mezzagra where she and the Duce were shot. On the following day, 29 April, Mussolini and Petacci's bodies were taken to the Piazzale Loreto in Milan and hanged upside down in front of an Esso petrol station. The bodies were photographed as a crowd vented their rage upon them. Many photographs show the bodies of Mussolini and Petacci hanging between four other bodies. Mussolini and Petacci are together in the middle with two bodies hanging to either side of the couple. However, this photograph taken from the rear shows three bodies hanging on Mussolini's side to the right of the couple as seen from the rear. This indicates that Mussolini and Petacci were hanged upside down with five others at the petrol station. Miscellaneous Clara Petacci's sister was actress Miriam di San Servolo (28 February 1923 – 24 May 1991) , also known as Miriam Petacci or Miriam Day. Clara Petacci's brother, Marcello Petacci, was captured with Mussolini and Petacci. But, rather than being executed in Dongo, he was shot trying to escape. The American musician Scott Walker recorded a song about Petacci called "Clara" on his 2006 album The Drift. The Spanish skinhead band 'División 250' also recorded a song about Petacci called 'Clara'. See also Margherita Sarfatti, one of Mussolini's earlier mistresses Further reading Nicholas Farrell, Mussolini: A New Life (Phoenix Press, London, 2003) ISBN 1-84212-123-5 Luciano Garibaldi, Mussolini: The Secrets of His Death (Enigma Books, New York, 2004) IBSN 1-929631-23-5 Ray Moseley, Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce (Taylor Trade Publishing, Dallas, 2004) ISBN 1-58979-095-2 Rudolph S. Daldin "The Last Centurion" Volumes I&II ISBN 0-921447-34-5 www.benito-mussolini.com or www.Daldin5.com External links | Clara_Petacci |@lemmatized clara:5 petacci:15 claretta:1 february:2 april:4 upper:1 class:1 roman:1 become:1 italian:2 dictator:1 benito:2 mussolini:16 mistress:2 father:1 personal:1 physician:1 pope:1 twenty:1 nine:1 year:1 young:1 end:1 convoy:1 escape:2 social:1 republic:1 member:1 include:1 capture:2 communist:1 partisan:1 say:1 offer:1 opportunity:1 go:1 unmolested:1 solid:1 evidence:1 take:3 mezzagra:1 duce:2 shoot:2 following:1 day:3 body:6 piazzale:1 loreto:1 milan:1 hang:5 upside:2 front:1 esso:1 petrol:2 station:2 photograph:3 crowd:1 vent:1 rage:1 upon:1 many:1 show:2 four:1 together:1 middle:1 two:1 either:1 side:2 couple:2 however:1 rear:2 three:1 right:1 see:2 indicate:1 five:1 others:1 miscellaneous:1 sister:1 actress:1 miriam:3 di:1 san:1 servolo:1 may:1 also:3 know:1 brother:1 marcello:1 rather:1 execute:1 dongo:1 try:1 american:1 musician:1 scott:1 walker:1 record:2 song:2 call:2 album:1 drift:1 spanish:1 skinhead:1 band:1 división:1 margherita:1 sarfatti:1 one:1 earlier:1 far:1 read:1 nicholas:1 farrell:1 new:2 life:1 phoenix:1 press:1 london:1 isbn:3 luciano:1 garibaldi:1 secret:1 death:1 enigma:1 book:1 york:1 ibsn:1 ray:1 moseley:1 last:2 il:1 taylor:1 trade:1 publishing:1 dallas:1 rudolph:1 daldin:1 centurion:1 volume:1 ii:1 www:2 com:2 external:1 link:1 |@bigram dictator_benito:1 benito_mussolini:2 mussolini_petacci:6 external_link:1 |
7 | Federal_Aviation_Administration | The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is an agency of the United States Department of Transportation with authority to regulate and oversee all aspects of civil aviation in the U.S. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 created the group under the name "Federal Aviation Agency", and adopted its current name in 1967 when it became a part of the United States Department of Transportation. The Federal Aviation Administration's major roles include: Regulating U.S. commercial space transportation Encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology Issuing, suspending, or revoking pilot certificates Regulating civil aviation to promote safety, especially through local offices called Flight Standards District Offices Developing and operating a system of air traffic control and navigation for both civil and military aircraft Researching and developing the National Airspace System and civil aeronautics Developing and carrying out programs to control aircraft noise and other environmental effects of civil aviation Activities In December 2000, an organization within the FAA called the Air Traffic Organization Air Traffic Organization Official website , or ATO, was set up by presidential executive order. This became the Air Navigation Service Provider for the airspace of the United States and for the New York (Atlantic) and Oakland (Pacific) oceanic areas. It is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organization. The FAA issues a number of awards to holders of its licenses. Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as a mechanic, an instructor, a 50-year aviator, or as a safe pilot. The latter, the FAA "Wings Program", provides a series of ten badges for pilots who have undergone several hours of training since their last award. A higher level can be claimed each year. For more information see "FAA Advisory Circular 61-91H". The FAA exercises surprise Red Team drills on national airports annually. History The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the federal government's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certifying aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. A new aeronautics branch of the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight. In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the nation's system of lighted airways, a task that had been begun by the Post Office Department. The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving them the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. The CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency. On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at promoting development of the nation's civil airports. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions (most notable was the 1956 Grand Canyon mid-air collision), prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. This legislation gave the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, and also gave the FAA sole responsibility for a common civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower. FAA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), created in the wake of the Soviet launching of the first artificial satellite. NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration. In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. FAA's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies within DOT. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the CAB's role of investigating aviation accidents. The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying. By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment. FAA History from official website In 1979 the Congress authorized the FAA to work with major commercial airports to define noise pollution contours and investigate the feasibility of noise mitigation by residential retrofit programs. Throughout the 1980s these charters were implemented. In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters. The FAA was responsible for the decision to ground flights after the September 11 attacks. FAA ordered its inspectors March 18, 2008 to reconfirm that airlines are complying with federal rules after revelations that Southwest Airlines flew dozens of aircraft without certain mandatory inspections. FAA looking to see if airlines made safety repairs Many experts on the FAA have been critical of what they perceive as fundamental problems with the FAA in conducting oversight on the airlines and pilots, predicated on the belief, as expressed by the FAA itself, that both the airlines and pilots are their customers. Retired NASA Office of Inspector General Senior Special Agent Joseph Gutheinz, who formerly was a Special Agent with both the U.S. Department of Transportation Office of Inspector General and FAA Security, is one of the most outspoken critics of the FAA. Rather than commend the FAA for imposing a 10.2 million dollar fine against Southwest Airlines for its failure to conduct mandatory inspections in 2008 he was quoted as saying the following in an Associated Press story: "Penalties against airlines that violate FAA directives should be stiffer. At $25,000 per violation, (which is how the 10.2 million dollar figure was reached) Gutheinz said, airlines can justify rolling the dice and taking the chance on getting caught. He also said the FAA is often too quick to bend to pressure from airlines and pilots." { http://www.aviation.com/safety/080307-ap-southwest-faces-penalty.html }Southwest Faces Big Penalty on Plane Cracks. Associated Press, March 7, 2008. { http://archives.starbulletin.com/2008/03/23/news/story08.html }Military jets rest while go! pilots stay silent. Associated Press, March 23, 2008. { http://www.dailyherald.com/story/?id=144570&src=110 }Deaths on planes give passengers an up-close view of human frailty. Associated Press, February 29, 2008. List of FAA Administrators Elwood Richard Quesada (1958-1961) Najeeb Halaby (1961-1965) William F. McKee (1965-1968) John H. Shaffer (1969-1973) Alexander Butterfield (1973-1975) John L. McLucas (1975-1977) Langhorne Bond (1977-1981) J. Lynn Helms (1981-1984) Donald D. Engen (1984-1987) T. Allan McArtor (1987-1989) James B. Busey (1989-1991) Thomas C. Richards (1992-1993) David R. Hinson (1993-1996) Jane Garvey (1997-2002) Marion Blakey (September 12, 2002 - September 13, 2007) Robert A. Sturgell (Acting) (September 14, 2007-January 15, 2009) Lynne A. Osmus (Acting) (January 16, 2009-present) J. Randolph Babbitt (nomination confirmed by Senate May 22, 2009) FAA process Designated Engineering Representative A Designated Engineering Representative (DER) is an engineer who is appointed to act on behalf of a Company or as an individual Consultant esignated Engineering Representative (DER) . Company DERs act on behalf of their employer and may only approve, or recommend approval, of technical data to the FAA for this company. Consultant DERs are appointed to act as an independent DER to approve or recommend approval of technical data to the FAA. See also Civil Aviation Authority References External links FAA FAA Aviation News ATO News FOCUS FAA Jane's Airport news on user fees, April 2006 | Federal_Aviation_Administration |@lemmatized federal:14 aviation:22 administration:5 faa:37 agency:11 united:3 state:3 department:12 transportation:8 authority:5 regulate:4 oversee:1 aspect:2 civil:18 u:4 act:12 create:2 group:2 name:3 adopt:1 current:1 become:5 part:2 major:3 role:5 include:2 regulating:1 commercial:6 space:4 encouraging:1 develop:4 aeronautics:9 new:10 technology:4 issuing:1 suspend:1 revoke:1 pilot:9 certificate:1 promote:2 safety:11 especially:2 local:1 office:6 call:2 flight:3 standard:3 district:1 operate:1 system:8 air:25 traffic:11 control:6 navigation:7 military:3 aircraft:8 research:2 national:4 airspace:4 carry:1 program:7 noise:4 environmental:2 effect:1 activity:1 december:1 organization:4 within:4 official:2 website:2 ato:2 set:2 presidential:1 executive:1 order:2 service:2 provider:1 york:1 atlantic:1 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8 | Decade_(Neil_Young_album) | "Decade is a triple album compilation by Neil Young, released in 1977, now available on two compact (...TRUNCATED) | "Decade_(Neil_Young_album) |@lemmatized decade:5 triple:1 album:13 compilation:3 neil:15 young:30 re(...TRUNCATED) |
9 | Mind_map | "A hand-drawn mind map A mind map is a diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items(...TRUNCATED) | "Mind_map |@lemmatized hand:2 drawn:1 mind:50 map:50 diagram:1 use:19 represent:3 word:17 idea:16 ta(...TRUNCATED) |
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in Dataset Viewer.
RTL-Wiki
Some measurable characteristics of the dataset:
- D — number of documents
- W — modality dictionary size (number of unique tokens)
- len D — average document length in modality tokens (number of tokens)
- len D uniq — average document length in unique modality tokens (number of unique tokens)
| D | @lemmatized W | @lemmatized len D | @lemmatized len D uniq | @bigram W | @bigram len D | @bigram len D uniq | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| value | 7838 | 1.28065e+07 | 1633.9 | 691.157 | 503619 | 64.2535 | 30.8372 |
Information about document lengths in modality tokens:
| len_total@lemmatized | len_total@bigram | len_uniq@lemmatized | len_uniq@bigram | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mean | 1633.9 | 64.2535 | 691.157 | 30.8372 |
| std | 1565.19 | 73.1737 | 521.463 | 28.071 |
| min | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 |
| 25% | 500 | 18 | 283 | 11 |
| 50% | 1115.5 | 41 | 554 | 22 |
| 75% | 2233.5 | 85 | 961 | 42 |
| max | 15851 | 1098 | 4184 | 283 |
RTL-Wiki-Person
A version of the dataset filtered by person. It contains only 1201 documents.
Some measurable characteristics of the dataset:
| D | @lemmatized W | @lemmatized len D | @lemmatized len D uniq | @bigram W | @bigram len D | @bigram len D uniq | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| value | 1201 | 1.92167e+06 | 1600.06 | 729.93 | 371430 | 309.267 | 196.595 |
Information about document lengths in modality tokens:
| len_total@lemmatized | len_total@bigram | len_uniq@lemmatized | len_uniq@bigram | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| mean | 1600.06 | 309.267 | 729.93 | 196.595 |
| std | 1569.31 | 323.991 | 541.153 | 170.06 |
| min | 73 | 4 | 60 | 4 |
| 25% | 484 | 90 | 305 | 70 |
| 50% | 1036 | 206 | 575 | 147 |
| 75% | 2117 | 403 | 1007 | 268 |
| max | 11661 | 3212 | 3108 | 1216 |
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