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100 | International_Council_of_Unitarians_and_Universalists | The International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) is a world council bringing together Unitarians, Universalists and Unitarian Universalists. The original initiative for its establishment was contained in a resolution of the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches of the United Kingdom in 1987. This led to the establishment of the "Advocates for the Establishment of an International Organization of Unitarians" (AEIOU), which worked towards the establishment of the council. The Rev. David Usher, a British Unitarian minister of Australian origin, proposed the 1987 resolution. However, the General Assembly resolution provided no funding. The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) became particularly interested in the establishment of a council when it had to deal with an increasing number of applications for membership from congregations outside North America. It had already granted membership to congregations in Adelaide, Auckland, the Philippines and Pakistan, and congregations in Sydney, Russia and Spain had applied for membership. Rather than admit congregations from all over the world, the UUA hoped that they would join a world council instead. The UUA thus became willing to provide funding for the council's establishment. As a result, the council was finally established at a meeting in Essex, Massachusetts on March 23-26, 1995. Rev. David Usher became the ICUU's first President. The size of the member organizations varies widely. Some member groups have only a few hundred members; while the largest, the Unitarian Universalist Association, has over 200,000 members and is larger than all the other member groups put together. Members Members Australia and New Zealand Unitarian Association (ANZUA) Canadian Unitarian Council Deutsche Unitarier Religionsgemeinschaft, Germany European Unitarian Universalists First Unitarian Church of Nigeria General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches, United Kingdom & Ireland Ijo Isokan Gbogbo Eda (Unitarian Brotherhood Church), Nigeria The Council of Unitarian Churches in India, which includes the Khasi Unitarian Union and the Unitarian Christian Church of Madras Kosciol Unitarianski (Unitarian Church in Poland) Náboženská společnost českých unitářů (Religious Society of Czech Unitarians) The Unitarian Church in Hungary The Unitarian Church of Transylvania (Romania) Unitarian Church of South Africa Unitarian Universalist Association, USA Unitarian Universalist Association of Sri Lanka Unitarian Universalist Church of the Philippines Unitarian Universalist Society of Finland Unitarian Universalist Society of Spain Unitarians and Universalists, Pakistan Unitarisk Kirkesamfund, Denmark Indonesia Global Church of God The Unitarian Universalists of Russia were a founding member of the ICUU. Its membership in the Council was officially dropped in 2007 because of persistent lack of activity. Provisional members Churches and religious associations which have expressed their will to become members of the Council may be admitted as "Provisional Members" for a period of time (generally 2 or 4 years), until the Council decides that they have shown their organizational stability, affinity with the ICUU principles and commitment to deserve becoming Full Members of the Council. Provisional Members are invited to Council meetings through a delegate but cannot vote. Brazilian Unitarian Congregation Emerging Groups According to the Bylaws of the ICUU, Emerging Groups are "applicants that are deemed to be reasonable prospects for membership, but do not fulfil the conditions of either Provisional membership or Full Membership". These groups may be designated as Emerging Groups by the Executive Committee upon its sole discretion. Emerging Groups may be invited as observers to General Meetings. The current list of Emerging Groups after the last meeting of the Executive Committee (London, 22-25 November, 2008) is as follows: Burundi Unitarians Congo Unitarians Cuba (2 groups: the Unitarian Universalist Church and the Unitarian Universalist Religious Society) French Unitarians (Assemblée Fraternelle des Chrétiens Unitariens) Italian Unitarians Kenyan Unitarians Mexico (2 groups: the Free Unitarian Congregation of Mexico, (LCUM) and the Unitarian Universalists of Mexico AC) Associates Organizations with beliefs and purposes closely akin to those of ICUU but which by nature of their constitution are not eligible for full membership or which do not wish to become full members now or in the foreseeable future, may become Associates of the ICUU. The application must be approved by the ICUU Council Meeting. The current list of Associates is as follows: Ulster Christian Unitarian Fellowship Unitarian Universalist United Nations Office (UU-UNO) Norwegian Unitarians (Unitarforbundet Bét Dávid) The following organizations have been accepted by the ICUU Executive Committee but they have not yet been ratified by the Council Meeting: Unitarian Universalist Esperanto Network Unitarian groups which are in contact but with no formal link to the ICUU Peace and Harmony Center -- Ushuaia, Argentina Christian Unitarian Church of Argentina -- Buenos Aires, Argentina Bolivian Unitarians Costa Rican Unitarians (apparently inactive) Croatian Unitarian Universalists (UU Section of the Humanitas association) Eglise Unitarienne de France Berlin Unitarian Church (Germany) Free Unitarian Fellowship, Frankfurt-am-Main (Germany) Unitarian Universalists Hong Kong -- Hong Kong (China) Icelandic Unitarians within the National Church of Iceland Doojin Christian Church (Japan) UU Fellowship of Puerto Rico Togo Unitarians Principles and purposes The Preamble to the Constitution of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists reads: We, the member groups of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists, affirming our belief in religious community based on: liberty of conscience and individual thought in matters of faith, the inherent worth and dignity of every person. justice and compassion in human relations, responsible stewardship in human relations, and our commitment to democratic principles, declare our purposes to be: to serve the Infinite Spirit of Life and the human community by strengthening the worldwide Unitarian and Universalist faith, to affirm the variety and richness of our living traditions, to facilitate mutual support among member organizations, to promote our ideals and principles around the world, to provide models of liberal religious response to the human condition which upholds our common values. See also External links International Council of Unitarians and Universalists | International_Council_of_Unitarians_and_Universalists |@lemmatized international:5 council:19 unitarian:57 universalists:12 icuu:10 world:4 bring:1 together:2 original:1 initiative:1 establishment:6 contain:1 resolution:3 general:4 assembly:3 free:4 christian:6 church:18 united:3 kingdom:2 lead:1 advocate:1 organization:5 aeiou:1 work:1 towards:1 rev:2 david:2 usher:2 british:1 minister:1 australian:1 origin:1 propose:1 however:1 provide:3 funding:2 universalist:12 association:7 uua:3 become:7 particularly:1 interested:1 deal:1 increase:1 number:1 application:2 membership:8 congregation:6 outside:1 north:1 america:1 already:1 grant:1 adelaide:1 auckland:1 philippine:2 pakistan:2 sydney:1 russia:2 spain:2 apply:1 rather:1 admit:2 hop:1 would:1 join:1 instead:1 thus:1 willing:1 result:1 finally:1 establish:1 meeting:6 essex:1 massachusetts:1 march:1 first:2 president:1 size:1 member:16 varies:1 widely:1 group:12 hundred:1 large:2 put:1 australia:1 new:1 zealand:1 anzua:1 canadian:1 deutsche:1 unitarier:1 religionsgemeinschaft:1 germany:3 european:1 nigeria:2 ireland:1 ijo:1 isokan:1 gbogbo:1 eda:1 brotherhood:1 india:1 include:1 khasi:1 union:1 madras:1 kosciol:1 unitarianski:1 poland:1 náboženská:1 společnost:1 českých:1 unitářů:1 religious:5 society:4 czech:1 hungary:1 transylvania:1 romania:1 south:1 africa:1 usa:1 sri:1 lanka:1 finland:1 unitarisk:1 kirkesamfund:1 denmark:1 indonesia:1 global:1 god:1 founding:1 officially:1 drop:1 persistent:1 lack:1 activity:1 provisional:4 express:1 may:4 period:1 time:1 generally:1 year:1 decide:1 show:1 organizational:1 stability:1 affinity:1 principle:4 commitment:2 deserve:1 full:4 invite:2 delegate:1 cannot:1 vote:1 brazilian:1 emerge:5 accord:1 bylaw:1 applicant:1 deem:1 reasonable:1 prospect:1 fulfil:1 condition:2 either:1 designate:1 executive:3 committee:3 upon:1 sole:1 discretion:1 observer:1 current:2 list:2 last:1 london:1 november:1 follow:2 burundi:1 congo:1 cuba:1 french:1 assemblée:1 fraternelle:1 de:2 chrétiens:1 unitariens:1 italian:1 kenyan:1 mexico:3 lcum:1 ac:1 associate:3 belief:2 purpose:3 closely:1 akin:1 nature:1 constitution:2 eligible:1 wish:1 foreseeable:1 future:1 must:1 approve:1 ulster:1 fellowship:3 nation:1 office:1 uu:3 uno:1 norwegian:1 unitarforbundet:1 bét:1 dávid:1 following:1 accept:1 yet:1 ratify:1 esperanto:1 network:1 contact:1 formal:1 link:2 peace:1 harmony:1 center:1 ushuaia:1 argentina:3 buenos:1 aire:1 bolivian:1 costa:1 rican:1 apparently:1 inactive:1 croatian:1 section:1 humanitas:1 eglise:1 unitarienne:1 france:1 berlin:1 frankfurt:1 main:1 hong:2 kong:2 china:1 icelandic:1 within:1 national:1 iceland:1 doojin:1 japan:1 puerto:1 rico:1 togo:1 preamble:1 read:1 affirm:2 community:2 base:1 liberty:1 conscience:1 individual:1 thought:1 matter:1 faith:2 inherent:1 worth:1 dignity:1 every:1 person:1 justice:1 compassion:1 human:4 relation:2 responsible:1 stewardship:1 democratic:1 declare:1 serve:1 infinite:1 spirit:1 life:1 strengthen:1 worldwide:1 variety:1 richness:1 living:1 tradition:1 facilitate:1 mutual:1 support:1 among:1 promote:1 ideal:1 around:1 model:1 liberal:1 response:1 uphold:1 common:1 value:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 |@bigram unitarian_universalists:12 unitarian_universalist:12 sri_lanka:1 foreseeable_future:1 buenos_aire:1 aire_argentina:1 costa_rican:1 hong_kong:2 puerto_rico:1 preamble_constitution:1 external_link:1 |
101 | Erythromycin | Erythromycin is a macrolide antibiotic that has an antimicrobial spectrum similar to or slightly wider than that of penicillin, and is often used for people who have an allergy to penicillins. For respiratory tract infections, it has better coverage of atypical organisms, including mycoplasma and Legionellosis. It was first marketed by Eli Lilly and Company, and it is today commonly known as EES. In structure, this macrocyclic compound contains a 14-membered lactone ring with ten asymmetric centers and two sugars (L-cladinose and D-desoamine), making it a compound very difficult to produce via synthetic methods. Erythromycin is produced from a strain of the actinomycete Saccharopolyspora erythraea, formerly known as Streptomyces erythraeus. History Abelardo Aguilar, a Filipino scientist, sent some soil samples to his employer Eli Lilly in 1949. Eli Lilly’s research team, led by J. M. McGuire, managed to isolate Erythromycin from the metabolic products of a strain of Streptomyces erythreus (designation changed to "Saccharopolyspora erythraea") found in the samples. Lilly filed for patent protection of the compound and U.S. patent 2,653,899 was granted in 1953. The product was launched commercially in 1952 under the brand name Ilosone (after the Philippine region of Iloilo where it was originally collected from). Erythromycin was formerly also called Ilotycin. In 1981, Nobel laureate (1965 in chemistry) and Professor of Chemistry at Harvard University (Cambridge, MA) Robert B. Woodward, along with a large number of members from his research group, posthumously reported the first stereocontrolled asymmetric chemical synthesis of Erythromycin A. The antiobiotic clarithromycin was invented by scientists at the Japanese drug company Taisho Pharmaceutical in the 1970s as a result of their efforts to overcome the acid instability of erythromycin. Scientists at Chugai Pharmaceuticals discovered an erythromycin-derived motilin agonist called Mitemcinal that is believed to have strong prokinetic properties (similar to erythromycin,) but lacking antibiotic properties. Presently, erythromycin is commonly used off-label for gastric motility indications such as Gastroparesis. If Mitemcinal can be shown to be as effective a prokinetic agent, it would represent a significant advance in the GI field as treatment with this drug would not carry the risk of unintentional selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Available forms Erythromycin is available in enteric-coated tablets, slow-release capsules, oral suspensions, ophthalmic solutions, ointments, gels, and injections. Brand names include Robimycin, E-Mycin, E.E.S. Granules, E.E.S.-200, E.E.S.-400, E.E.S.-400 Filmtab, Erymax, Ery-Tab, Eryc, Ranbaxy, Erypar, EryPed, Eryped 200, Eryped 400, Erythrocin Stearate Filmtab, Erythrocot, E-Base, Erythroped, Ilosone, MY-E, Pediamycin, Zineryt, Abboticin, Abboticin-ES, Erycin, PCE Dispertab, Stiemycine, Acnasol and Tiloryth. Adverse effects Gastrointestinal disturbances, such as diarrhea, nausea, abdominal pain, and vomiting, are very common, so erythromycin tends not to be prescribed as a first-line drug. However, erythromycin may be useful in treating gastroparesis due to this pro-motility effect. Intravenous erythromycin may also be used in endoscopy as an adjunct to clear gastric contents. More serious side-effects, such as arrhythmia and reversible deafness, are rare. Allergic reactions, while uncommon, may occur, ranging from urticaria to anaphylaxis. Cholestasis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis are some other rare side-effects that may occur. Exposure to erythromycin (especially long courses at antimicrobial doses, and also through breastfeeding) has been linked to an increased probability of pyloric stenosis in young infants. Erythromycin used for feeding intolerance in young infants has not been associated with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis. It can also affect the central nervous system, causing psychotic reactions and nightmares and night sweats. May also alter the effectiveness of combined oral contraceptive pills. Mechanism of action Erythromycin may possess bacteriocidal activity, particularly at higher concentrations Katzung PHARMACOLOGY, 9e Section VIII. Chemotherapeutic Drugs Chapter 44. Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines, Macrolides, Clindamycin, & Streptogramins . The mechanism is not fully elucidated however. By binding to the 50s subunit of the bacterial 70s rRNA complex, protein synthesis and subsequently structure/function processes critical for life or replication are inhibited Katzung PHARMACOLOGY, 9e Section VIII. Chemotherapeutic Drugs Chapter 44. Chloramphenicol, Tetracyclines, Macrolides, Clindamycin, & Streptogramins . Erythromycin interferes with aminoacyl translocation, preventing the transfer of the tRNA bound at the A site of the rRNA complex to the P site of the rRNA complex. Without this translocation, the A site remains occupied and thus the addition of an incoming tRNA and its attached amino acid to the nascent polypeptide chain is inhibited. This interferes with the production of functionally useful proteins and is therefore the basis of antimicrobial action. Pharmacokinetics Erythromycin is easily inactivated by gastric acid; therefore, all orally-administered formulations are given as either enteric-coated or more-stable laxatives or esters, such as erythromycin ethylsuccinate. Erythromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffuses into most tissues and phagocytes. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, erythromycin is actively transported to the site of infection, where, during active phagocytosis, large concentrations of erythromycin are released. Metabolism Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver. Its main elimination route is in the bile, and a small portion in the urine. Erythromycin's elimination half-life is 1.5 hours. Interactions Erythromycin inhibits the cytochrome P450 system, particularly the CYP3A4 isozyme, which can cause it to affect the metabolism of many different drugs. If CYP3A4 substrates—drugs that are broken down by CYP3A4, such as simvastatin (Zocor), lovastatin (Mevacor), or atorvastatin (Lipitor)—are taken concomitantly with erythromycin, levels of the substrates will increase, often causing adverse effects. A noted drug interaction involves erythromycin and simvastatin, resulting in increased simvastatin levels and the potential for rhabdomyolysis. Another group of CYP3A4 substrates are drugs used for migraine such as ergotamine and dihydroergotamine; their adverse effects may be more pronounced if erythromycin is associated. Erythromycin. Belgian Center for Pharmacotherapeutical Information. Retrieved July 20, 2008. Earlier case reports on sudden death prompted a study on a large cohort that confirmed a link between erythromycin, ventricular tachycardia, and sudden cardiac death in patients also taking drugs that prolong the metabolism of erythromycin (like verapamil or diltiazem) by interfering with CYP3A4. Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S, Narasimhulu SS, Hall K, Stein CM. Oral Erythromycin and the Risk of Sudden Death from Cardiac Causes. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1089-96. Hence, erythromycin should not be administered to people using these drugs, or drugs that also prolong the QT interval. Other examples include terfenadine (Seldane, Seldane-D), astemizole (Hismanal), cisapride (Propulsid, withdrawn in many countries for prolonging the QT time) and pimozide (Orap). Theophylline (which is mostly used in asthma) is also contraindicated. Erythromycin is not recommended when using clindamycin containing products, even topical products such as Duac or BenzaClin. In general, the simultaneous use two different erythromycin derivatives (such as Clindamycin and Mitemcinal) should be avoided as drugs in this Macrolide family share a common mechanism of action. Erythromycin-derived compounds Mitemcinal Azithromycin / Zithromax / Zitromax / Sumamed Clarithromycin / Biaxin Roxithromycin / Rulid / Surlid / Roxid Telithromycin Dirithromycin / Dynabac Cethromycin Spiramycin Ansamycin Oleandomycin Carbomycin Tylocine Notes References British National Formulary "BNF 49" March 2005. Mims C, Dockrell HM, Goering RV, Roitt I, Wakelin D, Zuckerman M. Chapter 33: Attacking the Enemy: Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy: Macrolides. In: Medical Microbiology (3rd Edition). London: Mosby Ltd; 2004. p 489 External links U.S. Patent 2,653,899 | Erythromycin |@lemmatized erythromycin:36 macrolide:2 antibiotic:3 antimicrobial:4 spectrum:1 similar:2 slightly:1 wide:1 penicillin:2 often:2 use:9 people:2 allergy:1 respiratory:1 tract:1 infection:2 good:1 coverage:1 atypical:1 organism:1 include:3 mycoplasma:1 legionellosis:1 first:3 market:1 eli:3 lilly:4 company:2 today:1 commonly:2 know:2 ee:1 structure:2 macrocyclic:1 compound:4 contain:1 membered:1 lactone:1 ring:1 ten:1 asymmetric:2 center:2 two:2 sugar:1 l:1 cladinose:1 desoamine:1 make:1 difficult:1 produce:2 via:1 synthetic:1 method:1 strain:2 actinomycete:1 saccharopolyspora:2 erythraea:2 formerly:2 streptomyces:2 erythraeus:1 history:1 abelardo:1 aguilar:1 filipino:1 scientist:3 send:1 soil:1 sample:2 employer:1 research:2 team:1 lead:1 j:2 mcguire:1 manage:1 isolate:1 metabolic:1 product:4 erythreus:1 designation:1 change:1 find:1 file:1 patent:3 protection:1 u:2 grant:1 launch:1 commercially:1 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102 | Exothermic | In thermodynamics, the term exothermic (literally meaning "outside heating") describes a process or reaction that releases energy usually in the form of heat, but also in form of light (e.g. a spark, flame, or explosion), electricity (e.g. a battery), or sound. Its etymology stems from the Greek prefix ex- (meaning "outside") and the Greek word thermein (meaning "to heat"). The term exothermic was first coined by Marcellin Berthelot. The opposite of an exothermic process is an endothermic process, one that absorbs energy in the form of heat. The concept is frequently applied in the physical sciences to chemical reactions, where chemical bond energy is converted to thermal energy (heat). Overview Exothermic refers to a transformation in which a system releases energy (heat) to the surroundings: Q < 0 When the transformation occurs at constant pressure: ∆H < 0 and constant volume: ∆U < 0 In an adiabatic system (e.g. a system that does not give off heat to the surroundings), an exothermic process results in an increase in temperature. In chemical reactions, the heat that is absorbed is in the form of electromagnetic energy. The loss of kinetic energy via reacting electrons causes light to be released. This light is equivalent in energy to the stabilization energy of the energy for the chemical reaction, i.e. the bond energy. This light that is released can be absorbed by other molecules in solution to give rise to molecular vibrations or rotations, which gives rise to the classical understanding of heat. In contrast, when endothermic reactions occur, energy is absorbed to place an electron in a higher energy state, such that the electron can associate with another atom to form another chemical complex. The loss of energy within solution is absorbed by the endothermic reaction and therefore is a loss of heat. This is the physical understanding of exothermic and endothermic reactions within solution. Examples A thermite reaction using Iron(III) Oxide Some examples of exothermic processes are: Exothermic - Endothermic examples Condensation of rain from water vapour Combustion of fuels such as wood, coal and oil Mixing water and strong acids Mixing alkalis and acids The setting of cement and concrete Most polymerisation reactions such as the setting of epoxy resin Thermite reaction Implications for chemical reactions Chemical exothermic reactions are generally more spontaneous than their counterparts, endothermic reactions. In a thermochemical reaction that is exothermic, the heat may be listed among the products of the reaction. See also Calorimetry Chemical thermodynamics Differential scanning calorimetry Endergonic Endergonic reaction Exergonic Exergonic reaction External links http://chemistry.about.com/b/a/184556.htm Observe exothermic reactions in a simple experiment References | Exothermic |@lemmatized thermodynamics:2 term:2 exothermic:11 literally:1 mean:3 outside:2 heat:11 describe:1 process:5 reaction:18 release:4 energy:14 usually:1 form:5 also:2 light:4 e:4 g:3 spark:1 flame:1 explosion:1 electricity:1 battery:1 sound:1 etymology:1 stem:1 greek:2 prefix:1 ex:1 word:1 thermein:1 first:1 coin:1 marcellin:1 berthelot:1 opposite:1 endothermic:6 one:1 absorb:5 concept:1 frequently:1 apply:1 physical:2 science:1 chemical:8 bond:2 convert:1 thermal:1 overview:1 refers:1 transformation:2 system:3 surroundings:2 q:1 occur:2 constant:2 pressure:1 h:1 volume:1 u:1 adiabatic:1 give:3 result:1 increase:1 temperature:1 electromagnetic:1 loss:3 kinetic:1 via:1 react:1 electron:3 cause:1 equivalent:1 stabilization:1 molecule:1 solution:3 rise:2 molecular:1 vibration:1 rotation:1 classical:1 understanding:2 contrast:1 place:1 high:1 state:1 associate:1 another:2 atom:1 complex:1 within:2 therefore:1 examples:1 thermite:2 use:1 iron:1 iii:1 oxide:1 example:2 condensation:1 rain:1 water:2 vapour:1 combustion:1 fuel:1 wood:1 coal:1 oil:1 mixing:1 strong:1 acid:1 mix:1 alkali:1 acids:1 setting:2 cement:1 concrete:1 polymerisation:1 epoxy:1 resin:1 implication:1 generally:1 spontaneous:1 counterpart:1 thermochemical:1 may:1 list:1 among:1 product:1 see:1 calorimetry:2 differential:1 scan:1 endergonic:2 exergonic:2 external:1 link:1 http:1 chemistry:1 com:1 b:1 htm:1 observe:1 simple:1 experiment:1 reference:1 |@bigram marcellin_berthelot:1 kinetic_energy:1 endothermic_reaction:4 epoxy_resin:1 exothermic_reaction:2 reaction_exothermic:1 external_link:1 |
103 | Optical_aberration | Aberrations are departures of the performance of an optical system from the predictions of paraxial optics. Aberration leads to blurring of the image produced by an image-forming optical system. It occurs when light from one point of an object after transmission through the system does not converge into (or does not diverge from) a single point. Instrument-makers need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration. The articles on reflection, refraction and caustics discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays. Overview Aberrations fall into two classes: monochromatic and chromatic. Monochromatic aberrations are caused by the geometry of the lens and occur both when light is reflected and when it is refracted. They appear even when using monochromatic light, hence the name. Chromatic aberrations are caused by dispersion, the variation of a lens's refractive index with wavelength. They do not appear when monochromatic light is used. Monochromatic aberrations Piston Tilt Defocus Spherical aberration Coma Astigmatism Field curvature Image distortion Piston and tilt are not actually true optical aberrations, as they do not represent or model curvature in the wavefront. If an otherwise perfect wavefront is "aberrated" by piston and tilt, it will still form a perfect, aberration-free image, only shifted to a different position. Defocus is the lowest-order true optical aberration. Chromatic aberrations Axial, or longitudinal, chromatic aberration Lateral, or transverse, chromatic aberration Monochromatic aberration The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any object point unite in an image point; and therefore an object space is reproduced in an image space. The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to C. F. Gauss (Dioptrische Untersuchungen, Göttingen, 1841), named the focal lengths and focal planes, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see lens). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits. The investigations of James Clerk Maxwell (Phil.Mag., 1856; Quart. Journ. Math., 1858, and Ernst Abbe The investigations of Ernst Abbe on geometrical optics, originally published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893. See full reference below. ) showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satisfactorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected. This, and related general questions, have been treated — besides the above-mentioned authors — by M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, xxxv. 799; Berlin. Phys. Ges. Verh., 1892) and H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's characteristic function (Irish Acad. Trans., Theory of Systems of Rays, 1828, et seq.). Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155–161. A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given. Aberration of axial points (spherical aberration in the restricted sense) Let S (fig.5) be any optical system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2. If there is refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle u2 is greater than u1 (under correction); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (over correction). The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign > (greater than); in the second < (less than). If the angle u1 is very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; and O'1 O'2 is termed the longitudinal aberration, and O'1R the lateral aberration of the pencils with aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 is that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is a circular disk of confusion of radius O'1R, and in a parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the disk of least confusion. The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system. This hole is termed the stop or diaphragm; Abbe used the term aperture stop for both the hole and the limiting margin of the lens. The component S1 of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the entrance pupil; the exit pupil is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture stop. All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop. Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil. If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (front stop); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (back stop). If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their intersections, after traversing the system, vary according to their perpendicular height of incidence, i.e. their distance from the axis. This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value. Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small. With a considerable aperture, the neighboring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the sine condition, sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2/sin u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O is infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are to be replaced by pi and h2, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the sine condition then becomes sin u'1/h1 sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called aplanatic (Greek a-, privative, plann, a wandering). This word was first used by Robert Blair (d. 1828), professor of practical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration. Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture. Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism. A point O (fig. 6) at a finite distance from the, axis (or with an infinitely distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil. It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet the refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a point). Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the axis of the pencil or principal ray, it can be said: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which can be assumed to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, i.e. in the first principal section or meridional section, and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section. We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focusing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O" are separately formed (in neighboring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O" a circle of least confusion. The interval O'O", termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view. Two astigmatic image surfaces correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second. Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic. Sir Isaac Newton was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy, 1807); and the theory was developed by A. Gullstrand (Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1890, 2, p. 269; Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen, etc., Upsala, 1900; Arch. f. Ophth., 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185). A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten (Berlin, 1904). Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils. Coma. By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated. The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis. From this appearance it takes its name. The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil—formerly the only one considered—is coma in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.), and later by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941). Curvature of the field of the image If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture—there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography. In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. Distortion of the image Fig. 7a: Barrel distortionFig. 7b: Pincushion distortion If now the image is sufficiently sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object. This error consists in the different parts of the object being reproduced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (barrel-shaped distortion), or conversely (pincushion-shaped distortion) (see figs. 7a and 7b). This effect is called lens distortion or image distortion, and there are algorithms to correct it. Systems free of distortion are called orthoscopic (orthos, right, skopein to look) or rectilinear (straight lines). This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure. If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the center of gravity of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiving the image, e.g. a focusing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop. This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focusing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs. This ray, named by Abbe a principal ray (not to be confused with the principal rays of the Gaussian theory), passes through the center of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, and the center of the exit pupil after the last refraction. From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field. Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, where N is the scale or magnification of the image. For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan w must also be constant. If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the condition of Airy, i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a constant. This simple relation (see Camb. Phil. Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w' / tan w = 1. The constancy of a'/a necessary for this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit. Journ. Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f. Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centers of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration. M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object. This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components. Zernike model of aberrations Circular wavefront profiles associated with aberrations may be mathematically modeled using Zernike polynomials. Developed by Frits Zernike in the 1930s, Zernike's polynomials are orthogonal over a circle of unit radius. A complex, aberrated wavefront profile may be curve-fitted with Zernike polynomials to yield a set of fitting coefficients that individually represent different types of aberrations. These Zernike coefficients are linearly independent, thus individual aberration contributions to an overall wavefront may be isolated and quantified separately. There are even and odd Zernike polynomials. The even Zernike polynomials are defined as and the odd Zernike polynomials as where and are nonnegative integers with , is the azimuthal angle in radians, and is the normalized radial distance. The radial polynomials have no azimuthal dependence, and are defined as and if is odd. The first few Zernike polynomials are: "Piston", equal to the mean value of the wavefront "X-Tilt", the deviation of the overall beam in the sagittal direction "Y-Tilt", the deviation of the overall beam in the tangential direction "Defocus", a parabolic wavefront resulting from being out of focus "X-Astigmatism", a horizontally oriented cylindrical shape "Y-Astigmatism", a vertically oriented cylindrical shape "X-Coma", comatic image flaring in the horizontal direction "Y-Coma", comatic image flaring in the vertical direction "Third order spherical aberration" where is the normalized pupil radius with , is the azimuthal angle around the pupil with , and fitting coefficients – are the wavefront errors in wavelengths. As in Fourier synthesis using sines and cosines, a wavefront may be perfectly represented by a sufficiently large number of higher-order Zernike polynomials. However, wavefronts with very steep gradients or very high spatial frequency structure, such as produced by propagation through atmospheric turbulence or aerodynamic flowfields, are not well modeled by Zernike polynomials, which tend to low-pass filter fine spatial definition in the wavefront. In this case, other fitting methods such as fractals or singular value decomposition may yield improved fitting results. The circle polynomials were introduced by Fritz Zernike to evaluate the point image of an aberrated optical system taking into account the effects of diffraction. The perfect point image in the presence of diffraction had already been described by Airy, as early as 1835. It took almost hundred years to arrive at a comprehensive theory and modeling of the point image of aberrated systems (Zernike and Nijboer). The analysis by Nijboer and Zernike describes the intensity distribution close to the optimum focal plane. An extended theory that allows the calculation of the point image amplitude and intensity over a much larger volume in the focal region was recently developed (Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory). This Extended Nijboer-Zernike theory of point image or ‘point-spread function’ formation has found applications in general research on image formation, especially for systems with a high numerical aperture, and in characterizing optical systems with respect to their aberrations. Analytic treatment of aberrations The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the Abbe theory of aberrations, in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience. In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations. This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be infinitely small of a certain order; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated. This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be defined by the coordinates (ξ, η). Of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other coordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (ξ', η'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane coordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be parallel. Each of the four coordinates ξ', η', x', y' are functions of ξ, η, x, y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then ξ, η, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expanding ξ', η', x', y' in ascending powers of ξ, η, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers. It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the origins of the coordinate systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of ξ, η, x, y, the values ξ', η', x', y' must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for ξ', η' vary if ξ, η be constant, but x, y variable. It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'0, with coordinates ξ'0, η'0, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed. Writing Dξ'=ξ'-ξ'0 and Dη'=η'-η'0, then Dξ' and Dη' are the aberrations belonging to ξ, η and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above. On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of ξ, η, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by (J. Petzval (Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen, Buda Pesth, 1843; Akad. Sitzber., Wien, 1857, vols. xxiv. xxvi.) the numerical orders of the image, are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for Dξ' and Dη' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th…(m-2)th degrees must vanish. The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero. This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by L. Seidel (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, J. Petzval constructed his portrait objective, from similar calculations which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, Berlin, 1899, p. 248). The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Munchen. Acad. Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (München. Akad. Sitzber., 1898, 28, p. 395); a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (Beiträge zur Dioptrik, Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-9). A. Konig and M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten, pp. 317–323) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the Abbe method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212–316). The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the characteristic function of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order. Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc. Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (Proc. London Math. Soc., 1874–1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (Berlin. Akad. Sitzber., 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber., 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwarzschild (Göttingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae. A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and Ann. d. Phys., 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the axis is very small, less than of the third order — the deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion. (1) Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics. It is very important in telescope design. In telescopes aperture is usually taken as the linear diameter of the objective. It is not the same as microscope aperture which is based on the entrance pupil or field of view as seen from the object and is expressed as an angular measurement. Higher order aberrations in telescope design can be mostly neglected. For microscopes it cannot be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r:r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant). The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be zero. This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign. Of thin positive lenses with n=1.5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order. These systems, however, are not of great practical importance. In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (under-correction, vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however: may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained. It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens. By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be reproduced without aberration of the third order. Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as Herschel's condition. All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account. (2) The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as Fraunhofer's condition. (4) After eliminating the aberration On the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is expressed by the Petzval equation, S1/r(n'-n) = 0, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighboring media, and S the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces. Practical elimination of aberrations The classical imaging problem is to reproduce perfectly a finite plane (the object) onto another plane (the image) through a finite aperture. It is impossible to do so perfectly for more than one such pairs of planes (this was proven with increasing generality by Maxwell in 1858, by Bruns in 1895, and by Carathéodory in 1926, see summary in Walther, A., J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 6, 415–422 (1989)). For a single pair of planes (e.g. for a single focus setting of an objective), however, the problem could in principle be solved perfectly. Practical methods solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument. The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (insofar as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems. Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's Die Bilderzeugung, p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen. Akad. Abhandl., 1905, 4, Nos. 2 and 3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik, Leipzig and Berlin, 1902). The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small. By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above. The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighboring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system). The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called zones, and the constructor endeavors to reduce these to a minimum. The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion, attend smaller values of w. The practical optician names such systems: corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of view w*. Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view. The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. But the larger aperture will give the larger resolution. The following may be regarded as typical: (1) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are — for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example — high-power microscope objectives. (2) Largest field of view; necessary corrections are — for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; examples — photographic widest angle objectives and oculars. Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photographic objective: the portrait objective is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view. (3) Telescope objectives have small fields of view and aberrations on axis are very important. Therefore zones will be kept as small as possible and design should emphasize simplicity. Because of this these lenses are the best for analytical computation. Chromatic or color aberration In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see Lens (optics) and Monochromatic aberration, above). Since the index of refraction varies with the color or wavelength of the light (see dispersion), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colors in somewhat different places and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are chromatic differences of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations. If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ultimately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focusing screen of a camera, etc.), they cause a confusion, named chromatic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a colored margin, or narrow spectrum. The absence of this error is termed achromatism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic. A system is said to be chromatically under-corrected when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be over-corrected. If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected — in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted — then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of reproduction. These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &c., of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and consequently on the color, are calculable (the formulae are given in Czapski-Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente (1903, p. 166). The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of. In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colors, i.e. this constant is achromatized. For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length. If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colors, and the system is said to be in stable achromatism. In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. cit. p. 170; A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, Die Bilderzeugung, p. 340). In a plane containing the image point of one color, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the confusion caused by two zones in spherical aberration. For infinitely distant objects the radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (vide supra, Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is proportional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the relative aperture. (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) Examples: (a) In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the distance of the focal point are equal. If the refractive index for one color be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be f and f + df, then (1) df/f = dn/(n-1) = 1/n; dn is called the dispersion, and n the dispersive power of the glass. (b) Two thin lenses in contact: let f1 and f2 be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n1 and n2 and radii r'1, r"1, and r'2, r"2 respectively; let f denote the total power, and df, dn1, dn2 the changes of f, n1, and n2 with the color. Then the following relations hold: — (2) f = f1-f2== (n1 - 1)(1/r'1-1/r1) +(n2-1)(1/r'2 - 1/r2) = (n1 - 1)k1 + (n2 - 1)k2; and (3) df = k1dn1 + k2dn2. For achromatism df = 0, hence, from (3), (4) k1/k2 = -dn2 / dn1, or f1/f2 = -n1/n2. Therefore f1 and f2 must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be composed of a collective and a dispersive lens. Consequently the powers of the two must be different (in order that f be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4). Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors. James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See telescope.) Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named crown glass; that with greater dispersive power, flint glass. For the construction of an achromatic collective lens (f positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power. For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted. This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the Herschel or Fraunhofer Condition, the latter being the best vide supra, Monochromatic Aberration). In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii. According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f. Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr. Nachr., 1856, p. 289). Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, crown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images. In all earlier kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the new achromats, and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first anastigmats (photographic objectives). Instead of making df vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system. If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one color, then its effect for that one color is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect. If its chromatic effect (df/f) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses employed, it is termed hyper-chromatic. For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition for achromatism is D = v1f1+v2f2; if v1=v2 (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D= 1/2 (f1+f2), known as the condition for oculars. If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colors, then it is not the same for other colors, if two different glasses are employed. For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn2/dn1 varies within the spectrum. This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colors by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%). If, therefore, for two colors, a and b, fa = fb = f, then for a third color, c, the focal length is different; that is, if c lies between a and b, then fc<f, and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint. These chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two colors, are called the secondary spectrum, and depend upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the primary chromatid errors do. In fig. 11, taken from M. von Rohr's Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs, the abscissae are focal lengths, and the ordinates wavelengths. The Fraunhofer lines used are shown in the table to the right of the figure. A' C D Green Hg. F G' Violet Hg. 767.7 656.3 589.3 546.1 486.2 454.1 405.1 nm and the focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. In the neighborhood of 550 nm the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of wave-lengths; and the focal length varies least over a fairly large range of color, therefore in this neighborhood the color union is at its best. Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making fc = fF, is, according to the experiments of Sir G. G. Stokes (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1878), the most suitable for visual instruments (optical achromatism,). In a similar manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the color curve must be placed in the position of the maximum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united. This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography (pure actinic achromatism). For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focusing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects. On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the actinic correction or freedom from chemical focus). Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. fa = fb = fc = f, then the relative partial dispersion (nc-nb) (na-nb) must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed. This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colors ac and bc. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportional degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls. Fraunhofer prepared glasses which reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott. In using glasses not having proportional dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses. In uniting three colors an achromatism of a higher order is derived; there is yet a residual tertiary spectrum, but it can always be neglected. The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colors; and should they be compensated for one color, the image of another color would prove disturbing. The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colors are united by an appropriate combination of glasses. If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components — the flint glasses, — over-correction will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red). This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss. It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be eliminated for two colors, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs). The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point — the constant of the sine relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colors. E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colors, which therefore, according to his definition, were aplanatic for several colors; such systems he termed apochromatic. While, however, the magnification of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnification. This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which Abbe used with these objectives (compensating oculars), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope. The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-color work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do. The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances. See also Chromatic aberration Wavefront coding References Britannica references H. D. Taylor, A System of Applied Optics (1906). The classical treatise in English. R. S. Heath, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (2nd ed., 1895). L A. Herman, A Treatise on Geometrical Optics (1900). S. Czapski, Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe, published: separately at Breslau in 1893, as vol. ii of Winkelmann's Handbuch der Physik in 1894, and as S. Czapski and O. Eppenstein, Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1903). M. von Rohr, ed., Die bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik (Berlin, 1904). The collection of the scientific staff of Carl Zeiss at Jena, which contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations. External links Microscope Objectives: Optical Aberrations section of Molecular Expressions website, Michael W. Davidson, Mortimer Abramowitz, Olympus America Inc., and The Florida State University Photographic optics, Paul van Walree | Optical_aberration |@lemmatized aberration:89 departure:1 performance:1 optical:22 system:63 prediction:1 paraxial:1 optic:8 lead:2 blurring:1 image:66 produce:6 form:11 occur:5 light:11 one:28 point:65 object:35 transmission:1 converge:1 diverge:1 single:6 instrument:5 maker:1 need:2 correct:14 compensate:3 article:2 reflection:1 refraction:6 caustic:2 discuss:3 general:8 feature:1 reflected:1 refracted:1 ray:36 overview:1 fall:2 two:35 class:2 monochromatic:12 chromatic:20 cause:4 geometry:2 lens:57 reflect:2 refract:3 appear:4 even:8 use:12 hence:2 name:11 dispersion:8 variation:2 refractive:17 index:18 wavelength:6 piston:4 tilt:5 defocus:3 spherical:15 coma:9 astigmatism:10 field:21 curvature:11 distortion:13 actually:1 true:3 represent:6 model:4 wavefront:12 otherwise:2 perfect:3 aberrate:1 still:3 free:4 shift:1 different:19 position:9 low:5 order:26 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104 | Gelatin | Gelatin (from French gélatine) is a translucent, colourless, brittle, nearly tasteless solid substance, derived from the collagen inside animals' skin and bones. It is commonly used as a gelling agent in food, pharmaceuticals, photography, and cosmetic manufacturing. Substances containing gelatin or functioning in a similar way are called gelatinous. Gelatin is an irreversibly hydrolyzed form of collagen. Gelatin is classified as a foodstuff, with E number E441. It is in almost every "gummy" confectionery as well as other products such as marshmallows and some low-fat yogurt. Some dietary customs forbid the use of gelatin from animal sources, and medical issues may limit or prevent its consumption by certain people. Gelatin is a protein produced by partial hydrolysis of collagen extracted from the bones, connective tissues organs, and some intestines of animals such as domesticated cattle, pigs, and horses. The natural molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Gelatin melts when heated and solidifies when cooled again. Together with water, it forms a semi-solid colloid gel. Gelatin forms a solution of high viscosity in water, which sets to a gel on cooling, and its chemical composition is, in many respects, closely similar to that of its parent collagen. Gelatin solutions show viscoelastic flow and streaming birefringence. If gelatin is put into contact with cold water, some of the material dissolves. The solubility of the gelatin is determined by the method of manufacture. Typically, gelatin can be dispersed in a relatively concentrated acid. Such dispersions are stable for 10–15 days with little or no chemical changes and are suitable for coating purposes or for extrusion into a precipitating bath. Gelatin is also soluble in most polar solvents. Gelatin gels exist over only a small temperature range, the upper limit being the melting point of the gel, which depends on gelatin grade and concentration and the lower limit, the ice point at which ice crystallizes. The mechanical properties are very sensitive to temperature variations, previous thermal history of the gel, and time. The viscosity of the gelatin/water mixture increases with concentration and when kept cool (≈ 4 °C). Production The worldwide production amount of gelatin is about 300,000 tons per year (roughly 600 million lbs.) . On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from by-products of the meat and leather industry. Recently, fish by-products have also been considered because they eliminate most of the religious obstacles surrounding gelatin consumption . Gelatin is derived mainly from pork skins, pork and cattle bones, or split cattle hides; contrary to popular belief, horns and hooves are not used. The raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes which are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate. These processes may take up to several weeks, and differences in such processes have great effects on the properties of the final gelatin products . Gelatin can also be prepared at home. Boiling certain cartilaginous cuts of meat or bones will result in gelatin being dissolved into the water. Depending on the concentration, the resulting broth, when cooled, will naturally form a jelly or gel. This process, for instance, may be used for the pot-au-feu dish. While there are many processes whereby collagen can be converted to gelatin, they all have several factors in common. The intermolecular and intramolecular bonds which stabilize insoluble collagen rendering it insoluble must be broken, and the hydrogen bonds which stabilize the collagen helix must also be broken . The manufacturing processes of gelatin consists of three main stages: Pretreatments to make the raw materials ready for the main extraction step and to remove impurities which may have negative effects on physicochemical properties of the final gelatin product, The main extraction step, which is usually done with hot water or dilute acid solutions as a multistage extraction to hydrolyze collagen into gelatin, and finally, The refining and recovering treatments including filtration, clarification, evaporation, sterilization, drying, rutting, grinding, and sifting to remove the water from the gelatin solution, to blend the gelatin extracted, and to obtain dried, blended and ground final gelatin. Pretreatments The physical material which will be used in production is bones, dilute acid solutions should be used to remove calcium and similar salts. Hot water or several solvents may be used for degreasing. Maximum fat content of the material should not exceed 1% before the main extraction step. If the raw material is hides and skin, size reduction, washing, removing hair from the hides, and degreasing are the most important pretreatments used to make the hides and skins ready for the main extraction step. Raw material preparation for extraction is done by three different methods: acid, alkali, and enzymatic treatments. Acid treatment is especially suitable for less fully crosslinked materials such as pig skin collagen. Pig skin collagen is less complex than the collagen found in bovine hides. Acid treatment is faster than alkali treatment and requires normally 10 to 48 hours. Alkali treatment is suitable for more complex collagen as being in bovine hides. This process requires longer time, normally several weeks. The purpose of the alkali treatment is to destroy certain chemical crosslinkages still present in collagen. The gelatin obtained from acid treated raw material has been called type-A gelatin, and the gelatin obtained from alkali treated raw material is referred to as type-B gelatin. Enzymatic treatments used for preparing raw material for the main extraction step are relatively new. Enzymatic treatments have some advantages in contrast to alkali treatment. Time required for enzymatic treatment is short, the yield is almost 100% in enzymatic treatment, the purity is also higher, and the physical properties of the final gelatin product are better. Extraction After preparation of the raw material, i.e., reducing crosslinkages between collagen components and removing some of the impurities such as fat and salts, partially purified collagen is converted into gelatin by extraction with either water or acid solutions at appropriate temperatures. This extraction is one of the most important steps in gelatin production. All industrially used processes are based on neutral or acid pH values because alkali treatments speed up conversion, but, at the same time, degradation processes are promoted. Acid extract conditions are extensively used in the industry but the degree of acid varies with different processes. This extraction step is a multi stage process, and extraction temperature is usually increased in later extraction steps. This procedure ensures the minimum thermal degradation of the extracted gelatin. Recovery This process includes several steps such as filtration, evaporation, sterilization, drying, grinding, and sifting. These operations are concentration-dependent and also dependent on the particular gelatin used. Degradation must be avoided or minimized. For this purpose, limiting the temperature as much as possible would be helpful. Rapid processing is required for most of them. All of these processing steps should be done in several stages to avoid extensive deterioration of peptide structure. Otherwise, low gelling strength would be obtained that is not generally desired. Edible gelatins Household gelatin comes in the form of sheets, granules, or powder. Instant types can be added to the food as they are; others need to be soaked in water beforehand. Uses Probably best known as a gelling agent in cooking, different types and grades of gelatin are used in a wide range of food and non-food products: Common examples of foods that contain gelatin are gelatin desserts, trifles, aspic, marshmallows, and confectioneries such as Peeps, gummy bears and jelly babies. Gelatin may be used as a stabilizer, thickener, or texturizer in foods such as s, yogurt, cream cheese, and margarine; it is used, as well, in fat-reduced foods to simulate the mouthfeel of fat and to create volume without adding calories. Gelatin is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of vinegar. Isinglass, from the swim bladders of fish, is still in use as a fining agent for wine and beer. Beside hartshorn jelly, from deer antlers (hence the name "hartshorn"), isinglass was one of the oldest sources of gelatin. Gelatine was used for hardening paper in Colonial times. Technical uses Capsules made of gelatin. Certain professional lighting equipment uses color gels to change the beam color. These used to be made with gelatin, hence the name color gel. Gelatin typically constitutes the shells of pharmaceutical capsules in order to make them easier to swallow. Hypromellose is a vegan-acceptable alternative to gelatin, but is more expensive to produce. Animal glues such as hide glue are essentially unrefined gelatin. It is used to hold silver halide crystals in an emulsion in virtually all photographic films and photographic papers. Despite some efforts, no suitable substitutes with the stability and low cost of gelatin have been found. Used as a carrier, coating or separating agent for other substances; for example, it makes beta-carotene water-soluble thus imparting a yellow colour to any soft drinks containing beta-carotene. Gelatin is closely related to bone glue and is used as a binder in match heads and sandpaper. Cosmetics may contain a non-gelling variant of gelatin under the name hydrolyzed collagen. As a surface sizing, it smooths glossy printing papers or playing cards and maintains the wrinkles in crêpe paper. Other uses Blocks of ballistic gelatin simulate muscle tissue as a standardized medium for testing firearms ammunition. Gelatin is used by synchronized swimmers to hold their hair in place during their routines as it will not dissolve in the cold water of the pool. It is frequently referred to as "knoxing," a reference to Knox brand gelatin. Though commonly used, the owners of the trademark object to the genericized use of the term. When added to boiling water and cooled, unflavored gelatin can make a home-made hair styling gel that is cheaper than many commercial hair styling products, but by comparison has a shorter shelf life (about a week) when stored in this form (usually in a refrigerator). After being applied to scalp hair, it can be removed with rinsing and some shampoo. It is commonly used as a biological substrate to culture adherent cells. Also used by those who are sensitive to tannins (which can irritate the stomach) in teas, soups or brews. It may be used as a medium with which to consume LSD. LSD in gelatin form is known as "windowpane" or "gel." Gelatin is used to make the shells of paintballs, similar to the way pharmaceutical capsules are produced. Religion and gelatin substitutes Special kinds of gelatin indicate the specific animal origin that was used for its production. For example, Muslim halal or Jewish kosher customs may require gelatin from sources other than pigs, from animals slaughtered ritually, or from fish. Hindu and Buddhist consumers may require gelatin from non-bovine sources. An alternative source of gelatin substitutes could be natural gel sources such as agar-agar (a seaweed), carrageenan, pectin, or konnyaku. A potential advantage over gelatin from pigs or cows is the absence of medical issues. However, alternative sources can be associated with health problems of their own (see for instance health concerns regarding carrageenan). Medical and nutritional properties Amino acid composition Although gelatin is 98-99% protein by dry weight, it has less nutritional value than many other protein sources. Gelatin is unusually high in the non-essential amino acids glycine and proline, (i.e., those produced by the human body), while lacking certain essential amino acids (i.e., those not produced by the human body). It contains no tryptophan and is deficient in isoleucine, threonine, and methionine. The approximate amino acid composition of gelatin is: glycine 21%, proline 12%, hydroxyproline 12%, glutamic acid 10%, alanine 9%, arginine 8%, aspartic acid 6%, lysine 4%, serine 4%, leucine 3%, valine 2%, phenylalanine 2%, threonine 2%, isoleucine 1%,hydroxylysine 1%, methionine and histidine <1% and tyrosine <0.5%. These values vary, especially the minor constituents, depending on the source of the raw material and processing technique. Eggs in aspic Gelatin is one of the few foods that cause a net loss of protein if eaten exclusively. In the 1970s, several people died of malnutrition while on popular liquid protein diets. For decades, gelatin has been touted as a good source of protein. It has also been said to strengthen nails and hair. However, there is little scientific evidence to support such an assertion, one which may be traced back to Knox's revolutionary marketing techniques of the 1890s, when it was advertised that gelatin contains protein and that lack of protein causes dry, deformed nails. In fact, the human body itself produces abundant amounts of the proteins found in gelatin. Furthermore, dry nails are usually due to a lack of moisture, not protein. Several Russian researchers offer the following opinion regarding certain peptides found in gelatin: "gelatin peptides reinforce resistance of the stomach mucous tunic to ethanol and stress action, decreasing the ulcer area by twice." Gelatin has also been claimed to promote general joint health. A study at Ball State University, sponsored by Nabisco (the former parent company of Knox gelatin), found that gelatin supplementation relieved knee joint pain and stiffness in athletes. Pearson, David. These results have not yet been replicated by other researchers. Safety concerns Strict regulations apply for all steps in the gelatin manufacturing process. Gelatin is produced from natural raw materials which originate from animals that have been examined and accepted for human consumption by veterinary authorities. Hygienic regulations with respect to fresh raw materials are ensured and each batch of raw material delivered to the manufacturing plant is immediately checked and documented. All reputable gelatin manufacturers today follow the Quality Management System according to ISO 9001 to comply with all required physical, chemical, microbiological and technical production and quality standards. In this way all process steps follow international laws and customer-specific quality parameters and are guaranteed and documented. For pharmaceutical grade gelatins strict regulations from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European CPMP’s regulation and European Pharmacopoeia must be met. A detailed overview of the regulatory requirements for gelatin production can be found in the Gelatine Handbook, page 99-101 Schrieber, R. and Gareis, H. (2007). Gelatine Handbook for dummies – Theory and Industrial Practice, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co, Weinheim, Germany . References | Gelatin |@lemmatized gelatin:84 french:1 gélatine:1 translucent:1 colourless:1 brittle:1 nearly:1 tasteless:1 solid:2 substance:3 derive:2 collagen:18 inside:1 animal:7 skin:6 bone:6 commonly:3 use:32 gelling:3 agent:4 food:9 pharmaceutical:4 photography:1 cosmetic:2 manufacturing:4 contain:5 functioning:1 similar:4 way:3 call:2 gelatinous:1 irreversibly:1 hydrolyzed:1 form:8 classify:1 foodstuff:1 e:4 number:1 almost:2 every:1 gummy:2 confectionery:2 well:3 product:8 marshmallow:2 low:4 fat:5 yogurt:2 dietary:1 custom:2 forbid:1 source:10 medical:3 issue:2 may:11 limit:4 prevent:1 consumption:3 certain:6 people:2 protein:10 produce:7 partial:1 hydrolysis:1 extract:4 connective:1 tissue:2 organ:1 intestine:1 domesticated:1 cattle:3 pig:5 horse:1 natural:3 molecular:1 bond:3 individual:1 strand:1 break:3 rearrange:1 easily:1 melt:2 heat:1 solidifies:1 cool:4 together:1 water:13 semi:1 colloid:1 gel:12 solution:6 high:3 viscosity:2 set:1 cooling:1 chemical:4 composition:3 many:4 respect:2 closely:2 parent:2 show:1 viscoelastic:1 flow:1 stream:1 birefringence:1 put:1 contact:1 cold:2 material:16 dissolve:3 solubility:1 determine:1 method:2 manufacture:1 typically:2 disperse:1 relatively:2 concentrated:1 acid:18 dispersion:1 stable:1 day:1 little:2 change:2 suitable:4 coat:2 purpose:3 extrusion:1 precipitating:1 bath:1 also:9 soluble:2 polar:1 solvent:2 exist:1 small:1 temperature:5 range:2 upper:1 point:2 depend:3 grade:3 concentration:4 ice:2 crystallizes:1 mechanical:1 property:5 sensitive:2 variation:1 previous:1 thermal:2 history:1 time:5 mixture:1 increase:2 kept:1 c:1 production:7 worldwide:1 amount:2 ton:1 per:1 year:1 roughly:1 million:1 lbs:1 commercial:2 scale:1 make:10 meat:2 leather:1 industry:2 recently:1 fish:3 consider:1 eliminate:1 religious:1 obstacle:1 surround:1 mainly:1 pork:2 split:1 hide:7 contrary:1 popular:2 belief:1 horn:1 hoof:1 raw:12 prepare:3 different:4 curing:1 alkali:8 process:15 employ:1 dried:2 hydrolysate:1 take:1 several:8 week:3 difference:1 great:1 effect:2 final:4 home:2 boil:2 cartilaginous:1 cut:1 result:3 broth:1 naturally:1 jelly:3 instance:2 pot:1 au:1 feu:1 dish:1 whereby:1 convert:2 factor:1 common:2 intermolecular:1 intramolecular:1 stabilize:2 insoluble:2 render:1 must:4 hydrogen:1 helix:1 consists:1 three:2 main:6 stage:3 pretreatments:3 ready:2 extraction:13 step:12 remove:6 impurity:2 negative:1 physicochemical:1 usually:4 hot:2 dilute:2 multistage:1 hydrolyze:2 finally:1 refining:1 recover:1 treatment:13 include:2 filtration:2 clarification:2 evaporation:2 sterilization:2 dry:5 rut:1 grind:3 sift:2 blend:2 obtain:4 physical:3 calcium:1 salt:2 degrease:2 maximum:1 content:1 exceed:1 size:1 reduction:1 wash:1 hair:6 important:2 preparation:2 enzymatic:5 especially:2 less:3 fully:1 crosslinked:1 complex:2 find:6 bovine:3 faster:1 require:6 normally:2 hour:1 long:1 destroy:1 crosslinkages:2 still:2 present:1 treat:2 type:4 refer:2 b:1 new:1 advantage:2 contrast:1 short:1 yield:1 purity:1 reduce:2 component:1 partially:1 purify:1 either:1 appropriate:1 one:4 industrially:1 base:1 neutral:1 ph:1 value:3 speed:1 conversion:1 degradation:3 promote:2 condition:1 extensively:1 degree:1 varies:1 multi:1 late:1 procedure:1 ensure:2 minimum:1 extracted:1 recovery:1 operation:1 dependent:2 particular:1 avoid:2 minimize:1 much:1 possible:1 would:2 helpful:1 rapid:1 processing:2 extensive:1 deterioration:1 peptide:3 structure:1 otherwise:1 strength:1 generally:1 desire:1 edible:1 household:1 come:1 sheet:1 granule:1 powder:1 instant:1 add:3 others:1 need:1 soak:1 beforehand:1 probably:1 best:1 know:2 cooking:1 wide:1 non:4 example:3 dessert:1 trifle:1 aspic:2 peep:1 bear:1 baby:1 stabilizer:1 thickener:1 texturizer:1 cream:1 cheese:1 margarine:1 simulate:2 mouthfeel:1 create:1 volume:1 without:1 calorie:1 juice:2 apple:1 vinegar:1 isinglass:2 swim:1 bladder:1 fining:1 wine:1 beer:1 beside:1 hartshorn:2 deer:1 antler:1 hence:2 name:3 old:1 gelatine:3 harden:1 paper:4 colonial:1 technical:2 us:1 capsule:3 professional:1 lighting:1 equipment:1 color:3 beam:1 constitute:1 shell:2 order:1 easy:1 swallow:1 hypromellose:1 vegan:1 acceptable:1 alternative:3 expensive:1 glue:3 essentially:1 unrefined:1 hold:2 silver:1 halide:1 crystal:1 emulsion:1 virtually:1 photographic:2 film:1 despite:1 effort:1 substitute:3 stability:1 cost:1 carrier:1 separate:1 beta:2 carotene:2 thus:1 impart:1 yellow:1 colour:1 soft:1 drink:1 relate:1 binder:1 match:1 head:1 sandpaper:1 variant:1 surface:1 sizing:1 smooths:1 glossy:1 printing:1 play:1 card:1 maintain:1 wrinkle:1 crêpe:1 uses:1 block:1 ballistic:1 muscle:1 standardized:1 medium:2 test:1 firearms:1 ammunition:1 synchronized:1 swimmer:1 place:1 routine:1 pool:1 frequently:1 knoxing:1 reference:2 knox:3 brand:1 though:1 owner:1 trademark:1 object:1 genericized:1 term:1 unflavored:1 style:2 cheap:1 comparison:1 shorter:1 shelf:1 life:1 store:1 refrigerator:1 apply:2 scalp:1 rinsing:1 shampoo:1 biological:1 substrate:1 culture:1 adherent:1 cell:1 tannin:1 irritate:1 stomach:2 tea:1 soup:1 brew:1 consume:1 lsd:2 windowpane:1 paintball:1 religion:1 special:1 kind:1 indicate:1 specific:2 origin:1 muslim:1 halal:1 jewish:1 kosher:1 slaughter:1 ritually:1 hindu:1 buddhist:1 consumer:1 could:1 agar:2 seaweed:1 carrageenan:2 pectin:1 konnyaku:1 potential:1 cow:1 absence:1 however:2 associate:1 health:3 problem:1 see:1 concern:2 regard:2 nutritional:2 amino:4 although:1 weight:1 unusually:1 essential:2 glycine:2 proline:2 human:4 body:3 lack:3 tryptophan:1 deficient:1 isoleucine:2 threonine:2 methionine:2 approximate:1 hydroxyproline:1 glutamic:1 alanine:1 arginine:1 aspartic:1 lysine:1 serine:1 leucine:1 valine:1 phenylalanine:1 hydroxylysine:1 histidine:1 tyrosine:1 vary:1 minor:1 constituent:1 technique:2 egg:1 cause:2 net:1 loss:1 eat:1 exclusively:1 die:1 malnutrition:1 liquid:1 diet:1 decade:1 tout:1 good:1 say:1 strengthen:1 nail:3 scientific:1 evidence:1 support:1 assertion:1 trace:1 back:1 revolutionary:1 marketing:1 advertise:1 contains:1 deform:1 fact:1 abundant:1 furthermore:1 due:1 moisture:1 russian:1 researcher:2 offer:1 following:1 opinion:1 reinforce:1 resistance:1 mucous:1 tunic:1 ethanol:1 stress:1 action:1 decrease:1 ulcer:1 area:1 twice:1 claim:1 general:1 joint:2 study:1 ball:1 state:1 university:1 sponsor:1 nabisco:1 former:1 company:1 supplementation:1 relieve:1 knee:1 pain:1 stiffness:1 athlete:1 pearson:1 david:1 yet:1 replicate:1 safety:1 strict:2 regulation:4 originate:1 examine:1 accept:1 veterinary:1 authority:1 hygienic:1 fresh:1 batch:1 deliver:1 plant:1 immediately:1 check:1 document:2 reputable:1 manufacturer:1 today:1 follow:2 quality:3 management:1 system:1 accord:1 iso:1 comply:1 required:1 microbiological:1 standard:1 international:1 law:1 customer:1 parameter:1 guarantee:1 drug:1 administration:1 fda:1 european:2 cpmp:1 pharmacopoeia:1 meet:1 detailed:1 overview:1 regulatory:1 requirement:1 handbook:2 page:1 schrieber:1 r:1 gareis:1 h:1 dummy:1 theory:1 industrial:1 practice:1 wiley:1 vch:1 verlag:1 gmbh:1 co:1 weinheim:1 germany:1 |@bigram collagen_gelatin:4 connective_tissue:1 domesticated_cattle:1 cattle_pig:1 polar_solvent:1 raw_material:12 hydrogen_bond:1 collagen_helix:1 hydrolyze_collagen:2 enzymatic_treatment:5 swim_bladder:1 silver_halide:1 beta_carotene:2 soft_drink:1 closely_relate:1 agar_agar:1 amino_acid:4 glycine_proline:2 proline_hydroxyproline:1 glutamic_acid:1 aspartic_acid:1 acid_lysine:1 administration_fda:1 european_pharmacopoeia:1 wiley_vch:1 verlag_gmbh:1 |
105 | Economy_of_Liberia | The Liberian Civil War in 1989-96 destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially the infrastructure in and around Monrovia. Many businessmen fled the country, taking capital and expertise with them. Some returned during 1997. Many will not return. Richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, Liberia had been a producer and exporter of basic products, while local manufacturing, mainly foreign owned, had been small in scope. The democratically elected government, installed in August 1997, inherited massive international debts and currently relies on revenues from its maritime registry to provide the bulk of its foreign exchange earnings. The restoration of the infrastructure and the raising of incomes in this ravaged economy depend on the implementation of sound macro- and micro-economic policies of the new government, including the encouragement of foreign investment. Summary Civil war and government mismanagement destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially the infrastructure in and around the capital, Monrovia. Many businesses fled the country, taking capital and expertise with them, but with the conclusion of fighting and the installation of a democratically-elected government in 2006, some have returned. Richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, Liberia had been a producer and exporter of basic products - primarily raw timber and rubber. Local manufacturing, mainly foreign owned, had been small in scope. President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf, a Harvard-trained banker and administrator, has taken steps to reduce corruption, build support from international donors, and encourage private investment. Embargoes on timber and diamond exports have been lifted, opening new sources of revenue for the government. The reconstruction of infrastructure and the raising of incomes in this ravaged economy will largely depend on generous financial and technical assistance from donor countries and foreign investment in key sectors, such as infrastructure and power generation. In greater depth The Liberian economy had relied heavily on the mining of iron ore prior to the civil war. Liberia was a major exporter of iron ore on the world market. In the 1970s and 1980s, iron mining accounted for more than half of Liberia's export earnings. Since the coup d'état of 1980, the country's economic growth rate has slowed down because of a decline in the demand for iron ore on the world market and political upheavals in Liberia. Liberia's foreign debt amounts to more than $3 billion. Timber and rubber are Liberia's main export items since the end of the war. Liberia earns more than $100 million and more than $70 million annually from timber and rubber exports, respectively. Alluvial diamond and gold mining activities also account for some economic activity. Being the second-largest maritime licenser in the world with more than 1,700 vessels registered under its flag, including 35% of the world's tanker fleet, Liberia earned more than $18 million from its maritime program in 2000. The Liberian Government has declared in recent months that it has discovered sizable amounts of crude oil along its Atlantic coast. Boy grinding sugar cane 1968 Liberia's business sector is largely controlled by foreigners mainly of Lebanese and Indian descent. There also are limited numbers of Chinese engaged in agriculture. The largest timber concession, Oriental Timber Corporation (OTC), is Indonesian owned. There also are significant numbers of West Africans engaged in cross-border trade. Liberia is a member of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). With Guinea and Sierra Leone, it formed the Mano River Union (MRU) for development and the promotion of regional economic integration. The MRU became all but defunct because of the Liberian civil war which spilled over into neighboring Sierra Leone and Guinea. Liberia has relied heavily on vast amounts of foreign assistance, particularly from the United States, Japan, Britain, France, Italy, Germany, the People's Republic of China, and Romania. But because of the Liberian Government's perceived disregard for human rights, foreign assistance to Liberia has declined drastically. The Republic of China (Taiwan) and Libya are currently the largest donors of direct financial aid to the Liberian Government. However, significant amounts of aid continue to come in from Western countries through international aid agencies and non-governmental organizations, avoiding direct aid to the government. The United Nations imposed sanctions on Liberia in May 2001 for its support to the rebels of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in neighboring Sierra Leone. See also Liberian companies List of Liberian companies References External links Mineral resources of Liberia | Economy_of_Liberia |@lemmatized liberian:8 civil:4 war:5 destroyed:1 much:2 liberia:17 economy:5 especially:2 infrastructure:5 around:2 monrovia:2 many:3 businessmen:1 flee:2 country:5 take:3 capital:3 expertise:2 return:3 richly:2 endow:2 water:2 mineral:3 resource:3 forest:2 climate:2 favorable:2 agriculture:3 producer:2 exporter:3 basic:2 product:2 local:2 manufacturing:2 mainly:3 foreign:8 small:2 scope:2 democratically:2 elected:2 government:9 instal:1 august:1 inherit:1 massive:1 international:3 debt:2 currently:2 relies:1 revenue:2 maritime:3 registry:1 provide:1 bulk:1 exchange:1 earnings:2 restoration:1 raising:2 income:2 ravaged:2 depend:2 implementation:1 sound:1 macro:1 micro:1 economic:5 policy:1 new:2 include:2 encouragement:1 investment:3 summary:1 mismanagement:1 destroy:1 business:2 conclusion:1 fighting:1 installation:1 primarily:1 raw:1 timber:6 rubber:3 president:1 ellen:1 johnson:1 sirleaf:1 harvard:1 trained:1 banker:1 administrator:1 step:1 reduce:1 corruption:1 build:1 support:2 donor:3 encourage:1 private:1 embargo:1 diamond:2 export:4 lift:1 open:1 source:1 reconstruction:1 largely:2 generous:1 financial:2 technical:1 assistance:3 key:1 sector:2 power:1 generation:1 great:1 depth:1 rely:2 heavily:2 mining:3 iron:4 ore:3 prior:1 major:1 world:4 market:2 account:2 half:1 since:2 coup:1 état:1 growth:1 rate:1 slow:1 decline:2 demand:1 political:1 upheaval:1 amount:4 billion:1 main:1 item:1 end:1 earn:2 million:3 annually:1 respectively:1 alluvial:1 gold:1 activity:2 also:4 second:1 large:3 licenser:1 vessel:1 register:1 flag:1 tanker:1 fleet:1 program:1 declare:1 recent:1 month:1 discover:1 sizable:1 crude:1 oil:1 along:1 atlantic:1 coast:1 boy:1 grind:1 sugar:1 cane:1 control:1 foreigner:1 lebanese:1 indian:1 descent:1 limited:1 number:2 chinese:1 engage:2 concession:1 oriental:1 corporation:1 otc:1 indonesian:1 significant:2 west:2 african:2 cross:1 border:1 trade:1 member:1 community:1 state:2 ecowas:1 guinea:2 sierra:3 leone:3 form:1 mano:1 river:1 union:1 mru:2 development:1 promotion:1 regional:1 integration:1 become:1 defunct:1 spill:1 neighboring:1 vast:1 particularly:1 united:3 japan:1 britain:1 france:1 italy:1 germany:1 people:1 republic:2 china:2 romania:1 perceive:1 disregard:1 human:1 right:1 drastically:1 taiwan:1 libya:1 direct:2 aid:4 however:1 continue:1 come:1 western:1 agency:1 non:1 governmental:1 organization:1 avoid:1 nation:1 impose:1 sanction:1 may:1 rebel:1 revolutionary:1 front:1 ruf:1 neighbor:1 see:1 company:2 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram richly_endow:2 democratically_elected:2 ellen_johnson:1 johnson_sirleaf:1 rely_heavily:2 iron_ore:3 export_earnings:1 coup_état:1 crude_oil:1 sugar_cane:1 sierra_leone:3 leone_guinea:1 external_link:1 |
106 | Monarchy | A monarchy is a form of government in which supreme power is absolutely or nominally lodged with an individual, who is the head of state, often for life or until abdication, and "is wholly set apart from all other members of the state." "Bouvier, John, and Francis Rawle. Bouvier's Law Dictionary and Concise Encyclopedia. 1914. 2237-2238. The person who heads a monarchy is called a monarch. It was a common form of government in the world during the ancient and medieval times. There is no clear definition of monarchy. Holding unlimited political power in the state is not the defining characteristic, as many constitutional monarchies such as the United Kingdom and Thailand are considered monarchies. Hereditary rule is often a common characteristic, but elective monarchies are also considered monarchies (the pope, sovereign of the Vatican City State, is elected by the College of Cardinals) and some states have hereditary rulers, but are considered republics (such as the stadtholder of the Dutch Republic, or the Great Council of Chiefs in Fiji). A 1914 edition of Bouvier's Law Dictionary states that "Monarchy is contradistinguished from republic," and gives this definition: Currently, 44 nations in the world have monarchs as heads of state, 16 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. Etymology The word monarch () comes from the Greek μονάρχης (from μόνος, "one/singular," and ἀρχων, "leader/ruler/chief") which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. With time, the word has been succeeded in this meaning by others, such as autocrat or dictator. In modern use the word monarch generally is used when referring to a traditional system of hereditary rule, with elective monarchies often considered as exceptions. Characteristics and role A 19th century portrayal of Emperor Jinmu, the first Emperor of Japan. Today, the extent of a monarch's powers varies: In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules as an autocrat, with absolute power over the state and government—for example, the right to rule by decree, promulgate laws, and impose punishments. Absolute monarchies are not necessarily authoritarian; the enlightened absolutists of the Enlightenment were monarchs who allowed various freedoms. In a limited monarchy (Charte or Octroi) , it is another form of monarchy in the early stage of constitutional monarchy when the constitution not yet formulated. The monarch has limited political power under a rule of law. In a constitutional monarchy (Pacte), the monarch is largely a ceremonial figurehead subject to a constitution. Sovereignty rests formally with and is carried out in name of The Crown, but politically rests with the people (electorate), as represented by the parliament or other legislature. Constitutional monarchs have limited political power, and are constituted by tradition and precedent, popular opinion, or by legal codes or statutes. They serve as symbols of continuity and the state and carry out largely ceremonial functions. Still, many constitutional monarchs retain certain privileges (inviolability, sovereign immunity, an official residence) and powers (to grant pardons, to appoint titles of nobility). Additionally, some monarchs retain reserve powers, such as to dismiss a prime minister, refuse to dissolve parliament, or withhold Royal Assent to legislation, effectively vetoing it. Most states only have a single monarch at any given time, although two monarchs have ruled simultaneously in some countries (diarchy), as in the ancient Greek city-state of Sparta, and there are examples of joint sovereignty of spouses or relatives (such as William and Mary in the Kingdoms of England and Scotland). Other examples of joint sovereignty include Tsars Peter I and Ivan V of Russia and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Joanna of Castile of the Crown of Castile. A current example of constitutional diarchy is Andorra. A regent may rule when the monarch is a minor, absent, or debilitated. Monarchy, especially absolute monarchy, sometimes is linked to religious aspects; many monarchs once claimed the right to rule by the will of a deity (Divine Right of Kings, Mandate of Heaven), a special connection to a deity (sacred king) or even purported to be divine kings, or incarnations of deities themselves (imperial cult). In Islam, a caliph is a head of state who is both a temporal leader (of the caliphate, Islamic state) and a religious one (leader of the Ummah, community of believers). Many monarchs have been styled Fidei defensor (Defender of the Faith); some hold official positions relating to the state religion or established church. Monarchs have various titles, including king or queen, prince or princess (Sovereign Prince of Monaco), emperor or empress (Emperor of Japan, Emperor of India), or even duke or grand duke (Grand Duke of Luxembourg) or duchess. Many monarchs also are distinguished by styles, such as "Royal Highness" or "By the Grace of God." Monarchs often take part in certain ceremonies, such as a coronation. Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although some monarchs do not hold lifetime positions, such as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia, who serves a five-year term) and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their children or family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the center of the royal household and court. Growing up in a royal family (when present for several generations it may be called a dynasty), and future monarchs were often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority (Salic law). While traditionally most modern monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have ruled in history; the term queen regnant may refer to a ruling monarch, while a queen consort may refer to the wife of a reigning king. Form of governments may be hereditary without being considered monarchies, such as that of family dictatorships. Examples include Kim il-Sung and Kim Jong-il in North Korea, the Somoza family in Nicaragua, François Duvalier and Jean-Claude Duvalier in Haiti, Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad in Syria, and Oliver Cromwell and Richard Cromwell in the Commonwealth of England. or political families in many democracies. For example, the Kennedy family in the United States and the Nehru-Gandhi family in India. See list of political families. Some monarchies are non-hereditary. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected, but otherwise serves as any other monarch. Historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors (chosen by prince-electors, but often coming from the same dynasty), and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Modern examples include the pope of the Roman Catholic Church (who rules as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and is elected to a life term by the College of Cardinals) and the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia. Monarchies have existed throughout the world, although in recent centuries many states have abolished the monarchy and becomes republics. Advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the immediate continuity of leadership, usually with a short interregnum (as seen in the classic phrase "The King is dead. Long live the King!"). In some cases monarchs are dependent on other powers (see vassals, suzerainty, puppet state, hegemony). In the British colonial era indirect rule under a paramount power existed, such as princely state under the British Raj. In other cases the monarch's power is limited, not due to constitutional restraints, but to effective military rule. In the late Roman Empire, the Praetorian Guard several times deposed Roman Emperors and installed new emperors. The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epirus were elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ecclesia of democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. Military domination of the monarch has occurred in modern Thailand and in medieval Japan (where a hereditary military chief, the shogun was the de facto ruler, although the Japanese emperor nominally ruled). In Fascist Italy the Savoy monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III coexisted with the Fascist single-party rule of Benito Mussolini; Romania under the Iron Guard and Greece during the Axis occupation were much the same way. Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the Bourbon heir, Juan Carlos I, who proceeded to make Spain a democracy with himself as a figurehead constitutional monarch. A self-proclaimed monarchy is established when a person claims the monarchy without any historical ties to a previous dynasty. Napoleon I of France declared himself Emperor of the French and ruled the First French Empire after previously calling himself First Consul following his seizure of power in the coup of 18 Brumaire. Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Empire declared himself "Emperor." Yuan Shikai crowned himself Emperor of the short-lived "Empire of China" a few years after the Republic of China was founded. In a personal union, the same person serves as monarch of separate independent states. Sometimes titles are used to express claims to territories that are not held in fact (for example, English claims to the French throne) or titles not recognized (antipopes). A pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else. Abdication is when a monarch resigns. Unique or unusual situations exist in several countries: In Malaysia, the federal king, called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong ("Paramount Ruler") is elected for a five-year term from and by the hereditary rulers (mostly sultans) of nine of the federation's constitutive states, all on the Malay peninsula. Andorra currently is the world's sole co-principality. Located in the Pyrenees between Spain and France, it has two co-princes: the Bishop of Urgell (a prince-bishop) in Spain and the President of France. It is the only situation in which an independent country's monarch is democratically elected by the citizens of another country. Succession The rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession generally is embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a parliament. In an elective monarchy, monarchs are elected or appointed by some body (an electoral college) for life. For example, Pepin the Short (father of Charlemagne) was elected King of the Franks by an assembly of Frankish leading men; Stanisław August Poniatowski of Poland was an elected king, as was Frederick I of Denmark. Germanic peoples had elective monarchies, and the Holy Roman Emperors were elected by prince-electors, although this often was merely a formalization of what was in reality, hereditary rule. Three elective monarchies exists today, Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates are twentieth-century creations, while one (the papacy) is ancient. In a hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited by one's relatives according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually within one royal family tracing its origin back to a historical dynasty or bloodline. Sometimes the order of succession is affected by rules on gender. Matrilineality determined the royal lineage in Ancient Egypt for over three thousand years, but many more males reigned than females. Agnatic succession bars females. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted. In 1980, Sweden became the first European monarchy to declare equal (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest child of the monarch, whether female or male, ascends to the throne. SOU 1977:5 Kvinnlig tronföljd, p.16. Other kingdoms (such as the Netherlands in 1983, Norway in 1990, and Belgium in 1991) have since followed suit. Sometimes religion is affected; under the Act of Settlement 1701 all Roman Catholics and all persons who have married Roman Catholics are ineligible to be the British monarch and are skipped in the order of succession. Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system. In the case of the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling) becomes monarch. Other systems include tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and Salic law. In complex cases, especially in the Middle Ages, the system of primogeniture competed with the sometimes conflicting principle of proximity of blood, and outcomes were idiosyncratic. In some monarchies, such as Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority). Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in Jordan. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who may or may not be a relative. See also Notes and references External links | Monarchy |@lemmatized monarchy:37 form:4 government:4 supreme:1 power:13 absolutely:1 nominally:3 lodge:1 individual:1 head:6 state:23 often:8 life:4 abdication:2 wholly:1 set:1 apart:1 member:3 bouvier:3 john:1 francis:1 rawle:1 law:7 dictionary:2 concise:1 encyclopedia:1 person:4 call:6 monarch:46 common:4 world:4 ancient:4 medieval:2 time:4 clear:1 definition:2 hold:4 unlimited:1 political:6 defining:1 characteristic:3 many:9 constitutional:9 united:3 kingdom:3 thailand:2 consider:5 hereditary:11 rule:23 elective:8 also:4 pope:2 sovereign:4 vatican:2 city:3 elect:9 college:3 cardinal:2 ruler:6 republic:6 stadtholder:1 dutch:1 great:1 council:2 chief:3 fiji:1 edition:1 contradistinguish:1 give:3 currently:2 nation:1 monarchs:4 commonwealth:3 realm:1 recognise:1 queen:4 elizabeth:1 ii:1 etymology:1 word:3 come:2 greek:2 μονάρχης:1 μόνος:1 one:5 singular:1 ἀρχων:1 leader:3 refer:4 single:3 least:1 absolute:5 succeed:2 meaning:1 others:1 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conflict:1 principle:1 outcome:1 idiosyncratic:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 brother:1 appointment:1 jordan:1 successor:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 |@bigram concise_encyclopedia:1 constitutional_monarchy:4 elective_monarchy:7 commonwealth_realm:1 queen_elizabeth:1 prime_minister:1 royal_assent:1 royal_highness:1 yang_di:3 di_pertuan:3 pertuan_agong:3 salic_law:2 queen_regnant:1 queen_consort:1 kim_il:1 il_sung:1 kim_jong:1 jong_il:1 françois_duvalier:1 jean_claude:1 claude_duvalier:1 al_assad:2 oliver_cromwell:1 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 praetorian_guard:1 de_facto:1 victor_emmanuel:1 benito_mussolini:1 francisco_franco:1 juan_carlos:1 self_proclaimed:1 jean_bédel:1 bédel_bokassa:1 yuan_shikai:1 somebody_else:1 malay_peninsula:1 bishop_urgell:1 democratically_elect:1 august_poniatowski:1 arab_emirate:1 twentieth_century:1 ascend_throne:1 saudi_arabia:1 external_link:1 |
107 | Miguel_de_Icaza | Miguel de Icaza (born c. 1972) is a Mexican free software programmer, best known for starting the GNOME and Mono projects. Biography Early years Miguel de Icaza was born in Mexico City and studied at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) but never received a degree. He came from a family of scientists in which his father was a physicist and his mother a biologist. He started writing free software in 1992. Later years In summer of 1997, he was interviewed by Microsoft for a job in the Internet Explorer Unix team (to work on a SPARC port), but lacked the university degree required to obtain a work H-1B visa. He declared in an interview that he tried to persuade his interviewers to free the IE code even before Netscape did with their own browser. Miguel de Icaza was critical of the widespread criticism in the open source and free software community of the Office Open XML document standard. GNOME and Mono De Icaza started the GNOME project with Federico Mena in August 1997 to create a completely free desktop environment and component model for Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. Earlier, De Icaza had worked on the Midnight Commander file manager and the Linux kernel. He also created the spreadsheet program Gnumeric. In 1999, De Icaza, along with Nat Friedman, co-founded Helix Code, a GNOME-oriented free software company that employed a large number of other GNOME hackers. In 2001, Helix Code, later renamed Ximian, announced the Mono Project, to be led by De Icaza, with the goal to implement Microsoft's new .NET development platform on Linux and Unix-like platforms. In August 2003, Ximian was acquired by Novell, Inc. There, De Icaza is currently the Vice President of Developer Platform. Awards and recognition Miguel de Icaza has received the Free Software Foundation 1999 Award for the Advancement of Free Software, the MIT Technology Review Innovator of the Year Award 1999, and was named one of Time magazine's 100 innovators for the new century in September 2000. Personal life Miguel has had cameo appearances in the 2001 motion pictures Antitrust and The Code. He married Brazilian Maria Laura in 2003. References External links Miguel de Icaza's blog Profile in MIT Technology Review, Sept. 2004 Interviews Miguel de Icaza 2009 interview on Linux Outlaws Catching up with Miguel de Icaza by .NET Rocks! Interview with Miguel de Icaza by RadioTux Miguel de Icaza interview on FLOSS Weekly Talking Mono with Miguel de Icaza on Port25 Linux Link Tech Show interview (audio), 2006 MP3 March 2007 interview of de Icaza by Der Standard | Miguel_de_Icaza |@lemmatized miguel:11 de:16 icaza:16 bear:2 c:1 mexican:1 free:8 software:6 programmer:1 best:1 know:1 start:3 gnome:5 mono:4 project:3 biography:1 early:2 year:3 mexico:2 city:1 study:1 national:1 autonomous:1 university:2 unam:1 never:1 receive:2 degree:2 come:1 family:1 scientist:1 father:1 physicist:1 mother:1 biologist:1 write:1 late:1 summer:1 interview:8 microsoft:2 job:1 internet:1 explorer:1 unix:3 team:1 work:3 sparc:1 port:1 lack:1 require:1 obtain:1 h:1 visa:1 declare:1 try:1 persuade:1 interviewer:1 ie:1 code:4 even:1 netscape:1 browser:1 critical:1 widespread:1 criticism:1 open:2 source:1 community:1 office:1 xml:1 document:1 standard:2 federico:1 mena:1 august:2 create:2 completely:1 desktop:1 environment:1 component:1 model:1 linux:5 like:2 operate:1 system:1 midnight:1 commander:1 file:1 manager:1 kernel:1 also:1 spreadsheet:1 program:1 gnumeric:1 along:1 nat:1 friedman:1 co:1 found:1 helix:2 orient:1 company:1 employ:1 large:1 number:1 hacker:1 later:1 rename:1 ximian:2 announce:1 lead:1 goal:1 implement:1 new:2 net:2 development:1 platform:3 acquire:1 novell:1 inc:1 currently:1 vice:1 president:1 developer:1 award:3 recognition:1 foundation:1 advancement:1 mit:2 technology:2 review:2 innovator:2 name:1 one:1 time:1 magazine:1 century:1 september:1 personal:1 life:1 cameo:1 appearance:1 motion:1 picture:1 antitrust:1 marry:1 brazilian:1 maria:1 laura:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 blog:1 profile:1 sept:1 outlaw:1 catch:1 rock:1 radiotux:1 floss:1 weekly:1 talk:1 tech:1 show:1 audio:1 march:1 der:1 |@bigram de_icaza:16 internet_explorer:1 netscape_browser:1 linux_kernel:1 vice_president:1 cameo_appearance:1 motion_picture:1 external_link:1 |
108 | Albrecht_Dürer | Albrecht Dürer () (May 21, 1471 – April 6, 1528) Mueller, Peter O. (1993) Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Durers, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012815-2. was a German painter, printmaker and theorist from Nuremberg. His prints established his reputation across Europe when he was still in his twenties, and he has been conventionally regarded as the greatest artist of the Renaissance in Northern Europe ever since. His well-known works include the Apocalypse woodcuts, Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513), Saint Jerome in his Study (1514) and Melencolia I (1514), which has been the subject of extensive analysis and interpretation. His watercolours mark him as one of the first European landscape artists, while his ambitious woodcuts revolutionized the potential of that medium. Dürer's introduction of classical motifs into Northern art, through his knowledge of Italian artists and German humanists, have secured his reputation as one of the most important figures of the Northern Renaissance. This is reinforced by his theoretical treatise which involve principles of mathematics, perspective and ideal proportions. Early life (1471–90) Dürer's own woodcut of his coat of arms Self-portrait silverpoint drawing by the thirteen-year-old Dürer, 1484. The earliest painted Self-Portrait (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum Louvre, Paris Dürer was born on May 21, 1471, third child and second son of his parents, who had between fourteen and eighteen children. His father was a successful goldsmith, originally named Ajtósi, who in 1455 had moved to Nuremberg from Ajtós, near Gyula in Hungary. The German name "Dürer" is derived from the Hungarian, "Ajtósi". Initially, it was "Thürer," meaning doormaker, which is "ajtós" in Hungarian (from "ajtó", meaning door). A door is featured in the coat-of-arms the family acquired. Albrecht Dürer the Elder married Barbara Holper, the daughter of his master, when he himself became a master in 1467. Bartrum, 93, note 1 Dürer's godfather was Anton Koberger, who left goldsmithing to become a printer and publisher in the year of Dürer's birth. He quickly became the most successful publisher in Germany, eventually owning twenty-four printing-presses and having many offices in Germany and abroad. His most famous publication was the Nuremberg Chronicle, published in 1493 in German and Latin editions. It contained an unprecedented 1,809 woodcut illustrations (with many repeated uses of the same block) by the Wolgemut workshop. Dürer may well have worked on some of these, as the work on the project began while he was with Wolgemut. Giulia Bartrum, "Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy", British Museum Press, 2002, ISBN 0714126330 It is fortunate Dürer left autobiographical writings and that he became very famous by his mid-twenties. Because of this, his life is well documented by several sources. After a few years of school, Dürer started to learn the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he started as an apprentice to Michael Wolgemut at the age of fifteen in 1486. A self-portrait, a drawing in silverpoint, is dated 1484 (Albertina, Vienna) “when I was a child”, as his later inscription says. Wolgemut was the leading artist in Nuremberg at the time, with a large workshop producing a variety of works of art, in particular woodcuts for books. Nuremberg was then an important and prosperous city, a centre for publishing and many luxury trades. It had strong links with Italy, especially Venice, a relatively short distance across the Alps. Wanderjahre and marriage (1490–94) After completing his term of apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking Wanderjahre — in effect gap years — in which the apprentice learned skills from artists in other areas; Dürer was to spend about four years away. He left in 1490, possibly to work under Martin Schongauer, a leading engraver of Northern Europe, but who died shortly before Dürer's arrival at Colmar in 1492. It is unclear where Dürer travelled in the intervening period, though it is likely that he went to Frankfurt and the Netherlands. In Colmar, Dürer was welcomed by Schongauer's brothers, the goldsmiths Caspar and Paul and the painter Ludwig. In 1493 Dürer went to Strassbourg, where he would have experienced the sculpture of Nikolaus Gerhaert. Dürer's first painted self-portrait (now in the Louvre) was painted at this time, probably to be sent back to his fiancé in Nuremberg. In early 1492 Dürer travelled to Basel to stay with another brother of Martin Schongauer, the goldsmith Georg. Here he produced a woodcut of St Jerome as a frontispiece for Nicholaus Kessler's 'Epistolare beati Hieronymi'. Panofsky argues that this print combined the 'Ulmian style' of Koberger's 'Lives of the Saints' (1488) and that of Wolgemut's workshop. Panofsky:21 Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on July 7, 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to Agnes Frey following an arrangement made during his absence. Agnes was the daughter of a prominent brass worker (and amateur harpist) in the city. However, no children resulted from the marriage. First journey to Italy (1494–95) Young Hare, 1502, Watercolour and bodycolour (Albertina). Within three months Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis. These are the first pure landscape studies known in Western art. In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world. Lee, Raymond L. & Alistair B. Fraser. (2001) The Rainbow Bridge, Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01977-8. Through Wolgemut's tutelage, Dürer had learned how to make prints in drypoint and design woodcuts in the German style, based on the works of Martin Schongauer and the Housebook Master. He also would have had access to some Italian works in Germany, but the two visits he made to Italy had an enormous influence on him. He wrote that Giovanni Bellini was the oldest and still the best of the artists in Venice. His drawings and engravings show the influence of others, notably Antonio Pollaiuolo with his interest in the proportions of the body, Mantegna, Lorenzo di Credi and others. Dürer probably also visited Padua and Mantua on this trip. The evidence for this trip is not conclusive; the suggestion it happened is supported by Erwin Panofsky (in his Albrecht Dürer, 1943) and others, but it has been disputed by other scholars, including Katherine Crawford Luber (in her Albrecht Dürer and the Venetian Renaissance, 2005). Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505) Melencolia I, 1514, Albrecht Dürer engraving On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Dürer lost both of his parents during the next decade: his father died in 1502 and his mother died in 1513. Allen, L. Jessie. (1903) Albrecht Dürer, Methuen & co. His best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as The Mens' Bath-house (ca. 1496). These were larger than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition. It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been left for a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block. His famous series of sixteen great designs for the Apocalypse Johannesapokalypse in klassischen Comics are dated 1498. He made the first seven scenes of the Great Passion in the same year, and a little later, a series of eleven on the Holy Family and saints. Around 1503–1505 he produced the first seventeen of a set illustrating the Life of the Virgin, which he did not finish for some years. Neither these, nor the Great Passion, were published as sets until several years later, but prints were sold individually in considerable numbers. Lamentation for Christ, oil, 1500–1503 During the same period Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. The first few were relatively unambitious, but by 1496 he was able to produce the masterpiece, the Prodigal Son, which Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace (ca.1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and beautiful animals. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years. The Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him. He was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of Adam and Eve (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces. This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name. Dürer made large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the Praying Hands (1508 Albertina, Vienna), a study for an apostle in the Heller altarpiece. He also continued to make images in watercolour and bodycolour (usually combined), including a number of exquisite still lifes of meadow sections or animals, including his "Hare" (1502) and the Great Piece of Turf (1503, both also Albertina). Second journey to Italy (1505–1507) The Praying Hands In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the Adoration of the Magi. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507. By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the Adoration of the Virgin or the Feast of Rose Garlands. It includes portraits of members of Venice's German community, but shows a strong Italian influence. It was subsequently acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch, Christ disputing with the Doctors (supposedly produced in a mere five days), and a number of smaller works. Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507 - 1520) Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer was back in Nuremberg by mid-1507, and he remained in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael, Giovanni Bellini and—mainly through Lorenzo di Credi—Leonardo. Adam and Eve, by Albrecht Dürer (1507). Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), The Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick the Wise), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects, Panofsky:135 creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted. Other works from this period include the thirty-seven woodcut subjects of the Little Passion, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Indeed, complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. However, in 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous engravings: The Knight, Death, and the Devil (1513, probably based on Erasmus's treatise 'Enichiridion militis Christiani'), St. Jerome in his Study, and the much-debated Melencolia I (both 1514). Dürer's Rhinoceros, woodcut, 1515. In 1515, he created his woodcut of the Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. Despite being a relatively inaccurate image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century. In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. Patronage of Maximilian I From 1512, Maximilian I, became Dürer's major patron. His commissions included The Triumphal Arch, a vast work printed from 192 separate blocks, the symbolism of which is partly informed by Pirckheimer's translation of Horapollo's Hieroglyphica. The design program and explanations were devised by Johannes Stabius, the archtectural design by the master builder and court-painter Jörg Kölderer and the woodcutting itself by Hieronymous Andreae, with Dürer as designer-in-chief. The Arch was followed by the Triumphal Procession, the program of which was worked out in 1512 by Marx Treitz-Saurwein and includes woodcuts by Albrecht Altdorfer and Hans Springinklee, as well as Dürer. Dürer worked in pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed Prayer-Book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519. Journey to the Netherlands (1520–21) Maximilian's sudden death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing "my sight and freedom of hand" (perhaps to arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther. Bartrum, 204. Quotation from a letter to the secretary of the Elector of Saxony In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well-received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to going to the coronation, he made excursions to Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired van Eyck's altarpiece), and Zeeland. Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented. Landau & Parshall:350-54 and passim While providing valuable documentary evidence, Dürer's Netherlandish diary also reveals that the trip was not a profitable one. For example, Dürer offered his last portrait of Maximilian to his daughter, Margaret of Austria, but eventually traded the picture for some white cloth after Margaret disliked the portrait and declined to accept it. During this trip he also met Conrad Meit, Bernard van Orley, Jean Prevost, Gerard Horenbout, Jean Mone, Joachim Patinir & Tommaso Vincidor, though he did not, it seems, meet Quentin Matsys. Panofsky:209 At the request of Christian II of Denmark Dürer went to Brussels to paint the King's portrait. There he saw "the things which have been sent to the king from the golden land" — the Aztec treasure that Hernán Cortés had sent home to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V following the fall of Mexico. Dürer wrote that this treasure "was much more beautiful to me than miracles. These things are so precious that they have been valued at 100,000 florins". Dürer also appears to have been collecting for his own cabinet of curiosities, and he sent back to Nuremberg various animal horns, a piece of coral, some large fish fins, and a wooden weapon from the East Indies. Having secured his pension, Dürer finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness—perhaps malaria Panofsky: —which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work. Final years in Nuremberg (1521–28) This detail from Salvatore Mundi, an unfinished oil painting on wood, reveals Dürer's highly detailed preparatory drawing. See full painting On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a Crucifixion scene and a Sacra Conversazione, though neither was completed. Panofsky:223 This may have been in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification. However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of Hieronymus Holtzschuher, a Madonna and Child (1526), Salvator Mundi (1526), and two panels showing St. John with St. Peter in front and St. Paul with St. Mark in the background. This last great work, the Four Apostles, was given by Dürer to the City of Nuremberg—although he was given 100 guilders in return. An inscription relates the figures to the four humours. Panofsky:235 As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include Cardinal-Elector Albert of Mainz; Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony; the humanist scholar Willibald Pirckheimer; Philipp Melanchthon, and Erasmus of Rotterdam. For those of the Cardinal, Melanchthon, and Dürer's final major work, a drawn portrait of the Nuremberg patrician Ulrich Starck, Dürer depicted the sitters in profile, perhaps reflecting a more mathematical approach. Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from his boyhood friend Willibald Pirckheimer, whom he no doubt consulted on the content of many of his images. He also derived great satisfaction from his friendships and correspondence with Erasmus and other scholars. Dürer succeeded in producing two books during his lifetime. "The Four Books on Measurement" were published at Nuremberg in 1525 and was the first book for adults on mathematics in German, as well as being cited later by Galileo and Kepler. The other, a work on city fortifications, was published in 1527. "The Four Books on Human Proportion" were published posthumously, shortly after his death in 1528 at the age of fifty-six. Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins—a considerable sum. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1539, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark. It is now a museum. Dürer and the Reformation The Cannon, Dürer's largest etching, 1518 Although Dürer was a Roman Catholic, it is clear from his writings that he was highly sympathetic to Martin Luther. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties." In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524 Dürer wrote "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics." Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory...but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's 'Babylonian Captivity' in 1520. Price:225-248 In spite of all these reasons to believe Dürer was sympathetic to Lutheranism, at least in its early manifestations, he never in any way abandoned the Catholic Church. Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show Protestant sympathies. For example, his engraving of The Last Supper of 1523 has often been understood to have an evangelical theme, focussing as it does on Christ espousing the Gospel, as well the inclusion of the Eucharistic cup, an expression of Protestant utraquism, Strauss, 1981 although this interpretation has been questioned. Price:254 The delaying of the engraving of St Philip, completed in 1523 but not distributed until 1526, may have been due to Dürer's uneasiness with images of Saints; even if Dürer was not an iconoclast, in his last years he evaluated and questioned the role of art in religion. Harbison Legacy and influence Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominately in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, who entered into collaborations with printmakers to distribute their work beyond their local region. His work in engraving seems to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors, the "Little Masters", who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in tiny, rather cramped compositions. The early Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola and Christofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn traveled over the Alps to dominate Northern engraving also. In painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, and have been blamed for some of the wilder excesses of artists' self-portraiture, especially in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been revivals of interest in his works Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German Nationalism from 1870 to 1945. He is commemorated on the calendar of the Lutheran Church with other artists on April 6. The crater Dürer on Mercury was named in his honor. Dürer's theoretical works In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language, rather than Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, 'Schneckenlinie' ('snail-line') was his term for a spiral form. Thus Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Martin Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible. Erwin Panofsky, "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, 1945, ISBN 0691003033 Four Books on Measurement Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of Albrecht Dürer Dürer's work on geometry is called the Four Books on Measurement (Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt). The first book focuses on linear geometry. Dürer's geometric constructions include helices, conchoids and epicycloids. He also draws on Apollonius, and Johannes Werner's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522. The second book moves onto two dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular polygons. Here Dürer favours the methods of Ptolemy over Euclid. The third book applies these principles of geometry to architecture, engineering and typography. In architecture Dürer cites Vitruvius but elaborates his own classical designs and columns. In typography, Dürer depicts the geometric construction of the Latin alphabet, relying on Italian precedent. However, his construction of the Gothic alphabet is based upon an entirely different modular system. The fourth book completes the progression of the first and second by moving to three-dimensional forms and the construction of polyhedrons. Here Dürer discusses the five Platonic solids, as well as seven Archimedean semi-regular solids, as well as several of his own invention. In all these, Dürer shows the objects in net. Finally, Dürer discusses the Delian Problem and moves on to the 'construzione legittima', a method of depicting a cube in two dimensions through linear perspective. It was in Bologna that Dürer was taught (possibly by Luca Pacioli or Bramante) the principles of linear perspective, and evidently became familiar with the 'costruzione legittima' in a written description of these principles found only, at this time, in the unpublished treatise of Piero della Francesca. He was also familiar with the 'abbreviated construction' as described by Alberti and the geometrical construction of shadows, a technique of Leonardo da Vinci. Although Dürer made no innovations in these areas, he is notable as the first Northern European to treat matters of visual representation in a scientific way, and with understanding of Euclidean principles. In addition to these geometrical constructions, Dürer discusses in this last book of Underweysung der Messung an assortment of mechanisms for drawing in perspective from models, such as the camera lucida and provides woodcut illustrations of these methods that are often reproduced in discussions of perspective. Four Books on Human Proportion Dürer's work on human proportions is called the Four Books on Human Proportion (Vier Bücher von Menschlicher Proportion) of 1528. The first book was mainly composed by 1512/13 and completed by 1523, showing five differently constructed types of both male and female figures, all parts of the body expressed in fractions of the total height. Dürer based these constructions on both Vitruvius and empirical observations of, "two to three hundred living persons," in his own words. The second book includes eight further types, broken down not into fractions but an Albertian system, which Dürer probably learnt from Francesco di Giorgio's 'De harmonica mundi totius' of 1525. In the third book, Dürer gives principles by which the proportions of the figures can be modified, including the mathematical simulation of convex and concave mirrors; here Dürer also deals with human physiognomy. The fourth book is devoted to the theory of movement. Appended to the third book, however, is a self contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'. In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year." Panofsky:283 See also :Category:Dürer paintings and prints Notes References Giulia Bartrum (2002), Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy, British Museum Press. ISBN 0714126330 Craig Harbison, "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving", in The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, 368-373. Sep., 1976. Jane Campbell Hutchinson (1990), Albrecht Dürer: A Biography, Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691002975 Wilhelm Kurth (Editor) (2000), The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486210979 — still in print in paperback. David Landau & Peter Parshall, The Renaissance Print, Yale, 1996, ISBN 0300068832 Erwin Panofsky(1945), "The Life and Art of Albrecht Dürer", Princeton, ISBN 0691003033 David Hotchkiss Price, Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith, Michigan, 2003. Walter L. Strauss (Editor) (1973), The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486228517 — still in print in paperback. Albrecht Dürer (translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text), Of the Just Shaping of Letters, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486213064 External links albrecht-durer.org, 350 paintings by the artist. Links to online museum images of all of Dürer's prints — see section B (nb: Not all Public Domain) Albrecht Durer in the "History of Art" http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/ Alternative Albrecht Durer Works by Albrecht Dürer at Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein Works by Albrecht Dürer at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Albrecht Dürer: Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1528). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine. 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medicine:1 symmetria:1 room:1 duerer:1 nuernberg:1 x:1 альбрэхт:1 дзюрэр:1 |@bigram albrecht_dürer:19 albrecht_durer:6 de_gruyter:1 painter_printmaker:1 coat_arm:2 anton_koberger:1 woodcut_illustration:2 martin_schongauer:3 outbreak_plague:1 giovanni_bellini:2 lorenzo_di:2 adam_eve:3 adoration_magi:1 triumphal_arch:1 albrecht_altdorfer:1 lucas_cranach:1 cranach_elder:1 han_baldung:1 martin_luther:4 elector_saxony:2 la_chapelle:1 bruges_ghent:1 van_eyck:1 hernán_cortés:1 philipp_melanchthon:1 erasmus_rotterdam:1 publish_posthumously:1 babylonian_captivity:1 twentieth_century:1 nineteenth_century:1 mit_dem:1 regular_polygon:1 platonic_solid:1 luca_pacioli:1 piero_della:1 della_francesca:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 male_female:1 convex_concave:1 dover_publication:3 renaissance_humanism:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 www_ibiblio:1 ibiblio_org:1 schleswig_holstein:1 |
109 | David_Bowman | David Bowman may refer to: David Bowman (fictional character) a character in the Space Odyssey series. David Bowman (footballer born 1960), English footballer David Bowman (footballer born 1964), English-born Scottish footballer David Bowman (botanist), English botanist who collected plants for James Veitch & Sons | David_Bowman |@lemmatized david:5 bowman:5 may:1 refer:1 fictional:1 character:2 space:1 odyssey:1 series:1 footballer:4 born:3 english:3 scottish:1 botanist:2 collect:1 plant:1 james:1 veitch:1 son:1 |@bigram |
110 | Frank_Capra | Frank Russell Capra (May 18, 1897 – September 3, 1991) was an Italian-American film director and a major creative force behind a number of highly popular films of the 1930s and 1940s, including Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) and It's a Wonderful Life (1946). Early life Born Francesco Rosario Capra in Bisacquino, Sicily, Italy, Capra and his family—his father Salvatore, his mother Rosaria Nicolosi, and his siblings Giuseppa, Giuseppe, and Antonia—immigrated to the United States in 1903. In California the family met with Benedetto Capra (the oldest sibling) and settled in Los Angeles. Frank Capra attended Manual Arts High School there. In 1918, Frank Capra graduated from Throop Institute (now the California Institute of Technology) with a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering. During World War I, Capra enlisted in the United States Army on October 18, 1918. He taught ballistics and mathematics to artillerymen at Fort Winfield Scott in the Presidio of San Francisco. While there, he caught Spanish flu and was medically discharged with rank of second lieutenant on December 13, 1918. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1920, adopting the name Frank Russell Capra. Film career Capra began as a prop man in silent films. Capra 1971, pp. 17, 20. However, he wrote and directed silent film comedies starring Harry Langdon and the Our Gang kids. Capra went to work for Mack Sennett in 1924 and then moved to Columbia Pictures, where he formed a close association with screenwriter Robert Riskin (husband of Fay Wray) and cameraman Joseph Walker. However, Sidney Buchman replaced Riskin as writer in 1940. For the 1934 film It Happened One Night, Robert Montgomery and Myrna Loy were originally offered the roles, but each felt that the script was poor, and Loy described it as one of the worst she had ever read, later noting that the final version bore little resemblance to the script she and Montgomery were offered. Kotsabilas-Davis and Loy 1987, p. 94. After Loy, Miriam Hopkins and Margaret Sullavan also each rejected the part. Wiley and Bona 1987, p. 54. Constance Bennett wanted to, but only if she could produce it herself. Then Bette Davis wanted the role, Weems, Erik. "It Happened One Night - Frank Capra." Updated June 22, 2006. but she was under contract with Warner Brothers and Jack Warner refused to loan her to Columbia Studios. Chandler 2006, p. 102. Capra was unable to get any of the actresses he wanted for the part of Ellie Andrews, partly because no self-respecting star would make a film with only two costumes. moviediva: It HappenedOneNight Harry Cohn suggested Claudette Colbert to play the lead role. Both Capra and Clark Gable enjoyed making the movie; Colbert did not. After the 1934 film It Happened One Night, Capra directed a steady stream of films for Columbia Pictures, intended to be inspirational and humanitarian. The best known are Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, the original Lost Horizon, You Can't Take It with You, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, and It's a Wonderful Life. His ten-year break from screwball comedy ended with the comedy Arsenic and Old Lace. Among the actors who owed much of their early success to Capra were Gary Cooper, Jean Arthur, James Stewart, Barbara Stanwyck, Cary Grant and Donna Reed. Capra called Jean Arthur "[his] favorite actress". Capra's films in the 1930s enjoyed success at the Academy Awards. It Happened One Night was the first film to win all five top Oscars (Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Screenplay). In 1936, Capra won his second Best Director Oscar for Mr. Deeds Goes to Town; in 1938 he won his third Director Oscar in five years for You Can't Take It with You, which also won Best Picture. In addition to his three directing wins, Capra received directing nominations for three other films (Lady for a Day, Mr. Smith Goes to Washington, and It's a Wonderful Life). On May 5, 1936, Capra was also host of the 8th Academy Awards ceremony. World War II Frank Capra was commissioned as a major in the United States Army Signal Corps during World War II. He produced State of the Union and directed or co-directed eight documentary propaganda films between 1942 and 1948, including the seven-episode U.S. government-commissioned Why We Fight series—consisting of Prelude to War (1942), The Nazis Strike (1942), The Battle of Britain (1943), Divide and Conquer (1943), Know Your Enemy: Japan (1945), Tunisian Victory (1945), and Two Down and One to Go (1945)—as well as produced the African-American targeted The Negro Soldier (1944). Why We Fight is widely considered a masterpiece of propaganda and won an Academy Award. Prelude to War won the 1942 Academy Award for Documentary Feature. Capra regarded these films as his most important works. As a colonel, he received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1945. Post-war Donna Reed, James Stewart, and Karolyn Grimes in It's a Wonderful Life (1946). It's a Wonderful Life (1946) was considered a box office disappointment but it was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Director, Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Sound Recording and Best Editing. The American Film Institute named it one of the best films ever made, putting it at the top of the list of AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers, a list of what AFI considers to be the most inspirational American movies of all time. The film also appeared in another AFI Top 100 list: it placed at 11th on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list of the top American films. Capra's final theatrical film was with Glenn Ford and Bette Davis, named Pocketful of Miracles (1961). He planned to do a science fiction film later in the decade but never got around to pre-production. Capra produced several science-related television specials for the Bell Labs, such as Our Mr. Sun (1956), Hemo the Magnificent (1957), The Strange Case of the Cosmic Rays (1957), and Meteora: The Unchained Goddess (1958). These educational science documentaries were popular favorites for showing in school science classrooms. In 1982, the American Film Institute honored Frank Capra with television film The American Film Institute Salute to Frank Capra, hosted by Jimmy Stewart. In 1986, Capra received the National Medal of Arts. Autobiography In 1971, Capra published his autobiography, The Name Above the Title. Uncompromising in its details, it offers a compelling self-portrait. It is, however, not considered to be entirely reliable as regards dates and facts; one commentator asserts that it "appears to have been a lie practically from beginning to end". Gewen 1992 Capra was also the subject of a 1991 biography by Joseph McBride entitled Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success. McBride challenges many of the impressions left by Capra's autobiography. Personal life Capra was a Republican who was active in the anti-Communist cause and also donated funds to the Human Life Amendment PAC Political Donations. . His son Frank Capra, Jr. — one of the four children born to Capra's second wife, Lou Capra — was the president of EUE Screen Gems Studios, in Wilmington, North Carolina, until his death on December 19, 2007. Frank Capra's grandson is Frank Capra III. Frank Capra I's eldest of 11 great grandchildren, Hannah, was born in 1993. Death and legacy Frank Capra died in La Quinta, California, of a heart attack in his sleep in 1991 at the age of 94. He was interred in the Coachella Valley Cemetery in Coachella, California. He left part of his ranch in Fallbrook, California, to Caltech. The Caltech Y History The Cinema Archives, run by film historian Jeanine Basinger, at Wesleyan University contain the personal papers of Capra. Style Capra films usually carry a definite message about the basic goodness of human nature and show the value of unselfishness and hard work. His wholesome, feel-good themes have led some to call his Capra-corn, but those who hold his vision in high regard prefer the term Capraesque. It may be argued that much of the 'feel-good' type of cinema, which has become a genre of its own, is largely Frank Capra's legacy. Awards and honours Academy Awards Capra was nominated six times for Best Director and six times for Outstanding Production/Best Picture. Year Film Award Winner 1933 Lady for a Day Best Director Frank Lloyd - Cavalcade 1933 Lady for a Day Outstanding Production Winfield Sheehan - Cavalcade 1934 It Happened One Night Best Director 1934 It Happened One Night Outstanding Production With Harry Cohn 1936 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Best Director 1936 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Outstanding Production Hunt Stromberg - The Great Ziegfeld 1937 Lost Horizon Outstanding Production Henry Blanke - The Life of Emile Zola 1938 You Can't Take It With You Best Director 1938 You Can't Take It With You Outstanding Production 1939 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Best Director Victor Fleming - Gone with the Wind 1939 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Outstanding Production David O. Selznick - Gone with the Wind 1943 Prelude to War Best Documentary 1944 The Battle of Russia Best Documentary, Features Desert Victory 1946 It's a Wonderful Life Best Director William Wyler - The Best Years of Our Lives 1946 It's a Wonderful Life Best Motion Picture Samuel Goldwyn - The Best Years of Our Lives American Film Institute AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) It's a Wonderful Life...# 20 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington...# 26 It Happened One Night...# 46 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers It's a Wonderful Life...# 1 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington...# 5 Meet John Doe...# 49 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town...# 83 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs It Happened One Night...# 8 Arsenic and Old Lace...# 30 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town...# 70 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Passions It's a Wonderful Life...# 8 It Happened One Night...# 38 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains 50 greatest movie heroes It's a Wonderful Life...George Bailey ...# 9 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington...Jefferson Smith ...# 11 50 greatest movie villains It's a Wonderful Life...Mister Potter ...# 6 AFI's 10 Top 10 Fantasy It's a Wonderful Life...# 3 Romantic Comedies It Happened One Night...# 3 United States National Film Registry The Strong Man (1926) It Happened One Night (1934) Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) Why We Fight (1942) It's a Wonderful Life (1946) Filmography YearTitleProduction Co.CastNotesSilent films1922 Fultah Fisher's Boarding House Fireside Productions Short film1926 The Strong Man Harry Langdon Corporation Harry Langdon 1927 Long Pants Harry Langdon Corporation Harry Langdon 1927 For the Love of Mike Robert Kane Productions Claudette Colbert / Ben Lyon 1928 That Certain Thing Columbia Viola Dana 1928 So This is Love? Columbia Shirley Mason 1928 The Matinee Idol Columbia Bessie Love / Johnny Walker 1928 The Way of the Strong Columbia Mitchell Lewis / Alice Day / William Norton Bailey 1928 Say It with Sables Columbia Helene Chadwick / Francis X. Pushman / Margaret Livingston 1928 Submarine Columbia Jack Holt / Ralph Graves / Dorothy Revier 1928 The Power of the Press Columbia Douglas Fairbanks Jr. 1928 The Burglar Mack Sennett Short film / Co-directed with Phil WhitmanSound films1929 The Younger Generation Columbia Ricardo Cortez Talking sequences1929 The Donovan Affair Columbia Jack Holt 1929 Flight Columbia Jack Holt / Ralph Graves 1930 Ladies Of Leisure Columbia Barbara Stanwyck / Ralph Graves 1930 Rain or Shine Columbia Joe Cook 1931 Dirigible Columbia Jack Holt / Ralph Graves / Fay Wray 1931 The Miracle Woman Columbia Barbara Stanwyck 1931 Platinum Blonde Columbia Loretta Young / Robert Williams / Jean Harlow 1932 Forbidden Columbia Barbara Stanwyck / Adolphe Menjou 1932 American Madness Columbia Walter Huston Co-directed with Allan Dwan / Roy William Neill1933 The Bitter Tea of General Yen Columbia Barbara Stanwyck / Nils Asther 1933 Lady for a Day Columbia Mary Robson / Warren William / Guy Kibbee 1934 It Happened One Night Columbia Clark Gable / Claudette Colbert 1934 Broadway Bill Columbia Warner Baxter / Myrna Loy 1936 Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Columbia Gary Cooper / Jean Arthur 1937 Lost Horizon Columbia Ronald Colman / Jane Wyatt 1938 You Can't Take It with You Columbia Lionel Barrymore / Jean Arthur / James Stewart 1939 Mr. Smith Goes to Washington Columbia James Stewart / Jean Arthur 1941 Meet John Doe Frank Capra Productions Gary Cooper / Barbara Stanwyck 1943 The Nazis Strike Documentary / Short film / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1943 Divide and Conquer U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1943 The Battle of Britain Warner Bros. Documentary / Co-directed with Anthony Veiller1943 Prelude to War U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1943 The Battle of Russia U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1944 The Battle of China U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1944 Tunisian Victory U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Hugh Stewart1944 Arsenic and Old Lace Warner Bros. Cary Grant / Priscilla Lane 1945 Your Job in Germany Documentary / Short film1945 Know Your Enemy: Japan U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Joris Ivens1945 Two Down and One to Go U.S. War Department Documentary / Short film1945 War Comes to America U.S. War Department Documentary / Co-directed with Anatole Litvak1946 It's a Wonderful Life Liberty Films James Stewart / Donna Reed 1948 State of the Union Liberty Films Spencer Tracy / Katharine Hepburn 1950 Riding High Paramount Pictures Bing Crosby Remake of Broadway Bill1951 Here Comes the Groom Paramount Pictures Bing Crosby / Jane Wyman 1959 A Hole in the Head Sincap Productions Frank Sinatra / Edward G. Robinson First color film1961 Pocketful of Miracles Franton Production Glenn Ford / Hope Lange / Bette Davis Eastmancolor film See also James Stewart The Bell Laboratory Science Series References Notes Bibliography of cited references Capra, Frank. Frank Capra, The Name Above the Title: An Autobiography. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1971. ISBN 0-30680-771-8. Chandler, Charlotte. The Girl Who Walked Home Alone: Bette Davis, A Personal Biography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006. ISBN 0-78628-639-3. Gewen, Barry. "It Wasn't Such a Wonderful Life." The New York Times, May 3, 1992. Retrieved: May 2, 2007. Kotsabilas-Davis, James; Loy, Myrna. Being and Becoming. New York: Primus, Donald I Fine Inc., 1987. ISBN 1-55611-101-0. McBride, Joseph. Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success. New York: Touchstone Books, 1992. ISBN 0-671-79788-3. Oderman, Stuart. Talking To the Piano Player: Silent Film Stars, Writers and Directors Remember. Albany, Georgia: BearManor Media, 2005. ISBN 1-59393-013-5. Wiley, Mason and Damien, Bona. Inside Oscar: The Unofficial History of the Academy Awards. New York: Ballantine Books, 1987. ISBN 0-345-34453-7. External links Retrieved on 2009-5-19 Retrieved on 2009-5-19 Bibliography "Sentimental Hogwash?: On Capra's It's A Wonderful Life", Humanitas, Vol. XVIII, No's 1&2, 2005 Retrieved on 2009-5-19 | Frank_Capra |@lemmatized frank:21 russell:2 capra:50 may:5 september:1 italian:1 american:9 film:34 director:13 major:2 creative:1 force:1 behind:1 number:1 highly:1 popular:2 include:2 mr:19 deeds:7 go:23 town:8 smith:11 washington:10 wonderful:17 life:23 early:2 bear:3 francesco:1 rosario:1 bisacquino:1 sicily:1 italy:1 family:2 father:1 salvatore:1 mother:1 rosaria:1 nicolosi:1 sibling:2 giuseppa:1 giuseppe:1 antonia:1 immigrate:1 united:4 state:6 california:5 meet:3 benedetto:1 old:4 settle:1 los:1 angeles:1 attend:1 manual:1 art:2 high:3 school:2 graduate:1 throop:1 institute:6 technology:1 bachelor:1 science:6 degree:1 chemical:1 engineering:1 world:3 war:17 enlist:1 army:2 october:1 teach:1 ballistics:1 mathematics:1 artilleryman:1 fort:1 winfield:2 scott:1 presidio:1 san:1 francisco:1 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111 | Johnny_Bench | Johnny Lee Bench (born December 7, ) is a former American Major League Baseball player for the Cincinnati Reds from to . He is widely regarded as being among the greatest catchers in baseball history. He is currently on the Board of Directors for the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame. Bench, a 14-time All-Star selection and the National League's Most Valuable Player in the and seasons, was a key member of the "The Big Red Machine", the Reds teams of the 1970s which won six division titles and World Series championships in 1975 and 1976. Professional career Johnny Bench played baseball and basketball and was class valedictorian at Binger High School in Binger, Oklahoma, formerly known as Hoss Spit Flats. His father told him that he felt that the fastest route to becoming a major leaguer was as a catcher. Bench was drafted thirty-sixth overall by the Cincinnati Reds in the second round of the amateur draft and was called up in August . He hit .163, but impressed many with his defense and strong throwing arm. Among them: Hall of Famer Ted Williams. Williams signed a baseball for him which predicted that the young catcher would be "A Hall of Famer for sure!" Williams' prediction eventually became fact with Johnny Bench's election to the Hall of Fame in . During a spring training game in , the brash Johnny Bench was catching the eight-year veteran right-hander Jim Maloney. Once a noted hard thrower, injuries had reduced Maloney's fastball's speed dramatically by this time. However, Maloney insisted on repeatedly "shaking off" his younger catcher and throwing the fastball instead of the breaking balls Bench called for. An exasperated Bench bluntly told Maloney, "your fastball's not popping". Maloney replied with an epithet. To prove to Maloney that his fastball wasn't effective anymore, Bench called for a fastball, and after Maloney released the ball, Bench dropped his catcher's mitt and comfortably caught the fastball barehanded. http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/fastest-pitcher-in-baseball.shtml The Cincinnati Reds were supposed to move to open the baseball season in Riverfront Stadium, but a harsh winter the year before led to delays in readying the new multi-purpose facility. Thus, the Reds played the first half of the season at Crosley Field, their home since . On June 24, the last home game at Crosley was played against the visiting San Francisco Giants. The home team was trailing 4-3 in the home half of the eighth inning, when Johnny Bench tied the game with a solo home run against future Hall of Fame right-hander Juan Marichal. The next batter, first baseman Lee May, hit a solo home run for the eventual game-winner. Afterwards, there was a brief ceremony, part of which entailed Mayor Gene Ruehlmann taking home plate out of the ground and being transported via helicopter to Riverfront Stadium and installing home plate there. After a road trip to Houston, Texas, the Reds returned to Cincinnati and played their first game at the new stadium against the visiting Atlanta Braves on June 30, . Bench praised the character of Crosley Field, but also said he wouldn't miss the fact that when it rained, the field would get very saturated. was Bench's finest statistical season; he hit .293 with 45 home runs and drove in 148. He hit .267 with 389 home runs and 1,376 RBIs during his 17-year Major League career, all spent with the Reds. His career home runs by a catcher record stood until surpassed by the former New York Mets catcher Mike Piazza. Bench won the National League Rookie of the Year Award, batting .275 with 15 home runs and 82 RBIs, and the honors and accomplishments only continued to pile up. In his career, Bench earned 10 Gold Gloves, was the and Most Valuable Player and was named to the National League All-Star team 14 times. He also won such awards as the Lou Gehrig Award (), the Babe Ruth Award (), and the Hutch Award (). His most dramatic home run was likely his ninth inning lead-off opposite field home run in the final game of the NLCS vs. Pittsburgh. The solo shot tied the game 3-3, allowing the Reds to win later in the inning on a wild pitch, 4-3. It was hailed after the game as "one of the great clutch home runs of all time." Although baseball history is filled with many outstanding catchers, such as Yogi Berra, Bill Dickey, Gabby Hartnett and Mickey Cochrane, arguably, no player revolutionized the position like Johnny Bench. The catcher's equipment was traditionally called "the tools of ignorance" as many catchers lacked the fielding skills or quickness to play elsewhere. But Bench, who was big (6'1" and 210 pounds) and athletic, inspired many young ballplayers to become catchers and teams began seeking and developing more athletic ballplayers for the position. Although not the first to use it, Bench popularized the hinged catcher's mitt. Randy Hundley of the San Francisco Giants is credited as actually being the first player to use it in a game, but the success Bench had in his career after adopting it in after a stint on the disabled list in for a thumb injury on his throwing hand allowed Bench to tuck his throwing arm safely to the side when receiving the pitch. By the turn of the decade, the hinged mitt became standard catchers' equipment. Having huge hands (a famous photograph features him easily holding seven baseballs in his right hand), Bench also tended to block breaking balls in the dirt by scooping them with one hand instead of the more common and fundamentally proper way: dropping to both knees and blocking the ball using the chest protector to keep the ball in front. By the latter part of his career, Johnny Bench was being compared to the greatest catchers in baseball history, but the years behind the plate began taking their toll on his knees, which is a common ailment for catchers. For the last three seasons of his career, Bench caught only 13 games and played mostly first base or third base. The Cincinnati Reds proclaimed September 17, "Johnny Bench Night" at Riverfront Stadium. During the game he hit his 389th and final home run. He retired at the end of the season. Honors and post-career activities Johnny Bench was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York in . He was elected in his first year eligible and appeared on 96% of the ballots, the third-highest ever at the time. Three years earlier, Bench had been inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in and his uniform #5 was retired by the team. Ironically, the number was worn by another Reds catcher, Willard Hershberger, and was retired after his suicide in August . Later that year, the Reds won their second World Series, which holds the distinction of being, to date, the only World Series in which the Reds won the deciding game in Cincinnati. The Reds reactivated the #5 uniform in 1942. In , Bench starred as Joe Boyd/Joe Hardy in a Cincinnati stage production of the musical Damn Yankees, which also included Gwen Verdon and Gary Sandy. He also hosted the television series The Baseball Bunch from to . A cast of children, both boys and girls, from the Tucson, Arizona area would learn the game of baseball from Bench and current and retired greats. The Chicken provided comic relief and former Los Angeles Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda appeared as "The Dugout Wizard". In , Bench ranked Number 16 on The Sporting News''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Player. He was the highest-ranking catcher. Bench was also elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. Starting with the college baseball season, the best collegiate catcher annually receives the Johnny Bench Award. The most recent winner was Buster Posey of Florida State University, who is currently in the farm system of the San Francisco Giants. Notable winners include Kelly Shoppach of Baylor University, Ryan Garko of Stanford University, and Kurt Suzuki of Cal State Fullerton. Shoppach and Garko are currently teammates on the Cleveland Indians' roster (Garko has been converted to a first baseman), and Suzuki plays for the Oakland Athletics. In , Bench co-wrote the book Catch Every Ball: How to Handle Life's Pitches with Paul Daugherty. It is published by Orange Frazer Press. A "autobiography" published in called Catch You Later'' was authored by Bench with William Brashler. Like many retired players, Bench has broadcast games on television and radio. He is an avid golfer, and he has performed in several Champions Tour tournaments. In a September interview with Heidi Watney of the New England Sports Network, Johnny Bench, who was watching a Cleveland Indians/Boston Red Sox game at Fenway Park, did an impromptu impression of late Chicago Cubs announcer Harry Caray after Red Sox third baseman Kevin Youkilis, a native of Cincinnati, made a tough play to throw out the Indians' Victor Martinez at first base. Knuckleballer Tim Wakefield was on the mound for the Red Sox and Bench related a story that then-Reds manager Sparky Anderson told him that he was thinking of trading for knuckleballer Phil Niekro. Bench replied that Anderson had better trade for Neikro's catcher, too. Hip replacement In , Johnny Bench received a total hip replacement after his natural hip had worn down to bone-on-bone and gave him constant pain. The condition resulted from the repetitious squatting and rising during the course of his twenty-year-plus baseball career. Bench was fitted with a Stryker ceramic hip and has since become a spokesman for the company. However, Stryker hip patients have complained about problems resulting from their implants including pain, difficulty walking and squeaky joints, and some have had pieces of implant parts break off or wear down unevenly. http://www.newsinferno.com/archives/2523 The company was sent two warning letters by the Food and Drug Administration regarding ceramic hip replacements. Bench, who says he has experienced some squeaking, quipped, “I don’t care if it plays "Dixie". http://neuro-ortho.org/blog/2008/07/hall-of-famer-johnny-bench-touts-hip-replacement-to-locals References See also Top 500 home run hitters of all time List of major league players with 2,000 hits List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI List of Major League Baseball RBI champions List of Major League Baseball home run champions Major League Baseball hitters with three home runs in one game External links johnnybench.com Official Website Book Review of Catch Every Ball at Letters On Pages Baseball's Greatest Catcher Accomplishments | Johnny_Bench |@lemmatized johnny:13 lee:2 bench:41 born:1 december:1 former:3 american:1 major:10 league:12 baseball:23 player:10 cincinnati:10 reds:5 widely:1 regard:2 among:2 great:6 catcher:20 history:3 currently:3 board:1 director:1 hall:8 fame:5 time:6 star:3 selection:1 national:4 valuable:2 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112 | Ig_Nobel_Prize | A live frog is magnetically levitated, an experiment that earned André Geim from the University of Nijmegen and Sir Michael Berry from University of Bristol the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize in physics. The Ig Nobel Prizes are a parody of the Nobel Prizes and are given each year in early October for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think." Organized by the scientific humor magazine Annals of Improbable Research (AIR), they are presented by a group that includes genuine Nobel Laureates at a ceremony at Harvard University's Sanders Theater. History The first Ig Nobels were awarded in 1991, at that time for discoveries "that cannot, or should not, be reproduced". Ten prizes are awarded each year in many categories, including the Nobel Prize categories of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace, but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research. With the exception of three prizes in the first year (Administratium, Josiah Carberry, and Paul DeFanti), the Ig Nobel Prizes are for genuine achievements. (See List of Ig Nobel Prize winners) The awards are sometimes veiled criticism, as in the two awards given for homeopathy research, prizes in "science education" to Kansas and Colorado state boards of education for their stance regarding the teaching of evolution, and the prize awarded to Social Text after the Sokal Affair. Most often, however, they draw attention to scientific articles that have some humorous or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of humans tends to sexually arouse ostriches, to the statement that black holes fulfill all the technical requirements to be the location of Hell, to research on the "five-second rule," a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor won't become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds. Name The name is a play on the word ignoble ("characterized by baseness, lowness, or meanness") and the name "Nobel" after Alfred Nobel. The official pronunciation used during the ceremony is "-no-". It is not pronounced like the word "ignoble" (). Ceremony The prizes are presented by genuine Nobel laureates, originally at a ceremony in a lecture hall at MIT but now in Harvard University's Sanders Theater. It contains a number of running jokes, including Miss Sweety Poo, a little girl who repeatedly cries out "Please stop. I'm bored" in a high-pitched voice if speakers go on too long. guardian.co.uk - Infinity and so much more The awards ceremony is traditionally closed with the words: "If you didn't win a prize — and especially if you did — better luck next year!" The ceremony is co-sponsored by the Harvard Computer Society, the Harvard-Radcliffe Science Fiction Association and the Harvard-Radcliffe Society of Physics Students. Throwing paper airplanes onto the stage was a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels, changed at the 2006 ceremony because of "security concerns." In past years, physics professor Roy Glauber has swept the stage clean of the airplanes as the official "Keeper of the Broom". In 2005, Glauber could not attend the awards as he was traveling to Stockholm to claim a genuine Nobel Prize in Physics. The "Parade of Ignitaries" brings various supporting groups into the hall. At the 1997 ceremonies, a team of "cryogenic sex researchers" distributed a pamphlet titled "Safe Sex at Four Kelvin". Delegates from the Museum of Bad Art are often on hand to display some pieces from their collection, showing that bad art and bad science go hand in hand. Actor Russell Johnson, known for his portrayal of The Professor on the TV series Gilligan's Island, once participated in the award presentation ceremony as "The Professor Emeritus of Gilligan's Island". Tours and outreach The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on National Public Radio and is shown live over the Internet. The recording is broadcast every year, on the Friday after U.S. Thanksgiving, on the public radio program Science Friday. In recognition of this, the audience will repeatedly chant the first name of the radio show's host, Ira Flatow. Two books have been published with write ups on some of the winners: The Ig Nobel Prize (2002, US paperback ISBN 0-452-28573-9, UK paperback ISBN 0-7528-4261-7) and The Ig Nobel Prize 2 (2005, US hardcover ISBN 0-525-94912-7, UK hardcover ISBN 0-7528-6461-0) which was later retitled The Man Who Tried to Clone Himself (ISBN 0-452-28772-3). An Ig Nobel Tour has traveled to the United Kingdom and Australia several times. The Tour visited Aarhus University in Denmark in April 2009. Criticism In 1995, Robert May, Baron May of Oxford, the chief scientific adviser to the British government, requested that the organizers no longer award Ig Nobel prizes to British scientists, claiming that the awards risked bringing "genuine" experiments into ridicule. However, many British researchers dismissed Lord May's pronouncements, and the British journal Chemistry and Industry in particular printed an article rebutting his arguments. Overseas In Russian, the name is usually translated as "Шнобелевская премия" Shnobelevskaya premiya (Shnobel Prize). See also List of Ig Nobel Prize winners Other mock awards Golden Raspberry Awards for bad film work Darwin Awards for sublimely idiotic self-removal from the gene pool Pigasus Award for paranormal fraud (U.S.) Bent Spoon Award for paranormal fraud (Australia) Stella Awards for outrageous lawsuits Bad Sex in Fiction Award for exactly that Bookseller/Diagram Prize for Oddest Title of the Year for odd book titles References External links Ig Nobel home page List of past winners, with reasons for prize | Ig_Nobel_Prize |@lemmatized live:2 frog:1 magnetically:1 levitate:1 experiment:2 earn:1 andré:1 geim:1 university:5 nijmegen:1 sir:1 michael:1 berry:1 bristol:1 ig:12 nobel:19 prize:20 physic:5 parody:1 give:2 year:7 early:1 october:1 ten:2 achievement:2 first:4 make:2 people:1 laugh:1 think:1 organize:1 scientific:3 humor:1 magazine:1 annals:1 improbable:1 research:4 air:1 present:2 group:2 include:3 genuine:5 laureates:1 ceremony:10 harvard:5 sander:2 theater:2 history:1 award:17 time:2 discovery:2 cannot:1 reproduce:1 many:2 category:3 chemistry:2 physiology:1 medicine:1 literature:1 peace:1 also:2 public:3 health:1 engineering:1 biology:1 interdisciplinary:1 exception:1 three:1 administratium:1 josiah:1 carberry:1 paul:1 defanti:1 see:2 list:3 winner:4 sometimes:1 veiled:1 criticism:2 two:2 homeopathy:1 science:4 education:2 kansas:1 colorado:1 state:1 board:1 stance:1 regard:1 teaching:1 evolution:1 social:1 text:1 sokal:1 affair:1 often:2 however:2 draw:1 attention:1 article:2 humorous:1 unexpected:1 aspect:1 example:1 range:1 presence:1 human:1 tends:1 sexually:1 arouse:1 ostrich:1 statement:1 black:1 hole:1 fulfill:1 technical:1 requirement:1 location:1 hell:1 five:2 second:2 rule:1 tongue:1 cheek:1 belief:1 food:1 drop:1 floor:1 win:2 become:1 contaminate:1 pick:1 within:1 name:5 play:1 word:3 ignoble:2 characterize:1 baseness:1 lowness:1 meanness:1 alfred:1 official:2 pronunciation:1 use:1 pronounce:1 like:1 laureate:1 originally:1 lecture:1 hall:2 mit:1 contain:1 number:1 run:1 joke:1 miss:1 sweety:1 poo:1 little:1 girl:1 repeatedly:2 cry:1 please:1 stop:1 bore:1 high:1 pitch:1 voice:1 speaker:1 go:2 long:2 guardian:1 co:2 uk:3 infinity:1 much:1 traditionally:1 close:1 especially:1 good:1 luck:1 next:1 sponsor:1 computer:1 society:2 radcliffe:2 fiction:2 association:1 student:1 throw:1 paper:1 airplane:2 onto:1 stage:2 standing:1 tradition:1 change:1 security:1 concern:1 past:2 professor:3 roy:1 glauber:2 sweep:1 clean:1 keeper:1 broom:1 could:1 attend:1 travel:2 stockholm:1 claim:2 parade:1 ignitaries:1 bring:2 various:1 support:1 team:1 cryogenic:1 sex:3 researcher:2 distribute:1 pamphlet:1 title:3 safe:1 four:1 kelvin:1 delegate:1 museum:1 bad:5 art:2 hand:3 display:1 piece:1 collection:1 show:3 actor:1 russell:1 johnson:1 know:1 portrayal:1 tv:1 series:1 gilligan:2 island:2 participate:1 presentation:1 emeritus:1 tour:3 outreach:1 record:1 broadcast:2 national:1 radio:3 internet:1 recording:1 every:1 friday:2 u:4 thanksgiving:1 program:1 recognition:1 audience:1 chant:1 host:1 ira:1 flatow:1 book:2 publish:1 write:1 ups:1 paperback:2 isbn:5 hardcover:2 later:1 retitled:1 man:1 try:1 clone:1 united:1 kingdom:1 australia:2 several:1 visit:1 aarhus:1 denmark:1 april:1 robert:1 may:3 baron:1 oxford:1 chief:1 adviser:1 british:4 government:1 request:1 organizer:1 longer:1 scientist:1 risk:1 ridicule:1 dismiss:1 lord:1 pronouncement:1 journal:1 industry:1 particular:1 print:1 rebut:1 argument:1 overseas:1 russian:1 usually:1 translate:1 шнобелевская:1 премия:1 shnobelevskaya:1 premiya:1 shnobel:1 mock:1 golden:1 raspberry:1 film:1 work:1 darwin:1 sublimely:1 idiotic:1 self:1 removal:1 gene:1 pool:1 pigasus:1 paranormal:2 fraud:2 bent:1 spoon:1 stella:1 outrageous:1 lawsuit:1 exactly:1 bookseller:1 diagram:1 odd:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 home:1 page:1 reason:1 |@bigram ig_nobel:12 nobel_prize:11 nobel_laureates:1 physiology_medicine:1 black_hole:1 tongue_cheek:1 nobel_laureate:1 science_fiction:1 gilligan_island:2 professor_emeritus:1 golden_raspberry:1 external_link:1 |
113 | Ivory | one edge of Mammoth Ivory tusk carved with Elephants & Lions. Ivory is formed from dentine and constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals such as the elephant, hippopotamus, walrus, mammoth, rhino, and narwhal. The word "ivory" was traditionally applied to the tusks of elephants; the word is ultimately from Ancient Egyptian âb, âbu "elephant", through the Latin ebor- or ebur. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford 1993), entry for "ivory." Ivory has availed itself to many ornamental and practical uses. Prior to the introduction of plastics, it was used for billiard balls, piano keys, Scottish bagpipes, buttons and a wide range of ornamental items. Synthetic substitutes for ivory have been developed. Plastics have been viewed by piano purists as an inferior ivory substitute on piano keys, although other recently developed materials more closely resemble the feel of real ivory. Structure The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin. The trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread, therefore "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which is large enough to be carved or scrimshawed. Paleolithic Cro-Magnon man, during the late stages of the ice age, were the first to carve in ivory (mammoth tusks). Both the Greek and Roman civilizations used large quantities of ivory to make high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects. Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues. The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, probably due to the demand for ivory in the Classical world. The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Early reference to the Chinese export of ivory is recorded after the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian ventured to the west to form alliances to enable for the eventual free movement of Chinese goods to the west; as early as the first century BC, ivory was moved along the Northern Silk Road for consumption by western nations. C.Michael Hogan,Silk Road, North China, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of the Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China. Chinese craftsmen carved ivory to make everything from images of deities and decorations. With the British trade of opium, ivory also became a common material for opium pipes. Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. (2007). Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai The Indianized Buddhist cultures of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos and Cambodia traditionally harvested ivory from their domesticated elephants. Ivory was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. Ivory was also commonly carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to "sign" documents and decrees by stamping them with their unique official seal. http://www.asianart.com/articles/thai-ivory/index.html Ivory Carving in Thailand Retrieved on 08-30-07 In Southeast Asian countries where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, ivory was the material of choice for making the handles of magical kris daggers. In the Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints. Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into a vast variety of shapes and objects. A small example of modern carved ivory objects are small statuary such as okimono, netsukes, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, warthog tusks, and teeth from sperm whales, orcas and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes. Consumption before plastics Before plastics were invented, ivory was important for cutlery handles, musical instruments, billiard balls, and many other items. It is estimated that consumption in Great Britain alone in 1831 amounted to the deaths of nearly 4,000 elephants. Ivory can be taken from dead animals — Russians dug up tusks from extinct mammoths — however most ivory came from elephants who were killed for their tusks. Other animals which are now endangered were also preyed upon, for example, hippos, which have very hard white ivory prized for making artificial teeth. Vol I, pages 929-930. Availability Owing to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. Much of the decline in population is due to poachers during and before the 1980s. Since the worldwide ivory trade ban by CITES (the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species) "CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FAUNA AND FLORA" 28-30 Sept. 2004. in 1989 there have been ups and downs in elephant populations and the ivory trade as bans have been placed and lifted. Many African countries—including Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Botswana—claim that the ivory trade is necessary—both to stimulate their economies and reduce elephant populations, which are allegedly harming the environment. A 1999 study done by Oxford University found that less than one percent of the US$500 million ivory sales generated ever reach Africans; most of it goes to middlemen and vendors. However, in 2002 the United Nations partially lifted the ban on ivory trade, allowing a few countries to export certain amounts of ivory. The effectiveness of the policy is in question, in light of the study preceding the ban, and an updated study would be needed to evaluate the current state of the ivory trade. In 2007 eBay, under pressure from the International Fund for Animal Welfare, made the decision to ban all international sales of elephant-ivory products. The IFAW found that up to 90% of the elephant-ivory transactions on Ebay violated their own wildlife policies and could potentially be illegal. In October, 2008, eBay expanded the ban, disallowing any sales of ivory on eBay, starting in 2009. An ivory auction has been conducted with many tons of ivory sold to bidders from China and Japan. This is the first time in nearly 10 years that international trade in elephant ivory has been sanctioned by the UN-backed Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). {http://www.afrol.com/articles/31435 "Conservationists cry foul of Southern Africa ivory auction"} Afrol News, accessed 22 January 2009} Kenya, which saw its elephant populations plummet in the decade preceding the 1989 ban, claims that legalizing ivory trade anywhere in Africa will endanger elephants everywhere in Africa as poachers would attempt to launder their illegal ivory with legal stockpiles. The 2006 Zakouma elephant slaughter in Chad is one of a long series of massacres which have eliminated some ninety-six percent of the original 300,000 African elephant population of Chad in only four decades. Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead mammoths has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements. Mammoth ivory is rare and costly, because mammoths have been extinct for millennia and scientists loath to sell museum-worthy specimens in pieces, but this trade does not threaten any living species. The demand for ivory is primarily from the Japanese hanko industry. Hankos are small seals used for signing documents. Traditionally, these hankos were also made from other material. Ivory hankos were introduced only in the last century. A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called vegetable ivory, or tagua, and is the seed endosperm of the ivory nut palm commonly found in coastal rainforests of Ecuador, Peru and Colombia. CNN.com - Could plant ivory save elephants? - Apr 26, 2005 On July 15, 2008, the United Nations panel overseeing the CITES convention granted China and Japan permission to import elephant ivory from African government stockpiles in a one-time auction. The auction will comprise approximately 44 tons from Botswana, 9 tons from Namibia, 51 tons from South Africa, and 4 tons from Zimbabwe. The Chinese government in 2003 acknowledged that it had lost track of 121 tons of ivory between 1991 and 2002. Ivory sales | Round the horn | Economist.com See also Ivory carving Vegetable ivory Walrus ivory References External links How to tell fake ivory from real TRAFFIC reports on the ivory trade including those on ETIS (Elephant Trade Information System), prepared on behalf of CITES The International Ivory Society Ivory carving in France Gemological properties of ivory On The Preservation of Elephants by www.antiquespider.com Learn About Different Ivories and Identifying Fakes | Ivory |@lemmatized one:4 edge:1 mammoth:8 ivory:69 tusk:13 carve:11 elephant:23 lion:1 form:3 dentine:1 constitute:1 bulk:1 teeth:6 animal:5 hippopotamus:1 walrus:2 rhino:1 narwhal:1 word:2 traditionally:3 apply:1 ultimately:1 ancient:1 egyptian:1 âb:1 âbu:1 latin:1 ebor:1 ebur:1 new:1 shorter:1 oxford:3 english:1 dictionary:1 entry:1 avail:1 many:5 ornamental:2 practical:1 us:1 prior:1 introduction:1 plastic:4 use:7 billiard:2 ball:2 piano:4 key:3 scottish:1 bagpipe:1 button:1 wide:1 range:1 item:2 synthetic:1 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114 | Murat_Ses | Murat Ses (Ses means sound in Turkish) is a Turkish keyboard player and composer with strong Eurasian electronic elements. He is creator of the Anadolu Pop style, a synthesis of Anatolian Music and Western elements that has been influencing Turkish music scene for decades. He worked with several groups: Meteorlar (Meteors) (1966-1967), Silüetler (Shadows) (1967), Moğollar (Mongols) (1967-1972), Barış Manço and Kurtalan Ekspres (Express) (1973-1974), Edip Akbayram and Dostlar (Friends) (1974) and Cem Karaca and Dervişan (Dervishes) (1975-1976). Also, he founded Ağrı Dağı Efsanesi (Legend of Mount Ararat) band. This band was dissolved in 1976 and 3 45 rpms. He migrated to Austria in 1979. His album Danses et Rythmes de la Turquie d'hier à aujourd'hui was awarded the Grand Prix du Disque by the Charles Cros Academie in Paris, France with Moğollar. The albums Automaton (Slave with Ewer Device), Binfen (feat.Tan) and Culduz, all released in the 1990s, are parts of a trilogy with the concept: "The Timeless and Boundaryless Context of Culture and Civilization". Ses has had excellent press (US Keyboard, Audion, i/e, Expose ...) and airplay (Automaton² was no.1 in Rhode Island, Binfen no.7 in Ohio). His main influences are Pink Floyd, Traffic, Jimmy Smith, Eastern Mediterranean music, Levantine, and Central Asian cultures and music. He is the most important Turkish artist still internationally active and shaping today's independent electronic music scene. His earlier (late 60s early 70s) psychedelic-Anatolian works with English lyrics released under US, Dutch, German and Canadian labels in the late 1990s through 2002. Murat's album with his "San Francisco/Miami Impressions" was recorded in Miami, Florida and was published in 2005 as Automaton² (Automaton Squared) followed by "Binfen 2005 Remix" and "Electric Levantine" (2006). His newest (2007) release is "Umami", his seventh solo album in a row. In the early 1990s Murat Ses developed a musical style he terms Electric Levantine. The main elements of the style are microtonal properties created on authentic Levantine scales, electronically produced instrument timbres and Western music. It's an experimental form of Anadolu Pop. His typical Electric Levantine sound can be heard on his album AUTOMATON (Slave with Ewer Device) and on the subsequent albums of his 90's trilogy. In 2007 Advertising agency TBWA decided to use the early 70s Moğollar song 'Garip Çoban' (meaning Poor Shepherd in Turkish), composed by Murat Ses, in PlayStation 3 campaigns commercial. See also Mogollar External links Personal website Article about Murat Ses in the Exposé | Murat_Ses |@lemmatized murat:5 mean:2 sound:2 turkish:5 keyboard:2 player:1 composer:1 strong:1 eurasian:1 electronic:2 element:3 creator:1 anadolu:2 pop:2 style:3 synthesis:1 anatolian:2 music:6 western:2 influence:2 scene:2 decade:1 work:2 several:1 group:1 meteorlar:1 meteor:1 silüetler:1 shadow:1 moğollar:3 mongol:1 barış:1 manço:1 kurtalan:1 ekspres:1 express:1 edip:1 akbayram:1 dostlar:1 friend:1 cem:1 karaca:1 dervişan:1 dervish:1 also:2 found:1 ağrı:1 dağı:1 efsanesi:1 legend:1 mount:1 ararat:1 band:2 dissolve:1 rpm:1 migrate:1 austria:1 album:5 danses:1 et:1 rythmes:1 de:1 la:1 turquie:1 hier:1 à:1 aujourd:1 hui:1 award:1 grand:1 prix:1 du:1 disque:1 charles:1 cros:1 academie:1 paris:1 france:1 albums:1 automaton:3 slave:2 ewer:2 device:2 binfen:3 feat:1 tan:1 culduz:1 release:3 part:1 trilogy:2 concept:1 timeless:1 boundaryless:1 context:1 culture:2 civilization:1 ses:1 excellent:1 press:1 u:2 audion:1 e:1 expose:1 airplay:1 rhode:1 island:1 ohio:1 main:2 pink:1 floyd:1 traffic:1 jimmy:1 smith:1 eastern:1 mediterranean:1 levantine:5 central:1 asian:1 important:1 artist:1 still:1 internationally:1 active:1 shape:1 today:1 independent:1 early:4 late:2 psychedelic:1 english:1 lyric:1 dutch:1 german:1 canadian:1 label:1 san:1 francisco:1 miami:2 impression:1 record:1 florida:1 publish:1 square:1 follow:1 remix:1 electric:3 new:1 umami:1 seventh:1 solo:1 row:1 develop:1 musical:1 term:1 microtonal:1 property:1 create:1 authentic:1 scale:1 electronically:1 produce:1 instrument:1 timbre:1 experimental:1 form:1 typical:1 hear:1 subsequent:1 advertising:1 agency:1 tbwa:1 decide:1 use:1 song:1 garip:1 çoban:1 poor:1 shepherd:1 compose:1 playstation:1 campaigns:1 commercial:1 see:1 mogollar:1 external:1 link:1 personal:1 website:1 article:1 exposé:1 |@bigram cem_karaca:1 aujourd_hui:1 grand_prix:1 rhode_island:1 pink_floyd:1 san_francisco:1 miami_florida:1 external_link:1 |
115 | Encryption | In cryptography, encryption is the process of transforming information (referred to as plaintext) using an algorithm (called cipher) to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key. The result of the process is encrypted information (in cryptography, referred to as ciphertext). In many contexts, the word encryption also implicitly refers to the reverse process, decryption (e.g. “software for encryption” can typically also perform decryption), to make the encrypted information readable again (i.e. to make it unencrypted). Encryption has long been used by militaries and governments to facilitate secret communication. Encryption is now commonly used in protecting information within many kinds of civilian systems. For example, in 2007 the U.S. government reported that 71% of companies surveyed utilized encryption for some of their data in transit. 2008 CSI Computer Crime and Security Survey, by Robert Richardson, p19 Encryption can be used to protect data "at rest", such as files on computers and storage devices (e.g. USB flash drives). In recent years there have been numerous reports of confidential data such as customers' personal records being exposed through loss or theft of laptops or backup drives. Encrypting such files at rest helps protect them should physical security measures fail. Digital rights management systems which prevent unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted material and protect software against reverse engineering (see also copy protection)are another somewhat different example of using encryption on data at rest. Encryption is also used to protect data in transit, for example data being transferred via networks (e.g. the Internet, e-commerce), mobile telephones, wireless microphones, wireless intercom systems, Bluetooth devices and bank automatic teller machines. There have also been numerous reports of data in transit being intercepted in recent years Fiber Optic Networks Vulnerable to Attack, Information Security Magazine, November 15, 2006, Sandra Kay Miller . Encrypting data in transit also helps to secure it as it is often difficult to physically secure all access to networks. There are two common approaches to network encryption: - Encrypting at the network link layer (layer 3), which is typically carried out using an encryption option in a router, for example a Cisco router - Encrypting at the data link layer (layer 2), which is typically implemented using a pair of stand alone encryption devices. Each approach has advantages. Layer 3 encryption can be implemented without requiring additional devices, but introduces additional latency, reduces throughput, and can be complex to administer. Layer 2 encryption is typically easier to install and supports all protocols, but requires an additional device at each network interface. Encryption, by itself, can protect the confidentiality of messages, but other techniques are still needed to protect the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, verification of a message authentication code (MAC) or a digital signature. Standards and cryptographic software and hardware to perform encryption are widely available, but successfully using encryption to ensure security may be a challenging problem. A single slip-up in system design or execution can allow successful attacks. Sometimes an adversary can obtain unencrypted information without directly undoing the encryption. See, e.g., traffic analysis, TEMPEST, or Trojan horse. One of the earliest public key encryption applications was called Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), according to Paul Rubens. It was written in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann and was bought by Network Associates in 1997 and is now called PGP Corporation. There are a number of reasons why an encryption product may not be suitable in all cases. First e-mail must be digitally signed at the point it was created to provide non-repudiation for some legal purposes, otherwise the sender could argue that it was tampered with after it left their computer but before it was encrypted at a gateway according to Paul. An encryption product may also not be practical when mobile users need to send e-mail from outside the corporate network.* See also Cryptography Cold boot attack Encryption software Cipher Key Famous ciphertexts Disk encryption Secure USB drive Secure Network Communications References Helen Fouché Gaines, “Cryptanalysis”, 1939, Dover. ISBN 0-486-20097-3 David Kahn, The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing (ISBN 0-684-83130-9) (1967) Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. ISBN 0-88385-622-0 External links SecurityDocs Resource for encryption whitepapers Accumulative archive of various cryptography mailing lists. Includes Cryptography list at metzdowd and SecurityFocus Crypto list. | Encryption |@lemmatized cryptography:5 encryption:24 process:3 transform:1 information:6 refer:4 plaintext:1 use:10 algorithm:1 call:3 cipher:2 make:3 unreadable:1 anyone:1 except:1 possess:1 special:1 knowledge:1 usually:1 key:3 result:1 encrypt:4 ciphertext:1 many:2 context:1 word:1 also:8 implicitly:1 reverse:2 decryption:2 e:8 g:4 software:4 typically:4 perform:2 encrypted:1 readable:1 unencrypted:2 long:1 military:1 government:2 facilitate:1 secret:2 communication:2 commonly:1 protect:7 within:1 kind:1 civilian:1 system:4 example:5 u:1 report:3 company:1 survey:2 utilized:1 data:9 transit:4 csi:1 computer:3 crime:1 security:4 robert:1 richardson:1 rest:3 file:2 storage:1 device:5 usb:2 flash:1 drive:3 recent:2 year:2 numerous:2 confidential:1 customer:1 personal:1 record:1 expose:1 loss:1 theft:1 laptop:1 backup:1 help:2 physical:1 measure:1 fail:1 digital:2 right:1 management:1 prevent:1 unauthorized:1 reproduction:1 copyright:1 material:1 engineering:1 see:3 copy:1 protection:1 another:1 somewhat:1 different:1 transfer:1 via:1 network:9 internet:1 commerce:1 mobile:2 telephone:1 wireless:2 microphone:1 intercom:1 bluetooth:1 bank:1 automatic:1 teller:1 machine:1 intercept:1 fiber:1 optic:1 vulnerable:1 attack:3 magazine:1 november:1 sandra:1 kay:1 miller:1 secure:4 often:1 difficult:1 physically:1 access:1 two:1 common:1 approach:3 encrypting:2 link:3 layer:6 carry:1 option:1 router:2 cisco:1 implement:2 pair:1 stand:1 alone:1 advantage:1 without:2 require:2 additional:3 introduce:1 latency:1 reduce:1 throughput:1 complex:1 administer:1 easy:1 install:1 support:1 protocol:1 interface:1 confidentiality:1 message:3 technique:1 still:1 need:2 integrity:1 authenticity:1 verification:1 authentication:1 code:1 mac:1 signature:1 standard:1 cryptographic:1 hardware:1 widely:1 available:1 successfully:1 ensure:1 may:3 challenging:1 problem:1 single:1 slip:1 design:1 execution:1 allow:1 successful:1 sometimes:1 adversary:1 obtain:1 directly:1 undo:1 traffic:1 analysis:1 tempest:1 trojan:1 horse:1 one:1 early:1 public:1 application:1 pretty:1 good:1 privacy:1 pgp:2 accord:2 paul:2 rubens:1 write:1 phil:1 zimmermann:1 buy:1 associate:1 corporation:1 number:1 reason:1 product:2 suitable:1 case:1 first:1 mail:2 must:1 digitally:1 sign:1 point:1 create:1 provide:1 non:1 repudiation:1 legal:1 purpose:1 otherwise:1 sender:1 could:1 argue:1 tamper:1 leave:1 gateway:1 practical:1 user:1 send:1 outside:1 corporate:1 cold:1 boot:1 famous:1 ciphertexts:1 disk:1 reference:1 helen:1 fouché:1 gaines:1 cryptanalysis:2 dover:1 isbn:3 david:1 kahn:1 codebreakers:1 story:1 writing:1 abraham:1 sinkov:1 elementary:1 mathematical:2 association:1 america:1 external:1 securitydocs:1 resource:1 whitepapers:1 accumulative:1 archive:1 various:1 mailing:1 list:3 include:1 metzdowd:1 securityfocus:1 crypto:1 |@bigram usb_flash:1 fiber_optic:1 trojan_horse:1 paul_rubens:1 kahn_codebreakers:1 abraham_sinkov:1 external_link:1 mailing_list:1 |
116 | Cosmological_argument | The cosmological argument is an argument for the existence of a First Cause (or instead, an Uncaused cause) to the universe, and by extension is often used as an argument for the existence of God. It is traditionally known as an argument from universal causation, an argument from first cause, the causal argument or the argument from existence. Whichever term is employed, there are three basic variants of the argument, each with subtle yet important distinctions: the arguments from causation, in esse and in fieri, and the argument from contingency. The basic premise of all of these is that something caused the Universe to exist, and this First Cause must be God. It has been used by various theologians and philosophers over the centuries, from the ancient Greek Plato and Aristotle to the medieval St. Thomas Aquinas and the 20th century Frederick Copleston. History Plato and Aristotle, depicted here in Raphael's The School of Athens, both developed first cause arguments. Plato (c. 427–347 BCE) and Aristotle (c. 384–322 BCE) both posited first cause arguments, though each had certain notable caveats. Plato posited a basic argument in The Laws (Book X), in which he argued that motion in the world and the Cosmos was "imparted motion" that required some kind of "self-originated motion" to set it in motion and to maintain that motion. "Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God", in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967), Vol. 2, p232 ff. Plato also posited a "demiurge" of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the Cosmos in his work Timaeus. For Plato, the demiurge lacked the supernatural ability to create ex nihilo (out of nothing). It was only able to organize the ananke (necessity), the only other co-existent element or presence in Plato's cosmogony. Aristotle also put forth the idea of a First Cause, often referred to as the "Prime Mover" or "Unmoved Mover" ( or primus motor) in his work Metaphysics. For Aristotle too, as for Plato, the underlying essence of the Universe always was in existence and always would be (which in turn follows Parmenides' famous statement that "nothing can come from nothing"). Aristotle posited an underlying ousia (essence or substance) of which the Universe was composed, and it was this ousia that the Prime Mover organized and set into motion. The Prime Mover did not organize matter physically, but was instead a being who constantly thought about thinking itself, and who organized the Cosmos by making matter the object of "aspiration or desire". "Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God", in Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1967), Vol. 2, p233 ff. The Prime Mover was, to Aristotle, a "thinking on thinking", an eternal process of pure thought. Later on the Platonist, Plotinus taught that the One transcendent absolute caused the universe to exist simply a consequence of its existence, creatio ex deo. His disciple Proclus stated 'The One is God'. Centuries later, the Islamic philosopher Avicenna (c. 980–1037 CE) initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence could not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves could not originate and interact with the movement of the Universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Thus, he reasoned that existence must be due to an agent cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must coexist with its effect and be an existing thing. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1274 CE), probably the best-known theologian of Medieval Europe, adapted the argument he found in his reading of Aristotle and Avicenna to form one of the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. Scott David Foutz, An Examination of Thomas Aquinas' Cosmological Arguments as found in the Five Ways, Quodlibet Online Journal of Christian Theology and Philosophy His conception of First Cause was the idea that the Universe must have been caused by something that was itself uncaused, which he asserted was God. Many other philosophers and theologians have posited cosmological arguments both before and since Aquinas. The versions sampled in the following sections are representative of the most common derivations of the argument. The argument The cosmological argument could be stated as follows: Every finite and contingent being has a cause. Nothing finite and contingent can cause itself. A causal chain cannot be of infinite length. Therefore, a First Cause (or something that is not an effect) must exist. According to the argument, the existence of the Universe requires an explanation, and the creation of the Universe by a First Cause, generally assumed to be God, is that explanation. In light of the Big Bang theory, a stylized version of argument has emerged (sometimes called the Kalam cosmological argument, the following form of which was set forth by William Lane Craig Craig, William L. "The Existence of God and the Beginning of the Universe." Truth Journal. Leadership University. 22 Jun. 2008 <http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth11.html>. ): Whatever begins to exist has a cause. The Universe began to exist. Therefore, the Universe had a cause. Discussion Modern thinkers sometimes cite evidence for the Big Bang to support the claim that the Universe began to exist a finite time ago. A basic explanation of the cosmological argument could be stated as follows: Consider some event in the Universe. No matter what event you choose, it will be the result of some cause, or, more likely, a very complex set of causes. Each of those causes is the result of some other set of causes, which are, in turn, the results of yet other causes. Thus, there is an enormous chain of events in the Universe, with the earlier events causing the latter. Either this chain has a beginning, or it does not. Currently, the theory of the cosmological history of the Universe most widely accepted by astronomers and astrophysicists today includes an apparent first event, the Big Bang, an expansion of time and space has expanded from a primordial hot and dense initial condition at some finite time in the past. Although contemporary versions of the cosmological argument most typically assume that there was a beginning to the cosmic chain of physical or natural causes, the early formulations of the argument did not have the benefit of this degree of theoretical insight. The Big Bang theory, however, does not address the issue of the origin of the initial condition, so it does not address the issue of a First Cause in an absolute sense. Plato's demiurge and Aristotle's Prime Mover each referred to a being who, they speculated, set in motion an already existing essence of the Cosmos. A millennium and a half later, Thomas Aquinas argued for an "Uncaused Cause" (ex motu), which he called God. To Aquinas, it remained logically impossible that the Universe had already existed for an infinite amount of time and would continue to exist for an infinite amount of time. In his Summa Theologica, he argued that, even if the Universe had always existed (a notion he rejected on other grounds), there would still be the question of cause, or even of First Cause. Thomas Aquinas developed an argument from contingency. The argument from contingency In the scholastic era, it was unknown whether the Universe had a beginning or whether it had always existed. To account for both possibilities, Aquinas formulated the "argument from contingency", following Aristotle in claiming that there must be something to explain why the Universe exists. Since the Universe could, under different circumstances, conceivably not exist (contingency), its existence must have a cause – not merely another contingent thing, but something that exists by necessity (something that must exist in order for anything else to exist). Summa Theologiae, I : 2,3 In other words, even if the Universe has always existed, it still owes its existence to an Uncaused Cause, Aquinas was an ardent student of Aristotle's works, a significant number of which had only recently been translated into Latin by Ibn-Rushd, also known as Averroes. although Aquinas used the words "...and this we understand to be God." Summa Theologiae, I : 2,3 Aquinas's argument from contingency is distinct from a first cause argument, since it assumes the possibility of a Universe that has no beginning in time. It is, rather, a form of argument from universal causation. Aquinas observed that, in nature, there were things with contingent existences. Since it is possible for such things not to exist, there must be some time at which these things did not in fact exist. Thus, according to Aquinas, there must have been a time when nothing existed. If this is so, there would exist nothing that could bring anything into existence. Contingent beings, therefore, are insufficient to account for the existence of contingent beings: there must exist a necessary being whose non-existence is an impossibility, and from which the existence of all contingent beings is derived. The German philosopher Gottfried Leibniz made a similar argument with his principle of sufficient reason in 1714. "There can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition," he wrote, "without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise, although we cannot know these reasons in most cases." He formulated the cosmological argument succinctly: "Why is there something rather than nothing? The sufficient reason [...] is found in a substance which [...] is a necessary being bearing the reason for its existence within itself." Monadologie (1714). Nicholas Rescher, trans., 1991. The Monadology: An Edition for Students. Uni. of Pittsburg Press. Jonathan Bennett's translation. Latta's translation. Aristotelian philosopher Mortimer J. Adler devised a refined argument from contingency in his book How to Think About God: The existence of an effect requiring the concurrent existence and action of an efficient cause implies the existence and action of that cause. The Cosmos as a whole exists. The existence of the Cosmos as a whole is radically contingent (meaning that it needs an efficient cause of its continuing existence to preserve it in being, and prevent it from being annihilated, or reduced to nothing). If the Cosmos needs an efficient cause of its continuing existence, then that cause must be a supernatural being, supernatural in its action, and one the existence of which is uncaused, in other words, the Supreme Being, or God. His premise for confirming all of these points was this: The Universe as we know it today is not the only Universe that can ever exist in time. We can infer it from the fact that the arrangement and disarray, the order and disorder, of the present Cosmos might have been otherwise. That it might have been different from what it is. That which cannot be otherwise also cannot not exist; and conversely, what necessarily exists can not be otherwise than it is. Therefore, a Cosmos which can be otherwise is one that also cannot be; and conversely, a Cosmos that is capable of not existing at all is one that can be otherwise than it now is. Applying this insight to the fact that the existing Cosmos is merely one of a plurality of possible universes, we come to the conclusion that the Cosmos, radically contingent in existence, would not exist at all were its existence not caused. A merely possible Cosmos cannot be an uncaused Cosmos. A Cosmos that is radically contingent in existence, and needs a cause of that existence, needs a supernatural cause, one that exists and acts to exnihilate this merely possible Cosmos, thus preventing the realization of what is always possible for merely a possible Cosmos, namely, its absolute non-existence or reduction to nothingness. Adler concludes that there exists a necessary being to preserve the Cosmos in existence. God must be there to sustain the Universe even if the Universe is eternal. Beginning by rejecting belief in a creating God, Adler finds evidence for a sustaining God. Thus, the existence of a sustaining God also becomes grounds for asserting the creating activity. The idea of a created Universe with a beginning and, most likely, an end now becomes more plausible than the idea of an eternal Universe. Adler believes that "to affirm that the world or Cosmos had an absolute beginning, that it was exnihilated at an initial instant, would be tantamount to affirming the existence of God, the world's exnihilator." Science in Christian Perspective "In esse" and "in fieri" The difference between the arguments from causation in fieri and in esse is a fairly important one. In fieri is generally translated as "becoming", while in esse is generally translated as "in existence". In fieri, the process of becoming, is similar to building a house. Once it is built, the builder walks away, and it stands on its own accord. (It may require occasional maintenance, but that is beyond the scope of the first cause argument.) In esse (in existence) is more akin to the light from a candle or the liquid in a vessel. George Hayward Joyce, SJ, explained that "...where the light of the candle is dependent on the candle's continued existence, not only does a candle produce light in a room in the first instance, but its continued presence is necessary if the illumination is to continue. If it is removed, the light ceases. Again, a liquid receives its shape from the vessel in which it is contained; but were the pressure of the containing sides withdrawn, it would not retain its form for an instant." This form of the argument is far more difficult to separate from a purely first cause argument than is the example of the house's maintenance above, because here the First Cause is insufficient without the candle's or vessel's continued existence. Joyce, George Hayward (1922) Principles of Natural Theology. NY: Longmans Green. Thus, Aristotle's argument is in esse, while Aquinas' argument is both in fieri and in esse (plus an additional argument from contingency). This distinction is an excellent example of the difference between a deistic view (Aristotle) and a theistic view (Aquinas). Leibnitz, who wrote more than two centuries before the Big Bang was taken for granted, was arguing in esse. As a general trend, the modern slants on the cosmological argument, including the Kalam argument, tend to lean very strongly towards an in fieri argument. Objections and counterarguments What caused the First Cause? One objection to the argument is that it leaves open the question of why the First Cause is unique in that it does not require a cause. Proponents argue that the First Cause is exempt from having a cause, while opponents argue that this is special pleading or otherwise untrue. Reichenbach, Bruce, "Cosmological Argument", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2006 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2006/entries/cosmological-argument/>. The problem with arguing for the First Cause's exemption is that it raises the question of why the First Cause is indeed exempt. Cline, Austin. "Cosmological Argument: Does the Universe Require a First Cause?" About.com: Agnosticism/Atheism. 20 Jun. 2008 <http://atheism.about.com/od/argumentsforgod/a/cosmological.htm>. Proponents who follow William Lane Craig's statement of the argument counter that the atheists' objection is a straw-man argument, pointing out that the first premise does not state that everything needs a cause, only that an entity needs a cause if and only if it has a beginning; thus, since the First Cause (often God) doesn't have a beginning, it doesn't need a cause. Also, if the First Cause has a cause then it is not the First Cause (and begins the cycle of infinite regression again), that is to say exemption of the First Cause is inherent in the First Cause argument. Secondly, the premise of causality has been arrived at via a posteriori (inductive) reasoning, which is dependent on experience. David Hume highlighted this problem of induction and showed that causal relations were not true a priori (deductively). However as to whether Inductive or Deductive reasoning is more valuable still remains a matter of debate, with the general conclusion being that neither is prominent http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.php . Even though causality applies to the known world, it does not necessarily apply to the Universe at large. In other words, it is unwise to draw conclusions from an extrapolation of causality beyond experience. The rules of causality only make sense in the context of time, which obviously did not exist before the creation of the universe, thus it is nonsensical to speak of pre-universal "causes", specifically a First Cause, when discussing the origins of the universe (unless the First Cause initiates time or has the initiation of time as a component; which it must in order to be the First Cause). Additionally, it is argued that Occam's razor can be used against the argument, showing how the argument fails using both the efficient and conserving types of causality. Kaye, Sharon. "William of Ockham." The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 20 Jun. 2008 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/o/ockham.htm>. However, the claim that the Cosmological Argument fails in using conserving types of causality is debatable; Occam says that it fails for these types of causality only if the universe had no beginning. Kaye, Sharon. "William of Ockham." The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 5 Nov. 2008 <http://www.iep.utm.edu/o/ockham.htm#SH6bii> Non-sequitur reasoning A logical objection to the argument from contingency is that the argument makes a logical fallacy called Non-sequitur since it makes a false conclusion that "since it is possible for such things not to exist, there must be some time at which these things did not in fact exist". It is a false conclusion because from the (merely logical) contingency of anything it does not logically follow that there must be some time at which – the merely logically (not empirically) contingent – things, like for example matter, in fact did not exist (in order to prove that matter did need to have a cause outside itself). Identity of a First Cause An objection against the theist implication of the proposition is that even if one accepts the argument as a proof of a First Cause, it does not identify that First Cause with God. The argument does not go on to ascribe to the First Cause some of the basic attributes commonly associated with, for instance, a theistic God, such as immanence or omnibenevolence. Rather, it simply argues that a First Cause (e.g. the Big Bang, God, or an unarticulated First Cause) must exist. There exist theistic arguments that attempt to extract such attributes. Craig, William L. "Initial Arguments: A Defense of the Cosmological Argument for the Existence of God." Leadership University. 20 Jun. 2008 <http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/craig-smith1.html>. Furthermore, if one chooses to accept God as the First Cause, God's continued interaction with the Universe is not required. This is the foundation for beliefs such as deism that accept that a God created the Universe, but then ceased to have any further interaction with it. "deism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 20 Jun. 2008. http://www.answers.com/topic/deism Theosophical criticism Aristotle's argument is considered correctable with a minor Theosophical (basically, Classical Philosophical) counterexample and clarification: Aristotle continued (according to the page Unmoved mover) the original argument above as: 5. From 3, this first cause cannot itself have been moved. 6. From 4, there must be an unmoved mover. A Theosophist (or neo-Platonist,) requiring very clear terms and logic, would say: 5. From 4 and Peano's axioms or real analysis (or in India or Plotinus' day, maybe #3 and the still modern necessity of very logical terminology,) this causeless cause moves the first (bounded, by definition or etymology, so non-eternal) cause to all others. 6. (Similarly to Aristotle's #4 to 6,) from 5, there must be an unmoved mover. This allows for religious/philosophical ideas farther from the Eastern Mediterranean, such as pralaya (that reality exists before big bangs and after universes' ends,) which is reasonable with M-theory physics. Theosophical Scientists need not identify causeless cause with religious Godhead, but when they use the term "pralaya," they use a term defined caused by Parabrahm (Skt. "Godhead", "causeless cause"; "eternal boundless (infinite) cause of non-eternal first cause ('bounded to one (aeon'"))) so the cosmological argument's remaining destructive counterargument, "Identity of First Cause," can be deemed denial (like a reason for its own argument) as refusal of dialectic. Scientific positions "Gas molecules may bounce against the walls of a container without requiring anything or anyone to get them moving." The argument for a Prime Mover is based on the scientific foundation of Aristotelian physics. Some physicists feel that the development of the laws of thermodynamics in the 19th century and quantum physics in the 20th century have weakened a purely scientific expression of the cosmological argument. * Michio Kaku. Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-286189-1 Modern physics has many examples of bodies being moved without any known moving body, apparently undermining the first premise of the Prime Mover argument: every object in motion must be moved by another object in motion. Physicist Michio Kaku directly addresses the cosmological argument in his book Hyperspace, saying that it is easily dismissed by the law of conservation of energy and the laws governing molecular physics. He gives an example— "gas molecules may bounce against the walls of a container without requiring anything or anyone to get them moving." According to Kaku, these molecules could move forever, without beginning or end. So, there is no need for a First Mover to explain the origins of motion. * Michio Kaku. Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the Tenth Dimension. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-286189-1 It is argued that a challenge to the cosmological argument is the nature of time. The Big Bang theory states that it is the point in which all dimensions came into existence, the start of both space and time. Then, the question "What was there before the Universe?" makes no sense; the concept of "before" becomes meaningless when considering a situation without time, and thus the concepts of cause and effect so necessary to the cosmological argument no longer apply (see counter argument above under What Caused the First Cause?). This has been put forward by J. Richard Gott III, James E. Gunn, David N. Schramm, and Beatrice M. Tinsley, who said that asking what occurred before the Big Bang is like asking what is north of the North Pole. (J. Richard Gott III, James E. Gunn, David N. Schramm, and Beatrice M. Tinsley, "Will the Universe Expand Forever?" Scientific American [March 1976], p. 65) However, some cosmologists and physicists do attempt to investigate what could have occurred before the Big Bang, using such scenarios as the collision of branes to give a cause for the Big Bang. Britt, Robert R. "'Brane-Storm' Challenges Part of Big Bang Theory." Space.com. 18 Apr. 2001. 21 Jun. 2008 <http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/bigbang_alternative_010413-3.html>. One possible answer to this quandary can be found by examining Gödel's incompleteness theorems which posit that no system can fully describe itself or comprehend itself using only examination from within the system; such a system might be able to understand the apparent operation of aspects of the system, but it cannot understand everything that composes it. Thus, it follows that since people are within the universe, and cannot see outside of it due to the operation of the Laws of Nature itself, or see beyond the instantiation of the Universe at the moment of the First Cause, then science and reason in and of themselves cannot be assumed to function outside of the known universe, as science, logic, and reason are only within scope within the known Universe, and outside of it, different laws may apply, if any. Thus, to assume that any existence outside of the known universe can be necessarily comprehended by science and reason could be considered illogical. References See also Biblical cosmology Chaos; Chaos (mythology) Cosmogony Creation myth Dating Creation Determinism Infinitism Infinite regress Logos Quinquae viae Temporal finitism Timeline of the Big Bang Unmoved mover External links Articles on the cosmological argument by William Lane Craig Articles on the cosmological argument by Alexander Pruss Articles on the cosmological argument by Timothy O'Connor Articles on the atheistic cosmological argument by Quentin Smith and others A Reconstruction of the "Existential Argument" for the Existence of God by Stephen Pimentel A Cosmological Argument for a Self-Caused Universe by Quentin Smith | Cosmological_argument |@lemmatized cosmological:29 argument:81 existence:44 first:47 cause:89 instead:2 uncaused:6 universe:48 extension:1 often:3 use:10 god:26 traditionally:1 know:6 universal:3 causation:4 causal:3 whichever:1 term:4 employ:1 three:1 basic:5 variant:1 subtle:1 yet:2 important:2 distinction:2 esse:8 fieri:7 contingency:10 premise:5 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117 | Irish_Wolfhound | The Irish Wolfhound () is a breed of domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), specifically a sighthound. The name originates from its purpose (wolf hunting) rather than from its appearance. Irish Wolfhounds are the tallest dog breed on average, though Great Danes can exceed their height. Appearance A female wolfhound The most distinguishing physical feature of the Irish Wolfhound is its great size. Generally breeders aim for a height range of 85 to 90 centimeters (33 to 36 inches) at the withers in males, 50 to 80 centimeters (30 to 34 inches) for females. Generally acceptable weight 46–70 kg (101–154lbs). Temperament Irish Wolfhounds are sweet-tempered, patient, generous, thoughtful and can be trusted with children. Dignified and willing, they are unconditionally loyal to their owner and family. Not a guard dog by nature, but may be a deterrent simply due to their size. They tend to greet everyone as a friend, so use of them as watch dogs is not recommended; although when they or their owners are put in real danger, they display a fearless nature. Dog Breed Info Center. Irish Wolfhound. Irish Wolfhounds are highly sensitive, requiring a positive environment, encouraging attitude and non-overbearing training methods. Health A puppy Irish Wolfhounds do not live long lives. Published lifespan estimations vary between 4.95 and 10.00 years. Dilated cardiomyopathy and bone cancer are the leading cause of death and like all deep-chested dogs, gastric torsion (bloat) is also common; the breed is also affected by hereditary intrahepatic portosystemic shunt. http://www.ths.vetsuisse.unibe.ch/lenya/housing/live/publications/Diss_Urfer_2007.pdf In a privately funded study conducted under the auspices of the Irish Wolfhound Club of America and based on an owner survey, Irish Wolfhounds in the United States from 1966 to 1986 lived to a mean age of 6.47 and died most frequently of bone cancer. http://www.wolfhoundweb.com/breedinfo/health/longevity/bernardi.html By the age of 8 months, Irish Wolfhounds appear adult, and many owners start stressing them too much. Outstretched limbs and irreparable damage are the result. Wolfhounds need at least 18 months to be ready for lure coursing, running as a sport, and other strenuous activities. Wolfhounds should not receive additional supplements when a good dog food is used. It is generally accepted that they should be fed a large breed puppy food until 18 months old and then change to a large breed adult food. Most breeders today recommend that they not be supplemented in order to slow their rapid growth. Wolfhound puppies around 10 weeks old grow about 2 cm a week and put on one pound a day. Irish Wolfhounds are the tallest of dog breeds so they are well suited to rural life, but their medium energy profile allows them to adjust fairly well to suburban and urban life as well, provided they receive appropriate exercise. History Irish Wolfhound running The breed is very old; there are suggestions it may have developed alongside the Irish wolf circa 8000bc or arrived in Ireland around 3500bc during the arrival of early settlers, further genetic testing may help clarify a point of origin. Bred as war dogs by the ancients, who called them Cú Faoil. The Irish continued to breed them for this purpose, as well as to guard their homes and protect their stock. Regular references of Irish Wolfhounds being used in dog fights are found in many historical sagas—Cuchulain's favourite dog, Luath, was slain by a southern chief's hound, Phorp. Irish Guards mascot in parade dress Wolf hunting with wolfhounds While many modern texts state Irish Wolfhounds were used for coursing deer, contemporary pre-revival accounts such as Animated Nature (1796) by Oliver Goldsmith are explicit that the original animal was a very poor coursing dog. Their astonishing size, speed, and intelligence made them ideal animals for both boar hunting and wolf hunting, and many were exported for this purpose. They were perhaps too ideal, as the boar and wolf are now extinct in Ireland. The Irish Wolfhound has been recorded as being exhibited in ancient Rome to some excitement, and mention is made that they so amazed and terrified the Romans that it was seen fit to only transport them in cages. There exist stories that in the arena, the original Wolfhound was the equal of a lion. There are reports of Irish Wolfhounds chasing away lions in Africa. Hilary Jupp: Irish Wolfhound History:The Bournstream Kennels-. In that case, the dogs were greater in number and the lions were most likely shy exemplars, afraid of men. It has been claimed that during times of conflict with England, Wolfhounds were used to take men off horseback The Irish Wolfhound Society. , thus allowing an infantry man to move in and finish the kill. However, the dogs were almost all killed. Due to a massive export into various countries as a gift for royalty and a ban on all but royalty owning the dog, the breed almost vanished in the middle of the 19th century. Captain Graham rebred the Irish Wolfhound with the Deerhound, Great Dane, Borzoi, English Mastiff, Tibetan Mastiff and other breeds; this saved the breed, but had the inevitable effect of altering its appearance, most noticeably leaving the Irish Wolfhound with alternative colours such as brindle (inherited from the Great Dane) as before they were mainly grey in colour. The ancient breed (often referred to as the Irish Wolfdogge in contemporary accounts) was available in both a smooth and rough coated variety. Descriptions of its appearance and demeanor, as well as the method of its use place it closer to the flock guardians in appearance than the modern breed. It is clear that the dog was not always the giant of today; skulls kept at the museum of the Royal Dublin Society have been interpreted to indicate a height of around 75 cm. H. Boycott Oddy: The Irish Wolfhound. in: Country Life, May 15th, 1909 . It has also been suggested that the Wolfhound was part of the make up of the Kerry Blue Terrier. The historical variety has similarities to both the Circassian wolfhound and quite similar to a now-extinct sighthound, the Old Serbian greyhound http://www.hundeguiden.no/Hunderasene_Molosser/The_3st_Group/old_serbian_greyhound.htm was famed for its loyalty, discernment, grave nature and aggression. In terms of temperament the modern breed has been greatly mellowed. Wolfhounds are often referred to as "Gentle Giants", and a historic motto of the breed is "Gentle when stroked. Fierce when provoked." The Wolfhound is sometimes regarded as the national dog breed of Ireland but in fact no breed has ever been officially adopted as such. The Wolfhound was historically a dog that only nobles could own and was taken up by the British during their rule in Ireland. This made it unpopular as a national symbol and the Kerry Blue Terrier was adopted by Irish Nationalists such as Michael Collins. References Further reading McBryde, M. (1998). The Magnificent Irish Wolfhound, Ringpress Books, Dorking. ISBN 1860540937, ISBN 978-1860540936. External links http://www.iwsocietyofireland.com Irish Wolfhound Society of Ireland Irish Wolfhound Club of Ireland | Irish_Wolfhound |@lemmatized irish:29 wolfhound:36 breed:19 domestic:1 dog:18 canis:1 lupus:1 familiaris:1 specifically:1 sighthound:2 name:1 originate:1 purpose:3 wolf:5 hunt:2 rather:1 appearance:5 tall:1 average:1 though:1 great:5 dane:3 exceed:1 height:3 female:2 distinguishing:1 physical:1 feature:1 size:3 generally:3 breeder:2 aim:1 range:1 centimeter:2 inch:2 withers:1 male:1 acceptable:1 weight:1 kg:1 temperament:2 sweet:1 temper:1 patient:1 generous:1 thoughtful:1 trust:1 child:1 dignify:1 willing:1 unconditionally:1 loyal:1 owner:4 family:1 guard:3 nature:4 may:4 deterrent:1 simply:1 due:2 tend:1 greet:1 everyone:1 friend:1 use:6 watch:1 recommend:2 although:1 put:2 real:1 danger:1 display:1 fearless:1 info:1 center:1 highly:1 sensitive:1 require:1 positive:1 environment:1 encourage:1 attitude:1 non:1 overbear:1 training:1 method:2 health:2 puppy:2 live:3 long:1 life:4 publish:1 lifespan:1 estimation:1 vary:1 year:1 dilate:1 cardiomyopathy:1 bone:2 cancer:2 lead:1 cause:1 death:1 like:1 deep:1 chested:1 gastric:1 torsion:1 bloat:1 also:3 common:1 affect:1 hereditary:1 intrahepatic:1 portosystemic:1 shunt:1 http:4 www:4 th:1 vetsuisse:1 unibe:1 ch:1 lenya:1 housing:1 publication:1 pdf:1 privately:1 fund:1 study:1 conduct:1 auspex:1 club:2 america:1 base:1 survey:1 united:1 state:2 mean:1 age:2 die:1 frequently:1 wolfhoundweb:1 com:2 breedinfo:1 longevity:1 bernardi:1 html:1 month:3 appear:1 adult:2 many:4 start:1 stress:1 much:1 outstretched:1 limb:1 irreparable:1 damage:1 result:1 need:1 least:1 ready:1 lure:1 coursing:1 run:2 sport:1 strenuous:1 activity:1 receive:2 additional:1 supplement:2 good:1 food:3 accept:1 feed:1 large:2 old:4 change:1 today:2 order:1 slow:1 rapid:1 growth:1 puppies:1 around:3 week:2 grow:1 cm:2 one:1 pound:1 day:1 tallest:1 well:5 suit:1 rural:1 medium:1 energy:1 profile:1 allow:2 adjust:1 fairly:1 suburban:1 urban:1 provide:1 appropriate:1 exercise:1 history:2 suggestion:1 develop:1 alongside:1 circa:1 arrive:1 ireland:6 arrival:1 early:1 settler:1 genetic:1 testing:1 help:1 clarify:1 point:1 origin:1 war:1 ancient:3 call:1 cú:1 faoil:1 continue:1 home:1 protect:1 stock:1 regular:1 reference:2 fight:1 find:1 historical:2 saga:1 cuchulain:1 favourite:1 luath:1 slay:1 southern:1 chief:1 hound:1 phorp:1 mascot:1 parade:1 dress:1 modern:3 text:1 course:2 deer:1 contemporary:2 pre:1 revival:1 account:2 animated:1 oliver:1 goldsmith:1 explicit:1 original:2 animal:2 poor:1 astonishing:1 speed:1 intelligence:1 make:4 ideal:2 boar:2 hunting:2 export:2 perhaps:1 extinct:2 record:1 exhibit:1 rome:1 excitement:1 mention:1 amaze:1 terrify:1 roman:1 see:1 fit:1 transport:1 cage:1 exist:1 story:1 arena:1 equal:1 lion:3 report:1 chase:1 away:1 africa:1 hilary:1 jupp:1 bournstream:1 kennel:1 case:1 number:1 likely:1 shy:1 exemplar:1 afraid:1 men:2 claim:1 time:1 conflict:1 england:1 take:2 horseback:1 society:3 thus:1 infantry:1 man:1 move:1 finish:1 kill:2 however:1 almost:2 massive:1 various:1 country:2 gift:1 royalty:2 ban:1 vanish:1 middle:1 century:1 captain:1 graham:1 rebred:1 deerhound:1 borzoi:1 english:1 mastiff:2 tibetan:1 save:1 inevitable:1 effect:1 alter:1 noticeably:1 leave:1 alternative:1 colour:2 brindle:1 inherit:1 mainly:1 grey:1 often:2 refer:2 wolfdogge:1 available:1 smooth:1 rough:1 coat:1 variety:2 description:1 demeanor:1 place:1 close:1 flock:1 guardian:1 clear:1 always:1 giant:2 skulls:1 keep:1 museum:1 royal:1 dublin:1 interpret:1 indicate:1 h:1 boycott:1 oddy:1 suggest:1 part:1 kerry:2 blue:2 terrier:2 similarity:1 circassian:1 quite:1 similar:1 serbian:1 greyhound:1 hundeguiden:1 htm:1 famed:1 loyalty:1 discernment:1 grave:1 aggression:1 term:1 greatly:1 mellow:1 gentle:2 historic:1 motto:1 stroke:1 fierce:1 provoke:1 sometimes:1 regard:1 national:2 fact:1 ever:1 officially:1 adopt:2 historically:1 noble:1 could:1 british:1 rule:1 unpopular:1 symbol:1 nationalist:1 michael:1 collins:1 far:1 read:1 mcbryde:1 magnificent:1 ringpress:1 book:1 dorking:1 isbn:2 external:1 link:1 iwsocietyofireland:1 |@bigram irish_wolfhound:24 canis_lupus:1 centimeter_inch:2 http_www:4 unibe_ch:1 irreparable_damage:1 lure_coursing:1 oliver_goldsmith:1 external_link:1 |
118 | History_of_film | The history of film spans over a hundred years, from the latter part of the 19th century to the beginning of the 21st century. Motion pictures developed gradually from a carnival novelty to one of the most important tools of communication and entertainment, and mass media in the 20th century. Motion picture films have had a substantial impact on the arts, technology, and politics. Precursors of film Plays and dances had elements common to films- scripts, sets, lighting, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, and scores. They preceded film by thousands of years. Much terminology later used in film theory and criticism applied, such as mise en scene. Moving visual images and sounds were not recorded for replaying as in film. The camera obscura was pioneered by Alhazen in his Book of Optics (1021), David H. Kelley, Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy: Bradley Steffens (2006), Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Chapter Five, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246 and was later perfected near the year 1600 by Giambattista della Porta. Light is inverted through a small hole or lens from outside, and projected onto a surface or screen, creating a projected moving image, indistinguishable from a projected high quality film to an audience, but it is not preserved in a recording. In 1740 and 1748, David Hume published Treatise of Human Nature and An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, arguing for the associations and causes of ideas with visual images, forerunners to the language of film. The birth of film In 1878, under the sponsorship of Leland Stanford, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named "Sallie Gardner" in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The experiment took place on June 11 at the Palo Alto farm in California with the press present. The cameras were arranged along a track parallel to the horse's, and each of the camera shutters was controlled by a trip wire which was triggered by the horse's hooves. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, taking pictures at one thousandth of a second. Roundhay Garden Scene 1888, the first known celluloid film recorded. The second experimental film, Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on October 14, 1888 in Roundhay, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England is generally recognized as the earliest surviving motion picture. At the Chicago 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, Muybridge gave a series of lectures on the Science of Animal Locomotion in the Zoopraxographical Hall, built specially for that purpose in the "Midway Plaisance" arm of the exposition. He used his zoopraxiscope to show his moving pictures to a paying public, making the Hall the very first commercial movie theater. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, chief engineer with the Edison Laboratories, is credited with the invention of a practicable form of a celluloid strip containing a sequence of images, the basis of a method of photographing and projecting moving images. Celluloid blocks were thinly sliced, then removed with heated pressure plates. After this, they were coated with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. In 1893 at the Chicago World's Fair, Thomas Edison introduced to the public two pioneering inventions based on this innovation; the Kinetograph - the first practical moving picture camera - and the Kinetoscope. The latter was a cabinet in which a continuous loop of Dickson's celluloid film (powered by an electric motor) was back lit by an incandescent lamp and seen through a magnifying lens. The spectator viewed the image through an eye piece. Kinetoscope parlours were supplied with fifty-foot film snippets photographed by Dickson, in Edison's "Black Maria" studio (pronounced like "ma-RYE-ah"). These sequences recorded mundane events (such as Fred Ott's Sneeze, 1894) as well as entertainment acts like acrobats, music hall performers and boxing demonstrations. Kinetoscope parlors soon spread successfully to Europe. Edison, however, never attempted to patent these instruments on the other side of the Atlantic, since they relied so greatly on previous experiments and innovations from Britain and Europe. This enabled the development of imitations, such as the camera devised by British electrician and scientific instrument maker Robert W. Paul and his partner Birt Acres. Paul had the idea of displaying moving pictures for group audiences, rather than just to individual viewers, and invented a film projector, giving his first public showing in 1895. At about the same time, in France, Auguste and Louis Lumière invented the cinematograph, a portable, three-in-one device: camera, printer, and projector. In late 1895 in Paris, father Antoine Lumière began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public, beginning the general conversion of the medium to projection (Cook, 1990). They quickly became Europe's main producers with their actualités like Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory and comic vignettes like The Sprinkler Sprinkled (both 1895). Even Edison, initially dismissive of projection, joined the trend with the Vitascope within less than six months. The first public motion-picture film presentation in Europe, though, belongs to Max and Emil Skladanowsky of Berlin, who projected with their apparatus "Bioscop", a flickerfree duplex construction, November 1 through 31, 1895. That same year in May, in the USA, Eugene Augustin Lauste devised his Eidoloscope for the Latham family. But the first public screening of film ever is due to Jean Aimé "Acme" Le Roy, a French photographer. On February 5, 1894, his 40th birthday, he presented his "Marvellous Cinematograph" to a group of around twenty show business men in New York City. The movies of the time were seen mostly via temporary storefront spaces and traveling exhibitors or as acts in vaudeville programs. A film could be under a minute long and would usually present a single scene, authentic or staged, of everyday life, a public event, a sporting event or slapstick. There was little to no cinematic technique: no editing and usually no camera movement, and flat, stagey compositions. But the novelty of realistically moving photographs was enough for a motion picture industry to mushroom before the end of the century, in countries around the world. The silent era Inventors and producers had tried from the very beginnings of moving pictures to marry the image with synchronous sound, but no practical method was devised until the late 1920s. Thus, for the first thirty years of their history, movies were silent, although accompanied by live musicians and sometimes sound effects and even commentary spoken by the showman or projectionist. In most countries the need for spoken accompaniment quickly faded, with dialogue and narration presented in intertitles, but in Japanese cinema it remained popular throughout the silent era. Film history from 1895 to 1906 The first ten years of motion pictures show the cinema moving from a novelty to an established large-scale entertainment industry. The films themselves represent a movement from films consisting of one shot, completely made by one person with a few assistants, towards films several minutes long consisting of several shots, which were made by large companies in something like industrial conditions. Film business up to 1906 The first commercial exhibition of film took place on April 14, 1894 at the first Kinetoscope parlor ever built. In 1896 it became clear that more money was to be made by showing motion picture films with a projector to a large audience than exhibiting them in Edison's Kinetoscope peep-show machines. The Edison company took up a projector developed by Armat and Jenkins, the “Phantoscope”, which was renamed the Vitascope, and it joined various projecting machines made by other people to show the 480 mm. width films being made by the Edison company and others in France and England. However, the most successful motion picture company in the United States, with the largest production until 1900, was the American Mutoscope company. This was initially set up to exploit peep-show type movies using designs made by W.K.L. Dickson after he left the Edison company in 1895. His equipment used 70 mm. wide film, and each frame was printed separately onto paper sheets for insertion into their viewing machine, called the Mutoscope. The image sheets stood out from the periphery of a rotating drum, and flipped into view in succession. Besides the Mutoscope, they also made a projector called the Biograph, which could project a continuous positive film print made from the same negatives. There were numerous other smaller producers in the United States, and some of them established a long-term presence in the new century. American Vitagraph, one of these minor producers, built studios in Brooklyn, and expanded its operations in 1905. From 1896 there was continuous litigation in the United States over the patents covering the basic mechanisms that made motion pictures possible. In France, the Lumière company sent cameramen all round the world from 1896 onwards to shoot films, which were exhibited locally by the cameramen, and then sent back to the company factory in Lyon to make prints for sale to whoever wanted them. There were nearly a thousand of these films made up to 1901, nearly all of them actualities. By 1898 Georges Méliès was the largest producer of fiction films in France, and from this point onwards his output was almost entirely films featuring trick effects, which were very successful in all markets. The special popularity of his longer films, which were several minutes long from 1899 onwards (while most other films were still only a minute long), led other makers to start producing longer films. From 1900 Charles Pathé began film production under the Pathé-Frères brand, with Ferdinand Zecca hired to actually make the films. By 1905, Pathé was the largest film company in the world, a position it retained until World War I. Léon Gaumont began film production in 1896, with his production supervised by Alice Guy. In England, Robert W. Paul, James Williamson and G.A. Smith and the other lesser producers were joined by Cecil Hepworth in 1899, and in a few years he was turning out 100 films a year, with his company becoming the largest on the British scene. Film exhibition Initially films were mostly shown as a novelty in special venues, but the main methods of exhibition quickly became either as an item on the programmes of variety theatres, or by travelling showman in tent theatres, which they took around the fairs in country towns. It became the practice for the producing companies to sell prints outright to the exhibitors, at so much per foot, regardless of the subject. Typical prices initially were 15 cents a foot in the United States, and one shilling a foot in Britain. Hand-coloured films, which were being produced of the most popular subjects before 1900, cost 2 to 3 times as much per foot. There were a few producers, such as the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, which did not sell their films, but exploited them solely with their own exhibition units. The first successful permanent theatre showing nothing but films was “The Nickelodeon”, which was opened in Pittsburgh in 1905. By this date there were finally enough films several minutes long available to fill a programme running for at least half an hour, and which could be changed weekly when the local audience became bored with it. Other exhibitors in the United States quickly followed suit, and within a couple of years there were thousands of these nickelodeons in operation. The American situation led to a worldwide boom in the production and exhibition of films from 1906 onwards. Film technique Georges Méliès (left) painting a backdrop in his studio The first movie cameras were fastened directly to the head of their tripod or other support, with only the crudest kind of levelling devices provided, in the manner of the still-camera tripod heads of the period. The earliest movie cameras were thus effectively fixed during the course of the shot, and hence the first camera movements were the result of mounting a camera on a moving vehicle. The first known of these was a film shot by a Lumière cameraman from the back platform of a train leaving Jerusalem in 1896, and by 1898 there were a number of films shot from moving trains. Although listed under the general heading of “panoramas” in the sales catalogues of the time, those films shot straight forward from in front of a railway engine were usually specifically referred to as “phantom rides”. In 1897, Robert W. Paul had the first real rotating camera head made to put on a tripod, so that he could follow the passing processions of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in one uninterrupted shot. This device had the camera mounted on a vertical axis that could be rotated by a worm gear driven by turning a crank handle, and Paul put it on general sale the next year. Shots taken using such a "panning" head were also referred to as ‘panoramas’ in the film catalogues of the first decade of the cinema. The standard pattern for early film studios was provided by the studio which Georges Méliès had built in May 1897. This had a glass roof and three glass walls constructed after the model of large studios for still photography, and it was fitted with thin cotton cloths that could be stretched below the roof to diffuse the direct rays of the sun on sunny days. The soft overall light without real shadows that this arrangement produced, and which also exists naturally on lightly overcast days, was to become the basis for film lighting in film studios for the next decade. Filmic effects Unique amongst all the one minute long films made by the Edison company, which recorded parts of the acts of variety performers for their Kinetoscope viewing machines, was The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. This showed a person dressed as the queen placing her head on the execution block in front of a small group of bystanders in Elizabethan dress. The executioner brings his axe down, and the queen's severed head drops onto the ground. This trick was worked by stopping the camera and replacing the actor with a dummy, then restarting the camera before the axe falls. The two pieces of film were then trimmed and cemented together so that the action appeared continuous when the film was shown. This film was among those exported to Europe with the first Kinetoscope machines in 1895, and was seen by Georges Méliès, who was putting on magic shows in his Theatre Robert-Houdin in Paris at the time. He took up film-making in 1896, and after making imitations of other films from Edison, Lumière, and Robert Paul, he made Escamotage d’un dame chez Robert-Houdin (The Vanishing Lady). This film shows a woman being made to vanish by using the same stop motion technique as the earlier Edison film. After this, Georges Méliès made many single shot films using this trick over the next couple of years. The other basic set of techniques for trick cinematography involves double exposure of the film in the camera, which was first done by G.A. Smith in July 1898 in England. His The Corsican Brothers was described in the catalogue of the Warwick Trading Company, which took up the distribution of Smith's films in 1900, thus: A scene inset inside a circular vignette showing a “dream vision” in Santa Claus (1899) “One of the twin brothers returns home from shooting in the Corsican mountains, and is visited by the ghost of the other twin. By extremely careful photography the ghost appears *quite transparent*. After indicating that he has been killed by a sword-thrust, and appealing for vengeance, he disappears. A ‘vision’ then appears showing the fatal duel in the snow. To the Corsican's amazement, the duel and death of his brother are vividly depicted in the vision, and finally, overcome by his feelings, he falls to the floor just as his mother enters the room.” The ghost effect was simply done by draping the set in black velvet after the main action had been shot, and then re-exposing the negative with the actor playing the ghost going through the actions at the appropriate point. Likewise, the vision, which appeared within a circular vignette or matte, was similarly superimposed over a black area in the backdrop to the scene, rather than over a part of the set with detail in it, so that nothing appeared through the image, which seemed quite solid. Smith used this technique again a year later in Santa Claus. Georges Méliès first used superimposition on a dark background in la Caverne maudite (The Cave of the Demons) made a couple of months later in 1898, and then elaborated it further with multiple superimpositions in the one shot in l’Homme de têtes (The Troublesome Heads). He then did it with further variations in numerous subsequent films. Other special techniques The other special effect technique that G.A. Smith initiated was reverse motion. He did this by repeating the action a second time, while filming it with an inverted camera, and then joining the tail of the second negative to that of the first. The first films made using this device were Tipsy, Topsy, Turvy and The Awkward Sign Painter. The Awkward Sign Painter showed a sign painter lettering a sign, and in the reverse printing of the same footage appended to the standard print, the painting on the sign vanished under the painter's brush. The earliest surviving example of this technique is Smith's The House That Jack Built, made before September 1900. Here, a small boy is shown knocking down a castle just constructed by a little girl out of children's building blocks. Then a title appears, saying “Reversed”, and the action is repeated in reverse, so that the castle re-erects itself under his blows. Cecil Hepworth took this technique further, by printing the negative of the forwards motion backwards frame by frame, so producing a print in which the original action was exactly reversed. To do this he built a special printer in which the negative running through a projector was projected into the gate of a camera through a special lens giving a same-size image. This arrangement came to be called a “projection printer”, and eventually an “optical printer”. With it Hepworth made The Bathers in 1900, in which bathers who have undressed and jumped into the water appear to spring backwards out of it, and have their clothes magically fly back onto their bodies. The use of different camera speeds also appeared around 1900. To make Robert Paul's On a Runaway Motor Car through Piccadilly Circus (1899), the camera was turned very slowly, so that when the film was projected at the usual 16 frames per second, the scenery appeared to be passing at great speed. Cecil Hepworth used the opposite effect in The Indian Chief and the Seidlitz Powder (1901), in which a naïve Red Indian eats a lot of the fizzy stomach medicine, causing his stomach to expand vastly. He leaps around in a way that is made balloon-like by cranking the camera much faster than 16 frames per second. This gives what we would call a “slow motion” effect. Animation The most important development in this area of special techniques did not happen until 1905, when Edwin Porter made How Jones Lost His Roll, and The Whole Dam Family and the Dam Dog. Both of these films had intertitles which were formed by the letters moving into place from a random scattering to form the words of the titles. This was done by exposing the film one frame at a time, and moving the letters a little bit towards their final position between each exposure. This is what has come to be called “single frame animation” or “object animation”, and it needs a slightly adapted camera that exposes only one frame for each turn of the crank handle, rather than the usual eight frames per turn. In 1906, Albert Edward Smith and James Stuart Blackton at Vitagraph took the next step, and in their Humorous Phases of Funny Faces, what appear to be cartoon drawings of people move from one pose to another. This is done for most of the length of this film by moving jointed cut-outs of the figures frame by frame between the exposures, just as Porter moved his letters. However, there is a very short section of the film where things are made to appear to move by altering the drawings themselves from frame to frame, which is how standard animated cartoons have since been made up to today. Narrative film construction The way forward to making films made up of more than one shot was led by films of the life of Jesus Christ. The first of these was made in France in 1897, and it was followed in the same year by a film of the Passion play staged yearly in the Czech town of Horitz. This was filmed by Americans for exhibition outside the German-speaking world, and was presented in special venues, not as a continuous film, but with the separate scenes interspersed with lantern slides, a lecture, and live choral numbers, to increase the running time of the spectacle to about 90 minutes. Films of acted reproductions of scenes from the Greco-Turkish war were made by Georges Méliès in 1897, and although sold separately, these were no doubt shown in continuous sequence by exhibitors. In 1898 a few films of similar kind were made, but still none had continuous action moving from one shot into the next. The multi-shot films that Georges Méliès made in 1899 were much longer than those made by anybody else, but l’Affaire Dreyfus (The Dreyfus Case) and Cendrillon (Cinderella) still contained no action moving from one shot to the next one. Also, from Cendrillon onwards, Méliès made a dissolve between every shot in his films, which reduced any appearance of action continuity even further. To understand what is going on in both these films, the audience had to know their stories beforehand, or be told them by a presenter. Film continuity Real film continuity, which means showing action moving from one shot into another joined to it, can be dated to Robert W. Paul's Come Along, Do!, made in 1898. In the first shot of this film, an old couple outside an art exhibition follow other people inside through the door. The second shot showed what they do inside. The two scenes making up Come Along Do! The further development of action continuity in multi-shot films continued in 1899. In the latter part of that year, George Albert Smith, working in Brighton, England, made The Kiss in the Tunnel. This started with a shot from a “phantom ride” at the point at which the train goes into a tunnel, and continued with the action on a set representing the interior of a railway carriage, where a man steals a kiss from a woman, and then cuts back to the phantom ride shot when the train comes out of the tunnel. A month later, the Bamforth company in Yorkshire made a restaged version of this film under the same title, and in this case they filmed shots of a train entering and leaving a tunnel from beside the tracks, which they joined before and after their version of the kiss inside the train compartment. In 1900, continuity of action across successive shots was definitively established by George Albert Smith and James Williamson, who also worked in Brighton. In that year Smith made Seen Through the Telescope, in which the main shot shows street scene with a young man tying the shoelace and then caressing the foot of his girlfriend, while an old man observes this through a telescope. There is then a cut to close shot of the hands on the girl's foot shown inside a black circular mask, and then a cut back to the continuation of the original scene. The first two shots of Seen Through the Telescope (1900), with the telescope POV simulated by the circular mask. Even more remarkable is James Williamson's Attack on a China Mission Station, made around the same time in 1900. The first shot shows the gate to the mission station from the outside being attacked and broken open by Chinese Boxer rebels, then there is a cut to the garden of the mission station where the missionary and his family are seated. The Boxers rush in and after exchanging fire with the missionary, kill him, and pursue his family into the house. His wife appears on the balcony waving for help, which immediately comes with an armed party of British sailors appearing through the gate to the mission station, this time seen from the inside. They fire at the Boxers, and advance out of the frame into the next shot, which is taken from the opposite direction looking towards the house. This constitutes the first “reverse angle” cut in film history. The scene continues with the sailors rescuing the remaining members of the missionary's family. G.A. Smith further developed the ideas of breaking a scene shot in one place into a series of shots taken from different camera positions over the next couple of years, starting with The Little Doctors of 1901. In this film a little girl is administering pretend medicine to a kitten, and Smith cuts in to a big Close Up of the kitten as she does so, and then cuts back to the main shot. In this case the inserted close up is not shown as a Point of View shot in a circular mask. He summed up his work in Mary Jane's Mishap of 1903, with repeated cuts in to a close shot of a housemaid fooling around, along with superimpositions and other devices, before abandoning film-making to invent the Kinemacolor system of colour cinematography. James Williamson concentrated on making films taking action from one place shown in one shot to the next shown in another shot in films like Stop Thief! and Fire!, made in 1901, and many others. Film continuity developed Other film-makers then took up all these ideas, which form the basis of film construction, or “film language”, or “film grammar”, as we know it. The best known of these film-makers was Edwin S. Porter, who started making films for the Edison Company in 1901. When he began making longer films in 1902, he put a dissolve between every shot, just as Georges Méliès was already doing, and he frequently had the same action repeated across the dissolves. In other words, Edwin Porter did not develop the basics of film construction. The Pathé company in France also made imitations and variations of Smith and Williamson's films from 1902 onwards using cuts between the shots, which helped to standardize the basics of film construction. In 1903 there was a substantial increase in the number of film several minutes long, as a result of the great popularity of Georges Méliès’ le Voyage dans la lune (A Trip to the Moon), which came out in early 1902, though such films were still a very minor part of production. Most of them were what came to be called “chase films”. These were inspired by James Williamson's Stop Thief! of 1901, which showed a tramp stealing a leg of mutton from a butcher's boy in the first shot, then being chased through the second shot by the butcher's boy and assorted dogs, and finally being caught by the dogs in the third shot. Several English films made in the first half of 1903 extended the chase method of film construction. These included An Elopement à la Mode and The Pickpocket: A Chase Through London, made by Alf Collins for the British branch of the French Gaumont company, Daring Daylight Burglary, made by the Sheffield Photographic Company, and Desperate Poaching Affray, made by the Haggar family, whose main business was exhibiting films made by others in their travelling tent theatre. All of these films, and indeed others of like nature were shown in the United States, and some them were certainly seen by Edwin Porter, before he made The Great Train Robbery towards the end of the year. The time continuity in The Great Train Robbery is actually more confusing than that in the films it was modelled on, but nevertheless it was a greater success than them worldwide, because of its Wild West violence. From 1900, the Pathé company films also frequently copied and varied the ideas of the British film-makers, without making any major innovations in narrative film construction, but eventually the sheer volume of their production led to their film-makers giving a further precision and polish to the details of film continuity. Film history from 1906 to 1914 The film business By 1907 there were about 4,000 small “nickelodeon” cinemas in the United States. The films were shown with the accompaniment of music provided by a pianist, though there could be more musicians. There were also a very few larger cinemas in some of the biggest cities. Initially, the majority of films in the programmes were Pathé films, but this changed fairly quickly as the American companies cranked up production. The programme was made up of just a few films, and the show lasted around 30 minutes. The reel of film, of maximum length , which usually contained one individual film, became the standard unit of film production and exhibition in this period. The programme was changed twice or more a week, but went up to five changes of programme a week after a couple of years. In general, cinemas were set up in the established entertainment districts of the cities. In other countries of the Western world the film exhibition situation was similar. With the change to “nickelodeon” exhibition there was also a change, led by Pathé in 1907, from selling films outright to renting them through film exchanges. The litigation over patents between all the major American film-making companies had continued, and at the end of 1908 they decided to pool their patents and form a trust to use them to control the American film business. The companies concerned were Pathé, Edison, Biograph, Vitagraph, Lubin, Selig, Essanay, Kalem, and the Kleine Optical Company, a major importer of European films. The George Eastman company, the only manufacturer of film stock in the United States, was also part of the combine, which was called the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), and Eastman Kodak agreed to only supply the members with film stock. License fees for distributing and projecting films were extracted from all distributors and exhibitors. The producing companies that were part of the trust were allocated production quotas (two reels, i.e. films, a week for the biggest ones, one reel a week for the smaller), which were supposed to be enough to fill the programmes of the licensed exhibitors. Vitagraph and Edison already had multiple production units, and so had no difficulty meeting their quota, but in 1908 Biograph lost their one working director. They offered the job of making their films to D. W. Griffith, an unimportant actor and playwright, who took up the job, and found he had a gift for it. Alone he made all the Biograph films from 1908 to 1910. This amounted to 30 minutes of screen time a week. But the market was bigger than the Motion Picture Patents Company members could supply. Although 6,000 exhibitors signed with the MPPC, about 2,000 others did not. A minority of the exchanges (i.e. distributors) stayed outside the MPPC, and in 1909 these independent exchanges immediately began to fund new film producing companies. By 1911 there were enough independent and foreign films available to programme all the shows of the independent exhibitors, and in 1912 the independents had nearly half of the market. The MPPC had effectively been defeated in its plan to control the whole United States market, and the government anti-trust action, which only now started against the MPPC, was not really necessary to defeat it. Multi-reel films It was around 1912 that the actors in American films, who up to this point had been anonymous, began to receive screen credit, and the way to the creation of film stars was opened. The appearance of films longer than one reel also helped this process. Such films were extremely rare, and almost entirely restricted to film versions of the life of Christ, which had reached three reels in length in the first few years of cinema. They were always shown as a special event in special venues, and supported by live commentary and music. A unique addition to this style of presentation was The Story of the Kelly Gang, made in Australia in 1906. This was a four-reel version of the career of this famous (in Australia) outlaw, and was incomprehensible without explanation. More multi-reel films were made in Europe than in the United States after 1906, because the MPPC insisted on working on the basis of one-reel films up until 1912. However, before this, some MPPC members got around this restriction by occasionally making longer stories in separate parts, and releasing them in successive weeks, starting with Vitagraph's The Life of Moses in five parts (and five reels) at the end 1909. In other countries this film was shown straight through as one picture, and it inspired the creation of other multi-reel films in Europe. Pathé-Frères set up a new subsidiary company in the United States called Eclectic in 1913, and in 1914 this began production of features at the Pathé plant in New Jersey. The French Éclair company was already making films in the United States, and their production of features increased with the transfer of more film-makers when the French industry was shut down at the beginning of World War I. Up to 1913, most American film production was still carried out around New York, but because of the monopoly of Thomas Edison's film patents, many filmmakers had moved to Southern California, hoping to escape the litany of lawsuits that the Edison Company had been bringing to protect its monopoly. Once there in Southern California, the film industry grew continuously. The move to filming in California had begun when Selig, one of the MPPC companies, sent a production unit there in 1909. Other companies, both independents and members of the MPPC, then sent units to work there in the summer to take advantage of the sunshine and scenery. The latter was important for the production of Westerns, which now formed a major American film genre. The first cowboy star was G.M. Anderson (“Broncho Billy”), directing his own Western dramas for Essanay, but in 1911 Tom Mix brought the kind of costumes and stunt action used in live Wild West shows to Selig film productions, and became the biggest cowboy star for the next two decades. Most of the major companies made films in all the genres, but some had a special interest in certain kinds of films. Once Selig had taken up production in California, they used the (fairly) wild animals from the zoo that Colonel Selig had set up there in a series of exotic adventures, with the actors being menaced or saved by the animals. Essanay specialized in Westerns featuring “Broncho Billy” Anderson, and Kalem sent Sidney Olcott off with a film crew and a troupe of actors to various places in America and abroad to make film stories in the actual places they were supposed to have happened. Kalem also pioneered the female action heroine from 1912, with Ruth Roland playing starring roles in their Westerns. Minor curiosities were some of the films of Solax directed by Herbert Blaché and his wife Alice Guy. They left American branch of the Gaumont company in 1912 to set up their own independent company. The distinguishing feature of some of their films was a deliberate attempt to use resolutely theatrical-type light comedy playing that was directed towards the audience. This went against the trend towards filmic restraint already visible in what were called “polite” comedies from other film companies. In France, Pathé retained its dominant position, followed still by Gaumont, and then other new companies that appeared to cater to the film boom. A film company with a different approach was Film d’Art. This was set up at the beginning of 1908 to make films of a serious artistic nature. Their declared programme was to make films using only the best dramatists, artists and actors. The first of these was l’Assassinat du Duc de Guise (The Assassination of the Duc de Guise), a historical subject set in the court of Henri III. This film used leading actors from the Comédie Francaise, and had a special accompanying score written by Camille Saint-Saens. The other French majors followed suit, and this wave gave rise to the English-language description of films with artistic pretensions aimed at a sophisticated audience as “art films”. By 1910, the French film companies were starting to make films as long as two, or even three reels, though most were still one reel long. This trend was followed in Italy, Denmark, and Sweden. Although the British industry continued to expand after its brilliant beginning, the new companies that replaced the first innovative film-makers proved unable to preserve their drive and originality. New film producing countries With the worldwide film boom, yet more countries now joined Britain, France, and the United States in serious film production. In Italy, production was spread over several centres, with Turin being the first and biggest. There, Ambrosio was the first company in the field in 1905, and remained the largest in the country through this period. Its most substantial rival was Cines in Rome, which started producing in 1906. The great strength of the Italian industry was historical epics, with large casts and massive scenery. As early as 1911, Giovanni Pastrone's two-reel la Caduta di Troia (The Fall of Troy) made a big impression worldwide, and it was followed by even bigger spectacles like Quo Vadis? (1912), which ran for 90 minutes, and Pastrone's Cabiria of 1914, which ran for two and a half hours. La Caduta di Troia (The Siege of Troy) (1911) Italian companies also had a strong line in slapstick comedy, with actors like André Deed, known locally as “Cretinetti”, and elsewhere as “Foolshead” and “Gribouille”, achieving worldwide fame with his almost surrealistic gags. The most important film-producing country in Northern Europe up until the First World War was Denmark. The Nordisk company was set up there in 1906 by Ole Olsen, a fairground showman, and after a brief period imitating the successes of French and British film-makers, in 1907 he produced 67 films, most directed by Viggo Larsen, with sensational subjects like Den hvide Slavinde (The White Slave), Isbjørnenjagt (Polar Bear Hunt) and Løvejagten (The Lion Hunt). By 1910 new smaller Danish companies began joining the business, and besides making more films about the white slave trade, they contributed other new subjects. The most important of these finds was Asta Nielsen in Afgrunden (The Abyss), directed by Urban Gad for Kosmorama, This combined the circus, sex, jealousy and murder, all put over with great conviction, and pushed the other Danish film-makers further in this direction. By 1912 the Danish film companies were multiplying like rabbits. The Swedish film industry was smaller and slower to get started than the Danish industry. Here, the important man was Charles Magnusson, a newsreel cameraman for the Svenskabiografteatern cinema chain. He started fiction film production for them in 1909, directing a number of the films himself. Production increased in 1912, when the company engaged Victor Sjöström and Mauritz Stiller as directors. They started out by imitating the subjects favoured by the Danish film industry, but by 1913 they were producing their own strikingly original work, which sold very well. Russia began its film industry in 1908 with Pathé shooting some fiction subjects there, and then the creation of real Russian film companies by Aleksandr Drankov and Aleksandr Khanzhonkov. The Khanzhonkov company quickly became much the largest Russian film company, and remained so until 1918. In Germany, Oskar Messter had been involved in film-making from 1896, but did not make a significant number of films per year till 1910. When the worldwide film boom started, he, and the few other people in the German film business, continued to sell prints of their own films outright, which put them at a disadvantage. It was only when Paul Davidson, the owner of a chain of cinemas, brought Asta Nielsen and Urban Gad to Germany from Denmark in 1911, and set up a production company, Projektions-AG “Union” (PAGU), for them, that a change-over to renting prints began. Messter replied with a series of longer films starring Henny Porten, but although these did well in the German-speaking world, they were not particularly successful internationally, unlike the Asta Nielsen films. Another of the growing German film producers just before World War I was the German branch of the French Éclair company, Deutsche Éclair. This was expropriated by the German government, and turned into DECLA when the war started. But altogether, German producers only had a minor part of the German market in 1914. Overall, from about 1910, American films had the largest share of the market in all European countries except France, and even in France, the American films had just pushed the local production out of first place on the eve of World War I. So even if the war had not happened, American films may have become dominant worldwide. Although the war made things much worse for European producers, the technical qualities of American films made them increasingly attractive to audiences everywhere. Film technique A.E. Smith filming The Bargain Fiend in the Vitagraph studios in 1907. Arc floodlights hang overhead. With the increased production required by the nickelodeon boom, extra artificial lighting was used more and more in the film studios to supplement diffuse sunlight, and so increase the hours that film could be shot during the day. The main sources used were modified arc lights made for street lighting. These were either hung on battens suspended forward of the actors from the roof, or mounted in groups on floorstands. The addition of a metal reflector round the arc source directed a very broad sweep of light in the desired direction. Large mercury vapour tube lights (Cooper-Hewitts) were also used in racks placed in the same way. Arc lights had been used to produce special lighting effects in films like the light from a lamp or firelight before 1906, but this now became more common. Low key lighting for sinister effect in The Mystery of Temple Court A strong expressive use of a fire effect occurs in D.W. Griffith'sThe Drunkard's Reformation (1909). Here, the reformed drunkard is happily reunited with his family before the fire in the hearth, in a set-up reproducing that at the beginning of the film in which the fire is out, and the hearth is cold, and the family is destitute. Low-key lighting (i.e. lighting in which most of the frame is dark) slowly began to be used for sinister scenes, but not in D.W. Griffith films. Vitagraph's thriller, The Mystery of Temple Court (1910) has low-key lighting for a scene of murder, and their Conscience (1912) shows low-key lighting done solely with artificial light for a scene of terror. Nero lit by arc floodlights from below in Quo Vadis? This sort of lighting was appearing occasionally in European films by 1911, and in some cases was pushed much further. Lighting from a low angle was used more strongly in the Italian epic film Quo Vadis? in 1912, and then in the famous Cabiria (1914) to reinforce the weird atmosphere in one scene. Silhouette effects in location scenes began to appear in 1909 in both the United States and Italy; though as things developed, European film-makers made more use of this than the Americans did. The most important aspect of this was that such shots involved having the sun light the scene from behind, and this approach was extended by using the reflected sunlight from a white surface below the camera to light up the shadow on the actors faces from the front. This is the one novel technique that D.W. Griffith and his cameraman Billy Bitzer may really have invented. The next step was to transfer this kind of back-lighting onto the lighting of actors on studio sets. Up to this point artificial lighting in studio scenes had always been put on from the front or side-front, but in 1912 there began to be a few cases where light was put onto the actors from arc floodlights out of shot behind them and to one side, to give a kind of backlighting. It was not until 1915 that the effect of backlighting of the actors by the sun was fully mimicked in studio lighting, by using a powerful arc spotlight shining from above and behind the set down onto the actors. This slowly became a standard component of the studio lighting of figures in American films, but it took much longer to catch on with European cameramen. Animation develops The technique of single frame animation was further developed in 1907 by Edwin S. Porter in The Teddy Bears and by J. Stuart Blackton with Work Made Easy. In the first of these the toy bears were made to move, apparently on their own, and in the latter film building tools were made to perform construction tasks without human intervention, by using frame-by-frame animation. The technique got to Europe almost immediately, and Segundo de Chomon and others at Pathé took it further, adding clay animation, in which sculptures were deformed from one thing into another thing frame by frame in Sculpture moderne (1908), and then Pathé made the next step to the animation of silhouette shapes. Also in France, Emile Cohl fully developed drawn animation in a series of films starting with Fantasmagorie (1908), in which humans and objects drawn as outline figures went though a series of remarkable interactions and transformations. In the United States the response was from the famous strip cartoon artist Winsor McCay, who drew much more realistic animated figures going through smoother, more naturalistic motion in a series of films starting with the film Little Nemo, made for Vitagraph in 1911. In the next few years various others took part in this development of animated cartoons in the United States and elsewhere. Cross-cutting between parallel actions As the film boom got under way, the Pathéa film-makers continued to refine the continuity of action from shot to shot in their films. In films like Pathéa's le Cheval emballé (The Runaway Horse) (1907), there appeared a new feature, which can be called cross-cutting between parallel actions. In this film, a delivery man is going about his lady's house inside an apartment house while his horse steals a big meal from a bag of oats outside a feed store. The film cuts back and forwards between the two chains of action four times before the delivery man comes out, and the horse runs away with him. More importantly, early next year the Pathé production unit down in the south of France in Nice made le Médecin du chateau (The Physician of the Castle), in which there are cuts back and forth between criminals threatening a doctor's wife and child, while the doctor himself drives home to rescue them after being warned by telephone. This film also contains a cut in to a closer shot of the doctor as he hears the dreadful news on the telephone, which uses the new idea of getting in closer to the actor to accentuate the emotion. In the United States, Vitagraph was also trying cross-cutting for suspense in 1907 and 1908 with The Mill Girl and Get Me a Stepladder. Before D.W. Griffith started directing at Biograph in May 1908, he had seen the two Pathé films just mentioned, and a number of Vitagraph films as well. But Griffith's first use of cross-cutting in The Fatal Hour, made in July 1908, has a much stronger suspense story served by this construction than those in the earlier Pathé examples. From this point onwards Griffith certainly developed the device much further, gradually increasing the number of alternations between two, and later three, sets of parallel scenes, and also their speed. This intensified usage was only slowly taken up by other American film-makers. So although he did not invent the technique of cross-cutting, he did consciously develop it into a powerful method of film construction. It is also important to note that Griffith described cross-cutting indiscriminately as the ‘switch-back’ or ‘cut-back’ or ‘flash-back’ technique, and that by the last of these terms he did not mean what we now understand by a ‘flash-back’. The true ‘flash-back’ was also developed in this period, but not at all by D.W. Griffith. Although D. W. Griffith did not invent any new film techniques, he was the best film director working up to 1913, and this was because he made better dramatic and artistic use of the medium than other directors. One aspect of this was the structure he gave his films, with the final scene mirroring the opening scene, as in the example of A Drunkard's Reformation already mentioned above. Many other examples of this like The Country Doctor (1908) can easily be found in his work. But the most important thing Griffith did was work out significant and expressive natural gestures in intensive rehearsal periods with his actors, before the film was shot, such as the enraged and jealous husband in The Voice of the Child (1911) walking around his office chomping on a cigar and puffing clouds of smoke out of it through clenched teeth. Griffith's increased use of cross-cutting between parallel actions helped him to get more shots into his films than other directors, but he also had another method for doing this. This was to split a scene that could have been played in room (or other place), into two or more sections that moved backwards and forwards between adjoining rooms or spaces. The result of this was that D.W. Griffith's films had at least twice as many shots in them as did those of other American directors. Over this period, the other directors speeded up, but so did Griffith. At first, the technique of cutting in to a closer shot of an actor in a scene made no contribution to the increase in cutting rate, because it was still very rarely done, despite having been established as a possibility in the previous period. The exception to this was a close shot of an object, which was sometimes used to make clear exactly what a person was doing. It was only towards 1913 that film-makers began to cut into closer shots with any regularity. However, American film-makers did get closer to the actors on the average by shooting the whole scene with the camera closer than previously. The Vitagraph company led the way here, by using what they called “the nine-foot line” from 1910 onwards. This meant that the actors played a scene up to a line marked on the ground nine feet from the camera lens, which meant that they were shown cut off at the waist in the image. Some, but not all, American film-makers followed their example, calling it the “American foreground”, while European film-makers stayed with the “French foreground” established by the Pathé about 1907, which only cut the actors off at the shins. This corresponded to the actors playing up to a line put down 4 metres in front of the camera lens. Point of view shots An even more important development was the in the use of the Point of View shot. Previously, these had only been used to convey the idea of what someone in the film was seeing through a telescope (or other aperture), and this was indicated by having a black circular mask or vignette within the film frame. The true Point of View (POV) shot, in which a shot of someone looking at something is followed by a cut to a shot taken from their position without any mask, took longer to appear. In 1910, in Vitagraph's Back to Nature we see a Long Shot of people looking down over the rail of a ship taken from below, followed by a shot of the lifeboat they are looking at taken from their position. A pair of reverse angles representing the POV of the people on the ship, and what they see in Back to Nature (1910). However, the Vitagraph film-makers continued to be a little uneasy with the device, as a true POV shot is introduced by an explanatory intertitle, “What they saw in the house across the court” in Larry Trimble's Jean and the Waif, made at the end of 1910. But a few months later, Trimble made Jean Rescues, another of the popular series starring the fictional exploits of his Border Collie, which has POV shots introduced at an appropriate point without explanation. After this, un-vignetted POV shots began to appear fairly frequently in Vitagraph films, and also occasionally in films from other American companies. However, D.W. Griffith only used them in a theatrical situation, to show what the audience in a theatre were looking at, as did European film-makers. Reverse-angle cutting Close in reverse angle shots of two people in confrontation in The Loafer. Another important development was in the use of reverse angle shots; that is, continuing a scene with a cut to a shot of the action taken from the opposite direction. There were isolated examples of this very early, and the first of these, Williamson's Attack on a China Mission (1900) has already been mentioned. But in 1908, starting with l’Assassinat du duc de Guise (The Assassination of the Duc de Guise), there began to be other films in which a scene was shown from another direction by cutting to the opposite side. This effect was imitated occasionally in Europe and the United States over the next couple of years, and came to be called a “reverse scene”. The next step, in which two actors facing each other are shown in successive close shots from taken opposite directions towards each of them, is first to be seen at the end of 1911 in The Loafer, made by Arthur Mackley for Essanay. This is what is called “reverse-angle cutting”, and it is used constantly in present day film-making. However, it took some years to catch on with other American film-makers, but by 1913, it was starting to occur with greater frequency in the work of a few directors. This happened entirely when they were filming exterior scenes, where there was no problem about shooting past the edge of the studio set. A leading example of this use of close in reverse-angle cutting is His Last Fight (1913), directed by Ralph Ince for Vitagraph, in which one-third of the cuts are between a shot and the reverse angle. However, this sort of thing never happened in D.W. Griffith's films, or in European films. Flash-Back construction Another important device for the construction of film narratives is the use of “flash-backs”, in the sense that the term is understood nowadays. That is, having a scene in the present followed by a scene in the past, and eventually returning to scenes in the present of the story. In the earliest days of film-making, this was only done as a representation of a character dreaming about the past, as in the 1901 Pathé film Histoire d’un crime (The Story of a Crime). The first film in which a character remembers the past while awake was Vitagraph's Napoleon – Man of Destiny of 1909. In this film, Napoleon is in his palace after the battle of Waterloo remembering notable scenes of his past life. A superimposed title appears identifying the event he is thinking about, and the film then cuts straight to this scene, and afterwards back to Napoleon thinking about it. The idea slowly spread over the next few years, and in these usually the framing action shows a character narrating the story of the past events to people listening to them. This happens in Luigi Maggi's Nozze d’oro (Golden Wedding) of 1911, and amongst other films in the Edison company's The Passer-by of 1912. This film introduces what was to become a standard way of getting into a flash-back. As the person telling the story of their past starts talking, the camera tracks in to his face, then there is a dissolve to his younger face and the camera tracks back to reveal the scene in the past. There are many examples of single shot memory flashbacks by 1913, while a memory shown in an extended series of shots is much rarer. There is even an example of a flash-back inside a flashback in Just a Shabby Doll, made by the Thanhouser company in 1913. Representing drug hallucinations in films was one way that subjective effects were developed. Victorin Jasset's master criminal thriller Zigomar contre Nick Carter (Zigomar versus Nick Carter) (1912) contains a sequence in an opium den, and the drugged vision of one of the clients is represented as a series of superimpositions overlaid onto the main scene, which eventually build up into a set of multiple images within the one frame. There is a development of this idea the next year in the Itala company's Tigris (1913). As the effect of the drug takes hold, this is represented by tilting the frame sideways, then superimposing a series of disjointed images fading and dissolving in and out on a patterned background. Symbolism and insert shots In this period the word “Art” was mentioned more and more in connection with motion pictures, and as a result of the increasing artistic ambitions of film-makers, poems began to be transposed directly into films. D.W. Griffith went further than this, by creating the visual equivalent of the poetic or musical refrain in The Way of the World (1910), by cutting in shots of church bells at intervals down the length of the film. However, this was an exceptional case, and it is not until 1912 that there were the first signs of the special expressive use of Insert Shots; that is, shots of objects rather than people. In the Italian Ambrosio companies film La mala planta (The Evil Plant), directed by Mario Caserini, which involves a case of poisoning, there is an Insert shot of a snake slithering over the ‘Evil Plant’. Another of the still very rare examples at this date is in Griffith's The Massacre, which was made at the end of 1912. This includes an Insert Shot of a candle at a sick man's bedside guttering out to indicate his death. Yet another is in the Ambrosio company version of Gli ultimi giorni di Pompei (The Last Days of Pompeii) (1913). This film includes a scene, preceded by the title “The thorns of jealousy”, in which a rejected woman overhears the man she loves with another woman, and this is followed by a fade to a shot of a pair of doves, which then dissolves into a shot of a bird of prey. It was in 1914 that D.W. Griffith began to bend the use of the Insert towards truly dramatically expressive ends, but he had not done this often, and it is really only with his The Avenging Conscience of 1914 that a new phase in the use of the Insert Shot starts. In this film the intertitle “The birth of the evil thought” precedes a series of three shots of the protagonist looking at a spider, and ants eating an insect, though at a later point in the film, when he prepares to kill someone, these shots are cut straight in without explanation. As well as the symbolic inserts already mentioned, The Avenging Conscience also made extensive use of large numbers of Big Close Up shots of clutching hands and tapping feet as a means of emphasizing those parts of the body as indicators of psychological tension. Griffith never went so far in this direction again, but his use of the Insert shot made its real impression on other American film-makers during the years 1915-1919. Film art A scene in les Debuts de Max Linder au cinematographe (1910) showing a Pathé film crew at work. The vast increase in film production after 1906 inevitably brought specialist writers into film-making as part of the increasing sub-division of labour, but even so the film companies still had to buy stories from outsiders to get enough material for their productions. This introduced a greater variety into the types of story used in films. The use of more complex stories derived from literary and stage works of the recent past also contributed to developments in script film construction. The general American tendency was to simplify the plots borrowed from novels and plays so that they could be dealt with in one reel and with the minimum of titling and the maximum of straightforward narrative continuity, but there were exceptions to this. In these cases the information that was difficult to film and lacking in strong dramatic interest was put into narrative titles before each scene, and this was also mostly the custom in European films of the more seriously intended kind. Motion pictures were classified into genres by the film industry following the divisions already established in other media, particularly the stage. The main division was into comedy and drama, but these categories were further subdivided. Comedy could be either slapstick (usually referred to as “burlesque farce”), or alternatively “polite comedy”, which later came to be referred to as “domestic comedy” or “sophisticated comedy”. D.W. Griffith made a small number of the latter type of film in his first two years at Biograph, but had little interest or aptitude for the genre. From 1910 he let Frank Powell, and then Mack Sennett direct the Biograph comedies. Sennett left in 1912 to set up the Keystone company, where he could give his enthusiasm for the slapstick comedy style derived from the earlier Pathé comedies like le Cheval emballé (The Runaway Horse) full rein. In Europe the more restrained type of comedy was developed in substantial quantities in France, with the films of Max Linder for Pathé representing the summit of the genre from 1910 onwards. Linder's comedy was set in an upper middle-class milieu, and relied on clever and inventive ways of getting around the embarrassments and obstacles arising in his single-minded pursuit of a goal. Quite often a goal of a sexual nature. D.W. Griffith had a major influence on the simplification of film stories. After he had been at Biograph for a year, Griffith started to make some films that had much less story content than any previous one-reel films. In The Country Doctor, the action is no more than various people, including the doctor, hurrying backwards and forwards between the doctor's house, where his child is sick, and a neighbouring cottage, where another child is also sick. By 1912 and 1913, there are beginning to be many films from many American companies that rely on applying novel decoration to the story, rather than supplying any twists to the drama itself to sustain interest. Intertitles Intertitles containing lines of dialogue began to be used consistently from 1908 onwards. In that year, Vitagraph's An Auto Heroine; or, The Race for the Vitagraph Cup and How It Was Won, contains a couple of dialogue titles, and the same firm's Julius Caesar includes three lines of dialogue from Shakespeare's play quoted in intertitles before the actors speak them, finishing with “This was the noblest Roman of them all”. From 1909 a small number of American films, and even one or two European ones, came to include a few dialogue titles, or “spoken titles” as they were called at the time. Film-makers slowly progressed from putting these dialogue titles before the scene in which they were spoken, to cutting them into the middle of the shot at the point at which they were understood to be actually spoken by the characters. This transition began in 1912. Once underway, the trend was aided by the move towards the increasing use of cuts within scenes in American films. In 1913 a substantial proportion of the dialogue titles that were used in American films were cut in at the point when they were spoken. Hardly any of the films where this happened were D.W. Griffith films, and indeed many of his 1913 films still contain no dialogue titles at all. Although some European film-makers picked up the trend towards using dialogue titles, they did not pick up on the move towards cutting them into the scene at the point at which they were actually spoken until a few years later. The introduction of dialogue titles was far from being a trivial matter, for they entirely transformed the nature of film narrative. When dialogue titles came to be always cut into a scene just after a character starts speaking, and then left with a cut to the character just before they finish speaking, then one had something that was effectively the equivalent of a present-day sound film. Film history from 1914 to 1919 The film business from 1914 to 1919 The years of the First World War were a complex transitional period for the film industry. It was the period when the exhibition of films changed from short programmes of one-reel films to longer shows consisting of a feature film of four reels or longer, though still supported by short films. The exhibition venues also changed from small nickelodeon cinemas to larger cinemas charging higher prices. These higher prices were partly justified by the new film stars who were now being created. In the United States, nearly all the original film companies which formed the Motion Picture Patents Company went out of business in this period because of their resistance to the changeover to long feature films. The one exception to this was the Vitagraph company, which was already moving over to long films by 1914. The move towards shooting more films on the West coast around Los Angeles continued during World War I, until the bulk of American production was carried out there. The Universal Film Manufacturing Company had been formed in 1912 as an umbrella company for many of the independent producing companies, and continued to grow during the war. Other independent companies were grouped under the Mutual banner in 1912, and there were also important new entrants, particularly the Jesse Lasky Feature Play Company, and Famous Players, which were both formed in 1913 to take advantage of the fact that films could reproduce the real substance of a stage play (plus embellishments), and so the best plays and actors from the legitimate stage could be enticed into films. In fact, the film industry adopted the term “photoplay” for motion pictures at this time. In 1914 the Lasky company and Famous Players were amalgamated into Famous Players-Lasky, with distribution of their films handled by the new Paramount Pictures Corporation. Another new major producing company formed during the war years was Triangle, with Mack Sennett, D.W. Griffith and Thomas Ince heading its production units. Despite the talents involved, it only lasted from 1915 to 1917, after which its separate producers took their films to Paramount for distribution. Equally short-lived, but still very important, was the World Film Company, which recruited most of the French directors, cameramen, and designers who had previously been working at the Fort Lee, New Jersey studios for Pathé and Éclair. The biggest success of these years was D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation (1915), made for Triangle. Griffith applied all the ideas for film staging that he had worked out in his Biograph films to a bigoted white southerner's epic view of the Civil War and its aftermath. Despite protests in the northern cities of the United States organized by the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People and others, it took many millions at the box office. Stung by the criticism of his film, Griffith made a new film he had just finished, The Mother and the Law, into one of the strands of an even bigger film with an even bigger theme, Intolerance (1916). European film production In France, film production and exhibition closed down as its personnel became part of the general military mobilization of the country at the beginning of the war. Although film production began again in 1915, it was on a reduced scale, and the biggest companies gradually retired from production, to concentrate on film distribution and exhibition. Hence the cinemas were given over to imported films, particularly American ones. New small companies entered the business, and new young directors arrived to replace those drafted or working in the United States. The most notable of these was Abel Gance. Italian film production held up during the war, with long features already established as the main form. However, there was a disastrous move in subject matter to what were called “diva films”. These romantic dramas had the female star (the “diva”) suffering from unhappy love, and striking endless anguished Art Nouveau poses, while surrounded by male admirers and luxury. They were a commercial failure outside Italy. In Denmark the Nordisk company increased its production so much in 1915 and 1916 that it could not sell all its films, which led to a very sharp decline in Danish production, and the end of Denmark's importance on the world film scene. The Nordisk distribution and cinema chain in Germany was effectively expropriated by the German government in 1917. The Swedish industry did not have this problem, as its production was more in balance with the market, and more importantly, the quality of its films was now superior to those from Denmark. The German film industry was seriously weakened by the war, though with the major companies continuing as before. The distribution organization Projektions-AG “Union” (PAGU) acted as an umbrella company backing production by individual producers, and the Messter company also made many films. The most important of the new film producers at the time was Joe May, who made a series of thrillers and adventure films through the war years, but Ernst Lubitsch also came into prominence with a series of very successful comedies and dramas. Because of the large local market for films in Russia, the industry there was not harmed by the war at first, although the isolation of the country led many Russian films to develop peculiarly distinctive features. The Khanzhonkov company retained its dominance, but the Ermoliev company, which had been formed in 1914, became its principal competitor, propelled by the work of its star, Ivan Mosjoukin, and principal director, Yakov Protazanov. The Bolshevik revolution in October 1917 did not eliminate the privately owned film companies at first, though production was reduced through 1918. It was only in 1919 that the exodus of talent from the country took place, and fiction film production was reduced to practically nothing. Film studios The major change in film production methods in the United States during this period was the change to shooting in “dark” studios. The existing glass-roofed studios were blacked out, and the many new ones being built around Los Angeles were constructed with solid walls and ceilings. This meant that shooting could continue all day and night, without being limited by the changing sunlight. The general diffuse daylighting in the old studios was completely replaced with floodlights, and the actors were individually lit with floodlights on floorstands. The use of a spotlight from high at the back onto the actors to rimlight them became more frequent, and around 1918 some American cameramen started to use spotlights to light the actors from the front. All this meant that the figures of the actors were modelled more by the lighting, and more separated from the background by the lower light levels now used on the sets. This was a major step towards the standard studio lighting methods of the sound period. At the same time there was the beginning of a move towards using artificial light to light the actors on location, and some of the biggest studios bought electric generator trucks for this purpose. All these developments took years to reach Europe. Irising and soft focus Complex vignette shot in die Austernprinzessin (The Oyster Princess). A very noticeable technical development was the widespread adoption of irising-in and out to begin and end scenes. This is the revelation of a film shot by its appearance inside a small circular vignette mask which gradually gets larger till it expands beyond the frame, and the whole image is in the clear. D.W. Griffith, who used it relentlessly, was responsible for the popularization of this device. By 1918 the use of the iris to begin and end sequences was starting to decrease in the United States, though in Europe it was just starting to become fashionable. At that date it is quite easy to find American films such as Stella Maris in which only fades are used. There were other variants of the simple iris as well and in these the mask opening or closing in front of the lens had shapes other than circular. One of the more frequent of these shapes was the opening slit; a vertical central split appears in the totally black frame, and widens till the whole frame is clear, revealing the scene that is about to start. Eventually the diagonally opening slit appeared as well, and then there was the diamond-shaped opening iris, as in Poor Little Peppina and Alsace (1916), rather than the usual circle. Again, all of these variant forms were very infrequently used, and when they did occur in American films it was usually in the introductory stages. By 1918 the edges of ordinary circular irises were becoming very fuzzy when they were used in American films. Enclosing the image inside static vignettes or masks of shapes other than circular also began to appear in films during the years 1914-1919, including symbolic shapes such as a cruciform cut-out in the Mary Pickford film Stella Maris (Marshall Neilan, 1918), and Maurice Elvey in Britain put romantic scenes inside a heart-shaped mask in Nelson; The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero (1918) and The Rocks of Valpré (1919). The most elegant variants occur in some films Ernst Lubitsch made in 1919. In Die Austernprinzessin (The Oyster Princess) a triple layer of horizontal rectangles with rounded ends enclose sets of dancing feet at the frenzied peak of a foxtrot, and in Die Puppe (The Doll) a dozen gossiping mouths are each enclosed in individual small circular vignettes arranged in a matrix. A new idea taken over from still photography was “soft focus”. This began in 1915, with some shots being intentionally thrown out of focus for expressive effect, as in Mary Pickford's Fanchon the Cricket. The idea developed slowly through the war years, until in D.W. Griffith's Broken Blossoms (1918) all the Close Ups of Lillian Gish are heavily diffused by the use of layers of fine black cotton mesh placed in front of the lens. Heavy lens diffusion was also used on all the other shots carrying forward the romantic and sentimental parts of the story of this film. Subjective effects It was during this period that camera effects intended to convey the subjective feelings of characters in a film really began to be established. These could now be done as Point of View (POV) shots, as in Sidney Drew's The Story of the Glove (1915), where a wobbly hand-held shot of a door and its keyhole represents the POV of a drunken man. In Poor Little Rich Girl (1917) a camera shot tilting sideways is intended to convey delirium, and by 1918 the idea had got to Russia, in Baryshnya i khuligan (The Lady and the Hooligan), where the Hooligan's infatuation with the Lady is conveyed by his Point of View of her splitting into a multiply superimposed image. The use of anamorphic (in the general sense of distorted shape) images first appears in these years with Abel Gance's la Folie du Docteur Tube (The Madness of Dr. Tube). In this film the effect of a drug administered to a group of people was suggested by shooting the scenes reflected in a distorting mirror of the fair-ground type. Later we have Till the Clouds Roll By (Victor Fleming, 1919), where anamorphosis is used to depict the nightmare effects of indigestion in a comic manner. In fact, like so many film effects that distort the representation of reality, anamorphosis was first used exclusively in comic contexts. "Poetic Cinema" and symbolism Symbolic effects taken over from conventional literary and artistic tradition continued to make some appearances in films during these years. In D.W. Griffith's The Avenging Conscience (1914), the title “The birth of the evil thought” precedes a series of three shots of the protagonist looking at a spider, and ants eating an insect, though at a later point in the film when he prepares to kill someone these shots are cut straight in without explanation. Possibly as a result of Griffith's influence, 1915 was a big year for symbolism, allegories, and parables in the American cinema. Films following this route invariably included female figures in light, skimpy draperies, and indeed sometimes wearing nothing at all, doing “expressive” dances or striking plastic poses in sylvan settings. Titles include Lois Weber'sHypocrites, Vitagraph's Youth, someone else's Purity, and so on. The Primrose Path starts with a large painting illustrating the concept, which dissolves into a replica of the same scene with actors posed, and then they come to life. This is then amplified by closer detailed live action representations of stations on “The Primrose Path”. An interesting German example from a few years later is Robert Reinert's Opium (1919), which has some notable innovations in the use of Insert shots to help convey the sensation of the drug reveries. These are travelling landscape shots taken from a boat going down a river, and they are intentionally shot out of focus, or underexposed, or cut into the film upside down. Symbolist art and literature from the turn of the century also had a more general effect on a small number of films made in Italy and Russia. The supine acceptance of death resulting from passion and forbidden longings was a major feature of this art, and states of delirium dwelt on at length were important as well. The first Russian examples were all made by Yevgeni Bauer for Khanzhonkov during the First World War, and include Grezy, Schastye vechnoi nochi, and Posle smerti, all from 1915. These to some extent live up to the promise of the `decadent' aesthetic suggested by their titles; Daydreams, Happiness of Eternal Night, and After Death. Schastye vechnoi nochi includes a visually very striking vision of a medusa-like monster superimposed on a night-time snow scene, and *Posle smerti* has a somewhat subtler dream vision of a dead girl, picked out by extra arc lighting, walking through a wind-blown cornfield in the dusk. In Italy, another country somewhat isolated filmically by the war, the same kind of realization of the fin-de-siecle decadent symbolist aesthetic can be found, mostly in films associated with the “diva” phenomenon. The most complete example, which also has decor to match, is Charles Kraus' Il gatto nero (The Black Cat). This last is one of the few films of this kind to use atmospheric insert shots to heighten the mood. The first film explicitly intended by its maker to be a visual analogue of poetry, Marcel L'Herbier'sRose-France (1919), continues further along these same paths. Insert Shots Insert shot in Old Wives for New (Cecil B. DeMille, 1918) The use of Insert Shots, i.e. Close Ups of objects other than faces, was established very early, but apart from the special case of Inserts of a letter that was being read by one of the characters, they were infrequently used before 1914. It is really only with his *The Avenging Conscience* of 1914 that a new phase in the use of the Insert Shot starts. As well as the symbolic inserts already mentioned, The Avenging Conscience also made extensive use of large numbers of Big Close Up shots of clutching hands and tapping feet as a means of emphasizing those parts of the body as indicators of psychological tension. Griffith never went so far in this direction again, but his use of the Insert made its real impression on other American film-makers during the years 1914-1919. Cecil B. DeMille was a leading figure in the increased use of the Insert, and by 1918 he had reached the point of including about 9 Inserts in every 100 shots in The Whispering Chorus. He also pushed the insert into areas of visual sensuality inaccessible to D.W. Griffith, with such images as a Close Up of a silver-plated revolver nestling in a pile of silken sexy ribbons in a drawer in Old Wives for New (1918). The atmospheric insert Like many other devices that were more fully developed in Europe during the next decade, what could be called the “atmospheric Insert Shot” made its first appearance in American films during the years before 1919. This kind of shot is one in a scene which neither contains any of the characters in the story, nor is a Point of View shot seen by one of them. An early example is in Maurice Tourneur's The Pride of the Clan (1917), in which there is a series of shots of waves beating on a rocky shore which are shown when the locale of the story, which is about the harsh lives of fisher folk, is being introduced. Simpler and cruder examples from the same year occurs in William S. Hart'sThe Narrow Trail, in which a single shot of the mouth of San Francisco Bay taken against the light (the Golden Gate) is preceded by a narrative title explaining its symbolic function in the story. This film also contains a shot of wild hills and valleys cut in as one character comments that the country far from the city is so clean and pure. By 1918 we can find a shot of the sky being used to reflect the mood of one of the characters without specific explanation in The Gun Woman (Frank Borzage), but it must be emphasized that these examples are very rare, and did not either then, or within the next several years, constitute regular practice in the American cinema. The Tourneur example just mentioned also could stand as part of the beginning of the “montage sequence”. Maurice Elvey'sNelson - England's Immortal Naval Hero (1919) has a symbolic sequence dissolving from a picture of Kaiser Wilhelm II to a peacock, and then to a battleship. The atmospheric Insert began its notable career in European art cinema in Marcel L'Herbier'sRose-France. Here amongst the intentionally “poetic” uses of vignettes and filters and literary intertitles, a shot of the empty path once trod by the lovers is used to evoke the past. Continuity cinema The years 1914-1919 in America also saw the consolidation of the forms of what was to become the dominant mode of commercial cinema: “continuity cinema”, or “classical cinema”. During this period there were other styles that were still important, and these can be considered to lie along a spectrum between the best examples of “continuity cinema” at one extreme, and at the other extreme the “DIS-continuity cinema” of D.W. Griffith. There are a number of factors involved in the strong and apparent visual discontinuities between successive shots in Griffith's films, and the use of cross-cutting between parallel actions is only the most obvious of these. In 1915, cuts within the duration of a scene were still relatively infrequent in his films, and when they do occur they were frequently from Long Shot or Medium Long Shot (which were the shots he most used) to a Big Close Up of an insert detail, which only occupied a small part of the frame in the previous shot. This in itself introduces a fairly strong visual discontinuity across the cut, but as well as that, the cut-in shot might often have a circular vignette mask if it were a Close Up of a person, so reinforcing the effect. And sometimes the now-standard Griffith iris-out and iris-in might also be left on the inserted shot, even though it had action continuity with the shots on either side of it. As well as all this there was Griffith's habit of moving the action into another shot in an adjoining space, and then back again if it was at all possible, which produced a marked change in background, which also made its small contribution to the discontinuity between shots. One of the advanced continuity techniques involves the exact way the movement of actors from a shot in one location to another in a neighbouring location is handled. At best this kind of transition had previously been dealt with by having the directions of travel of the actor in the two shots correspond on the screen, but in a film such as The Bank Burglar's Fate (Jack Adolfi, 1914), one can see shot transitions in which a cut is made from an actor just leaving the frame, to a shot of him well inside the frame in an adjoining location, which have the positions and directions so well chosen that to the casual eye his movement appears quite continuous, and the real space and time ellipsis between the shots is concealed. Other good examples of this technique for eliminating several yards of waste space and a few seconds of waste time can be seen in Ralph Ince's films, particularly The Right Girl (1915), and by 1919 it was widely diffused in American films, but not in those made in Europe. All this connects with the rise of the use of cutting to different angles within a scene during the years 1914-1919, and in particular to the development of reverse-angle cutting. Reverse-angle cutting Cutting to different angles within a scene now became well-established as a technique for dissecting a scene into shots in American films. This approach had appeared a few times in earlier years, but in general cuts to or from a closer shot within a scene were still being made more or less down the lens axis as established in the Long Shot of the scene in question. The particular form of cutting to different angles within a scene in which the direction changes by more than ninety degrees is called reverse-angle cutting by film-makers. The leading figure in the full development of reverse-angle cutting was Ralph Ince. Films that he made at Vitagraph in 1915 such as The Right Girl and His Phantom Sweetheart have a large number of reverse-angle cuts in interior, as well as exterior, scenes. Other directors were also just starting to take up this style in 1915, for instance William S. Hart in Bad Buck of Santa Ynez. As for Griffith, in Birth of a Nation there are just eight cuts to reverse-angle shots in the scene in Ford's Theatre, while elsewhere throughout the two-and-a-half hour length of this film there are only four more true reverse-angle cuts. Nevertheless, the Griffith style of film-making was still followed in its full idiosyncrasy, with extensive use of side by side spaces and a definite “front” for the camera, in most slapstick comedy. Directors of dramatic films who had worked Griffith also followed his style fairly closely, and it the standard for films made by his Fine Arts section of the Triangle company. By 1916 there are a number of films in which there are around 15 to 20 true reverse-angle cuts per hundred shot transitions, such as The Deserter (Scott Sidney) and Going Straight. By the end of the war such films formed an appreciable but minor part of production: e.g. The Gun Woman (F. Borzage, 1918) and Jubilo (Clarence Badger, 1919). All this hardly concerned European cinema, where those few reverse-angle cuts used were mostly between a watcher and what he sees from his Point of View, both being filmed in a fairly distant shot. However, after the end of the war some of the brighter young directors such as Lubitsch started using a few reverse-angle cuts, mostly in association with Point of View cutting. The flash-back The use of flash-back structures continued to develop in this period, and the usual way of entering and leaving a flash-back was through a dissolve, and this was in fact the principal use at this time for this device. The Vitagraph company's The Man That Might Have Been (William Humphrey, 1914), is even more complex, with a series of reveries and flash-backs that contrast the protagonist's real passage through life with what might have been, if his son had not died. In this film dissolves are used both to enter and leave the flash-backs, and also the wish-dreams, and also for a time-lapse inside a reverie at one point. But fades are also used for these purposes in this and other films of the period, and flashback transitions are also done with irising in other films, and even straight cuts. During World War I the use of flashbacks occurred in films from all the major European film-making countries as well, from Italy (Tigre reale) to Denmark (Evangeliemandens Liv) to Russia (Grezy and Posle smerti), where it arrived in 1915. As the years moved on a sudden decline in the use of long flash-back sequences set in around 1917, but on the other hand the use of a transition to and from a brief single shot memory scene remained quite common in American films. However, there could still be an even more complex flash-back construction in American films in the case of W.S. Van Dyke'sThe Lady of the Dugout (1918). This film has a story that happened long before which is narrated by one character in the framing scene, and initially accompanied by his narrating dialogue in intertitles, though after a while this stops, and the intertitles then convey the dialogue occurring within the flashback. Inside this main flashback there develops cross-cutting to another story, happening at the same time, and at first apparently unconnected with it, though the connection eventually appears. Next, inside this first flashback, the Lady of the title narrates another story, presented in flashback form, but with cutaways inside it back to events occurring in the time frame in which she is doing her narrating. Actually, all this is fairly easy to follow while watching the film, in part because what happens in all these strings of action is relatively simple. Cross-cutting between parallel actions After 1914 cross cutting between parallel actions came to be used whenever appropriate in American films, though this was not the case in European films. It should be noted that a good deal of the American use of cross-cutting was not the rapid alternation between parallel chains of action developed by D.W. Griffith, but a limited number of alternations to make it possible to leave out uninteresting bits of action with no real plot function. In Europe, some of the most enterprising directors did use cross-cutting sometimes, but they never attained the speed of the many American examples of this technique. Cross-cutting was also used to get new effects of contrast, such as the cross-cut sequence in Cecil B. DeMille's The Whispering Chorus, in which a supposedly dead husband is having a liaison with a Chinese prostitute in an opium den, while simultaneously his unknowing wife is being remarried in church. All this was simple compared to D.W. Griffith's Intolerance (1916), in which four parallel stories are intercut throughout the whole length of the film, though in this case the stories are more similar than contrasting in their nature. The use of cross-cutting within these parallel stories as well as between them produced a complexity that was beyond the comprehension of the average audience of the time. The influence of Intolerance produced a few other films that combined a number of similar stories having similar themes, such as Maurice Tourneur's Woman (1918), but the box-office failure of Intolerance ensured that these later films had simpler structures. The development of film art The general trend in the development of cinema, led from the United States, was towards using the newly developed specifically filmic devices for expression of the narrative content of film stories, and combining this with the standard dramatic structures already in use in commercial theatre. D.W. Griffith had the highest standing amongst American directors in the industry, basically because of the dramatic excitement he got into his films. But there were others who were also considered as major figures at the time. The first of these was Cecil B. DeMille, whose films, such as The Cheat (1915), brought out the moral dilemmas facing their characters in a more subtle way than Griffith. DeMille was also in closer touch with the reality of contemporary American life. Maurice Tourneur was also highly ranked for the pictorial beauties of his films, together with the subtlety of his handling of fantasy, while at the same time he was capable of getting greater naturalism from his actors at appropriate moments, as in A Girl's Folly (1917). Sidney Drew was the leader in developing “polite comedy”, while slapstick was refined by Fatty Arbuckle and Charles Chaplin, who both started with Mack Sennet's Keystone company. They reduced the usual frenetic pace of Sennett's films to give the audience a chance to appreciate the subtlety and finesse of their movement, and the cleverness of their gags. By 1917 Chaplin was also introducing more dramatic plot into his films, and mixing the comedy with sentiment. In Russia, Yevgeni Bauer put a slow intensity of acting combined with Symbolist overtones onto film in a unique way. In Sweden, Victor Sjöström made a series of films that combined the realities of people's lives with their surroundings in a striking manner, while Mauritz Stiller developed sophisticated comedy to a new level. In Germany, Ernst Lubitsch got his inspiration from the stage work of Max Reinhardt, both in bourgeois comedy and in spectacle, and applied this to his films, culminating in his die Puppe (The Doll), die Austernprinzessin (The Oyster Princess) and Madame Dubarry. Hollywood triumphant Until this point, the cinemas of France and Italy had been the most globally popular and powerful. But the United States was already gaining quickly when World War I (1914-1918) caused a devastating interruption in the European film industries. The American industry, or "Hollywood", as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in California, gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: movie factory for the world, exporting its product to most countries on earth and controlling the market in many of them. By the 1920s, the U.S. reached what is still its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 feature films annually Film History of the 1920s , or 82% of the global total (Eyman, 1997). The comedies of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, the swashbuckling adventures of Douglas Fairbanks and the romances of Clara Bow, to cite just a few examples, made these performers’ faces well-known on every continent. The Western visual norm that would become classical continuity editing was developed and exported - although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong realist traditions in art and drama, such as Japan. This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other movie industries. The studios’ efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the ‘20s. World film at the peak of the silents Charlie Chaplin in The Gold Rush of 1925 But even now, the dominance of mainstream Hollywood entertainment wasn’t as strong as it would be, and alternatives were still widely seen and influential. In 1915, after a ban was ended on foreign imports in France the early Hollywood fare inspired the birth of the cinematic avant-garde. A group of filmmakers began experimenting with optical and pictorial effects as well as rhythmic editing. The trend became known as French Impressionist Cinema. Germany was America's strongest competitor. Its most distinctive contribution was the dark, hallucinatory worlds of German Expressionism, which advanced the power of anti-realistic presentation to put internal states of mind onscreen, as well as strongly influenced the emerging horror genre. The newborn Soviet cinema was the most radically innovative. There, the craft of editing, especially, surged forward, going beyond its previous role in advancing a story. Sergei Eisenstein perfected the technique of so-called dialectical or intellectual montage, which strove to make non-linear, often violently clashing, images express ideas and provoke emotional and intellectual reactions in the viewer. Meanwhile, the first feature-length silent film was made in India by Dadasaheb Phalke, considered to be the Father of Indian cinema. The film was the period piece, Raja Harishchandra (1913), and it laid the foundation for a series of period films. By the next decade the output of Indian cinema was an average of 27 films per year. The cultural avant gardes of a number of countries worked with experimental films, mostly shorts, that completely abandoned linear narrative and embraced abstraction, pure aestheticism and the irrational subconscious, most famously in the early work of Spanish surrealist Luis Buñuel. In some ways, in fact, this decade marked the first serious split between mainstream, "popular" film and "art" film. Beginning in the early 1920s, the German "Absolute Film" movement included influential abstract films by Walther Ruttmann, Viking Eggeling, Oskar Fischinger and Hans Richter. But even within the mainstream, refinement was rapid, bringing silent film to what would turn out to be its aesthetic summit. The possibilities of cinematography kept increasing as cameras became more mobile (thanks to new booms and dollies) and film stocks more sensitive and versatile. Screen acting became more of a craft, without its earlier theatrical exaggeration and achieving greater subtlety and psychological realism. As visual eloquence increased, reliance on intertitles decreased; the occasional film, such as F.W. Murnau's The Last Laugh (Germany, 1926) even eschewed them altogether. Paradoxically, at about this time, the silent cinema period ended. The sound era Experimentation with sound film technology, both for recording and playback, was virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been difficult to overcome (Eyman, 1997). In 1926, Hollywood studio Warner Bros. introduced the "Vitaphone" system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features. The sound film was invented by the Hungarian Dénes Mihály in 1918. During late 1927, Warners released The Jazz Singer, which was mostly silent but contained what is generally regarded as the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film; but this process was actually accomplished first by jehovah's witnesses in 1914 with the lengthy film the photodrama of creation This drama consisted of picture slides and moving pictures synchronized with phonograph records of talks and music follow-ups like Warners' The Lights of New York (1928), the first all-synchronized-sound feature. The early sound-on-disc processes such as Vitaphone were soon superseded by sound-on-film methods like Fox Movietone, DeForest Phonofilm, and RCA Photophone. The trend convinced the largely reluctant industrialists that "talking pictures", or "talkies", were the future. Industry impact of sound The change was remarkably swift. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons. Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like China and Japan, where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like Wu Yonggang's The Goddess (China, 1934) and Yasujiro Ozu's I Was Born, But... (Japan, 1932). But even in Japan, a figure such as the benshi, the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his acting career was ending. Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called "The Golden Age of Hollywood", which refers roughly to the period beginning with the introduction of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic movie stars, such as Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Humphrey Bogart and the greatest box office draw of the 1930s, child performer Shirley Temple. Creative impact of sound Creatively, however, the rapid transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days. The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to utilize the new medium. Many stage performers, directors and writers were introduced to cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling. Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even ended. This awkward period was fairly short-lived. 1929 was a watershed year: William Wellman with Chinatown Nights and The Man I Love, Rouben Mamoulian with Applause, Alfred Hitchcock with Blackmail (Britain's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997). In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming). Sound films emphasized and benefited different genres more so than silents did. Most obviously, the musical film was born; the first classic-style Hollywood musical was The Broadway Melody (1929) and the form would find its first major creator in choreographer/director Busby Berkeley (42nd Street, 1933, Dames, 1934). In France, avant-garde director René Clair made surreal use of song and dance in comedies like Under the Roofs of Paris (1930) and Le Million (1931). Universal Pictures begin releasing gothic horror films like Dracula and Frankenstein (both 1931). In 1933, RKO released Merian C. Cooper's classic "giant monster" film King Kong. The trend thrived best in India, where the influence of the country's traditional song-and-dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound movies (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world's most prolific. (See also Bollywood.) At this time, American gangster films like Little Caesar and Wellman's The Public Enemy (both 1931) became popular. Dialogue now took precedence over "slapstick" in Hollywood comedies: the fast-paced, witty banter of The Front Page (1931) or It Happened One Night (1934), the sexual double entrendres of Mae West (She Done Him Wrong, 1933) or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the Marx Brothers (Duck Soup, 1933). Walt Disney, who had previously in the short cartoon business, stepped into feature films with the first English speaking animated feature Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs; released by RKO Pictures in 1937. 1939, a major year for American cinema, brought such films as The Wizard of Oz and Gone with The Wind. The 1940s: the war and post-war years The desire for wartime propaganda created a renaissance in the film industry in Britain, with realistic war dramas like Forty-Ninth Parallel (1941), Went the Day Well? (1942), The Way Ahead (1944) and Noel Coward and David Lean's celebrated naval film In Which We Serve in 1942, which won a special Academy Award. These existed alongside more flamboyant films like Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp (1943), A Canterbury Tale (1944) and A Matter of Life and Death (1946), as well as Laurence Olivier's 1944 film Henry V, based on the Shakespearean history Henry V. The success of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs allowed Disney to make more animated features like Pinocchio (1940), Fantasia (1940), Dumbo (1941) and Bambi (1942). The onset of US involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of movies as both patriotism and propaganda. American propaganda movies included Desperate Journey, Mrs. Miniver, Forever and a Day and Objective Burma. Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi Watch on the Rhine (1943), scripted by Dashiell Hammett; Shadow of a Doubt (1943), Hitchcock's direction of a script by Thornton Wilder; the George M. Cohan biopic, Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942), starring James Cagney, and the immensely popular Casablanca, with Humphrey Bogart. Bogart would star in 36 films between 1934 and 1942 including John Huston's The Maltese Falcon (1941), one of the first movies now considered a classic film noir. In 1941, RKO Pictures released Citizen Kane made by Orson Welles. It is often considered the greatest film of all time. It would set the stage for the modern motion picture, as it revolutionized film story telling. The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects. These included Britain's Gainsborough melodramas (including The Man in Grey and The Wicked Lady), and films like Here Comes Mr. Jordan, Heaven Can Wait, I Married a Witch and Blithe Spirit. Val Lewton also produced a series of atmospheric and influential small-budget horror films, some of the more famous examples being Cat People, Isle of the Dead and The Body Snatcher. The decade probably also saw the so-called "women's pictures", such as Now, Voyager, Random Harvest and Mildred Pierce at the peak of their popularity. 1946 saw RKO Radio releasing It's a Wonderful Life directed by Frank Capra. Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like The Best Years of Our Lives, and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war. Samuel Fuller's experiences in World War II would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as The Big Red One. The Actor's Studio was founded in October 1947 by Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, and Cheryl Crawford, and the same year Oskar Fischinger filmed Motion Painting No. 1. In 1943, Ossessione was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of Italian neorealism. Major films of this type during the 1940s included Bicycle Thieves, Rome, Open City, and La Terra Trema. In 1952 Umberto D was released, usually considered the last film of this type. In the late 1940s, in Britain, Ealing Studios embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including Whisky Galore!, Passport to Pimlico, Kind Hearts and Coronets and The Man in the White Suit, and Carol Reed directed his influential thrillers Odd Man Out, The Fallen Idol and The Third Man. David Lean was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with Brief Encounter and his Dickens adaptations Great Expectations and Oliver Twist, and Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger would experience the best of their creative partnership with films like Black Narcissus and The Red Shoes. The 1950s A production scene from the 1950 Hollywood film Julius Caesar starring Charlton Heston. The House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s. Protested by the Hollywood Ten before the committee, the hearings resulted in the blacklisting of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, Charlie Chaplin, and Dalton Trumbo, and many of these fled to Europe, especially the United Kingdom. The Cold War era zeitgeist translated into a type of near-paranoia manifested in themes such as invading armies of evil aliens, (Invasion of the Body Snatchers, The War of the Worlds); and communist fifth columnists, (The Manchurian Candidate). During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some movie theatres would bankrupt and close. The demise of the "studio system" spurred the self-commentary of films like Sunset Boulevard (1950) and The Bad and the Beautiful (1952). In 1950, the Lettrists avante-gardists caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou's Treatise on Slime and Eternity was screened. After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin and split with the movement, the Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they showed their new hypergraphical techniques. The most notorious film is Guy Debord's Howls for Sade of 1952. Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back. These included attempts to literally widen their appeal with new screen formats. Cinemascope, which would remain a 20th Century Fox distinction until 1967, was announced with 1953's The Robe. VistaVision, Cinerama, boasted a "bigger is better" approach to marketing movies to a dwindling US audience. This resulted in the revival of epic films to take advantage of the new big screen formats. Some of the most successful examples of these Biblical and historical spectaculars include The Ten Commandments (1956), The Vikings (1958), Ben-Hur (1959), Spartacus (1960) and El Cid (1961). Gimmicks also proliferated to lure in audiences. The fad for 3-D film would last for only two years, 1952-1954, and helped sell House of Wax and Creature from the Black Lagoon. Producer William Castle would tout films featuring "Emergo" "Percepto", the first of a series of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s. In the U.S., a post-WW2 tendency toward questioning the establishment and societal norms and the early activism of the Civil Rights Movement was reflected in Hollywood films such as Blackboard Jungle (1955), On the Waterfront (1954), Paddy Chayefsky's Marty and Reginald Rose's 12 Angry Men (1957). Disney continued making animated movies, notably; Cinderella (1950), Peter Pan (1953), Lady and the Tramp (1955), and Sleeping Beauty (1959). He begin, however, getting more involved in live action films, producing classics like 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), and Old Yeller (1957). Television began competing seriously with films projected in theatres, but surprisingly it promoted more moviegoing rather than curtailing it. Limelight is probably a unique film in at least one interesting respect. Its two leads, Charlie Chaplin and Claire Bloom, were in the industry in no less than three different centuries. In the 19th Century, Chaplin made his theatrical debut at the age of eight, in 1897, in the musical The Eight Lancaster Lads. In the 21st Century, Bloom is still enjoying a full and productive career, having appeared in dozens of films and television series by the end of 2008. Golden Age of Asian cinema Following the end of World War II in the 1940s, the following decade, the 1950s, marked a 'Golden Age' for non-English world cinema, especially for Asian cinema. Many of the most critically-acclaimed Asian films of all time were produced during this decade, including Yasujiro Ozu's Tokyo Story (1953), Satyajit Ray's The Apu Trilogy (1955-1959) and The Music Room (1958), Kenji Mizoguchi's Ugetsu (1954) and Sansho the Bailiff (1954), Raj Kapoor's Awaara (1951), Mikio Naruse's Floating Clouds (1955), Guru Dutt's Pyaasa (1957) and Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959), and the Akira Kurosawa films Rashomon (1950), Ikiru (1952), Seven Samurai (1954) and Throne of Blood (1957). During Japanese cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, successful films included Rashomon (1950), Seven Samurai (1954) and The Hidden Fortress (1958) by Akira Kurosawa, as well as Yasujiro Ozu's Tokyo Story (1953) and Ishiro Honda's Godzilla (1954). Dave Kehr, Anime, Japanese Cinema's Second Golden Age, The New York Times, January 20, 2002. These films have had a profound influence on world cinema. In particular, Kurosawa's Seven Samurai has been remade several times as Western films, such as The Magnificent Seven (1960) and Battle Beyond the Stars (1980), and has also inspired several Bollywood films, such as Sholay (1975) and China Gate (1998). Rashomon was also remade as The Outrage (1964), and inspired films with "Rashomon effect" storytelling methods, such as Andha Naal (1954), The Usual Suspects (1995) and Hero (2002). The Hidden Fortress was also the inspiration behind George Lucas' Star Wars (1977). Other famous Japanese filmmakers from this period include Kenji Mizoguchi, Mikio Naruse, Hiroshi Inagaki and Nagisa Oshima. During Indian cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, it was producing 200 films annually, while Indian independent films gained greater recognition through international film festivals. One of the most famous was The Apu Trilogy (1955-1959) from critically-acclaimed Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, whose films had a profound influence on world cinema, with directors such as Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, Danny Boyle and Wes Anderson being influenced by his cinematic style. According to Michael Sragow of The Atlantic Monthly, the "youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy". Other famous Indian filmmakers from this period include Guru Dutt, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy and Mehboob Khan. The cinema of South Korea also experienced a 'Golden Age' in the 1950s, beginning with director Lee Kyu-hwan's tremendously successful remake of Chunhyang-jon (1955). That year also saw the release of Yangsan Province by the renowned director, Kim Ki-young, marking the beginning of his productive career. Both the quality and quantity of filmmaking had increased rapidly by the end of the 1950s. South Korean films, such as Lee Byeong-il's 1956 comedy Sijibganeun nal (The Wedding Day), had begun winning international awards. In contrast to the beginning of the 1950s, when only 5 movies were made per year, 111 films were produced in South Korea in 1959. The 1950s was also a 'Golden Age' for Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad. The premiere Philippine directors of the era included Gerardo de Leon, Gregorio Fernandez, Eddie Romero, Lamberto Avellana, and Cirio Santiago. Is the Curtain Finally Falling on the Philippine Kovie Industry?. Accessed January 25, 2009. Aenet: Philippine Film History. Accessed January 22, 2009. 1960s During the 1960s the studio system in Hollywood declined, because many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as Pinewood in England and Cinecittà in Rome. "Hollywood" movies were still largely aimed at family audiences, and it was often the more old-fashioned films that produced the studios' biggest successes. Productions like Mary Poppins (1964), My Fair Lady (1964) and The Sound of Music (1965) were among the biggest money-makers of the decade. The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline of traditional Hollywood studio production. There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema during this period. During the late 1950s and 1960s the French New Wave directors such as François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard produced films such as Les quatre cents coups, Breathless and Jules et Jim which broke the rules of Hollywood cinema's narrative structure. As well, audiences were becoming aware of Italian films like Federico Fellini's La dolce vita and the stark dramas of Sweden's Ingmar Bergman. In Britain, the "Free Cinema" of Lindsay Anderson, Tony Richardson and others lead to a group of realistic and innovative dramas including Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, A Kind of Loving and This Sporting Life. Other British films such as Repulsion, Darling, Alfie, Blowup and Georgy Girl (all in 1965-1966) helped to reduce prohibitions sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the James Bond films, beginning with Dr. No in 1962 would render the series popular worldwide. During the 1960s, Ousmane Sembène produced several French- and Wolof-language films and became the 'father' of African Cinema. In Latin America the dominance of the "Hollywood" model was challenged by many film makers. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Gettino called for a politically engaged Third Cinema in contrast to Hollywood and the European auteur cinema. Further, the nuclear paranoia of the age, and the threat of an apocalyptic nuclear exchange (like the 1962 close-call with the USSR during the Cuban missile crisis) prompted a reaction within the film community as well. Films like Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove and Fail Safe with Henry Fonda were produced in a Hollywood that was once known for its overt patriotism and wartime propaganda. In documentary film the sixties saw the blossoming of Direct Cinema, an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like In the Year of the Pig about the Vietnam War by Emile de Antonio. By the late 1960s however, Hollywood filmmakers were beginning to create more innovative and groundbreaking films that reflected the social revolution taken over much of the western world such as Bonnie and Clyde (1967), The Good, The Bad, The Ugly (1967), The Graduate (1967), 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Rosemary's Baby (1968), Midnight Cowboy (1969), Easy Rider (1969) and The Wild Bunch (1969). Bonnie and Clyde is often considered the beginning of the so-called New Hollywood. In world cinema, Academy Award winning Japanese director Akira Kurosawa produced Yojimbo (1961), which like his previous films also had a profound influence around the world. The influence of this film is most apparent in Sergio Leone's A Fistful of Dollars (1964) and Walter Hill's Last Man Standing (1996). Yojimbo was also the origin of the "Man with No Name" trend. Meanwhile in India, the Academy Award winning Bengali director Satyajit Ray wrote a script for The Alien in 1967, based on a Bangla science fiction story he himself had written in 1962. The film was intended to be his debut in Hollywood but the production was eventually cancelled. Nevertheless, the script went on to influence later films such as Steven Spielberg's E.T. (1982) and Rakesh Roshan's Koi... Mil Gaya (2003). 1970s: The 'New Hollywood' or Post-classical cinema 'The New Hollywood' and 'post-classical cinema' are terms used to describe the period following the decline of the studio system during the 1950s and 1960s and the end of the production code. During the 1970s, filmmakers increasingly depicted explicit sexual content and showed gunfight and battle scenes that included graphic images of bloody deaths. 'Post-classical cinema' is a term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling of the "New Hollywood" producers. The new methods of drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired during the classical/Golden Age period: story chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature unsettling "twist endings", main characters may behave in a morally ambiguous fashion, and the lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred. The beginnings of post-classical storytelling may be seen in 1940s and 1950s film noir movies, in films such as Rebel Without a Cause (1955), and in Hitchcock's Psycho. 1971 marked the release of controversial films like Straw Dogs, A Clockwork Orange, The French Connection and Dirty Harry. This sparked heated controversy over the perceived escalation of violence in cinema. During the 1970s, a new group of American filmmakers emerged, such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Brian de Palma. This coincided with the increasing popularity of the auteur theory in film literature and the media, which posited that a film director's films express their personal vision and creative insights. The development of the auteur style of filmmaking helped to give these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This led to some great critical and commercial successes, like Scorsese's Taxi Driver, Coppola's The Godfather films, Spielberg's Jaws and Close Encounters of the Third Kind and George Lucas's Star Wars. It also, however, resulted in some failures, including Peter Bogdanovich's At Long Last Love and Michael Cimino's hugely expensive Western epic Heaven's Gate, which helped to bring about the demise of its backer, United Artists. The financial disaster of Heaven's Gate marking the end of the visionary "auteur" directors of the "New Hollywood", who had unrestrained creative and financial freedom to develop films. The phenomenal success in the 1970s of Jaws and Star Wars in particular, led to the rise of the modern "blockbuster". Hollywood studios increasingly focused on producing a smaller number of very large budget films with massive marketing and promotional campaigns. This trend had already been foreshadowed by the commercial success of disaster films such as The Poseidon Adventure and The Towering Inferno. During the mid-1970s, more pornographic theatres, euphemistically called "adult cinemas", were established, and the legal production of hardcore pornographic films began. Porn films such as Deep Throat and its star Linda Lovelace became something of a popular culture phenomenon and resulted in a spate of similar sex films. The porn cinemas finally died out during the 1980s, when the popularization of the home VCR and pornography videotapes allowed audiences to watch sex films at home. In the early 1970s, English language audiences became more aware of the new West German cinema, with Werner Herzog, Rainer Werner Fassbinder and Wim Wenders among its leading exponents. In world cinema, the 1970s saw a dramatic increase in the popularity of martial arts films, largely due to its reinvention by Bruce Lee, who departed from the artistic style of traditional Chinese martial arts films and added a much greater sense of realism to them with his Jeet Kune Do style. This began with The Big Boss (1971), which was a major success across Asia. However, he didn't gain fame in the Western world until shortly after his death in 1973, when Enter the Dragon was released. The film went on to become the most successful martial arts film in cinematic history, popularized the martial arts film genre across the world, and cemented Bruce Lee's status as a cultural icon. Hong Kong action cinema, however, was in decline due to a wave of "Bruceploitation" films. This trend eventually came to an end in 1978 with the martial arts comedy films, Snake in the Eagle's Shadow and Drunken Master, directed by Yuen Woo-ping and starring Jackie Chan, laying the foundations for the rise of Hong Kong action cinema in the 1980s. While the musical film genre had declined in Hollywood by this time, musical films were quickly gaining popularity in the cinema of India, where the term "Bollywood" was coined for the growing Hindi language film industry in Bombay (now Mumbai) that ended up dominating South Asian cinema, overtaking the more critically acclaimed Bengali film industry in popularity. Hindi filmmakers combined the Hollywood musical formula with the conventions of ancient Indian theatre to create a new film genre called "Masala", which dominated Indian cinema throughout the late 20th century. These "Masala" films portrayed action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama all at once, with "filmi" song and dance routines thrown in. This trend began with films directed by Manmohan Desai and starring Amitabh Bachchan, who remains one of the most popular movie stars in South Asia. The most popular Indian film of all time was Sholay (1975), a "Masala" film inspired by a real-life dacoit as well as Kurosawa's Seven Samurai and the Spaghetti Westerns. The end of the decade saw the first major international marketing of Australian cinema, as Peter Weir's films Picnic at Hanging Rock and The Last Wave and Fred Schepisi's The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith gained critical acclaim. In 1979, Australian filmmaker George Miller also garnered international attention for his violent, low-budget action film Mad Max. 1980s: sequels, blockbusters and videotape During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching movies on their home VCRs. In the early part of that decade, the movie studios tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of copyright, which proved unsuccessful. Eventually, the sale and rental of movies on home video became a significant "second venue" for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the movie companies. The Lucas-Spielberg combine would dominate "Hollywood" cinema for much of the 1980s, and lead to much imitation. Two follow-ups to Star Wars, three to Jaws, and three Indiana Jones films helped to make sequels of successful films more of an expectation than ever before. Lucas also launched THX Ltd, a division of Lucasfilm in 1982 http://web.archive.org/web/20061109131348/http://www.thx.com/mod/company/milestones.html , while Spielberg enjoyed one of the decade's greatest successes in E.T. the same year. 1982 also saw the release of Disney's Tron which was one of the first films from a major studio to use computer graphics extensively. American independent cinema struggled more during the decade, although Martin Scorsese's Raging Bull (1980), After Hours (1985), and The King of Comedy (1983) helped to establish him as one of the most critically acclaimed American film makers of the era. Also during 1983 Scarface was released, was very profitable and resulted in even greater fame for its leading actor Al Pacino. Probably the most successful film commercially was vended during 1989: Tim Burton's version of Bob Kane's creation, Batman, exceeded box-office records. Jack Nicholson's portrayal of the demented Joker earned him a total of $60,000,000 after figuring in his percentage of the gross. British cinema was given a boost during the early 1980s by the arrival of David Puttnam's company Goldcrest Films. The films Chariots of Fire, Gandhi, The Killing Fields and A Room with a View appealed to a "middlebrow" audience which was increasingly being ignored by the major Hollywood studios. While the films of the 1970s had helped to define modern blockbuster motion pictures, the way "Hollywood" released its films would now change. Films, for the most part, would premiere in a wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some movies still premiere using the route of the limited/roadshow release system. Against some expectations, the rise of the multiplex cinema did not allow less mainstream films to be shown, but simply allowed the major blockbusters to be given an even greater number of screenings. However, films that had been overlooked in cinemas were increasingly being given a second chance on home video and later DVD. During the 1980s, Japanese cinema experienced a revival, largely due to the success of anime films. At the beginning of the 1980s, Space Battleship Yamato (1973) and Mobile Suit Gundam (1979), both of which were unsuccessful as television series, were remade as films and became hugely successful in Japan. In particular, Mobile Suit Gundam sparked the Gundam franchise of Real Robot mecha anime. The success of Macross: Do You Remember Love? also sparked a Macross franchise of mecha anime. This was also the decade when Studio Ghibli was founded. The studio produced Hayao Miyazaki's first fantasy films, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) and Castle in the Sky (1986), as well as Isao Takahata's Grave of the Fireflies (1988), all of which were very successful in Japan and received worldwide critical acclaim. Original video animation (OVA) films also began during this decade; the most influential of these early OVA films was Noboru Ishiguro's cyberpunk film Megazone 23 (1985). The most famous anime film of this decade was Katsuhiro Otomo's cyberpunk film Akira (1988), which although initially unsuccessful at Japanese theaters, went on to become an international success. Hong Kong action cinema, which was in a state of decline due to endless Bruceploitation films after the death of Bruce Lee, also experienced a revival in the 1980s, largely due to the reinvention of the action film genre by Jackie Chan. He had previously combined the comedy film and martial arts film genres successfully in the 1978 films Snake in the Eagle's Shadow and Drunken Master. The next step he took was in combining this comedy martial arts genre with a new emphasis on elaborate and highly dangerous stunts, reminiscent of the silent film era. The first film in this new style of action cinema was Project A (1983), which saw the formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team as well as the "Three Brothers" (Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao). The film added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and slapstick humor, and became a huge success throughout the Far East. As a result, Chan continued this trend with martial arts action films containing even more elaborate and dangerous stunts, including Wheels on Meals (1984), Police Story (1985), Armour of God (1986), Project A Part II (1987), Police Story 2 (1988), and Dragons Forever (1988). Other new trends which began in the 1980s were the "girls with guns" sub-genre, for which Michelle Yeoh gained fame; and especially the "heroic bloodshed" genre, revolving around Triads, largely pioneered by John Woo and for which Chow Yun Fat became famous. These Hong Kong action trends were later adopted by many Hollywood action films in the 1990s and 2000s. 1990s: New special effects, independent films, and DVDs Cinema admissions in 1995 The early 1990s saw the development of a commercially successful independent cinema in the United States. Although cinema was increasingly dominated by special-effects films such as Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991) and Titanic (1997), independent films like Steven Soderbergh's sex, lies, and videotape (1989) and Quentin Tarantino's Reservoir Dogs (1992) had significant commercial success both at the cinema and on home video. Filmmakers associated with the Danish filmmovement Dogme 95 introduced a manifesto aimed to purify filmmaking. Its first few films gained worldwide critical acclaim, after which the movement slowly faded out. Major American studios began to create their own "independent" production companies to finance and produce non-mainstream fare. One of the most successful independents of the 1990s, Miramax Films, was bought by Disney the year before the release of Tarantino's runaway hit Pulp Fiction in 1994. The same year marked the beginning of film and video distribution online. Animated films aimed at family audiences also regained their popularity, with Disney's Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992), and The Lion King (1994). During 1995 the first feature length computer-animated feature, Toy Story, was produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Disney. After the success of Toy Story, computer animation would grow to become the dominant technique for feature length animation, which would allow competing film companies such as Dreamworks Animation and 20th Century Fox to effectively compete with Disney with successful films of their own. During the late 1990s, another cinematic transition began, from physical film stock to digital cinema technology. Meanwhile DVDs became the new standard for consumer video, replacing VHS tapes. 2000s One of 150 DV cameras used by Iraqis to film Voices of Iraq. The documentary film also rose as a commercial genre for perhaps the first time, with the success of films such as March of the Penguins and Michael Moore's Bowling for Columbine and Fahrenheit 9/11. A new genre was created with Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, when 150 inexpensive DV cameras were distributed across Iraq, transforming ordinary people into collaborative filmmakers. The success of Gladiator lead to a revival of interest in epic cinema, and Moulin Rouge! renewed interest in musical cinema. Home theatre systems became increasingly sophisticated, as did some of the special edition DVDs designed to be shown on them. The Lord of the Rings trilogy was released on DVD in both the theatrical version and in a special extended version intended only for home cinema audiences. There is a growing problem of digital distribution to be overcome with regards to expiration of copyrights, content security, and enforcing copyright. There is higher compression for films, and Moore's law allows for increasingly cheaper technology. More films were also being released simultaneously to IMAX cinema, the first was in 2002's Disney animation Treasure Planet; and the first live action was in 2003's The Matrix Revolutions and a re-release of The Matrix Reloaded. Later in the decade, The Dark Knight was the first major feature film to have been at least partially shot in IMAX technology. There has been an increasing globalization of cinema during this decade, with foreign-language films gaining popularity in English-speaking markets. Examples of such films include Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (Mandarin), Amelie (French), Lagaan (Hindi), Spirited Away (Japanese), City of God (Portuguese), The Passion of the Christ (Hebrew), Apocalypto (Mayan) and Slumdog Millionaire (a third in Hindi). The Long Tail One major new development in the early 21st century is the development of systems that make it much easier for regular people to write, shoot, edit and distribute their own movies without the large apparatus of the film industry. This phenomenon and its repercussions are outlined in Chris Anderson's theory, The Long Tail. The underground Alongside the Hollywood tradition, there has also been an "underground film" tradition of small-budget, often self-produced works created outside of the studio system and without the involvement of labor unions. See also African cinema B movie Cinema of India Cinema of Iran Cinema of the United Kingdom Cinema of the United States Culture history Documentary film East Asian cinema European cinema Experimental film French Impressionist Cinema German Expressionism Fictional film History of science fiction films List of film formats Lists of film topics List of years in film Newsreel Runaway production Silent film Sound film Women's cinema References Citations Print Abel, Richard. The Cine Goes to Town: French Cinema 1896-1914University of California Press, 1998. Acker, Ally. Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present. London: B.T. Batsford, 1991. Barnes, John. The Cinema in England: 1894-1901 (5 Volumes) University of Exeter Press, 1997. Basten, Fred E. Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow. AS Barnes & Company, 1980. Bowser, Eileen. The Transformation of Cinema 1907-1915 (History of the American Cinema, Vol. 2) Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990. Cook, David A. A History of Narrative Film, 2nd edition. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990. Cousins, Mark. The Story of Film: A Worldwide History, New York: Thunder's Mouth press, 2006. King, Geoff. New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. Merritt, Greg. Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film. Thunder's Mouth Press, 2001. Musser, Charles. The Emergence of Cinema: The American Screen to 1907 (History of the American Cinema, Vol. 1) Charles Scribner's Sons, 1990. Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, ed. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford University Press, 1999. Parkinson, David. History of Film. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1995. ISBN 0-500-20277-X Rocchio, Vincent F. Reel Racism. Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture. Westview Press, 2000. Salt, Barry. Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis 2nd Ed. Starword, 1992. Salt, Barry. Moving Into Pictures Starword, 2006. Schrader, Paul. "Notes on Film Noir." Film Comment, 1984. Thackway, Melissa. Africa shoots back: Alternative perspectives in sub-saharan Francophone African film. Indiana University Press, 2003. Tsivian, Yuri. Silent Witnesses: Russian Films 1908-1919 British Film Institute, 1989. Unterburger, Amy L. The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera. Visible Ink Press, 1999. Usai, P.C. & Codelli, L. (editors) Before Caligari: German Cinema, 1895-1920 Edizioni Biblioteca dell'Immagine, 1990. Digital video Early cinema - Primitives and Pioneers BFI Video 2005 (Compilation of early films up to 1908) Glorious Technicolor; directed by Peter Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten & Jones. Documentary, (1998). External links View inside an ancient film camera Museum Of Motion Picture History, Inc. History exhibit of filmmaking in Florida, presented by the State Archives of Florida American Cinematographer - January, 1930, THE EARLY HISTORY OF WIDE FILMS History of Film Formats Technicolor History What is a Camera Obscura? Film Sound Historyat FilmSound.org An Introduction to Early cinema List of Early Sound Films 1894-1929 at Silent Era website Official Web Site of Film Historian/Oral Historian Scott Feinberg Reality Film Film History by Decade *popup warning* Project "Westphalian History in the film" Cinema: From 1890 To Now A Brief, Early History of Computer Graphics in Film Film History @ Video-Film.info The Tex(t)-Mex Gallerblog Meditations on Latina/os in Cinema History of Film poster Burns, Paul The History of the Discovery of Cinematography An Illustrated Chronology | History_of_film |@lemmatized history:31 film:615 span:1 hundred:2 year:66 latter:6 part:24 century:13 beginning:16 motion:25 picture:34 develop:24 gradually:4 carnival:1 novelty:5 one:76 important:17 tool:3 communication:1 entertainment:6 mass:1 medium:8 substantial:5 impact:3 art:23 technology:6 politics:1 precursor:1 play:13 dance:6 element:1 common:3 script:6 set:26 light:28 costume:2 production:54 direction:13 actor:42 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119 | History_of_Spain | The History of Spain spans the period from Prehistoric Iberia, through the rise and fall of the first global empire, to Spain's current position as a member of the European Union. Modern humans entered the Iberian Peninsula more than 35,000 years ago. Waves of invaders and colonizers followed over the millennia, including the Celts, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, and Visigoths. In 711, a Berber and Arab army (known collectively as moros, Moors, by the Spanish) invaded and conquered nearly the entire peninsula. During the next 750 years, independent Muslim states were established, and the entire area of Muslim control became known as Al-Andalus. Meanwhile the small Christian kingdoms in the north began the long and slow recovery of the peninsula by Christian forces, a process called the Reconquista, which was concluded in 1492 with the fall of Granada. The Kingdom of Spain was created in 1492 with the unification of the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Aragon. European Voyages of Exploration: Imperial Spain In this year also was the first voyage of Christopher Columbus to the New World, beginning the development of the Spanish Empire. The Inquisition was established and Jews and Muslims who refused to convert were expelled from the country. In the next three centuries Spain was the most important colonial power in the world. It was the most powerful state in Renaissance Europe and the foremost global power during the 16th and most of the 17th centuries. Spanish literature and fine arts, scholarship and philosophy flourished during this time. Spain established a vast empire in the Americas, stretching from California to Patagonia, and colonies in the western Pacific. Financed in part by the riches pouring in from its colonies, Spain became embroiled in the religiously-charged wars and intrigues of Europe, including, for example, obtaining and losing possessions in today's Netherlands, Italy, France, and Germany, and engaging in wars with France, England, Sweden, and the Ottomans in the Mediterranean Sea and northern Africa, among others. Spain's European wars, however, led to economic damage, and the latter part of the 17th century saw a gradual decline of power under an increasingly neglectful and inept Habsburg regime. The decline culminated in the War of Spanish Succession, where Spain's decline from leading power status was confirmed, although it remained the leading colonial power. The eighteenth century saw a new dynasty, the Bourbons, which directed considerable effort towards the institutional renewal of the state, with some success, peaking in a successful involvement in the American War of Independence. However, as the century ended, a reaction set in with the accession of a new monarch. The end of the eighteenth and the start of the nineteenth centuries saw turmoil unleashed throughout Europe by the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, which finally led to a French occupation of much of the continent, including Spain. This triggered a successful but devastating war of independence that shattered the country and created an opening for what would ultimately be the successful independence of Spain's mainland American colonies. Shattered by the war, Spain was destabilised as different political parties representing liberal, reactionary and other groups throughout the remainder of the century fought for and won short-lived control without any groups being sufficiently strong to provide a lasting settlement. Nationalist movements emerged in the last significant remnants of the old empire (Cuba and the Philippines) which led to a brief war with the United States and the loss of the remaining old colonies at the end of the century. Following a period of growing political instability in the early twentieth century, in 1936 Spain was plunged into a bloody civil war. The war ended in a nationalist dictatorship, led by Francisco Franco which controlled the Spanish government until 1975. Spain was officially neutral during World War II, although many Spanish volunteers fought on both sides. The post-war decades were relatively stable (with the notable exception of an armed independence movement in the Basque Country), and the country experienced rapid economic growth in the 1960s and early 1970s. The death of Franco in 1975 resulted in the return of the Bourbon monarchy headed by Prince Juan Carlos. While tensions remain (for example, with Muslim immigrants and in the Basque region), modern Spain has seen the development of a robust, modern democracy as a constitutional monarchy with popular King Juan Carlos, one of the fastest-growing standards of living in Europe, entry into the European Community, and the 1992 Summer Olympics. Early history The earliest record of hominids living in Europe has been found in the Spanish cave of Atapuerca; fossils found there are dated to roughly 1.2 million years ago. See also: Modern humans in the form of Cro-Magnons began arriving in the Iberian Peninsula from north of the Pyrenees some 35,000 years ago. The most conspicuous sign of prehistoric human settlements are the famous paintings in the northern Spanish cave of Altamira, which were done ca. 15,000 BC and are regarded as paramount instances of cave art. Furthermore, archeological evidence in places like Los Millares in Almería and in El Argar in Murcia suggests developed cultures existed in the eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the late Neolithic and the Bronze Age. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. Around 1100 BC, Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz) near Tartessos. In the 9th century BC, the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the east, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, apparently after the river Iber (Ebro in Spanish). In the 6th century BC, the Carthaginians arrived in Iberia, struggling first with the Greeks, and shortly after, with the newly-arriving Romans for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (Latin name of modern day Cartagena). The native peoples whom the Romans met at the time of their invasion in what is now known as Spain were the Iberians, inhabiting from the southwest part of the Peninsula through the northeast part of it, and then the Celts, mostly inhabiting the north and northwest part of the Peninsula. In the inner part of the Peninsula, where both groups were in contact, a mixed, distinctive, culture was present, the one known as Celtiberian. The Celtiberian Wars or Spanish Wars were fought between the advancing legions of the Roman Republic and the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior from 181 to 133 BC. Roman Spain Roman bridge in Cordoba Roman Iberia was divided: Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior during the late Roman Republic; and, during the Roman Empire, Hispania Taraconensis in the northeast, Hispania Baetica in the south (roughly corresponding to Andalucia), and Lusitania in the southwest (corresponding to modern Portugal). The base Celt and Iberian population remained in various stages of Romanisation, The latifundia (sing., latifundium), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system. and local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. The Romans improved existing cities, such as Tarragona (Tarraco), and established others like Zaragoza (Caesaraugusta), Mérida (Augusta Emerita), Valencia (Valentia), León ("Legio Septima"), Badajoz ("Pax Augusta"), and Palencia. The Roman provinces of Hispania included Provincia Hispania Ulterior Baetica (Hispania Baetica), whose capital was Corduba, presently Córdoba, Provincia Hispania Ulterior Lusitania (Hispania Lusitania), whose capital was Emerita Augusta (now Mérida), Provincia Hispania Citerior, whose capital was Tarraco (Tarragona), Provincia Hispania Nova, whose capital was Tingis (Tánger in present Morocco), Provincia Hispania Nova Citerior and Asturiae-Calleciae (these latter two provinces were created and then dissolved in the 3rd century CE). The peninsula's economy expanded under Roman tutelage. Hispania supplied Rome with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Theodosius I, the philosopher Seneca and the poets Martial, Quintilian and Lucan were born in Spain. The Spanish Bishops held the Council at Elvira in 306. The first Germanic tribes to invade Hispania arrived in the 5th century, as the Roman Empire decayed. The Visigoths, Suebi, Vandals and Alans arrived in Spain by crossing the Pyrenees mountain range. This led to the establishment of the Suebi Kingdom in Gallaecia, in the northwest, the Vandal Kingdom of Vandalusia (Andalusia) and the Visigothic Kingdom in Toledo. The Romanized Visigoths entered Hispania in 415. After the conversion of their monarchy to Roman Catholicism, the Visigothic Kingdom eventually encompassed a great part of the Iberian Peninsula after conquering the disordered Suebic territories in the northwest and Byzantine territories in the southeast. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire did not lead to the same wholesale destruction of Western classical society as happened in areas like Roman Britain, Gaul and Germania Inferior during the Dark Ages, even if the institutions, infrastructure and economy did suffer considerable degradation. Spain's present languages, its religion, and the basis of its laws originate from this period. The centuries of uninterrupted Roman rule and settlement left a deep and enduring imprint upon the culture of Spain. Visigothic Hispania (5th–8th centuries) After the decline of the Roman Empire, Germanic tribes invaded the former empire. Several turned sedentary and created successor-kingdoms to the Romans in various parts of Europe. Iberia was taken over by the Visigoths after 410. Visigothic Hispania and its regional divisions in 700, prior to the Muslim conquest. In the Iberian peninsula, as elsewhere, the Empire fell not with a bang but with a whimper. Rather than there being any convenient date for the "fall of the Roman Empire" there was a progressive "de-Romanization" of the Western Roman Empire in Hispania and a weakening of central authority, throughout the 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries. At the same time, there was a process of "Romanization" of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes settled on both sides of the limes (the fortified frontier of the Empire along the Rhine and Danube rivers). The Visigoths, for example, were converted to Arian Christianity around 360, even before they were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the Huns. In the winter of 406, taking advantage of the frozen Rhine, the (Germanic) Vandals and Sueves, and the (Sarmatian) Alans invaded the empire in force. Three years later they crossed the Pyrenees into Iberia and divided the Western parts, roughly corresponding to modern Portugal and western Spain as far as Madrid, between them. The Visigoths meanwhile, having sacked Rome two years earlier, arrived in the region in 412 founding the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse (in the south of modern France) and gradually expanded their influence into the Iberian peninsula at the expense of the Vandals and Alans, who moved on into North Africa without leaving much permanent mark on Hispanic culture. The Visigothic Kingdom shifted its capital to Toledo and reached a high point during the reign of Leovigild. Importantly, Spain never saw a decline in interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, Lombardy and Germany. The Visigoths tended to maintain more of the old Roman institutions, and they had a unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between 415, when Visigothic rule in Spain began, and 711, when it is traditionally said to end. The proximity of the Visigothic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and the continuity of western Mediterranean trade, though in reduced quantity, supported Visigothic culture. Arian Visigothic nobility kept apart from the local Catholic population. The Visigothic ruling class looked to Constantinople for style and technology while the rivals of Visigothic power and culture were the Catholic bishops— and a brief incursion of Byzantine power in Cordoba. The period of Visigothic rule saw the spread of Arianism briefly in Spain. In 587, Reccared, the Visigothic king at Toledo, having been converted to Catholicism put an end to dissension on the question of Arianism and launched a movement in Spain to unify the various religious doctrines that existed in the land. The Council of Lerida in 546 constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them under the blessings of Rome. The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a sort of feudal system in Spain, based in the south on the Roman villa system and in the north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army was composed of slaves, raised from the countryside. The loose council of nobles that advised Spain's Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising the army, and only upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers. The impact of Visigothic rule was not widely felt on society at large, and certainly not compared to the vast bureaucracy of the Roman Empire; they tended to rule as barbarians of a mild sort, uninterested in the events of the nation and economy, working for personal benefit, and little literature remains to us from the period. They did not, until the period of Muslim rule, merge with the Spanish population, preferring to remain separate, and indeed the Visigothic language left only the faintest mark on the modern languages of Iberia. The most visible effect was the depopulation of the cities as they moved to the countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to the famines of France and Germany in this period, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their downfall, as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects when the Moors arrived in the 8th century. Muslim Occupation and the Reconquest (8th–15th centuries) By 711 Arabs and Berbers had converted to Islam, which by the 8th century dominated all the north of Africa. A raiding party led by Tariq ibn-Ziyad was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdoms in Iberia. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar, it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair quickly crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. The advance into Europe was stopped by the Franks under Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Caliph Al-Walid I paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era. It was this tactic that supported the ultimate expansion to Spain. Caliph Al-Walid I's reign is considered as the apex of Islamic power. The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad CaliphAl-Walid I in Damascus. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasids, some of their remaining leaders escaped to Spain under the leadership of Abd-ar-rahman I who challenged the Abbasids by declaring Cordoba an independent emirate. Al-Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Arab Umayyad rulers and the Visigoth-Roman Christian population. Limits of the Kingdom of Castile and Kingdom of Aragon in 1210. The first navy of the Emirate was built after the humiliating Viking ascent of the Guadalquivir in 844 when they sacked Seville. In 942, pagan Magyars raided as far west as Al-Andalus. Timelines - Vikings, Saracens, Magyars In the 10th century Abd-ar-rahman III declared the Caliphate of Cordoba, effectively breaking all ties with the Egyptian and Syrian caliphs. The Caliphate was mostly concerned with maintaining its power base in North Africa, but these possessions eventually dwindled to the Ceuta province. Meanwhile, a slow but steady migration of Christian subjects to the northern kingdoms was slowly increasing the power of the northern kingdoms. Even so, Al-Andalus remained vastly superior to all the northern kingdoms combined in population, economy, culture and military might, and internal conflict between the Christian kingdoms contributed to keep them relatively harmless. Al-Andalus coincided with La Convivencia, an era of religious tolerance and with the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula (912, the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III - 1066, Granada massacre). Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed. Muslim interest in the peninsula returned in force around the year 1000 when Al-Mansur (also known as Almanzor), sacked Barcelona (985). Under his son, other Christian cities were subjected to numerous raids. Ransoming Captives in Crusader Spain: The Order of Merced on the Christian-Islamic Frontier After his son's death, the caliphate plunged into a civil war and splintered into the so-called "Taifa Kingdoms". The Taifa kings competed against each other not only in , but also in the protection of the arts, and culture enjoyed a brief upswing. The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north and, after the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravides, who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the Almohad invasion, who were defeated in the decisive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. Medieval Spain was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of death, conversion, or emigration, many Jews and Christians left. The Almohads By the mid-13th century Emirate of Granada was the only independent Muslim realm in Spain, which would last until 1492. The Kings of Aragón ruled territories that consisted of not only the present administrative region of Aragon but also Catalonia, and later the Balearic Islands, Valencia, Sicily, Naples and Sardinia (see Crown of Aragon). Considered by most to have been the first mercenary company in Western Europe, the Catalan Company proceeded to occupy the Duchy of Athens, which they placed under the protection of a prince of the House of Aragon and ruled until 1379. Catalan Company (1302-1388 AD) Kingdom of Spain Iberian polities circa 1360 As the Reconquista continued, Christian kingdoms and principalities developed. By the 15th century, the most important among these were the Kingdom of Castile (occupying a northern and central portion of the Iberian Peninsula) and the Kingdom of Aragon (occupying northeastern portions of the peninsula). The rulers of these two kingdoms were allied with dynastic families in Portugal, France, and other neighboring kingdoms. The death of Henry IV in 1474 set off a struggle for power between contenders for the throne of Castile, including Joanna La Beltraneja, supported by Portugal and France, and Queen Isabella I, supported by the Kingdom of Aragon, and by the Castilian nobility. Following the War of the Castilian Succession, Isabella retained the throne, and ruled jointly with her husband, King Ferdinand II. Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon were known as the "Catholic Monarchs" (), a title bestowed on them by Pope Alexander VI. They married in 1469 in Valladolid, uniting both crowns and effectively leading to the creation of the Kingdom of Spain, at the dawn of the modern era. They oversaw the final stages of the Reconquista of Iberian territory from the Moors with the conquest of Granada, conquered the Canary Islands and expelled the Jews and Muslims from Spain under the Alhambra decree. They authorized the expedition of Christopher Columbus, who became the first European to reach the New World since Leif Ericson, which led to an influx of wealth into Spain, funding the coffers of the new state that would prove to be a dominant power of Europe for the next two centuries. Isabella ensured long-term political stability in Spain by arranging strategic marriages for each of her five children. Her firstborn, a daughter named Isabella, married Alfonso of Portugal, forging important ties between these two neighboring countries and hopefully to ensure future alliance, but Isabella soon died before giving birth to an heir. Juana, Isabella’s second daughter, married Philip the Handsome, the son of Maximilian I, King of Bohemia (Austria) and entitled to the crown of the Holy Roman Emperor. This ensured alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, a powerful, far-reaching territory which assured Spain’s future political security. Isabella’s first and only son, Juan, married Margaret of Austria, maintaining ties with the Habsburg dynasty, on which Spain relied heavily. Her fourth child, Maria, married Manuel I of Portugal, strengthening the link forged by her older sister’s marriage. Her fifth child, Catherine, married Henry VIII, King of England and was mother to Queen Mary I. If until the 13th century religious minorities (Jews and Muslims) had enjoyed quite some tolerance in Castilla and Aragon - the only Christian kingdoms where Jews were not restricted from any professional occupation - the situation of the Jews collapsed over the 14th century, reaching a climax in 1391 with large scale massacres in every major city, with the exception of Avilla. Over the next century, half of the estimated 200,000 Spanish Jews converted to Christianity (becoming "conversos"). The final step was taken by the Catholic Monarchs, who, in 1492, ordered the remaining Jews to convert or face expulsion from Spain. Depending on different sources, the number of Jews actually expelled is estimated to be anywhere from 40,000 to 120,000 people. Over the following decades, Muslims faced the same fate and about 60 years after the Jews, they were also compelled to convert ("moriscos") or be expelled. Jews and Muslims were not the only people to be persecuted during this time period. Gypsies also endured a tragic fate: all Gypsy males were forced to serve in galleys between the age of 18 and 26 - which was equivalent to a death sentence - but the majority managed to hide and avoid arrest. The Spanish language and universities In the 13th century, there were many languages spoken in the Christian sections of what is now Spain, among them Castilian, Catalan, Basque, Galician, Aranese and Leonese. But throughout the century, Castilian (what is also known today as Spanish) gained more and more prominence in the Kingdom of Castile as the language of culture and communication. One example of this is the El Cid. In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand III of Castile, Castilian began to be used for certain types of documents, but it was during the reign of Alfonso X that it became the official language. Henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian, likewise all translations were made into Castilian instead of Latin. Furthermore, in the 13th Century many universities were founded in León and in Castile, some, like those of the leonese Salamanca and Palencia were among the earliest universities in Europe. In 1492, under the Catholic Monarchs, the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija was published. Imperial Spain A map of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires in the period of Iberian Union under the personal union of the Spanish monarchs (1580-1640). The Spanish Empire was one of the first modern global empires. It was also one of the largest empires in world history. In the 16th century Spain and Portugal were in the vanguard of European global exploration and colonial expansion and the opening of trade routes across the oceans, with trade flourishing across the Atlantic between Spain and the Americas and across the Pacific between East Asia and Mexico via the Philippines. Conquistadors toppled the Aztec, Inca and Maya civilizations and laid claim to vast stretches of land in North and South America. For a time, the Spanish Empire dominated the oceans with its experienced navy and ruled the European battlefield with its fearsome and well trained infantry, the famous : in the words of the prominent French historian Pierre Vilar, "enacting the most extraordinary epic in human history". Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the 16th and 17th centuries. This American empire was at first a disappointment, as the natives had little to trade, though settlement did encourage trade. The diseases such as smallpox and measles that arrived with the colonizers devastated the native populations, especially in the densely populated regions of the Aztec, Maya and Inca civilizations, and this reduced economic potential of conquered areas. There is simply no consensus as to the extent, with estimates varying by many orders of magnitude, but that it occurred is not doubted - See Population history of American indigenous peoples. Columbus setting foot in the New World In the 1520s large scale extraction of silver from the rich deposits of Mexico's Guanajuato began, to be greatly augmented by the silver mines in Mexico's Zacatecas and Peru's Potosi from 1546. These silver shipments re-oriented the Spanish economy, leading to the importation of luxuries and grain. They also became indispensable in financing the military capability of Habsburg Spain in its long series of European and North African wars, though, with the exception of a few years in the seventeenth century, Spain itself (Castile in particular) was by far the most important source of revenue. From the time beginning with the incorporation of the Portuguese empire in 1580 (lost in 1640) until the loss of its American colonies in the 19th century, Spain maintained the largest empire in the world even though it suffered fluctuating military and economic fortunes from the 1640s. Confronted by the new experiences, difficulties and suffering created by empire-building, Spanish thinkers formulated some of the first modern thoughts on natural law, sovereignty, international law, war, and economics; there were even questions about the legitimacy of imperialism — in related schools of thought referred to collectively as the School of Salamanca. Spain under the Habsburgs (16th–17th centuries) Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries reached its height and declined under the Habsburgs. The Spanish Empire reached its maximum extent in Europe under Charles I of Spain, as he was also Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. Charles I of Spain (better known in the English-speaking world at the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) was the most powerful European monarch of his day. Charles V became king in 1516, and the history of Spain became even more firmly enmeshed with the dynastic struggles in Europe. The king was not often in Spain, and as he approached the end of his life he made provision for the division of the Habsburg inheritance into two parts: on the one hand Spain, and its possessions in the Mediterranean and overseas, and the Holy Roman Empire itself on the other. The Habsburg possessions in The Netherlands also remained with the Spanish crown. This was to prove a difficulty for his successor Philip II of Spain, who became king on Charles V's abdication in 1556. Spain largely escaped the religious conflicts that were raging throughout the rest of Europe, and remained firmly Roman Catholic. Philip saw himself as a champion of Catholicism, both against the Ottoman Turks and the heretics. In the 1560s, plans to consolidate control of the Netherlands led to unrest, which gradually led to the Calvinist leadership of the revolt and the Eighty Years' War. This conflict consumed much Spanish expenditure, and led to an attempt to conquer England – a cautious supporter of the Dutch – in the unsuccessful Spanish Armada, an early battle in the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) and war with France (1590–1598). Despite these problems, the growing inflow of American silver from mid 16th century, the justified military reputation of the Spanish infantry and even the navy quickly recovering from its Armada disaster, made Spain the leading European power, a novel situation of which its citizens were only just becoming aware. The Iberian Union with Portugal in 1580 not only unified the peninsula, but added that country's worldwide resources to the Spanish crown. However, economic and administrative problems multiplied in Castile, and the weakness of the native economy became evident in the following century: rising inflation, the ongoing aftermath of the expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain, and the growing dependency of Spain on the gold and silver imports, combined to cause several bankruptcies that caused economic crisis in the country, especially in heavily burdened Castile. The coastal villages of Spain and of the Balearic Islands were frequently attacked by Barbary pirates from North Africa. Formentera was even temporarily left by its population. This occurred also along long stretches of the Spanish and Italian coasts, a relatively short distance across a calm sea from the pirates in their North African lairs. The most famous corsair was the Turkish Barbarossa ("Redbeard"). According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by North African pirates and sold as slaves in North Africa and Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries This was gradually alleviated as Spain and other Christian powers began to check Muslim naval dominance in the Mediterranean after the 1571 victory at Lepanto, but it would be a scourge that continued to afflict the country even in the next century. When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed The great plague of 1596-1602 killed 600,000 to 700,000 people, or about 10% of the population. Altogether more than 1,250,000 deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th century Spain. The Seventeenth-Century Decline Philip II died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III, in whose reign a ten year truce with the Dutch was overshadowed in 1618 by Spain's involvement in the European-wide Thirty Years' War. Government policy was dominated by favorites, but it was also the reign in which the geniuses of Cervantes and El Greco flourished. Philip III was succeeded in 1621 by his son Philip IV of Spain. Much of the policy was conducted by the minister Gaspar de Guzmán, Conde de Olivares. In 1640, with the war in central Europe having no clear winner except the French, both Portugal and Catalonia rebelled. Portugal was lost to the crown for good, in Italy and most of Catalonia, French forces were expelled and Catalonia's independence suppressed. In the reign of Philip's developmentally disabled son and successor Charles II, Spain was essentially left leaderless and was gradually being reduced to a second-rank power. The Habsburg dynasty became extinct in Spain and the War of the Spanish Succession ensued in which the other European powers tried to assume control of the Spanish monarchy. King Louis XIV of France eventually "won" the War of Spanish Succession, and control of Spain passed to the Bourbon dynasty but the peace deals that followed included the relinquishing of the right to unite the French and Spanish thrones and the partitioning of Spain's European empire. The Golden Age (Siglo de Oro) Toledo by El Greco The Spanish Golden Age (in Spanish, Siglo de Oro) was a period of flourishing arts and letters in the Spanish Empire (now Spain and the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America), coinciding with the political decline and fall of the Habsburgs (Philip III, Philip IV and Charles II). The last great writer of the age, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, died in New Spain in 1695. The Habsburgs, both in Spain and Austria, were great patrons of art in their countries. El Escorial, the great royal monastery built by King Philip II, invited the attention of some of Europe's greatest architects and painters. Diego Velázquez, regarded as one of the most influential painters of European history and a greatly respected artist in his own time, cultivated a relationship with King Philip IV and his chief minister, the Count-Duke of Olivares, leaving us several portraits that demonstrate his style and skill. El Greco, a respected Greek artist from the period, settled in Spain, and infused Spanish art with the styles of the Italian renaissance and helped create a uniquely Spanish style of painting. Some of Spain's greatest music is regarded as having been written in the period. Such composers as Tomás Luis de Victoria, Luis de Milán and Alonso Lobo helped to shape Renaissance music and the styles of counterpoint and polychoral music, and their influence lasted far into the Baroque period. Spanish literature blossomed as well, most famously demonstrated in the work of Miguel de Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote de la Mancha. Spain's most prolific playwright, Lope de Vega, wrote possibly as many as one thousand plays over his lifetime, over four hundred of which survive to the present day. Enlightenment: Spain under the Bourbons (18th century) Philip V, the first Bourbon king, of French origin, signed the Decreto de Nueva Planta in 1715, a new law that revoked most of the historical rights and privileges of the different kingdoms that formed the Spanish Crown, unifying them under the laws of Castile, where the Cortes had been more receptive to the royal wish. Spain became culturally and politically a follower of absolutist France. The rule of the Spanish Bourbons continued under Ferdinand VI and Charles III. Great influence was exerted over Elisabeth of Parma on Spain's foreign policy. Her principal aim was to have Spain's lost territories in Italy restored. She eventually received Franco-British support for this after the Congress of Soissons. Simms p.211 An 18th century map of the Iberian Peninsula Attacking Spanish infantry (about 1740) Under the rule of Charles III and his ministers, Leopoldo de Gregorio, Marquis of Esquilache and José Moñino, Count of Floridablanca, Spain embarked on a program of enlightened despotism that brought Spain a new prosperity in the middle of the eighteenth century. After losing alongside France against the United Kingdom in the Seven Years' War, Spain recouped most of her territorial losses in the American Revolutionary War, and gained an improved international standing. However, the reforming spirit of Charles III was extinguished in the reign of his son, Charles IV, seen by some as mentally handicapped. Dominated by his wife's lover, Manuel de Godoy, Charles IV embarked on policies that overturned much of Charles III's reforms. After briefly opposing Revolutionary France early in the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain was cajoled into an uneasy alliance with its northern neighbor, only to be blockaded by the British. Charles IV's vacillation, culminating in his failure to honour the alliance by neglecting to enforce the Continental System led to Napoleon I, Emperor of the French, invading Spain in 1808, thereby triggering Spain's War of Independence. During most of the eighteenth century Spain had made substantial progress since its steady decline in the latter part of the 17th century, under an increasingly inept Habsburg dynasty. But despite the progress, it continued to lag in the political and mercantile developments then transforming other parts of Europe, most notably in the United Kingdom, France and the Low Countries. The chaos unleashed by the Napoleonic intervention would cause this gap to widen greatly. Napoleonic Wars: War of Spanish Independence (1808–1814) The Third of May 1808 by Francisco Goya, showing Spanish resisters being executed by Napoleon's troops. Spain initially sided against France in the Napoleonic Wars, but the defeat of her army early in the war led to Charles IV's pragmatic decision to align with the revolutionary French. Spain was put under a British blockade, and her colonies—for the first time separated from their colonial rulers—began to trade independently with Britain. The defeat of the British invasions of the River Plate in South America emboldened an independent attitude in Spain's American colonies. A major Franco-Spanish fleet was annihilated, at the decisive Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, prompting the vacillating king of Spain to reconsider his alliance with France. Spain broke off from the Continental System temporarily, and Napoleon—aggravated with the Bourbon kings of Spain—invaded Spain in 1808 and deposed Ferdinand VII, who had just been on the throne forty-eight days after his father's abdication in March. The Spanish people vigorously resisted Napoleon's move, and juntas were formed across Spain that pronounced themselves in favor of Ferdinand VII. Initially, the juntas declared their support for Ferdinand VII, and convened a "General and Extraordinary Cortes" for all the kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. The Cortes assembled in 1810 and took refuge at Cádiz. In 1812 the Cádiz Cortes created the first modern Spanish constitution, the Constitution of 1812 (informally named La Pepa). The British, led by the Duke of Wellington, fought Napoleon's forces in the Peninsular War, with Joseph Bonaparte ruling as king at Madrid. The brutal war was one of the first guerrilla wars in modern Western history; French supply lines stretching across Spain were mauled repeatedly by Spanish guerrillas. The war in the Iberian Peninsula fluctuated repeatedly, with Wellington spending several years behind his fortresses in Portugal while launching occasional campaigns into Spain. The French were decisively defeated at the Battle of Vitoria in 1813, and the following year, Ferdinand VII was restored as King of Spain. Spain in the nineteenth century (1814–1873) Although the juntas that had forced the French to leave Spain had sworn by the liberal Constitution of 1812, Ferdinand VII openly believed that it was too liberal for the country. On his return to Spain, he refused to swear by it himself, and he continued to rule in the authoritarian fashion of his forebears. Although Spain accepted the rejection of the Constitution, the policy was not warmly accepted in Spain's empire in the New World. Revolution broke out. Spain, nearly bankrupt from the war with France and the reconstruction of the country, was unable to pay her soldiers, and in 1819 was forced to sell Florida to the United States for 5 million dollars. In 1820, an expedition intended for the colonies (which, at the time, were on the verge of being lost themselves, to rebels and the Monroe Doctrine) revolted in Cadiz. When armies throughout Spain pronounced themselves in sympathy with the revolters, led by Rafael del Riego, Ferdinand relented and was forced to accept the liberal Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand himself was placed under effective house arrest for the duration of the liberal experiment. The three years of liberal rule that followed coincided with a civil war in Spain that would typify Spanish politics for the next century. The liberal government, which reminded European statesmen entirely too much of the governments of the French Revolution, was looked on with hostility by the Congress of Verona in 1822, and France was authorized to intervene. France crushed the liberal government with massive force in the so-called Spanish expedition, and Ferdinand was restored as absolute monarch. The American colonies, however, were completely lost; in 1824, the last Spanish army on the American mainland was defeated at the Battle of Ayacucho in southern Peru. A period of uneasy peace followed in Spain for the next decade. Having borne only a female heir presumptive, it appeared that Ferdinand would be succeeded by his brother, Infante Carlos of Spain. While Ferdinand aligned with the conservatives, fearing another national insurrection, he did not view the reactionary policies of his brother as a viable option. Ferdinand — resisting the wishes of his brother — decreed the Pragmatic Sanction of 1830, enabling his daughter Isabella to become Queen. Carlos, who made known his intent to resist the sanction, fled to Portugal. Ferdinand's death in 1833 and the accession of Isabella (only three years old at the time) as Queen of Spain sparked the First Carlist War. Carlos invaded Spain and attracted support from reactionaries and conservatives in Spain; Isabella's mother, Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, was named regent until her daughter came of age. The insurrection seemed to have been crushed by the end of the year; Maria Cristina's armies, called "Cristino" forces, had driven the Carlist armies from most of the Basque country. Carlos then named the Basque general Tomás de Zumalacárregui his commander-in-chief. Zumalacárregui resuscitated the Carlist cause, and by 1835 had driven the Cristino armies to the Ebro River and transformed the Carlist army from a demoralized band into a professional army of 30,000 of quality superior to the government forces. Zumalacárregui's death in 1835 changed the Carlists' fortunes. The Cristinos found a capable general in Baldomero Espartero. His victory at the Battle of Luchana (1836) turned the tide of the war, and in 1839, the Convention of Vergara put an end to the first Carlist insurrection. Espartero, operating on his popularity as a war hero and his sobriquet "Pacifier of Spain", demanded liberal reforms from Maria Cristina. The Queen Regent, who resisted any such idea, preferred to resign and let Espartero become regent instead. Espartero's liberal reforms were opposed, then, by moderates; the former general's heavy-handedness caused a series of sporadic uprisings throughout the country from various quarters, all of which were bloodily suppressed. He was overthrown as regent in 1843 by Ramón María Narváez, a moderate, who was in turn perceived as too reactionary. Another Carlist uprising, the Matiners' War, was launched in 1846 in Catalonia, but it was poorly organized and suppressed by 1849. Isabella II of Spain took a more active role in government after she came of age, but she was immensely unpopular throughout her reign. She was viewed as beholden to whoever was closest to her at court, and that she cared little for the people of Spain. In 1856, she attempted to form a pan-national coalition, the Union Liberal, under the leadership of Leopoldo O'Donnell who had already marched on Madrid that year and deposed another Espartero ministry. Isabella's plan failed and cost Isabella more prestige and favor with the people. Isabella launched a successful war against Morocco, waged by generals O'Donnell and Juan Prim, in 1860 that stabilized her popularity in Spain. However, a campaign to reconquer Peru and Chile during the Chincha Islands War proved disastrous and Spain suffered defeat before the determined South American powers. In 1866, a revolt led by Juan Prim was suppressed, but it was becoming increasingly clear that the people of Spain were upset with Isabella's approach to governance. In 1868, the Glorious Revolution broke out when the progresista generals Francisco Serrano and Juan Prim revolted against her, and defeated her moderado generals at the Battle of Alcolea. Isabella was driven into exile in Paris. Revolution and anarchy broke out in Spain in the two years that followed; it was only in 1870 that the Cortes declared that Spain would have a king again. As it turned out, this decision played an important role in European and world history, for a German prince's candidacy to the Spanish throne and French opposition to him served as the immediate motive for the Franco-Prussian War. Amadeus of Savoy was selected, and he was duly crowned King of Spain early the following year. Amadeus — a liberal who swore by the liberal constitution the Cortes promulgated — was faced immediately with the incredible task of bringing the disparate political ideologies of Spain to one table. He was plagued by internecine strife, not merely between Spaniards but within Spanish parties. First Spanish Republic (1873–1874) Following the Hidalgo affair, Amadeus famously declared the people of Spain to be ungovernable, and fled the country. In his absence, a government of radicals and Republicans was formed that declared Spain a republic. The republic was immediately under siege from all quarters — the Carlists were the most immediate threat, launching a violent insurrection after their poor showing in the 1872 elections. There were calls for socialist revolution from the International Workingmen's Association, revolts and unrest in the autonomous regions of Navarre and Catalonia, and pressure from the Roman Catholic Church against the fledgling republic. The Restoration (1874–1931) Although the former queen, Isabella II was still alive, she recognized that she was too divisive as a leader, and abdicated in 1870 in favor of her son, Alfonso, who was duly crowned Alfonso XII of Spain. After the tumult of the First Spanish Republic, Spaniards were willing to accept a return to stability under Bourbon rule. The Republican armies in Spain — which were resisting a Carlist insurrection — pronounced their allegiance to Alfonso in the winter of 1874–1875, led by Brigadier General Martinez Campos. The Republic was dissolved and Antonio Canovas del Castillo, a trusted advisor to the king, was named Prime Minister on New Year's Eve, 1874. The Carlist insurrection was put down vigorously by the new king, who took an active role in the war and rapidly gained the support of most of his countrymen. A system of turnos was established in Spain in which the liberals, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta and the conservatives, led by Antonio Canovas del Castillo, alternated in control of the government. A modicum of stability and economic progress was restored to Spain during Alfonso XII's rule. His death in 1885, followed by the assassination of Canovas del Castillo in 1897, destabilized the government. Cuba rebelled against Spain in the Ten Years' War beginning in 1868, resulting in the abolition of slavery in Spain's colonies in the New World. American interests in the island, coupled with concerns for the people of Cuba, aggravated relations between the two countries. The explosion of the USS Maine launched the Spanish-American War in 1898, in which Spain fared disastrously. Cuba gained its independence and Spain lost its remaining New World colony, Puerto Rico, which together with Guam and the Philippines it ceded to the United States for 20 million dollars. In 1899, Spain sold its remaining Pacific islands—the Northern Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands and Palau—to Germany and Spanish colonial possessions were reduced to Spanish Morocco, Spanish Sahara and Spanish Guinea, all in Africa. The "disaster" of 1898 created the Generation of '98, a group of statesmen and intellectuals who demanded change from the new government. Anarchist and fascist movements were on the rise in Spain in the early twentieth century. A revolt in 1909 in Catalonia was bloodily suppressed. Spain's neutrality in World War I allowed it to become a supplier of material for both sides to its great advantage, prompting an economic boom in Spain. The outbreak of Spanish influenza in Spain and elsewhere, along with a major economic slowdown in the postwar period, hit Spain particularly hard, and the country went into debt. A major worker's strike was suppressed in 1919. Mistreatment of the Moorish population in Spanish Morocco led to an uprising and the loss of this North African possession except for the enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla in 1921. (See Abd el-Krim, Annual). In order to avoid accountability, King Alfonso XIII decided to support the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera, ending the period of constitutional monarchy in Spain. In joint action with France, the Moroccan territory was recovered (1925–1927), but in 1930 bankruptcy and massive unpopularity left the king no option but to force Primo de Rivera to resign. Disgusted with the king's involvement in his dictatorship, the urban population voted for republican parties in the municipal elections of April 1931. The king fled the country without abdicating and a republic was established. Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939) Under the Second Spanish Republic, women were allowed to vote in general elections for the first time. The Republic devolved substantial autonomy to the Basque Country and to Catalonia. The first governments of the Republic, were center-left, headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, and Manuel Azaña. Economic turmoil, substantial debt inherited from the Primo de Rivera regime, and fractious, rapidly changing governing coalitions led to serious political unrest. In 1933, the right-wing CEDA won power; an armed rising of workers of October 1934, which reached its greatest intensity in Asturias and Catalonia, was forcefully put down by the CEDA government. This in turn energized political movements across the spectrum in Spain, including a revived anarchist movement and new reactionary and fascist groups, including the Falange and a revived Carlist movement. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) In the 1930s, Spanish politics were polarized at the left and right of the political spectrum. The left wing favoured class struggle, land reform, autonomy to the regions and reduction in church and monarchist power. The right-wing groups, the largest of which was CEDA, a right wing Roman Catholic coalition, held opposing views on most issues. In 1936, the left united in the Popular Front and was elected to power. However, this coalition, dominated by the centre-left, was undermined both by the revolutionary groups such as the anarchist CNT and FAI and by anti-democratic far-right groups such as the Falange and the Carlists. The political violence of previous years began to start again. There were gunfights over strikes, landless labourers began to seize land, church officials were killed and churches burnt. On the other side, right wing militias (such as the Falange) and gunmen hired by employers assassinated left wing activists. The Republican democracy never generated the consensus or mutual trust between the various political groups that it needed to function peacefully. As a result, the country slid into civil war. The right wing of the country and high ranking figures in the army began to plan a coup, and when Falangist politician José Calvo-Sotelo was shot by Republican police, they used it as a signal to act. On July 17, 1936, General Francisco Franco led the colonial army from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under General Sanjurjo moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Franco's move was intended to seize power immediately, but successful resistance by Republicans in places such as Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, the Basque country and elsewhere meant that Spain faced a prolonged civil war. Before long, much of the south and west was under the control of the Nationalists, whose regular Army of Africa was the most professional force available to either side. Both sides received foreign military aid, the Nationalists, from Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Portugal, the Republic from the USSR and organised volunteers in the International Brigades. The Siege of the Alcázar at Toledo early in the war was a turning point, with the Nationalists winning after a long siege. The Republicans managed to hold out in Madrid, despite a Nationalist assault in November 1936, and frustrated subsequent offensives against the capital at Jarama and Guadalajara in 1937. Soon, though, the Nationalists began to erode their territory, starving Madrid and making inroads into the east. The north, including the Basque country fell in late 1937 and the Aragon front collapsed shortly afterwards. The bombing of Guernica was probably the most infamous event of the war and inspired Picasso's painting. It was used as a testing ground for the German Luftwaffe's Condor Legion. The Battle of the Ebro in July-November 1938 was the final desperate attempt by the Republicans to turn the tide. When this failed and Barcelona fell to the Nationalists in early 1939, it was clear the war was over. The remaining Republican fronts collapsed and Madrid fell in March 1939. The war, which cost between 300,000 to 1,000,000 lives, ended with the destruction of the Republic and the accession of Francisco Franco as dictator of Spain. Franco amalgamated all the right wing parties into a reconstituted Falange and banned the left-wing and Republican parties and trade unions. The conduct of the war was brutal on both sides, with massacres of civilians and prisoners being widespread. After the war, many thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and up to 151,000 were executed between 1939 and 1943. Many other Republicans remained in exile for the entire Franco period. The dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1936–1975) Spain remained officially neutral in World Wars I and II, but suffered through a devastating Civil War (1936–1939). During Franco's rule, Spain remained largely economically and culturally isolated from the outside world, but began to catch up economically with its European neighbors. Under Franco, Spain actively sought the return of Gibraltar by the UK, and gained some support for its cause at the United Nations. During the 1960s, Spain began imposing restrictions on Gibraltar, culminating in the closure of the border in 1969. It was not fully reopened until 1985. Spanish rule in Morocco ended in 1967. Though militarily victorious in the 1957–1958 Moroccan invasion of Spanish West Africa, Spain gradually relinquished its remaining African colonies. Spanish Guinea was granted independence as Equatorial Guinea in 1968, while the Moroccan enclave of Ifni had been ceded to Morocco in 1969. The latter years of Franco's rule saw some economic and political liberalization, the Spanish Miracle, including the birth of a tourism industry. Francisco Franco ruled until his death on November 20 1975, when control was given to King Juan Carlos. In the last few months before Franco's death, the Spanish state went into a paralysis. This was capitalized upon by King Hassan II of Morocco, who ordered the 'Green March' into Western Sahara, Spain's last colonial possession. Spain since 1975 Transition to democracy The Spanish transition to democracy or new Bourbon restoration was the era when Spain moved from the dictatorship of Francisco Franco to a liberal democratic state. The transition is usually said to have begun with Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, while its completion is marked by the electoral victory of the socialist PSOE on October 28, 1982. Between 1978 and 1982, Spain was led by the Unión del Centro Democrático governments. in 1981 the 23-F coup d'état attempt took place. On February 23 Antonio Tejero, with members of the Guardia Civil entered the Congress of Deputies, and stopped the session, where Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo was about to be named prime minister of the government. Officially, the coup d'état failed thanks to the intervention of King Juan Carlos. Spain joined NATO before Calvo-Sotelo left office. Along with political change came radical change in Spanish society. Spanish society had been extremely conservative under Franco, but the transition to democracy also began a liberalization of values and societal mores. Modern Spain From 1982 until 1996, the social democratic PSOE governed the country, with Felipe González as prime minister. In 1986, Spain joined the European Economic Community (EEC, now European Union), and the country hosted the 1992 Barcelona Olympics and Seville Expo '92. In 1996, the centre-right Partido Popular government came to power, led by José María Aznar. On January 1, 1999 Spain exchanged the Peseta for the new Euro currency. On March 11 2004 a number of terrorist bombs exploded on busy commuter trains in Madrid during the morning rush-hour days before the general election, killing 191 persons and injuring thousands. Although José María Aznar and his ministers were quick to accuse ETA of the atrocity, soon afterwards it became apparent that the bombing was the work of an extremist Islamic group linked to Al-Qaeda. Many people believe that the fact that qualified commentators abroad were beginning to doubt the official Spanish version the very same day of the attacks while the government insisted on ETA's implication directly influenced the results of the election. Opinion polls at the time show that the difference between the two main contenders had been too close to make any accurate prediction as to the outcome of the elections. The election, held three days after the attacks, was won by the PSOE, and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero replaced Aznar as prime minister. On July 3, 2005, the country became the first country in the world to give full marriage and adoption rights to homosexual couples (Belgium allows same-sex marriage since 2003 and co-parenting since April 2006, and the Netherlands allows same-sex marriage since 2001 and has a law being prepared now to provide full adoption rights in equal conditions to opposite-sex marriages). At present, Spain is a constitutional monarchy, and comprises 17 autonomous communities (Andalucía, Aragón, Asturias, Islas Baleares, Islas Canarias, Cantabria, Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, Cataluña, Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Community of Madrid, Region of Murcia, País Vasco, Comunidad Valenciana, Navarra) and two autonomous cities (Ceuta and Melilla). Notes Bibliography Gerli, E. Michael, ed. Medieval Iberia : an encyclopedia. New York 2005. ISBN 0-415-93918-6 Simms, Brendan. Three Victories and a Defeat: The Rise and Fall of the First British Empire. Penguin Books, 2008. External links Historical maps of Spanish history Maps to be combined and compared Henry Kamen. Spain. A Society of Conflict (3rd ed.) London and New York: Pearson Longman 2005. ISBN Spain Chronology World History Database Castilian Spanish and the History of Spanish language History of Spain: Primary Documents Spanish History Sources & Documents Stanley G. Payne The Seventeenth-Century Decline Henry Kamen, "The Decline of Spain: A Historical Myth?", Past and Present,) (Explains the complexities of this subject) WWW-VL "Spanish History Index Carmen Pereira-Muro. Culturas de España. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company 2003. 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120 | Don_McLean | Donald McLean, Jr. (born October 2, 1945, New Rochelle, New York) is an American singer-songwriter. He is most famous for his 1971 album American Pie, containing the renowned songs "American Pie" and "Vincent". The McLean clan traces its roots to the Isle of Mull in the Scottish Hebrides. Both Don’s grandfather and father were named Donald McLean which sometimes led to confusion as Don was also christened Donald McLean. The Buccis, the family of McLean’s mother, Elizabeth, came from Abruzzi in central Italy. They left Italy and settled in Port Chester, N.Y. at the end of the 19th century. He has other extended family in Los Angeles and Boston. Musical roots As a young teenager, McLean became interested in folk music, particularly the Weavers' 1955 recording "At Carnegie Hall." Childhood asthma meant that Don missed long periods of school and while he slipped back in his studies, his love of music was allowed to flourish. He often performed shows for family and friends. By age 16 he had bought his first guitar (a Harmony acoustic archtop with a sunburst finish) and begun making contacts in the music business, becoming friends with folk singer Erik Darling, a member of the Weavers. McLean recorded his first studio sessions (with singer Lisa Kindred) while still in prep school. McLean graduated from Iona Preparatory School in 1963, and briefly attended Villanova University, dropping out after four months. While at Villanova he became friends with singer/songwriter Jim Croce. After leaving Villanova, McLean became associated with famed folk music agent Harold Leventhal, and for the next six years performed at venues and events including the Bitter End and the Gaslight Cafe in New York, the Newport Folk Festival, the Cellar Door in Washington, D.C., and the Troubadour in Los Angeles. Concurrently, McLean attended night school at Iona College and received a Bachelors degree in Business Administration in 1968. He turned down a scholarship to Columbia University Graduate School in favour of becoming resident singer at Café Lena in NY. In 1968, with the help of a grant from the New York State Council on the Arts, McLean began reaching a wider public, with visits to towns up and down the Hudson River. He learned the art of performing from his friend and mentor Pete Seeger. McLean accompanied Seeger on his Clearwater boat trip up the Hudson River in 1969 to protest environmental pollution in the river. During this time McLean wrote songs that would appear on his first album, Tapestry. McLean co-edited the book “Songs and Sketches of the First Clearwater Crew” with sketches by Thomas B. Allen for which Pete Seeger wrote the foreward. Seeger and McLean sang "Shenandoah" on the 1974 Clearwater album. Recording career Early breakthrough McLean recorded his first album, Tapestry, in 1969 in Berkeley, CA during the student riots. After being rejected by 34 labels the album was released by Mediarts and attracted good reviews but little notice outside the folk community. McLean's major break came when Mediarts was taken over by United Artists Records thus securing for his second album, American Pie, the promotion of a major label. The album spawned two No. 1 hits in the title song and "Vincent." American Pies success made McLean an international star and renewed interest in his first album, which charted more than two years after its initial release. American Pie Don McLean's most famous composition, "American Pie", is a sprawling, impressionistic ballad inspired partly by the deaths of Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and J. P. Richardson (The Big Bopper) in a plane crash in 1959. The song would popularize the expression The Day the Music Died in reference to this event. McLean has stated that the lyrics are also somewhat autobiographical and present an abstract story of his life from the mid-1950s until the time he wrote the song in the late 1960s. The song was recorded on 26 May 1971 and a month later received its first radio airplay on New York’s WNEW-FM and WPLJ-FM to mark the closing of The Fillmore East, a famous New York concert hall. "American Pie" reached number one on the U.S. Billboard magazine charts for four weeks in 1972, and remains McLean's most successful single release. The single also topped the Billboard Easy Listening survey. It is also the longest song to reach No. 1 with a running time of 8:36. Some stations played only part one of the original split-sided single release. 29 years later, pop singer Madonna released a truncated dance-pop cover version of the song. In response, Don McLean said: "I have received many gifts from God but this is the first time I have ever received a gift from a goddess." In 2001 "American Pie" was voted No. 5 in a poll of the 365 Songs of the Century compiled by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. The top five were: "Over the Rainbow" by Judy Garland, "White Christmas" by Bing Crosby, "This Land Is Your Land" by Woody Guthrie, "Respect" by Aretha Franklin and "American Pie". Subsequent recordings McLean’s third album, Don McLean, included the song "The Pride Parade" that provides an insight into McLean’s immediate reaction to stardom. McLean told Melody Maker magazine in 1973 that Tapestry was an album by someone previously concerned with external situations. American Pie combines externals with internals and the resultant success of that album makes the third one (Don McLean) entirely introspective." The fourth album, Playin' Favorites was a top-40 hit in the UK in 1973 and included the Irish folk classic, "Mountains of Mourne" and Buddy Holly’s "Everyday", a live rendition of which returned McLean to the UK singles chart. McLean said, "The last album (Don McLean) was a study in depression whereas the new one (Playin' Favorites) is almost the quintessence of optimism, with a feeling of "Wow, I just woke up from a bad dream." 1977 saw a brief liaison with Arista Records that yielded the Prime Time album before, in 1978, McLean’s career changed direction and he started recording in Nashville with Elvis Presley’s backing singers, The Jordanaires, and many of Elvis’s musicians. The result was Chain Lightning and the international Number 1, "Crying (Song)". The early 1980s saw further chart successes in the US with "Since I Don’t Have You", a new recording of "Castles in the Air" and "It’s Just the Sun". In 1987, the release of the country-based Love Tracks album gave rise to the hit singles "Love in My Heart" (a top-10 in Australia), "Can’t Blame the Wreck on the Train" (US country No. 49), and "Eventually". In 1991, EMI reissued the "American Pie" single in the United Kingdom and McLean performed on Top of the Pops. In 1992, previously unreleased songs became available on Favorites and Rarities while Don McLean Classics featured new studio recordings of "Vincent" and "American Pie". Don McLean has continued to record new material including "River of Love" in 1995 on Curb Records and most recently the albums "You've Got to Share", "Don McLean Sings Marty Robbins" and "The Western Album" on his own Don McLean Music label. Other songs McLean's other well-known songs include: And I Love You So, covered by Elvis Presley, Helen Reddy, and a 1973 hit for Perry Como Vincent, a tribute to the 19th century Dutch painter, Vincent van Gogh. Although it only reached #12 on the Billboard Hot 100 (Due to the success of "American Pie"), it proved to be the better hit worldwide and became a #1 hit single in the UK Singles Charts. This song was also covered by Josh Groban in the early 2000s. Castles in the Air, which McLean recorded twice -- his 1981 re-recording was a top-40 hit Wonderful Baby, a tribute to Fred Astaire that Astaire himself recorded. Primarily rejected by pop stations, it reached #1 on Billboard's Easy Listening survey. Superman's Ghost, a tribute to George Reeves, who portrayed Superman on television in the 1950s The Grave, a song written about the Vietnam War was covered by George Michael in 2003 in protest against the Iraq War. The album American Pie features a version of Psalm 137, entitled Babylon, and arranged by Don McLean and Lee Hays (of The Weavers). Boney M would have a number one hit in the UK with this song in 1978 under the title Rivers of Babylon, although the two renditions are so different it is not immediately noticeable that they are versions of the same song. In 1980, McLean had an international number one hit with a cover of the Roy Orbison classic, Crying. Only following the record's success overseas was it released in the U.S., becoming a top 10 hit in 1981. Orbison himself once described McLean as "the voice of the century", and a subsequent re-recording of the song saw Orbison incorporate elements of McLean's version. Another hit song associated with Don McLean (though never recorded by him) is "Killing Me Softly with His Song" which was written about McLean after Lori Lieberman, also a singer/songwriter, saw him singing his composition "Empty Chairs" in concert. Afterwards, Lieberman wrote a poem titled "Killing Me Softly with His Blues" which became the basis for the song written by Norman Gimbel and Charles Fox and recorded by Roberta Flack (and later covered by The Fugees). Concerts McLean’s subsequent albums did not match the commercial success of American Pie but he became a major concert attraction in the US and overseas. His repertoire included old concert hall numbers and the catalogues of singers such as Buddy Holly, and another McLean influence, Frank Sinatra. The years spent playing gigs in small clubs and coffee houses in the 1960s transformed into well-paced performances. Don’s first concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York and the Albert Hall in London in 1972 were critically acclaimed. In the 1970s Don McLean usually toured solo but from 1981 to 1996 was accompanied by John Platania on guitar. He now tours with his own band of Nashville musicians: Tony Migliore, Jerry Kroon, Ralph Childs and Carl "VIP" Viperman. In 1997, Don McLean performed "American Pie" with Garth Brooks at the country legend's free concert in Central Park, NY. CNN reported that “Brooks was joined on stage by two surprise guest stars, Billy Joel and Don McLean, who brought down the house with an acoustic rendition of "American Pie"." Two years later Garth Brooks repaid the favor by appearing as a special guest (with Nanci Griffith) on Don’s first American TV special, broadcast as the PBS special “Starry Starry Night”. A month later, Don McLean wound up the 20th century by performing "American Pie" at the Lincoln Memorial Gala in Washington D.C. Garth Brooks again played "American Pie" during We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial on January 18, 2009. McLean had a series of conflicts with Saturday Night Live writer Andy Breckman, starting when Breckman opened for McLean on tour in 1980. "Annoy Don McLean, Win $200!" Tayt Harlin, New York Magazine, October 31, 2007 Breckman and McLean have penned competing renditions of the origins of this feud, both of which are available online. Don McLean vs. Andy Breckman on the WFMU website Later work and honors In 1991, Don McLean returned to the UK top 20 with a re-issue of "American Pie". Iona College conferred an honorary doctorate on McLean in 2001. In February 2002 "American Pie" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, Don McLean was inaugurated into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. Garth Brooks presented the award and said “Don McLean his work, like the man himself is very deep and very compassionate. His pop anthem American Pie is a cultural phenomenon”. In 2007, the biography The Don McLean Story: Killing Us Softly With His Songs was published. Biographer Alan Howard conducted extensive interviews for this, the only book-length biography of the often reclusive McLean to date. In 2008, New York City radio station Q104.3 FM WAXQ names Don McLean's "American Pie" number 37 in their 2008 Top 1,043 Songs Of All Time listener-generated countdown. In the fall 2009, Don McLean will be releasing a new album, "Addicted to Black". Discography Albums YearAlbum1970Tapestry1971American Pie1972Don McLean1973Playin' Favorites1974Homeless Brother1976Solo (LIVE)1977Prime Time1978Chain Lightning1981Believers1982Dominion (LIVE)1987Love Tracks1989For the Memories Vols I & II1989And I Love You So (UK Release)1990Headroom1991Christmas1995The River of Love1997Christmas Dreams2001Sings Marty Robbins2001Starry Starry Night (LIVE)2003You've Got to Share: Songs for Children2003The Western Album2004Christmas Time!2005Rearview Mirror: An American Musical Journey Compilations YearAlbum1980The Very Best of Don McLean1991The Best of Don McLean1992Favorites and Rarities2003Legendary Songs of Don McLean2007The Legendary Don McLean2008American Pie & Other Hits SinglesUSA #1 - American Pie (1971) #12 - Vincent (1972) #21 - Dreidel (1972) #5 - Crying (1980) #23 - Since I Don't Have You (1981) #36 - Castles In The Air (1981) #58 - If We Try (1973) #83 - It's Just The Sun (1981) #93 - Wonderful Baby (1975) #73 - He's Got You (1987) #49 - You Can't Blame the Train (1987)UK' #2 - American Pie (1972) #1 - Vincent (1972) #38 - Everyday (1973) #1 - Crying (1980) #12 - American Pie (1991) Rarities YearTitleAdditional information1982"The Flight of Dragons"This song was recorded for the film The Flight of Dragons in the early 1980s. References External links The Official Web Site of Don McLean and American Pie Allmusic Entry | Don_McLean |@lemmatized donald:3 mclean:64 jr:1 born:1 october:2 new:14 rochelle:1 york:8 american:30 singer:9 songwriter:4 famous:3 album:21 pie:28 contain:1 renowned:1 song:27 vincent:7 clan:1 trace:1 root:2 isle:1 mull:1 scottish:1 hebrides:1 grandfather:1 father:1 name:2 sometimes:1 lead:1 confusion:1 also:6 christen:1 buccis:1 family:3 mother:1 elizabeth:1 come:2 abruzzi:1 central:2 italy:2 leave:2 settle:1 port:1 chester:1 n:1 end:2 century:5 extend:1 los:2 angeles:2 boston:1 musical:2 young:1 teenager:1 become:10 interested:1 folk:6 music:6 particularly:1 weaver:3 record:16 carnegie:2 hall:7 childhood:1 asthma:1 mean:1 miss:1 long:2 period:1 school:5 slip:1 back:2 study:2 love:6 allow:1 flourish:1 often:2 perform:6 show:1 friend:4 age:1 buy:1 first:10 guitar:2 harmony:1 acoustic:2 archtop:1 sunburst:1 finish:1 begin:2 make:3 contact:1 business:2 erik:1 darling:1 member:1 studio:2 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121 | Internet_protocol_suite | The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this standard. Today's IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANs (Local Area Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122). RFC 1122, Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989 RFC 1123, Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Application and Support, R. Braden (ed.), October 1989 From lowest to highest, these are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. History The Internet Protocol Suite resulted from work done by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. After building the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn was hired at the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across them. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET. By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design. With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. One popular saying has it that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over "two tin cans and a string." A computer called a router (a name changed from gateway to avoid confusion with other types of gateways) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards packets back and forth between them. Requirements for routers are defined in . The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the 1973–74 period, resulting in the first TCP specification . (The early networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around the same period of time, was also a significant technical influence; people moved between the two.) DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with TCP/IP v4 — the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centres between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on January 1, 1983 when the new protocols were permanently activated. Internet History In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking. In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. Kahn and Cerf were honored with the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 9, 2005 for their contribution to American culture. Layers in the Internet Protocol Suite The concept of layers The TCP/IP suite uses encapsulation to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Such encapsulation usually is aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level. This may be illustrated by an example network scenario, in which two Internet host computers communicate across local network boundaries constituted by their internetworking gateways (routers). TCP/IP stack operating on two hosts connected via two routers and the corresponding layers used at each hop Encapsulation of application data descending through the protocol stack. The functional groups of protocols and methods are the Application Layer, the Transport Layer, the Internet Layer, and the Link Layer (RFC 1122). It should be noted that this model was not intended to be a rigid reference model into which new protocols have to fit in order to be accepted as a standard. The following table provides some examples of the protocols grouped in their respective layers. Application DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC, NNTP, POP3, SIP, SMTP,SMPP, SNMP, SSH, Telnet, Echo, RTP, PNRP, rlogin, ENRP Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over TCP/UDP, may also be considered part of the Internet Layer. Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP Internet IP (IPv4, IPv6) ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6 OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol since it runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed on the Link since RFC 2740. Link ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP Layer names and number of layers in the literature The following table shows the layer names and the number of layers in the TCP/IP model as presented in university course textbooks about computer networking in use today. RFC 1122, Kurose James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 2007, ISBN 0321497708 Forouzan Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking Comer Douglas E. Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP: Principles, Protocols and Architecture, Pearson Prentice Hall 2005, ISBN 0131876716 , Kozierok Charles M. Kozierok, "The TCP/IP Guide", No Starch Press 2005 Stallings William Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, Prentice Hall 2006, ISBN 0132433109 Tanenbaum Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall 2002, ISBN 0130661023 Cisco Academy Mark Dye, Mark A. Dye, Wendell, Network Fundamentals: CCNA Exploration Companion Guide, 2007, ISBN 1587132087 Arpanet Reference Model 1982 (RFC 871) Four layers Five layers Five layers Five layers Four layers Four layers Three layers Application Application Application Application Application Application Application/Process Transport Transport Transport Host-to-host or transport Transport Transport Host-to-host Internet Network Internet Internet Internet Internetwork Link Data link Data link (Network interface) Network access Host-to-network Network interface Network interface Physical (Hardware) Physical These textbooks are secondary sources that may contravene the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources. Different authors have interpreted the RFCs differently regarding whether the Link Layer (and the four-layer TCP/IP model) covers physical layer issues or a "hardware layer" is assumed below the link layer. Some authors have tried to use other names for the Link Layer, such as Network interface layer, in effort to avoid confusion with the Data Link Layer of the seven-layer OSI model. Others have attempted to map the Internet Protocol model onto the seven-layer OSI Model. The mapping often results in a model with five layers, wherein the Link Layer is split into a Data Link Layer on top of a Physical Layer. In literature with a bottom-up approach to computer networking, in which physical layer issues are emphasized, the use of the OSI reference model is sometimes preferred. The Internet Layer is usually directly mapped to the OSI's Network Layer. At the top of the hierarchy, the Transport Layer is always mapped directly into OSI Layer 4 of the same name. OSIs Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and Session Layer are collapsed into TCP/IP's Application Layer. As a result, these efforts result in either a four- or five-layer scheme with a variety of layer names. This has caused considerable confusion in the application of these models. Other authors dispense with rigid pedagogy IP Fundamentals: What Everyone Needs to Know About Addressing and Routing, T. Maufer, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall 1999, ISBN 0130661023 focusing instead on functionality and behavior. Indeed Parker and Sportack in TCP/IP unleashed go so far as to state unequivocally in a boxout note on page 17, Quote "Please note that most of todays networking protocols use their own layered models. These models vary in the degree to which they adhereto the separation of functions demonstrated by the OSI Reference Model. It is quite common for these models to collapse the seven OSI layers into five or fewer layers. It is also common for higher layers not to correspond perfectly to their OSI- equivalent layers. TCP/IP unleashed , Tim Parker and Mark Sportack, Sams Publishing 1999, ISBN 0-672-31690-0 The Internet protocol stack has never been altered by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) from the four layers defined in RFC 1122. The IETF makes no effort to follow the seven-layer OSI model although RFCs sometimes refer to it. The IETF has repeatedly stated that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful". Implementations Most operating systems in use today, including all consumer-targeted systems, include a TCP/IP implementation. Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected via serial lines. See also List of TCP and UDP port numbers References Further reading Douglas E. Comer. Internetworking with TCP/IP - Principles, Protocols and Architecture. ISBN 86-7991-142-9 Joseph G. Davies and Thomas F. Lee. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services. ISBN 0-7356-1291-9 Craig Hunt TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1-56592-322-7 Ian McLean. Windows(R) 2000 TCP/IP Black Book. ISBN 1-57610-687-X Ajit Mungale Pro .NET 1.1 Network Programming. ISBN 1-59059-345-6 W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63346-9 W. Richard Stevens and Gary R. Wright. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 2: The Implementation. ISBN 0-201-63354-X W. Richard Stevens. TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 3: TCP for Transactions, HTTP, NNTP, and the UNIX Domain Protocols. ISBN 0-201-63495-3 Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Computer Networks. ISBN 0-13-066102-3 David D. Clark, "The Design Philosophy of the DARPA Internet Protocols", Computer Communications Review 18:4, August 1988, pp. 106–114 External links Internet History -- Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn). RFC 675 - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974 Version TCP/IP State Transition Diagram (PDF) RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991) TCP/IP FAQ The TCP/IP Guide - A comprehensive look at the protocols and the procedures/processes involved A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams The Internet in Practice TCP/IP - Directory & Informational Resource Daryl's TCP/IP Primer - Intro to TCP/IP LAN administration, conversational style Introduction to TCP/IP TCP/IP commands from command prompt cIPS — Robust TCP/IP stack for embedded devices without an Operating System | Internet_protocol_suite |@lemmatized internet:32 protocol:42 suite:8 commonly:1 know:2 tcp:50 ip:48 set:4 communication:6 use:13 similar:1 network:33 name:7 two:8 important:2 transmission:4 control:3 first:2 networking:6 define:4 standard:4 today:5 represent:1 synthesis:1 several:2 development:2 begin:1 evolve:1 namely:1 lan:2 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122 | Cathode_ray | Cathode rays casting a shadow on the wall of a Crookes tube Cathode rays (also called an electron beam or e-beam) are streams of electrons observed in vacuum tubes, i.e. evacuated glass tubes that are equipped with at least two metal electrodes to which a voltage is applied, a cathode or negative electrode and an anode or positive electrode. They were discovered by German scientist Johann Hittorf in 1869 and in 1876 named by Eugen Goldstein kathodenstrahlen (cathode rays). Electrons were first discovered as the constituents of cathode rays. In 1897 British physicist J. J. Thompson showed the rays were composed of a previously unknown negatively charged particle, which was named electron. Description Cathode rays are so named because they are emitted by the negative electrode, or cathode, in a tube. To release electrons into the tube, they first must be detached from the atoms of the cathode. In early vacuum tubes (Crookes tubes) this was done solely by the high electrical potential between the anode and the cathode. In modern tubes this is assisted by making the cathode a thin wire filament and passing an electric current through it. The current heats the filament red hot. The increased random heat motion of the filament atoms assists in knocking electrons out of the atoms at the surface of the filament, into the evacuated space of the tube. This process is called thermionic emission and can reduce the anode to cathode voltage needed to obtain effective currents. Since the electrons have a negative charge, they are repelled by the cathode and attracted to the anode. They travel in straight lines through the empty tube. The voltage applied between the electrodes accelerates these low mass particles to high velocities. Cathode rays are invisible, but their presence was first detected in early vacuum tubes when they struck the glass wall of the tube, exciting the atoms of the glass and causing them to emit light, a glow called fluorescence. Researchers noticed that objects placed in the tube in front of the cathode could cast a shadow on the glowing wall, and realized that something must be travelling in straight lines from the cathode. After the electrons reach the anode, they travel through the anode wire to the power supply and back to the cathode, so cathode rays carry electric current through the tube. |A schematic diagram of a Crookes tube apparatus. A is a low voltage power supply to heat cathode C (a "cold cathode" was used by Crookes). B is a high voltage power supply to energize the phosphor-coated anode P. Shadow mask M is connected to the cathode potential and its image is seen on the phosphor as a non-glowing area. History After the 1650 invention of the vacuum pump by Otto von Guericke, physicists began to experiment with passing high voltage electricity through rarefied air. In 1705, it was noted that electrostatic generator sparks travel a longer distance through low pressure air than through atmospheric pressure air. Gas discharge tubes In 1838, Michael Faraday passed a current through a rarefied air filled glass tube and noticed a strange light arc with its beginning at the cathode (negative electrode) and its end almost at the anode (positive electrode). In 1857, German physicist and glassblower Heinrich Geissler sucked even more air out with an improved pump, to a pressure of around 10-3 atm and found that, instead of an arc, the glow filled the tube. The voltage applied between the two electrodes of the tubes, generated by an induction coil, was anywhere between a few kilovolts and 100 kV. These were called Geissler tubes, similar to today's neon lights. The explanation of these effects was that the high voltage accelerated electrically charged atoms (ions) naturally present in the air of the tube. At low pressure, there was enough space between the gas atoms that the ions could accelerate to high enough speeds that when they struck another atom they knocked electrons off of it, creating more positive ions and free electrons in a chain reaction. The positive ions were all attracted to the cathode. When they struck it they knocked many electrons out of the metal. The free electrons were all attracted to the anode. In the Geissler tubes, there was so much air that the electrons could only travel a tiny distance before colliding with an atom. The electrons in these tubes moved in a slow diffusion process, never gaining much speed, so these tubes didn't produce cathode rays. The glow in the gas was caused when the electrons or ions struck gas atoms, exciting their orbital electrons to higher energy levels. The electrons released this energy as light. This process is called fluorescence. Cathode rays By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10-6 atm. These were called Crookes tubes. Faraday had been the first to notice a dark space just in front of the cathode, where there was no luminescence. This came to be called the "cathode dark space", "Faraday dark space" or "Crookes dark space". Crookes found that as he pumped more air out of the tubes, the Faraday dark space spread down the tube from the cathode toward the anode, until the tube was totally dark. But at the anode (positive) end of the tube, the glass of the tube itself began to glow. What was happening was that as more air was pumped from the tubes, the electrons could travel farther, on average, before they struck a gas atom. By the time the tube was dark, most of the electrons could travel in straight lines from the cathode to the anode end of the tube without a collision. With no obstructions, these low mass particles were accelerated to high velocities by the voltage between the electrodes. These were the cathode rays. When they reached the anode end of the tube, they were travelling so fast that, although they were attracted to it, they often flew past the anode and struck the back wall of the tube. When they struck atoms in the glass wall, they excited their orbital electrons to higher energy levels, causing them to fluoresce. Later researchers painted the inside back wall with fluorescent chemicals such as zinc sulfide, to make the glow more visible. Cathode rays themselves are invisible, but this accidental fluorescence allowed researchers to notice that objects in the tube in front of the cathode, such as the anode, cast sharp-edged shadows on the glowing back wall. In 1869, German physicist Johann Hittorf was first to realize that something must be travelling in straight lines from the cathode to cast the shadows. Eugen Goldstein named them cathode rays. Discovery of the electron At this time, atoms were the smallest particles known, and were believed to be indivisible. What carried electric currents was a mystery. During the last quarter of the 19th century many experiments were done to determine what cathode rays were. There were two theories. Crookes and Artur Shuster believed they were particles of "radiant matter", that is, electrically charged atoms. German scientists Eilhard Wiedemann, Heinrich Hertz and Goldstein believed they were "aether waves", some new form of electromagnetic radiation. The debate was resolved in 1897 when J.J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore they were not atoms, but a new particle which he originally called "corpuscle" but was later named electron. He also showed they were identical with particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognised that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge of the atom. Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel prize for physics for this work. Philipp Lenard also contributed a great deal to cathode ray theory, winning the Nobel prize for physics in 1905 for his research on cathode rays and their properties. Vacuum tubes The gas ionization (or cold cathode) method of producing cathode rays used in Crookes tubes was unreliable, because it depended on the pressure of the residual air in the tube. Over time, the air was absorbed by the walls of the tube, and it quit working. A more reliable and controllable method of producing cathode rays was investigated by Hittorf and Goldstein, and rediscovered by Thomas Edison in 1880. A cathode made of a filament heated red hot would release electrons into the tube by a process called thermionic emission. The first true electronic vacuum tubes, invented around 1906, used this hot cathode technique, and they superseded Crookes tubes. These tubes didn't need gas in them to work, so they were evacuated to a lower pressure, around 10-9 atm (10-4 P). The ionization method of creating cathode rays used in Crookes tubes is today only used in a few specialized gas discharge tubes such as krytrons. The technology of manipulating electron beams pioneered in these early tubes was applied practically in the design of vacuum tubes, particularly in the invention of the cathode ray tube by Ferdinand Braun in 1897. and is today employed in sophisticated devices such as electron microscopes, electron beam lithography, and particle accelerators. Particles of Cathode Rays Like a wave: they travelled in straight lines Produced a shadow when obstructed by objects could pass through thin metal foils without disturbing them (Tested by New Zealander Ernest Rutherford using gold foil.) These conflicting properties caused disruptions when trying to classify it as a wave or particle. Crookes insisted it was a particle, whilst Hertz maintained it was a wave. The debate was resolved when an electric field was used to deflect the rays by J. J. Thomson. This evidence that the beams were composed of particles was strong because scientists knew it was impossible to deflect electromagnetic waves with an electric field. See also α (alpha) particles β (beta) particles Electron Electron beam processing Electron gun Electron irradiation Ionising radiation Particle accelerator Rays: γ (gamma) rays n (neutron) rays δ (delta) rays ε (epsilon) rays Sterilisation (microbiology) References External links The Cathode Ray Tube site | Cathode_ray |@lemmatized cathode:46 ray:29 cast:4 shadow:6 wall:8 crookes:13 tube:50 also:4 call:9 electron:30 beam:6 e:2 stream:1 observe:1 vacuum:7 evacuated:2 glass:6 equip:1 least:1 two:3 metal:4 electrode:9 voltage:9 apply:4 negative:5 anode:15 positive:5 discover:2 german:4 scientist:3 johann:2 hittorf:3 name:5 eugen:2 goldstein:4 kathodenstrahlen:1 first:6 constituent:1 british:2 physicist:4 j:6 thompson:1 show:3 compose:2 previously:1 unknown:1 negatively:1 charge:5 particle:15 description:1 emit:2 release:3 must:3 detach:1 atom:15 early:3 tubes:1 solely:1 high:9 electrical:1 potential:2 modern:1 assist:2 make:4 thin:2 wire:3 filament:5 pass:4 electric:7 current:7 heat:4 red:2 hot:3 increased:1 random:1 motion:1 knock:3 surface:1 space:7 process:4 thermionic:2 emission:2 reduce:1 need:2 obtain:1 effective:1 since:1 repel:1 attract:4 travel:10 straight:5 line:5 empty:1 accelerate:4 low:7 mass:3 velocity:2 invisible:2 presence:1 detect:1 strike:7 excite:3 cause:4 light:5 glow:6 fluorescence:3 researcher:3 notice:4 object:3 place:1 front:3 could:6 glowing:2 realize:2 something:2 reach:2 power:3 supply:3 back:4 carry:4 schematic:1 diagram:1 apparatus:1 c:1 cold:2 use:7 b:1 energize:1 phosphor:2 coat:1 p:2 mask:1 connect:1 image:1 see:2 non:1 area:1 history:1 invention:2 pump:4 otto:1 von:1 guericke:1 physicists:1 begin:2 experiment:2 electricity:1 rarefy:1 air:11 note:1 electrostatic:1 generator:1 spark:1 long:1 distance:2 pressure:7 atmospheric:1 gas:8 discharge:2 michael:1 faraday:4 rarefied:1 fill:2 strange:1 arc:2 beginning:1 end:4 almost:1 glassblower:1 heinrich:2 geissler:3 suck:1 even:1 improved:1 around:4 atm:3 find:2 instead:1 generate:1 induction:1 coil:1 anywhere:1 kilovolt:1 kv:1 similar:1 today:3 neon:1 explanation:1 effect:1 electrically:2 ion:5 naturally:1 present:1 enough:2 speed:2 another:1 create:2 free:2 chain:1 reaction:1 many:2 much:2 tiny:1 collide:1 move:1 slow:1 diffusion:1 never:1 gain:1 produce:4 orbital:2 energy:3 level:2 william:1 others:1 able:1 evacuate:2 dark:7 luminescence:1 come:1 spread:1 toward:1 totally:1 happen:1 far:1 average:1 time:4 without:2 collision:1 obstruction:1 fast:1 although:1 often:1 fly:1 past:1 fluoresce:1 late:1 paint:1 inside:1 fluorescent:1 chemical:1 zinc:1 sulfide:1 visible:1 accidental:1 allow:1 sharp:1 edge:1 discovery:1 small:1 know:2 believe:3 indivisible:1 mystery:1 last:1 quarter:1 century:1 determine:1 theory:2 artur:1 shuster:1 radiant:1 matter:1 eilhard:1 wiedemann:1 hertz:2 aether:1 wave:5 new:3 form:1 electromagnetic:2 radiation:2 debate:2 resolve:2 thomson:3 measure:1 lighter:1 hydrogen:1 therefore:1 atoms:1 originally:1 corpuscle:1 later:1 identical:1 give:2 photoelectric:1 radioactive:1 material:1 quickly:1 recognise:1 nobel:2 prize:2 physic:2 work:3 philipp:1 lenard:1 contribute:1 great:1 deal:1 win:1 research:1 property:2 ionization:2 method:3 unreliable:1 depend:1 residual:1 absorb:1 quit:1 reliable:1 controllable:1 investigate:1 rediscover:1 thomas:1 edison:1 would:1 true:1 electronic:1 invent:1 technique:1 supersede:1 specialized:1 krytrons:1 technology:1 manipulate:1 pioneer:1 practically:1 design:1 particularly:1 ferdinand:1 braun:1 employ:1 sophisticated:1 device:1 microscope:1 lithography:1 accelerator:2 like:1 obstruct:1 foil:2 disturb:1 test:1 zealander:1 ernest:1 rutherford:1 gold:1 conflict:1 disruption:1 try:1 classify:1 insist:1 whilst:1 maintain:1 field:2 deflect:2 evidence:1 strong:1 impossible:1 α:1 alpha:1 particles:2 β:1 beta:1 processing:1 gun:1 irradiation:1 ionise:1 γ:1 gamma:1 n:1 neutron:1 δ:1 delta:1 ε:1 epsilon:1 sterilisation:1 microbiology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 |@bigram cathode_ray:22 crookes_tube:6 vacuum_tube:6 negatively_charge:1 electrode_cathode:2 anode_cathode:2 thermionic_emission:2 schematic_diagram:1 von_guericke:1 atmospheric_pressure:1 michael_faraday:1 induction_coil:1 electrically_charge:2 william_crookes:1 cathode_anode:2 zinc_sulfide:1 heinrich_hertz:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 nobel_prize:2 philipp_lenard:1 thomas_edison:1 ferdinand_braun:1 electron_microscope:1 particle_accelerator:2 ernest_rutherford:1 electromagnetic_wave:1 gamma_ray:1 external_link:1 |
123 | James_Blaylock | James Paul Blaylock (born September 20, 1950) is an American fantasy author. Blaylock is noted for his distinctive style. He writes in a humorous way: His characters never walk, they clump along, or when someone complains (in a flying machine) that flight is impossible, the other characters agree and show him why he's right. He was born in Long Beach, California; studied English at California State University, Fullerton, receiving an M.A. in 1974; and lives in Orange, California, teaching creative writing at Chapman University. Many of his books are set in Orange County, California, and can more specifically be termed "fabulism" — that is, fantastic things happen in our present-day world, rather than in traditional fantasy, where the setting is often some other world. His works have also been categorized as magic realism. He and his friends Tim Powers and K. W. Jeter were mentored by Philip K. Dick. Along with Powers he invented the poet William Ashbless. Blaylock and Powers have often collaborated with each other on writing stories, including "The Better Boy", "On Pirates", and "The William Ashbless Memorial Cookbook". Blaylock is also currently director of the Creative Writing Conservatory at the Orange County High School of the Arts, where Powers is Writer in Residence. Novels Some of Blaylock's novels can be roughly grouped as trilogies, sharing common settings, characters, or themes, but any can be read as individual works. The "Balumnia" Trilogy Whimsical fantasy inspired, according to the author, by Wind in the Willows and The Hobbit. The Elfin Ship (1982) The Disappearing Dwarf (1983) The Stone Giant (1989) The Man in the Moon (2002) The original manuscript, initially rejected, from which The Elfin Ship was reworked, with commentary and an additional short story. The "Narbondo" Trilogy Sharing the character of villain Ignacio Narbondo; the first is contemporary fantasy set in 1960s California, while the latter two are Steampunk novels set in Victorian England. The Digging Leviathan (1984) Homunculus (1986) Lord Kelvin's Machine (1992) The "Christian" Trilogy Present-day fantasy using Christian elements — such as the Holy Grail and the silver coins paid to Judas — without being overtly or self-consciously "religious." The Last Coin (1988) The Paper Grail (1991) All The Bells On Earth (1995) The "Ghosts" Trilogy Present-day Californian ghost stories. Night Relics (1994) Winter Tides (1997) The Rainy Season (1999) Others Land of Dreams (1987) The Magic Spectacles (1991) Young adult book 13 Phantasms (2000) Short story collection On Pirates (2001) Short story collection with Tim Powers The Devils in the Details (2003) Short story collection with Tim Powers In For A Penny (2003) Short story collection The Complete Twelve Hours of the Night (1986) Joke pamphlet cowritten by Tim Powers and published by Cheap Street Press The Knights of the Cornerstone ISBN 978-0441016532 (2008) External links Website and discussion forum about Blaylock's writing | James_Blaylock |@lemmatized james:1 paul:1 blaylock:6 born:1 september:1 american:1 fantasy:5 author:2 note:1 distinctive:1 style:1 write:3 humorous:1 way:1 character:4 never:1 walk:1 clump:1 along:2 someone:1 complain:1 flying:1 machine:2 flight:1 impossible:1 agree:1 show:1 right:1 bear:1 long:1 beach:1 california:5 study:1 english:1 state:1 university:2 fullerton:1 receive:1 live:1 orange:3 teach:1 creative:2 writing:2 chapman:1 many:1 book:2 set:3 county:2 specifically:1 term:1 fabulism:1 fantastic:1 thing:1 happen:1 present:3 day:3 world:2 rather:1 traditional:1 setting:2 often:2 work:2 also:2 categorize:1 magic:2 realism:1 friend:1 tim:4 power:7 k:2 w:1 jeter:1 mentor:1 philip:1 dick:1 invent:1 poet:1 william:2 ashbless:2 collaborate:1 story:7 include:1 good:1 boy:1 pirate:2 memorial:1 cookbook:1 currently:1 director:1 conservatory:1 high:1 school:1 art:1 writer:1 residence:1 novel:3 roughly:1 group:1 trilogy:5 share:2 common:1 theme:1 read:1 individual:1 balumnia:1 whimsical:1 inspire:1 accord:1 wind:1 willow:1 hobbit:1 elfin:2 ship:2 disappear:1 dwarf:1 stone:1 giant:1 man:1 moon:1 original:1 manuscript:1 initially:1 reject:1 rework:1 commentary:1 additional:1 short:5 narbondo:2 villain:1 ignacio:1 first:1 contemporary:1 latter:1 two:1 steampunk:1 victorian:1 england:1 digging:1 leviathan:1 homunculus:1 lord:1 kelvin:1 christian:2 use:1 element:1 holy:1 grail:2 silver:1 coin:2 pay:1 judas:1 without:1 overtly:1 self:1 consciously:1 religious:1 last:1 paper:1 bell:1 earth:1 ghost:2 californian:1 night:2 relic:1 winter:1 tide:1 rainy:1 season:1 others:1 land:1 dream:1 spectacle:1 young:1 adult:1 phantasm:1 collection:4 devil:1 detail:1 penny:1 complete:1 twelve:1 hour:1 joke:1 pamphlet:1 cowritten:1 publish:1 cheap:1 street:1 press:1 knight:1 cornerstone:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 discussion:1 forum:1 |@bigram w_jeter:1 wind_willow:1 holy_grail:1 rainy_season:1 external_link:1 |
124 | Emperor_Sujin | ; also known as Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto or Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto; was the 10th emperor of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 253; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 93-95; Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 7-9. , Most modern scholars have come to question the existence of at least the first nine emperors; and Sujin is the first many agree might have actually existed, in third or fourth century. "Life in the Cloudy Imperial Fishbowl," Japan Times. March 27, 2007. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Sujin is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information about him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. According to Kojiki and Nihonshoki he was the second son of Emperor Kaika. He founded some important shrines in Yamato province, sent generals to subdue local provinces and defeated a prince who rebelled against him. He was credited with having subdued Queen Himiko or her successor; and yet there is another theory that Himiko was a paternal great-aunt of the Emperor Sujin. Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 150-164. Later generations may have included this name to the list of emperors of Japan, thus making him posthumously an emperor and assigning him as one of the early sovereigns and ancestors of the dynasty that has reigned unbroken since time immemorial. If he lived, at his time the title tenno was not yet used, and the polity he possibly ruled did certainly not contain all or even the most of Japan. In the chronicle which encompasses his alleged successors in beginnings of historical time, it becomes reasonable to conclude that Suijin, if he existed, might have been a chieftain or a regional king in early Yamato tribal society. Jien records that Kōan ruled from the palace of Mizogaki-no-miya at Shiki in what will come to be known as Yamato province. Brown, p. 253. He is said to have been interested in agriculture and irrigation. His reign encompassed a period of relative prosperity; and he may have been the first to establish and regularize a system of taxation. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan, p.32. Sujin is a posthumous name. It is undisputed that this identification is Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, which suggests that the name must have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Sujin, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Although the final resting place of this legendary sovereign remains unknown, Sujin's officially designated Imperial misasagi or tomb can be visited today in Yanagimoto-cho, Tenri City near Nara City. Suijin's misasagi -- map Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Sujin |@lemmatized also:2 know:3 mimakiiribikoinie:1 sumeramikoto:2 hatsukunishirasu:1 emperor:11 japan:10 appear:1 traditional:1 list:3 brown:3 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 p:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 pp:3 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 modern:1 scholar:1 come:2 question:1 existence:1 least:1 first:3 nine:1 sujin:6 many:1 agree:1 might:2 actually:1 exist:3 third:1 fourth:1 century:2 life:2 cloudy:1 imperial:5 fishbowl:1 time:6 march:1 firm:1 date:1 assign:2 reign:3 regard:1 historian:1 legendary:2 paucity:1 information:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 accord:1 kojiki:2 nihonshoki:1 second:1 son:1 kaika:1 found:1 important:1 shrine:1 yamato:4 province:3 send:1 general:1 subdue:2 local:1 defeat:1 prince:1 rebel:1 credit:1 queen:1 himiko:2 successor:2 yet:2 another:1 theory:1 paternal:1 great:2 aunt:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 late:1 generation:1 may:2 include:1 name:3 thus:1 make:1 posthumously:1 one:1 early:3 sovereign:3 ancestor:1 dynasty:2 unbroken:1 since:1 immemorial:1 live:1 title:1 tenno:1 use:1 polity:1 possibly:2 rule:2 certainly:1 contain:1 even:1 chronicle:4 encompass:2 alleged:1 beginning:1 historical:1 become:1 reasonable:1 conclude:1 suijin:2 chieftain:1 regional:1 king:1 tribal:1 society:2 jien:2 record:1 kōan:1 palace:1 mizogaki:1 miya:1 shiki:1 say:1 interested:1 agriculture:1 irrigation:1 period:1 relative:1 prosperity:1 establish:1 regularize:2 system:1 taxation:1 ponsonby:3 fane:2 richard:2 house:2 posthumous:1 undisputed:1 identification:1 chinese:1 form:1 buddhist:1 implication:1 suggest:1 must:1 lifetime:1 ascribe:1 legends:1 origin:1 compile:1 today:2 although:1 final:1 resting:1 place:1 remain:1 unknown:1 officially:1 designate:1 misasagi:2 tomb:1 visit:1 yanagimoto:1 cho:1 tenri:1 city:2 near:1 nara:1 map:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 arthur:1 brabazon:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 cult:1 |@bigram brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 yamato_province:2 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 title_tenno:1 tenno_yet:1 yamato_tribal:1 ponsonby_fane:2 fane_richard:2 undisputed_identification:1 must_regularize:1 yamato_dynasty:1 final_resting:1 resting_place:1 imperial_misasagi:1 misasagi_tomb:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
125 | Necronomicon | An artist's interpretation of the Necronomicon. The Necronomicon is a fictional book appearing in the stories by horror novelist H. P. Lovecraft. It was first mentioned in Lovecraft's 1924 short story "The Hound", "The Hound", by H. P. Lovecraft Published February 1924 in "Weird Tales". YankeeClassic.com. Retrieved on January 31, 2009 written in 1922, though its purported author, the "Mad Arab" Abdul Alhazred, had been quoted a year earlier in Lovecraft's "The Nameless City". Though it has been argued that an unnamed copy of the Necronomicon appears in the 1919 story The Statement of Randolph Carter, S. T. Joshi points out that the text in question was "written in characters whose like (narrator Randolph Carter) never saw elsewhere"--which would not describe any known edition of the Necronomicon, including the one in Arabic, a language Carter was familiar with. S. T. Joshi, "Afterword", History of the Necronomicon, Necronomicon Press. Among other things, the work contains an account of the Old Ones, their history, and the means for summoning them. Other authors such as August Derleth and Clark Ashton Smith also cited it in their works; Lovecraft approved, believing such common allusions built up "a background of evil verisimilitude." Many readers have believed it to be a real work, with booksellers and librarians receiving many requests for it; pranksters have listed it in rare book catalogues, and a student smuggled a card for it into the Yale University Library's card catalog. L. Sprague de Camp, Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers, p100-1 ISBN 0-87054-076-9 Capitalizing on the notoriety of the fictional volume, real-life publishers have printed many books entitled Necronomicon since Lovecraft's death. Origin How Lovecraft conceived the name "Necronomicon" is not clear — Lovecraft said that the title came to him in a dream. Quotes Regarding the Necronomicon from Lovecraft’s Letters Although some have suggested that Lovecraft was influenced primarily by Robert W. Chambers' collection of short stories The King in Yellow, which centers on a mysterious and disturbing play in book form, Lovecraft is not believed to have read that work until 1927. Joshi & Schultz, "Chambers, Robert William", An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia, p. 38 Donald R. Burleson has argued that the idea for the book was derived from Nathaniel Hawthorne, though Lovecraft himself noted that "mouldy hidden manuscripts" were one of the stock features of Gothic literature. Joshi, "Afterword". Lovecraft wrote H. P. Lovecraft - Selected Letters V, 418 that the title, as translated from the Greek language, meant "an image of the law of the dead": nekros - νεκρός ("dead"), nomos - νόμος ("law"), eikon - εικών ("image"). H. G. Liddell, Robert Scott - Abridged Greek-English Lexicon A more prosaic translation can be derived by conjugating nemo ("to consider"): "Concerning the dead". Lovecraft was often asked about the veracity of the Necronomicon, and always answered that it was completely his invention. In a letter to Willis Conover, Lovecraft elaborated upon his typical answer: Now about the “terrible and forbidden books” — I am forced to say that most of them are purely imaginary. There never was any Abdul Alhazred or Necronomicon, for I invented these names myself. Robert Bloch devised the idea of Ludvig Prinn and his De Vermis Mysteriis, while the Book of Eibon is an invention of Clark Ashton Smith's. Robert E. Howard is responsible for Friedrich von Junzt and his Unaussprechlichen Kulten.... As for seriously-written books on dark, occult, and supernatural themes — in all truth they don’t amount to much. That is why it’s more fun to invent mythical works like the Necronomicon and Book of Eibon. Reinforcing the book's fictionalization, the name of the book's supposed author, Abdul Alhazred, is not even a grammatically correct Arabic name. The name "Abdul" simply means "the worshiper/slave of...". Standing alone, it would make no sense, as Alhazred is not a last name in the Western sense, but a reference to a person's place of birth. Petersen, Sandy & Willis, Lynn - Call of Cthulhu, p. 189 Fictional history In 1927, Lovecraft wrote a brief pseudo-history of the Necronomicon that was published in 1938, after his death, as A History of The Necronomicon. H. P. Lovecraft's History of the Necronomicon This work allowed subsequent fiction writers to remain consistent with Lovecraft's treatment of the Necronomicon. A Note About the Necronomicon According to this account, the book was originally called Al Azif, an Arabic word that Lovecraft defined as "that nocturnal sound (made by insects) supposed to be the howling of demons". (One Arabic/English dictionary translates `Azīf as "whistling (of the wind); weird sound or noise".) The Hans Wehr Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic, ed. J.M. Cowan. (It is noteworthy that the Goetia is sometimes translated to have a similar meaning.) In the History, Alhazred is said to have been a "half-crazed Arab" who worshipped the Lovecraftian entities Yog-Sothoth and Cthulhu. He is described as being from Sanaa in Yemen, and as visiting the ruins of Babylon, the "subterranean secrets" of Memphis and the Empty Quarter of Arabia (where he discovered the "nameless city" below Irem). In his last years, he lived in Damascus, where he wrote Al Azif before his sudden and mysterious death in 738. In subsequent years, Lovecraft wrote, the Azif "gained considerable, though surreptitious circulation amongst the philosophers of the age." In 950, it was translated into Greek and given the title Necronomicon by Theodorus Philetas, a fictional scholar from Constantinople. This version "impelled certain experimenters to terrible attempts" before being "suppressed and burnt" in 1050 by Patriarch Michael (an historical figure who died in 1059). After this attempted suppression, the work was "only heard of furtively" until it was translated from Greek into Latin by Olaus Wormius. (Lovecraft gives the date of this edition as 1228, though the real-life Danish scholar Olaus Wormius lived from 1588 to 1624.) Both the Latin and Greek text, the History relates, were banned by Pope Gregory IX in 1232, though Latin editions were apparently published in 15th century Germany and 17th century Spain. A Greek edition was printed in Italy in the first half of the 16th century. The Elizabethan magician John Dee (1527-c. 1609) allegedly translated the book — presumably into English — but Lovecraft wrote that this version was never printed and only fragments survive. (The connection between Dee and the Necronomicon was suggested by Lovecraft's friend Frank Belknap Long.) According to Lovecraft, the Arabic version of Al Azif had already disappeared by the time the Greek version was banned in 1050, though he cites "a vague account of a secret copy appearing in San Francisco during the current century" that "later perished in fire". The Greek version, he writes, has not been reported "since the burning of a certain Salem man's library in 1692" (an apparent reference to the Salem witch trials). (In the story The Diary of Alonzo Typer, the character Alonzo Typer finds a Greek copy.) Appearance and contents The Necronomicon is mentioned in a number of Lovecraft's short stories and in his novellas At the Mountains of Madness and The Case of Charles Dexter Ward. However, despite frequent references to the book, Lovecraft was very sparing of details about its appearance and contents. He once wrote that "if anyone were to try to write the Necronomicon, it would disappoint all those who have shuddered at cryptic references to it." Letter to Jim Blish and William Miller, Jr., quoted in Joshi, "Afterword". In "The Nameless City" (1921), a rhyming couplet that appears at two points in the story is ascribed to Abdul Alhazred: That is not dead which can eternal lie. And with strange aeons even death may die. The same couplet appears in "The Call of Cthulhu" (1928), where it is identified as a quotation from the Necronomicon. This "much-discussed" couplet, as Lovecraft calls it in the latter story, has also been quoted in works by other authors, including Brian Lumley's The Burrowers Beneath, which adds a long paragraph preceding the couplet. The Necronomicon is undoubtedly a substantial text, as indicated by its description in The Dunwich Horror (1929). In the story, Wilbur Whateley visits Miskatonic University's library to consult the "unabridged" version of the Necronomicon for a spell that would have appeared on the 751st page of his own inherited, but defective, Dee edition. The Necronomicon'''s appearance and physical dimensions are not clearly stated in Lovecraft's work. Other than the obvious black letter editions, it is commonly portrayed as bound in leather of various types and having metal clasps. Moreover, editions are sometimes disguised. In The Case of Charles Dexter Ward, for example, John Merrit pulls down a book labelled Qanoon-e-Islam from Joseph Curwen’s bookshelf and discovers to his disquiet that it is actually the Necronomicon. In the Evil Dead series of movies, a similar book is described as "Bound in human flesh and inked in blood, it contains bizarre burial rituals and demon resurrection passages. It was never meant for the world of the living." Many commercially available versions of the book fail to include any of the contents that Lovecraft describes. The Simon Necronomicon in particular has been criticized for this. The Simon Necronomicon, a review. Locations According to Lovecraft's "History of the Necronomicon", copies of the original Necronomicon were held by only five institutions worldwide: The British Museum The Bibliothèque nationale de France Widener Library of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts The University of Buenos Aires The library of the fictional Miskatonic University in the also fictitious Arkham, Massachusetts The last institution holds the Latin translation by Olaus Wormius, printed in Spain in the 17th century. Other copies, Lovecraft wrote, were kept by private individuals. Joseph Curwen, as noted, had a copy in The Case of Charles Dexter Ward (1941). A version is held in Kingsport in "The Festival" (1925). The provenance of the copy read by the narrator of "The Nameless City" is unknown; a version is read by the protagonist in "The Hound" (1924). Hoaxes and alleged translations Although Lovecraft insisted that the book was pure invention (and other writers invented passages from the book in their own works), there are accounts of some people actually believing the Necronomicon to be a real book. Lovecraft himself sometimes received letters from fans inquiring about the Necronomicon's authenticity. Pranksters occasionally listed the Necronomicon for sale in book store newsletters or inserted phony entries for the book in library card catalogues (where it may be checked out to one 'A. Alhazred', ostensibly the book's author and original owner). The Widener Library at Harvard, which is supposed to have a copy of the "Necronomicon" according to Lovecraft's stories, has a catalog entry telling the seeker to "inquire at desk". While the stories surrounding the Necronomicon claim that it is an extremely powerful and dangerous book (one that would not be safe just sitting on a shelf, where anyone could read it), it is equally possible that the listing has a much more mundane purpose — several (equally fictional) versions of the book do exist, and (since books such as the Necronomicon are frequently stolen from the shelves) the entry may simply be an attempt to prevent theft. Similarly, the university library of Tromsø, Norway, lists a translated version of the Necronomicon, attributed to Petrus de Dacia and published in 1994, although the document is listed as "unavailable". Necronomicon. In 1973, Owlswick Press issued an edition of the Necronomicon written in an indecipherable, apparently fictional language known as "Duriac". http://www.mythostomes.com/content/view/14/69/ This was a limited edition of 348. The book contains a brief introduction by L. Sprague de Camp. The line between fact and fiction was further blurred in the late 1970s when a book purporting to be a translation of the "real Necronomicon" was published. This book, by the pseudonymic "Simon," had little connection to the fictional Lovecraft Mythos but instead was based on Sumerian mythology. It was later dubbed the "Simon Necronomicon". Going into trade paperback in 1980 it has never been out of print and has sold 800,000 copies by 2006 making it the most popular Necronomicon to date. Despite its contents, the book's marketing focused heavily on the Lovecraft connection and made sensational claims made for the book's magical power. The blurb states it was "potentially, the most dangerous Black Book known to the Western World". Three additional volumes have since been published — The Necronomicon Spellbook, a book of pathworkings with the 50 names of Marduk; Dead Names: The Dark History of the Necronomicon, a history of the book itself and of the late 1970s New York occult scene; and The Gates Of The Necronomicon, instructions on pathworking with the Simon Necronomicon. A hoax version of the Necronomicon, edited by George Hay, appeared in 1978 and included an introduction by the paranormal researcher and writer Colin Wilson. David Langford described how the book was prepared from a computer analysis of a discovered "cipher text" by Dr. John Dee. The resulting "translation" was in fact written by occultist Robert Turner, but it was far truer to the Lovecraftian version than the Simon text and even incorporated quotations from Lovecraft's stories in its passages. Wilson also wrote a story, "The Return of the Lloigor", in which the Voynich manuscript turns out to be a copy of the Necronomicon. With the success of the Simon Necronomicon the controversy surrounding the actual existence of the Necronomicon was such that a detailed book, The Necronomicon Files, was published in 1998 attempting to prove once and for all the book was pure fiction. It covered the well-known Necronomicons in depth, especially the Simon one, along with a number of more obscure ones. It was reprinted and expanded in 2003. Dan and John Wisdom Gonce III. 2003. The Necronomicon Files. Boston: Red Wheel Weiser. In 2004, Necronomicon: The Wanderings of Alhazred, by occultist Donald Tyson, was published by Llewellyn Worldwide. The Tyson Necronomicon is generally thought to be closer to Lovecraft's vision than other published versions. Donald Tyson has clearly stated that the Necronomicon is fictional, but that has not prevented his book from being the center of some controversy. Keys to Power beyond Reckoning: Mysteries of the Tyson Necronomicon Tyson has since published Alhazred, a novelization of the life of the Necronomicon's author. Historical "Books of the Dead", such as the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead or the Tibetan Bardo Thodol, are sometimes described as "real Necronomicons." They should not be confused with the Lovecraft Necronomicon, since their contents are meant to be read to and remembered by the dead, rather than to be used by the living to summon the dead. Lovecraft may have been inspired by these books. The Astral Necronomicon Kenneth Grant, the British occultist, disciple of Aleister Crowley, and head of the Typhonian Ordo Templi Orientis suggested in his book The Magical Revival (1972) that there was an unconscious connection between Crowley and Lovecraft. He thought they both drew on the same occult forces; Crowley via his magic and Lovecraft through the dreams which inspired his stories and the Necronomicon. Grant claimed that the Necronomicon existed as an astral book as part of the Akashic records and could be accessed through ritual magic or in dreams. Grant's ideas on Lovecraft were featured heavily in the introduction to the Simon Necronomicon and also have been backed by Donald Tyson; but Lovecraft, a strict materialist, would likely have been outraged. Like any claim based purely on supernatural evidence, Grant's ideas cannot be proved or disproved and have added further confusion to the issue. Harms, Dan and John Wisdom Gonce III. 2003. The Necronomicon Files. Boston: Red Wheel Weiser. 103 In popular culture The Necronomicon Ex-Mortis makes minor appearances in many films and television shows and a few video games, and is featured as a primary plot point in the Evil Dead film series. Evil Dead Necfiles.org. Retrieved on January 31, 2009 Evil Dead - Necronomicon Mistake @ The Slip-Up Archive. Retrieved on January 31, 2009 Necronomicon is the title of a 1994 film anthology of three Lovecraft stories, directed by Brian Yuzna, Christophe Gans and Shusuke Kaneko. Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels feature a Necrotelecomnicon with similar properties. Commercially available versions Al Azif: The Necronomicon by L. Sprague de Camp (1973, ISBN 1-58715-043-3) Necronomicon by "Simon" (1980, ISBN 0-380-75192-5) The Gates of the Necronomicon by "Simon" (2006, ISBN 0-060-89006-1) H.R. Giger's Necronomicon by H.R. Giger (1991, ISBN 0-9623447-2-9) Necronomicon II by H.R. Giger Necronomicon: A Study in the Forbidden Magic of Lovecraft & the Great Mystery of Stargates(Greek edition, 2008) by George Ioannidis The Necronomicon edited by George Hay (1993, ISBN 1-871438-16-0) Necronomicon: The Wanderings Of Alhazred by Donald Tyson (2004, ISBN 0-7387-0627-2)Necronomicon Plush Book by Toy vault (not an actual book, but rather a novelty collectible parodying the format of children's pop-up books). See also Cthulhu Mythos arcane literature Cthulhu Mythos in popular culture Anthropodermic bibliopegy False document Grimoire Necronomicon Press Simon Necronomicon Notes References Primary sources Definitive version.The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' "The Statement of Randolph Carter" Definitive version. "The Festival" "The Hound" "The Nameless City" Definitive version. "The Dunwich Horror" Secondary sources External links "The Dan Clore Necronomicon Page", Everything You Never Wanted to Know about the Necronomicon (Al Azif) of the Mad Arab Abdul Alhazred but Weren't Afraid Enough to Know Better than to Ask! "History of the Necronomicon", by H. P. 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126 | Carotene | β-Carotene represented by a 3-dimensional stick diagram Carotene is responsible for the orange colour of the carrots and many other fruits and vegetables. The term carotene is used for several related substances having the formula C40Hx, which are synthesized by plants but cannot be made by animals. Carotene is an orange photosynthetic pigment important for photosynthesis. Carotenes are responsible for the orange colour of the carrot for which it is named, and many other fruits and vegetables (for example, sweet potatoes and orange cantaloupe melon). Carotenes are also responsible for the orange colours in dry foliage. They also (in lower concentrations) impart the yellow colouration to milk-fat, butter, and egg yolk. Omnivorous animal species which are poor converters of coloured dietary carotenoids to colourless retinoids, have yellowed-coloured body fat as a result of the carotenoid retention. The typical yellow-coloured fat of humans and chickens is a result of fat storage of carotenes from their diets. Carotenes contributes to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy they absorb from chlorophyll. They also protect plant tissues by helping to absorb the energy from singlet oxygen, an excited form of the oxygen molecule O2 which is formed during photosynthesis. Chemically, carotene is a terpene, synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units. It comes in two primary forms designated by characters from the Greek alphabet: alpha-carotene (α-carotene) and beta-carotene (β-carotene). Gamma, delta, epsilon, and zeta (γ, δ, ε, and ζ-carotene) also exist. As hydrocarbons which contain no oxygen, carotenes are fat-soluble and insoluble in water (in contrast with other carotenoids, such as xanthophylls, which are slightly less chemically hydrophobic). Beta-carotene is composed of two retinyl groups, and is broken down in the mucosa of the small intestine by beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase to retinal, a form of vitamin A. Carotene can be stored in the liver and body fat and converted to retinal as needed, thus making it a form of vitamin A for humans and some other mammals. Animal species differ greatly in their ability to convert carotene to retinals. Carnivores in general are poor converters of dietary carotenoids, and pure carnivores such as cats and ferets lack beta-carotene 15,15'-monooxygenase and cannot convert carotenoids to retinals at all (resulting in carotenes not being a form of vitamin A for these species). Dietary sources The following foods are particularly rich in carotenes (see Vitamin A article for amounts): sweet potatoes What can foods rich in beta-carotene do for you? carrots goji berries Berry Good for You? cantaloupe melon mango World's Healthiest Foods: Carotenoids apricots spinach kale chard turnip greens dandelion greens beet greens mustard greens WHFoods: Mustard greens collard greens watercress cilantro fresh thyme broccoli parsley romaine lettuce ivy gourd rose hips Rose Hips winter squash pumpkin cassava Carotenoids in cassava: comparison of open-column and HPLC methods of analysis. Absorption from these foods is enhanced if eaten with fats, as carotenes are fat soluble, and if the food is cooked for a few minutes until the plant cell wall splits and the colour is released into any liquid. 6 μg of dietary β-carotene supplies the equivalent of 1 μg of retinol, or 1 RE (Retinol Equivalent). This is equivalent to 3⅓ IU of vitamin A. The multiple forms α-carotene β-carotene The two primary isomers of carotene, α-carotene and β-carotene, differ in the position of double bonds in the cyclic group at the end. β-Carotene is the more common form and can be found in yellow, orange, and green leafy fruits and vegetables. As a rule of thumb, the greater the intensity of the orange colour of the fruit or vegetable, the more β-carotene it contains. Carotene protects plant cells against the destructive effects of ultraviolet light. β-Carotene is an anti-oxidant. Beta-carotene and cancer It has been shown in trials that the ingestion of beta-carotene at about 30 mg/day (10 times the Reference Daily Intake) increases the rate of lung cancer and prostate cancer in smokers and people with a history of asbestos exposure. An article on the American Cancer Society says that The Cancer Research Campaign has called for warning labels on beta-carotene supplements to caution smokers that such supplements may increase the risk of lung cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine published an article in 1994 about a trial which examined the relationship between daily supplementation of beta-carotene and vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) and the incidence of lung cancer. The study was done using supplements and researchers were aware of the epidemiological correlation between carotenoid-rich fruits and vegetables and lower lung cancer rates. The research concluded that no reduction in lung cancer was found in the participants using these supplements (beta-carotene), and furthermore, these supplements may, in fact, have harmful effects. The Journal of the National Cancer Institute and The New England Journal of Medicine published articles in 1996 about a trial that was conducted to determine if vitamin A (in the form of retinyl palmitate) and beta-carotene had any beneficial effects to prevent cancer. The results indicated an increased risk of lung cancer for the participants who consumed the beta-carotene supplement and who had lung irritation from smoking or asbestos exposure, causing the trial to be stopped early. A review of all randomized controlled trials in the scientific literature by the Cochrane Collaboration published in JAMA in 2007 found that beta-carotene increased mortality by something between 1 and 8% (Relative Risk 1.05, 95% confidence interval 1.01-1.08). However, this meta-analysis included two large studies of smokers, so it is not clear that the results apply to the general population. See the letter to JAMA by Philip Taylor and Sanford Dawsey and the reply by the authors of the original paper. Beta-carotene and cognition A recent report demonstrated that 50 mg of beta-carotene every other day prevented cognitive decline in a study of over 4000 physicians at a mean treatment duration of 18 years. Beta-carotene and photosensitivity Oral beta-carotene is prescribed to people suffering from erythropoietic protoporphyria. It provides them some relief from photosensitivity. Beta-carotene and nanotechnology Beta-carotene and lycopene molecules can be encapsulated into carbon nanotubes enhancing the optical properties of carbon nanotubes . Efficient energy transfer occurs between the encapsulated dye and nanotube — light is absorbed by the dye and without significant loss is transferred to the SWCNT. Encapsulation increases chemical and thermal stability of carotene molecules; it also allows their isolation and individual characterization . Carotenemia Carotenemia or hypercarotenemia is excess carotene, but unlike excess vitamin A, carotene is non-toxic. Although hypercarotenemia is not particularly dangerous, it can lead to an oranging of the skin (carotenodermia), but not the conjunctiva of eyes (thus easily distinguishing it visually from jaundice). It is most commonly associated with consumption of an abundance of carrots, but it also can be a medical sign of more dangerous conditions. Production Most of the world's synthetic supply of carotene comes from a manufacturing complex located in Freeport, Texas and owned by DSM. The other major supplier BASF also uses a chemical process to produce beta-carotene. Together these suppliers account for about 85% of the beta-carotene on the market. In Spain Vitatene produces natural beta-carotene from Blakeslea trispora, as does DSM but at much lower amount when compared to its synthetic beta-carotene operation. In Australia, organic beta-carotene is produced by Aquacarotene Limited from dried marine algae Dunaliella salina grown in harvesting ponds situated in Karratha, Western Australia. Cognis Australia Pty. Ltd., a subsidiary of the Germany-based company Cognis, is also producing beta-carotene from microalgae grown in two sites in Australia that are the world’s largest algae farms. In Portugal, the industrial biotechnology company Biotrend is producing natural all-trans beta-carotene from a non genetically modified bacteria of the Sphingomonas genus isolated from soil. Carotene is also found in palm oil, corn, and in the milk of dairy cows, causing cow's milk to be light yellow, depending on the feed of the cattle, and the amount of fat in the milk (high-fat milks, such as those produced by Guernsey cows, tend to be more yellow because their fat content causes them to contain more carotene). Carotenes are also found in some species of termites, where they apparently have been picked up from the diet of the insects. Total synthesis There are currently two commonly used methods of total synthesis of β-carotene. The first was developed by the Badische Anilin- & Soda-Fabrik (BASF) and is based on the Wittig reaction. The second is a Grignard reaction, elaborated by Hoffman-La Roche from the original synthesis of Inhoffen et al. They are both symmetrical; the BASF synthesis is C20 + C20 , and the Hoffman-La Roche synthesis is C19 + C2 + C19. Nomenclature Carotenes are carotenoids containing no oxygen. Carotenoids containing some oxygen are known as xanthophylls. The two ends of the β-carotene molecule are structurally identical, and are called β-rings. Specifically, the group of nine carbon atoms at each end form a β-ring. The α-carotene molecule has a β-ring at one end; the other end is called an ε-ring. There is no such thing as an "α-ring". These and similar names for the ends of the carotenoid molecules form the basis of a systematic naming scheme, according to which: α-carotene is β,ε-carotene; β-carotene is β,β-carotene; γ-carotene (with one β ring and one uncyclized end that is labelled psi) is β,ψ-carotene; δ-carotene (with one ε ring and one uncyclized end) is ε,ψ-carotene; ε-carotene is ε,ε-carotene lycopene is ψ,ψ-carotene That leaves ζ-carotene; ζ-carotene is the biosynthetic precursor of neurosporene, which is the precursor of lycopene, which, in turn, is the precursor of the carotenes α through ε. ζ comes first. See also Antioxidant Phytonutrients References External links Beta-carotene website by Martha Evens, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol Berkeley Wellness Guide to Dietary Supplements Beta-carotene on University of Maryland Medical Center World's Healthiest Foods: carotenoids World's Healthiest Foods: alpha-carotene World's Healthiest Foods: beta-carotene | Carotene |@lemmatized β:19 carotene:84 represent:1 dimensional:1 stick:1 diagram:1 responsible:3 orange:7 colour:6 carrot:4 many:2 fruit:5 vegetable:5 term:1 use:5 several:1 related:1 substance:1 formula:1 synthesize:2 plant:4 cannot:2 make:2 animal:3 photosynthetic:1 pigment:1 important:1 photosynthesis:3 name:2 example:1 sweet:2 potato:2 cantaloupe:2 melon:2 also:11 dry:2 foliage:1 low:3 concentration:1 impart:1 yellow:6 colouration:1 milk:5 fat:11 butter:1 egg:1 yolk:1 omnivorous:1 specie:4 poor:2 converter:2 coloured:2 dietary:5 carotenoid:12 colourless:1 retinoids:1 body:2 result:5 retention:1 typical:1 human:2 chicken:1 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conduct:1 determine:1 palmitate:1 beneficial:1 prevent:2 indicate:1 consume:1 irritation:1 smoke:1 cause:3 stop:1 early:1 review:1 randomize:1 control:1 scientific:1 literature:1 cochrane:1 collaboration:1 jama:2 mortality:1 something:1 relative:1 confidence:1 interval:1 however:1 meta:1 include:1 large:2 clear:1 apply:1 population:1 letter:1 philip:1 taylor:1 sanford:1 dawsey:1 reply:1 author:1 original:2 paper:1 cognition:1 recent:1 report:1 demonstrate:1 every:1 cognitive:1 decline:1 physician:1 mean:1 treatment:1 duration:1 year:1 photosensitivity:2 oral:1 prescribe:1 suffer:1 erythropoietic:1 protoporphyria:1 provide:1 relief:1 nanotechnology:1 lycopene:3 encapsulate:2 carbon:3 nanotube:3 optical:1 property:1 efficient:1 transfer:2 occur:1 dye:2 without:1 significant:1 loss:1 swcnt:1 encapsulation:1 chemical:2 thermal:1 stability:1 allow:1 isolation:1 individual:1 characterization:1 carotenemia:2 hypercarotenemia:2 excess:2 unlike:1 non:2 toxic:1 although:1 dangerous:2 lead:1 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external_link:1 dietary_supplement:1 |
127 | Kevin_Spacey | Kevin Spacey (born Kevin Spacey Fowler, July 26, 1959) is an American character actor, director, screenwriter, producer, and crooner. He grew up in California, and began his career as a stage actor during the 1980s, before being cast in supporting roles in film and television. He gained critical acclaim in the early 1990s, culminating in his first Academy Award for The Usual Suspects (Best Supporting Actor), followed by a Best Actor Academy Award win for American Beauty (1999). His other starring roles in Hollywood include Seven, L.A. Confidential, Pay It Forward, and Superman Returns in a career which has eventually earned him both Emmy- and Golden Globe-nominations. Since 2003, he has been artistic director of the Old Vic theatre in London. Early life He was born in South Orange, New Jersey to Kathleen A. Spacey (1931-2003), a secretary, and Thomas Geoffrey Fowler (1924-1992), a technical writer. He has two older siblings: a sister, Julie, and a brother, Randy. He attended Northridge Military Academy from which he was expelled, Canoga Park High School (in tenth and eleventh grades), and then Chatsworth High School in Chatsworth, California, where he graduated valedictorian of his class. At Chatsworth High, he starred in the school's senior production of The Sound of Music, playing the part of Captain Georg von Trapp, opposite Mare Winningham's character, Maria. While in high school, he took his mother's maiden name, "Spacey", originally a Welsh name, belonging to his great-great-grandfather (spelled "Spacy"), as his acting surname. Several reports have incorrectly suggested that he took his name in tribute to actor Spencer Tracy, combining Tracy's first and last names. He had tried to succeed as a stand-up comedian for several years, before attending the Juilliard School in New York City, where he studied drama, between 1979 and 1981. During this time period, Spacey performed stand-up comedy in bowling alley talent contests. Career Spacey's first professional stage appearance was as a spear-carrier in a New York Shakespeare Festival performance of Henry VI, part 1 in 1981. The following year he made his first Broadway appearance as Oswald in a production of Henrik Ibsen's Ghosts, starring Liv Ullmann. Then he portrayed Philinte in Moliere's The Misanthrope. In 1984, it was David Rabe's Hurlyburly where, energetic and fabulously adaptable, Spacey rotated through each of the male parts (he'd later appear as Mickey in the screen version too). Next came Anton Chekhov's The Seagull and a period, in 1986, performing Sleuth in a New Jersey dinner theatre. But his fame as a stage actor really began in 1986, when he was cast opposite Jack Lemmon, Peter Gallagher and Bethel Leslie as Jamie, the eldest Tyrone son in Jonathan Miller's lauded production of Eugene O'Neill's Long Day's Journey into Night. He made his first major television appearance in the second season premiere of Crime Story, playing a Kennedy-esque American senator. Although his interest soon turned to film, Spacey remained actively involved in the live theater community. In 1991, he won a Tony Award for his portrayal of "Uncle Louie" in Neil Simon's Broadway hit Lost in Yonkers. Spacey's father was unconvinced that Spacey could make a career for himself as an actor, and did not change his mind until Spacey became a well known theatre actor. Some of Spacey's earlier roles include a widowed eccentric millionaire on L.A. Law, the made-for-television film The Murder of Mary Phagan (1988) opposite Jack Lemmon, and the Richard Pryor/Gene Wilder-starring comedy See No Evil, Hear No Evil (1989). Spacey earned an avid fan base following after playing the criminally insane arms dealer Mel Profitt on the television series Wiseguy. He quickly developed a reputation as a character actor, and was cast in bigger roles, including one-half of the bickering Connecticut couple in the dark comedy The Ref (1994), a malicious Hollywood studio boss in the satire Swimming with Sharks, and the put-upon office manager in the all-star ensemble film Glengarry Glen Ross (1992), gaining him positive notices by critics. In 1995, Spacey appeared in Seven with Brad Pitt and Morgan Freeman, making a sudden and unexpected entrance late in the film as the serial killer John Doe after going unmentioned in the film's ads and opening credits. His performance as the enigmatic criminal Verbal Kint in The Usual Suspects launched him to A-list status and won him the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. In 1996, Spacey played an egomaniacal district attorney in A Time to Kill, and founded Trigger Street Productions in 1997 with the purpose of producing and developing entertainment across various media. In 1996 he made his directorial debut with the film Albino Alligator. The film was a failure at the box office, but critics praised Spacey's direction. Kevin Spacey in Sam Mendes' 1999 film American Beauty. Spacey won universal praise and a Best Actor Oscar for his role as a depressed suburban father who re-evaluates his life in 1999's American Beauty; the same year, he was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Spacey also earned another Tony nomination the same year for his work in a Broadway production of The Iceman Cometh. During the several years following American Beauty'''s release, Spacey appeared in films that he believes hadn't done as well critically or in terms of box office. In 2001, Spacey co-hosted with Dame Judi Dench Unite for the Future Gala, the 's fundraiser for the British Victims of 9/11 and Medecins Sans Frontieres at London's Old Vic Theatre, produced by Harvey Goldsmith and Dominic Madden. He played a physically and emotionally scarred grade school teacher in Pay It Forward, a patient in a mental institution who may or may not be an alien in K-Pax, and singer Bobby Darin in Beyond the Sea. Beyond The Sea was a lifelong dream project for Spacey, who took on co-writing, directing, and starring duties in the biography/musical about Darin's life, career, and relationship with late actress Sandra Dee. Spacey provided his own vocals on the Beyond the Sea soundtrack and appeared in several tribute concerts around the time of the film's release. He received mostly positive reviews for his singing, as well as a Golden Globe nomination for his performance. However, reviewers criticized the age disparity between Spacey and Darin, noting that Spacey was too old to convincingly portray Darin, particularly during the early stages of the singer's life depicted in the film. Spacey has said that despite criticism, he is still proud of the film. Spacey in 2006 Spacey hosted Saturday Night Live twice: first in 1997 with musical guest Beck and special guests Michael Palin and John Cleese from Monty Python's Flying Circus. In this episode, Spacey parodied Christopher Walken, Walter Matthau, and Jack Lemmon in a three-part pre-taped sketch about actors who auditioned for Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope; and again in the last episode of season 31 with musical guest Nelly Furtado where Spacey played a detective in the sketch "Two A-Holes At A Crime Scene", one of the Falconer's past selves in Will Forte's sketch, "The Falconer", a parody of Neil Young, and as himself in a parody of The Usual Suspects. In 2006, Spacey played Lex Luthor in the Bryan Singer-directed superhero film, Superman Returns. He was to return for its 2009 sequel, but it was recently revealed that there won't be a chronological sequel; it is currently unknown if he has been asked to resume the role in any future films. Spacey also appeared in Edison Force, co-starring Morgan Freeman and Justin Timberlake; Edison Force received a direct-to-video release on July 18, 2006. In 2008, he played an MIT lecturer in the film 21, along with Kate Bosworth, Laurence Fishburne, and Jim Sturgess. The film is based on Ben Mezrich's best seller, Bringing Down the House: The Inside Story of Six MIT Students Who Took Vegas for Millions, a story of student MIT card-counters who used mathematical probability to aid them in card games such as blackjack. Spacey is well-known in Hollywood for his impressions as when he appeared on Inside the Actors Studio he imitated, at host James Lipton's request: James Stewart, Johnny Carson, Katharine Hepburn, Clint Eastwood, John Gielgud, Marlon Brando, Christopher Walken, Al Pacino and Jack Lemmon. Capitol/EMI's album Forever Cool (2007) features two duets with Spacey and the voice of the late Dean Martin: "Ain't That a Kick in the Head" and "King of the Road." Spacey sits on the Board of Directors of the Motion Picture and Television Fund. The Old Vic In February 2003, Spacey announced that he was returning to London to become the artistic director of the Old Vic, one of the city's oldest theatres. Appearing at a press conference alongside Dame Judi Dench and Sir Elton John, he promised both to appear on stage and to bring in big-name talent. Spacey undertook to remain in the post for a full ten years. He thus became the first Artistic Director of the newly formed Old Vic Theatre Company, which stages shows eight months out of the year. Its first season, starting in September 2004, opened with the British premiere of the play Cloaca by Maria Goos, directed by Spacey, which opened to mixed reviews. In the 2005 season, Spacey made his UK Shakespearean debut, to good notices, in the title role of Richard II directed by Trevor Nunn. After that, in mid 2006, Spacey noted that he was having the time of [his] life working at the Old Vic, and explained that at this point in his career, he felt that he was "trying to do things now that are much bigger and outside himself. He performed in productions of National Anthems by Dennis McIntyre, and The Philadelphia Story by Philip Barry in which he played the role made famous by Cary Grant in the film version. Critics applauded Spacey's daring for taking on the management of a theatre, but noted that while his acting was impressive, his skills and judgment as a producer/manager had yet to develop. In the 2006 season, Spacey suffered a major failure with a production of Arthur Miller's Resurrection Blues, directed by Robert Altman. Despite an all-star cast (including Neve Campbell and Matthew Modine) and the pedigree of Miller's script, Spacey's decision to lure Altman to the stage proved disastrous: after a fraught rehearsal period, the play opened to a critical panning, and closed only a few weeks into its run. Later in the year, Spacey starred in Eugene O'Neill's A Moon for the Misbegotten along with Colm Meaney and Eve Best. The play received excellent reviews for Spacey and Best, and was transferred to Broadway in 2007. For the spring part of the 2007-8 season, Jeff Goldblum and Laura Michelle Kelly joined Spacey as the three characters in David Mamet's 1988 play Speed-the-Plow. In January 2009 he directed the premiere of Joe Sutton's Complicit with Richard Dreyfuss, David Suchet and Elizabeth McGovern. Other honors Spacey was awarded an Doctor of Letters, honoris causa from the London South Bank University in November 2005. In June 2008, he was appointed as Cameron Mackintosh Visiting Professor of Contemporary Theatre at St Catherine's College, Oxford, succeeding Patrick Stewart in the post. He was officially welcomed on October 13, 2008. Martin, Nicole. Kevin Spacey made professor at Oxford, Daily Telegraph, June 12, 2008. Accessed July 3, 2008. Personal life In September 2006, Spacey announced his intention to stay on at the Old Vic for at least another nine years, and that due to his continuing UK residency he intends to take up British citizenship when it becomes available to him. Spacey is a staunch Democrat and a friend of former US President Bill Clinton, having met Clinton before his presidency began. Spacey has described Clinton as "one of the shining lights" of the political process. According to Federal Election Commission data, Spacey has contributed US$42,000 to Democratic candidates and committees. He additionally made a cameo appearance in President Clinton: Final Days, a light-hearted political satire produced by the Clinton administration for the White House Correspondents Dinner. In September 2007, Spacey met Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. Neither of them spoke to the press about their encounter, but hours later the actor visited the publicly funded movie studio, Cinema Villa. In December of that year, he co-hosted the Nobel Peace Prize Concert with Uma Thurman. Spacey is unmarried and vehemently protects his private life, about which very little is known. This generated tabloid press rumors that he might be gay; however, Spacey has repeatedly denied them over the years, for example in Playboy (October 1999), in The Sunday Times Magazine (December 19, 1999) and implicitly in Gotham Magazine (May 2007). Moreover, April Winchell revealed, in broadcasts of her KFI show, on her web diary and several other websites, that she and Spacey dated for a while after high school, during a run of the musical Gypsy, and later went to New York together. She and Spacey have remained friends. Between 1992 and 2000, Spacey discreetly dated Dianne Dreyer, script supervisor to Anthony Minghella, M. Night Shyamalan and Sydney Pollack. Filmography Year Film Role Other notes 1986 Heartburn Subway Thief First Motion Picture 1988 Working Girl Bob Speck Rocket Gibraltar Dwayne Hanson Wiseguy Mel Profitt television series 1989 Dad Mario See No Evil, Hear No Evil Kirgo 1991 Henry & June Richard Osborn A Show of Force Frank Curtin 1992 Consenting Adults Eddy Otis Glengarry Glen Ross John Williamson 1994 The Ref Lloyd Chasseur Iron Will Harry Kingsley 1995 Seven John Doe MTV Movie Award for Best VillainNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor — also for The Usual Suspects, Swimming with Sharks, Outbreak The Usual Suspects Roger 'Verbal' Kint Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorBoston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorChlotrudis Award for Best Supporting ActorDallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting ActorNational Board of Review Award for Best CastNational Board of Review Award for Best Supporting ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting ActorNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor — also for Seven, Swimming with Sharks, OutbreakSeattle International Film Festival Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion PictureNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role - Motion Picture Swimming with Sharks Buddy Ackerman New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor — also for The Usual Suspects, Swimming with Sharks, OutbreakNominated — Independent Spirit Award for Best Male Leadco-producer Outbreak Maj. Casey Schuler New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor — also for Seven, Swimming with Sharks, Swimming with Sharks 1996 Looking for Richard Himself, Duke of Buckingham A Time to Kill D.A. Rufus Buckley 1997 Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil James 'Jim' Williams Society of Texas Film Critics Award for Best Actor L.A. Confidential Det. Sgt. Jack Vincennes Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting ActorChlotrudis Award for Best Supporting ActorEmpire Award for Best ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Albino Alligator director only 1998 Hurlyburly Mickey The Negotiator Lt. Chris Sabian A Bug's Life Hopper (voice) 1999 American Beauty Lester Burnham Academy Award for Best ActorBAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorChlotrudis Award for Best ActorDallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorKansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorLas Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorLondon Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best CastRussian Guild of Film Critics Award for Best Foreign ActorSan Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading RoleScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion PictureSoutheastern Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorToronto Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated — Empire Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture DramaNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama 2000 Ordinary Decent Criminal Michael Lynch also producer Pay It Forward Eugene Simonet The Big Kahuna Larry Mann also producer 2001 The Shipping News Quoyle Nominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama K-PAX prot/Robert Porter Shackleton's Antarctic Adventure Narrator (voice) 2002 Austin Powers in Goldmember Himself playing Doctor Evil in a film2003 The Life of David Gale David Gale 2004 Beyond the Sea Bobby Darin also director/writer/producerNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy The United States of Leland Albert T. Fitzgerald also producer 2006 Edison Force Wallace direct-to-video Superman Returns Lex Luthor 2007 Fred Claus Clyde Northcut 2008 21 Mickey Rosa Recount Ron Klain Nominated — Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor - Miniseries or a MovieNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Miniseries or Television FilmNominated — Satellite Award for Best Actor - Miniseries or Television FilmNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Male Actor - Miniseries or Television Film Telstar Major Banks 2009 Shrink Henry Carter MoonRobot(voice) Men Who Stare at GoatsLarry Hooper in post-production2010Casino JackJack Abramoff(filming) Discography Albums Year Title Other notes 2004 Beyond the Sea Nominated — Grammy Award for Best Compilation Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Mediawith Phil Ramone Singles Year Title Other notes 1997 "That Old Black Magic" from the Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil soundtrack Live performances "Mind Games" - Come Together: A Night for John Lennon's Words and Music'' - 02.Oct.2001 - Radio City Music Hall References External links Kevin Spacey's exclusive online world premier of "The Interrogation of Leo and Lisa" on May 16 2007 Interview with Kevin Spacey from April 2007 Kevin Spacey interview in the UK Independent on Sunday Kevin Spacey's theater play for IWC "Interrogating Leo and Lisa" Recount Movie | Kevin_Spacey |@lemmatized kevin:8 spacey:62 born:1 fowler:2 july:3 american:7 character:4 actor:38 director:7 screenwriter:1 producer:6 crooner:1 grow:1 california:2 begin:3 career:6 stage:6 cast:6 support:17 role:10 film:44 television:10 gain:2 critical:2 acclaim:1 early:3 culminate:1 first:9 academy:6 award:56 usual:6 suspect:6 best:52 follow:3 win:5 beauty:5 star:11 hollywood:4 include:4 seven:5 l:3 confidential:2 pay:3 forward:3 superman:3 return:5 eventually:1 earn:3 emmy:2 golden:7 globe:7 nomination:3 since:1 artistic:3 old:11 vic:7 theatre:8 london:4 life:9 bear:1 south:2 orange:1 new:8 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128 | Gerolamo_Cardano | "Cardanus" redirects here. For the lunar crater, see Cardanus (crater). For the stag beetle genus, see Cardanus (beetle). Gerolamo Cardano or Girolamo Cardano (French Jerome Cardan, Latin Hieronymus Cardanus; September 24, 1501 — September 21 1576) was an Italian Renaissance mathematician, physician, astrologer and gambler. __NOTOC__ Biography He was born in Pavia, Lombardy, the illegitimate child of Fazio Cardano, a mathematically gifted lawyer, who was a friend of Leonardo da Vinci. In his autobiography, Cardano claimed that his mother had attempted to abort him. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from Milan to Pavia to escape the plague; her three other children died from the disease. In 1520, he entered the University of Pavia and later in Padua studied medicine. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies had ended. In 1525, Cardano repeatedly applied to the College of Physicians in Milan, but was not allowed due to his reputation and illegitimate birth. Eventually, he managed to develop a considerable reputation as a physician and his services were highly valued at the courts. He was the first to describe typhoid fever. Today, he is best known for his achievements in algebra. He published the solutions to the cubic and quartic equations in his 1545 book Ars Magna. The solution to one particular case of the cubic, x3 + ax = b (in modern notation), was communicated to him by Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long fight), and the quartic was solved by Cardano's student Lodovico Ferrari. Both were acknowledged in the foreword of the book, as well as in several places within its body. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties (Mathematical field theory was developed centuries later). In Opus novum de proportionibus he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem. Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself solvent by being an accomplished gambler and chess player. His book about games of chance, Liber de ludo aleae, written in the 1560s, but not published until 1663, contains the first systematic treatment of probability, as well as a section on effective cheating methods. Portrait of Cardano on display at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews. Cardano invented several mechanical devices including the combination lock, the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft with universal joints, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He studied hypocycloids, published in de proportionibus 1570. The generating circles of these hypocycloids were later named Cardano circles or cardanic circles and were used for the construction of the first high-speed printing presses. He made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that perpetual motion is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two encyclopedias of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the Cardan grille, a cryptographic tool, in 1550. Significantly, in the history of Deaf education, he was one of the first to state that deaf people could learn without learning how to speak first. He accepted the report by Rudolph Agricola about a deaf mute who had learned to write. He said that deaf people were capable of using their minds. He argued for the importance of teaching the deaf to read and write; did not believe in the dependence of speech, but the use of signs and the written word. His ideas were similar to “bilingual” approach to education of the deaf in which the majority language, such as English, is acquired through reading and writing (Walworth, Moores, and O’Rourke, 1992). Cardano's eldest and favorite son was executed in 1560 after he confessed to having poisoned his cuckolding wife. His other son was a gambler, who stole money from him. He allegedly cropped the ears of one of his sons. Cardano himself was accused of heresy in 1570 because he had computed and published the horoscope of Jesus in 1554. Apparently, his own son contributed to the prosecution. He was arrested, had to spend several months in prison and was forced to abjure his professorship. He moved to Rome, received a lifetime annuity from Pope Gregory XIII (after first having been rejected by Pope Pius V) and finished his autobiography. He died there on the day he had (supposedly) astrologically predicted earlier; some suspect that he may have committed suicide so that the "prophesied" date of his death would come true. Miscellaneous Richard Hinckley Allen tells of an amusing reference made by Boteler in his book Hudibras: Cardan believ'd great states depend Upon the tip o'th' Bear's tail's end; That, as she wisk'd it t'wards the Sun, Strew'd mighty empires up and down; Which others say must needs be false, Because your true bears have no tails. Although it should be recognised that the name of the tip of the bears tail in question, Ursa Major in fact is Al Qaid - or full name: Al Qa'id Banat al Na'ash; meaning the Governor of the Daughters of the bier - Chief of the Mourners. Alessandro Manzoni's novel I Promessi Sposi portrays a pedantic scholar of the obsolete, Don Ferrante, as a great admirer of Cardano. Significantly, he values him only for his superstitious and astrological writings; his scientific writings are dismissed because they contradict Aristotle, but excused on the ground that the author of the astrological works deserves to be listened to even when he is wrong. Works De malo recentiorum medicorum usu libellus, Venice, 1536 (on medicine). Practica arithmetice et mensurandi singularis, Milan, 1539 (on mathematics). Artis magnae, sive de regulis algebraicis (also known as Ars magna), Nuremberg, 1545 (on algebra). http://www.filosofia.unimi.it/cardano/testi/operaomnia/vol_4_s_4.pdf An electronic copy of his book Ars Magna (in Latin) De immortalitate (on alchemy). Opus novum de proportionibus (on mechanics) (Archimedes Project). Contradicentium medicorum (on medicine). De subtilitate rerum, Nuremberg, Johann Petreius, 1550 (on natural phenomena). De libris propriis, Leiden, 1557 (commentaries). De varietate rerum, Basle, Heinrich Petri, 1559 (on natural phenomena). Opus novum de proportionibus numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, aliarumque rerum mensurandarum. Item de aliza regula, Basel, 1570. De vita propria, 1576 (autobiography). Liber de ludo aleae, posthumous (on probability). De Musica, ca 1546 (on music theory), posthumously published in Hieronymi Cardani Mediolensis opera omnia, Sponius, Lyons, 1663 De Consolatione, Venice, 1542 References Sources Cardano, Girolamo, Astrological Aphorisms of Cardan, The. Edmonds, WA: Sure Fire Press, 1989. ———— The Book of My Life. trans. by Jean Stoner. New York: New York Review of Books, 2002. Ore, Øystein: Cardano, the Gambling Scholar. Princeton, 1953. Cardano, Girolamo, Opera omnia, Charles Sponi, ed., 10 vols. Lyons, 1663. Dunham, William, Journey through Genius, Chapter 6, Penguin, 1991. Discusses Cardano's life and solution of the cubic equation. Sirasi, Nancy G. The Clock and the Mirror: Girolamo Cardano and Renaissance Medicine. Princeton University Press,1997. Grafton, Anthony, Cardano's Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer. Harvard University Press, 2001. Morley, Henry The life of Girolamo Cardano, of Milan, Physician 2 vols. Chapman and Hall, London 1854. Ekert, Artur "Complex and unpredictable Cardano. International Journal of Theoretical Physics, Vol. 47, Issue 8, pp.2101-2119. arXiv e-print (arXiv:0806.0485). External links Linda Hall Library History of Science Collection Jerome Cardan, a Biographical Study, 1898, by William George Waters, from Project Gutenberg Girolamo Cardano, Strumenti per la storia del Rinascimento in Italia settentrionale (in Italian) and English'' | Gerolamo_Cardano |@lemmatized cardanus:4 redirect:1 lunar:1 crater:2 see:2 stag:1 beetle:2 genus:1 gerolamo:1 cardano:25 girolamo:6 french:1 jerome:2 cardan:6 latin:2 hieronymus:1 september:2 italian:2 renaissance:3 mathematician:1 physician:4 astrologer:2 gambler:3 biography:1 bear:4 pavia:3 lombardy:1 illegitimate:2 child:2 fazio:1 mathematically:1 gift:1 lawyer:1 friend:2 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 autobiography:3 claim:2 mother:2 attempt:1 abort:1 shortly:1 birth:2 move:2 milan:4 escape:1 plague:1 three:2 die:2 disease:1 enter:1 university:4 later:4 padua:1 study:4 medicine:4 eccentric:1 confrontational:1 style:1 earn:1 many:1 difficult:1 time:1 find:1 work:4 end:2 repeatedly:1 apply:1 college:1 allow:3 due:1 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129 | HTTP_Secure | Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is a combination of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol and a cryptographic protocol. HTTPS connections are often used for payment transactions on the World Wide Web and for sensitive transactions in corporate information systems. HTTP operates at the highest layer of the TCP/IP model, the Application layer; but the security protocol operates at a lower sublayer, encrypting an HTTP message prior to transmission and decrypting a message upon arrival. As opposed to HTTP URLs which begin with "http://" and use port 80 by default, HTTPS URLs begin with "https://" and use port 443 by default. Netscape Communications created HTTPS in 1994 for its Netscape Navigator web browser. Originally, HTTPS was only used with SSL encryption, but this has been made obsolete by Transport Layer Security. HTTPS was adopted as a web standard with the publication of RFC 2818 in May 2000. Function Strictly speaking, HTTPS is not a separate protocol, but refers to use of ordinary HTTP over an encrypted Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) connection. This ensures reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and man-in-the-middle attacks, provided that adequate cipher suites are used and that the server certificate is verified and trusted. To prepare a web server to accept HTTPS connections, the administrator must create a public key certificate for the web server. This certificate must be signed by a trusted certificate authority for the web browser to accept it. The authority certifies that the certificate holder is indeed the entity it claims to be. Web browsers are generally distributed with the signing certificates of major certificate authorities so that they can verify certificates signed by them. Authoritatively signed certificates may be free or cost between US$13 and $1,500 per year. Organizations may also run their own certificate authority, particularly if they are responsible for setting up browsers to access their own sites (for example, sites on a company intranet). They can easily add copies of their own signing certificate to the trusted certificates distributed with the browser. A certificate may be revoked before it expires, for example because the secrecy of the private key has been compromised. Newer browsers such as Firefox, Opera, and Internet Explorer on Windows Vista implement the Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) to verify that this is not the case. The browser sends the certificate's serial number to the certificate authority or its delegate via OCSP and the authority responds, telling the browser whether or not the certificate is still valid. The system can also be used for client authentication in order to limit access to a web server to authorized users. To do this, the site administrator typically creates a certificate for each user, a certificate that is loaded into his/her browser. Normally, that contains the name and e-mail address of the authorized user and is automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without even entering a password. Browser integration When connecting to a site with an invalid certificate, older browsers would present the user with a dialog box asking if they wanted to continue. Newer browsers display a warning across the entire window. Newer browsers also prominently display the site's security information in the address bar. Extended validation certificates turn the address bar green in newer browsers. Most browsers also pop up a warning to the user when visiting a site that contains a mixture of encrypted and unencrypted content. Limitations The level of protection depends on the correctness of the implementation of the web browser and the server software and the actual cryptographic algorithms supported. Also, HTTPS is vulnerable when applied to publicly-available static content. The entire site can be indexed using a web crawler, and the URI of the encrypted resource can be inferred by knowing only the intercepted request/response size. This allows an attacker to have access to the plaintext (the publicly-available static content), and the encrypted text (the encrypted version of the static content). Because SSL operates below HTTP and has no knowledge of higher-level protocols, SSL servers can only strictly present one certificate for a particular IP/port combination. Apache FAQ: Why can't I use SSL with name-based/non-IP-based virtual hosts? This means that, in most cases, it is not feasible to use name-based virtual hosting with HTTPS. A solution called Server Name Indication (SNI) exists which sends the hostname to the server before encrypting the connection, although many older browsers don't support this extension. Support for SNI is available since Firefox 2, Opera 8, and Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista. Server Name Indication (SNI) Mozilla 1.8 See also AAA protocol Computer security Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol References External links RFC 2818: HTTP Over TLS SSL 3.0 Specification (IETF) Apache-SSL homepage (No longer actively developed) Apache 2.2 mod_ssl documentation HTTPS Protocol in Internet Explorer Development - MSDN Manually Configuring Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) when using HTTP and HTTPS - MSDN HTTPS Security Improvements in Internet Explorer 7 & its Compatibility Impact - MSDN | HTTP_Secure |@lemmatized hypertext:3 transfer:3 protocol:10 secure:3 http:18 combination:2 cryptographic:2 https:4 connection:4 often:1 use:11 payment:1 transaction:2 world:1 wide:1 web:10 sensitive:1 corporate:1 information:2 system:2 operate:3 high:2 layer:5 tcp:1 ip:3 model:1 application:1 security:6 low:1 sublayer:1 encrypt:4 message:2 prior:1 transmission:1 decrypt:1 upon:1 arrival:1 oppose:1 urls:2 begin:2 port:3 default:2 netscape:2 communication:2 create:3 navigator:1 browser:17 originally:1 ssl:7 encryption:1 make:1 obsolete:1 transport:2 adopt:1 standard:1 publication:1 rfc:2 may:4 function:1 strictly:2 speak:1 separate:1 refers:1 ordinary:1 encrypted:3 socket:1 tl:1 ensure:1 reasonable:1 protection:2 eavesdropper:1 man:1 middle:1 attack:1 provide:1 adequate:1 cipher:1 suite:1 server:10 certificate:22 verify:4 trust:2 prepare:1 accept:2 administrator:2 must:2 public:1 key:2 sign:4 trusted:1 authority:6 certify:1 holder:1 indeed:1 entity:1 claim:1 generally:1 distribute:2 major:1 authoritatively:1 free:1 cost:1 u:1 per:1 year:1 organization:1 also:6 run:1 particularly:1 responsible:1 set:1 access:3 site:6 example:2 sit:1 company:1 intranet:1 easily:1 add:1 copy:1 signing:1 revoke:1 expire:1 secrecy:1 private:1 compromise:1 new:4 firefox:2 opera:2 internet:4 explorer:4 window:4 vista:2 implement:1 online:1 status:1 ocsp:2 case:2 send:2 serial:1 number:1 delegate:1 via:1 respond:1 tell:1 whether:1 still:1 valid:1 client:1 authentication:1 order:1 limit:1 authorize:2 user:6 typically:1 load:1 normally:1 contain:2 name:5 e:1 mail:1 address:3 automatically:1 check:1 reconnect:1 identity:1 potentially:1 without:1 even:1 enter:1 password:1 integration:1 connect:1 invalid:1 old:2 would:1 present:2 dialog:1 box:1 ask:1 want:1 continue:1 display:2 warning:2 across:1 entire:2 prominently:1 bar:2 extend:1 validation:1 turn:1 green:1 pop:1 visit:1 mixture:1 unencrypted:1 content:4 limitations:1 level:2 depend:1 correctness:1 implementation:1 software:1 actual:1 algorithm:1 support:3 vulnerable:1 apply:1 publicly:2 available:3 static:3 index:1 crawler:1 uri:1 resource:1 infer:1 know:1 intercepted:1 request:1 response:1 size:1 allow:1 attacker:1 plaintext:1 text:1 version:1 knowledge:1 one:1 particular:1 apache:3 faq:1 base:3 non:1 virtual:2 host:1 mean:1 feasible:1 hosting:1 solution:1 call:1 indication:2 sni:3 exist:1 hostname:1 although:1 many:1 extension:1 since:1 mozilla:1 see:1 aaa:1 computer:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tls:1 specification:1 ietf:1 homepage:1 longer:1 actively:1 develop:1 documentation:1 development:1 msdn:3 manually:1 configure:1 foundation:1 wcf:1 improvement:1 compatibility:1 impact:1 |@bigram tcp_ip:1 decrypt_message:1 netscape_navigator:1 web_browser:4 firefox_opera:2 internet_explorer:4 window_vista:2 dialog_box:1 cryptographic_algorithm:1 virtual_hosting:1 external_link:1 |
130 | May | May is the fifth month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. It is also a month within the northern season of spring. The month May has been named for the Greek goddess Maia, who was identified with the Roman era goddess of fertility, Bona Dea, whose festival was held in May. In both common Western calendrical systems, no other month begins on the same day of the week as May. This month and June are the only two months that have this. (See: Months in various calendars) Events in May May, from the Très riches heures du duc de Berry |May, Leandro Bassano The Rosa chinensis, the flower symbol of May In the Roman Catholic calendar, May 1 is the feast of St. Joseph the worker. In the Catholic Church the month of May is dedicated to and honors the Blessed Virgin Mary. In the neopagan Wheel of the Year May begins on Beltane in the northern hemisphere and Samhain in the southern hemisphere. In the Irish calendar May 1 is Beltane (Bealtaine), the first day of Summer, and a public holiday is held on the first Monday in May. In many countries, May Day is May 1. This is celebrated as Labor Day in many countries. In the United Kingdom, May Day is May 1, but a public holiday is held on the first Monday in May. In Germany it is an old custom to plant a "tree of May" to honor someone. Often young men set up an adorned birch in front of their girlfriend's house in the night before May 1. In Japan, the period from April 29 to May 5, which includes 4 different holidays, is called "Golden Week". Many workers have up to 10 days off. There is also 'May sickness', where new students or workers start to be tired of their new routine. (In Japan the schoolyear and fiscal year start on April 1st) 3rd May the Polish Constitution Day is Celebrate in Poland. The first Saturday in May is the date of the annual Kentucky Derby, the most famous horse race in the United States. May 4th in the Netherlands is the day of Remembrance of the Dead, commemorating all the casualties in military conflicts involving the Netherlands. Cinco de Mayo or the Batalla de Puebla is celebrated in Mexico on May 5. It is also celebrated widely in the United States. May 5th is the Children's Day in Japan, Korea and China May 5th is Liberation Day in the Netherlands, celebrating the ending of the German occupation. In the Europe May 5 is Europe Day (uncommon usage, largely replaced by May 9) In Western Europe May 8 is VE Day. In Eastern Europe it is celebrated on May 9. In the European Union May 9 is Europe Day Golden Spike Day (1869 - Completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad - Promontory Summit, Utah) On May 12, International Nurses Day is celebrated. Finland's Day in Finland on the 12th of May. May 12 is also International Awareness Day for Chronic Immunological and Neurological Diseases (CIND). These diseases include Neurofibromatosis, Chronic Fatigue Immune Dysfunction Syndrome (CFIDS)/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis, Fibromyalgia, Gulf War Syndrome and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity. On May 17, the Norwegian Constitution Day is celebrated. In Chile, the Battle of Iquique (Combate Naval de Iquique), is celebrated on May 21, and it is a national holiday. Eritrea celebrates its Independence Day (Independence from Ethiopia) on May 24. In Ecuador, May 24 is remembered and celebrated as the day of the Battle of Pichincha - May 24, 1823. In Argentina, the May Revolution (or Revolución de Mayo), a national holiday, is on May 25. Towel Day is celebrated in May in tribute to Douglas Adams, author of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Under the French Ancien Régime, it was of habit to "plant a May" or a "tree of May" in the honor of somebody. The County of Nice saw girls and boys "turn the May" with the sound of fife and drum, i.e. to dance rounds of May around the tree of May planted on the place of the village. The second Sunday in May is Mother's Day in the United States. Each year in May, the Eurovision Song Contest is held. The Indianapolis 500 is held on the Sunday before Memorial Day. Labor Day in Queensland, Australia is celebrated on the 1st Monday in May. In Canada, Victoria Day is celebrated on the last Monday on or before May 24. Monthlong events in May Asian Pacific American Heritage Month - celebration of Asian and Pacific Islanders in the United States. Jewish American Heritage Month - celebration of Judaism in the United States. Mental Health Awareness Month - raising awareness about mental illness in the United States. National Military Appreciation Month - in the United States to recognize and honor the US Armed Forces. National Military Appreciation Month legislation May is traditionally devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary in Roman Catholic traditions. May crowning occurs in some locales at the beginning of the month. In New Zealand, May is the New Zealand Music Month. May is Older Americans Month in the United States, established by John F. Kennedy in 1963. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/record.xpd?id=109-s20050511-21 Weeklong Events in May 3rd Week in May The League of American Bicyclists is promoting Bike-to-Work Week from May 15-19 and Bike-to-Work Day on Friday, May 19. Bike Month Website May Moving Events Eastern Christianity celebrates Easter on a Sunday between April 4 and May 8. On the full moon of May, Vesak is celebrated in many southeast Asian countries; it commemorates Siddhartha Gautama. In Canada, Victoria Day is observed on the Monday on or before May 24. In Quebec, it is known as Patriots Day. First or second Friday In the United States, Military Spouse Day is observed on the Friday preceding Mother's Day. First Saturday In Kentucky, United States, the Kentucky Derby Second Sunday Is Mother's Day in Anguilla, Aruba, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Bangladesh, Belgium, Belize, Bermuda, Bonaire, Brazil, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Croatia, Curaçao, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Greece, Grenada, Honduras, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Latvia, Malta, Malaysia, The Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Suriname, Switzerland, Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, Zimbabwe. Second Saturday World Fair Trade Day is celebrated. Last Monday In the United States, Memorial Day, a public holiday, is on May 30, but observed on the last Monday in May. Last Sunday Is Mother's Day in Algeria, Dominican Republic, France, Haiti, Mauritius, Morocco, Sweden, Tunisia. Is Children's Day in Hungary. May symbols The Lily of the Valley. May's birthstone is the emerald which means love or success. Its birth flower is the Lily of the Valley and the Crataegus monogyna. http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ See also Historical anniversaries * References External links M&N International Bright Idea Book(PDF) be-x-old:Травень | May |@lemmatized may:70 fifth:1 month:18 year:4 gregorian:2 calendar:4 one:1 seven:1 length:1 day:36 also:5 within:1 northern:2 season:1 spring:1 name:1 greek:1 goddess:2 maia:1 identify:1 roman:3 era:1 fertility:1 bona:1 dea:1 whose:1 festival:1 hold:5 common:1 western:2 calendrical:1 system:1 begin:2 week:4 june:1 two:1 see:2 various:1 event:4 très:1 riches:1 heures:1 du:1 duc:1 de:5 berry:1 leandro:1 bassano:1 rosa:1 chinensis:1 flower:2 symbol:1 catholic:3 feast:1 st:1 joseph:1 worker:3 church:1 dedicate:1 honor:4 blessed:1 virgin:2 mary:2 neopagan:1 wheel:1 beltane:2 hemisphere:2 samhain:1 southern:1 irish:1 bealtaine:1 first:7 summer:1 public:3 holiday:6 monday:7 many:4 country:3 celebrate:17 labor:2 united:13 kingdom:1 germany:2 old:3 custom:1 plant:3 tree:3 someone:1 often:1 young:1 men:1 set:1 adorn:1 birch:1 front:1 girlfriend:1 house:1 night:1 japan:4 period:1 april:3 include:2 different:1 call:1 golden:2 sickness:1 new:5 student:1 start:2 tire:1 routine:1 schoolyear:1 fiscal:1 polish:1 constitution:2 poland:1 saturday:3 date:1 annual:1 kentucky:3 derby:2 famous:1 horse:1 race:1 state:12 netherlands:4 remembrance:1 dead:1 commemorate:2 casualty:1 military:4 conflict:1 involve:1 cinco:1 mayo:2 batalla:1 puebla:1 mexico:1 widely:1 child:2 korea:1 china:1 liberation:1 end:1 german:1 occupation:1 europe:5 uncommon:1 usage:1 largely:1 replace:1 eastern:2 european:1 union:1 spike:1 completion:1 transcontinental:1 railroad:1 promontory:1 summit:1 utah:1 international:3 nurse:1 finland:3 awareness:3 chronic:2 immunological:1 neurological:1 disease:2 cind:1 neurofibromatosis:1 fatigue:1 immune:1 dysfunction:1 syndrome:2 cfids:1 myalgic:1 encephalomyelitis:1 fibromyalgia:1 gulf:1 war:1 multiple:1 chemical:1 sensitivity:1 norwegian:1 chile:2 battle:2 iquique:2 combate:1 naval:1 national:4 eritrea:1 independence:2 ethiopia:1 ecuador:2 remember:1 pichincha:1 argentina:1 revolution:1 revolución:1 towel:1 tribute:1 douglas:1 adam:1 author:1 hitchhiker:1 guide:1 galaxy:1 french:1 ancien:1 régime:1 habit:1 somebody:1 county:1 nice:1 saw:1 girl:1 boy:1 turn:1 sound:1 fife:1 drum:1 e:1 dance:1 round:1 around:1 place:1 village:1 second:4 sunday:5 mother:4 eurovision:1 song:1 contest:1 indianapolis:1 memorial:2 queensland:1 australia:2 canada:3 victoria:2 last:4 monthlong:1 asian:3 pacific:2 american:4 heritage:2 celebration:2 islander:1 jewish:1 judaism:1 mental:2 health:1 raise:1 illness:1 appreciation:2 recognize:1 u:2 arm:1 force:1 legislation:1 traditionally:1 devote:1 bless:1 tradition:1 crown:1 occurs:1 locale:1 beginning:1 zealand:3 music:1 establish:1 john:1 f:1 kennedy:1 http:2 www:2 govtrack:1 congress:1 record:1 xpd:1 id:1 weeklong:1 league:1 bicyclist:1 promote:1 bike:3 work:2 friday:3 website:1 move:1 christianity:1 easter:1 full:1 moon:1 vesak:1 southeast:1 siddhartha:1 gautama:1 observe:3 quebec:1 know:1 patriot:1 spouse:1 precede:1 anguilla:1 aruba:1 austria:1 bahamas:1 barbados:1 bangladesh:1 belgium:1 belize:1 bermuda:1 bonaire:1 brazil:1 brunei:1 colombia:1 cuba:1 croatia:1 curaçao:1 czech:1 republic:2 denmark:1 estonia:1 greece:1 grenada:1 honduras:1 hong:1 kong:1 iceland:1 india:1 italy:1 jamaica:1 latvia:1 malta:1 malaysia:1 peru:1 philippine:1 puerto:1 rico:1 singapore:1 slovakia:1 south:1 africa:1 suriname:1 switzerland:1 taiwan:1 trinidad:1 tobago:1 turkey:1 uruguay:1 venezuela:1 zimbabwe:1 world:1 fair:1 trade:1 algeria:1 dominican:1 france:1 haiti:1 mauritius:1 morocco:1 sweden:1 tunisia:1 hungary:1 symbols:1 lily:2 valley:2 birthstone:1 emerald:1 mean:1 love:1 success:1 birth:1 crataegus:1 monogyna:1 shgresources:1 com:1 gem:1 birthflowers:1 historical:1 anniversary:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 n:1 bright:1 idea:1 book:1 pdf:1 x:1 травень:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:1 très_riches:1 riches_heures:1 heures_du:1 du_duc:1 blessed_virgin:1 virgin_mary:2 northern_hemisphere:1 southern_hemisphere:1 kentucky_derby:2 cinco_de:1 transcontinental_railroad:1 chronic_fatigue:1 battle_pichincha:1 hitchhiker_guide:1 ancien_régime:1 eurovision_song:1 pacific_islander:1 mental_health:1 mental_illness:1 bless_virgin:1 http_www:2 govtrack_u:1 easter_sunday:1 southeast_asian:1 siddhartha_gautama:1 bahamas_barbados:1 czech_republic:1 hong_kong:1 puerto_rico:1 singapore_slovakia:1 trinidad_tobago:1 uruguay_venezuela:1 dominican_republic:1 external_link:1 |
131 | Marie_Curie | Marie Skłodowska Curie (November 7, 1867 – July 4, 1934) was a physicist and chemist of Polish upbringing and, subsequently, French citizenship. She was a pioneer in the field of radioactivity, the first person honored with two Nobel Prizes, and the first female professor at the University of Paris. She was born Maria Skłodowska in Warsaw (then Vistula Country, Russian Empire; now Poland) and lived there until she was 24. In 1891 she followed her elder sister Bronisława to study in Paris, where she obtained her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw. Her husband Pierre Curie was a Nobel co-laureate of hers, and her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and son-in-law Frédéric Joliot-Curie also received Nobel prizes. Her achievements include the creation of a theory of radioactivity (a term coined by her Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 184. ), techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes, and the discovery of two new elements, polonium and radium. It was also under her personal direction that the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms ("cancers"), using radioactive isotopes. While an actively loyal French citizen, she never lost her sense of Polish identity. She named the first new chemical element that she discovered (1898) "polonium" for her native country, Poland had been partitioned in the 18th century among Russia, Prussia and Austria, and it was Skłodowska–Curie's hope that naming the element after her native country would bring world attention to its lack of independence. Polonium may have been the first chemical element named to highlight a political question. K. Kabzinska, "Chemical and Polish Aspects of Polonium and Radium Discovery," Przemysł chemiczny (The Chemical Industry), 77:104–7, 1998. and in 1932 she founded a Radium Institute (now the Maria Skłodowska–Curie Institute of Oncology) in her home town Warsaw, headed by her physician-sister Bronisława. Biography Poland Maria Skłodowska's birthplace on ulica Freta in Warsaw's "New Town." Dołęga coat-of-arms, hereditary in Skłodowska's family Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, Poland, on November 7, 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława and Władysław Skłodowski. Maria's older siblings were Zofia (born 1862), Józef (1863), Bronisława (1865) and Helena (1866). Maria's grandfather Józef Skłodowski had been a respected teacher in Lublin, where he had taught the young Bolesław Prus. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 12. Her father Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was director successively of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys, in addition to lodging boys in the family home. Her mother, Bronisława, operated a prestigious Warsaw girls' boarding school; she suffered from tuberculosis and died when Maria was twelve. Maria's father was an atheist, and her mother a devout Catholic. Eve Curie, Marie Curie. Two years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of typhus. The deaths of her mother and sister, according to Robert William Reid, caused Maria to give up Catholicism and become agnostic. "Unusually at such an early age, she became what T. H. Huxley had just invented a word for: agnostic." When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school that her mother had operated while she was well; next Maria attended a female gymnasium, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883. She spent the following year in the countryside at her father's relatives, and next with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring. On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings. This condemned each subsequent generation, including that of Maria and her elder sisters and brother, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life. Wojciech A. Wierzewski, "Mazowieckie korzenie Marii" ("Maria's Mazowsze Roots") , Gwiazda Polarna (The Pole Star), a Polish-American biweekly, no. 13, 21 June 2008, pp. 16–17. Maria made an agreement with her sister Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later. Marie Curie, Autobiography. In connection with this, she took a position as governess. First with a lawyer's family in Kraków, then for two years in Ciechanów with a landed family, the Żorawskis, relatives of her father. While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son Kazimierz Żorawski, which the future eminent mathematician reciprocated. His parents, however, rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them. Maria lost her governess' position. Susan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life. She found another with the Fuchs family in Sopot, on the Baltic Sea coast, where she spent the next year, all the while financially assisting her sister. Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town (in the distance). As noted on the plaque, it was here, in 1890–91, that Maria Skłodowska did her first scientific work. Kazimierz Żorawski in later life At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława, who had a few months earlier married Kazimierz Dłuski, invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition and was still counting on marrying Kazimierz Żorawski. She returned home to her father, with whom she remained till the fall of 1891, tutoring, studying at the clandestine Floating University, and beginning her practical scientific training in a laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture run by her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been assistant in St. Petersburg to the great Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev. Another of Skłodowska's teachers at the Museum, Napoleon Milicer, had been a pupil of Robert Bunsen. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, pp. 23–24. In October 1891, at her sister's insistence and after receiving a letter from Żorawski definitively breaking up with her, she decided to go to France after all. Maria's breakup with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University and president of the Warsaw Society of Learning; still, as an old man, a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively in front of the statue of Maria Skłodowska before the Radium Institute that she had founded. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 24. Maria, in Paris, briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a primitive garret Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 32. and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry and mathematics at the Sorbonne (the University of Paris). Sorbonne Skłodowska studied during the day, and she tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893 she obtained a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory at Lippman's. Meanwhile she continued studying at the Sorbonne and in 1894 earned a degree in mathematics. In the same year Pierre Curie entered her life. He was an instructor in the School of Physics and Chemistry, the École Supérieure de Physique et de Chimie Industrielles de la Ville de Paris (ESPCI). Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels; it was their mutual interest in magnetism that drew Skłodowska and Curie together. L. Pearce Williams, "Curie, Pierre and Marie," Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 8, p. 331. . Her departure for the summer to Warsaw only enhanced their mutual feelings for each other. She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to return to Poland and work in her chosen field of study. When, however, she was denied a place at Kraków University merely because she was a woman, Wierzewski, p. 17. she returned to Paris. Almost a year later, in July 1895, she and Pierre Curie married, and thereafter the two physicists hardly ever left their laboratory. Their shared hobbies were only long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. Maria had found a new love, a partner and scientific collaborator that she could depend on. Wierzewski, p. 17. New elements In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power. He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike phosphorescence, did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Becquerel had in fact discovered radioactivity. Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis. She used a clever technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had invented the electrometer, a device for measuring extremely low electrical currents. Using the Curie electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Her first result, using this technique, was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the amount of uranium present. She had shown that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction between molecules but must come from the atom itself. In scientific terms, this was the most important single piece of work that she carried out. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, pp. 61–63. Marie's systematic studies had included two uranium minerals, pitchblende and torbernite. Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the amount of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small amounts of some other substance far more active than uranium itself. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, pp. 63–64. In her systematic search for other substances besides uranium salts that emitted radiation, Marie had found that the element thorium was likewise radioactive. Pierre and Marie Curie in their Paris lab, before 1907 She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority. Had Becquerel, two years earlier, not presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity, and even a Nobel Prize, would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson. Marie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief, simple account of her work, was presented for her to the Académie on April 12, 1898, by her former professor, Gabriel Lippmann. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, pp. 64–65. Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Marie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium. Two months earlier, Gerhard Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 65. Such multiple independent discoveries appear in fact to be the rule in science and technology; see List of independent discoveries. No one else in the world of physics had, however, yet noticed what Marie recorded in a sentence of her paper in describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite compared with uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She would later recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible." Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 65. Pierre Curie was sure that what she had discovered was not a spurious effect. He was so intrigued that he decided to temporarily drop his work on crystals and join her. On 14 April 1898, they optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not then realize that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 65. In July 1898, Pierre and Marie together published a paper announcing the existence of an element which they named "polonium," in honor of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires. On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "radium" for its intense radioactivity — a word that they coined. Pitchblende is a complex mineral, and the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element bismuth, and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore. But radium was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to barium, and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach. L. Pearce Williams, pp. 331–32. The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization. From a ton of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902. By 1910 Marie, working on without her husband, who had been killed in 1906, had isolated the pure radium metal. L. Pearce Williams, p. 332. In an unusual decision, Marie Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, p. 265. Since they were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their chronic unprotected work with radioactive substances, Marie and Pierre had no idea what price they were paying for their research. In 1903, under the supervision of Henri Becquerel, Marie received her DSc from the University of Paris. Nobel Prizes In 1903, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics, "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel." Maria and Pierre were unable to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person, but they shared its financial proceeds with needy acquaintances, including students. On receiving the Nobel Prize, Marie and Pierre Curie suddenly became very famous. The Sorbonne gave Pierre a professorship and permitted him to establish his own laboratory, in which Marie became director of research. In 1897 and 1904, respectively, Marie gave birth to their daughters, Irène and Eve Curie. She would later hire Polish governesses to teach them her native language, and send or take them on visits to Poland. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius, p. 149. Maria's 1911 Nobel Prize photo Skłodowska–Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize. Eight years later, she would receive the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element." A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalized with depression and a kidney ailment. Skłodowska–Curie was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes. She is one of only two people who have been awarded a Nobel Prize in two different fields, the other being Linus Pauling (Chemistry, Peace). Nevertheless in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences refused to abandon its prejudice against women and she failed by two votes to be elected to membership, losing to Édouard Branly, an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius, pp. 170–71. It would be her doctoral student, Marguerite Perey, who would be the first woman elected to the Academy — in 1962, over half a century later. Pierre's death On April 19, 1906, Pierre was killed in a street accident. Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain, he was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels, fracturing his skull. While it has been speculated that he may previously have been weakened by prolonged radiation exposure, it has not been proven that this was the cause of the accident. Marie was devastated by her husband's death. She noted that as of that moment she had suddenly become "an incurably and wretchedly lonely person." On May 13, 1906, the Sorbonne physics department decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre Curie and entrusted it to Marie together with full authority over the laboratory. This allowed her to emerge from Pierre's shadow. She became the first female professor at the Sorbonne, and sought in her exhausting work regime a meaning for her life. Recognition for her work now grew to a crescendo, and in 1911 the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded her a second Nobel Prize. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by world-famous novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, besought her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country. In 1911, too, it transpired that in 1910–11 Marie had conducted an affair of about a year's duration with physicist Paul Langevin, an ex-student of Pierre Curie's Robert Reid, Marie Curie, pp. 44, 90. —a married man who had left his wife. This resulted in a press scandal, exploited by her academic opponents. Despite her fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward xenophobia—the same that had led to the Dreyfus Affair and that now fueled false speculation that Skłodowska–Curie was Jewish. Five years Langevin's senior, she was portrayed in the tabloids as a home-wrecker. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius, pp. 165–76. Later, Skłodowska–Curie's granddaughter, Hélène Joliot, would marry Langevin's grandson, Michel Langevin. Skłodowska–Curie's second Nobel Prize, in 1911, enabled her to talk the French government into funding the building of a private Radium Institute (Institut du radium, now the Institut Curie), which was built in 1914 and at which research was conducted in chemistry, physics and medicine. The Institute became a cradle of Nobel Prize winners, producing four more, including her daughter Irène Joliot-Curie and her son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie. World War I During World War I, Skłodowska-Curie pushed for the use of mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ("Little Curies"), for the treatment of wounded soldiers. These units were powered using tubes of radium emanation, a colorless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as radon. Skłodowska-Curie personally provided the tubes, derived from the radium she purified. Also, promptly after the war started, she donated her and her husband's gold Nobel Prize medals for the war effort. Post-war years In 1921, Skłodowska-Curie toured the United States, where she was welcomed triumphantly, to raise funds for research on radium. These distractions from her scientific labors, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work. Her second American tour in 1929 succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute, founded in 1925 with her sister Bronisława as director. In her later years, Skłodowska-Curie headed the Pasteur Institute and a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the University of Paris. Skłodowska–Curie visited Poland a last time in the spring of 1934. Death Only a couple of months later, Skłodowska-Curie died. Her death on July 4, 1934, at the Sancellemoz Sanatorium in Passy, in Haute-Savoie, eastern France, was from aplastic anemia, almost certainly contracted from exposure to radiation. The damaging effects of ionizing radiation were then not yet known, and much of her work had been carried out in a shed without any safety measures. She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket and stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the pretty blue-green light that the substances gave off in the dark. She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux, alongside her husband Pierre. Sixty years later, in 1995, in honor of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris Panthéon. She became the first woman so honored. Her laboratory is preserved at the Musée Curie. Due to their levels of radioactivity, her papers from the 1890s (and even her cookbook) are considered too dangerous to handle. They are kept in lead-lined boxes; those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing. Bryson, A Short History of Nearly Everything, p. 148. Legacy The Curies' work contributed substantially to shaping the world of the 20th and 21st centuries, in both its physical and societal aspects. L. Pearce Williams observes: If the work of Maria Skłodowska–Curie helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. In order to attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers that were placed in her way as a woman in both her country of origin and her adoptive country. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud's Marie Curie: A Life, which emphasizes Skłodowska's role as a feminist precursor. She was ahead of her time, emancipated, independent, and in addition uncorrupted. Albert Einstein is supposed to have remarked that she was probably the only person who was not corrupted by the fame that she had won. Wierzewski, p. 16. Awards Marie Skłodowska-Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel prize and the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. Nobel Prize in Physics (1903) Davy Medal (1903) Matteucci Medal (1904) Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1911) The life of even famous scientists is not luxurious. The Curies reportedly used part of their award money to replace wallpaper in their Parisian home and install modern plumbing with a bathroom. The People's Almanac, David Wallechinsky and Irving Wallace, 1975, Doubleday and Company Honors Madame Curie was decorated with the French Legion of Honor. In Poland, she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic (1912), Poznań University (1922), Kraków's Jagiellonian University (1924) and the Warsaw Polytechnic (1926). The Curies' elder daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie, won a Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1935 for discovering that aluminium could be made radioactive and emit neutrons when bombarded with alpha rays. The younger daughter, Ève Curie, wrote a biography of her late mother. In 1936, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki, unveiled a statue of the scientist in front of Warsaw's Curie Institute, the former Radium Institute. Eight years later, the monument suffered from gunfire during the 1944 Warsaw Uprising; but after the war, when maintenance work was being done, it was decided not to remove these scars. In 1967, a museum devoted to Skłodowska–Curie was established in Warsaw's "New Town," in her birthplace on ulica Freta (Freta Street). Tributes Panthéon, Paris As one of the most famous female scientists to date, Marie Curie has been an icon in the scientific world and has inspired many tributes and recognitions. In 1995, she was the first woman laid to rest under the famous dome of the Paris Panthéon, alongside her husband, Pierre Curie. The curie (symbol Ci), a unit of radioactivity, is named in her and/or Pierre's honour, curie - Britannica Online Encyclopedia as is the element with atomic number 96 — curium. Three radioactive minerals are named after the Curies: curite, sklodowskite, and cuprosklodowskite. Historical coins and banknotes of Poland|Polish banknote Skłodowska-Curie's likeness appeared on the Polish late-1980s inflationary 20,000-złoty banknote. Her likeness has also appeared on stamps and coins, and on the last French 500-franc note, before the franc was replaced by the euro. Polish institutions named after Maria Skłodowska–Curie include: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, in Lublin, founded in 1944; Soviet postage stamp Maria Skłodowska–Curie Institute of Oncology, in Warsaw. French institutions named after Maria Skłodowska–Curie include: Pierre and Marie Curie University, the largest science, technology and medicine university in France, and successor institution to the faculty of science at the University of Paris, where she taught; it is named in honor of her and Pierre. The university is home to the laboratory where they discovered radium. The Curie Institute and Curie Museum, in Paris. In 2007, the Pierre Curie Paris Métro station was renamed the "Pierre et Marie Curie" station. Medallion, University at Buffalo American institutions named after Maria Skłodowska–Curie include: Curie Community at the Loyola University Stritch School of Medicine, in Chicago, a memorial gathering room for students at the university. In Bayside, Queens, New York, another school named for her, Marie Curie M.S. 158, specializes in science and technology; as does Curie Metropolitan High School — located in Archer Heights, on Chicago's Southwest Side — which has a Technical, Performing Arts and IB program. The Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion, a stained-glass panel created by Jozef C. Mazur, may be found at the University at Buffalo Polish Room. Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar-nominated film, Madame Curie, based on her life. "Marie Curie" is also the name of a character in a 1988 comedy, Young Einstein, by Yahoo Serious. A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honor. http://www.airliners.net/open.file/1207719/L/. Thierry Deutsch. Retrieved 2007-12-20 See also List of Poles List of self-inculpators List of people on stamps of Ireland (Marie Curie stamp, issued in 2000) Marie Curie Cancer Care Eusapia Palladino Notes References At First Solvay Conference (1911), Skłodowska-Curie (seated, 2nd from right) confers with Henri Poincaré. Standing, 4th from right, is Rutherford; 2nd from right, Einstein; far right, Paul Langevin. Robert Reid, Marie Curie, New York, New American Library, 1974. Teresa Kaczorowska, Córka mazowieckich równin, czyli Maria Skłodowska–Curie z Mazowsza (Daughter of the Mazovian Plains: Maria Skłodowska–Curie of Mazowsze), Ciechanów, 2007. Wojciech A. Wierzewski, "Mazowieckie korzenie Marii" ("Maria's Mazowsze Roots"), Gwiazda Polarna (The Pole Star), a Polish-American biweekly, no. 13, 21 June 2008, pp. 16–17. L. Pearce Williams, "Curie, Pierre and Marie," Encyclopedia Americana, Danbury, Connecticut, Grolier, Inc., 1986, vol. 8, pp. 331–32. Barbara Goldsmith, Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie, New York, W.W. Norton, 2005, ISBN 0-393-05137-4. Naomi Pasachoff, Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity, New York, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0195092147. Eve Curie, Madame Curie: A Biography, translated by Vincent Sheean, Da Capo Press, 2001, ISBN 0306810387. Susan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1995, ISBN 0-671-67542-7. Françoise Giroud, Marie Curie: A Life, translated by Lydia Davis, Holmes & Meier, 1986, ASIN B000TOOU7Q. Fiction A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, and his Salpêtrière patient "Blanche" (Marie Wittman). The English translation was published in 2006. External links Long biography at American Institute of Physics website. (Site also has a short version for kids entitled "Her story in brief!".) Out of the Shadows-A study of women physicists Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium Chronology from nobelprize.org Pierre Curie and Marie Sklodowska : The First Century of Their Impact on Human Knowledge 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics and 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry – Nobel committee page; presentation speech, her award lecture etc. The official web page of Maria Curie Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland in English. Detailed Biography at Science in Poland website; with quotes, photographs, links etc. Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum in Warsaw Marie Curie: A Nobel Prize Pioneer at the Panthéon European Marie Curie Fellowships Marie Curie Fellowship Association Marie Curie Cancer Care, UK Marie Sklodowska Curie: Her Life as a Media Compendium Annotated bibliography of Marie Curie from the Alsos Digital Library Obituary, New York Times, 5 July 1934 Mme. Curie Is Dead; Martyr to Science Some places and memories related to Marie Curie Marie Curie on the 500 French Franc and 20000 old Polish zloty banknotes. American Institute of Physics: Marie Curie Exhibit on the Life of Marie Curie. Marie Curie photos available from AIP - Animated biography of Marie Curie on DVD from an animated series of world and American history - Animated Hero Classics distributed by Nest Learning. - Live Action portrayal of Marie Curie on DVD from the Inventors Series produced by Devine Entertainment. - Portrayal of Marie Curie in a television mini series produced by the British Broadcasting Corporation be-x-old:Марыя Складоўская-Кюры | Marie_Curie |@lemmatized marie:69 skłodowska:41 curie:124 november:2 july:5 physicist:4 chemist:2 polish:14 upbringing:1 subsequently:1 french:8 citizenship:1 pioneer:2 field:4 radioactivity:9 first:18 person:6 honor:7 two:16 nobel:26 prize:25 female:4 professor:6 university:21 paris:19 bear:2 maria:39 warsaw:19 vistula:1 country:6 russian:2 empire:2 poland:13 live:2 follow:1 elder:3 sister:9 bronisława:9 study:11 obtain:3 high:2 degree:3 conduct:5 subsequent:2 scientific:10 work:18 found:5 institute:14 husband:7 pierre:27 co:1 laureate:1 daughter:6 irène:4 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132 | Alloy | Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, with carbon content between 0.02% and 2.14% by mass. An alloy is a partial or complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different properties from those of the component elements. Alloying one metal with other metal(s) or non metal(s) often enhances its properties. For instance, steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties, such as tensile strength Adelbert Phillo Mills, (1922) Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties, John Wiley & sons, inc, 489 pages, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element occur. For example, impurities in semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. C. Michael Hogan, (1969) Density of States of an Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy Phys. Rev. 188, 870 - 874, [Issue 2 – December 1969] X. Y. Zhang and H. Suhl (1985) Phys. Rev. A 32, 2530 - 2533 (1985) [Issue 4 – October 1985 Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc. Bronze, used for bearings, statues, ornaments and church bells, is an alloy of copper and tin. Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point. Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases. The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus and the temperature when melting is complete is called the liquidus. However, for most alloys there is a particular proportion of constituents which give them a single melting point or (rarely) two. This is called the alloy's eutectic mixture. Terminology In practice, some alloys are used so predominantly with respect to their base metals that the name of the primary constituent is also used as the name of the alloy. For example, 14 karat gold is an alloy of gold with other elements. Similarly, the silver used in jewelry and the aluminium used as a structural building material are also alloys. The term "alloy" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply "alloy wheels". The usage is obviously indefinite, since steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. See also List of alloys Intermetallics Heat treatment CALPHAD (method) References External links Surface Alloys | Alloy |@lemmatized steel:3 metal:8 alloy:25 whose:1 major:1 component:2 iron:2 carbon:1 content:1 mass:1 partial:2 complete:3 solid:4 solution:3 one:3 element:6 metallic:1 matrix:1 give:3 single:3 phase:3 microstructure:1 two:3 may:4 homogeneous:1 distribution:1 depend:1 thermal:2 heat:2 treatment:2 history:1 usually:1 different:3 property:6 non:1 often:1 enhance:1 instance:1 strong:1 primary:2 physical:1 density:2 reactivity:1 young:1 modulus:1 electrical:1 conductivity:1 differ:1 greatly:1 engineering:1 tensile:2 strength:2 adelbert:1 phillo:1 mill:1 material:4 construction:1 manufacture:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 inc:1 page:1 originally:1 publish:1 university:1 wisconsin:1 madison:1 shear:1 substantially:1 constituent:3 sometimes:2 due:1 size:1 atom:4 since:2 large:1 exert:2 compressive:1 force:2 neighbor:2 small:2 help:1 resist:1 deformation:1 exhibit:1 marked:1 difference:1 behavior:1 even:1 amount:1 occur:1 example:3 impurity:1 semi:1 conduct:1 ferromagnetic:2 lead:1 first:1 predict:1 white:1 hogan:2 suhl:2 tian:1 abrie:1 nakamura:1 c:1 michael:1 state:1 insulating:1 phys:2 rev:2 issue:2 december:1 x:1 zhang:1 h:1 october:1 make:3 melt:2 mix:1 brass:1 copper:2 zinc:1 bronze:1 use:7 bearing:1 statue:1 ornament:1 church:1 bell:1 tin:1 unlike:1 pure:1 melting:4 point:2 instead:1 range:1 mixture:2 liquid:1 temperature:2 begin:1 call:3 solidus:1 liquidus:1 however:1 particular:2 proportion:1 rarely:1 eutectic:1 terminology:1 practice:1 predominantly:1 respect:1 base:1 name:2 also:4 karat:1 gold:2 similarly:1 silver:1 jewelry:1 aluminium:2 structural:1 building:1 alloys:3 term:1 everyday:1 speech:1 synonym:1 automobile:1 wheel:2 commonly:1 refer:1 simply:1 usage:1 obviously:1 indefinite:1 practical:1 see:1 list:1 intermetallics:1 calphad:1 method:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 surface:1 |@bigram thermal_conductivity:1 tensile_strength:1 wiley_son:1 wisconsin_madison:1 michael_hogan:1 phys_rev:2 copper_zinc:1 copper_tin:1 solidus_temperature:1 aluminium_alloy:1 external_link:1 |
133 | The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints | The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (abbreviated as the LDS Church, often colloquially referred to as the Mormon Church) is the largest denomination originating from the Latter Day Saint movement founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. circa 1830. The church is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah, and has established congregations (called wards or branches) worldwide. Estimates of the church's membership range from about 13 million (6 million in the United States) Statistical Report 2008 "LDS Church says membership now 13 million worldwide", Salt Lake Tribune, June 25, 2007. Press Release, LDS Church, "One Million Missionaries, Thirteen Million Members", June 25, 2007. to about half of those numbers, depending on how membership is counted. The church counts all members who were ever baptized, who have neither been excommunicated nor asked to have their names removed from church records. Independent surveys estimate that about 50% of people on LDS Church rolls do not identify with the religion. See John Dart, Counting Mormons: study says LDS numbers inflated, Christian Century, August 21, 2007. Adherents are usually referred to as Latter-day Saints, LDS, or Mormons. They consider themselves part of Christianity. LDS Church theology includes Christian doctrines of restorationism (via Joseph Smith, Jr.), millenialism, continuationism, penal substitution, a form of Apostolic succession, rejection of original sin, practice of baptism by immersion, and practice of the Eucharist (called by them the Sacrament). LDS Church theology is also different from traditional Christianity in a number of ways, including rejection of the Nicene Creed, belief in a unique theory of human salvation that includes three heavens, a doctrine of "exaltation" which includes the ability of humans to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife, and unique sacramental ceremonies performed privately in temples. The Church has an open canon which includes four scriptural texts: Articles of Faith 1:8 the Bible (both Old and New Testament), the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price. Other than the Bible, the majority of the LDS canon constitutes revelation dictated by Joseph Smith, and includes commentary and exegesis about the Bible, texts described as lost parts of the Bible, and books said to be written by non-Biblical prophets. The LDS Church is organized in a hierarchical structure dominated by men, with some women in roles leading other women and children. Mormons believe that Jesus Christ leads the church through revelation, and has chosen a single man, called "the Prophet" or President of the Church, as Jesus' spokesman on the earth. The President is part of a First Presidency of three men, which leads a Quorum of the Twelve Apostles and other larger bodies (called quorums) of general authorities, who themselves lead down the chain of command to local congregational leaders. At the local level, these members of the priesthood are drawn from the laity and work on a purely volunteer basis without stipend. Members, including clergy, are asked to donate a full tithe (10%) of their income to the Church. The church has a strong cultural influence on its members, and has taken stands on a number of public, governmental issues. It is an active proselytizing church, and sends full-time missionaries nearly worldwide, which is mainly responsible for its rapid growth. History The history of the LDS Church is typically divided into three broad time periods: (1) the early history during the lifetime of Joseph Smith, Jr. which is in common with all Latter Day Saint movement churches, (2) a "pioneer era" under the leadership of Brigham Young and his 19th Century successors, and (3) a modern era beginning around the turn of the 20th century as the practice of polygamy was discontinued. It is often misinterpreted that they still believe in polygamy, but they do not. They believe that a man should only have one wife and that marriage is ordained of God. Joseph Smith era Joseph Smith, Jr. (pictured), founder of the church, and his brother Hyrum were assassinated in Carthage, Illinois, by a mob on June 27, 1844 The early history of the LDS Church is shared with other denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement, who all regard Joseph Smith, Jr. as the founder of their religious tradition. Smith gained a small following in the late 1820s as he was dictating the Book of Mormon, which he said was a translation of words found on a set of golden plates that had been buried near his home in western New York by an indigenous American prophet. Smith said he had been in contact with an angel Moroni, who showed him the plates' location and had been preparing him for a role as a religious leader. : "On September 22, 1827, an angel named Moroni—the last Book of Mormon prophet—delivered these records to the Prophet Joseph Smith." . On April 6, 1830, in western New York, The Church of Christ was organized in the log cabin of Joseph Smith, Sr. in the Manchester area, near Rochester, followed by a meeting the next Sunday in nearby Fayette at the house of Peter Whitmer, Sr. Nevertheless, one of Smith's histories and an 1887 reminiscence by David Whitmer say the church was organized at the Whitmer house in Fayette. (Whitmer, however, had already told a reporter in 1875 that the church was organized in Manchester. .) See Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints). The LDS Church refers to Fayette as the place of organization in all its official publications. Smith organized the religion's first legal church entity, the Church of Christ. The church rapidly gained a following, who viewed Smith as a prophet. In the 1830s, missionaries from the church converted thousands of new members From 1831 to 1838, church membership grew from 680 to 17,881. See The Desert Morning News 2008 Church Almanac pg.655. and established outposts in Kirtland, Ohio and Missouri, where Smith intended to build a "city of Zion". In 1838, Smith left Kirtland to Missouri after being charged with improper banking practices during the financial panic of 1837. In Missouri, a war with non-Mormon settlers soon ensued, leading to the church's official expulsion from Missouri. After Missouri, the church built the city of Nauvoo, Illinois, where Smith served as the city's mayor and leader of the militia. As church leader, Smith also instated the then-secret practice of plural marriage, and taught a form of theocratic Millennialism which he called "theodemocracy". As a result of public disagreement over these two issues, Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum Smith (second in line to the presidency), Regarding Hyrum Smith, Brigham Young later stated: "Did Joseph Smith ordain any man to take his place. He did. Who was it? It was Hyrum, but Hyrum fell a martyr before Joseph did. If Hyrum had lived he would have acted for Joseph" (Times and Seasons, 5 [Oct. 15, 1844]: 683). were assassinated on June 27, 1844 by an angry mob. Encyclopedia of Latter-Day Saint History pg. 824. After Smith's death, a succession crisis ensued, and the majority of Smith's followers chose Brigham Young as their leader. Young had been a close associate of Smith's and was senior apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve. Other groups of Latter Day Saints followed other leaders, and formed some of the other denominations of the Latter Day Saint movement. Pioneer era Brigham Young, who led the LDS Church from 1844 until his death in 1877. After continued difficulties and persecution in Illinois, Young left Nauvoo in 1846 and led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, to what would become in 1850 the Utah Territory in search of religious freedom. "Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail: History & Culture", U.S. National Park Service. "The great Mormon migration of 1846–1847 was but one step in the LDS' quest for religious freedom and growth." The group branched out and colonized a large region now known as the Mormon Corridor. Young incorporated The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as a legal entity, and initially governed both the church and the state as a theocratic leader. He also publicized the previously-secret practice of plural marriage, a form of polygamy. By 1857, tensions had again escalated between Mormons and other Americans, largely as a result of church teachings on polygamy and theocracy. The Utah Mormon War ensued from 1857 to 1858, which resulted in the relatively peaceful The most notable instance of violence during this war was the tragic Mountain Meadows Massacre, in which leaders of a local Mormon militia ordered the massacre of a civilian emigrant party who had the misfortune of traveling through Utah during the escalating military tensions. invasion of Utah by the United States Army, after which Young agreed to step down from power and be replaced by a non-Mormon territorial governor, Alfred Cumming. Nevertheless, the LDS Church still wielded significant political power in the Utah Territory as part of a shadow government. At Young's death in 1877, he was followed by other powerful LDS Presidents, who resisted efforts by the United States Congress to outlaw Mormon polygamous marriages. Conflict between Mormons and the U.S. government escalated to the point that in 1890, Congress, disincorporated the LDS Church and seized all its assets. Soon thereafter, church president Wilford Woodruff issued a Manifesto that officially suspended the practice. Although this Manifesto did not yet dissolve existing plural marriages, and did not entirely stop the practice of polygamy, relations with the United States markedly improved after 1890, such that Utah was admitted as a U.S. state. Relations further improved after 1904, when church President Joseph F. Smith disavowed polygamy before the United States Congress and issued a "Second Manifesto" calling for all plural marriages in the church to cease. Eventually, the church adopted a policy of excommunicating its members found practicing polygamy and today seeks to actively distance itself from “fundamentalist” groups still practicing polygamy. In 1998 President Gordon B. Hinckley stated, “If any of our members are found to be practicing plural marriage, they are excommunicated, the most serious penalty the Church can impose. Not only are those so involved in direct violation of the civil law, they are in violation of the law of this Church.” Gordon B. Hinckley, "What Are People Asking About Us?" Ensign, November 1998, 70 Modern era During the twentieth century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization. Distancing itself from polygamy, the church began engaging, first with mainstream American culture, and then with international cultures, particularly those of Latin America, by sending out thousands of missionaries across the globe. In the year 2000 the church reported 60,784 missionaries, “Statistical Report, 2000,” Ensign, May 2001, 22 and global church membership stood at 11,068,861. As of 2007, membership had reached 13,193,999. Deseret Morning News 2008 Church Almanac pg. 655 Breaking with its history of polygamy, the church became a strong and public champion of monogamy and the nuclear family, and at times played a prominent role in political matters, including opposition to MX Peacekeeper missile bases in Utah and Nevada, “First Presidency Statement on Basing of MX Missile”, Ensign, June 1981, 76. opposing the Equal Rights Amendment, “The Church and the Proposed Equal Rights Amendment: A Moral Issue”, Ensign, March 1980, insert. opposing legalized gambling, “Church’s Stand against Gambling”, Ensign, March 1992, 74. support of bans on same-sex marriage, and opposition to legalized physician-assisted death. Apart from issues that it considers to be ones of morality, however, the church usually maintains a position of political neutrality. ; see also Newsroom.lds.org, "No Thumbs Up or Down To Legislature", Retrieved May 2007. Among the official changes to the organization during the modern area include the ordination of black men to the priesthood in 1978, reversing a policy originally instituted by Brigham Young. There are also periodic changes in the structure and organization of the church, mainly to accommodate the organization's growth and increasing international presence. For example, since the early 1900s, the church has instituted a Priesthood Correlation Program to centralize church operations and bring them under a hierarchy of priesthood leaders. During the Great Depression, the church also began operating a church welfare system, and it has conducted numerous humanitarian efforts in cooperation with other religious organizations. Teachings and practices Sources of authority The written canon of the LDS Church is referred to as its Standard Works, which includes the Bible, Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and Pearl of Great Price The theology of the LDS Church consists of a mixture of Biblical doctrines with revelations and other commentary by LDS leaders, particularly Joseph Smith, Jr. The most authoritative sources of theology are the faith's canon of scripture, which includes the Bible (usually the Authorized King James Version), the Book of Mormon (a book said to be translated from buried golden plates that the faith characterizes as "Another Testament of Jesus Christ"), the Doctrine and Covenants (a set of revelations), and the Pearl of Great Price (including further translations by Smith and church historical items). These are called the faith's Standard Works. Of these books, the church holds the Book of Mormon in highest regard as "the most correct of any book on earth and the keystone of [their] religion". History of the Church, 4:461. The Bible is accepted as "the word of God as far as it is translated correctly". See ("We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly.") Deeper and less-known LDS doctrines may be found in the remaining two works, Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price. Sometimes, parts of an translation of the Bible by Joseph Smith, Jr. is considered authoritative, and some excerpts have been included in the Pearl of Great Price. Other sources of doctrine include the LDS Endowment ceremony, as well as statements by LDS leaders. The church teaches that its top leaders (general authorities) are prophets, and that their advice usually originates from God through The Holy Ghost. Comparisons within Christianity Latter-day Saints believe in the resurrection of Jesus, as depicted in this replica of Bertel Thorvaldsen's Christus statue located in the North Visitors' Center on Temple Square in Salt Lake City In addition to a general belief in the New Testament and in the atonement and resurrection of Jesus, many LDS teachings are shared by at least some factions of Christianity. For example, LDS theology includes Millenialism (belief that a thousand year reign of earthly peace will follow the Second Coming), baptism by immersion, rejection of original sin, Apostolic succession (via a vision of apostles to Joseph Smith), continuationism, and Restorationism (the belief in a Great Apostasy followed by a Restoration of truth via Joseph Smith). The LDS Church teaches that it is a restoration of 1st century Christianity, and the only true and authorized Christian church. D&C 1:30 (LDS Church is the "only true and living church upon the face of the whole earth"). For the Latter-day Saints Jesus is not merely a good man, a teacher, or even a prophet; he is not merely a human being; he is not the son of Joseph and Mary who later became God's Son. In common with other Bible-oriented Christians, the Latter-day Saints believe that Jesus is the pre-existent Word of the Father who became the literal, physical, genetic Son of God. As the pre-existant Word he was the agent of the Father in the creation of all things. As the glorified Son, he is the agent of the Father in the salvation of all humanity. It is LDS belief that he was conceived of a virgin by the power of the Holy Ghost; he lived a sinless life; he was morally and ethically perfect; he healed the sick and raised the dead; he walked on the water and multiplied the loaves and fishes. It is taught that he set a perfect example for human beings to imitate and that all humans have an obligation to follow his example. Like other Christians, the LDS believe that Jesus suffered and died on the cross as a volunteer sacrifice for humanity in order to bring about an atonement through the shedding of his blood. The LDS teach that following his resurrection he ascended into the heavens and from the heavens he will again descend at the end of this world to rule among men and will eventually judge both the living and the dead. Robinson, Stephen E., Are Mormons Christians? p. 113 Distinctive doctrines and practices A couple following their marriage in the Manti Utah Temple The LDS Church differs from the many other Christian churches, and some Christians do not believe that the LDS Church is part of Christianity. For example, a 2007 poll conducted by the Pew Research Center found that 31% of Americans surveyed do not consider Mormons to be Christian. See http://www.religionnewsblog.com/19478/religion-poll-2. Officially, major Christian denominations view the LDS Church as standing apart from, creedal Christianity, See, for example, (Presbyterian Church USA, stating that "Mormonism is a new and emerging religious tradition distinct from the historic apostolic tradition of the Christian Church"); (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, stating that LDS Church doctrine regarding the Trinity is "substantially different from that of orthodox, creedal Christianity."; (United Methodist Church, stating that the LDS Church, "by self-definition, does not fit within the bounds of the historic, apostolic tradition of Christian faith".). a point that the LDS Church itself does not dispute. From the perspective of Christians who hold to creeds, the most significant area of departure is the rejection by the LDS Church of certain ecumenical creeds such as the Nicene Creed, which defines the Christian Trinity as three persons with "one substance". The LDS Church defines the Trinity as God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost; who share unity of purpose or will, but are not "one substance". Other significant differences relate to the church's acceptance of additional scripture and doctrine beyond what is found in either the Catholic or Protestant Bibles. The Mormon cosmology, a Plan of Salvation that includes a Pre-mortal life, three heavens, and the doctrine of Exaltation are distinctive among Christian sects. Moreover, the LDS Church teaches that the intelligence component of all human spirits is co-eternal with God, and that humanity may obtain a form of godhood in the afterlife as join-heirs with Christ. The church teaches that through Faith in Jesus Christ and by making and keeping covenants in a sequence of ceremonies (called ordinances) including baptism, confirmation, the Endowment, Celestial marriage, and in some cases, a second anointing, in the eternities Latter-day Saint individuals, couples and families may become exalted through the Atonement of Jesus Christ. It is taught that those who enjoy this Exaltation will have a perpetuation of their familial and marital relations eternally. Baptismal font in the Salt Lake Temple, circa 1912, where baptisms for the dead are performed by proxy. The font rests on the backs of twelve oxen representing the Twelve Tribes of Israel Other distinctive practices of the LDS Church include the performance of its sacred ceremonies or sacraments via proxy for and in behalf of those who have died, including baptism for the dead and the endowments. The Church teaches that all will have the opportunity to hear and accept or reject the gospel and the benefits it's sacraments, in this life or the next. These ceremonies are performed in temples. Those members who have taken part in an Endowment ceremony are given an undergarment, called the temple garment, which they wear to remind themselves of their promises made in the temple. The LDS faithful observe a health code called the Word of Wisdom in which they abstain from the consumption of alcoholic beverages, coffee, tea, and tobacco. Their moral code includes a law of chastity that prohibits sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage. LDS faithful donate a 10% tithe on all their income. They also give volunteer service in their local Church. Moreover, unmarried males between the ages of 19 and 25 years are encouraged to volunteer two years in missionary service where they either share their faith with others, and/or give humanitarian aid somewhere in the world. Comparison with other Latter Day Saint movement faiths All Latter Day Saint movement faiths recognize Joseph Smith, Jr. as a prophet. Here, he is shown in a depiction of the First Vision, where he said he saw God the Father and Jesus. The LDS Church shares a common heritage with a number of other smaller faiths that are collectively called the Latter Day Saint movement. These faiths have in common with the LDS Church their belief in Joseph Smith, Jr. as a prophet and founder of their religion. They also accept the Book of Mormon, at least some version of the Doctrine and Covenants. Some of these faiths, such as the Community of Christ, have always rejected Joseph Smith's doctrine of plural marriage, as well as many other of his distinctive doctrines. The Community of Christ also ordains women to the priesthood, focuses more on the Bible, and allows its members to accept mainstream Christian beliefs. Other branches of the Latter Day Saint movement may be considered off-shoots of the LDS Church, mainly as a result of disagreements about plural marriage. In the LDS Church, the plural marriage doctrine was abandoned around the turn of the 20th century, but it has continued among the fundamentalist groups, who believe the practice is a requirement for Exaltation (the highest degree of salvation), which will allow them to become gods and goddesses in the afterlife. The LDS Church, by contrast, believe that a single Celestial marriage is sufficient for Exaltation. Fundamentalists also believe in a number of other doctrines taught and practiced by Brigham Young in the 19th century, which the LDS Church has either abandoned, repudiated, or put in abeyance. Stung by bad publicity in the 19th century over its former practice of plural marriage, the LDS Church has taken efforts to distance itself from polygamy and from Mormon fundamentalist groups. The church has long excommunicated any members caught practicing polygamy. Church organization and structure Name and legal entities The church teaches that it is a continuation of the Church of Christ established in 1830 by Joseph Smith, Jr. This original church underwent several name changes during the 1830s, being called the Church of Jesus Christ, the Church of God, . and then in 1834, the name was officially changed to the Church of the Latter Day Saints . to differentiate it from the 1st century Christian church. In April 1838, the name again was officially changed by revelation to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. . Manuscript History of the Church, LDS Church Archives, book A-1, p. 37; reproduced in Dean C. Jessee (comp.) (1989). The Papers of Joseph Smith: Autobiographical and Historical Writings (Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book) 1:302–303. H. Michael Marquardt and Wesley P. Walters (1994). Inventing Mormonism: Tradition and the Historical Record (Salt Lake City, Utah: Signature Books) p. 160. There were several alternate spellings of this name in use during Smith's lifetime, however, including a hyphenated "Latter-Day". After Smith died, Brigham Young and the largest body of Smith's followers incorporated the LDS Church in 1851 by legislation of the State of Deseret, The initial incorporation by the non-existent State of Deseret was not legally valid, but was soon ratified by the Territory of Utah in 1851 and 1855. See Late Corporation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints v. Romney, 136 U.S. 44–45 (1890). under the name The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which included a hyphenated "Latter-day" and a lower-case "d". State of Deseret: An Ordinance, incorporating the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, February 4, 1851. In 1887, the LDS Church was legally dissolved in the United States by the Edmunds–Tucker Act because of the church's practice (now abandoned) of polygamy. Thereafter, the church has continued to operate as an "unincorporated religious association", under the name The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which remains its formal name. Accepted informal names include the LDS Church, the Latter-day Saints, and the Mormons. The term Mormon Church is in common use, but the church began discouraging its use in the late 20th century. The Church requests that the official name, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, be used when possible, or if necessary shortened to "the Church" or "the Church of Jesus Christ". However, the Church uses Mormon as a descriptive term in the name of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and its own public-face website, mormon.org. The Associated Press continues to recommend "Mormon Church" as a proper second reference in its Style Guide for journalists. The AP Style Guide also points out that the term "Mormon" is only appropriately used when referring to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Use of the term "Mormon" would not be appropriate for describing break away sects which are no longer associated with the LDS church. The church has organized several tax-exempt corporations to assist with the transfer of money and capital. These include the Corporation of the Presiding Bishop of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, organized in 1916 under the laws of the state of Utah to acquire, hold, and dispose of real property. In 1923, the church incorporated the Corporation of the President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Utah to receive and manage money and church donations. In 1997, the church incorporated Intellectual Reserve, Inc. to hold all the church's copyrights, trademarks, and other intellectual property. The church also holds several non-tax-exempt corporations. See Finances of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Current membership The church reports a worldwide membership of 13 million with approximately 6.7 million residing outside the United States. According to these statistics it is the fourth largest religious body in the United States. 2005 Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches, National Council of Churches. See article by Information Please Database, Pearson Education, Inc. The church membership report includes all baptized members and also "children of record"—unbaptized children under the age of eight. (Children are not baptized before the age of eight.) Although the church does not release attendance figures to the public, researchers estimate that actual attendance at weekly LDS worship services globally is around 4 million. Fletcher, Peggy. "Keeping Members a Challenge for LDS Church". Salt Lake Tribune, June 22, 2006. Members living in the U.S. and Canada constitute 46% of membership, Latin America 38%, and members in the rest of the world 16%. Statistical Information, Retrieved December 1, 2007 A Survey by the City College of New York in 2001 extrapolated that there were 2,787,000 self-identified LDS adults in the United States in 2001, 1.3% of the US population, making the LDS Church the 10th-largest religious body in their phone survey of over 50,000 households. One source cites it is the second fastest growing religion in the United States with a 1.63 percent annual growth rate. 2007 Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life SurveyMormons (U.S.)U.S. Avg.Married71%54%Divorced or separated9%12%3 or more children at home 21%9%Weekly (or more) Attendance at Religious Services 75%39% In 2007, the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life published a survey of 35,556 Adults living in the United States on religious beliefs. Religion in American Culture -- Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Of those, 1.7% claimed they were Mormon. In comparison, the LDS Church reported having 5,873,408 members or 1.9% of the overall U.S. population at year-end 2007. Responses from this survey estimates that 3.9 Million Mormons in the United States alone (1.3% of US Population) attend services on either once a week or more than once a week. Geographic structure Church congregations are generally organized geographically, unlike other mainstream Christian denominations. For Sunday services, the church is grouped into either larger (~200 to ~400 people) congregations known as wards, or smaller congregations known as branches. These neighborhood congregations meet in meetinghouses, also referred to as "chapels" or "stake centers" or just ward buildings, located on property most often owned by the church. In some geographic areas, rental property may be used as a meetinghouse. Although the building may sometimes be referred to as a "chapel", the room used as a chapel for religious services is actually only one component of the standard meetinghouse. A church-maintained virtual tour of a typical meetinghouse The church's online "Meetinghouse Locator" can be used to find locations of church buildings and meeting times. Worship With Us Regional church organizations larger than single congregations include stakes, missions, districts, areas, and regions. Church leadership The leader of the church is termed President, and church members revere him as a prophet, seer, and revelator. The prophet is believed to hold the same divine calling as biblical prophets, and his responsibility is primarily over the church as a whole. His stewardship extends over the whole human family on earth as the Lord's mouthpiece. He is entitled to guide the church through revelation, acting as God's spokesman. The President of the Church serves as such until death. The current president is Thomas S. Monson. The First Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, the Presiding Bishopric and the First and Second Quorums of the Seventy are all referred to as general authorities because they direct the work of the entire church throughout the world. The members of the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles are accepted by the church as prophets, seers, and revelators. Other church authorities are referred to as area authorities and local authorities and include all other Quorums of the Seventy, mission presidents, stake presidents, bishops, and other priesthood quorum presidents. The church has no paid local clergy; however, general authorities who demonstrate need receive stipends from the church, using income from church-owned investments. Ludlow, Daniel H., Latter-day Prophets Speak: Selections from the Sermons and Writings of Church Presidents, 1948/1993, Ch. 32 All area and local authorities are unpaid and continue in their normal occupations while serving in leadership positions. Although the church had a paid local clergy in the 1800s, D. Michael Quinn (1997), Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power, Salt Lake City: Signature Books, ch. 6. local and regional priesthood leaders currently serve in a voluntary capacity. Non-clerical church employees, general authorities (who serve life or five-year terms), and mission presidents are paid a stipend from church funds and provided other benefits. A general missionary fund covers the basic living expenses of single LDS missionaries who are unable to pay their own way. Missionaries and their families are asked to contribute to this fund, and in the United States the missionary's congregation of origin is ultimately responsible to satisfy the monthly obligation to the general fund. Members volunteer general custodial work for local church facilities. Church hierarchy Interior of the Conference Center where the church holds its semi-annual and annual General Conferences The church has a hierarchical structure, with clearly defined stewardships or realms of responsibility for the various offices. Those who hold such offices do not elect to do so but are "called" by someone of a higher authority in the church; lower positions are not paid for their service. General Authorities, The Quorum of the Twelve, and the First Presidency are paid for their administrative duties, but not as religious ministers. Priesthood The priesthood is offered to all male members ages 12 and older who follow the church's code of morality. The priesthood is received by ordination, which consists of other priesthood holders laying their hands on the head of the one ordained. Ordination to the priesthood is a prerequisite to preside in the church. The priesthood in the LDS Church is divided into two levels, the lower priesthood or Aaronic Priesthood, and the higher priesthood or Melchizedek Priesthood. Within each level are various offices. The Aaronic Priesthood offices include deacon, teacher, priest, and bishop. The Melchizedek priesthood offices include elder, high priest, patriarch, seventy, and apostle. From the end of the nineteenth century until 1978, The church did not allow black men of African descent to be ordained to the priesthood or allow black men or women of African descent to participate in temple ordinances such as the Endowment and sealing that the church teaches are necessary for the highest degree of salvation. In the early church, at least two black people were ordained during Joseph Smith's lifetime, but they were not permitted by later presidents of the church to participate in temple ordinances. Now, they have full and equal rights. Auxiliary organizations Under the leadership of the priesthood hierarchy are five auxiliary organizations that fill various roles in the church: Relief Society, Young Men Organization, Young Women Organization, Primary, and Sunday School. The Relief Society is the church's women's organization. Founded in 1842 in Nauvoo, Illinois, and with the motto "Charity Never Faileth", the organization today includes more than 5 million women in more than 165 countries. Every Latter-day Saint woman age 18 or older is a member of the Relief Society. The Young Men and Young Women organizations are composed of adolescents aged 12 to 17. Members often have an additional meeting during the week (referred to as Mutual), which can involve an activity, game, service project, or instruction. The young men and women may meet separately or take part in combined activities. In the United States and Canada, the young men participate in Scouting, including efforts to earn the Boy Scouts religious award for church members, "On my Honor." Young men throughout the church also work toward earning the church's "Duty to God" award. Young women participate in a comparable program called Personal Progress. Both the young men and the young women are encouraged to live by the standards outlined in the church's "For the Strength of Youth" booklet. The Primary is an organization for children up to age 12, founded in 1878. It provides classes, music, and activities for children during two hours of the three-hour Sunday meeting schedule. The LDS Sunday School organization provides classes for adolescents and adults during the one hour of the Sunday meeting schedule. It provides a variety of classes, including introductory classes for new members and nonmembers, and gospel doctrine classes for more experienced members. Adolescents are grouped into classes by age. Programs Missionary Some members of the church are encouraged to serve as missionaries, either full-time, part-time or as "service" missionaries. All missionaries serve on a volunteer basis, and none are paid for their service. While members are encouraged to serve as missionaries, there is no requirement to do so. Unmarried young men between the ages of 19 and 25 who hold the Melchizedek Priesthood and meet standards of worthiness and preparation are especially encouraged to serve a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. These are the backbone of the worldwide missionary effort. Women who desire to serve a mission must be at least 21 and unmarried, and are generally called to serve 18-month missions. A would-be missionary must request that he or she be considered for service, then must go through interviews with church authorities to determine worthiness and ability to perform the duties. Once this is done, they "put in their papers," then wait to see where they will be called to serve. Full-time missionaries may be called to serve anywhere in the world, and often know nothing about the mission area that they will be assigned to. If necessary, they will be taught the language they must use. Missionaries are expected to pay their own expenses (though some are partially supported by other church members, especially if they come from less-affluent areas). With few exceptions, a missionary will serve the entire period of his or her calling in one mission, but will be moved around within the mission boundaries. Exceptions may include missionaries who develop health problems while on their missions and wish to continue to serve by being transferred to a mission close to home, or those in areas that impose length-of-stay limits on foreign "workers." Also, sister missionaries called to the Salt Lake Temple Square Mission spend approximately three months "in the field" somewhere else in the United States. Retired married couples and other older people are allowed to serve missions as well, and their length of service varies from three to 36 months. Many of these older missionaries are on "service missions," rather than proselyting, but many also serve at church historical sites throughout the world or where there is a special need. There are approximately 350 missions worldwide with approximately 53,000 full-time proselytizing missionaries. At any given time, there are also over 3,000 service missionaries, serving as health care specialists, doctors, craftsmen, artisans, construction supervisors, agricultural experts and educators for developing countries, and educators, historians, family history researchers, and leadership trainers. Missions often overlap in their geographical areas of authority, when necessary to serve portions of the resident population. For instance, within the bounds of one mission might also be special missions serving a foreign-speaking immigrant community, inner-city areas, historical sites, Welfare Program resources such as storehouses and farms, etc., and even missions specifically created for a unique project, such as temple construction or making films for the church. These special missions are generally in addition to the approximately 350 missions mentioned above, and number in the hundreds. Every full-time and service missionary is the responsibility of a Mission President and his wife, who are generally called for several years at a time (and, like the missionaries they lead, they pay their own way). They provide administration of day-to-day operations, as well as spiritual guidance of the missionaries. The exceptions are part-time missionaries who are serving in their own neighborhoods under the direction of their Bishop or Branch President. In June 2007, the church marked the induction of its one millionth full-time missionary since 1830. There is no recorded total of part-time missionaries. Education The carillon tower at Brigham Young University, one of several educational institutions sponsored by the church. Latter-day Saints believe in the value of education. Joseph Smith taught that "the glory of God is intelligence." Accordingly, the church maintains Brigham Young University, Brigham Young University–Idaho (formerly Ricks College), Brigham Young University Hawaii, and LDS Business College. The church also has religious education programs. The Seminary and Institute programs are part of the Church Educational System: Seminary is a program for secondary school students held daily in conjunction with the school year. The Institute of Religion and the LDS Student Association programs serve young adults between the ages of 18 and 30 and those enrolled in post-secondary education institutions with church-owned buildings near university and college campuses designated for the purpose of religious education and cultural socialization. In addition, the church sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the Perpetual Education Fund. This fund is designed to benefit young men and women from less developed parts of the world who need further education to become productive citizens in their respective countries. As they finish their educations and enter the work force and become able, they pay back the funds provided so that other individuals can attend vocational technical schools or university. Welfare Members of the church donate fast offerings on Fast Sunday and at other times for the purpose of helping those who are poor or financially struggling. The bishop will meet with a family, or the head(s) of a family to determine whether and how much help they need from the church. The church strongly encourages its members to be self-reliant, so these meetings will usually include a plan on how to get the family back on its own feet. This welfare program is available not only to members of the church, but to needy members of the community as well. In fact, the church has a very broad humanitarian effort, which helps not only those who are going through financial struggles, but also victims of natural disasters or other devastating events. All of these services are paid for by charitable donations and are run by volunteer workers. $104.9 million of aid was given in 2007. Welfare service missionaries numbering 6,470 are currently serving in the church. Priesthood correlation The Priesthood Correlation Program is a program designed to provide a systematic approach to maintain consistency in its ordinances, doctrines, organizations, meetings, materials, and other programs and activities. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is organized according to priesthood function, and correlation provides support to the priesthood quorums, thereby improving communication and leadership, and keeping unorthodox information, doctrines and other undesired concepts from being introduced. Finances The church has not released church-wide financial statements since 1959, but in 1997 Time Magazine called it one of the world's wealthiest churches per capita. Biema, David Van. Kingdom Come. Time Magazine, Vol. 150 No. 5, August 4, 1997 (estimating the church's value at over $30 billion). Its for-profit, non-profit, and educational subsidiary entities are audited by an independent accounting firm: , Deloitte & Touche. Belo Corp Form 8-K. Accessed May 16, 2007. "Financial Planning". finserve.byu.edu. Accessed May 16, 2007. In addition, the church employs an independent audit department that provides its certification at each annual general conference that church contributions are collected and spent in accordance with church policy. The church receives most of its money from tithes (ten percent of a member's income) and fast offerings (money given to the church to assist individuals in need.) According to the church, tithing and fast offering moneys collected are devoted to ecclesiastical purposes and not used for-profit ventures. About ten percent of its funding also comes from income on investments and real estate holdings. The church uses its tithing funds to construct and maintain buildings and other facilities; to print the Scriptures for missionary work; to provide social welfare and relief; and to support missionary, educational, and other church-sponsored programs. The church has also invested in for-profit business and real estate ventures such as Bonneville International, Deseret Book Company, and cattle ranches in Utah, Florida, and Canada. But these ranches are split between Church Welfare Work (Bishop's Storehouse and Welfare Square) for which funds are used from tithing and are not for profit. For-profit ranching operations are partially self-sustained but never use tithed money. Culture Due to the differences in lifestyle promoted by church doctrine and history, a distinct culture has grown up around members of the church. It is primarily concentrated in the Intermountain West, but as membership of the church spreads around the world, many of its more distinctive practices follow, such as following the Word of Wisdom, a revealed health law or code (D&C 89), similar to Leviticus chapter 11 in the Bible, prohibiting the consumption of tobacco, alcohol, coffee and tea, and other addictive substances. See Doctrine & Covenants, Section 89. Because of such prohibitions, the culture in areas of the world with a high concentration of LDS tends to reflect these restrictions. Salt Lake Tribune Editorial, Liquor stores: Banning phone listings, stores won't stop abuse. Meetings and outreach programs are held regularly and have become part of the Latter-day Saint culture. Home and family Four times a year, the adult women (members of the church's Relief Society) attend a Home, Family and Personal Enrichment Meeting. The meeting may consist of a service project, or of attending a social event, or of various classes being offered. Additional Enrichment activities are offered for women with similar needs and interests. Social events and gatherings A typical meetinghouse of the church In addition to these regularly scheduled meetings, additional meetings are frequently held at the meetinghouse. Auxiliary officers may conduct leadership meetings or host training sessions and classes. The ward or branch community may schedule social activities at the meetinghouse, including dances, dinners, holiday parties and musical presentations. The church's Young Men's and Young Women's organizations (formerly known as the Mutual Improvement Organization, or simply "Mutual") meet at the meetinghouse once a week, where the youth participate in activities and work on Duty to God, scouting, or Personal Progress. Other popular activities are basketball, family history conferences, youth and singles conferences, dances and various personal improvement classes. Church members may also reserve the building for weddings and receptions, or funerals. Media and arts The Mormon Tabernacle Choir has received a Grammy Award, an Emmy Award, two Peabody Awards, and the National Medal of Arts. The culture has created substantial business opportunities for independent LDS media. The largest of these communities are LDS cinema, LDS fiction, LDS websites, and LDS graphical art like photography and paintings. The church owns a chain of bookstores called Deseret Book, which provide a channel through which publications are sold. This culture also resides outside of heavily Mormon populations, and many LDS-related bookstores exist near temples. Some of the titles that have become popular outside of the LDS community are The Work and the Glory novels and the movie The Other Side of Heaven. A number of works have been successful only within the LDS community. These works generally elaborate on LDS culture or are of historical interest or are historical fiction. BYU TV, the church-sponsored television station, also airs on several networks. Controversy and criticism Protesters in front of the Newport Beach California Temple voicing their opposition to the church's support of Prop 8 The church has been subject to both praise and criticism by outsiders since its early years in New York and Pennsylvania. During the 1830s, the first main source of criticism had to do with Smith's handling of financial matters in Kirtland, Ohio . Then in Missouri, local newspapers criticized Mormon settlers for their political power and apparent abolitionism. This criticism stirred up anger culminating in the 1838 Mormon War . After the church relocated to Illinois, criticism of the LDS Church related mainly to the church's political aspirations and its clandestine practice of plural marriage. Most prominently, the Nauvoo Expositor directly criticized the Smith administration and called for reform within Mormonism. The fallout of this criticism led to Smith's 1844 assassination . As the church began openly practicing plural marriage under Brigham Young during the second half of the 19th century, the church became the target of nation-wide criticism for that practice, as well as for the church's theocratic aspirations in the Utah Territory . After the Civil War, the church also came under nation-wide criticism for the Mountain Meadows massacre. On the other hand, the church was also occasionally the subject of journalistic praise during this era. After spending a summer with the LDS in the early 1870s, historian John Codman concluded that the LDS in Utah did a better job of ridding their communities of gambling, drunkenness, and prostitution than the rest of the country. After the 1890 and 1904 manifestos and church president Joseph F. Smith's testimony before the U.S. Senate, the most severe national criticism of the church eased . However, throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, academic critics have questioned the legitimacy of Smith as a prophet and the historicity of the Book of Mormon and other works such as the Book of Abraham . In modern times, criticism focuses on claims of historical revisionism, homophobia, racism, "Skin Color in Mormon Scripture and Theology" http://irr.org/mit/pdfs/Skin-Color-&-LDS-Church.pdf sexist policies, and inadequate financial disclosure. Notable 20th century critics include Jerald and Sandra Tanner and Fawn Brodie. In recent years, the Internet has provided a new forum for critics, and the church's recent support of California's Proposition 8 sparked heated debate and protesting by gay-rights organizations. See also Mormonism List of Latter Day Saints Bloggernacle References Notes External links Official websites of the Church LDS.org - The official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints — with links to Gospel Library, Church History, Family Home Evening programs, and more Mormon.org - Information on basic beliefs, a meetinghouse locater, and a place to email questions scriptures.lds.org - Online scriptures and study guides FamilySearch.org - One of the largest collections of free family history, family tree and genealogy records in the world Deseret Book - LDS bookstore owned by LDS Church Newsroom.lds.org - The official source of public news releases and background information by the Church Provident Living - Self-reliance and welfare resources Church Educational System - Religious education for secondary and tertiary school students JosephSmith.net - Information on the life and mission of Church founder Joseph Smith Distribution Services - Church and gospel supplies available to order BeSmart.com - Tertiary education opportunities Polynesian Cultural Center - Tourist attraction owned by LDS Church Jesus Christ - Information and testimony regarding Jesus Christ President Thomas S. Monson - official information on the president of the church LDS Church News - An official news publication for the LDS Church Mormon Channel - Official radio station (talk and music) broadcasting 24 hours daily. Mormonmessages on Youtube - Official Youtube Page of the LDS Church Church-related websites Utah History Encyclopedia LDS Today - News related to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints LDS Library - Full text search engine; more than 3,300 important LDS books Mormon wiki - Wiki for and supported by Latter-day Saints LDSFAQ at byu.edu - A comprehensive index answering many common questions. Uses large portions of The Encyclopedia of Mormonism Mormon Momma - Scholarship and fellowship for LDS women Audio Book of Mormon - Free download, mp3 format The LDS Woman - Free online social network and magazine for LDS women Mormonism Search - Search Mormon Web Sites - Browser Plugin Available Mission.net - Church missionary alumni and informational site Bible References Supporting The Beliefs of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Mormon Studies - A site dedicated to the academic and cultural study of Mormonism. The Genesis Group - Official website for black Latter-day Saints, their families and friends, and individuals interested in the LDS Church Mormon Times - For and about members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints - Website to help and inform new converts and investigators about the church. Educational institutions Brigham Young University Brigham Young University Hawaii Brigham Young University–Idaho BYU Jerusalem Center BYU Salt Lake Center LDS Business College Missionary Training Center (MTC) Music Church Music - official website Mormon Tabernacle Choir - official website Music and the Spoken Word - official website Saints Unified Voices Liahona.net - free LDS-type music in MP3 format. Academic forums The Joseph Smith Papers Encyclopedia of Mormonism (BYU) Encyclopedia of Mormonism - wiki version (BYU) FARMS - Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (BYU) Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought - An independent quarterly covering history, religion, science and social issues. 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134 | National_Anthem_of_Chile | The National Anthem of Chile () is also known as Canción Nacional (National Song). It has a history of two lyrics and two melodies that made up three different versions. The current version was composed by Ramón Carnicer, with words by Eusebio Lillo, and has six parts plus the chorus. First National Anthem The first Chilean National Anthem dates back to 1868, when the government called for, on the 19th of July, the creation of music and lyrics for this purpose. The composer Manuel Robles and the poet Bernardo de Vera y Pintado fulfilled this mandate and their "National Song" debuted on the 20 August 1820 in the Domingo Arteaga theater, although other historians claim that it was played and sung during the festivities of September 1819. In the beginning, everyone would stand for the song. O'Higgins and Freire listened to it with respect and full of emotion, for they had marched to victory to its tune more than once. The custom of always singing it at the theater slowly disappeared, until it was ordered that it only be sung at the anniversary of the country. The doctor Bernardo Vera, known in the history of the independence, was the author of the verses that were sung to Robles' music. This first hymn was sung until 1828, when it was replaced with what is sung today. Second National Anthem The second Chilean National Anthem was composed by the Spanish composer Ramón Carnicer, when he was exiled in England because of his liberal ideas. Mariano Egaña, Chilean Minister in London, acting on the criticism that Robles' song was receiving, asked Carnicer to compose a new hymn with Bernardo de Vera's original text. The Spanish musician probably wrote the work by 1827, the date he returned to Barcelona, and his hymn debuted in Santiago, in the Arteaga theater, the 23 December 1828. Years later, in 1847, the Chilean government entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spain poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus ("Dulce patria, recibe los votos..."). During the military government (1973-1990) of Augusto Pinochet, the Verse III was officially incorporated because of his praise of the militaries. After, in 1990, it was eliminated from the anthem and only sung in military events as part of the full song. Supporters from the former military regime also sing the anthem with the Verse III in private ceremonies. Joe Walsh, famed musician who was part of the United States rock band the Eagles, sang the National Anthem of Chile at a Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim baseball game in 2003. Official version lyrics Below are the lyrics of the version most often played; it corresponds to Verse V of the full version and the chorus: Spanish originalTranslationPuro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado; Puras brisas te cruzan también. Y tu campo de flores bordado Es la copia feliz del Edén. Majestuosa es la blanca montaña Que te dio por baluarte el Señor Que te dio por baluarte el Señor, Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña Te promete futuro esplendor Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña Te promete futuro esplendor. Coro Dulce Patria, recibe los votos Con que Chile en tus aras juró: Que o la tumba serás de los libres O el asilo contra la opresión Que o la tumba serás de los libres O el asilo contra la opresión Que o la tumba serás de los libres O el asilo contra la opresión O el asilo contra la opresión O el asilo contra la opresión.Pure, Chile, your sky is blue; Pure breezes cross you as well. And your flower-embroidered field Is a happy copy of Eden. Majestic is the white mountain That was given to you as a bastion by the Lord That was given to you as a bastion by the Lord And that sea that quietly washes your shores Promises you future splendor And that sea that quietly washes your shores Promises you future splendor. Chorus Sweet fatherland, accept the vows With which Chile swore at your altars: Either you'll be the tomb of the free Or the refuge against oppression Either you'll be the tomb of the free Or the refuge against oppression Either you'll be the tomb of the free Or the refuge against oppression Or the refuge against oppression Or the refuge against oppression. Full version lyrics I Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta; Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor; De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta Combatiendo en el campo de honor. El que ayer doblegábase esclavo Libre al fin y triunfante se ve; Libertad es la herencia del bravo, La Victoria se humilla a sus pies. Coro Dulce Patria, recibe los votos Con que Chile en tus aras juró Que o la tumba serás de los libres O el asilo contra la opresión. II Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente; Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid; Siempre noble, constante y valiente Te encontraron los hijos del Cid. Que tus libres tranquilos coronen A las artes, la industria y la paz, Y de triunfos cantares entonen Que amedrenten al déspota audaz. Coro III Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados, Que habéis sido de Chile el sostén, Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados; Los sabrán nuestros hijos también. Sean ellos el grito de muerte Que lancemos marchando a lidiar, Y sonando en la boca del fuerte Hagan siempre al tirano temblar. Coro IV Si pretende el cañón extranjero Nuestros pueblos osado invadir; Desnudemos al punto el acero Y sepamos vencer o morir. Con su sangre el altivo araucano Nos legó por herencia el valor; Y no tiembla la espada en la mano Defendiendo de Chile el honor Coro V Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado, Puras brisas te cruzan también, Y tu campo de flores bordado Es la copia feliz del Edén. Majestuosa es la blanca montaña Que te dio por baluarte el Señor, Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña Te promete futuro esplendor. Coro VI Esas galas, ¡oh, Patria!, esas flores Que tapizan tu suelo feraz, No las pisen jamás invasores; Con tu sombra las cubra la paz. Nuestros pechos serán tu baluarte, Con tu nombre sabremos vencer, O tu noble, glorioso estandarte, Nos verá combatiendo caer. Coro External links Chile National Anthem, MP3 format, vocal and instrumental Sang anthem at Chile's Presidency site (modern arrangement; non-traditional orchestration) (Wma, 2.1 MB) | National_Anthem_of_Chile |@lemmatized national:9 anthem:10 chile:13 also:2 know:2 canción:1 nacional:1 song:5 history:2 two:2 lyric:5 melody:1 make:1 three:1 different:1 version:6 current:1 compose:3 ramón:2 carnicer:3 word:1 eusebio:2 lillo:2 six:1 part:3 plus:1 chorus:4 first:3 chilean:4 date:2 back:1 government:3 call:1 july:1 creation:1 music:2 purpose:1 composer:2 manuel:1 roble:2 poet:2 bernardo:3 de:14 vera:4 pintado:2 fulfil:1 mandate:1 debut:2 august:1 domingo:1 arteaga:2 theater:3 although:1 historian:1 claim:1 play:2 sing:8 festivity:1 september:1 beginning:1 everyone:1 would:2 stand:1 higgins:1 freire:1 listen:1 respect:1 full:4 emotion:1 march:1 victory:1 tune:1 custom:1 always:1 slowly:1 disappear:1 order:1 anniversary:1 country:1 doctor:1 independence:1 author:1 verse:4 hymn:3 replace:2 today:1 second:2 spanish:3 exile:1 england:1 liberal:1 idea:1 mariano:1 egaña:1 minister:1 london:1 act:1 criticism:1 robles:1 receive:1 ask:1 new:2 original:2 text:2 musician:2 probably:1 write:1 work:1 return:1 barcelona:1 santiago:1 december:1 year:1 later:1 entrust:1 young:1 anti:1 spain:1 poem:1 analyze:1 andrés:1 bello:1 retain:1 dulce:3 patria:4 recibe:3 los:11 votos:3 military:4 augusto:1 pinochet:1 iii:3 officially:1 incorporate:1 praise:1 eliminate:1 sung:1 event:1 supporter:1 former:1 regime:1 private:1 ceremony:1 joe:1 walsh:1 famed:1 united:1 state:1 rock:1 band:1 eagle:1 angeles:1 angel:1 anaheim:1 baseball:1 game:1 official:1 often:1 correspond:1 v:2 originaltranslationpuro:1 es:6 tu:10 cielo:2 azulado:2 puras:2 brisas:2 te:12 cruzan:2 también:3 campo:3 flores:3 bordado:2 la:29 copia:2 feliz:2 del:5 edén:2 majestuosa:2 e:2 blanca:2 montaña:2 que:19 dio:3 por:4 baluarte:4 el:19 señor:3 ese:3 mar:3 tranquilo:3 baña:3 promete:3 futuro:3 esplendor:3 coro:7 con:5 en:6 tus:3 ara:2 juró:2 tumba:4 serás:4 libres:5 asilo:6 contra:6 opresión:6 pure:2 sky:1 blue:1 breeze:1 cross:1 well:1 flower:1 embroidered:1 field:1 happy:1 copy:1 eden:1 majestic:1 white:1 mountain:1 give:2 bastion:2 lord:2 sea:2 quietly:2 wash:2 shore:2 promise:2 future:2 splendor:2 sweet:1 fatherland:1 accept:1 vow:1 swore:1 altar:1 either:3 tomb:3 free:3 refuge:5 oppression:5 ha:1 cesado:1 lucha:1 sangrienta:1 ya:1 hermano:1 ayer:2 invasor:1 tres:1 siglos:1 lavamos:1 afrenta:1 combatiendo:2 honor:2 doblegábase:1 esclavo:1 libre:1 al:4 fin:1 triunfante:1 se:2 libertad:1 herencia:2 bravo:1 victoria:1 humilla:1 sus:1 pie:1 ii:1 alza:1 sin:1 mancha:1 frente:1 conquistaste:1 nombre:2 lid:1 siempre:2 noble:2 constante:1 valiente:1 encontraron:1 hijos:2 cid:1 tranquilos:1 coronen:1 artes:1 industria:1 paz:2 triunfos:1 cantares:1 entonen:1 amedrenten:1 déspota:1 audaz:1 vuestros:1 nombres:1 valientes:1 soldados:1 habéis:1 sido:1 sostén:1 nuestros:4 pechos:2 llevan:1 grabados:1 sabrán:1 sean:1 ellos:1 grito:1 muerte:1 lancemos:1 marchando:1 lidiar:1 sonando:1 boca:1 fuerte:1 hagan:1 tirano:1 temblar:1 iv:1 si:1 pretende:1 cañón:1 extranjero:1 pueblo:1 osado:1 invadir:1 desnudemos:1 punto:1 acero:1 sepamos:1 vencer:2 morir:1 su:1 sangre:1 altivo:1 araucano:1 legó:1 valor:1 tiembla:1 espada:1 mano:1 defendiendo:1 puro:1 vi:1 esas:2 gala:1 oh:1 tapizan:1 suelo:1 feraz:1 pisen:1 jamás:1 invasores:1 sombra:1 cubra:1 serán:1 sabremos:1 glorioso:1 estandarte:1 nos:1 verá:1 caer:1 external:1 link:1 format:1 vocal:1 instrumental:1 sang:1 presidency:1 site:1 modern:1 arrangement:1 non:1 traditional:1 orchestration:1 wma:1 mb:1 |@bigram augusto_pinochet:1 los_angeles:1 angel_anaheim:1 el_señor:3 el_asilo:6 asilo_contra:6 la_opresión:6 refuge_oppression:5 la_paz:2 grito_de:1 con_tu:2 external_link:1 |
135 | Beltane | Beltane or Beltaine(, origin Old Irish) is the anglicised spelling of Bealtaine () or Bealltainn (), the Gaelic names for either the month of May or the festival that takes place on the first day of May. In Irish Gaelic the month of May is known as Mí Bealtaine or Bealtaine and the festival as Lá Bealtaine ('day of Bealtaine' or, 'May Day'). In Scottish Gaelic the month is known as either (An) Cèitean or a' Mhàigh, and the festival is known as Latha Bealltainn or simply Bealltainn. The feast was also known as Céad Shamhain or Cétshamhainin from which the word Céitean derives. As an ancient Gaelic festival, Bealtaine was celebrated in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. There were similar festivals held at the same time in the other Celtic countries of Wales, Brittany and Cornwall. Bealtaine and Samhain were the leading terminal dates of the civil year in Ireland though the latter festival was the more important. The festival survives in folkloric practices in the Celtic Nations and the Irish diaspora, and has experienced a degree of revival in recent decades. Overview For the Celts, Beltane marked the beginning of the pastoral summer season when the herds of livestock were driven out to the summer pastures and mountain grazing lands. Due to the change from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar, Bealltainn in Scotland was commonly celebrated on May 15 while in Ireland Sean Bhealtain / "Old May" began about the night of May 11. The lighting of bonfires on Oidhche Bhealtaine ('the eve of Bealtaine) on mountains and hills of ritual and political significance was one of the main activities of the festival. Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs Dublin, Mercier. ISBN 1-85635-093-2 pp.86-127 Chadwick, Nora (1970) The Celts London, Penguin. ISBN 0-14-021211-6 p. 181 In modern Scottish Gaelic, Latha Buidhe Bealtuinn ('the yellow day of Bealltain') is used to describe the first day of May. This term Lá Buidhe Bealtaine is also used in Irish and is translated as 'Bright May Day'. In Ireland it is referred to in a common folk tale as Luan Lae Bealtaine; the first day of the week (Monday/Luan) is added to emphasise the first day of summer. In ancient Ireland the main Bealtaine fire was held on the central hill of Uisneach 'the navel of Ireland', one of the ritual centres of the country, which is located in what is now County Westmeath. In Ireland the lighting of bonfires on Oidhche Bhealtaine seems only to have survived to the present day in County Limerick, especially in Limerick itself, as their yearly bonfire night and in County Wicklow in Arklow, though some cultural groups have expressed an interest in reviving the custom at Uisneach and perhaps at the Hill of Tara. Aideen O'Leary reports ("An Irish Apocryphal Apostle: Muirchú's Portrayal of Saint Patrick" The Harvard Theological Review 89.3 [July 1996:287-301] p. 289) that, for didactic and dramatic purposes, the festival of Beltane, as presided over by Patrick's opponent King Lóegaire mac Néill, was moved to the eve of Easter and from Uisneach to Tara by Muirchú (late seventh century) in his Vita sancti Patricii; he describes the festival as in Temora, istorium Babylone ('at Tara, their Babylon'). However there is no authentic connection of Tara with Babylon, nor any know connection of Tara with Beltane. The lighting of a community Bealtaine fire from which individual hearth fires are then relit is also observed in modern times in some parts of the Celtic diaspora and by some Neopagan groups, though in the majority of these cases this practice is a cultural revival rather than an unbroken survival of the ancient tradition. Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs Dublin, Mercier. ISBN 1-85635-093-2 pp.86-127 MacKillop, James (1998) A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280120-1 pp.39, 400-402, 421 Dames, Michael (1992) Mythic Ireland. London, Thames & Hudson ISBN 0-500-27872-5. p.206-10 McNeill, F. Marian (1959) The Silver Bough, Vol. 2. William MacLellan, Glasgow ISBN 0-85335-162-7 p.56 Another common aspect of the festival which survived up until the early 20th century in Ireland was the hanging of May Boughs on the doors and windows of houses and the erection of May Bushes in farmyards, which usually consisted either of a branch of rowan/caorthann (mountain ash) or more commonly whitethorn/sceach geal (hawthorn) which is in bloom at the time and is commonly called the 'May Bush' or just 'May' in Hiberno-English. Furze/aiteann was also used for the May Boughs, May Bushes and as fuel for the bonfire. The practice of decorating the May Bush or Dos Bhealtaine with flowers, ribbons, garlands and colored egg shells has survived to some extent among the diaspora as well, most notably in Newfoundland, and in some Easter traditions observed on the East Coast of the United States. Bealtaine is a cross-quarter day, marking the midpoint in the Sun's progress between the spring equinox and summer solstice. Since the Celtic year was based on both lunar and solar cycles, it is possible that the holiday was celebrated on the full moon nearest the midpoint between the spring equinox and the summer solstice. The astronomical date for this midpoint is closer to May 5 or May 7, but this can vary from year to year. Dames (1992) p.214 Placenames in Ireland which contain remnants of the word 'Bealtaine' include a number of places called 'Beltany' - indicating places where Bealtaine festivities were once held. There are two Beltanys in County Donegal-- one near Raphoe and the other in the parish of Tulloghobegly. Two others are located in County Tyrone, one near Clogher and the other in the parish of Cappagh. In the parish of Kilmore, County Armagh, there is a place called Tamnaghvelton/Tamhnach Bhealtaine ('field of the Bealtaine festivities'). Lisbalting/Lios Bealtaine ('fort or enclosure of Bealtaine') is located in Kilcash Parish, County Tipperary. Glasheennabaultina ('the Bealtaine stream') is the name of a stream joining the River Galey near Athea, County Limerick. Origins In Irish mythology, the beginning of the summer season for the Tuatha Dé Danann and the Milesians started at Bealtaine. Great bonfires would mark a time of purification and transition, heralding in the season in the hope of a good harvest later in the year, and were accompanied with ritual acts to protect the people from any harm by Otherworldly spirits, such as the Aos Sí. Like the festival of Samhain, opposite Beltane on October 31 Beltane was also a time when the Otherworld was seen as particularly close at hand. Early Gaelic sources from around the 10th century state that the druids of the community would create a need-fire on top of a hill on this day and drive the village's cattle through the fires to purify them and bring luck (Eadar dà theine Bhealltainn in Scottish Gaelic, 'Between two fires of Beltane'). This term is also found in Irish and is used as a turn of phrase to describe a situation which is difficult to escape from. In Scotland, boughs of juniper were sometimes thrown on the fires to add an additional element of purification and blessing to the smoke. People would also pass between the two fires to purify themselves. This was echoed throughout history after Christianization, with lay people instead of Druid priests creating the need-fire. The festival persisted widely up until the 1950s, and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today. MacKillop, James (1998) A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280120-1 pp.39, 400-402, 421 McNeill (1959) Vol. 2. p.63 Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) The Gaelic Otherworld. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. ISBN 1-84158-207-7 p.552-4 Beltane as described in this article is a specifically Gaelic holiday. Other Celtic cultures, such as the Welsh, Bretons, and Cornish, do not celebrate Beltane, per se. However, they celebrated or celebrate festivals similar to it at the same time of year. In Wales, the day is known as Calan Mai, and the Gaulish name for the day is Belotenia. MacKillop (1998) p.39 Dwelly wrote: Etymology The word Beltane derives directly from the Old Irish Beltain, which later evolved into the Modern Irish Bealtaine (IPA: ['bʲaːlt̪ˠənʲɪ]). In Scottish Gaelic it is spelled Bealltainn. Stòr-dàta Briathrachais Gàidhlig - Rùachadh. Sabhal Mòr Ostaig — Colaiste Ghàidhlig na h-Alba Both are from Old Irish Beltene ('bright fire') from belo-te(p)niâ. Beltane was formerly spelled 'Bealtuinn' in Scottish Gaelic; in Manx it is spelt 'Boaltinn' or 'Boaldyn'. In Modern Irish, Oidhche Bealtaine or Oíche Bealtaine is May Eve, and Lá Bealtaine is May Day. Mí na Bealtaine, or simply Bealtaine is the name of the month of May In the word belo-te(p)niâ) the element belo- is cognate with the English word bale (as in 'bale-fire'), the Anglo-Saxon bael, and also the Lithuanian baltas, meaning 'white' or 'shining' and from which the Baltic Sea takes its name. In Gaelic the terminal vowel -o (from Belo) was dropped, as shown by numerous other transformations from early or Proto-Celtic to Early Irish, thus the Gaulish deity names Belenos ('bright one') and Belisama. From the same Proto-Celtic roots we get a wide range of other words: the verb beothaich, from Early Celtic belo-thaich ('to kindle, light, revive, or re-animate'); baos, from baelos ('shining'); beòlach ('ashes with hot embers') from beò/belo + luathach, ('shiny-ashes' or 'live-ashes'). Similarly boil/boile ('fiery madness'), through Irish buile and Early Irish baile/boillsg ('gleam'), and bolg-s-cio-, related to Latin fulgeo ('shine'), and English 'effulgent'. According to the Gaelic scholar Dáithí Ó hÓgáin Céad Shamhain''' or Cétshamhainin means "first half", which he links to the Gaulish word samonios (which he suggests means "half a year") as in the end of the "first half" of the year that begins at Samhain. According to Ó hÓgáin this term was also used in Scottish Gaelic and Welsh. In Ó Duinnín's Irish dictionary it is referred to as Céadamh(ain) which it explains is short for Céad-shamh(ain) meaning "first (of) summer". The dictionary also states that Dia Céadamhan is May Day and Mí Céadamhan is May Revival Beltane Fire Festival dancers, 2006 A revived Beltane Fire Festival has been held every year since 1988 during the night of 30 April on Calton Hill in Edinburgh, Scotland and attended by up to 15,000 people (except in 2003 when local council restrictions forced the organisers to hold a private event elsewhere). Neopagan Beltane is observed by Neopagans in various forms, and by a variety of names. As forms of Neopaganism can be quite different and have very different origins, these representations can vary considerably despite the shared name. Some celebrate in a manner as close as possible to how the Ancient Celts and Living Celtic cultures have maintained the traditions, while others observe the holiday with rituals taken from numerous other unrelated sources, Celtic culture being only one of the sources used. Adler, Margot (1979) Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today. Boston, Beacon Press ISBN 0-8070-3237-9. p.3 McColman, Carl (2003) Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom. Alpha Press ISBN 0-02-864417-4. p.51 Celtic Reconstructionist Like other Reconstructionist traditions, Celtic Reconstructionist Pagans place emphasis on historical accuracy. They base their celebrations and rituals on traditional lore from the living Celtic cultures, as well as research into the older beliefs of the polytheistic Celts. McColman (2003) pp.12, 51 Celtic Reconstructionists usually celebrate Lá Bealtaine when the local hawthorn trees are in bloom, or on the full moon that falls closest to this event. Many observe the traditional bonfire rites, to whatever extent this is feasible where they live, including the dousing of the household hearth flame and relighting of it from the community festival fire. Some decorate May Bushes and prepare traditional festival foods. Pilgrimages to holy wells are traditional at this time, and offerings and prayers to the spirits or deities of the wells are usually part of this practice. Crafts such as the making of equal-armed rowan crosses are common, and often part of rituals performed for the blessing and protection of the household and land. Bonewits, Isaac (2006) Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism. New York, Kensington Publishing Group ISBN 0-8065-2710-2. p.130-7 Healy, Elizabeth (2001) In Search of Ireland's Holy Wells. Dublin, Wolfhound Press ISBN 0-86327-865-5 p.27 Wicca Wiccans and Wiccan-inspired Neopagans celebrate a variation of Beltane as a sabbat, one of the eight solar holidays. Although the holiday may use features of the Gaelic Bealtaine, such as the bonfire, it bears more relation to the Germanic May Day festival, both in its significance (focusing on fertility) and its rituals (such as maypole dancing). Some Wiccans celebrate "High Beltaine" by enacting a ritual union of the May Lord and Lady. Starhawk (1979, 1989) The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. New York, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-250814-8 pp.181-196 (revised edition) Among the Wiccan sabbats, Beltane is a cross-quarter day; it is celebrated in the northern hemisphere on May 1 and in the southern hemisphere on November 1. Beltane follows Ostara and precedes Midsummer. See also Calendars Celtic calendar Coligny calendar Irish calendar Wheel of the year Holidays Lughnasadh Samhain Imbolc Other Beltane Fire Festival Walpurgis Night References Further reading Carmichael, Alexander (1992). Carmina Gadelica. Lindisfarne Press. ISBN 0-940262-50-9 Chadwick, Nora (1970) The Celts. London, Penguin ISBN 0-14-021211-6 Danaher, Kevin (1972) The Year in Ireland. Dublin, Mercier ISBN 1-85635-093-2 Evans-Wentz, W. Y. (1966, 1990) The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries. New York, Citadel ISBN 0-8065-1160-5 MacKillop, James (1998). Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-280120-1 McNeill, F. Marian (1959) The Silver Bough'', Vol. 1-4. William MacLellan, Glasgow External links Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Society Extract on The Beltane Fires from Sir James George Frazer's book The Golden Bough - 1922 | Beltane |@lemmatized beltane:21 beltaine:2 origin:3 old:5 irish:18 anglicised:1 spelling:1 bealtaine:28 bealltainn:5 gaelic:15 name:8 either:3 month:4 may:28 festival:20 take:3 place:6 first:7 day:17 know:6 mí:3 lá:4 scottish:6 cèitean:1 mhàigh:1 latha:2 simply:2 feast:1 also:11 céad:3 shamhain:2 cétshamhainin:2 word:7 céitean:1 derive:1 ancient:5 celebrate:11 ireland:14 scotland:4 isle:1 man:1 similar:2 hold:5 time:7 celtic:20 country:3 wale:2 brittany:1 cornwall:1 samhain:4 lead:1 terminal:2 date:2 civil:1 year:13 though:3 latter:1 important:1 survives:1 folkloric:1 practice:4 nation:1 diaspora:3 experience:1 degree:1 revival:3 recent:1 decade:1 overview:1 celt:4 mark:3 beginning:2 pastoral:1 summer:7 season:3 herd:1 livestock:1 drive:2 pasture:1 mountain:3 grazing:1 land:2 due:1 change:1 julian:1 calendar:8 gregorian:1 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136 | Molecular_orbital | In chemistry, a molecular orbital (or MO) is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in a molecule. This function can be used to calculate chemical and physical properties such as the probability of finding an electron in any specific region. The use of the term "orbital" was first used in English by Robert S. Mulliken in 1925 as the English translation of Schrödinger's use of the German word, 'Eigenfunktion'. It has since been equated with the "region" generated with the function. Molecular orbitals are usually constructed by combining atomic orbitals or hybrid orbitals from each atom of the molecule, or other molecular orbitals from groups of atoms. They can be quantitatively calculated using the Hartree-Fock or Self-Consistent Field method. H2 1sσ bonding molecular orbital Complete acetylene (H–C≡C–H) molecular orbital set Overview A molecular orbital (MO) can be used to specify the electron configuration of a molecule: the spatial distribution and energy of one (or one pair of) electron(s). Most commonly an MO is represented as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (the LCAO-MO method), especially in qualitative or very approximate usage. They are invaluable in providing a simple model of bonding in molecules, understood through molecular orbital theory. Most methods in computational chemistry today start by calculating the MOs of the system. A molecular orbital describes the behavior of one electron in the electric field generated by the nuclei and some average distribution of the other electrons. In the case of two electrons occupying the same orbital, the Pauli principle demands that they have opposite spin. Necessarily this is an approximation, and highly accurate descriptions of the molecular electronic wave function do not have orbitals (see configuration interaction). Qualitative discussion For an imprecise, but qualitatively useful, discussion of the molecular structure, the molecular orbitals can be obtained from the "Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method" ansatz. In this approach, the molecular orbitals are expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals. Molecular orbitals were first introduced by Friedrich Hund F. Hund, "Zur Deutung einiger Erscheinungen in den Molekelspektren" [On the interpretation of some phenomena in molecular spectra] Zeitschrift für Physik, vol. 36, pages 657-674 (1926). F. Hund, "Zur Deutung der Molekelspektren," Zeitschrift für Physik, Part I, vol. 40, pages 742-764 (1927); Part II, vol. 42, pages 93-120 (1927); Part III, vol. 43, pages 805-826 (1927); Part IV, vol. 51, pages 759-795 (1928); Part V, vol. 63, pages 719-751 (1930). and Robert S. Mulliken R.S. Mulliken, "Electronic states. IV. Hund's theory; second positive nitrogen and Swan bands; alternate intensities," Physical Review, vol. 29, pages 637 - 649 (1927). R.S. Mulliken, "The assignment of quantum numbers for electrons in molecules," Physical Review, vol. 32, pages 186 - 222 (1928). in 1927 and 1928. Friedrich Hund and Chemistry, Werner Kutzelnigg, on the occasion of Hund's 100th birthday, Angewandte Chemie, 35, 573 - 586, (1996) Robert S. Mulliken's Nobel Lecture, Science, 157, no. 3785, 13 - 24, (1967). Available on-line at: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1966/mulliken-lecture.pdf . The linear combination of atomic orbitals approximation for molecular orbitals was introduced in 1929 by Sir John Lennard-Jones. J. E. Lennard-Jones, "The electronic structure of some diatomic molecules," Transactions of the Faraday Society, vol. 25, pages 668-686 (1929). . His ground-breaking paper showed how to derive the electronic structure of the fluorine and oxygen molecules from quantum principles. This qualitative approach to molecular orbital theory is part of the start of modern quantum chemistry. Some properties: The number of molecular orbitals is equal to the number the atomic orbitals included in the linear expansion, If the molecule has some symmetry, the degenerate atomic orbitals (with the same atomic energy) are grouped in linear combinations (called symmetry adapted atomic orbitals (SO)) which belong to the representation of the symmetry group, so the wave functions that describe the group are known as symmetry-adapted linear combinations (SALC). The number of molecular orbitals belonging to one group representation is equal to the number of symmetry adapted atomic orbitals belonging to this representation, Within a particular representation, the symmetry adapted atomic orbitals mix more if their atomic energy level are closer. Examples H2 H2 1sσ* antibonding molecular orbital As a simple example consider the hydrogen molecule, H2 (see molecular orbital diagram), with the two atoms labelled H' and H". The lowest-energy atomic orbitals, 1s' and 1s", do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule. However, the following symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do: 1s' - 1s"Antisymmetric combination: negated by reflection, unchanged by other operations1s' + 1s"Symmetric combination: unchanged by all symmetry operations The symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher. Because the H2 molecule has two electrons, they can both go in the bonding orbital, making the system lower in energy (and hence more stable) than two free hydrogen atoms. This is called a covalent bond. The bond order is equal to the number of bonding electrons minus the number of antibonding electrons, divided by 2. In this example there are 2 electrons in the bonding orbital and none in the antibonding orbital; the bond order is 1, and there is a single bond between the two hydrogen atoms. He2 On the other hand, consider the hypothetical molecule of He2 (see molecular orbital diagram) with the atoms labelled He' and He". Again, the lowest-energy atomic orbitals, 1s' and 1s", do not transform according to the symmetries of the molecule, while the following symmetry adapted atomic orbitals do: 1s' - 1s"Antisymmetric combination: negated by reflection, unchanged by other operations 1s' + 1s" Symmetric combination: unchanged by all symmetry operations Similar to the molecule H2, the symmetric combination (called a bonding orbital) is lower in energy than the basis orbitals, and the antisymmetric combination (called an antibonding orbital) is higher. However, in its neutral ground state, each Helium atom contains two electrons in its 1s orbital, combining for a total of four electrons. Two electrons fill the lower energy bonding orbital, while the remaining two fill the higher energy antibonding orbital. Thus, the resulting electron density around the molecule does not support the formation of a bond between the two atoms (called a sigma bond), and the molecule does therefore not exist. Another way of looking at it is that there are two bonding electrons and two antibonding electrons; therefore, the bond order is 0 and no bond exists. Noble gases Considering a hypothetical molecule of He2, since the basis set of atomic orbitals is the same as in the case of H2, we find that both the bonding and antibonding orbitals are filled, so there is no energy advantage to the pair. HeH would have a slight energy advantage, but not as much as H2 + 2 He, so the molecule exists only a short while. In general, we find that atoms such as He that have completely full energy shells rarely bond with other atoms. Except for short-lived Van der Waals complexes, there are very few noble gas compounds known. Ionic bonds When the energy difference between the atomic orbitals of two atoms is quite large, one atom's orbitals contribute almost entirely to the bonding orbitals, and the other's almost entirely to the antibonding orbitals. Thus, the situation is effectively that some electrons have been transferred from one atom to the other. This is called an (mostly) ionic bond. MO diagrams For more complicated molecules, the wave mechanics approach loses utility in a qualitative understanding of bonding (although is still necessary for a quantitative approach). The qualitative approach of MO uses a molecular orbital diagram. In this type of diagram, the molecular orbitals are represented by horizontal lines; the higher a line, the higher the energy of the orbital, and degenerate orbitals are placed on the same level with a space between them. Then, the electrons to be placed in the molecular orbitals are slotted in one by one, keeping in mind the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity (only 2 electrons, having opposite spins, per orbital; have as many unpaired electrons on one energy level as possible before starting to pair them). HOMO and LUMO The highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital are often referred to as the HOMO and LUMO, respectively. The difference of the energies of the HOMO and LUMO, termed the band gap, can sometimes serve as a measure of the excitability of the molecule: the smaller the energy, the more easily it will be excited. More quantitative approach To obtain quantitative values for the molecular energy levels, one needs to have molecular orbitals which are such that the configuration interaction (CI) expansion converges fast towards the full CI limit. The most common method to obtain such functions is the Hartree-Fock method which expresses the molecular orbitals as eigenfunctions of the Fock operator. One usually solves this problem by expanding the molecular orbitals as linear combinations of gaussian functions centered on the atomic nuclei (see linear combination of atomic orbitals and basis set (chemistry)). The equation for the coefficients of these linear combinations is a generalized eigenvalue equation known as the Roothaan equations which are in fact a particular representation of the Hartree-Fock equation. Simple accounts often suggest that experimental molecular orbital energies can be obtained by the methods of ultra-violet photoelectron spectroscopy for valence orbitals and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy for core orbitals. This however is incorrect as these experiments measure the ionization energy, the difference in energy between the molecule and one of the ions resulting from the removal of one electron. Ionization energies are linked approximately to orbital energies by Koopmans' theorem. While the agreement between these two values can be close for some molecules, it can be very poor in other cases. References External links UC Berkeley video lecture on molecular orbitals Visualizations of some atomic and molecular orbitals (Note: These visualisations run only on Apple Mac.) Java molecular orbital viewer shows orbitals of hydrogen molecular ion. The orbitron, a visualization of all atomic, and some molecular and hybrid orbitals xeo Visualizations of some atomic and molecular atoms Simulations of molecules with electrons caught in molecular orbital (Simulations run on PC only.) | Molecular_orbital |@lemmatized chemistry:6 molecular:39 orbital:32 mo:7 mathematical:1 function:7 describe:3 wave:4 like:1 behavior:2 electron:24 molecule:23 use:6 calculate:3 chemical:1 physical:3 property:2 probability:1 find:3 specific:1 region:2 term:2 first:2 english:2 robert:3 mulliken:6 translation:1 schrödinger:1 german:1 word:1 eigenfunktion:1 since:2 equate:1 generate:2 orbitals:45 usually:2 construct:1 combine:2 atomic:23 hybrid:2 atom:14 group:5 quantitatively:1 hartree:3 fock:4 self:1 consistent:1 field:2 method:7 bond:17 complete:1 acetylene:1 h:4 c:2 set:3 overview:1 specify:1 configuration:3 spatial:1 distribution:2 energy:24 one:13 pair:3 commonly:1 represent:2 linear:10 combination:17 lcao:1 especially:1 qualitative:5 approximate:1 usage:1 invaluable:1 provide:1 simple:3 model:1 understood:1 theory:3 computational:1 today:1 start:3 system:2 electric:1 nucleus:2 average:1 case:3 two:13 occupy:1 pauli:2 principle:3 demand:1 opposite:2 spin:2 necessarily:1 approximation:2 highly:1 accurate:1 description:1 electronic:4 see:4 interaction:2 discussion:2 imprecise:1 qualitatively:1 useful:1 structure:3 obtain:4 ansatz:1 approach:6 express:2 introduce:2 friedrich:2 hund:7 f:2 zur:2 deutung:2 einiger:1 erscheinungen:1 den:1 molekelspektren:2 interpretation:1 phenomenon:1 spectrum:1 zeitschrift:2 für:2 physik:2 vol:9 page:9 der:2 part:6 ii:1 iii:1 iv:2 v:1 r:2 state:2 second:1 positive:1 nitrogen:1 swan:1 band:2 alternate:1 intensity:1 review:2 assignment:1 quantum:3 number:7 werner:1 kutzelnigg:1 occasion:1 birthday:1 angewandte:1 chemie:1 nobel:1 lecture:3 science:1 available:1 line:3 http:1 nobelprize:1 org:1 laureates:1 pdf:1 sir:1 john:1 lennard:2 jones:2 j:1 e:1 diatomic:1 transaction:1 faraday:1 society:1 ground:2 break:1 paper:1 show:2 derive:1 fluorine:1 oxygen:1 modern:1 equal:3 include:1 expansion:2 symmetry:12 degenerate:2 call:8 adapt:6 belong:3 representation:5 know:3 salc:1 within:1 particular:2 mix:1 level:4 closer:1 example:3 antibonding:9 consider:3 hydrogen:4 diagram:5 label:2 low:6 transform:2 accord:2 however:3 following:2 antisymmetric:4 negate:2 reflection:2 unchanged:4 symmetric:4 operation:3 bonding:6 basis:4 high:6 go:1 make:1 lower:1 hence:1 stable:1 free:1 covalent:1 order:3 minus:1 divide:1 none:1 single:1 hand:1 hypothetical:2 similar:1 neutral:1 helium:1 contain:1 total:1 four:1 fill:3 remain:1 thus:2 result:2 density:1 around:1 support:1 formation:1 sigma:1 therefore:2 exist:3 another:1 way:1 look:1 noble:2 gas:2 advantage:2 heh:1 would:1 slight:1 much:1 short:2 general:1 completely:1 full:2 shell:1 rarely:1 except:1 live:1 van:1 waals:1 complexes:1 compound:1 ionic:2 difference:3 quite:1 large:1 contribute:1 almost:2 entirely:2 situation:1 effectively:1 transfer:1 mostly:1 complicated:1 mechanic:1 lose:1 utility:1 understanding:1 although:1 still:1 necessary:1 quantitative:3 us:1 type:1 horizontal:1 place:2 space:1 slot:1 keep:1 mind:1 exclusion:1 rule:1 maximum:1 multiplicity:1 per:1 many:1 unpaired:1 possible:1 homo:3 lumo:3 occupied:1 unoccupied:1 often:2 refer:1 respectively:1 gap:1 sometimes:1 serve:1 measure:2 excitability:1 small:1 easily:1 excite:1 value:2 need:1 ci:2 converges:1 fast:1 towards:1 limit:1 common:1 eigenfunctions:1 operator:1 solve:1 problem:1 expand:1 gaussian:1 center:1 equation:4 coefficient:1 generalized:1 eigenvalue:1 roothaan:1 fact:1 account:1 suggest:1 experimental:1 ultra:1 violet:1 photoelectron:2 spectroscopy:2 valence:1 x:1 ray:1 core:1 incorrect:1 experiment:1 ionization:2 ion:2 removal:1 link:2 approximately:1 koopmans:1 theorem:1 agreement:1 close:1 poor:1 reference:1 external:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 video:1 visualization:3 note:1 visualisation:1 run:2 apple:1 mac:1 java:1 viewer:1 orbitron:1 xeo:1 simulation:2 catch:1 pc:1 |@bigram molecular_orbital:17 molecular_orbitals:15 atomic_orbitals:17 hartree_fock:3 computational_chemistry:1 zeitschrift_für:2 für_physik:2 physik_vol:1 nobelprize_org:1 lennard_jones:2 diatomic_molecule:1 fluorine_oxygen:1 bonding_orbital:4 antibonding_orbital:4 hydrogen_atom:2 covalent_bond:1 van_der:1 der_waals:1 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 unpaired_electron:1 atomic_nucleus:1 ultra_violet:1 photoelectron_spectroscopy:2 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 |
137 | Prince_Harry | Prince Henry of Wales (Henry Charles Albert David; born 15 September 1984), commonly known as Prince Harry, is the younger son of Charles, Prince of Wales, and the late Diana, Princess of Wales, and grandson of Queen Elizabeth II. As such, he is third in the line of succession to the thrones of 16 independent states, though he is resident in and most directly involved with the United Kingdom, the oldest realm. After an education at various schools around the United Kingdom and spending parts of his gap year in Australia and Lesotho, Henry, unlike his elder brother, Prince William, eschewed a university education in favour of following in the footsteps of various royal men by enrolling in the military. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Blues and Royals of the Household Cavalry Regiment serving temporarily with his brother and completed his training as a tank commander. He served for 77 days on the front line in the Afghan War, although he was pulled out after the American media revealed his presence. Early life Henry was born at St Mary's Hospital in London, England, on 15 September 1984, the second child of Prince Charles, Prince of Wales, and Diana, Princess of Wales, younger brother of Prince William, and fourth grandchild of Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Baptised at St George's Chapel, in Windsor Castle, by then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, Henry's godparents were his uncle, Prince Andrew, Duke of York; his second cousin, Lady Sarah Armstrong-Jones; Lady Vestey; Mrs William Bartholomew; Bryan Organ; and Gerald Ward. Diana wanted William and Henry to have a broader range of experiences than previous royal children and took both to venues that ranged from Disneyland and McDonald's to AIDS clinics and shelters for the homeless. Diana, Princess of Wales, who was by then divorced from the Prince of Wales, died in a car accident in 1997. Henry and his brother and father were staying at Balmoral Castle at the time, and the Prince of Wales waited until early the following morning to tell his sons about their mother's death. At his mother's funeral, Henry accompanied his father, brother, paternal grandfather, and maternal uncle in walking behind the funeral cortège from Kensington Palace to Westminster Abbey. Education Continuing on his father's precedent, Henry was educated at independent schools, starting at Jane Mynors' nursery school and the pre-preparatory Wetherby School, both in London. Following this, he attended Ludgrove School, and, after passing the entrance exams, was admitted to Eton College, where he studied geography, biology, mathematics, and art history at A-Level. The decision to place Henry in Eton went against the family tradition of sending royal children to Gordonstoun (Henry's grandfather, father, two uncles, and two cousins all attended); it did, however, make the Prince follow in the Spencer family footsteps, as both Diana's father and brother had attended Eton. In June 2003, he completed his education at Eton with two A-Levels, obtaining a B in art, and a D in geography. He excelled in sports, however, developing his love for sports, particularly polo and rugby union. After graduation, the Prince took a gap year, during which he spent time in Australia, working (as his father had done in his youth) on a cattle station and participating in the Young England vs Young Australia Polo Test Match. He also travelled to Lesotho, where he worked with orphaned children and produced the documentary film The Forgotten Kingdom, and holidayed in Argentina. Royal duties and career Prince Henry began to accompany his parents on official visits at an early age; his first overseas royal tour was with his parents to Italy in 1985. The earlier decision made by the Princess of Wales to take an infant William to Australia set the precedent for young royal children going on official visits. Henry then accompanied either both parents or his father on subsequent tours, though he did not begin solo official engagements until after his military training and active service; in 2008, he began to undertake royal visits to schools and organisations in Wales. Military career Prince Henry entered the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst on 8 May 2005, where he was known as Officer Cadet Wales, and joined the Alamein Company. Within a year, in April 2006, Henry completed his officer's training and was commissioned as a Cornet in the Blues and Royals, a regiment of the Household Cavalry in the British Army. By April 2008, whereupon he reached two years' seniority, Henry was promoted to the rank of lieutenant. The British Ministry of Defence and Clarence House made a joint announcement on 22 February 2007 that Prince Henry would be deployed with his regiment to the front line in Iraq, to serve as part of the 1st Mechanised Brigade of the 3rd Mechanised Divisiona move supported by Henry, who had stated that he would leave the army if he was told to remain in safety while his regiment went to war; he said: "There's no way I'm going to put myself through Sandhurst and then sit on my arse back home while my boys are out fighting for their country." Then head of the British army, General Sir Richard Dannatt, first said on 30 April 2007 that he had personally decided that the Prince would serve with his unit in Iraq , and Henry was scheduled for deployment in May or June 2007, to patrol the Maysan province. By 16 May, however, Dannatt announced that Prince Henry would not serve in Iraq; concerns included Henry being a high-value target (as several threats by various groups have already been made against him) and the dangers the soldiers around him would face should any attempt be made on the Prince's life or capture. Clarence House made public the Prince's disappointment with the decision, though he said he would abide by it. In May 2007, British soldiers in Iraq were reported to be wearing t-shirts bearing the statement "I'm Harry!"; a reference to the scene in the movie Spartacus in which the survivors of Spartacus's army, defeated by Roman legions, are offered leniency by Crassus if they will identify their leader. Every survivor declares: "I'm Spartacus!" It was reported in early June 2007 that Prince Henry had arrived in Canada to train, alongside other soldiers of the Canadian Forces and British Army, at CFB Suffield near Medicine Hat, Alberta. It was said that this was in preparation for a tour of duty in Afghanistan, where Canadian and British forces were participating in the NATO led Afghan War; rumours that were confirmed in February the following year, when the British Ministry of Defence revealed that Henry had secretly been deployed as a Forward Air Controller to Helmand Province in the Asian country. The revelation came after the medianotably, the German newspaper Bild and Australian magazine New Idea breached the blackout placed over the information by the Canadian and British authorities. It was later reported that, while in Afghanistan, Henry had called in United States Air Force air strikes, helped Gurkha troops repel an attack from Taliban insurgents, and performed patrol duty in hostile areas. His tour came 735 years after his ancestor, Edward I of England (then Prince Edward), had also been on military duty in the Middle East during the Ninth crusade, and also made Henry the first member of the Royal Family to have served in a war zone since his uncle, Prince Andrew, Duke of York, flew helicopters during the Falklands War; at the time, Andrew was second in line to the thrones of the Commonwealth realms. For his service, Prince Henry was decorated with the Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan by his aunt, the Princess Royal, at the Combermere Barracks in May 2008. In October 2008, the news was revealed that Prince Henry was to follow his brother, father, and uncle with the wish to fly military helicopters. After passing the initial aptitude test, he will undertake a month-long course; depending on whether or not he passes this course he may proceed onto full flight training in early 2009. Henry will need to pass his flying assessment at the Army Air Corps Base in Middle Wallop, the result of which will determine if he will pass on to train as a pilot of either the Apache, Lynx, or Gazelle helicopter, as his brother, father and uncle are capable of doing. Royal duties At the age of 23, Prince Henry was appointed as a Counsellor of State, and began his royal duties by first serving in that capacity when the Queen was abroad to attend the 2005 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Malta. The following year, Henry was in Lesotho to visit again Mants'ase Children's Home near Mohale's Hoek (which he first toured in 2004), and along with Prince Seeiso of Lesotho launched Sentebale: The Princes' Fund for Lesotho, a charity to aid children orphaned by HIV/AIDS. He has also granted his patronage to a number of other organisations, including WellChild, Dolen Cymru, and MapAction. To aid Sentebale, as well as the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Centrepoint, Henry and his brother organised the Concert for Diana at Wembley Stadium, on 1 July 2007. Sports have also been a way that the Prince has helped charities and other organisations, such as when he trained as a Rugby Development Officer for the Rugby Football Union in 2004 and then coached students in schools in order to encourage them to learn the sport. He has also participated in polo matches, like his brother and father, in order to raise money for charitable causes. On 6 January 2009, Henry and his brother, Prince William, were granted their own royal household from their grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II. The household the two princes will share will have three main staff members, supported by a "small" team. Sir David Manning, the former British ambassador to Washington, will work as a part-time adviser to the princes. Previously, William and Henry's affairs had been handled by the office of their father at Clarence House in central London. The brothers' new household released a statement complete with their own cyphers at the top announcing that they have established their own office at nearby St. James's Palace to look after their public, military, and charitable activities. Henry's cypher is similar to his brother's, but displays an H in a shade of blue similar to that used by his mother. Personal life and relationships Prince Henry has spent much of his free time in sporting activities, playing competitive polo, as well as skiing (at Klosters, Switzerland, and Whistler, British Columbia), and motocross. Henry also earned a reputation in his youth for being rebellious, leading the tabloid press to label him as a "wild child". He was found at age 17 smoking cannabis and partaking in under-age drinking with his friends, would clash physically with paparazzi outside of nightclubs, and was photographed at a "Colonial and Native" themed costume party wearing a German Afrika Korps uniform. He later issued a public statement apologising for his actions. In January 2009, the British tabloid News of the World revealed a video made by Henry three years previously, in which he referred to a Pakistani fellow officer cadet as "our little Paki friend," and later called a soldier wearing a cloth on his head a "raghead". These terms, were described by David Cameron as "unacceptable", Prince Harry's 'Paki' comments 'completely unacceptable', says David Cameron The Daily Telegraph, 11 January 2009 and by The Daily Telegraph as "racist", and a British Muslim youth organisation called the Prince a "thug", Prince's racist term sparks anger BBC News, 11 January 2009 a statement that was later retracted. Clarence House immediately issued an apology from Henry, who stated that no malice was intended in his remarks. While the cadet's father refused to accept Henry's apology, Soldier's father hits out at prince Press Association, 12 January 2009 a former British MP and Royal Marine, Rod Richards, said that such nicknames were common amongst military comrades, stating "in the Armed Forces people often used to call me Taffy. Others were called Yankie, Oz or Kiwi or whatever. I consider Paki as an abbreviation for Pakistani. I don't think on this occasion it was intended to be offensive." It later emerged that Prince Henry had personally apologised to the soldier. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/royals/article2142628.ece Henry's personal relationships have not been followed as much as those of his brother; the most media attention has been focused on his relationship with Chelsy Davy. In an interview conducted for his 21st birthday, Henry referred to Davy as his girlfriend, and the press reported at that time that the couple had been together for 18 months, contradicting earlier reports that they were no longer together. Henry and Davy were also seen together publicly at the Concert for Diana, though in 2009 it was again reported in the media that the pair had parted ways. Titles, styles, honours, and arms Titles and styles 15 September 1984: His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales The Prince's style and title in full: His Royal Highness Prince Henry Charles Albert David of Wales. As a British prince, Henry holds no surname; however, as with the other male-line grandchildren of Elizabeth II, he uses the name of the area over which his father holds title, i.e. Wales (as Princess Beatrice and Princess Eugenie use York, per their father, Prince Andrew, Duke of York). Past precedent is that such surnames are dropped from usage in adulthood, after which either title alone, or Mountbatten-Windsor is used when necessary. Should his father succeed to the throne he will be known as His Royal Highness The Prince Henry. Military ranks 13 April 2006 13 April 2008: Cornet (Second Lieutenant), The Blues and Royals 13 April 2008: Lieutenant, The Blues and Royals Honours Medals 6 February 2002: Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal 5 May 2008: Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan Honorary military appointments United Kingdom 3 October 2008: Honorary Air Commodore of RAF Wittering 3 October 2008: Honorary Air Commandant of RAF Honington 8 August 2006: Commodore-in-Chief of Small Ships and Diving Arms Ancestry </center> Through his maternal grandfather, Prince Henry is descended from King Henry IV, King Charles II and King James II and VII. Through his mother, Henry is of English descent and of remote Irish, Scottish, American and Armenian descent. Prince Henry is descended from all kings and queens of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom with surviving offspring from William I onwards except for these four: King Henry V, King Henry VIII (their lines are both extinct), King George IV, and King William IV (Neither of whom had any surviving legitimate children.). genealogics.org: Prince Henry of Wales, Prince of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Retrieved on 2008-11-26. He is also descended from many of the pre-Union monarchs of Scotland and the pre-Conquest monarchs of England. See also British prince British Royal Family Canadian Royal Family Line of succession to the British Throne Genealogy of the British Royal Family Notes References External links Prince Henry's eulogy to Princess Diana delivered on 31 August 2007 Prince Henry's interview with NBC's Matt Lauer Royal.gov.uk - Prince Henry Personal Profile - Prince Henry - From Prince of Wales official Site Illustrated biography of Prince Henry Prince Harry Not Going to Iraq on Time.com (a division of Time Magazine) Titles and Succession | Prince_Harry |@lemmatized prince:56 henry:59 wale:17 charles:5 albert:2 david:5 born:1 september:3 commonly:1 know:3 harry:4 young:5 son:2 late:1 diana:9 princess:9 grandson:1 queen:6 elizabeth:5 ii:7 third:1 line:7 succession:3 throne:4 independent:2 state:6 though:4 resident:1 directly:1 involve:1 united:4 kingdom:5 old:1 realm:2 education:4 various:3 school:7 around:2 spending:1 part:4 gap:2 year:8 australia:4 lesotho:5 unlike:1 elder:1 brother:14 william:9 eschew:1 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138 | Finance | The field of finance refers to the concepts of time, money and risk and how they are interrelated. Banks are the main facilitators of funding through the provision of credit, although private equity, mutual funds, hedge funds, and other organizations have become important. Financial assets, known as investments, are financially managed with careful attention to financial risk management to control financial risk. Financial instruments allow many forms of securitized assets to be traded on securities exchanges such as stock exchanges, including debt such as bonds as well as equity in publicly-traded corporations. The main techniques and sectors of the financial industry An entity whose income exceeds their expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference. A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays the interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity. Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space. A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company. If you buy one share of XYZ Inc, and they have 100 shares outstanding (held by investors), you are 1/100 owner of that company. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business; this process is known as "equity financing". Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure. Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by businesses (corporate finance), as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their institutional setting. Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management. Without proper financial planning a new enterprise is unlikely to be successful. Managing money (a liquid asset) is essential to ensure a secure future, both for the individual and an organization. Personal finance Questions in personal finance revolve around How much money will be needed by an individual (or by a family), and when? Where will this money come from, and how? How can people protect themselves against unforeseen personal events, as well as those in the external economy? How can family assets best be transferred across generations (bequests and inheritance)? How does tax policy (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial decisions? How does credit affect an individual's financial standing? How can one plan for a secure financial future in an environment of economic instability? Personal financial decisions may involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as real estate and cars, buying insurance, e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for retirement. Personal financial decisions may also involve paying for a loan, or debt obligations. Corporate finance Managerial or corporate finance is the task of providing the funds for a corporation's activities. For small business, this is referred to as SME finance. It generally involves balancing risk and profitability, while attempting to maximize an entity's wealth and the value of its stock. Long term funds are provided by ownership equity and long-term credit, often in the form of bonds. The balance between these forms the company's capital structure. Short-term funding or working capital is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit. Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or fund management. An investment is an acquisition of an asset in the hope that it will maintain or increase its value. In investment management in choosing a portfolio one has to decide what, how much and when to invest. To do this, a company must: Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual goals, time horizon, risk aversion and tax considerations; Identify the appropriate strategy: active v. passive hedging strategy Measure the portfolio performance Financial management is duplicate with the financial function of the Accounting profession. However, financial accounting is more concerned with the reporting of historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future of the firm. Capital Capital, in the financial sense, is the money that gives the business the power to buy goods to be used in the production of other goods or the offering of a service. The desirability of budgeting Budget is a document which documents the plan of the business. This may include the objective of business, targets set, and results in financial terms, e.g., the target set for sale, resulting cost, growth, required investment to achieve the planned sales, and financing source for the investment. Also budget may be long term or short term. Long term budgets have a time horizon of 5–10 years giving a vision to the company; short term is an annual budget which is drawn to control and operate in that particular year. Capital budget This concerns proposed fixed asset requirements and how these expenditures will be financed. Capital budgets are often adjusted annually and should be part of a longer-term Capital Improvements Plan. Cash budget Working capital requirements of a business should be monitored at all times to ensure that there are sufficient funds available to meet short-term expenses. The cash budget is basically a detailed plan that shows all expected sources and uses of cash. The cash budget has the following six main sections: Beginning Cash Balance - contains the last period's closing cash balance. Cash collections - includes all expected cash receipts (all sources of cash for the period considered, mainly sales) Cash disbursements - lists all planned cash outflows for the period, excluding interest payments on short-term loans, which appear in the financing section. All expenses that do not affect cash flow are excluded from this list (e.g. depreciation, amortisation, etc) Cash excess or deficiency - a function of the cash needs and cash available. Cash needs are determined by the total cash disbursements plus the minimum cash balance required by company policy. If total cash available is less than cash needs, a deficiency exists. Financing - discloses the planned borrowings and repayments, including interest. Ending Cash balance - simply reveals the planned ending cash balance. Management of current assets Credit policy Credit gives the customer the opportunity to buy goods and services, and pay for them at a later date. Advantages of credit trade Usually results in more customers than cash trade. Can charge more for goods to cover the risk of bad debt. Gain goodwill and loyalty of customers. People can buy goods and pay for them at a later date. Farmers can buy seeds and implements, and pay for them only after the harvest. Stimulates agricultural and industrial production and commerce. Can be used as a promotional tool. Increase the sales. Modest rates to be filled. Disadvantages of credit trade Risk of bad debt. High administration expenses. People can buy more than they can afford. More working capital needed. Risk of Bankruptcy. Forms of credit Suppliers credit: Credit on ordinary open account Installment sales Bills of exchange Credit cards Contractor's credit Factoring of debtors Cash credit Cpf credits Factors which influence credit conditions Nature of the business's activities Financial position Product durability Length of production process Competition and competitors' credit conditions Country's economic position Conditions at financial institutions Discount for early payment Debtor's type of business and financial positions Credit collection Overdue accounts Attach a notice of overdue account to statement. Send a letter asking for settlement of debt. Send a second or third letter if first is ineffectual. Threaten legal action. Effective credit control Increases sales Reduces bad debts Increases profits Builds customer loyalty Builds confidence of financial industry increase company capitlisation Sources of information on creditworthiness Business references Bank references credit agencies Chambers of commerce Employers Credit application forms Duties of the credit department Legal action Taking necessary steps to ensure settlement of account Knowing the credit policy and procedures for credit control Setting credit limits Ensuring that statements of account are sent out Ensuring that thorough checks are carried out on credit customers Keeping records of all amounts owing Ensuring that debts are settled promptly Timely reporting to the upper level of management for better management. Stock Purpose of stock control Ensures that enough stock is on hand to satisfy demand. Protects and monitors theft. Safeguards against having to stockpile. Allows for control over selling and cost price. Stockpiling This refers to the purchase of stock at the right time, at the right price and in the right quantities. There are several advantages to the stockpiling, the following are some of the examples: Losses due to price fluctuations and stock loss kept to a minimum Ensures that goods reach customers timeously; better service Saves space and storage cost Investment of working capital kept to minimum No loss in production due to delays There are several disadvantages to the stockpiling, the following are some of the examples: Obsolescence Danger of fire and theft Initial working capital investment is very large Losses due to price fluctuation Rate of stock turnover This refers to the number of times per year that the average level of stock is sold. It may be worked out by dividing the cost price of goods sold by the cost price of the average stock level. Determining optimum stock levels Maximum stock level refers to the maximum stock level that may be maintained to ensure cost effectiveness. Minimum stock level refers to the point below which the stock level may not go. Standard order refers to the amount of stock generally ordered. Order level refers to the stock level which calls for an order to be made. Cash Reasons for keeping cash Cash is usually referred to as the "king" in finance, as it is the most liquid asset. The transaction motive refers to the money kept available to pay expenses. The precautionary motive refers to the money kept aside for unforeseen expenses. The speculative motive refers to the money kept aside to take advantage of suddenly arising opportunities. Advantages of sufficient cash Current liabilties may be catered for. Cash discounts are given for cash payments. Production is kept moving Surplus cash may be invested on a short-term basis. The business is able to pay its accounts timeously, allowing for easily-obtained credit. Liquidity Management of fixed assets Depreciation Depreciation is the decrease in the value of an asset due to wear and tear or obsolescence. It is calculated yearly to enforce the matching principle. Insurance Insurance is the undertaking of one party to indemnify another, in exchange for a premium, against a certain eventuality. Uninsured risks Bad debt Changes in fashion Time lapses between ordering and delivery New machinery or technology Different prices at different places Requirements of an insurance contract Insurable interest The insured must derive a real financial gain from that which he is insuring, or stand to lose if it is destroyed or lost. The item must belong to the insured. One person may take out insurance on the life of another if the second party owes the first money. Must be some person or item which can, legally, be insured. The insured must have a legal claim to that which he is insuring. Good faith Uberrimae fidei refers to absolute honesty and must characterise the dealings of both the insurer and the insured. Shared Services There is currently a move towards converging and consolidating Finance provisions into shared services within an organization. Rather than an organization having a number of separate Finance departments performing the same tasks from different locations a more centralized version can be created. Finance of states Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called public finance. It is concerned with Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity Source(s) of that entity's revenue The budgeting process Debt issuance (municipal bonds) for public works projects Financial economics Financial economics is the branch of economics studying the interrelation of financial variables, such as prices, interest rates and shares, as opposed to those concerning the real economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of real economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance. It studies: Valuation - Determination of the fair value of an asset How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount rate) What cash flows will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows) How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation) Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives, contingent claim valuation) Financial markets and instruments Commodities - topics Stocks - topics Bonds - topics Money market instruments- topics Derivatives - topics Financial institutions and regulation Financial Econometrics is the branch of Financial Economics that uses econometric techniques to parameterise the relationships. Financial mathematics Financial mathematics is a main branch of applied mathematics concerned with the financial markets. Financial mathematics is the study of financial data with the tools of mathematics, mainly statistics. Such data can be movements of securities—stocks and bonds etc.—and their relations. Another large subfield is insurance mathematics. Experimental finance Experimental finance aims to establish different market settings and environments to observe experimentally and provide a lens through which science can analyze agents' behavior and the resulting characteristics of trading flows, information diffusion and aggregation, price setting mechanisms, and returns processes. Researchers in experimental finance can study to what extent existing financial economics theory makes valid predictions, and attempt to discover new principles on which such theory can be extended. Research may proceed by conducting trading simulations or by establishing and studying the behaviour of people in artificial competitive market-like settings. Behavioral finance Behavioral Finance studies how the psychology of investors or managers affects financial decisions and markets. Behavioral finance has grown over the last few decades to become central to finance. Behavioral finance includes such topics as: Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical theories. Models of how psychology affects trading and prices Forecasting based on these methods. Studies of experimental asset markets and use of models to forecast experiments. A strand of behavioral finance has been dubbed Quantitative Behavioral Finance, which uses mathematical and statistical methodology to understand behavioral biases in conjunction with valuation. Some of this endeavor has been lead by Gunduz Caginalp (Professor of Mathematics and Editor of Journal of Behavioral Finance during 2001-2004) and collaborators including Vernon Smith (2002 Nobel Laureate in Economics), David Porter, Don Balenovich, Vladimira Ilieva, Ahmet Duran, Huseyin Merdan). Studies by Jeff Madura, Ray Sturm and others have demonstrated significant behavioral effects in stocks and exchange traded funds. Among other topics, quantitative behavioral finance studies behavioral effects together with the non-classical assumption of the finiteness of assets. Intangible Asset Finance Intangible asset finance is the area of finance that deals with intangible assets such as patents, trademarks, goodwill, reputation, etc. Related professional qualifications There are several related professional qualifications in finance, that can lead to the field: Accountancy: Qualified accountant: Chartered Accountant (ACA - UK certification / CA - certification in Commonwealth countries), Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA, UK certification), Certified Public Accountant (CPA, US certification) Non-statutory qualifications: Chartered Cost Accountant CCA Designation from AAFM Business qualifications: Master of Business Administration (MBA), Bachelor of Business Management (BBM), Master of Commerce (M.Comm), Master of Science in Management (MSM), Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) Generalist Finance qualifications: Degrees: Masters degree in Finance (MSF), Master of Financial Economics, Master Financial Manager (MFM), Master of Financial Administration (MFA) Certifications: Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA), Certified International Investment Analyst (CIIA), Association of Corporate Treasurers (ACT), Certified Market Analyst (CMA/FAD) Dual Designation, Corporate Finance Qualification (CF) Quantitative Finance qualifications: Master of Science in Financial Engineering (MSFE), Master of Quantitative Finance (MQF), Master of Computational Finance (MCF), Master of Financial Mathematics (MFM) See also Financial crisis of 2007–2009 Local Government Finance in Kerala External links Wharton Finance Knowledge Project - aimed to offer free access to finance knowledge for students, teachers, and self-learners. Professor Aswath Damodaran (New York University Stern School of Business) - provides resources covering three areas in finance: corporate finance, valuation and investment management and syndicate finance. 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139 | Mecklenburg | Mecklenburg, divided between Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, from 1866 to 1934. Mecklenburg (Low German: Mekelnborg) is a region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, and Neubrandenburg. The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named "Mikilenburg" (Old German: "big castle"), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg and for a time divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty. Linguistically Mecklenburgers retain many features of the plattdeutsch, or Low German dialect or language. Geography Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the terrain forms a morass, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea. Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the exterior of country houses. Mecklenburg has productive farming, but the land is most suitable for grazing purposes. Nonetheless Mecklenburg is a relatively poor region of Germany with a rate of unemployment from 13–20%; traditionally Mecklenburg has been one of the poorer German areas. The area has seen an increase in tourism, particularly with regard to the beaches at the Baltic Sea, Isle of Rügen, the Mecklenburg Lakeland (Mecklenburgische Seenplatte), the Mecklenburg Switzerland (Mecklenburgische Schweiz) with its pristine nature, and the old Hanseatic towns well known for the famous Brick Gothic churches. History Early history Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins. By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples. The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer's head (stierkopf in German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e. a steers's head as a hat, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy. From the 7th through the 12th centuries, the area of Mecklenburg was taken over by Western Slavic peoples, most notably the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as "Wends". The 11th century founder of the Mecklenburgian dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites. In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, conquered the region, subjugated its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades. From 12th to 14th century, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated the centuries thereafter. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence. An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called Zuarin in the Slavic. Another example is town of Bresegard, the 'gard' portion of the town name derives from the Slavic word 'grad' , meaning city or town. Since the 12th century, the territory has remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. During the reformation the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg. History, 1621–1933 Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty. In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918. Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh. Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e. 1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas. Even as late as the later half of the nineteenth century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside. The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe. The Duke's ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918. From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic. Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German areas, and later the poorer of the provinces, or Länder, within a unified Germany. The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany. The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually this failed as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent. History since 1934 After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united in 1934 by the Nazi government. The Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of General der Infanterie Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin. Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin; Rostock; Parchim; and Neustrelitz. Mecklenburg regional flag After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German Vorpommern) to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population. Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for lots of refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war. The Soviets changed the name from "Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania" to "Mecklenburg" in 1947. In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating 3 districts ("Bezirke") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg. During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Coat of arms of the duchies of Mecklenburg The arms used by both duchies in the nineteenth century The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic See, who died in 1160. His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348. On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red. The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years. In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue. 23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was ordered. (Ströhl, Deutsche Wappenrolle, Stuttgart, 1897, p. 89) Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855. (Ströhl, 86) Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?) blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz. Siebmachers Wappenbuch (Nurenberg, 1878) According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle. The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the seventeenth century. The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull's head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin and green rectangle), Ratzeburg (crown over gross), Stargard (hand holding ring) and Wenden (bull's head). The shield is held by a bull and a griffin and bears a royal crown. The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band. Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria, Berühmte Fahnen Deutscher Geschichte (Dresden, 1922) show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms. The former Schwerin standard with the white quadrant is now ascribed to the grand dukes of Strelitz. Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band. And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white middle band. 'Berühmte Fahnen' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882-1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval. On sea the yellow band in her flag was of cause white. The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock. Notable Mecklenburgers Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, Prussian army leader Jan Ullrich, cyclist Gottlob Frege, logician Ferdinand Jacob Heinrich von Müller, Australian botanist Siegfried Marcus, automobile pioneer Heinrich Schliemann, classical archaeologist Johannes Gillhoff, teacher, author of book on Mecklenburg emigrants to the USA Daniel Eggers, nationalist folk-singer Manny Johnson, taxerdermist Fritz Reuter, poet and novelist Ludwig Jacoby, (1913–1874), born in Altstrelitz, a Moravian clergyman, missionary to St. Louis, Missouri, and author. See also Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Mecklenburg-Schwerin Mecklenburg-Strelitz List of Dukes and Grand Dukes of Mecklenburg Mecklenburg County, North Carolina Mecklenburg County, Virginia References External links Government portal of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania Map of Mecklenburg in 1871 Map of Mecklenburg in 1789 | Mecklenburg |@lemmatized mecklenburg:65 divide:4 schwerin:23 strelitz:9 low:2 german:16 mekelnborg:1 region:5 northern:2 germany:7 comprise:1 western:5 large:3 part:4 federal:2 state:8 vorpommern:5 city:4 rostock:5 neubrandenburg:2 name:5 derive:2 castle:2 mikilenburg:1 old:2 big:1 locate:1 wismar:1 ancestral:1 seat:1 house:7 time:1 among:2 dynasty:3 linguistically:1 mecklenburgers:2 retain:1 many:3 feature:2 plattdeutsch:1 dialect:1 language:1 geography:1 know:2 mostly:1 flat:1 countryside:3 much:1 terrain:2 form:3 morass:1 pond:1 marsh:1 field:1 common:1 small:2 forest:1 intersperse:1 change:3 one:6 move:1 north:2 towards:1 baltic:3 sea:5 peat:1 sometimes:2 find:1 deposit:1 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automobile:1 pioneer:1 schliemann:1 classical:1 archaeologist:1 johannes:1 gillhoff:1 teacher:1 author:2 book:1 emigrant:1 usa:1 daniel:1 egger:1 nationalist:1 folk:1 singer:1 manny:1 johnson:1 taxerdermist:1 fritz:1 reuter:1 poet:1 novelist:1 ludwig:1 jacoby:1 altstrelitz:1 moravian:1 clergyman:1 missionary:1 st:1 louis:1 missouri:1 list:1 carolina:1 virginia:1 reference:1 external:1 links:1 portal:1 map:2 |@bigram mecklenburg_schwerin:10 schwerin_mecklenburg:5 mecklenburg_strelitz:5 mecklenburg_vorpommern:4 baltic_sea:2 lava_flow:1 instill_fear:1 grand_duchy:1 nineteenth_century:2 weimar_republic:1 soviet_union:1 coat_arm:1 grand_ducal:2 grand_duchess:1 gebhard_leberecht:1 leberecht_von:1 von_blücher:1 gottlob_frege:1 heinrich_schliemann:1 north_carolina:1 external_links:1 |
140 | Transport_in_Kyrgyzstan | A road in Osh Transport in Kyrgyzstan is severely constrained by the country's alpine topography. Roads have to snake up steep valleys, cross passes of 3,000 metre (9,000 feet) altitude and more, and are subject to frequent mud slides and snow avalanches. Winter travel is close to impossible in many of the more remote and high-altitude regions. Additional problems are due to the fact that many roads and railway lines built during the Soviet period are today intersected by international boundaries, requiring time-consuming border formalities to cross where they are not completely closed. It is worth mentioning that the horse is still a much used transport option, especially in rural and inaccessible areas, as it does not depend on imported fuel. Railways A diesel loco near the main train station in Bishkek The Chui valley in the north and the Ferghana valley in the south were endpoints of the Soviet Union's rail system in Central Asia. Following the emergence of independent post-Soviet states, the rail lines which were built without regard for administrative boundaries have been cut by borders, and traffic is therefore severely curtailed. The small bits of rail lines within Kyrgyzstan, about 370 km (1,520 mm broad gauge) in total, have little economic value in the absence of the former bulk traffic over long distances to and from such centers as Tashkent, Almaty and the cities of Russia. There are vague plans about extending rail lines from Balykchy in the north and/or from Osh in the south into the People's Republic of China, but the cost of construction would be enormous. Rail links with adjacent countries Kazakhstan - yes - Bishkek branch - same gauge Uzbekistan - yes - Osh branch - same gauge Tajikistan - no - same gauge China - no - Break of gauge 1524mm/1435mm Maps UN Map Highways Most of the intercity travelers having switched from the big state-run buses to minivans, the palatial halls of Bishkek's West Bus Terminal remain mostly deserted With support from the Asian Development Bank, a major road linking the north and southwest from Bishkek to Osh has recently been completed. This considerably eases communication between the two major population centers of the country -- the Chui Valley in the north and the Fergana Valley in the South. An offshoot of this road branches off across a 3,500 meter pass into the Talas Valley in the northwest. Plans are now being formulated to build a major road from Osh into the People's Republic of China. total: 30,300 km (including 140 km of expressways) paved: 22,600 km (includes some all-weather gravel-surfaced roads) unpaved: 7,700 km (these roads are made of unstabilized earth and are difficult to negotiate in wet weather) (1990) Frequent bus and, more commonly, minibus, service connects country's major cities. Minibuses provide public transit in cities and between cities to neighboring villages. Pipelines The limitations of Kyrgyzstan’s pipeline system are a major impediment to fuel distribution. In 2006 the country had 367 kilometers of natural gas pipeline and 16 kilometers of oil pipeline, after adding 167 kilometers of natural gas pipeline in 2003. Waterways Water transport exists only on Lake Issyk Kul, and has drastically shrunk since the end of the Soviet Union. Ports and waterways Kyrgyzstan’s only port is Balykchy, a fishing town on Lake Issyk-Köl. None of Kyrgyzstan’s rivers is navigable, and the country has no canals.<ref name=cp>Kyrgyzstan country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Airports In the little airfield in Tamchy village on Issyk Kul's north shore At the end of the Soviet period there were about 50 airports and airstrips in Kyrgyzstan, many of them built primarily to serve military purposes in this border region so close to China. Only a few of them remain in service today. Manas Airport near Bishkek is the main international terminal, with flights to Moscow, Tashkent, Dushanbe, Istanbul, Baku, and London. Osh Airport is the main air terminal in the South, with daily connections to Bishkek. Jalal-Abad Airport is linked to Bishkek by daily flights operated by the national flag carrier, Kyrgyzstan, on An-24. Other facilities built during the Soviet era are either closed down, used only occasionally or restricted to military use (e.g., Kant airbase, now a Russian air base near Bishkek). Airports - with paved runways:total: 4over 3,047 m: 1 (Bishkek-Manas)2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (Osh)1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (Jalalabad)under 914 m: 1 (2002) Airports - with unpaved runways (mostly in disuse):total: 462,438 to 3,047 m: 31,524 to 2,437 m: 5914 to 1,523 m: 6under 914 m:'' 32 (2002) See also: List of airports in Kyrgyzstan See also Kyrgyzstan References External links Voices from Bishkek protest rally Travel and business transportation in Kyrgyzstan | Transport_in_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized road:8 osh:7 transport:3 kyrgyzstan:11 severely:2 constrain:1 country:7 alpine:1 topography:1 snake:1 steep:1 valley:6 cross:2 pass:1 metre:1 foot:1 altitude:2 subject:1 frequent:2 mud:1 slide:1 snow:1 avalanche:1 winter:1 travel:2 close:4 impossible:1 many:3 remote:1 high:1 region:2 additional:1 problem:1 due:1 fact:1 railway:1 line:4 build:5 soviet:6 period:2 today:2 intersect:1 international:2 boundary:2 require:1 time:1 consume:1 border:3 formality:1 completely:1 worth:1 mention:1 horse:1 still:1 much:1 use:3 option:1 especially:1 rural:1 inaccessible:1 area:1 depend:1 import:1 fuel:2 railways:1 diesel:1 loco:1 near:3 main:3 train:1 station:1 bishkek:10 chui:2 north:5 ferghana:1 south:4 endpoint:1 union:2 rail:5 system:2 central:1 asia:1 follow:1 emergence:1 independent:1 post:1 state:2 without:1 regard:1 administrative:1 cut:1 traffic:2 therefore:1 curtail:1 small:1 bit:1 within:1 km:5 mm:1 broad:1 gauge:5 total:4 little:2 economic:1 value:1 absence:1 former:1 bulk:1 long:1 distance:1 center:2 tashkent:2 almaty:1 city:4 russia:1 vague:1 plan:2 extend:1 balykchy:2 people:2 republic:2 china:4 cost:1 construction:1 would:1 enormous:1 link:4 adjacent:1 kazakhstan:1 yes:2 branch:3 uzbekistan:1 tajikistan:1 break:1 map:2 un:1 highways:1 intercity:1 traveler:1 switch:1 big:1 run:1 bus:3 minivan:1 palatial:1 hall:1 west:1 terminal:3 remain:2 mostly:2 desert:1 support:1 asian:1 development:1 bank:1 major:5 southwest:1 recently:1 complete:1 considerably:1 ease:1 communication:1 two:1 population:1 fergana:1 offshoot:1 across:1 meter:1 pas:1 talas:1 northwest:1 formulate:1 include:2 expressway:1 pave:1 weather:2 gravel:1 surface:1 unpaved:2 make:1 unstabilized:1 earth:1 difficult:1 negotiate:1 wet:1 commonly:1 minibus:2 service:2 connects:1 provide:1 public:2 transit:1 neighboring:1 village:2 pipelines:1 limitation:1 pipeline:4 impediment:1 distribution:1 kilometer:3 natural:2 gas:2 oil:1 add:1 waterway:2 water:1 exist:1 lake:2 issyk:3 kul:2 drastically:1 shrink:1 since:1 end:2 port:2 fishing:1 town:1 köl:1 none:1 river:1 navigable:1 canal:1 ref:2 name:1 cp:1 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 january:1 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 domain:1 airport:6 airfield:1 tamchy:1 shore:1 airstrip:1 primarily:1 serve:1 military:2 purpose:1 manas:2 flight:2 moscow:1 dushanbe:1 istanbul:1 baku:1 london:1 air:2 daily:2 connection:1 jalal:1 abad:1 operate:1 national:1 flag:1 carrier:1 facility:1 era:1 either:1 occasionally:1 restrict:1 e:1 g:1 kant:1 airbase:1 russian:1 base:1 airports:2 paved:1 runway:2 jalalabad:1 disuse:1 see:2 also:2 list:1 reference:1 external:1 voice:1 protest:1 rally:1 business:1 transportation:1 |@bigram ferghana_valley:1 soviet_union:2 severely_curtail:1 fergana_valley:1 unpaved_km:1 lake_issyk:2 issyk_kul:2 jalal_abad:1 airports_paved:1 paved_runway:1 airports_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 external_link:1 |
141 | National_Football_League | The National Football League (NFL) is the largest professional American football league in the world. It is an unincorporated/ non-profit organization 501(c)(6) association controlled by its members. For example, "The Oakland Raiders is a Professional Football team owned by Al Davis, with a membership in the National Football League (NFL), which is an unincorporated association governed by its own constitution and bylaws." Oakland Raiders v. National Football League, 41 Cal.4th 624, 629 (2007). It was formed by eleven teams in 1920 as the American Professional Football Association (the league changed the name to the National Football League in 1922). The league currently consists of thirty-two teams from the United States. The league is divided evenly into two conferences — the American Football Conference (AFC) and National Football Conference (NFC), and each conference has four divisions that have 4 teams each. The regular season is a seventeen-week schedule during which each team has one bye week and plays sixteen games. This schedule includes six games against a team's divisional rivals, as well as several inter-division and inter-conference games. The season currently starts on the Thursday night in the first full week of September (the Thursday after Labor Day) and runs weekly to late December or early January. At the end of each regular season, six teams from each conference play in the NFL playoffs, a twelve-team single-elimination tournament that culminates with the championship game, known as the Super Bowl. This game is held at a pre-selected site which is usually a city that hosts an NFL team. Commercials during the Super Bowl tend to be quite popular among the general public. Selected all-star players from both the AFC and NFC meet in the Pro Bowl, held in Honolulu, Hawaii; up to and including 2009, this game took place the weekend after the Super Bowl. In 2010, it will take place the week prior to the Super Bowl, in Miami Gardens, Florida. History + Total NFL Titles* Tallies only the amount of titles collected in the National Football League (1920-1969) and Super Bowl era (1970-present) of current NFL teams, AFL titles are included. <small>Total Titles (AFL, NFL, and Super Bowl) Team Titles Green Bay Packers 12 Chicago Bears 9 New York Giants 7 Pittsburgh Steelers 6 Dallas Cowboys 5 San Francisco 49ers 5 Washington Redskins 5 Indianapolis Colts 5 Cleveland Browns 4 Detroit Lions 4 Oakland Raiders 4 New England Patriots 3 Philadelphia Eagles 3 St. Louis Rams 3 Kansas City Chiefs 3 Arizona Cardinals 2 Denver Broncos 2 Miami Dolphins 2 Tennessee Titans 2 Buffalo Bills 2 San Diego Chargers 1 Baltimore Ravens 1 New York Jets 1 Tampa Bay Buccaneers 1 Minnesota Vikings 1 Beginnings The National Football League was the brainchild of Jim Thorpe, player-coach of the Canton Bulldogs, and Leo Lyons, owner of the Rochester Jeffersons, a sandlot football team. Both the Jeffersons and the Buffalo All-Stars were barnstorming through Ohio at the time. After Lyons's Jeffersons played, and lost badly to, Thorpe's Bulldogs in a 1917 match, Lyons (wanting to build a sport that rivaled Major League Baseball in popularity) suggested to Thorpe that a league be formed. Carroll, Bob. THE CITY THAT HATED PRO FOOTBALL. Professional Football Researchers Association Coffin Corner. 1981. Plans could not be initiated immediately in 1918, due to the Spanish flu quarantines and the loss of players to the Great War, which led to the Bulldogs suspending operations and most other teams either suspending operations or reducing their schedules to local teams. The next year, however, Lyons started in his home state of New York, challenging a cluster of professional teams in Buffalo to a championship in 1919; the Buffalo Prospects took the challenge and won. Canton was already a part of the unofficial Ohio League, which included teams such as the Bulldogs, the Massillon Tigers, the Shelby Blues and the Ironton Tanks; Thorpe convinced Bulldogs manager Ralph Hay and other Ohio teams to play under a league-style format for 1919, after which the team barnstormed against the Detroit Heralds of Detroit, Michigan and the Hammond Pros of Chicago, Illinois. Other independent clusters of teams were playing at about the same time across Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Indiana; Pennsylvania and New York City also had teams but did not contribute any to the NFL at the time of its founding (especially notable since Pennsylvania is often considered to be the birthplace of professional football; Pennsylvania's blue laws prevented any teams from that state from joining the league until 1924). A new league is born It was not until August 1920, at a Hupmobile dealership in Canton, Ohio, that the league was formalized, originally as the American Professional Football Conference, initially consisting only of the Ohio League teams (though some of the teams declined participation). One month later, the league was renamed the American Professional Football Association, adding Buffalo and Rochester from the New York league, Detroit, Hammond, and several other teams from nearby circuits. The eleven founding teams initially struck an agreement over player poaching and the declaration of an end-of-season champion. Thorpe, while still playing for the Bulldogs, was elected president. Only four of the founding teams finished the 1920 schedule and the undefeated Akron Pros claimed the first championship. Membership of the league increased to 22 teams (including more of the New York teams) in 1921, but throughout the 1920s the membership was unstable and the league was not a major national sport. On June 24, 1922, the organization changed its title a final time to the National Football League. National Football League "NFL History by Decade". 2009. Two charter members, the Chicago Cardinals (now the Arizona Cardinals) and the Decatur Staleys (now the Chicago Bears), are still in existence. The Green Bay Packers franchise (founded in 1919) is the oldest team not to change locations, but did not begin league play until 1921. The Indianapolis Colts franchise traces its history through several predecessors, is one of the including ones of the league's founding teams (the Dayton Triangles), but is considered a separate franchise from those teams and was founded as the Baltimore Colts in 1953. Though the original NFL teams representing Buffalo, Cleveland, Chicago and Detroit no longer exist, replacement franchises have since been established for those cities. Early championships were awarded to the team with the best won-lost record, initially rather haphazardly, as some teams played more or fewer games than others, or scheduled games against non-league, amateur or collegiate teams; this led to the title being decided on a tiebreaker in 1921, a disputed title in 1925, and the scheduling of an impromptu indoor playoff game in 1932. It was not until 1933 that an annual championship game was instituted. By 1934, all of the small-town teams, with the exception of the Green Bay Packers, had moved to or been replaced by teams in big cities, and even Green Bay established a relationship with much larger Milwaukee for support. An annual draft of college players was first held in 1936. It was during this era, however, that the NFL became segregated: there were no Black players in Professional Football in the United States between 1933 and 1945, mainly due to the influence of self-admitted bigot George Preston Marshall, who entered the league in 1932 as the owner of the Boston Braves. Other NFL owners emulated Marshall's tactics to mollify southern fans, and even after the NFL's color barrier had been broken in the 1950s, Marshall's Washington Redskins remained all-white until forced to integrate by the Kennedy administration in 1962. Despite his anti-social tendencies, Marshall was selected as a charter member of the NFL-inspired Pro Football Hall of Fame. College football was the bigger attraction, but by the end of World War II, pro football began to rival the college game for fans' attention. Rule changes and innovations such as the T formation led to a faster-paced, higher-scoring game. The league also expanded out of its eastern and midwestern cradle; in 1945, the Cleveland Rams moved to Los Angeles, becoming the first big-league sports franchise on the West Coast (not counting the various teams in ice hockey's PCHA, which was a rival to the NHL in the 1910s and 1920s). In 1950, the NFL accepted three teams from the defunct All-America Football Conference, expanding to thirteen clubs. In the 1950s, with the league broadcast on national television, pro football finally earned its place as a major sport. Minority Players At its inception in 1920, the NFL's precursor, the American Professional Football Association, had several African-American players (a total of thirteen between 1920 and 1933). It was also common, due to the number of talented players that were produced by the Carlisle Indian School's football team, to see teams (both inside and outside the NFL) openly market Native Americans; in fact, the Oorang Indians of 1922 to 1923 consisted entirely of Native American talent. However, by 1932 the National Football League had only two black players, and by 1934 there were none, effectively coinciding with the entry of one of the leading owners of the league, George Preston Marshall, who openly refused to have black athletes on his Boston Braves/Washington Redskins team and reportedly pressured the rest of the league to follow suit until after World War II. NFL integration occurred only when the Cleveland Rams wanted to move to Los Angeles, and the venue, the Los Angeles Coliseum, required them to integrate their team. They then signed two black players. Other NFL teams eventually followed suit, but Marshall refused to integrate the Redskins until forced to by the Kennedy administration as a pre-condition for using RFK Stadium. In spite of this open bias, Marshall was elected to the NFL's Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1963. In 1946, the Cleveland Browns of a rival Professional Football league, the All-America Football Conference, signed two black players. By 1960, the NFL's new competitor, the American Football League, actively recruited players from small predominantly black colleges that had been largely ignored by the NFL, giving those schools' black players the opportunity to play Professional Football. Early AFL teams averaged more blacks than NFL teams did. However, despite the NFL's previous segregationist policies, the clear competitive advantage of AFL teams with liberal signing policies affected the NFL's drafts. By 1969, a comparison of the two league's championship team photos showed the AFL's Chiefs with 23 black players out of 51 players (45%) pictured, while the NFL Vikings had 11 blacks, of 42 players (26%) in the photo. Chiefs players have been quoted as saying that one motivating factor in their defeat of the Vikings was their pride in their diverse squad. Recent surveys have shown that the current, post-merger NFL is approximately 57–61% non-white (this includes African Americans, Polynesians, non-white Hispanics, Asians, and people that are mixed race.) The Merger By the middle of the 1960s, competition for players, including separate college drafts, was driving up player salaries. In 1965, in the most high profile such contest and a major boost to the AFL, University of Alabama quarterback Joe Namath signed with the New York Jets in preference to the NFL's St. Louis Cardinals for a then-record $427,000. In 1966, the AFL Commissioner Al Davis embarked on a campaign to sign players away from the NFL, especially quarterbacks, but behind the scenes a number of team owners began action to end the detrimental rivalry. In an agreement brokered by AFL founder Lamar Hunt and Dallas Cowboys General Manager Tex Schramm, the two leagues announced their merger deal on June 8, 1966. The leagues would henceforth hold a Common Draft and an end-of-season World Championship Game between the two league champions (later known as the Super Bowl and reverting to simply an NFL championship game). Still another city received an NFL franchise thanks to the AFL, as New Orleans was awarded an NFL team after Louisiana's federal Congressmen pushed for the passage of Public Law 89-800, which permitted the merger and exempted the action from Anti-Trust restrictions. The monopoly that would be created needed to be legitimized by an act of Congress. In 1970, the leagues fully merged under the name National Football League and divided into two conferences of an equal number of teams. There was also a financial settlement, with the AFL teams paying a combined $18 million over 20 years. There was also strident objection by many American Football League fans over their league's loss of its separate identity, name, and distinctive logo. Although the AFL's identity was subsumed by the NFL, the American Football League's innovations: the on-field game clock; names on player jerseys; recruiting at small and predominantly black colleges; gate and television revenue-sharing; establishment of southern franchises; and more wide-open offensive rules, all eventually adopted by the ultra-conservative NFL, permanently changed the face of Professional Football in America. Modern era The second NFL logo, officially used between 1970 and April 2008. In the 1970s and 1980s, the NFL solidified its dominance as America's top spectator sport and its important role in American culture. The Super Bowl became an unofficial national holiday and the top-rated TV program most years. Monday Night Football, which first aired in 1970, brought in high ratings by mixing sports and entertainment. Rule changes in the late 1970s ensured a fast-paced game with lots of passing to attract the casual fan. The World Football League was the first post-merger challenge to the NFL's dominance, and in 1974, successfully lured some top NFL talent to its league and prompted a few rules changes in the NFL. However, financial problems led the league to fold halfway through its 1975 season. Two teams, the Birmingham Vulcans and Memphis Southmen, made unsuccessful efforts to move from the WFL to the NFL. The founding of the United States Football League in the early 1980s was the biggest challenge to the NFL in the post-merger era. The USFL was a well-financed competitor with big-name players and a national television contract. However, the USFL failed to make money and folded after three years. The USFL filed a successful anti-trust lawsuit against the NFL, but the remedies were minimal, and mismanagement (most notably, a planned move of its niche spring football season to a head-to-head competition in the fall) led to the league's collapse. However, like the AFL before it, the success of the USFL led directly to new NFL teams in Baltimore, Carolina (though the USFL never had a franchise there) and Jacksonville, as well as the relocation of the St. Louis Cardinals to Arizona and the return of the Los Angeles Raiders to their original home city of Oakland. In addition, the USFL also used the two-point conversion, which was first introduced to American Professional Football by the American Football League in 1960, and later adopted by the NFL in 1994 (the two point-conversion had previously been used in American college football since 1958). 2001 saw the establishment of the XFL, an attempt by Vince McMahon and NBC, which had lost the NFL broadcast rights for that year, to compete with the league; the XFL folded after just one season. Unlike the WFL and USFL, the XFL had no impact on the NFL's rules or franchise locations (its attempts at innovations were often ridiculed), but a few NFL players used the XFL to relaunch their careers. Three other leagues plan on launching in 2009 and 2010; the one most directly challenging the NFL is the United Football League, which is playing a fall schedule, placing teams in New York City (the Jets and Giants play in New Jersey), Los Angeles, Las Vegas and other high profile cities without NFL teams, and is willing to lure NFL-caliber talent with comparable salaries. (The two other leagues, the All American Football League and New USFL, are spring leagues that are not aiming to directly compete with the NFL.) In recent years, the NFL has expanded into new markets and ventures. In 1986, the league began holding a series of pre-season exhibition games, called American Bowls, held at international sites outside the United States; these games continued until 2005. Then in 1991, the league formed the World League of American Football, later known as NFL Europe and still later as NFL Europa, a developmental league that had teams in the United Kingdom, Germany, Catalonia, and in The Netherlands. The NFL shut down the program in June 2007. In 2003, the NFL launched its own cable-television channel, NFL Network. The league played a regular-season NFL game in Mexico City in 2005. On October 28, 2007, a regular season game between the Miami Dolphins and the New York Giants was held outside of North America for the first time in Wembley Stadium, a 90,000-seat stadium in London. It was a financial success with nearly 40,000 tickets sold within 90 minutes of the start of sales, and a game-day attendance of over 80,000. In 2008, the New Orleans Saints and San Diego Chargers played at Wembley Chargers, Saints to play in London in 2008 , and in October 2009, the New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers will meet. http://www.patriots.com/search/index.cfm?ac=searchdetail&pid=35465&pcid=43 Starting from the 2008-09 season, the Buffalo Bills play an annual home game in Toronto's Rogers Centre Commissioner announces Toronto plan for Bills . On August 31, 2007, a story in USA Today unveiled the first changes to the league's shield logo since 1970, which took effect with the 2008 season. The redesign reduced the number of stars in the logo from 25 (which were found not to have a meaning beyond being decorative) to eight (for each of the league's divisions), repositioned the football in the manner of the Vince Lombardi Trophy, and changed the NFL letters to a straight, serifed font. The redesign was created with television and digital media, along with clothing, in mind. The shield logo itself dates back to the 1940s. Franchise relocations and mergers In the early years, the league was not stable and teams moved frequently. Franchise mergers were popular during World War II in response to the scarcity of players. An example of this was the Steagles, temporarily formed as a merger between the Pittsburgh Steelers and Philadelphia Eagles. Franchise moves became far more controversial in the late 20th century when a vastly more popular NFL was free from financial instability and allowed many franchises to abandon long-held strongholds for perceived financially greener pastures. This was done in spite of the promises to Congress by Pete Rozelle in 1966 that if the AFL-NFL merger were allowed, no city would lose its franchise. Those promises were made to ensure passage of PL 89-800, which granted Anti-trust immunity to the merged Professional Football leagues. While owners invariably cited financial difficulties as the primary factor in such moves, many fans bitterly disputed these contentions, especially in Cleveland (the Rams and the Browns), Baltimore (the Colts), Houston (the Oilers), and St. Louis (the Cardinals), each of which eventually received teams some years after their original franchises left (the Browns, another Browns, Ravens, Texans, and Rams, respectively). However, Los Angeles, the second-largest media market in the United States, has not had an NFL team since 1994 after both the Raiders and the Rams relocated elsewhere. Additionally, with the increasing suburbanization of the U.S., the building of new stadiums and other team facilities in the suburbs instead of the central city became popular from the 1970s on; however, at the turn of the millennium, a reverse shift back to the central city became somewhat evident, as with the move by the Detroit Lions from the Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan to Ford Field in downtown Detroit and, similarly, the Chicago Bears decision to remain in a rebuilt Soldier Field located in downtown Chicago. Popularity While baseball is known as "America's national pastime," football, in the eyes of many, is the most popular sport in the United States. According to the Harris Poll, Professional Football moved ahead of baseball as the fans' favorite in 1965, during the emergence of the NFL's challenger, the American Football League, as a major Professional Football league. Football has remained America's favorite sport ever since. In a Harris Poll conducted in 2008, the NFL was the favorite sport of as many people (30%) as the combined total of the next three professional sports--baseball (15%), auto racing (10%), and hockey (5%). http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=866 Additionally, football's American TV viewership ratings now surpass those of other sports, although football season comprises far fewer games than the seasons of other sports. National Football League, "NFL:America's Choice," January 2007, http://www.coldhardfootballfacts.com/Documents/NFL_all_about_SB_1-07.pdf Furthermore, college football is actually the third-most popular sport in the US, with 12% of survey respondents listing it as their favorite. Therefore, fully 42% of Americans consider some level of football their favorite sport. However, the Harris Poll only allows one unaided selection of a "favorite sport." Other studies and polls such as the ESPN Sports Poll and the studies released by the Associated Press and conducted by Sports Marketing Group from 1988 to 2004, show far higher levels of popularity for NFL Football since they list from thirty to over 100 sports that each respondent must rate. According to the Associated Press, the Sports Marketing Group polls from 1988 to 2004 show NFL Football to be the most popular spectator sport in America. The AP stated that "In the most detailed survey ever of America's sports tastes" researching "114 spectator sports they might attend, follow on television or radio or read about in newspapers or magazines, the NFL topped all sports with 39 percent of Americans saying they loved it or considered it one of their favorites." http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19910221&slug=1267313 The total percentage of Americans who liked or loved NFL Football exceeds 60% of the American Public. The NFL has the highest per-game attendance of any domestic professional sports league in the world, drawing over 67,000 spectators per game for each of its two most recently completed seasons, and 2007. However, the NFL's overall attendance is only approximately 20% of Major League Baseball, due to the latter's longer schedule (162-game scheduled regular season). Season structure Since 2002, The NFL season features the following schedule: a 4-game exhibition season (or preseason) running from early August to early September; a 16-game, 17-week regular season running from September to December or early January; and a 12-team playoff tournament beginning in January, culminating in the Super Bowl in early February. Traditionally, American High school football games are played on Friday, American College football games are played on Saturday, and most NFL games are played on Sunday. Because the NFL season is longer than the college football season, the NFL schedules Saturday games and Saturday playoff games outside the college football season. The ABC Television network added Monday Night Football in 1970, and Thursday night NFL games were added in the 1980s. Exhibition season Following mini-camps in the spring and officially recognized Training Camp in July-August, NFL teams typically play four exhibition games from early August through early September. Each team hosts two games of the four. The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game and American Bowl are held at neutral sites, so the four teams in those games play five exhibition games each. The games are useful for new players who are not used to playing in front of very large crowds. Management often uses the games to evaluate newly-signed players. Veteran starters will generally play only for about a quarter of each game to minimize the risk of injury. Regular Season A sample scheduling grid, with a single team's (the Browns) schedule highlighted. Under this hypothetical schedule, the Browns would play the teams in blue twice and the teams in yellow once, for a total of 16 games. Following the preseason, each of the 32 teams embark on a 17 week, 16 game schedule, with the extra week consisting of a bye to allow teams a rest sometime in the middle of the season (and also to increase television coverage). The regular season currently begins the Thursday evening after Labor Day with a primetime "Kickoff Game" (NBC currently holds broadcast rights for that game). According to the current scheduling structure, the earliest the season could begin is September 4 (as it was in the 2008 season), while the latest would be September 10 (as it will be in the 2009 season, due to September 1 falling on a Tuesday). Each of the 32 teams' schedules are organized in the following way: Each team plays the other three teams in its division twice: once at home, and once on the road (six games). Each team plays the four teams from another division within its own conference once on a rotating three-year cycle: two at home, and two on the road (four games). Each team plays the four teams from a division in the other conference once on a rotating four-year cycle: two at home, and two on the road (four games). Each team plays once against the other teams in its conference that finished in the same place in their own divisions as themselves the previous season, not counting the division they were already scheduled to play: one at home, one on the road (two games). Playoffs The NFL Playoffs. Each of the 4 division winners is seeded 1–4 based on their W-L-T records. The two Wild Card teams (labeled Wild Card 1 and 2) are seeded 5th and 6th (with the better of the two having seed 5) regardless of their records compared to the 4 division winners. The season concludes with a 12-team tournament used to determine the teams to play in the Super Bowl. The tournament brackets are made up of six teams from each of the league's two conferences, the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC), following the end of the 16-game regular season: The four division champions from each conference (the team in each division with the best regular season won-lost-tied record), which are seeded 1 through 4 based on their regular season won-lost-tied record (tie-breaker rules may apply). Two wild card qualifiers from each conference (those non-division champions with the conference's best record, i.e. the best won-lost-tied percentages, with a series of tie-breaking rules in place in the event that there are teams with the same number of wins and losses NFL Tie-Breaking Procedures ), which are seeded 5 and 6. In each conference, the #3 and #6 seeded teams, and the #4 and #5 seeds, face each other during the first round of the playoffs, dubbed the Wild Card Playoffs (the league in recent years has also used the term Wild Card Weekend). The #1 and #2 seeds from each conference receive a bye in the first round, which entitles these teams to automatically advance to the second round, the Divisional Playoff games, to face the winning teams from the first round. In round two, the highest surviving seed (#1) always plays the lowest surviving seed in their conference. And in any given playoff game, whoever has the higher seed gets the home field advantage (i.e. the game is held at the higher seed's home field). The two surviving teams from the Divisional Playoff games meet in Conference Championship games, with the winners of those contests going on to face one another in the Super Bowl in a game located at a neutral venue that is either indoors or in a warm-weather locale. The designated "home team" alternates year to year between the conferences. In Super Bowl XLII the AFC team (New England Patriots) were "home". In Super Bowl XLIII the NFC team, the Arizona Cardinals, were the home team. Teams Current NFL teams The NFL consists of 32 clubs. Each club is allowed a maximum of 53 players on their roster, but they may only dress 45 to play each week during the regular season. Unlike Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, the league has no full-time teams in Canada largely because of the historical existence of the Canadian Football League, although the Buffalo Bills play one game per year (outside of the CFL season) in Toronto, Ontario. Most teams are in the Eastern United States; 16 teams are in the Eastern Time Zone and 10 others in the Central Time Zone. The six teams in the Mountain and Pacific time zones pose special scheduling challenges and cannot play at home prior to noon local time (meaning they usually play as the second half of a doubleheader), giving them an advantage in national exposure. Most major metropolitan areas in the United States have an NFL franchise, although Los Angeles, the second-largest metropolitan area in the country, has not hosted an NFL team since 1994. The Rams and the Raiders called Los Angeles home from 1946-1994 and 1982-1994 respectively. In 2005, some Saints games were played in San Antonio because of Hurricane Katrina. Also, there is talk of possibly bringing the NFL to Toronto, the largest city of Canada. The most frequently mentioned team for such a move is the aforementioned Buffalo Bills, who play south in Buffalo and do play some of their games in Toronto's Rogers Centre. Wawrow, John. Buffalo Bills May Play Game in Toronto. Associated Press. 18 October 2007. The Dallas Cowboys are the highest valued American football franchise in the world, valued at approximately $1.6 billion and one of the most valuable franchises in all of professional sports, currently second only to English soccer club Manchester United, which has an approximate value of US$1.8 billion at current exchange rates. Since the 2002 season, the teams have been aligned as follows: Division Team City/Area Stadium Founded Joined Head Coach American Football Conference East Buffalo Bills Orchard Park, NY Ralph Wilson Stadium 1959 1970 Dick Jauron Miami Dolphins Miami Gardens, FL LandShark Stadium 1966 1970 Tony Sparano New England Patriots Foxborough, MA Gillette Stadium 1959 1970 Bill Belichick New York Jets East Rutherford, NJ Giants Stadium 1960 1970 Rex Ryan North Baltimore Ravens Baltimore, MD M&T Bank Stadium 1996 John Harbaugh Cincinnati Bengals Cincinnati, OH Paul Brown Stadium 1968 1970 Marvin Lewis Cleveland Browns Cleveland, OH Cleveland Browns Stadium 1946 1950 Eric Mangini Pittsburgh Steelers Pittsburgh, PA Heinz Field 1933 Mike Tomlin South Houston Texans Houston, TX Reliant Stadium 2002 Gary Kubiak Indianapolis Colts* Indianapolis, IN Lucas Oil Stadium 1953 Jim Caldwell Jacksonville Jaguars Jacksonville, FL Jacksonville Municipal Stadium 1995 Jack Del Rio Tennessee Titans* Nashville, TN LP Field 1960 1970 Jeff Fisher West Denver Broncos Denver, CO Invesco Field at Mile High 1960 1970 Josh McDaniels Kansas City Chiefs* Kansas City, MO Arrowhead Stadium 1960 1970 Todd Haley Oakland Raiders* Oakland, CA Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum 1960 1970 Tom Cable San Diego Chargers* San Diego, CA Qualcomm Stadium 1960 1970 Norv Turner National Football Conference East Dallas Cowboys Arlington, TX Cowboys Stadium 1960 Wade Phillips New York Giants East Rutherford, NJ Giants Stadium 1925 Tom Coughlin Philadelphia Eagles Philadelphia, PA Lincoln Financial Field 1933 Andy Reid Washington Redskins* Landover, MD FedExField 1932 Jim Zorn North Chicago Bears* Chicago, IL Soldier Field 1919 1920 Lovie Smith Detroit Lions* Detroit, MI Ford Field 1929 1930 Jim Schwartz Green Bay Packers Green Bay, WI Lambeau Field 1919 1921 Mike McCarthy Minnesota Vikings Minneapolis, MN Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome 1961 Brad Childress South Atlanta Falcons Atlanta, GA Georgia Dome 1966 Mike Smith Carolina Panthers Charlotte, NC Bank of America Stadium 1995 John Fox New Orleans Saints New Orleans, LA Louisiana Superdome 1967 Sean Payton Tampa Bay Buccaneers Tampa, FL Raymond James Stadium 1976 Raheem Morris West Arizona Cardinals* Glendale, AZ University of Phoenix Stadium 1898 1920 Ken Whisenhunt St. Louis Rams* St. Louis, MO Edward Jones Dome 1936 1937 Steve Spagnuolo San Francisco 49ers San Francisco, CA Candlestick Park 1946 1950 Mike Singletary Seattle Seahawks Seattle, WA Qwest Field 1976 Jim L. Mora Notes An asterisk (*) denotes a franchise move. See the respective team articles for more information. The Buffalo Bills play one regular game each year and one preseason game every two years from 2008-2012 at the Rogers Centre in Toronto. The Jets and Giants will move into the Meadowlands Stadium in East Rutherford by 2010. As the result of a relocation controversy in 1996, the league officially suspended operations of the Cleveland Browns while its players and personnel moved to Baltimore to become a new franchise called the Baltimore Ravens. As per an agreement with the two cities, the Ravens are officially regarded as a new 1996 team while the league's official history and records views the Browns as one continuous franchise that began in , suspended operations from –, and resumed play in with new players. The Kansas City Chiefs will renovate and expand Arrowhead Stadium by 2010. The State of Minnesota is currently reviewing plans for the construction of Vikings Stadium, a retractable roof venue to replace the Metrodome in Minneapolis. Former NFL teams In its earliest years, the NFL was a very unstable and somewhat informal organization. Many teams entered and left the league annually. However, since the acquisition of the All-America Football Conference in 1950, the NFL has shown remarkable stability. The last NFL team to fold was the Dallas Texans in 1952; its remnants were salvaged to form what is now the Indianapolis Colts. The Colts franchise is officially a separate franchise that began in 1953, but it has a turbulent history tracing through several teams: the Dayton Triangles (1913-1929), Brooklyn Dodgers (1930-1944), Brooklyn Tigers (1945), AAFC New York Yankees (1946-1949), Boston Yanks (1944-1948), New York Bulldogs (1949), New York Yanks (1950-51), AAFC Baltimore Colts (1947-1950), and the Texans (1952). The last team with no connections to the current Indianapolis Colts franchise to fold was the Cincinnati Reds in ; they folded midseason and were replaced by the independent St. Louis Gunners for the rest of the season. Calendar Though the NFL only plays in the fall and early winter, the extended offseason often is an event in itself, with the draft, free agency signings, and the announcement of schedules keeping the NFL in the spotlight even during the spring, when virtually no on-field activity is taking place. A typical calendar of league events is as follows, with the dates listed being those for the 2009 NFL season: Feb. 3 -- Pro Football Hall of Fame Game opponents announced. Feb. 18-24 -- NFL Scouting Combine: Lucas Oil Stadium, Indianapolis, Ind. Feb. 19 -- Deadline for Clubs to designate Franchise and Transition players. Feb. 27 -- Veteran Free Agency signing period begins. Trading period begins. March 22-25 -- NFL Annual Meeting: Dana Point, Calif. Usually accompanied by announcement of scheduling and opponents for first game and opening-weekend night games. Early April: Teams begin voluntary workouts. April 14: Rest of schedule announced. April 25-26 -- NFL Draft: New York City. May 18-20 -- NFL Spring Meeting: Fort Lauderdale, Fla. June 28-July 1 -- NFL Rookie Symposium, Palm Beach Gardens, Fla. Mid-July (varies by team)-- Training camps open. Aug. 8 -- Pro Football Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony, Canton, Ohio, including Hall of Fame Game. Aug. 13-17 -- First full Preseason weekend. Sept. 1 -- Roster cutdown from 80 to maximum of 75 players. Sept. 5 -- Roster cutdown from 75 to maximum of 53 players. Sept. 10-14 -- Kickoff 2009 Weekend (Week 1 of regular season) Oct. 25 -- International Series game. London, England November -- Pro Bowl balloting, flexible scheduling for Sunday Night Football and the NFL Network's night game package all begin. Nov. 26 -- Thanksgiving games. Jan. 3, 2010 -- End of regular season. Jan. 9, 2010 -- Playoffs begin. Jan. 24 -- AFC Championship Game and NFC Championship Game. Jan. 31 -- Pro Bowl. Feb. 7 -- Super Bowl. Media Television The television rights to the NFL are the most lucrative and expensive rights not only of any American sport, but of any American entertainment property. With the fragmentation of audiences due to the increased specialization of broadcast and cable TV networks, sports remain one of the few entertainment properties that not only can guarantee a large and diversified audience, but an audience that will watch in real time. Annually, the Super Bowl often ranks among the most watched shows of the year. Four of Nielsen Media Research's top ten programs are Super Bowls. Networks have purchased a share of the broadcasting rights to the NFL as a means of raising the entire network's profile. Under the current television contracts, which began during the 2006 season, regular season games are broadcast on five networks: CBS, FOX, NBC, ESPN, and the NFL Network. Regionally shown games are broadcast on Sundays on CBS and FOX, carrying the AFC and NFC teams respectively (the traveling team deciding the broadcast station in the event of inter-Conference games, presumably so that each network can show games from all the stadiums). These games generally air at 1:00 p.m. ET and 4:00 p.m. or 4:15 p.m. ET. Nationally televised games include Sunday night games (shown on NBC), Monday night games (shown on ESPN), the Thursday night NFL Kickoff Game (shown on NBC), the annual Dallas Cowboys and Detroit Lions Thanksgiving Day games (CBS and Fox), and beginning in 2006, select Thursday and Saturday games on the NFL Network, a wholly owned subsidiary of the National Football League. Additionally, satellite broadcast company DirecTV offers NFL Sunday Ticket, a subscription based package, that allows most Sunday daytime regional games to be watched. This package is exclusive to DirecTV in the USA. In Canada, NFL Sunday Ticket is available on a per-provider distribution deal on both cable and satellite. Radio Each NFL team has its own radio network and employs its announcers. Nationally, the NFL is heard on the Westwood One Radio Network, Sports USA Radio Network and in Spanish on Univision Radio and the United Stations Radio Networks. Westwood One carries Sunday and Monday Night Football, all Thursday games, two Sunday afternoon contests each week, the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, and all post-season games, including the Pro Bowl. Sports USA Radio, a cooperative effort between Dial Global and Compass Media Networks, broadcasts two Sunday afternoon games every Sunday during the regular season. The NFL also has a contract with Sirius Satellite Radio, which provides news, analysis, commentary and game coverage for all games, as well as comprehensive coverage of the draft and off-season on its own channel, Sirius NFL Radio. Internet radio broadcasts of all NFL games are managed through FieldPass, a subscription service. Radio stations are, by rule, prohibited from streaming the games for free from their Web sites; however, there are numerous stations that break this rule. The NFL on Westwood One and the NFL on Sports USA Radio are not available on FieldPass. Internet/New Media In October 2006 the NFL announced the league would fully operate NFL.com, including the development of the technology, infrastructure and editorial content. Launching its first major redesign since 1999 in August 2007, the site had been previously produced and hosted since 2001 by CBS SportsLine. It is estimated that the contract cost CBS $120 million over a five year period. Prior to CBS, ESPN.com produced and hosted the NFL site. Brian Rolapp, senior vice president of NFL digital media and media strategy: “In a rapidly changing digital landscape, bringing NFL.com in-house provides us greater control of our valuable content and enables us to strategically build the site as a media asset. Fans can look forward to an even more entertaining, interactive and informative site built upon the expertise of the NFL and its other in-house media outlets such as NFL Network and NFL Films.” Univision Online, Inc., the interactive subsidiary of Univision Communications Inc., and the NFL announced in January 2008 that they will jointly manage and operate NFLatino.com powered by Univision.com, the official U.S. Spanish-language website of the NFL. NFLatino.com is the only Spanish-language website in the United States to feature NFL video game highlights. In addition, the website includes live radio broadcasts, up-to-date stats, Hispanic player diaries, Fantasy Football and an insider’s view of all 32 teams. Announced in March 2009, NFL.com received its first-ever Sports Emmy nominations, which earned recognition for its NFL.com LIVE coverage of NFL Network’s Thursday and Saturday Night Football (Outstanding new approaches, coverage) and its Anatomy of a Play, a short-form 360-degree analysis of key plays of the week (Outstanding new approaches, general interest). Beginning September 2008, the NFL announced that it would simulcast all NBC Sunday Night Football games on NFL.com, located at nfl.com/snf. In 2007, they had provided an Emmy-nominated "complementary live broadcast" which included a partial simulcast of the NFL Network's Run to the Playoffs eight game package along with expanded NFL Network analysis. As of December 2008, the NFL offers NFL Game Rewind, a pay service allows fans to watch all 2008-09 NFL regular season, playoff, and Super Bowl games online. The service is updated Monday, Wednesday, and Friday and offers full DVR functionality with the ability to watch up to four games at once. As of September 2008, the NFL offers NFL Game Gamepass, a pay service for NFL fans out side United States to watch live all regular season games and the playoffs game live. Only game not available live is the Super Bowl. Player contracts and compensation NFL players are all members of a union called the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). The NFLPA negotiates the general minimum contract for all players in the league. This contract is called the Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA), and it is the central document that governs the negotiation of individual player contracts for all of the league's players. The current CBA has been in place since 1993, and was amended in 1998 and again in 2006. The NFL has not had any labor-related work stoppages since the 1987 season, which is much longer than Major League Baseball, the NBA or the NHL. The current CBA was originally scheduled to expire at the end of the 2012 season, but in 2008 the owners exercised their right to opt out of the agreement two years early. Players are tiered into three different levels with regards to their rights to negotiate for contracts: Players who have been drafted (see below), and have not yet played in their first year, may only negotiate with the team that drafted them. If terms cannot be agreed upon, the players' only recourse is to refuse to play ("hold out") until terms can be reached. Players often use the threat of holding out as a means to force the hands of the teams that drafted them. For example, John Elway was drafted by the Baltimore Colts in 1983 but refused to play for them. He had a fallback option of baseball, as he had played in the New York Yankees organization for two summers while at Stanford. The Colts traded his rights to the Denver Broncos and Elway agreed to play. Bo Jackson sat out an entire year in 1986, choosing to play baseball in the Kansas City Royals organization (and ultimately for the Royals themselves) rather than play for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, the team that had drafted him. He reentered the draft the following year, and was drafted and subsequently signed with the Los Angeles Raiders. Players that have played 3 full seasons in the league, and whose contract has expired are considered "Restricted Free Agents" (see below). They have limited rights to negotiate with any club. Players that have played 4 or more full seasons in the league, and whose contract has expired, are considered "Unrestricted Free Agents"(see below) and have unlimited rights to negotiate with any club. Teams may name a single player in any given year as a "Franchise Player"(see below), which eliminates much of that player's negotiation rights. This is a limited right of the team, however, and affects only a small handful of players each year. In 2010, unless the CBA is extended, the rules will change so that players don't become "Unrestricted Free Agents" until they have played at least 6 full seasons in the league. They will be "Restricted Free Agents" if they have 3-5 full seasons in the league. Among the items covered in the CBA are: The league minimum salary The salary cap The annual collegiate draft Rules regarding "free agency" Waiver rules Salaries Years Experience Minimum Salary 0 $260,000 1 $460,000 2 $535,000 3 $610,000 4–6 $795,000 7–9 $920,000 10+ $1.1 mil A player's salary, as defined by the CBA, includes any "compensation in money, property, investments, loans or anything else of value to which an NFL player may be awarded" excluding such benefits as insurance and pension. A salary can include an annual pay and a one-time "signing bonus" which is paid in full when the player signs his contract. For the purposes of the salary cap (see below), the signing bonus is prorated over the life of the contract rather than to the year in which the signing bonus is paid. Player contracts are not guaranteed; teams are only required to pay on the contract as long as the player remains a member of the team. If the player is cut, or quits, for any reason, the balance of the contract is voided and the player receives no further compensation. Among other things, the CBA establishes a minimum salary for its players, which is stepped-up as a player's years of experience increase. Players and their agents may negotiate with clubs for higher salaries, and frequently do. As of the 2008 NFL season, the highest paid player was Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger, whose compensation was $27,701,920. Salary cap The salary cap is defined as the maximum amount that a team may spend on player compensation (see above) in a given season, for all of its players combined. Unlike other leagues, for example the NBA (which permits certain exemptions) or Major League Baseball (which has a "soft cap" enforced by "luxury taxes"), the NFL has a "hard cap": an amount no team under any circumstances may exceed. The NFL salary cap is calculated by the current CBA to be 59.5% of the total projected league revenue for the upcoming year. This number, divided by the number of teams, determines an individual team's maximum salary cap. For 2008, this was approximately $116 million per team . For 2009, it increased to $127 million . As a result of the NFL owners opting out of the CBA two years early, in the absence of a new CBA 2010 will have no salary cap. Teams and players often find creative ways to fit salaries under the salary cap. Early in the salary cap era, "signing bonuses" were used to give players a large chunk of money up front, and thus not count in the salary for the bulk of the contract. This led to a rule whereby all signing bonus are pro-rated equally for each year of the contract. Thus if a player receives a $10 million signing bonus for a 5 year contract, $2 million per year would count against the salary cap for the life of the contract, even though the full $10 million was paid up front during the first year of the contract. Player contracts tend to be "back-loaded". This means that the contract is not divided equally among the time period it covers. Instead, the player earns progressively more and more each year. For instance, a player signing a 4-year deal worth $10 million may get paid $1 million the first year, $2 million the second year, $3 million the third year, and $4 million the fourth year. If a team cuts this player after the first year, the final three years do not count against the cap. Any signing bonus, however, ceases to be pro-rated, and the entire balance of the bonus counts against the cap in the upcoming season. NFL Draft Each April, each NFL franchise seeks to add new players to its roster through a collegiate draft known as "the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting", which is more commonly known as the NFL Draft. Teams are ranked in inverse order based on the previous season's record, with the team having the worst record picking first, and the second-worst picking second, and so on. Regardless of regular season records, the last two picks of each round go to the two teams in the Super Bowl immediately preceding the draft, with the Super Bowl champion picking last. The draft proceeds for seven rounds. Rounds 1–2 are run on Saturday of draft weekend, rounds 3–7 are run on Sunday. Teams are given 10 minutes in the first round of the draft, 7 in the second round and 5 in all other rounds. If the pick is not made in the allotted time, subsequent teams in the draft may draft before them. This happened in 2003 to the Minnesota Vikings. Teams have the option of trading away their picks to other teams for different picks, players, cash, or a combination thereof. While player-for-player trades are rare during the rest of the year (especially in comparison to the other major league sports), trades are far more common on draft day. In 1989, the Dallas Cowboys traded running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and six draft picks over 3 years. The Cowboys would use these picks to leverage trades for additional draft picks and veteran players. As a direct result of this trade, they would draft many of the stars who would help them win three Super Bowls in the 1990s, including Emmitt Smith, Russell Maryland and Darren Woodson. The first pick in the draft is often taken to be the best overall player in the rookie class. This may or may not be true, since teams often select players based more on the teams' needs than on the players' overall skills. Plus, comparing players at different positions is difficult to do. Still, it is considered a great honor to be a first-round pick, and a greater honor to be the first overall pick. The last pick in the draft is known as Mr. Irrelevant, and is the subject of a dinner in his (dubious) honor in Newport Beach, California. Drafted players may only negotiate with the team that drafted them (or to another team if their rights were traded away). The drafting team has one year to sign the player. If they do not do so, the player may reenter the draft and can be drafted by another team. Bo Jackson famously sat out a season in this way. Free agency General As defined by the Collective Barganing Agreement (CBA), a free agent is any player who is not under contract to any team and thus has fully free rights to negotiate with any other team for new contract terms. Free agents are classified into two categories: restricted and unrestricted. Furthermore, a team may "tag" a player as a franchise or transition, which places additional restrictions on that player's ability to negotiate. However, the ability to "tag" is quite limited, and only affects a handful of players each year. Free agency in the NFL began with a limited free agency system known as "Plan B Free Agency", which was in effect between the 1989 and 1992 seasons. Beginning with the 1993 season, "Plan A Free Agency" went into effect, which is the system which remains in the NFL today. Restricted free agent A player who has 3 years of experience is eligible for restricted free agency, whereby his current team has the chance to retain rights to this player by matching the highest offer any other NFL franchise might make to that player. The club can either block a signing or, in essence, force a trade by offering a salary over a certain threshold. In 2006, these thresholds were as follows: If a club tenders an offer of $685,000 per year for a three year veteran, and $725,000 for a four year veteran, the player's current team has "right of first refusal" over the contract at those terms, and may sign the player at those terms. If a club tenders an offer of $712,000 or 110% (whichever is greater) of the previous year's salary, then the current club has both "right of first refusal" and rights to a draft pick from the same round (or better) from the signing club. Essentially, this means that the new club must forfeit the draft pick to the old club if they wish to sign the player under these terms. If a club tenders an offer of $1.552 million or 110% (whichever is greater) of the previous year's salary, then the current club has both "right of first refusal"; and rights to the first round draft pick from the signing club. Unrestricted free agent A player who has 4 or more years of experience is eligible for unrestricted free agency, whereby his current team has no guaranteed right to match outside offers to that player. This means that players in this category have unlimited rights to negotiate any terms with any team. Free Agency Changes in 2010 In 2010, unless the CBA is extended, the rules will change so that players don't become "Unrestricted Free Agents" until they have at least 6 years of experience. They will be "Restricted Free Agents" if they have 3-5 years of experience. There will also be limitations imposed on which clubs are allowed to sign free agents. This is part of a set of rule changes written into the CBA designed to encourage the owners and the NFLPA to negotiate a new CBA: the players lose some free agency rights, and the owners lose the salary cap. Franchise tag The franchise tag is a designation given to a player by a franchise that guarantees that player a contract the average of the five highest-paid players of that same position in the entire league, or 120% of the player's previous year's salary (whichever is greater) in return for retaining rights to that player for one year. An NFL franchise may only designate one player a year as having the franchise tag, and may designate the same player for consecutive years. This has caused some tension between some NFL franchise designees and their respective teams due to the fact that a player designated as a franchise player precludes that player from pursuing large signing bonuses that are common in unrestricted free agency, and also prevents a player from leaving the team, especially when the reasons for leaving are not necessarily financial. A team may, at their discretion, allow the franchise player to negotiate with other clubs, but if he signs with another club, the first club is entitled to two first round draft picks in compensation. Banned substances policy The NFL banned substances policy has been acclaimed by some NFL's Steroid Policy Gets Kudos on Capitol Hill (washingtonpost.com) and criticized by others NFL Steroid Policy 'Not Perfect', House Committee Praises Tougher Testing Policy, But Still May Act - CBS News , but the policy is the longest running in American professional sports, beginning in 1987. The current policy of the NFL suspends players without pay who test positive for banned substances as it has since 1989: four games for the first offense (a quarter of the regular season), eight games for a second offense (half of the regular season), and 12 months for a third offense. http://www.nflpa.org/pdfs/RulesAndRegs/BannedSubstances.pdf The suspended games may be either regular season games or playoff games. In comparison to the policies of Major League Baseball and the National Hockey League, the NFL has long been the most strict. While recently MLB and the NHL decided to permanently ban athletes for a third offense, they have long been resistant to such measures, and random testing is in its infancy. USATODAY.com - MLB, players agree to update drug policy CTV.ca | NHL unveils new drug testing policy Since the NFL started random, year-round tests and suspending players for banned substances, many more players have been found to be in violation of the policy. By April 2005, 111 NFL players had tested positive for banned substances, and of those 111, the NFL suspended 54. A new rule is in the works due to Shawne Merriman. Starting the 2007–2008 season, the new rule would prohibit any player testing positive for banned substances from being able to play in the Pro Bowl that year. TV Station 7/39 KNSD (NBC in San Diego, CA) Broadcast 5:00 AM News on February 8th, 2007. (Retrieved from the Global Broadcast Database on 9/17/2008) Video games There have been several football video games based on NFL teams created for various consoles over the years, from 10-Yard Fight and the Tecmo Bowl series for the NES to the more well known Madden series that have been released annually since 1988. The latter series is named after former coach and football commentator John Madden, who commentates the game along with Al Michaels before 2009. (Pat Summerall prior to 2003). Prior to the 2005–2006 football season, other NFL games were produced by competing video game publishers, such as 2K Games and Midway Games. However, in December 2004, Electronic Arts signed a five-year exclusive agreement with the NFL, meaning only Electronic Arts will be permitted to publish games featuring NFL team and player names. This prompted video game developer Midway Games to release a game in 2005 called Blitz: The League, with fictitious teams such as the "Washington Redhawks", and make references to NFL players such as the Washington Redhawks left-handed QB "Ron Mexico", alluding to Michael Vick of the Atlanta Falcons, who allegedly used the alias at a walk-in clinic. In February 2008, EA Sports renewed their exclusivity agreement with the league through Super Bowl XLVII in 2013. EA Sports extends NFL deal through 2012 season - Xbox 360 News at GameSpot Commissioners and presidents President Jim Thorpe (1920–1921) President Joseph Carr (1921–1939) President Carl Storck (1939–1941) Commissioner Elmer Layden (1941–1946) Commissioner Bert Bell (1946–1959) Interim President Austin Gunsel (1959–1960, following death of Bell) Commissioner Alvin "Pete" Rozelle (1960–1989) Commissioner Paul Tagliabue (1989–2006) Commissioner Roger Goodell (2006–present)Main league offices Canton (1920–1921) Columbus (1921–1941) Chicago (1941–1946) Philadelphia (1946–1960) New York City (AFL, 1960-1969) New York City (1960–present) Franchise owners Unlike many professional leagues, the NFL forbids corporate owners. Ownership groups must contain 24 or fewer individuals, and at least one partner must hold a 30 percent or greater share of the team. The exceptions to this policy were the Green Bay Packers, who have been owned by a non-profit corporation for more than eighty years, and the Pittsburgh Steelers, whose ownership was split up evenly among five brothers. The Packers' situation was grandfathered into the current policy and remains today; NFL may drop ownership rules, The (Oklahoma City) Journal Record, 1 September 1998 the Steelers only moved into compliance with the rules in 2008. Uniform numbers In the NFL, players wear uniform numbers based on the position they play. The current system was instituted into the league on April 5, 1973, as a means for fans and officials (referees, linesmen) to more easily identify players on the field by their position. Players who were already in the league at that date were grandfathered and did not have to change their uniform numbers if they did not conform. Since that date, players are invariably assigned numbers within the following ranges, based on their primary position: Quarterbacks, placekickers and punters: 1–19 Wide Receivers: 10–19 and 80–89 Running backs and defensive backs: 20–49 Offensive linemen: 50–79 Linebackers: 50–59 and 90–99, or 40–49 if all are taken Defensive linemen: 60–79 and 90–99 Tight ends: 80–89, or 40–49 if all are taken Prior to 2004, wide receivers were allowed to only wear numbers 80–89. The NFL changed the rule that year to allow wide receivers to wear numbers 10–19 to allow for the increased number of players at wide receiver and tight end coming into the league. Linebackers are allowed to wear numbers between 40–49 when all of 50–59 and 90–99 numbers are taken. Prior to that, players were only allowed to wear non-standard numbers if their team had run out of numbers within the prescribed number range. Keyshawn Johnson began wearing number 19 in 1996 because the New York Jets had run out of numbers in the 80s. Oakland Raider offensive center Jim Otto wore a 00 jersey during most of his career with the AFL team and kept the number after the leagues merged. Devin Hester is a wide receiver/return specalist for the Chicago Bears but wears number 23 because he was drafted as a cornerback but transferred to wide receiver after his rookie year. Occasionally, players will petition the NFL to allow them to wear a number that is not in line with the numbering system. Brad Van Pelt, a linebacker who entered the NFL in with the New York Giants, wore number 10 during his 11 seasons with the club, despite not being covered by the grandfather clause. In 2006, New Orleans Saints running back Reggie Bush petitioned the NFL to let him keep the number 5 which he used at USC. His request was later denied. Former Seattle Seahawks standout Brian Bosworth attempted such a petition in 1987 (to wear his collegiate number of 44 at the linebacker position which he used at the University of Oklahoma), also without success. The Seahawks attempted to get around the rule by listing Bosworth as a safety, but after he wore number 44 for a game against the Kansas City Chiefs, the NFL ruled Bosworth would have to switch back to his original number, 55. It should be noted that this NFL numbering system is based on a player's primary'' position. Any player wearing any number may play at any position on the field at any time (though offensive and defensive players wearing numbers 50–79/90-99 and wishing to play at end or back must let the referee know that they are playing out of position by reporting in as an "eligible receiver"). Normally, only players on offense with eligible numbers are permitted to touch the ball by taking a snap from center, receiving a hand-off or catching a pass. It is not uncommon for running backs to line up at wide receiver on certain plays, or to even have a large offensive or defensive lineman play at fullback or tight end in short yardage situations. Also, in preseason games, when teams have expanded rosters, players may wear numbers that are outside of the above rules. When the final 53-player roster is established, they are reissued numbers within the above guidelines. Awards Vince Lombardi Trophy Lamar Hunt Trophy George S. Halas Trophy Most Valuable Player Coach of the Year Offensive Player of the Year Defensive Player of the Year NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year Award Super Bowl MVP Pete Rozelle Trophy NFL Comeback Player of the Year Walter Payton Man of the Year Award Pro Bowl MVP Discontinued awards AFL All-Star Game MVP UPI NFL MVP UPI NFC Player of the Year UPI AFL-AFC Player of the Year See also Association of Professional Football Leagues Coaching tree Current NFL coaches Defunct NFL teams Glossary of American football Comparison of Canadian and American football Index of Professional Sports teams in the United States and Canada Instant replay in American football National Football League depth charts National Football League stadiums List of American football players List of current NFL announcers List of famous American sports figures who became politicians List of Professional Football Drafts List of sports attendance figures — the NFL's attendance in a worldwide context List of TV markets and major sports teams Madden NFL series NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team NFL All-Decade Teams NFL Blitz NFL Charities NFL Cheerleading NFL Films NFL franchise moves and mergers NFL Network NFL nicknames NFL Lore NFL Street series Personal Seat License Pro Football Hall of Fame USA Football Canadian Football League Football Canada Regular seasons List of NFL seasons List of NFL tied games (since 1974) National Football League: Last to First Significant rivalries in the NFL Sunday Night Football Monday Night Football Thursday and Saturday Night Football Cheerleading Each football team is supported by a professional cheerleading squad, who attend games and promote the team. To see more on NFL Cheerleading, see National Football League Cheerleading. Postseasons One Game Playoff NFL playoffs AFC Championship Game NFC Championship Game Super Bowl Pro Bowl History of NFL Championships List of Super Bowl champions List of NFL champions Professional Football Championship Games List of Current NFL franchise post-season droughts Active NFL playoff appearance streaks Records NFL Standings since 1920 NFL Standings since AFL-NFL merger NFL opening day standings NFL Individual Records NFL Team-Oriented Records Super Bowl records Related football leagues American Football League All American Football League All-America Football Conference NFL Europa American Youth Football List of leagues of American and Canadian football Notes References External links Official NFL website Official NFL players website Official Super Bowl website NFL History - Champion and Award Lists NFL Digest of Rules ESPN.com's NFL Section NFL Video at ESPN's Video Archive Pro Football Reference - Historical stats of every team, player and coach in the NFL NFL's Economic Model Shows Signs of Strain Process of game-time decisions will eliminate TV duds, create chaos by Michael Hiestand, USA Today, April 5, 2006 (Last accessed April 5, 2006) Five NFL teams worth over $1 billion | National_Football_League |@lemmatized national:29 football:114 league:117 nfl:220 large:10 professional:27 american:44 world:9 unincorporated:2 non:7 profit:2 organization:5 c:1 association:9 control:2 member:5 example:4 oakland:8 raider:9 team:170 al:3 davis:2 membership:3 govern:2 constitution:1 bylaw:1 v:1 cal:1 form:6 eleven:2 change:16 name:8 currently:6 consist:3 thirty:2 two:38 united:14 state:15 divide:4 evenly:2 conference:29 afc:8 nfc:8 four:15 division:14 regular:24 season:74 seventeen:1 week:11 schedule:19 one:28 bye:3 play:60 sixteen:1 game:128 include:17 six:6 divisional:3 rival:5 well:5 several:6 inter:3 start:6 thursday:9 night:16 first:33 full:10 september:10 labor:3 day:6 run:12 weekly:1 late:4 december:4 early:18 january:5 end:12 playoff:19 twelve:1 single:3 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142 | Aircraft_spotting | Spotters at São Paulo/Guarulhos International Airport control tower. Taking a photograph of an Aeroflot Boeing 767 Aircraft spotting or plane spotting is the observation and logging registration numbers of aircraft: gliders, powered aircraft, balloons, airships, helicopters, and microlights. When spotting aircraft observers notice the key attributes of an aircraft. They may notice a distinctive noise from its engine or the number of vapour trails it is leaving. They will assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type and position of its engines. Another clue is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. Are the wings above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint, perhaps it is a biplane or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are also clues to its type. If it is an antique or light aircraft it might have a tail wheel. Some aircraft types have a fixed undercarriage while others have retractable wheels. Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft. Taken together these clues will enable the identification of an aircraft. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, he or she is more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity - they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. Spotting styles Photographers watching the landing of a SriLankan Airlines Airbus A340 at London Heathrow Airport. Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national insignia or airline livery or logo perhaps, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military aircraft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate. Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic transmissions (using radio scanners, where that is legal), liaising with other "spotters" to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places. The hobbyist might travel long distances to visit a different airport from their usual one, to see an unusual aircraft or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Some aircraft may eventually be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) - or perhaps be cannibalised in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved. Some spotters are competitive and may get a thrill from seeing all the aircraft of a particular operator, military or civil. Aircraft registrations can be found in serial books, such as Military Aircraft Serial Review, or magazines, like Scramble. The English and Dutch spotters are usually considered as the most inveterate in their field. During hostilities During World War II and the subsequent Cold War some countries encouraged their citizens to become "plane spotters" in an "observation corps" or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the Royal Observer Corps which operated between 1925 and 1995. Air shows Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as it is a chance to enter airfields and Air Force Bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. The most popular event in Europe is the Royal International Air Tattoo in the United Kingdom. Legal ramifications The high engine position on this USAF A-10 Thunderbolt makes identification easy The legal repercussions of the hobby were dramatically shown in November 2001 when fourteen aircraft spotters (twelve British, two Dutch) were arrested by Greek police after being observed at an open day at the Greek Air Force base at Kalamata. They were charged with espionage, and faced a possible 20-year prison sentence if found guilty. After being held for six weeks, they were eventually released on £9,000 bail, and the charges reduced to the misdemeanour charge of illegal information collection. Confident of their innocence they returned for their trial in April 2002 and were stunned to be found guilty, with eight of the group sentenced to three years, the rest for one year. At their appeal a year later all were acquitted . "Plane-spotters 'ignored warnings'." BBC News, 25 April 2002. Retrieved: 14 March 2007. Quote: "Note-taking in conjunction with other activities may be detrimental (to Greek security)." "Greek court convicts plane-spotters." BBC News, 26 April 2002. Retrieved: 14 March 2007. Quote: "The verdict bears no relation whatsoever to the evidence given." "How did plane-spotters end up as spies?" BBC News, 26 April 2002. Retrieved: 14 March 2007. Quote: "I would warn that spotting in Greece is still not particularly liked by the authorities and without our contacts at the Greek Ministry of Defence, which helped on a number of occasions, the trip might have been a little longer than anticipated!" Fight against terrorism In the wake of the targeting of airports by terrorists, enthusiasts' organisations and the police in the UK have co-operated in drawing up a code of conduct. This attempts to allow enthusiasts to continue their hobby and to increase security around airports, by asking enthusiasts to contact police if they believe something they see or hear is suspicious. "Plane-spotters join terror fight." bbc.co.uk, 4 May 2004 Retrieved: 16 September 2007. Quote: "Police and BAA are recruiting aviation enthusiasts to help fight terrorism at London's Heathrow Airport." Extraordinary rendition Following the events of 9/11 information collected by planespotters helped uncover what is known as extraordinary rendition by the CIA. Information on unusual movements of rendition aircraft provided data which led first to news reports and then to a number of governmental and inter-governmental investigations Torture Taxi, Trevor Paglen and A.C.Thompson, Icon Books, UK 2007 . See also Spotters and photographers enjoy seeing aircraft in special colour schemes. This is a Boeing 747-400 of Malaysia Airlines Bus spotting Train spotting Birding Butterfly watching Airliners.net Satellite watching References Notes Bibliography Eden, Paul and Dave Windle. Civil Aircraft Recognition. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: The Crowood Press Ltd., 1992. ISBN 1-84037-253-2. External links Plane spotting links at DMOZ Plane Spotting World A Wiki for Spotters | Aircraft_spotting |@lemmatized spotter:14 são:1 paulo:1 guarulhos:1 international:2 airport:6 control:1 tower:1 take:2 photograph:1 aeroflot:1 boeing:2 aircraft:28 spotting:2 plane:8 observation:2 log:1 registration:2 number:7 glider:1 power:1 balloon:1 airship:1 helicopter:1 microlights:1 spot:7 observer:3 notice:2 key:1 attribute:1 may:6 distinctive:1 noise:1 engine:3 vapour:1 trail:1 leave:1 assess:1 size:1 type:4 position:4 another:1 clue:3 wing:2 relative:2 fuselage:2 degree:1 swept:1 rearward:1 fix:2 midpoint:1 perhaps:3 biplane:1 triplane:1 tailplane:1 fin:2 shape:1 also:2 antique:1 light:1 might:4 tail:1 wheel:2 undercarriage:1 others:1 retractable:1 feature:1 include:2 speed:1 cockpit:1 placement:1 colour:2 scheme:2 special:2 equipment:1 change:1 silhouette:1 together:1 enable:1 identification:2 familiar:1 airfield:2 use:3 normal:1 traffic:2 pattern:1 likely:1 leap:1 quickly:1 decision:1 identity:1 see:9 angle:1 many:1 time:2 style:1 photographer:2 watch:2 landing:1 srilankan:1 airline:3 airbus:1 london:2 heathrow:2 note:3 compile:1 marking:2 national:1 insignia:1 livery:1 logo:1 squadron:1 badge:1 code:2 letter:1 case:1 military:3 publish:1 manual:1 allow:2 information:4 deduce:1 delivery:1 date:1 manufacturer:1 construction:1 camouflage:1 differ:1 depend:1 surroundings:1 expect:1 operate:3 ancillary:1 activity:2 listen:1 air:6 transmission:1 radio:1 scanner:1 legal:3 liaise:1 clear:1 uncertainty:1 specific:1 particular:2 place:2 hobbyist:1 travel:1 long:2 distance:1 visit:1 different:1 usual:1 one:2 unusual:2 view:1 remains:1 withdrawn:1 eventually:2 care:1 museum:1 aviation:2 archaeology:1 cannibalise:1 order:1 repair:1 similar:2 already:1 preserve:1 competitive:1 get:1 thrill:1 operator:1 civil:2 find:3 serial:2 book:2 review:1 magazine:1 like:2 scramble:1 english:1 dutch:2 usually:3 consider:1 inveterate:1 field:1 hostility:1 world:2 war:2 ii:1 subsequent:1 cold:1 country:1 encourage:1 citizen:1 become:1 corp:2 public:3 body:1 reason:1 security:3 britain:1 royal:2 show:3 draw:2 large:1 chance:1 enter:1 force:2 base:2 worldwide:1 close:2 displayed:1 range:1 popular:1 event:2 europe:1 tattoo:1 united:1 kingdom:1 ramification:1 high:1 usaf:1 thunderbolt:1 make:1 easy:1 repercussion:1 hobby:2 dramatically:1 november:1 fourteen:1 twelve:1 british:1 two:1 arrest:1 greek:5 police:4 observe:1 open:1 day:1 kalamata:1 charge:3 espionage:1 face:1 possible:1 year:4 prison:1 sentence:2 guilty:2 hold:1 six:1 week:1 release:1 bail:1 reduce:1 misdemeanour:1 illegal:1 collection:1 confident:1 innocence:1 return:1 trial:1 april:4 stun:1 eight:1 group:1 three:1 rest:1 appeal:1 later:1 acquit:1 ignore:1 warning:1 bbc:4 news:4 retrieve:4 march:3 quote:4 taking:1 conjunction:1 detrimental:1 court:1 convict:1 verdict:1 bear:1 relation:1 whatsoever:1 evidence:1 give:1 end:1 spy:1 would:1 warn:1 greece:1 still:1 particularly:1 authority:1 without:1 contact:2 ministry:1 defence:1 help:3 occasion:1 trip:1 little:1 anticipated:1 fight:3 terrorism:2 wake:1 targeting:1 terrorist:1 enthusiast:4 organisation:1 uk:4 co:2 conduct:1 attempt:1 continue:1 increase:1 around:1 ask:1 believe:1 something:1 hear:1 suspicious:1 join:1 terror:1 september:1 baa:1 recruit:1 extraordinary:2 rendition:3 follow:1 collect:1 planespotters:1 uncover:1 know:1 cia:1 movement:1 provide:1 data:1 lead:1 first:1 report:1 governmental:2 inter:1 investigation:1 torture:1 taxi:1 trevor:1 paglen:1 c:1 thompson:1 icon:1 enjoy:1 malaysia:1 bus:1 train:1 bird:1 butterfly:1 airliner:1 net:1 satellite:1 watching:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 eden:1 paul:1 dave:1 windle:1 recognition:1 ramsbury:1 marlborough:1 wiltshire:1 crowood:1 press:1 ltd:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:2 dmoz:1 wiki:1 |@bigram são_paulo:1 heathrow_airport:2 plane_spotter:5 bbc_news:3 extraordinary_rendition:2 inter_governmental:1 airliner_net:1 ramsbury_marlborough:1 uk_crowood:1 crowood_press:1 external_link:1 |
143 | English_country_dance | English Country Dance is a form of folk dance. It is a social dance form, which has earliest documented instances in the late 16th century. Queen Elizabeth I of England is noted to have been entertained by "Country Dancing," although the relationship of the dances she saw to the surviving dances of the mid-17th century is disputed. English Country Dance was popular well into the Baroque and Regency eras. Whereas several figures common to English Country Dance, e.g. arming and the straight hey, are found in the traditional dances and display dances such as morris, ECD's origins rest among the gentry, first at court, then spreading to bourgeois-London, finally moving into country manors around England. History Published instructions for English Country Dance first appear in John Playford's The English Dancing Master of 1651. This collection was reprinted, revised, and enlarged many times, with a final edition published sometime around 1728. http://www.earthlydelights.com.au/english2.htm Online Playford Dance Reconstructions from The Dancing Master by John Playford (editions 1651 through 1728) Playford was not the author or choreographer of these dances; he was a music publisher, for whom dance manuals were a profitable sideline. By the early 18th century, other publishers began to issue collections of dances as well; a conservative estimate of the number of dances in the English style published between 1651 and 1810 would run to around 2,000. Most of the dances we have from the 17th and 18th centuries are anonymous, notable exceptions being Nathaniel Kynaston and Thomas Bray. Most of these dance collections, unfortunately, offer little or nothing by way of description of steps; at best, they suggest 'floor tracks.' English Country Dance was also popular in France. André Lorin visited the English court in the late 17th century and after returning to France he presented a manuscript of dances in the English manner to Louis XIV. In 1706 Raoul Auger Feuillet published his Recüeil de Contredances, a collection of "contredanse anglais" presented in a simplified form of Beauchamp-Feuillet notation and including some dances invented by the author as well as authentic English dances. This was subsequently translated into English by John Essex and published in England as For the Further Improvement of Dancing. Copies of these books may be found online. Recüeil de Contredances (1706) by Raoul Auger Feuillet, and For the furthur Improvement of Dancing (1710) by John Essex In the early 20th century, ECD was revived in England by Cecil Sharp, who also was known for collecting folksongs. ECD continues today as a social dancing form, in Britain, the United States, and around the world. There are several related dance forms, such as Scottish country dance, Contra dance, and perhaps square dance. There is also English Ceilidh style; a very energetic form that uses simple country dances, newly composed dances and traditional dances that were collected in the twentieth century. Dance Interpretation (Reconstruction) Although John Playford used the sub-title Plaine and easie Rules for the Dancing of Country Dnces, with the Tune to each Dance, anyone who studies the book now will quickly discover that this is not true. The style is very condensed, with many mistakes, possibly as a quick reminder to people who had danced the dances before and knew exactly what the terms meant. When Cecil Sharp produced his interpretations he was working in the dark, and others have built on (and sometimes disagreed with) his work. Later interpreters include Douglas and Helen Kennedy, Pat Shaw, Tom Cook, Ken Sheffield, Charles Bolton, Michael Barraclough, Colin Hume and Andrew Shaw. Some are concerned with producing something as close as possible to the original; others will introduce major changes in order to make the dance more interesting. Some (modern) English Country Dance terms Active Couple - for long-ways sets with more than one couple dancing, the active couple is the couple doing the more complicated movement during any given portion of the dance. For duple dances, that is every other couple, and for triple dances, or every third couple is the active couple. The term is applicable to triplet dances, where typically the active couple is the only couple that is active. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, only the active couple--the "1st couple"--initiated the action, other couples supporting their movements and joining in as needed, until they also took their turn as leading couples. Arm right (or left) - couples link arms and move forward, returning to their starting positions. Back to back - facing another person, move forward passing right shoulders and fall back to place passing left. May also start by passing left and falling back right. Called a do si do in other dance forms (and dos-à-dos in France). Balance back - a single backward. Both hands - two dancers face each other and give hands right to left and left to right. Cast off - turn outward and dance outside the set. Cast up (or down) - turn outward and dance up (or down) outside the set. Changes (starting right or left) - like the circular hey, but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey). The number of changes is given first (e.g. two changes, three changes, etc). Chassé - slipping step to right or left as directed. Circular hey - dancers face partners or along the line and pass right and left alternating a stated number of changes. Usually done without hands, the circular hey may also be done by more than two couples facing alternately and moving in opposite directions - usually to their original places. This name for the figure seems rather modern, since "hey" also means certain long, and not circular, objects (e. g. fences). Nonetheless, some early country dances calling for heys have been interpreted in modern times using circular heys. In early dances, where the hey is called a "double hey", it works to interpret this as an oval hey, like the modern circular hey but adapted to the straight sides of a longways formation. Clockwise - in a ring, move to one's left. In a turn single turn to the right. Contrary - your contrary is not your partner. In Playford's original notation, this term meant the same thing that Corner (or sometimes Opposite) means today. Corner - in a two-couple set, the dancer diagonally opposite, i.e., the first man and the second woman, first woman and second man. Counter-clockwise - the opposite of clockwise - in a ring, move right. In a turn single, turn to the left. Cross hands - face and give left to left and right to right. Cross over - cross with another dancer passing right. Cross over one couple - cross as above and go outside below one couple ending improper. Double - four steps forward or back, closing the feet on the 4th step (see "Single" below). Fall (back) - dance backwards. Figure of 8- a weaving figure in which dancers pass between two standing people and move around them in a figure 8 pattern. A full figure of 8 returns the dancer to original position; a half figure of 8 leaves the dancer on the opposite side of the set from original position. In doing this figure, the man lets his partner pass in front of him. Forward - lead or move in the direction you are facing. Gip or Gypsy - two dancers move around each other in a circular path facing outward or towards the center as directed (4 bars). Hands across - right or left hands are given to corners, and dancers move in the direction they face. Hands three, four etc. - the designated number of dancers form a ring and move around in the direction indicated, usually first to the left and back to the right. Hey - a weaving figure in which two groups of dancers move in single file and in opposite directions (see circular hey and straight hey). Honour - couples step forward and right, close, shift weight, and curtsey or bow, then repeat to their left. In the time of Playford's original manual, a woman's curtsey was similar to the modern one, but a man's honour (or reverence) kept the upper body upright and involved sliding the left leg forward while bending the right knee. Lead - couples join inside hands and walk up or down the set. Mad Robin - a back to back with your neighbor while maintaining eye-contact with your partner across the set. Men take one step forward and then slide to the right passing in front of their neighbour, then step backwards and slide left behind their neighbour. Conversely women take one step backwards and then slide to the left passing behind of their neighbour, then step forwards and slide right in front of their neighbour. The term Mad Robin comes from the name of a dance which has the move. Neighbour - the person you are standing beside, but not your partner. Opposite - the person you are facing. Pass - change places with another dancer moving forward and passing by the right shoulder, unless otherwise directed. Pousette - two dancers face, give both hands and change places as a couple with two adjacent dancers. One pair moves a double toward one wall, the other toward the other wall. In this half-pousette, couples pass around each other diagonally. To complete the pousette, move in the opposite direction. Dancers end in their original places. In a similar movement, the Draw Pousette, the dancing pairs move on a U-shaped track with one dancer of the pair always moving forwards. Right & left - like the circular hey, but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey). Sides - Two dancers, partners by default if not otherwise specified, go forward in four counts to meet side by side, then back in four counts to where they started the figure. As depicted by Feuillet, this is done right side by right side the first time, left by left the second time. Single - two steps in any direction closing feet on the second step (the second step tends to be interpreted as a closing action in which weight usually stays on the same foot as before, consistent with descriptions from Renaissance sources). Straight hey for four - dancers face alternately, the two in the middle facing out. Dancers pass right shoulders on either end and weave to the end opposite. If the last pass at the end is by the right. the dancer turns right and reenters the line by the same shoulder; vice versa if the last pass was to the left. Dancers end in their original places. Straight hey for three - the first dancer faces the other two and passes right shoulders with the second dancer, left shoulder with the third - the other dancers moving and passing the indicated shoulder. On making the last pass, each dancer makes a whole turn on the end, bearing right if the last pass was by the right shoulder or left if last pass was by the left, and reenters the figure returning to place. Each dancer describes a figure of eight pattern. Swing - a turn with two hands, but moving faster and making more than one revolution. Three hands across or Three hands star - two dancers join right or left hands. Third dancer places right or left hand on top. Dancers move in the direction they face. Turn - face, give both hands, and make a complete circular, clockwise turn to place. Turn by right or left - dancers join right (or left) hands and turn around, separate, and fall to places. Turn single - dancers turn around in four steps. 'Turn single right shoulder' is a clockwise turn; 'turn single left shoulder' is a counterclockwise turn. References See also Related Forms English Ceilidh Contra dance Choreography and figures in contra dances Folk dance Quadrille Square dance Social dance Origins Cecil Sharp John Playford The Dancing Master External links Dance Associations Country Dance and Song Society is a United States umbrella organization whose members enjoy English dance. Country Dance*New York runs English and contra dance events in New York City. Country Dance Society, Boston Centre runs English and contra dances in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Earthly Delights run dance classes and balls in Australia. ECD around the United States A list of English dance series. English Folk Dance and Song Society has an online shop selling books and compact disks. Felpham & Middleton Country Dance Club has written a history from 1933 - 1994, just about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance clubs in England. Society for Creative Anachronism practices many English country dances in a historical context. The Leesburg Assembly is an English Country Dance community centered in Northern Virginia, USA. History links A multi-edition transcription of Playford's The Dancing Master, compiled by Robert M. Keller, hosted by the University of New Hampshire's New Hampshire Library of Traditional Music & Dance. A transcription of the first edition of Playford's The Dancing Master. The Colonial Dancing Master Books and recordings. Alan Winston's history survey English Country Dance and its American Cousin Gene Murrow's comments on the history of ECD Nicole Salomone's http://www.originsofplayforddance.com Interpretation links Michael Barraclough Colin Hume Patri J. 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144 | Pliocene | The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in older texts) is the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.332 million to 2.588 See the 2009 version of the ICS geologic time scale: million years before present. The Pliocene is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene period in the Cenozoic era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene epoch. The Pliocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. The name comes from the Greek words (pleion, "more") and (kainos, "new") and means roughly "continuation of the recent", referring to the essentially modern marine mollusc faunas. As with other older geologic periods, the geological strata that define the start and end are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the epoch are slightly uncertain. The boundaries defining the onset of the Pliocene are not set at an easily identified worldwide event but rather at regional boundaries between the warmer Miocene and the relatively cooler Pliocene. The upper boundary was set at the start of the Pleistocene glaciations. Subdivisions In the official timescale of the ICS, the Pliocene is subdivided into two stages. From youngest to oldest they are: Piacenzian (3.600–2.588 Ma) Zanclean (5.332–3.600 Ma) The Piacenzian is sometimes referred to as the Late Pliocene, whereas the Zanclean is referred to as the Early Pliocene. In the system of North American Land Mammal Ages the Pliocene overlaps with two stages: the Blancan (4.75–1.806 Ma) and Hemphillian (9–4.75 Ma). In the system of South American Land Mammal Ages, the Pliocene overlaps with the Montehermosan (6.8-4.0 Ma), Chapadmalalan (4.0-3.0 Ma) and Uquian (3.0-1.2 Ma). In the Paratethys area (central Europe and parts of western Asia) the Pliocene contains the Dacian (roughly equal to the Zanclean) and Romanian (roughly equal to the Piacenzian and Gelasian together) stages. As usual in stratigraphy, there are many other regional and local subdivisions in use. Climate Climates became cooler and drier, and seasonal, similar to modern climates. Ice sheets grew on Antarctica during the Pliocene. The formation of an Arctic ice cap around 3 mya is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds. Van Andel (1994), p. 226. Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch. The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas. Paleogeography Continents continued to drift, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 km from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations. South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, making possible the Great American Interchange and bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive large marsupial predator and native ungulate faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between Alaska and Asia. Pliocene marine rocks are well exposed in the Mediterranean, India, and China. Elsewhere, they are exposed largely near shores. Flora The change to a cooler, dry, seasonal climate had considerable impacts on Pliocene vegetation, reducing tropical species worldwide. Deciduous forests proliferated, coniferous forests and tundra covered much of the north, and grasslands spread on all continents (except Antarctica). Tropical forests were limited to a tight band around the equator, and in addition to dry savannahs, deserts appeared in Asia and Africa. Fauna Both marine and continental faunas were essentially modern, although continental faunas were a bit more primitive than today. The first recognizable hominins, the australopithecines, appeared in the Pliocene. The land mass collisions meant great migration and mixing of previously isolated species, such as in the Great American Interchange. Herbivores got bigger, as did specialized predators. Examples of migrant species in the Americas after the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. Olive green silhouettes denote North American species with South American ancestors; blue silhouettes denote South American species of North American origin. Mammals In North America, rodents, large mastodonts and gomphotheres, and opossums continued successfully, while hoofed animals (ungulates) declined, with camel, deer and horse all seeing populations recede. Rhinos, three toed horses (Nannipus), oreodonts, protoceratids, and chalicotheres went extinct. Borophagine dogs went extinct, but other carnivores including the weasel family diversified, and dogs and fast-running hunting bears did well. Ground sloths, huge glyptodonts and armadillos came north with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. In Eurasia rodents did well, while primate distribution declined. Elephants, gomphotheres and stegodonts were successful in Asia, and hyraxes migrated north from Africa. Horse diversity declined, while tapirs and rhinos did fairly well. Cows and antelopes were successful, and some camel species crossed into Asia from North America. Hyenas and early saber-toothed cats appeared, joining other predators including dogs, bears and weasels. Human evolution during the Pliocene Africa was dominated by hoofed animals, and primates continued their evolution, with australopithecines (some of the first hominids) appearing in the late Pliocene. Rodents were successful, and elephant populations increased. Cows and antelopes continued diversification and overtaking pigs in numbers of species. Early giraffes appeared, and camels migrated via Asia from North America. Horses and modern rhinos came onto the scene. Bears, dogs and weasels (originally from North America) joined cats, hyenas and civets as the African predators, forcing hyenas to adapt as specialized scavengers. South America was invaded by North American species for the first time since the Cretaceous, with North American rodents and primates mixing with southern forms. Litopterns and the notoungulates, South American natives, were mostly wiped out, except for the macrauchenids and toxodonts, which managed to survive. Small weasel-like carnivorous mustelids and coatis migrated from the north. Grazing glyptodonts, browsing giant ground sloths and smaller caviomorph rodents, pampatheres, and armadillos did the opposite, migrating to the north and thriving there. The marsupials remained the dominant Australian mammals, with herbivore forms including wombats and kangaroos, and the huge diprotodonts. Carnivorous marsupials continued hunting in the Pliocene, including dasyurids, the dog-like thylacine and cat-like Thylacoleo. The first rodents arrived in Australia as did bats. The modern platypus, a monotreme, appeared. Birds Titanis. The predatory South American phorusrhacids were rare in this time; among the last was Titanis, a large phorusrhacid that migrated to North America and rivaled mammals as top predator. Its distinct feature was its claws, which had re-evolved for grasping prey, such as Hipparion. Other birds probably evolved at this time, some modern, some now extinct. Reptiles Alligators and crocodiles died out in Europe as the climate cooled. Venomous snake genera continued to increase as more rodents and birds evolved. Rattlesnakes first appeared in the Pliocene. The modern species Alligator mississippiensis, having evolved in the Miocene, continued into the Pliocene, except with a more northern range; specimens have been found in very late Miocene deposits of Tennessee. Giant tortoises still thrived in North America, with genera like Hesperotestudo. Madtsoid snakes were still present in Australia. Oceans Oceans continued to be relatively warm during the Pliocene, though they continued cooling. The Arctic ice cap formed, drying the climate and increasing cool shallow currents in the North Atlantic. Deep cold currents flowed from the Antarctic. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 3.5 million years ago cut off the final remnant of what was once essentially a circum-equatorial current that had existed since the Cretaceous and the early Cenozoic. This may have contributed to further cooling of the oceans worldwide. The Pliocene seas were alive with sea cows, seals and sea lions. Supernovae In 2002, astronomers discovered that roughly 2 million years ago, around the end of the Pliocene epoch, a group of bright O and B stars called the Scorpius-Centaurus OB association passed within 150 light-years of Earth and that one or more supernovae may have occurred in this group at that time. Such a close explosion could have damaged the Earth's ozone layer and caused the extinction of some ocean life (consider that at its peak, a supernova of this size could have the same absolute magnitude as an entire galaxy of 200 billion stars). Comins & Kaufmann (2005), p. 359. See also List of fossil sites (with link directory) References Further reading ; 2004: A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press. External links Mid-Pliocene Global Warming: NASA/GISS Climate Modeling Palaeos Pliocene PBS Change: Deep Time: Pliocene Possible Pliocene supernova "Supernova dealt deaths on Earth? Stellar blasts may have killed ancient marine life" Science News Online retrieved February 2, 2002 UCMP Berkeley Pliocene Epoch Page | Pliocene |@lemmatized pliocene:31 epoch:8 spelled:1 pleiocene:1 old:3 text:1 period:3 geologic:4 timescale:2 extend:1 million:4 see:3 version:1 ic:2 time:7 scale:2 year:4 present:3 second:1 young:2 neogene:1 cenozoic:2 era:1 follow:2 miocene:4 pleistocene:2 name:2 sir:1 charles:1 lyell:1 come:3 greek:1 word:1 pleion:1 kainos:1 new:1 mean:2 roughly:4 continuation:1 recent:1 refer:3 essentially:3 modern:7 marine:4 mollusc:1 fauna:5 geological:1 stratum:1 define:2 start:3 end:5 well:5 identify:2 exact:1 date:1 slightly:1 uncertain:1 boundary:3 onset:1 set:2 easily:1 worldwide:3 event:1 rather:1 regional:2 warmer:1 relatively:2 cool:4 upper:1 glaciation:2 subdivision:2 official:1 subdivide:1 two:2 stage:3 piacenzian:3 zanclean:3 sometimes:1 late:3 whereas:1 early:4 system:2 north:20 american:12 land:4 mammal:5 age:2 overlap:2 blancan:1 hemphillian:1 south:8 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145 | Doctor_Who | Doctor Who is a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC. The programme depicts the adventures of a mysterious alien time-traveller known as "the Doctor" who travels in his space and time-ship, the TARDIS, which normally appears from the exterior to be a blue 1950s police box. With his companions, he explores time and space, solving problems, facing monsters and righting wrongs. The programme is listed in Guinness World Records as the longest-running science fiction television show in the world and is also a significant part of British popular culture. It has been recognised for its imaginative stories, creative low-budget special effects during its original run, and pioneering use of electronic music (originally produced by the BBC Radiophonic Workshop). In the United Kingdom and elsewhere, the show has become a cult television favourite and has influenced generations of British television professionals, many of whom grew up watching the series. It has received recognition from critics and the public as one of the finest British television programmes, including the BAFTA Award for Best Drama Series in 2006. The programme originally ran from 1963 to 1989. After an unsuccessful attempt to revive regular production with a backdoor pilot in the form of a 1996 television film, the programme was successfully relaunched in 2005, produced in-house by BBC Wales in Cardiff. The first three seasons of the new series had some development money contributed by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), which was credited as a co-producer. Doctor Who has also spawned spin-offs in multiple media, including the current television programmes Torchwood and The Sarah Jane Adventures, and a single 1981 pilot episode of K-9 and Company. The show's protagonist, the Doctor, has been played by ten actors over the history of the show so far. The transition from one actor to another is written into the plot of the show as regeneration, and the different parts are often treated as distinct characters to the extent that in some time travel plots they encounter one another and work together. The Doctor is currently portrayed by David Tennant. In the programme's most recent series, which ran from 5 April to 5 July 2008, Catherine Tate played the Doctor's companion, reprising her role of Donna Noble from the 2006 Christmas special. A Christmas special, entitled "The Next Doctor", was broadcast in 2008 and will be followed by four more specials in 2009 and early 2010. The first of these was an Easter special titled "Planet of the Dead", which broadcast in April 2009, and the next one will be named "The Waters of Mars"; the next full series, Series 5, has been confirmed to air in 2010. Tennant announced at the 2008 National Television Awards that after appearing in the four 2009–2010 Doctor Who specials, he will leave the role. The Eleventh Doctor will be portrayed by Matt Smith. Smith was 26 years old at the time of his casting, making him the youngest actor to be cast in the role. Karen Gillan, who played a soothsayer in the episode "The Fires of Pompeii", will play the Eleventh Doctor's companion. History Doctor Who first appeared on BBC television at 5:15 p.m. (GMT) on 23 November 1963, Howe, Stammers, Walker (1994), p. 54 following discussions and plans that had been in progress for a year. The Head of Drama, Sydney Newman, was mainly responsible for developing it, with the first format document for the series being written by Newman along with the Head of the Script Department (later Head of Serials) Donald Wilson and staff writer C. E. Webber. Writer Anthony Coburn, story editor David Whitaker and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series. Howe, Stammers, Walker (1994), pp. 157–230 ("Production Diary")Newman is often given sole creator credit for the series. Some reference works such as The Complete Encyclopedia of Television Programs 1947–1979 by Vincent Terrace erroneously credit Terry Nation with creating Doctor Who, due to the way his name is credited in the two Peter Cushing films.Newman and Lambert's role in originating the series was recognised in the 2007 episode "Human Nature", in which the Doctor, in disguise as a human named John Smith, gives his parents' names as Sydney and Verity. The series' title theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop. Richards, p. 23 The programme was originally intended to appeal to a family audience. Howe, Stammers, Walker (1992), p. 3 The BBC drama department's Serials division produced the programme for 26 series, broadcast on BBC One. Viewing numbers that had fallen (though comparably increased at some points), a decline in the public perception of the show and a less prominent transmission slot saw production suspended in 1989 by Jonathan Powell, Controller of BBC One. Although it was effectively cancelled (as series co-star Sophie Aldred reported in the documentary Doctor Who: More Than 30 Years in the TARDIS), the BBC said the series would return. While in-house production had ceased, the BBC was hopeful of finding an independent production company to relaunch the show. Philip Segal, a British expatriate who worked for Columbia Pictures' television arm in the United States, approached the BBC about such a venture. Segal's negotiations eventually led to a television film. The Doctor Who television film was broadcast on the Fox Network in 1996 as a co-production between Fox, Universal Pictures, the BBC and BBC Worldwide. Although the film was successful in the UK (with 9.1 million viewers), it was less so in the United States and did not lead to a series. Licensed media such as novels and audio plays provided new stories, but as a television programme Doctor Who remained dormant until 2003. In September of that year, BBC Television announced the in-house production of a new series after several years of unsuccessful attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version. The executive producers of the new incarnation of the series are writer Russell T Davies and BBC Wales Head of Drama/BBC Television Controller of Drama Commissioning Julie Gardner. It has been sold to many other countries worldwide (see Viewership). Doctor Who finally returned with the episode "Rose" on BBC One on 26 March 2005. There have been three further series in 2006, 2007, and 2008 and Christmas Day specials in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008. The fourth series began on BBC One on 5 April 2008. There will be a rest year in 2009, with no new series, although David Tennant will star in four specials. After the 2008 Christmas special and four special episodes in 2009, a fifth full-length series is planned for Spring 2010, , note that Tennant is confirmed for the 2009 specials. with Steven Moffat replacing Davies as head writer and executive producer. The 2005–present version of Doctor Who is considered a direct continuation of the 1963–89 series, as is the 1996 telefilm. This differs from other series relaunches that have either been reimaginings or reboots (e.g., Battlestar Galactica and Bionic Woman) or series taking place in the same universe as the original but with a totally new cast of characters (e.g., Star Trek: The Next Generation and spin-offs). Outpost Gallifrey: TV Series FAQ Public consciousness The programme rapidly became a national institution in the United Kingdom, with a large following among the general viewing audience. Many renowned actors asked for or were offered and accepted guest starring roles in various stories. With popularity came controversy over the show's suitability for children. Moral campaigner Mary Whitehouse repeatedly complained to the BBC in the 1970s over what she saw as the show's frightening or gory content; however, the programme became even more popular—especially with children. John Nathan-Turner, who produced the series during the 1980s, was heard to say that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments, as the show's ratings would increase soon after she had made them. During the 1970s, the Radio Times, the BBC's listings magazine, announced that a child's mother said the theme music terrified her son. The Radio Times was apologetic, but the theme music remained. There were more complaints about the programme's content than its music. During Jon Pertwee's second season as the Doctor, in the serial Terror of the Autons (1971), images of murderous plastic dolls, daffodils killing unsuspecting victims and blank-featured android policemen marked the apex of the show's ability to frighten children. Other notable moments in that decade included the Doctor apparently being drowned by Chancellor Goth in The Deadly Assassin (1976) and the allegedly negative portrayal of Chinese people in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (1977). It has been said that watching Doctor Who from a position of safety "behind the sofa" (as the Doctor Who exhibition at the Museum of the Moving Image in London was titled) and peering cautiously out to see if the frightening part was over is one of the great shared experiences of British childhood. The phrase has become commonly used in association with the programme and occasionally elsewhere. A BBC audience research survey conducted in 1972 found that by their own definition of "any act(s) which may cause physical and / or psychological injury, hurt or death to persons, animals or property, whether intentional or accidental", Doctor Who was the most violent of all the drama programmes the corporation then produced. The same report found that 3% of the surveyed audience regarded the show as "very unsuitable" for family viewing. However, responding to the findings of the survey in The Times newspaper, journalist Philip Howard maintained that: "to compare the violence of Dr Who, sired by a horse-laugh out of a nightmare, with the more realistic violence of other television series, where actors who look like human beings bleed paint that looks like blood, is like comparing Monopoly with the property market in London: both are fantasies, but one is meant to be taken seriously." The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the show in the public's consciousness. In 1996, the BBC applied for a trademark to use the TARDIS' blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who. In 1998, the Metropolitan Police filed an objection to the trademark claim; in 2002 the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC. The programme's broad appeal attracts audiences of children and families as well as science fiction fans. It has been described as popular in gay culture owing to its camp tendencies . The 21st century revival of the programme has become the centrepiece of BBC One's Saturday schedule, and has "defined the channel". Since its return, Doctor Who has consistently received high ratings, both in number of viewers and as measured by the Appreciation Index. In 2007, Caitlin Moran, television reviewer for The Times, wrote that Doctor Who is "quintessential to being British". The film director Steven Spielberg has commented that "the world would be a poorer place without Doctor Who." Episodes Doctor Who originally ran for 26 series (seasons) on BBC One, from 23 November 1963 until 6 December 1989. During the original run, each weekly episode formed part of a story (or "serial")—usually of four to six parts in earlier years and three to four in later years. Notable exceptions were the epic The Daleks' Master Plan, which aired in twelve episodes (plus an earlier one-episode teaser, "Mission to the Unknown", featuring none of the regular cast) The Daleks' Master Plan. Writers Terry Nation and Dennis Spooner, Director Douglas Camfield, Producer John Wiles. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC One, London. 13 November 1965–29 January 1966. , almost an entire series (season) of 7-episode serials (season 7), the 10-episode serial The War Games, The War Games. Writers Malcolm Hulke and Terrance Dicks, Director David Maloney, Producer Derrick Sherwin. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC One, London. 19 April 1969–21 June 1969. and The Trial of a Time Lord, which ran for 14 episodes (albeit divided into three production codes and four narrative segments) during Season 23. The Trial of a Time Lord. Writers Robert Holmes, Philip Martin and Pip and Jane Baker, Directors Nicholas Mallett, Ron Jones and Chris Clough, Producer John Nathan-Turner. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC One, London. 6 September 1986–6 December 1986. Occasionally serials were loosely connected by a storyline, such as Season 16's quest for The Key to Time or Season 18's journey through E-Space and the theme of entropy. The programme was intended to be educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule. Initially, it alternated stories set in the past, which taught younger audience members about history, with stories set either in the future or in outer space to teach them about science. This was also reflected in the Doctor's original companions, one of whom was a science teacher and another a history teacher. However, science fiction stories came to dominate the programme and the "historicals", which were not popular with the production team, were dropped after The Highlanders (1967). While the show continued to use historical settings, they were generally used as a backdrop for science fiction tales, with one exception: Black Orchid set in 1920s UK. Black Orchid. Writer Terence Dudley, Director Ron Jones, Producer John Nathan-Turner. Doctor Who. BBC. BBC One, London. 1 March 1982–2 March 1982. The early stories were serial-like in nature, with the narrative of one story flowing into the next, and each episode having its own title, although produced as distinct stories with their own production codes. Following The Gunfighters (1966), however, each serial was given its own title, with the individual parts simply being assigned episode numbers. What to name these earlier stories is often a subject of fan debate. Writers during the original run included Terry Nation, Henry Lincoln, Douglas Adams, Robert Holmes, Terrance Dicks, Dennis Spooner, Eric Saward, Malcolm Hulke, Christopher H. Bidmead, Stephen Gallagher, Brian Hayles, Robert Sloman, Chris Boucher, Peter Grimwade, Marc Platt and Ben Aaronovitch. The serial format changed for the 2005 revival, with each series consisting of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with adverts, on overseas commercial channels), and an extended episode broadcast on Christmas Day. Each series includes several standalone and multi-part stories, linked with a loose story arc that resolves in the series finale. As in the early "classic" era, each episode—whether standalone or part of a larger story—has its own title. 752 Doctor Who instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging between 25-minute episodes (the most common format), 45-minute episodes (for Resurrection of the Daleks in the 1984 series, a single season in 1985, and the revival), two feature-length productions (1983's "The Five Doctors" and the 1996 television film), three 60-minute Christmas specials and a 72 minute Christmas Special in 2007. The revived series was filmed in PAL 576i DigiBeta wide-screen format and then filmised to give a 25p image in post-production using a Snell & Wilcox Alchemist Platinum. Starting from the 2009 special "Planet of the Dead", the series is filmed in 1080p for HDTV, and broadcast simultaneously on BBC One and BBC HD. Missing episodes Between about 1964 and 1974, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's various video tape and film libraries were either destroyed The tapes, based on a 405-line broadcast standard, were rendered obsolete when UK television changed to a 625-line signal in preparation for the soon-to-begin colour transmissions. or simply wiped. This included many old episodes of Doctor Who, mostly stories featuring the first three Doctors—William Hartnell, Patrick Troughton and Jon Pertwee. Following consolidations and recoveries the archives are complete from the programme's move to colour television (starting from Jon Pertwee's time as the Doctor), although a few Pertwee episodes have required substantial restoration; a handful have been recovered only as black and white films, and several survive in colour only as NTSC copies recovered from North America (a few of which are domestic, off-air Betamax tape recordings, not transmission quality). In all, 108 of 253 episodes produced during the first six years of the programme are not held in the BBC's archives. It has been reported that in 1972 almost all episodes then made were known to exist at the BBC, whilst by 1978 the practice of wiping tapes had ended. Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries who bought copies for broadcast, or by private individuals who got them by various means. Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as excerpts filmed from the television screen onto 8 mm cine film and clips that were shown on other programmes. Audio versions of all of the lost episodes exist from home viewers who made tape recordings of the show. In addition to these, there are off-screen photographs made by photographer John Cura, who was hired by various production personnel to document many of their programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including Doctor Who. These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials. These amateur reconstructions have been tolerated by the BBC, provided they are not sold for profit and are distributed as low quality VHS copies. One of the most sought-after lost episodes is Part Four of the last William Hartnell serial, The Tenth Planet (1966), which ends with the First Doctor transforming into the Second. The only portion of this in existence, barring a few poor quality silent 8 mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene, as it was shown on the children's magazine show Blue Peter. With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now under way to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material. Starting in the early 1990s, the BBC began to release audio recordings of missing serials on cassette and compact disc, with linking narration provided by former series actors. "Official" reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS, on MP3 CD-ROM and as a special feature on a DVD. The BBC, in conjunction with animation studio Cosgrove Hall has reconstructed the missing Episodes 1 and 4 of The Invasion (1968) in animated form, using remastered audio tracks and the comprehensive stage notes for the original filming, for the serial's DVD release in November 2006. Although no similar reconstructions have been announced as of early 2007, Cosgrove Hall has expressed an interest in animating more lost episodes in the future. Flash Frames, a featurette included on the DVD release of The Invasion, BBC Video, 2006. In April 2006, Blue Peter launched a challenge to find these missing episodes with the promise of a full scale Dalek model. Characters The Doctor The character of the Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery. All that was known about him in the programme's early days was that he was an eccentric alien traveller of great intelligence who battled injustice while exploring time and space in an unreliable old time machine called the TARDIS, an acronym for Time And Relative Dimension(s) In Space. As it appears much larger on the inside than on the outside, the TARDIS has been described by the Third Doctor as "dimensionally transcendental" Now an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary the word "TARDIS" is often used to describe anything that appears larger on the inside than its exterior implies. and, due to a malfunction of its Chameleon Circuit, is stuck in the shape of a 1950s-style British police box. However, not only did the initially irascible and slightly sinister Doctor quickly mellow into a more compassionate figure, it was eventually revealed that he had been on the run from his own people, the Time Lords of the planet Gallifrey. As a Time Lord, the Doctor has the ability to regenerate his body when near death. Introduced into the storyline as a way of continuing the series when the writers were faced with the departure of lead actor William Hartnell in 1966, it has continued to be a major element of the series, allowing for the recasting of the lead actor when the need arises. The serial The Deadly Assassin established that a Time Lord can regenerate twelve times, for a total of thirteen incarnations (although at least one Time Lord, the Master, has managed to circumvent this). To date, the Doctor has gone through this process and its resulting after-effects on nine occasions, with each of his incarnations having his own quirks and abilities but otherwise sharing the memories and experience of the previous incarnations: The Doctor Played by Duration First Doctor William Hartnell 1963–1966 Earlier incarnations of the Doctor have occasionally appeared with the then incarnation in later plots. The First and Second Doctors appeared in the 1973 Third Doctor story, The Three Doctors; The First, Second, Third and Fourth appeared in the 1983 Fifth Doctor story, The Five Doctors; the Second appeared with the Sixth in the 1985 story, The Two Doctors; and the Fifth appeared with the Tenth in the 2007 mini-episode, "Time Crash". Second Doctor Patrick Troughton 1966–1969 Third Doctor Jon Pertwee 1970–1974 Fourth Doctor Tom Baker 1974–1981 Fifth Doctor Peter Davison 1981–1984 Sixth Doctor Colin Baker 1984–1986 Seventh Doctor Sylvester McCoy 1987–1989, 1996 BBC - Doctor Who - Classic Series - Episode Guide - Seventh Doctor Index Eighth Doctor Paul McGann 1996 Ninth Doctor Christopher Eccleston 2005 Tenth Doctor David Tennant 2005–2010 Eleventh Doctor Matt Smith 2010– There have been instances where actors have returned at later dates to reprise the role of their specific doctor. In 1973's The Three Doctors, William Hartnell and Patrick Troughton returned alongside Jon Pertwee. For 1983's The Five Doctors, Troughton and Pertwee returned to star with Peter Davison, while Hartnell and Tom Baker were shown in archive footage. Patrick Troughton again returned in 1985's The Two Doctors with Colin Baker. Finally, Peter Davison returned in 2007's Children in Need short "Time Crash" alongside David Tennant. There has also been an instance where another actor has replaced the original actor, such as when Richard Hurndall played the First Doctor in The Five Doctors following William Hartnell's death; this is the only example of a Doctor being played by two actors. For more information, see the list of actors who have played the Doctor. Despite these shifts in personality, the Doctor remains an intensely curious and highly moral adventurer who would rather solve problems with his wits than by using violence. Throughout the programme's long history there have been controversial revelations about the Doctor. In The Brain of Morbius (1976), it was hinted that the First Doctor may not have been the first incarnation (although the other faces depicted may have been incarnations of the Time Lord Morbius). In subsequent stories, the First Doctor has always been shown as the earliest incarnation of the Doctor. During the Seventh Doctor's era it was hinted that the Doctor was more than just an ordinary Time Lord. In the 1996 television movie, he describes himself as being "half human". The revelation has become controversial amongst series fans, given that there have been no references to the concept during the original or revived television series. BBC - Doctor Who - FAQ - Plot and Continuity The 2005 series reveals that the Ninth Doctor thought he had become the last surviving Time Lord, and that his home planet had been destroyed. The very first episode, An Unearthly Child, shows that the Doctor has a granddaughter, Susan Foreman; in "The Empty Child" (2005), in response to Constantine's statement that "before this war began, I was a father and a grandfather. Now I am neither", the Doctor remarks, "Yeah, I know the feeling"; and in both "Fear Her" (2006) and "The Doctor's Daughter" (2008), he states that he had, in the past, been a father. Also in the latter, his cells are used to produce a daughter (played by Georgia Moffett, the real-life daughter of Fifth Doctor actor Peter Davison) who is subsequently named Jenny by Donna as a result of his describing her as "a generated anomaly". Companions The Doctor almost always shares his adventures with up to three companions, and since 1963 more than 35 actors and actresses have featured in these roles. The First Doctor's original companions were his granddaughter Susan Foreman (Carole Ann Ford) and school teachers Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill) and Ian Chesterton (William Russell). The only story from the original series in which the Doctor travels alone is The Deadly Assassin. Dramatically, the companion characters provide a surrogate with whom the audience can identify, and serve to further the story by requesting exposition from the Doctor and manufacturing peril for the Doctor to resolve. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes — or loves — on worlds they have visited. Some have even died during the course of the series. Although the majority of the Doctor's companions have been young, attractive females, the production team for the 1963–1989 series maintained a long-standing taboo against any overt romantic involvement in the TARDIS. The taboo was controversially broken in the 1996 television film when the Eighth Doctor was shown kissing companion Grace Holloway. The 2005 series played with this idea by having various characters think that the Ninth Doctor and Rose (played by Billie Piper) were a couple, which they vehemently denied (see also "The Doctor and romance"). The idea of a possible involvement was suggested again in "Smith and Jones", when the Tenth Doctor kisses his soon-to-be new companion Martha Jones, although the Doctor insists that the kiss was simply for the purpose of 'genetic transfer'. In "The Unicorn and the Wasp", the Doctor is kissed by Donna Noble to shock him to neutralise a poison in his system, but again, a romantic purpose is unstated. Previous companions reappeared in the series, usually for anniversary specials. One former companion, Sarah Jane Smith (played by Elisabeth Sladen), together with the robotic dog K-9, appeared in an episode of the 2006 series more than twenty years after their last appearances in the 20th Anniversary story "The Five Doctors" (1983). Afterwards, the character was featured in the spinoff series The Sarah Jane Adventures. Sladen once again appeared as Sarah Jane in the final two episodes of the fourth season of the new Doctor Who, with K-9 appearing briefly in the final episode, "Journey's End". The latest companions of the Doctor included a large ensemble cast ranging from Catherine Tate reprising her role as Donna, Billie Piper as Rose, Noel Clarke as Mickey Smith, Freema Agyeman as Martha, Elisabeth Sladen as Sarah Jane and John Barrowman as Captain Jack, all of whom departed in the episode "Journey's End". Agyeman appeared as Martha Jones in three episodes of the spin-off series Torchwood before returning to Doctor Who halfway through the fourth series. Billie Piper briefly reprised her role as Rose Tyler in the fourth series episode "Partners in Crime" and returned to the series from "Turn Left" to "Journey's End". For the 2007 Christmas episode "Voyage of the Damned", the Doctor's companion was Astrid Peth, played by Australian performer Kylie Minogue. Though not always considered a companion, Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart was a recurring character in the original series, making his first appearance alongside the Second Doctor and his final alongside the Seventh. The actor Nicholas Courtney who portrayed the Brigadier had previously also starred as Bret Vyon alongside first Doctor William Hartnell in the 12-part The Daleks' Master Plan, and he appeared on television with every Doctor of the classic series except Colin Baker, but appears with the Sixth Doctor in the charity crossover special Dimensions in Time and in audio adventures from Big Finish Productions. Lethbridge-Stewart, still played by Courtney, appeared in Enemy of the Bane, a two-part episode of The Sarah Jane Adventures spinoff in 2008, more than 40 years after the character was first introduced, making him the longest-serving ongoing character in the franchise beyond the Doctor himself. He and UNIT appeared regularly during the Third Doctor's tenure, and UNIT has continued to appear or be referred to in the revival of the show and its spin-offs. Adversaries When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the "bug-eyed monster" of science fiction. However, monsters were a staple of Doctor Who almost from the beginning and were popular with audiences. Notable adversaries of the Doctor from the series' initial 26-year run include the Autons, the Cybermen, the Sontarans, the Zygons, the Sea Devils, the Silurians, the Ice Warriors, the Rani, the Yeti, Davros (the creator of the Daleks), the Master (a Time Lord with a thirst for universal conquest), and, most notably, the Daleks. This continued with the resurrection of the series in 2005. Current executive producer, Russell T. Davies, stated that it had always been his intention to bring back classic icons of Doctor Who one step at a time: Daleks in series 1, Cybermen in series 2 and the Master in series 3. He also stated that he was not finished and would continue reviving villains from the series' past. Series 4 saw the return of the Sontarans and the Daleks' creator, Davros. Since its 2005 return, the series has also introduced new aliens, including the Slitheen, the Ood, the Judoon and the Hath. Daleks Of all the monsters and villains, the ones that have most secured the series' place in the public's imagination are the Daleks, who first appeared in 1963 and were the series' very first "monster". The Daleks are Kaled mutants in tank-like mechanical armour shells from the planet Skaro. Their chief role in the great scheme of things, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to "Exterminate!" all beings inferior to themselves, even destroying the Time Lords in the often referenced but never shown Time War. Davros, the Daleks' creator, became a recurring villain after he was introduced in Genesis of the Daleks, in which the Time Lords send the Doctor back to either destroy the Daleks, avert their creation, or tamper with their genetic structure to make them less warlike. Davros has been played by Michael Wisher (first introduced in Genesis of the Daleks), David Gooderson (Destiny of the Daleks), and Terry Molloy. Davros returned to Doctor Who portrayed by Julian Bleach in the 2008 episodes "The Stolen Earth" and "Journey's End". The Daleks were created by writer Terry Nation (who intended them as an allegory of the Nazis) and BBC designer Raymond Cusick. The Daleks' début in the programme's second serial, The Daleks (1963–64), caused a tremendous reaction in the viewing figures and the public, putting Doctor Who on the cultural map. A Dalek appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by Lord Snowdon. Cybermen Cybermen were originally a wholly organic species of humanoids originating on Earth's twin planet Mondas that began to implant more and more artificial parts into their bodies. This led to the race becoming coldly logical and calculating, with emotions usually only shown when naked aggression was called for. The 2006 series introduced a totally new variation of Cybermen created in a parallel universe by transplanting the brains of humans into powerful metal bodies, sending them orders using a mobile phone network, and inhibiting their emotions with an electronic chip. The Master The Master is a renegade Time Lord, and the Doctor's nemesis. Conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes," Doctor Who Magazine Special Edition #2, 5 September 2002, [subtitled The Complete Third Doctor], page 14) the character first appeared in 1971. As with the Doctor, the role has been portrayed by several actors, the first being Roger Delgado who continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over and continued to play the character until Doctor Who's "hiatus" in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of Doctor Who, played by Gordon Tipple in the ultimately unused pre-credits voiceover, then Eric Roberts, and in the three-part finale of the 2007 series, portrayed by Derek Jacobi, who then regenerated into John Simm at the conclusion of the episode "Utopia". Music Theme music The original 1963 radiophonic arrangement of the Doctor Who theme is widely regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music, and Doctor Who was the first television series in the world to have a theme entirely realised through electronic means. The original theme was composed by Ron Grainer and realised by Delia Derbyshire at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop, with assistance from Dick Mills. The various parts were built up by creating tape loops of an individually struck piano string and individual test oscillators and filters. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of Season 17 (1979–80). A more modern and dynamic arrangement was composed by Peter Howell for Season 18 (1980), which was in turn replaced by Dominic Glynn's arrangement for Season 23's The Trial of a Time Lord (1986). Keff McCulloch provided the new arrangement for the Seventh Doctor's era which lasted from Season 24 (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. For the return of the series in 2005, Murray Gold provided a new arrangement which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added; in the 2005 Christmas episode "The Christmas Invasion", Gold introduced a modified closing credits arrangement that was used up until the conclusion of the 2007 series. A new arrangement of the theme, once again by Gold, was introduced in the 2007 Christmas special episode, "Voyage of the Damned". Versions of the "Doctor Who Theme" have also been released in a pop music venue over the years. In the early 1970s, Jon Pertwee, who had played the Third Doctor, recorded a version of the Doctor Who theme with spoken lyrics, titled, "Who Is the Doctor". In 1988 the band The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (later known as The KLF) released the single "Doctorin' the Tardis" under the name The Timelords, which reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 2 in Australia; this version incorporated several other songs, including "Rock and Roll Part 2" by Gary Glitter (who recorded vocals for some of the CD-single remix versions of "Doctorin' the Tardis"). Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include Orbital, Pink Floyd, the Australian string ensemble Fourplay, New Zealand punk band Blam Blam Blam, The Pogues, and the comedians Bill Bailey and Mitch Benn, and it and obsessive fans were satirised on The Chaser's War on Everything. A reggae/ska version of the Doctor Who theme tune was released on the Explosion label in 1969 by Bongo Herman and Les. The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs and has made its way into mobile phone ring tones. Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme. Incidental music Most of the innovative incidental music for Doctor Who has been specially commissioned from freelance composers, although in the early years some episodes also used stock music, as well as occasional excerpts from original recordings or cover versions of songs by popular music acts such as The Beatles and The Beach Boys. The incidental music for the first Doctor Who adventure, An Unearthly Child, was written by Norman Kay. Many of the stories of the William Hartnell period were scored by electronic music pioneer Tristram Cary, whose Doctor Who credits include The Daleks, Marco Polo, The Daleks' Master Plan, The Gunfighters and The Mutants. Other composers in this early period included Richard Rodney Bennett, Carey Blyton and Geoffrey Burgon. The most frequent musical contributor during the first fifteen years was Dudley Simpson, who is also well known for his theme and incidental music for Blake's 7, and for his haunting theme music and score for the original 1970s version of The Tomorrow People. Simpson's first Doctor Who score was Planet of Giants (1964) and he went on to write music for many adventures of the 1960s and 1970s, including most of the stories of the Jon Pertwee / Tom Baker periods, ending with The Horns of Nimon (1979). He also made a cameo appearance in The Talons of Weng-Chiang (as a Music hall conductor). Beginning with The Leisure Hive (1980), the task of creating incidental music was assigned to the Radiophonic Workshop. Paddy Kingsland and Peter Howell contributed many scores in this period and other contributors included Roger Limb, Malcolm Clarke and Jonathan Gibbs. The Radiophonic Workshop was dropped after the The Trial of a Time Lord season, and Keff McCulloch took over as the series' main composer, with Dominic Glynn and Mark Ayres also contributing scores. All the incidental music for the 2005 revived series has been composed by Murray Gold and Ben Foster and has been performed by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales from the 2005 Christmas episode The Christmas Invasion onwards. A concert featuring the orchestra performing music from the first two series took place on 19 November 2006 to raise money for Children in Need. David Tennant hosted the event, introducing the different sections of the concert. Murray Gold and Russell T Davies answered questions during the interval and Daleks and Cybermen menaced the audience whilst music from their stories was played. The concert aired on BBCi on Christmas Day 2006. A Doctor Who Prom was celebrated on 27 July 2008 in the Royal Albert Hall as part of the annual BBC Proms. The BBC Philharmonic and the London Philharmonic Choir performed Murray Gold's compositions for the series, conducted by Ben Foster, as well as a selection of classics based around the theme of space and time. The event was presented by Freema Agyeman and guest-presented by various other stars of the show with numerous monsters participating in the proceedings. It also featured the specially filmed mini-episode Music of the Spheres, written by Russell T Davies and starring David Tennant. Since its 2005 return, the series has featured occasional use of excerpts of pop music from the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s, including works by Ian Dury and the Blockheads ("Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick"), Electric Light Orchestra ("Mr. Blue Sky"), Soft Cell ("Tainted Love"), Rogue Traders ("Voodoo Child"), Britney Spears ("Toxic"), and the Scissor Sisters ("I Can't Decide"). The soundtrack for Series 1 and 2 was released on 4 December 2006 by Silva Screen Records. The soundtrack for Series 3 was released on 5 November 2007. A soundtrack for Series 4 was released on 17 November 2008. Special sound Doctor Who'''s science-fiction themes and settings meant that many sound effects had to be specially created for the series, although some common sound effects (such as crowds, horses and jungle noises) were sourced from stock recordings. Because Doctor Who began several years before the advent of the first mass-produced synthesisers, much of the equipment used to create electronic sound effects in the early days was custom-built by the BBC Radiophonic Workshop and until the early 1970s audio effects were produced using a combination of electronic and radiophonic techniques. Almost all of the original sound effects and audio backgrounds during the 1960s were overseen by the Radiophonic Workshop's Brian Hodgson, who worked on Doctor Who from its inception until the middle of Jon Pertwee's tenure in the early 1970s, when he was succeeded by Dick Mills. Hodgson created hundreds of pieces of "special sound" ranging from ray-gun blasts to dinosaurs, but without doubt his best known sound effects are the sound of the TARDIS as it de-materialises and re-appears, and the voices of the Daleks. The basic audio source Hodgson used for the TARDIS effect was the sound of his house keys being scraped up and down along the strings of an old gutted piano, and played backwards. The famous Dalek voice effect was obtained by passing the actors' voices through a device called a ring modulator, and it was further enhanced by exploiting the distortion inherent in the microphones and amplifiers then in use. However, the precise sonic character of the Daleks' voices varied somewhat over time because the original frequency settings used on the ring modulator were never noted down. ViewershipDoctor Who has always appeared on the BBC's mainstream BBC One channel, where it is regarded as a family show, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers. The programme's popularity has waxed and waned over the decades, with three notable periods of high ratings. ; The first of these was the "Dalekmania" period (circa 1964–1965), when the popularity of the Daleks regularly brought Doctor Who ratings of between 9 and 14 million, even for stories which did not feature them. The second was the late 1970s, when Tom Baker occasionally drew audiences of over 12 million. During the ITV network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million. Figures remained respectable into the 1980s, but fell noticeably after the programme's 23rd season was postponed in 1985 and the show was off the air for 18 months. Its late 1980s performance of three to five million viewers was seen as poor at the time and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the soap opera Coronation Street, the most popular show at the time. After the series' revival in 2005 (the third noteworthy period of high ratings), it has consistently had high viewership levels for the evening on which the episode is broadcast. The BBC One broadcast of "Rose", the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels. The largest audience for an episode of Doctor Who since its revival was achieved by the 2007 Christmas special "Voyage Of The Damned", which received 13.31 million viewers, a feat which also made it the second most watched show of the year. The highest weekly chart ranking is first, for the 2008 series finale "Journey's End", which was watched by 10.57 million viewers. The current revival also garners the highest audience Appreciation Index of any non-soap drama on television. Its continued viewership has resulted in becoming part of the UK's popular culture. The series also has a fan base in the United States, where it was shown in syndication from the 1970s to the 1990s, particularly on PBS stations (see Doctor Who in North America). New Zealand was the first country outside the UK to screen Doctor Who beginning in September 1964, and continued to screen the series for many years, including the new series from 2005. In Canada, the series debuted in January 1965, but the CBC only aired the first twenty-six episodes. TVOntario picked up the show in 1976 beginning with The Three Doctors and aired it through to Season 24 in 1991. TVO's schedule ran several years behind the BBC's throughout this period. From 1979 to 1981, TVO airings were bookended by science-fiction writer Judith Merril who would introduce the episode and then, after the episode concluded, try to place it in an educational context in keeping with TVO's status as an educational channel. The airing of The Talons of Weng-Chiang resulted in controversy for TVOntario as a result of accusations that the story was racist. Consequently the story was not rebroadcast. CBC began showing the series again in 2005. A fan base exists in Australia, where it has been exclusively first run on ABC1, and periodically repeated - including screening all available episodes for the show's 40th anniversary in 2003. Repeats have also been shown on the subscription television channel UK.TV. The ABC also broadcasts the first run of the revived series, on ABC1, with repeats on ABC2. UK.TV also shows repeats of the revived series. The ABC also provided partial funding for the 20th anniversary special episode "The Five Doctors". Only four episodes have ever had their premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 twentieth anniversary special "The Five Doctors" had its début on 23 November (the actual date of the anniversary) on the Chicago PBS station WTTW in the United States and various other PBS members two days prior to its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story Silver Nemesis was broadcast with all three episodes edited together in compilation form on TVNZ in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Finally, the 1996 television film premièred on 12 May 1996 on CITV in Edmonton, Canada, fifteen days before the BBC One showing, and two days before it aired on Fox in the US. A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on VHS and DVD, on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to regularly release serials on DVD. The 2005 series is also available in its entirety on UMD for the PlayStation Portable. As of July 2008, the revived series has been, or is currently, broadcast weekly in 42 countries, including Argentina (People+Arts), Australia (ABC1), Austria (Pro 7), Belgium (Één), Brazil (People+Arts), Canada (CBC (in English) and Ztélé (in French)), Catalonia (TV3 and BBC Entertainment), Croatia (Croatian Radiotelevision), Denmark (Danmarks Radio), Finland (TV2), France (France 4), Germany (Pro 7 and Sci Fi Channel), Hong Kong (ATV World and BBC Entertainment), Hungary (RTL Klub-owned COOL TV), Iceland (RÚV), Ireland (TV3), Israel (Yes Stars 2 and AXN), Italy (Jimmy), Japan (NHK BS2), Malaysia (Astro Network), the Netherlands (NED 3), New Zealand (Prime TV), Norway (NRK), Poland (TVP1), Portugal (People+Arts, SIC Radical), Romania (TVR), Russia (STS TV), Spain (People+Arts [first run], Sci Fi Channel [second run, new dubbing]), Latin America (People+Arts), South Korea (KBS2 (dubbed in Korean) and Fox (subtitled in Korean)), Sweden (SVT), Switzerland (Pro 7), Thailand (Channel 7), Turkey (Cine5), the United States (Sci Fi Channel [first run], public television [second run] and BBC America [second run]), Greece (Skai TV), Style UK (part of Showtime Arabia) for the Middle East, North Africa and the Levant territories. Doctor Who is one of the five top grossing titles for BBC Worldwide, the BBC's commercial arm. BBC Worldwide CEO John Smith has said that Doctor Who is one of a small number of "Superbrands" which Worldwide will promote heavily. A special logo has been designed for the Japanese broadcast with the katakana "ドクター・フー" (romanised as Dokutaa Fuu). Although Fuu is an accurate romanisation of the Japanese name, the Japanese version of the programme also employs the English name alongside the Japanese equivalent. Additionally, many speakers will pronounce Fuu as Huu. See also NHK's Doctor Who website. The series has apparently "mystified" viewers in Japan where it has been broadcast in a late evening time slot, leading to some not realising it is a family show. The series one episodes aired in Canada a couple of weeks after their UK broadcast, a situation made possible by the 2004–05 NHL lockout which left vast gaps in CBC's schedule. For the Canadian broadcast, Christopher Eccleston recorded special video introductions for each episode (including a trivia question as part of a viewer contest) and excerpts from the Doctor Who Confidential documentary were played over the closing credits; for the broadcast of "The Christmas Invasion" on 26 December 2005, Billie Piper recorded a special video introduction. CBC began airing series two on 9 October 2006 at 8:00 pm E/P (8:30 in Newfoundland and Labrador), shortly after that day's CFL double header on Thanksgiving in most of the country. Series three began broadcasting on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 31 March 2007. It began broadcasting on CBC on 18 June 2007 followed by the second Christmas special, "The Runaway Bride" at midnight, and the Sci Fi Channel began on 6 July 2007 starting with the second Christmas special at 8:00 pm E/P followed by the first episode. Series four aired in the U.S. on the Sci-Fi Channel, beginning in April 2008. It aired on CBC Canada beginning 19 September 2008, although the CBC did not air the Voyage of the Damned special. The Canadian cable network Space will broadcast "The Next Doctor" in March 2009. Adaptations and other appearances Dr. Who movies There are two "Dr. Who" cinema films: Dr. Who and the Daleks, released in 1965 and Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD in 1966. Both are retellings of existing TV stories (specifically, the first two Dalek serials) on the big screen, with a larger budget and alterations to the series concept. In these films, Peter Cushing plays a human scientist named "Dr. Who", who travels with his two granddaughters and other companions in a time machine he has invented. The Cushing version of the character reappears in both comic strip and literary form, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series. In addition, a number of planned films were proposed including a sequel, The Chase, loosely based on the original series story (the third to feature the Daleks), for the Cushing Doctor, plus many attempted television movie and big screen productions to revive the original Doctor Who, after the original series was cancelled. (See List of proposed Doctor Who films) , BBC Films has a script for a new Doctor Who film in development. Spin-offsDoctor Who has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, Trevor Martin played the role in Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday which also featured former companion actress Wendy Padbury (Pertwee's Doctor made a cameo appearance via film). In the early 1990s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a musical play titled Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure. For two performances while Pertwee was ill, David Banks (best known for playing various Cybermen) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while Terry Nation wrote The Curse of the Daleks, a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor. A pilot episode ("A Girl's Best Friend") for a potential spin-off series, K-9 and Company, was aired in 1981 with Elisabeth Sladen reprising her role as companion Sarah Jane Smith and John Leeson as the voice of K-9, but was not picked up as a regular series. Concept art for an animated Doctor Who series was produced by animation company Nelvana in the 1980s, but the series was not produced. The Doctor has also appeared in webcasts and in audio plays; prominent among the latter were those produced by Big Finish Productions from 1999 onwards, who were responsible for a range of audio plays released on CD, as well as 2006's eight-part BBC 7 series starring Paul McGann. Following the success of the 2005 series produced by Russell T Davies, the BBC commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled Torchwood (an anagram of "Doctor Who"), set in modern-day Wales and investigating alien activities and crime. The series debuted on BBC Three on 22 October 2006. John Barrowman reprised his role of Jack Harkness from the 2005 series of Doctor Who. Two other actresses who appeared in Doctor Who also star in the series; Eve Myles as Gwen, who also played the similarly named servant girl Gwyneth in the 2005 Doctor Who episode "The Unquiet Dead", and Naoko Mori who reprised her role as Toshiko Sato first seen in "Aliens of London". A second series of Torchwood aired in 2008; for three episodes, the cast was joined by Freema Agyeman reprising her Doctor Who role of Martha Jones. A third season will air in the spring of 2009, consisting of a single five-part story called Children of Earth.The Sarah Jane Adventures, starring Elisabeth Sladen who reprises her role as Sarah Jane Smith, has been developed by CBBC; a special aired on New Year's Day 2007 and a full series began on Monday, 24 September 2007. A second season followed in 2008, notable for (as noted above) featuring the return of Brigadier Lethbridge-Stewart. In the fall of 2008 the BBC announced it had commissioned a third season to air in the fall of 2009. An animated serial, The Infinite Quest, aired alongside the 2007 series of Doctor Who as part of the children's television series Totally Doctor Who. The serial featured the voices of series regulars David Tennant and Freema Agyeman but is not considered part of the 2007 season. A new K-9 children's series, K-9, is in development, but not by the BBC. It is currently scheduled to air beginning in 2009. Charity episodes In 1983, coinciding with the series' 20th anniversary, a charity special entitled The Five Doctors was produced in aid of Children in Need, featuring three of the first five Doctors, a new actor to replace the deceased William Hartnell, and unused footage to represent Tom Baker. This was a full-length, 90-minute film, the longest single episode of Doctor Who produced to date (discounting the 1996 made-for-TV film, which ran a few minutes longer with commercial breaks not included). In 1993, for the franchise's 30th anniversary, another charity special entitled "Dimensions in Time" was produced for Children in Need, featuring all of the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. Not taken seriously by many, the story had the Rani opening a hole in time, cycling the Doctor and his companions through his previous incarnations and menacing them with monsters from the show's past. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera EastEnders, the action taking place in the latter's Albert Square location and around Greenwich, including the Cutty Sark. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the Pulfrich effect requiring glasses with one darkened lens; the picture would look perfectly normal to those viewers who watched without the glasses. In 1999, another special, "Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death", was made for Comic Relief and later released on VHS. An affectionate parody of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with cliffhangers, and running down the same corridor several times when being chased. (The version released on video was split into only two episodes.) In the story, the Doctor (Rowan Atkinson) encounters both the Master (Jonathan Pryce) and the Daleks. During the special the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, Richard E. Grant, Jim Broadbent, Hugh Grant and Joanna Lumley. The script was written by Steven Moffat, later to be head writer and executive producer to the revived series. Since the return of Doctor Who in 2005, the franchise has produced two original "mini-episodes" to support Children in Need. The first was an untitled 7-minute scene (see Doctor Who: Children in Need) which served to introduce David Tennant as the new Doctor. which aired in November 2005. It was followed in November 2007 by Time Crash, a 7-minute scene which featured the Tenth Doctor meeting the Fifth Doctor (played once again by Peter Davison). In 2008 the Doctor Who production team did not produce a new Children in Need mini-episode; instead, the opening scene from the 2008 Christmas special, The Next Doctor was broadcast. Spoofs and cultural referencesDoctor Who has been satirised and spoofed on many occasions by comedians including Spike Milligan and Lenny Henry. Doctor Who fandom has also been lampooned on programmes such as Saturday Night Live, The Chaser's War on Everything, Mystery Science Theater 3000, Family Guy, American Dad and The Simpsons. The Doctor in his fourth incarnation has been represented on several episodes of The Simpsons, starting with the episode "Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming". Jon Culshaw frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC Dead Ringers series. Culshaw's "Doctor" has telephoned four of the "real" Doctors—Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy—in character as the Fourth Doctor. In the 2005 Dead Ringers Christmas special, broadcast shortly before "The Christmas Invasion", Culshaw impersonated both the Fourth and Tenth Doctors, while the Second, Seventh and Ninth Doctors were impersonated by Mark Perry, Kevin Connelly and Phil Cornwell, respectively. Less a spoof and more of a pastiche is the character of Professor Justin Alphonse Gamble, a renegade from the Time Variance Authority, who appeared in Marvel Comics' Power Man and Iron Fist #79 and Avengers Annual #22. His enemies include the rogue robots known as the Dredlox. There have also been many references to Doctor Who in popular culture and other science fiction franchises, including Star Trek: The Next Generation ("The Neutral Zone", among others). In the Channel 4 series Queer As Folk (created by current Doctor Who executive producer Russell T Davies), the character of Vince was portrayed as an avid Doctor Who fan, with references appearing many times throughout in the form of clips from the programme. References to Doctor Who have also appeared in the young adult fantasy novels Brisingr and High Wizardry, the video game Rock Band, the soap opera EastEnders , the Adult Swim comedy show Robot Chicken and the Family Guy episodes "Blue Harvest" and "420". Doctor Who has long been a favourite referent for political cartoonists, from a 1964 cartoon in the Daily Mail depicting Charles de Gaulle as a Dalek, to a 2008 edition of This Modern World by Tom Tomorrow in which the Tenth Doctor informs an incredulous character from 2003 that the Democratic Party will nominate an African-American (Barack Obama) as its presidential candidate. The word "TARDIS" is an entry in the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Museums and exhibitions There are two permanent Doctor Who exhibition museums in the United Kingdom http://www.doctorwhoexhibitions.com/ : Red Dragon Centre, Cardiff, the city where the series is filmed (opened in 2005) Doctor Who Museum, Blackpool However, in 2009-10, Doctor Who exhibitions will also be open in the following locations: Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow Coventry Transport Museum, Coventry Land's End, Cornwall Merchandise Since its beginnings, Doctor Who has generated many hundreds of products related to the show, from toys and games to collectible picture cards and postage stamps. These include board games, card games, gamebooks, computer games, roleplaying games, action figures and a pinball game. Many games have been released that feature the Daleks, including Dalek computer games. BooksDoctor Who books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day. From 1965 to 1991 the books published were primarily novelised adaptations of broadcast episodes; beginning in 1991 an extensive line of original fiction was launched. Since the relaunch of the programme in 2005, a new range of novels have been published by BBC Books, featuring the adventures of the Ninth and Tenth Doctors. Past Doctor Adventures Eighth Doctor Adventures New Series Adventures Awards Although Doctor Who was fondly regarded during its original 1963–1989 run, it received little critical recognition at the time. In 1975, Season 11 of the series won a Writers' Guild of Great Britain award for Best Writing in a Children's Serial. In 1996, BBC television held the "Auntie Awards" as the culmination of their "TV60" season, celebrating sixty years of BBC television broadcasting, where Doctor Who was voted as the "Best Popular Drama" the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as EastEnders and Casualty. In 2000, Doctor Who was ranked third in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes of the twentieth century, produced by the British Film Institute and voted on by industry professionals. In 2005, the series came first in a survey by SFX magazine of "The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever". Also, in the 100 Greatest Kids' TV shows (a Channel 4 countdown in 2001), the 1963–1989 run was placed at number eight. The revived series has received particular recognition from critics and the public, across various different awards ceremonies. These include: BAFTAs The British Academy Television Awards (BAFTA) nominations, released on 27 March 2006, revealed that Doctor Who had been short-listed in the "Drama Series" category. This is the highest-profile and most prestigious British television award for which the series has ever been nominated. Doctor Who was also nominated in several other categories in the BAFTA Craft Awards, including Writer (Russell T Davies), Director (Joe Ahearne), and Break-through Talent (production designer Edward Thomas). However, it did not eventually win any of its categories at the Craft Awards. On 22 April 2006, the programme won five categories (out of fourteen nominations) at the lower-profile BAFTA Cymru awards, given to programmes made in Wales. It won Best Drama Series, Drama Director (James Hawes), Costume, Make-up and Photography Direction. Russell T Davies also won the Siân Phillips Award for Outstanding Contribution to Network Television. The programme enjoyed further success at the BAFTA Cymru awards the following year, winning eight of the thirteen categories in which it was nominated, including Best Actor for David Tennant and Best Drama Director for Graeme Harper. On 7 May 2006, the winners of the British Academy Television Awards were announced, and Doctor Who won both of the categories it was nominated for, the Best Drama Series and audience-voted Pioneer Award. Russell T Davies also won the Dennis Potter Award for Outstanding Writing for Television. Writer Steven Moffat won the Writer category at the 2008 BAFTA Craft Awards for his 2007 Doctor Who episode "Blink". The series also won awards at the BAFTA Cymru ceremony on 27 April 2008, including "Best Screenwriter" for Steven Moffat, "Best Director: Drama" for James Strong, "Best Director Of Photography: Drama" for Ernie Vincze, "Best Sound" for the BBC Wales Sound Team and "Best Make-Up" for Barbara Southcott and Neill Gorton (of Millennium FX). In March 2009, it was announced that Doctor Who had again been nominated in the "Drama Series" category for the British Academy Television Awards; however, it lost out to the BBC series Wallander at the Awards on Sunday 26 April. The series picked up two BAFTAs at the British Academy Television Craft Awards on Sunday 17 May. Visual Effects company The Mill won the "Titles" award for the episode "Fire on Pompeii" and Philip Kloss won in the "Editing Fiction/Entertainment" category. Other British awards In 2005, at the National Television Awards (voted on by members of the British public), Doctor Who won "Most Popular Drama", Christopher Eccleston won "Most Popular Actor" and Billie Piper won "Most Popular Actress". The series and Piper repeated their wins at the 2006 National Television Awards, and David Tennant won "Most Popular Actor" in 2006 and 2007, with the series again taking the Most Popular Drama award in 2007. A scene from "The Doctor Dances" won "Golden Moment" in the BBC's "2005 TV Moments" awards, and Doctor Who swept all the categories in BBC.co.uk's online "Best of Drama" poll in both 2005 and 2006. The programme also won the Broadcast Magazine Award for Best Drama. Eccleston was awarded the TV Quick and TV Choice award for Best Actor in 2005; in the same awards in 2006 Tennant won Best Actor, Piper won Best Actress and Doctor Who won Best-Loved Drama. Doctor Who was nominated in the Best Drama Series category at the 2006 Royal Television Society awards, but lost to BBC Three's medical drama Bodies. Doctor Who also received several nominations for the 2006 Broadcasting Press Guild Awards: the programme for Best Drama, Eccleston for Best Actor (David Tennant was also nominated for Secret Smile), Piper for Best Actress and Davies for Best Writer. However, it did not win any of these categories. A panel of journalists and television executives for the annual awards given out at the Edinburgh Television Festival voted Doctor Who as the best programme of the year in 2007 and in 2008. Science-fiction awards Several episodes of the 2005 series of Doctor Who were nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form: "Dalek", "Father's Day" and the double episode "The Empty Child"/"The Doctor Dances". At a ceremony at the Worldcon (L.A. Con IV) in Los Angeles on 27 August 2006, the Hugo was awarded to "The Empty Child"/"The Doctor Dances". "Dalek" and "Father's Day" came in second and third places respectively. The 2006 series episodes "School Reunion", "Army of Ghosts"/"Doomsday" and "The Girl in the Fireplace" were nominated for the same category of the 2007 Hugo Awards, with "The Girl in the Fireplace" winning. The 2007 series episodes "Blink" and "Human Nature"/"The Family of Blood" also secured nominations in this category in the 2008 Hugo Awards, with "Blink" winning the award. The 2008 series episodes "Silence in the Library"/"Forest of the Dead" and "Turn Left" secured nominations in this category in the 2009 Hugo awards. On 7 July 2007, the series won three Constellation Awards: David Tennant won "Best Male Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television Episode" for the episode "The Girl in the Fireplace", and the series itself won "Best Science Fiction Television Series of 2006" and "Outstanding Canadian Contribution to Science Fiction Film or Television in 2006". It was eligible for the latter award due to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's involvement as co-producer of the series. On 12 July 2008, the series won three Constellation Awards: David Tennant won "Best Male Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode" for the episodes "Human Nature/The Family Of Blood", Carey Mulligan won "Best Female Performance in a 2007 Science Fiction Television Episode" for the episode "Blink" and the series itself won "Best Science Fiction Television Series of 2007". Overseas awards On 8 November 2007, the series received its first mainstream American award nomination when it was nominated for the 34th Annual People's Choice Awards in the category of "Favorite Sci-Fi Show". The awards, broadcast on CBS on 8 January 2008 are voted on by the people via an Internet poll. Doctor Who faced competition from American-produced series Battlestar Galactica (itself a revival of an older series), and Stargate Atlantis. It was defeated by Stargate Atlantis. People's Choice Awards website, accessed 8 January 2008 In June 2008, the series won the inaugural Best International Series category at the 34th Saturn Awards, defeating its spin-off, Torchwood, which was also nominated. Saturn Awards Winners list, accessed 30 June 2008 See also List of Doctor Who serials Chronology of the Doctor Who universe Doctor Who in North America Doctor Who in Australia Footnotes References External links Official sites BBC America Doctor Who website CBC Doctor Who website SciFi Channel Doctor Who website Reference sites Doctor Who: A Brief History Of Time (Travel) – a production history of Doctor Who'' Doctor Who Cuttings Archive – many press cuttings and articles from 1963 onwards The Doctor Who Reference Guide – synopses of every television episode, novel, audio drama, comic strip and spin-off video based on the series The Origin of Doctor Who – how the series was conceived Inside the World of Doctor Who – filmed BAFTA event with Russell T Davies demonstrating special effects, music and script ideas Doctor Who Online Outpost Gallifrey | Doctor_Who |@lemmatized doctor:242 british:18 science:20 fiction:19 television:58 programme:42 produce:25 bbc:89 depict:2 adventure:14 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146 | Artist | The definition of an artist is wide-ranging and covers a broad spectrum of activities to do with creating art, practicing the arts and/or demonstrating an art. The normal meaning in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). "Artiste" (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is certainly valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism. Dictionary definitions Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (Singular: artist; Plural: artists) as follows: A person who creates art. A person who creates art as an occupation. A person who is skilled at some activity. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the older broad meanings of the term "artist," A learned person or Master of Arts (now rather obsolete) One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry (also obsolete) A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice - the opposite of a theorist A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic - partly obsolete One who makes their craft a fine art One who cultivates one of the fine arts - traditionally the arts presided over by the muses - now the dominant usage A definition of Artist from Princeton.edu: creative person (a person whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination). History of the term In Greek the word "techně" is often mistranslated into "art." In actuality, "techně" implies mastery of a craft (any craft.) The Latin-derived form of the word is "tecnicus", from which the English words technique, technology, technical are derived. In Greek culture each of the nine Muses oversaw a different field of human creation: Calliope (the 'beautiful of speech'): chief of the muses and muse of epic or heroic poetry Clio (the 'glorious one'): muse of history Erato (the 'amorous one'): muse of love or erotic poetry, lyrics, and marriage songs Euterpe (the 'well-pleasing'): muse of music and lyric poetry Melpomene (the 'chanting one'): muse of tragedy Polyhymnia or Polymnia (the '[singer] of many hymns'): muse of sacred song, oratory, lyric, singing and rhetoric Terpsichore (the '[one who] delights in dance'): muse of choral song and dance Thalia (the 'blossoming one'): muse of comedy and bucolic poetry Urania (the 'celestial one'): muse of astronomy No muse was identified with the visual arts of painting and sculpture. In ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour. In Our Time: The Artist BBC Radio 4, TX 28th March 2002 The word art is derived from the Latin "ars", which, although literally defined means, "skill method" or "technique", holds a connotation of beauty. During the Middle Ages the word artist already existed in some countries such as Italy, but the meaning was something resembling craftsman, while the word artesan was still unknown. An artist was someone able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined, rather than the activity field. In this period some "artisanal" products (such as textiles) were much more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures. The first division into major and minor arts dates back to Leon Battista Alberti's works (De re aedificatoria, De statua, De pictura), focusing the importance of intellectual skills of the artist rather than the manual skills (even if in other forms of art there was a project behind). P.Galloni, Il sacro artefice. Mitologie degli artigiani medievali, Laterza, Bari, 1998) With the Academies in Europe (second half of XVI century) the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set. Many contemporary definitions of "artist" and "art" are highly contingent on culture, resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting beauty and the beautiful, cannot be standardized easily without corruption into kitsch. The present day concept of an 'artist' Artist is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially, as, "a person who expresses themselves through a medium". The word also is used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice. Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of 'high culture', activities such as drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music—people who use imagination, talent, or skill to create works that may be judged to have an aesthetic value. Art historians and critics will define as artists, those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline. The term also is used to denote highly skilled people in non-"arts" activities, as well—crafts, law, medicine, alchemy, mechanics, mathematics, defense (martial arts), and architecture, for example. The designation is applied to high skill in illegal activities, such as "scam artist" (a person very adept at deceiving others, often profiting (semi-illegally) from other people) or "con artist" (a person very adept at committing fraud). Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences among "artist" and "technician", "entertainer" and "artisan," "fine art" and "applied art," or what constitutes art and what does not. The French word artiste (which in French, simply means "artist") has been imported into the English language where it means a performer (frequently in Music Hall or Vaudeville). Use of the word "artiste" can also be a pejorative term. The English word 'artist' has thus, a narrower range of meanings than the word 'artiste' in French. Examples of art and artists Abstract: Jackson Pollock Actress: Greta Garbo Animation: Walt Disney Architect: Antoni Gaudí Ballet: Margot Fonteyn BioArt: Hunter Cole Calligraphy: Rudolf Koch Ceramic art: Grayson Perry Choreographer: Martha Graham Colorist: Henri Matisse Comics: Will Eisner Composer: Giuseppe Verdi Conceptual art: Sol LeWitt Cubism: Pablo Picasso Dancer: Isadora Duncan Designer: Arne Jacobsen Doll Maker: Greer Lankton Entertainer: PT Barnum Fashion designer: Alexander McQueen Fluxus art: Yoko Ono Game designer: Peter Molyneux Graphic designer: Peter Saville Horticulture: André le Nôtre Illusionist: Houdini Illustrator: Quentin Blake Impressionism: Joseph Vickers de Ville Industrial designer: Pininfarina Jewelry: Fabergé Landscape architect: Frederick Law Olmsted Minimalist artist: Donald Judd Movie director: Andrei Tarkovsky Muralist: Diego Rivera Musical instrument maker: Stradivari Musician: John Lennon Novelist: Charles Dickens Oil painter: Vincent van Gogh Orator: Cicero Outsider Art: Nek Chand Painted Pottery: Nampeyo Painter: Rembrandt van Rijn Performance Art: Carolee Schneemann Photographer: Bill Brandt Photomontage: John Heartfield Pianist: Glenn Gould Playwright: William Shakespeare Poet: Pablo Neruda Potter: Bernard Leach Printmaker: William Hogarth Sculptor: Michelangelo Buonarotti Singer: Maria Callas Songwriter: Bob Dylan Street Art: Banksy Surrealism: André Breton Typographer: Eric Gill Ukiyo-e: Hokusai See also Art Art history Arts by region Fine art Humanities List of composers List of sculptors Mathematics and art Social sciences Notes References P.Galloni, Il sacro artefice. Mitologie degli artigiani medievali, Laterza, Bari, 1998 C. T. Onions (1991). The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Clarendon Press Oxford. 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147 | Athenian_democracy | Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the central city-state of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, around 500 BC. Athens was one of the very first known democracies (although anthropological research suggests that democratic forms were likely common in stateless societies long before the rise of Athens). Other Greek cities set up democracies, most but not all following an Athenian model, but none were as powerful or as stable (or as well-documented) as that of Athens. It remains a unique and intriguing experiment in direct democracy where the people do not elect representatives to vote on their behalf but vote on legislation and executive bills in their own right. Participation was by no means open, but the in-group of participants was constituted with no reference to economic class and they participated on a scale that was truly phenomenal. The public opinion of voters was remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theaters. Henderson, J. (1993) Comic Hero versus Political Elite pp.307-19 in Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (509 BC), and Ephialtes (462 BC) all contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Historians differ on which of them was responsible for which institutions, and which of them most represented a truly democratic movement. It is most usual to date Athenian democracy from Cleisthenes, since Solon's constitution fell and was replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus, whereas Ephialtes revised Cleisthenes' constitution relatively peacefully. Hipparchus, the brother of the tyrant Hippias, was killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who were subsequently honored by the Athenians for their alleged restoration of Athenian freedom. The greatest and longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; the most detailed accounts are of this fourth-century modification rather than the Periclean system. It was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but the extent to which they were a real democracy is debatable. Etymology The word "democracy" (Greek: δημοκρατια) combines the elements demos (δημος, which means "people") and kratos (κρατος, which means "force" or "power"). In the words "monarchy" and "oligarchy", the second element arche means rule, leading, or being first. It is not possible that the term "democracy" was coined by its detractors who rejected the possibility of, so to speak, a valid "demarchy", as long as the word "dematchy" already existed and had the meaning of mayor or municipal. That is why a new term has been invented, and was adopted wholeheartedly by Athenian democrats. The word is attested in Herodotus, who wrote some of the earliest Greek prose to survive, but even this may not have been before 440 or 430 BC. It is not at all certain that the word goes back to the beginning of the democracy, but from around 460 BC at any rate an individual is known whose parents had decided to name him 'Democrates', a name which may have been manufactured as a gesture of democratic loyalty; the name can also be found in Aeolian Temnus, Xenophon, Anabasis 4.4.15 not a particularly democratic state. Participation and exclusion Size and make-up of the Athenian population Estimates of the population of ancient Athens vary. During the 4th century BC, there may well have been some 250,000–300,000 people in Attica. Citizen families may have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 will have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian war. This slump was permanent due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures seem pitifully small, but in the world of Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of the thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1000–1500 adult male citizens and Corinth, a major power, had at most 15,000. The non-citizen component of the population was divided between resident foreigners (metics) and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator Hyperides (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably not more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them. Citizenship in Athens Only adult male Athenians citizens who had completed their military training as ephebes had the right to vote in Athens. This excluded a majority of the population, namely slaves, children, women and metics. Also disallowed were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see atimia); for some Athenians this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Still, in contrast with oligarchical societies, there were no real property requirements limiting access. (The property classes of Solon's constitution remained on the books, but they were a dead letter). Given the exclusionary and ancestral conception of citizenship held by Greek city-states, a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it. At Athens some citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers require just for the system to work testify to a breadth of participation among those eligible that greatly exceeded any present day democracy. Athenian citizens had to be descended from citizens—after the reforms of Pericles and Cimon in 450 BC on both sides of the family, excluding the children of Athenian men and foreign women. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later the Athenians removed 5000 from the citizen registers when a free gift of grain arrived for all citizens from an Egyptian king. Citizenship could be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (Plateans in 427 BC, Samians in 405 BC) but, by the 4th century, only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century the numbers involved were in the hundreds rather than thousands. Main bodies of governance Constitution of the Athenians, 4th century BCThere were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6000), the council of 500 (boule) and the courts (a minimum of 200 people, but running at least on some occasions up to 6000). Of these three bodies it is the assembly and the courts that were the true sites of power — although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the demos (the People) as they were manned by a subset of the citizen body, those over thirty. But crucially citizens voting in both were not subject to review and prosecution as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC we often hear of the assembly sitting as a court of judgement itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial. Assembly The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly ( ekklesia). Unlike a parliament, the assembly's 'members' were not elected, but attended by right when they chose. Greek democracy created at Athens was a direct, not a representative democracy: any adult male citizen of age could take part, and it was a duty to do so. The officials of the democracy were in part elected by the Assembly and in large part chosen by lot. The assembly had at least four functions; it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes. As the system evolved these last two functions were shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on crucial issues, there were no political parties and likewise no government or opposition (as in the Westminster system). In effect, the 'government' was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day. Voting was by simple majority. In the 5th century at least there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that they would punish those who had made the proposal that they had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from their viewpoint it could only be because they had been 'misled'. As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (cheirŏtonĭa, "arm stretching") with officials 'judging' the outcome by sight. With thousands of people attending, counting was impossible. For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here coloured balls were used, white for yes and black for no. Probably at the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots (Ostracism required the voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery, though this did not occur within the assembly as such). In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten state months, with other meetings called as needed. In the following century the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. (One of these was now called the main meeting, kyria ekklesia.) Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to dodge the annual festivals that were differently placed in each of the twelve lunar months. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to bunch up toward the end of each state month. Attendance at the assembly was not always voluntary. In the 5th century public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the agora into the assembly meeting place (pnyx), with a fine for those who got the red on their clothes. Aristophanes Acharnians 17–22. This, however, cannot compare with the compulsory voting schemes of some modern democracies. It was rather an immediate measure to get enough people rapidly in place, like an aggressive form of ushering. After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced for the first time. At this there was a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. Aristoph. Ekklesiazousai 378-9 The Council The presidency of the boule rotated monthly amongst the ten prytanies, or delegations from the ten Cleisthenic tribes, of the Boule (there were ten months in the Hellenic calendar year). The epitastes, an official selected by lot for a single day from among the currently presiding prytany, chaired that day's meeting of the boule and, if there was one, that day's meeting of the assembly; Hignett, History of the Athenian Constitution, 237 he also held the keys to the treasury and the seal to the city, and welcomed foreign ambassadors. It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post, which could be held only once in a lifetime. The boule also served as an executive committee for the assembly, and oversaw the activities of certain other magistrates. The boule coordinated the activities of the various boards and magistrates that carried out the administrative functions of Athens and provided from its own membership randomly selected boards of ten responsible for areas ranging from naval affairs to religious observances. Hignett, History of the Athenian Constitution, 238 Altogether, the boule was responsible for a great portion of the administration of the state, but was granted relatively little latitude for initiative; the boule's control over policy was executed in its probouleutic, rather than its executive function; in the latter, it merely executed the wishes of the assembly. Hignett, History of the Athenian Constitution, 241 Courts Athens had an elaborate legal system centered on the dikasteria of Heliaia or jury courts: the word is derived from dikastes, 'judge/juror', also called heliasts. These jury courts were manned by large panels selected by lot from an annual pool of 6,000 citizens, otherwise called Heliaia (). To be eligible to serve as juror, a citizen had to be over 30 years of age and in possession of full citizen rights (see atimia). The age limit, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly: for the Athenians older was wiser. Added to this was the fact that jurors were under oath, which was not a feature of attendance at the assembly. However, the authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates) who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least in words spoken before the jurors, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant. Essentially there were two grades of suit, a smaller kind known as dike or private suit, and a larger kind known as graphe or public suit. For private suits the minimum jury size was 201 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. The juries were selected by lot from a panel of 600 jurors, there being 600 jurors from each of the ten tribes of Athens, making a jury pool of 6000 in total. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. 1000 and 1500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see graphe paranomon), all 6,000 members of the juror pool were put onto the one case. The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by water clock, first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Nothing, however, stopped jurors from talking informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a 'yes' or 'no' vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone (ho boulomenos, 'whoever wants to' i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. Justice was rapid: a case could last not longer than one day. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litigants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict. Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to Pericles, a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy (Politics 1294a37). Pay was raised from 2 to 3 obols by Cleon early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended. The system shows a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts nor was there anyone to give legal direction to the jurors, as the magistrates in charge of the courts had only an administrative function and were themselves in any case amateurs (most of the annual magistracies at Athens could only be held once in a lifetime). There were no lawyers as such, but the litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself: it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter (logographos) but this was not advertised in court (except as something your opponent in court has had to resort to), and even politically prominent litigants made some show of disowning special expertise. These juries formed a second site for the expression of popular sovereignty: as in the assembly, citizens acting as jurors acted as the people and were immune from review or punishment. (Notably when the jurors are addressed by speakers as "you", they can be referred to as having committed any act ever committed by the 'Athenian people', such as battles fought before any of them were born or court decisions made by other juries whose membership may have had no overlap with those currently addressed.) Jurors however had a minimum age of 30 and they were under oath. From an Athenian perspective, where the young are rash and age brings wisdom and where an oath is a serious matter, both of these requirements gave jurors more weight than the citizens attending the assembly. Here only the legislative function of courts will be described, though this by no means exhausts the relevance of the courts to the workings of the democracy Shifting balance between Assembly and Courts As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. From 355 BC political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC the graphe paranomon ("indictment against measures contrary to the laws") was introduced. Under this anything passed by the assembly or even proposed but not yet voted on, could be put on hold for review before a jury — which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well. Remarkably, it seems that a measure blocked before the assembly voted on it did not need to go back to the assembly if it survived the court challenge: the court was enough to validate it. Once again it is important to bear in mind the lack of 'neutral' state intervention. To give a schematic scenario by way of illustration: two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passed, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous: in effect the courts became a kind of upper house. In the 5th century there was in effect no procedural difference between an executive decree and a law: they were both simply passed by the assembly. But from 403 BC they were set sharply apart. Henceforth laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of 1000 citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6000. They were known as the nomothetai, the lawmakers. Here again it is not anything like a legislative commission sitting down to discuss the pros and cons and drafting proposals, but the format is that of a trial, voting yes or no after a clash of speeches and such. Citizen-initiator The institutions sketched above — assembly, officeholders, council, courts — are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, Ho boulomenos, he who wishes, or anyone who wishes. This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative: to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public law suit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not vetted before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down — it had after all no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. But any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky and if someone chose (another citizen initiator) they could be called to account for their actions and punished. The degree of participation among citizens varied greatly, along a spectrum from doing virtually nothing towards something like a fulltime committent. But for even the most active citizen the formal basis of his political activity was the invitation issued to everyone (every qualified free male Athenian citizen) by the phrase "whoever wishes". There are then three functions: the officeholders organized and saw to the complex protocols; Ho boulomenos was the initiator and the proposer of content; and finally the people, massed in assembly or court or convened as lawmakers, made the decisions, either yes or no, or choosing between alternatives. Officeholders Administration was in the hands of officeholders, over a thousand each year. They were mostly chosen by lot, with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group elected. Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. By and large the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals (strategoi), each office could be held by the same person only once. Part of the ethos of democracy, however, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century version of the democracy, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers. While citizens voting in the assembly were the people and so were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office served the people and could be punished very severely. All of them were subject to a review beforehand that might disqualify them for office and an examination after stepping down. Officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives. Citizens active as office holders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. The assembly and the courts were regarded as the instantiation of the people of Athens: they were the people, no power was above them and they could not be reviewed, impeached or punished. However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as 'serving' the people. As such, he could be regarded as failing in his duty and be punished for it. There were two methods of selecting people as officeholders, lottery or election. Something like 1100 citizens (including the members of the council of 500) held office each year and about a 100 of these were elected. Selection by lot (Allotment) Selection by lottery was the standard means as it was regarded as the more democratic: elections would favour those who were rich, noble, eloquent and well-known, while allotment spread the work of administration throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words, "ruling and being ruled in turn" (Politics 1317b28–30). The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to obviate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group someone will know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular office everyone on the team is observing everybody else. There were however officials such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other. There were in fact some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty (and in some cases forty) years as a minimum, rendering something like a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement (atimia), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office (dokimasia) at which they might be disqualified. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. After leaving office they were subject to a scrutiny (euthunai, literally 'straightenings') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up in the possibility, if some citizen wanted to take some matter up, of a contest before a jury court. In the case of a scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Finally, even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten "main meetings" (kuriai ekklesiai) a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly? No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use office as a way of accumulating ongoing power. The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for initiative limited. They administered rather than governed. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas. Anything higher had to go before a court. Elected Approximately one hundred officials out of a thousand were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the strategoi. One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money embezzled could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case wealth was virtually a prerequisite. Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the 5th century BC, principally as seen through the figure of Pericles, the generals could be among the most powerful people in the polis. Yet in the case of Pericles, it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His office holding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the 4th century version of democracy the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part this was a consequence of the increasingly specialised forms of warfare practiced in the later period. Elected officials too were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they too could be removed from office any time the assembly met. In one case from the 5th century BC the 10 treasurers of the Delian league (the Hellenotamiai) were accused at their scrutinies of misappropriation of funds. Put on trial, they were condemned and executed one by one until before the trial of the tenth and last an error of accounting was discovered, allowing him to go free. (Antiphon 5.69–70) Individualism in Athenian democracy Another interesting insight into Athenian democracy comes from the law that excluded from decisions of war those citizens who had property close to the city walls - on the basis that they had a personal interest in the outcome of such debates because the practice of an invading army was at the time to destroy the land outside the walls. A good example of the contempt the first democrats felt for those who did not participate in politics can be found in the modern word 'idiot', which finds its origins in the ancient Greek word (idiōtēs), meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics; such characters were talked about with contempt and the word eventually acquired its modern meaning. In his Funeral Oration, Pericles states:It is only we who regard the one, not participating in these duties, not as unambitious but as useless. Criticism of the democracy Athenian democracy had many critics, both ancient and modern. Modern critics are more likely to find fault with the narrow definition of the citizen body, but in the ancient world the complaint if anything went in the opposite direction. Ancient authors were almost invariably from an elite background for whom giving poor and uneducated people power over their betters seemed a reversal of the proper, rational order of society. For them the demos in democracy meant not the whole people, but the people as opposed to the elite. Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which 'everyone' has equal rights, they saw it as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannizing over the rich. They viewed society like a modern stock company: democracy is like a company where all shareholders have an equal say regardless of the scale of their holding; one share or ten thousand, it makes no difference. They regarded this as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle this is categorized as the difference between 'arithmetic' and 'geometric' (i.e. proportional) equality. Democracy was far from being the normal style of governance and the beliefs on which it was based were in effect a minority opinion. Those writing in later centuries generally had no direct experience of democracy themselves. To its ancient detractors the democracy was reckless and arbitrary. They had some signal instances to point to, especially from the long years of the Peloponnesian War. In 406 BC, after years of defeats in the wake of the annihilation of their vast invasion force in Sicily, the Athenians at last won a naval victory at Arginusae over the Spartans. After the battle a storm arose and the eight generals in command failed to collect survivors: the Athenians sentenced all of them to death. Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required. Socrates happened to be the citizen presiding over the assembly that day and refused to cooperate, though to little effect. Standing against the idea, that it was outrageous for the people to be unable to do whatever they wanted. Later they repented the executions, but made up for it by executing those who had accused the generals before them. (A long account in Xenophon Hellenica 1.7.1–35) Years earlier, the ten treasurers of the Delian league (Hellenotamiai) had been accused of embezzlement. They were tried and executed one after the other until, when only one was still alive, the accounting error was discovered and that last surviving treasurer was acquitted. This was perfectly legal in this case, but an example of the extreme severity with which the people could punish those who served them. (Antiphon 5.69–70) In 399 BC Socrates himself was put on trial and executed for 'corrupting the young and believing in strange gods'. His death gave Europe its first ever intellectual hero and martyr, but guaranteed the democracy an eternity of bad press at the hands of his disciple and enemy to democracy Plato. In the Gorgias written years later Plato has Socrates contemplating the possibility of himself on trial before the Athenians: he says he would be like a doctor prosecuted by a pastry chef before a jury of children. Two coups briefly interrupted democratic rule during the Peloponnesian war, both named by the numbers in control: the Four Hundred in 411 BC and the Thirty in 404 BC. The focus on number speaks to the drive behind each of them: to reduce the size of the electorate by linking the franchise with property qualifications. Though both ended up as rogue governments and did not follow through on their constitutional promises, they began as responses from the Athenian elite to what they saw as the inherent arbitrariness of government by the masses (Plato in the Seventh Epistle does remark that the Thirty made the preceding democratic regime look like a Golden Age). Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systematic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established from 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms (graphe paranomon 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For the first time a conceptual and procedural distinction was made between laws and decrees. Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citizens lost some ground to gatherings of a thousand or so which were under oath, and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside was that the new democracy was less capable of rapid response. Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although it predated it by over thirty years, democracy is strongly bound up with Athenian imperialism. For much of the 5th century at least democracy fed off an empire of subject states. Thucydides the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC. At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of Melos and sell off its woman and children simply for refusing to became subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Further they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the Old Oligarch. On the other hand the empire was, more or less, defunct in the 4th century BC so it cannot be said that it was democracy was not viable without it. Only then in fact was payment for assembly attendance, the central event of democracy (Similarly for the period before the Persian wars, but for the very early democracy the sources are very meagre and it can be thought of as being in an embryonic state). A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to woman and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it. Male citizenship had become a newly valuable, indeed profitable, possession, to be jealously guarded. Under Pericles, in 450 BC, restrictions were tightened so that a citizen had to be born from citizen parentage on both sides. Metroxenoi, those with foreign mothers, were now to be excluded. Traditionally, for the poorer citizens, local marriage was the norm while the elite had been much more likely to marry abroad as a part of aristocratic alliance building. A habit of one group in society was thus codified as a law for the whole citizen body, which thus lost one axis of openness. Many Athenians prominent earlier in the century would have lost citizenship, had this law applied to them: Cleisthenes, the founder of democracy, had a non-Athenian mother, and the mothers of Cimon and Themistocles were not Greek at all, but Thracian. As Athens attracted an increasing number of resident aliens (metics), this shift in the definition of citizen worked to keep the immigrant population more sharply distinguished politically. Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. At Sparta women competed in public exercise — so in Aristophanes' Lysistrata the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Spartan counterparts — and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. Misogyny was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to gender democracy generalised a harsher set of values derived, again, from the common people. Democracy may well have been impossible without the contribution of women's labour (Hansen 1987: 318). Slavery was more widespread at Athens than in other Greek cities. Indeed the extensive use of imported non-Greeks ("barbarians") as chattel slaves seems to have been an Athenian development. This triggers the parodoxical question: Was democracy "based on" slavery? It does seem clear that possession of slaves allowed even poorer Athenians — owning a few slaves was by no means equated with wealth — to devote more of their time to political life. But whether democracy depended on this extra time is impossible to say. The breadth of slave ownership also meant that the leisure of the rich (the small minority who were actually free of the need to work) rested less than it would have on the exploitation of their less well-off fellow citizens. Working for wages was clearly regarded as subjection to the will of another, but at least debt servitude had been abolished at Athens (under the reforms of Solon at the start of the 6th century BC). By allowing a new kind of equality among citizens this opened the way to democracy, which in turn called for a new means, chattel slavery, to at least partially equalise the availability of leisure between rich and poor. In the absence of reliable statistics all these connections remain speculative. However, as Cornelius Castoriadis pointed out, other societies also kept slaves but did not develop democracy. Even with respect to slavery the new citizen law of 450 BC may have had effect: it is speculated that originally Athenian fathers had been able to register for citizenship offspring had with slave women (Hansen 1987:53). This will have rested on an older, less categorical sense of what it meant to be a slave. Although metics had no direct political influence many were wealthy business owners who could, and sometimes did, influence policy by not allowing their citizen employees time off to attend the assembly, as well as having the simple expedient of wealth. Contemporary opponents of majoritarianism (arguably the principle behind Athenian democracy) call it an illiberal regime (in contrast to liberal democracy) that allegedly leads to anomie, balkanization, and xenophobia. Proponents (especially of majoritarianism) deny these accusations, and argue that any faults in Athenian democracy were due to the fact that the franchise was quite limited (only male citizens could vote - women, slaves and non-citizens were excluded). Despite this limited franchise, Athenian democracy was certainly the first - and perhaps the best - example of a working direct democracy. Aftermath Alexander the Great had led a coalition of the Greek states to war with Persia in 336 BC, but his Greek soldiers were hostages for the behavior of their states as much as allies. His relations with Athens were already strained when he returned to Babylon in 324 BC; after his death, Athens and Sparta led several Greek states to war with Macedon and lost. This led to the first of a number of periods in which an outside power controlled Athens; 322-318 BC; 317-307 BC; 266-229 BC (all Macedon); 58-55 BC (Rome). Often the outside power set up a local agent as political boss in Athens; but when Athens was independent, It rarely controlled all of Attica, since Piraeus was an excellent naval base, and one of the Hellenistic kings usually controlled it. it operated under its traditional form of government; even the bosses, like Demetrius of Phalerum, kept the traditional institutions in formal existence. An independent Athens was a minor power in the Hellenistic age; it rarely had much in the way of foreign policy; it generally remained at peace, allied either with the Ptolemaic dynasty, or later, with Rome; when it went to war, the result (as in the Lamian, Chremonidean, and Mithridatic War) was usually disastrous. Under the Roman alliance, the more oligarchic parts of the Athenian constitution, the Areopagus and election of officials, became relatively more important, and the Assembly and selection by lot less so. After about 125 BC, the eponyous archon, and probably the others, were normally prominent men, and this oligarchic tendency appears to have been produced by a system of election. In 88 BC, there was a revolution under the philosopher Athenion, who persuaded the Assembly to agree to elect whoever he might ask to office. Athenion allied with Mithridates of Pontus, and went to war with Rome; he was killed during the war, and was replaced by Aristion. The victorious Roman general, Publius Cornelius Sulla, left the Athenians their lives and did not sell them into slavery; he also restored the previous government, in 86 BC. After Rome became an Empire under Augustus, the nominal independence of Athens dissolved and its government converged to the normal type for a Roman municipality, with a Senate (gerousia) of decuriones. Habicht, passim Notes References Habicht, Christian, Athens from Alexander to Antony, Havard 1997 ISBN 0674051114 Hansen M.H. 1987, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes. Oxford Hignett, Charles. A History of the Athenian Constitution (Oxford, 1962) ISBN 0-19-814213-7 Manville B. and Josiah Ober 2003, A company of citizens : what the world's first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations. Boston Meier C. 1998, Athens: a portrait of the city in its Golden Age (translated by R. and R. Kimber). New York Ober, Josiah 1989, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People. Princeton Ober, Josiah and C. Hendrick (edds) 1996, Demokratia: a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton Rhodes P.J.(ed) 2004, Athenian democracy. Edinburgh Sinclair, R. K. 1988. Democracy and Participation in Athens. 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148 | Atari_5200 | The Atari 5200 SuperSystem, or simply the Atari 5200, is a video game console that was introduced in 1982 by Atari Inc. as a replacement for the infamous Atari 2600. The 5200 was created to compete with the Intellivision, but wound up more directly competing with the ColecoVision shortly after its release. A number of design flaws had a serious impact on usability, and the system is generally considered to have performed poorly on the market. The 5200 was heavily based on Atari Inc.'s existing 400/800 computers and the internal hardware was almost identical. However, a number of issues (aside from the lack of a keyboard) meant that software was not directly compatible between the two systems. Hardware The system's Atari 400-based origins made for a powerful, proven design which Atari Inc. could quickly bring to market. In its prototype stage, the Atari 5200 was originally called the "Atari Video System X - Advanced Video Computer System", and was codenamed "Pam" after a female employee at Atari Inc. It is also rumored that PAM actually stood for "Personal Arcade Machine", as the majority of games for the system ended up being arcade conversions. Actual working Atari Video System X machines, whose hardware is 100% identical to the Atari 5200 do exist, but they are extremely rare. Video System X The initial 1982 release of the system featured four controller ports, where nearly all other systems of the day had only two ports. The 5200 also featured a revolutionary new controller with an analog joystick, numeric keypad, two fire buttons on both sides of the controller and game function keys for Start, Pause, and Reset. The 5200 also featured the innovation of the first automatic TV switchbox, allowing it to automatically switch from regular TV viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated. Previous RF adapters required the user to slide a switch on the adapter by hand. This unique RF box was also where the power supply connected in a unique dual power/television signal setup similar to the RCA Studio II's. A single cable coming out of the 5200 plugged into the switch box and was used for both electricity and the television signal. The 1983 revision of the Atari 5200 has two controller ports instead of four, and a change back to the more conventional separate power supply and standard non-autoswitching RF switch. It also has changes in the cartridge port address lines to allow for the Atari 2600 adapter released that year. While the adapter was only made to work on the two-port version, modifications can be made to the four-port to make it line-compatible. In fact, towards the end of the four-port model's production run, there were a limited number of consoles produced which included these modifications. These consoles can be identified by an asterisk in their serial number. Controllers The controller prototypes used in the electrical development lab used a yoke and gimble mechanism that came from an RC airplane controller kit. This simple design gave very nice smooth linear control and was highly reliable. The production controllers were quite different and a great disappointment to the electrical and software development teams. The design of the analog joystick, which used a weak rubber boot rather than springs to provide centering, proved to be ungainly and unreliable. They ultimately alienated consumers and quickly became the Achilles' heel of the system due to their combination of an overly complex mechanical design with a very low-cost internal flex circuit system. Another major flaw of the controllers was that the design did not translate into a linear acceleration from the center through the arc of the stick travel. This made control awkward. The controller also had a tendency to lock up. Fixing the lock up required the mechanics to be very loose fitting which gave the controller generally a sloppy feel. The controllers did, however, include a pause button, a novelty at the time that would become standard on almost all future game systems. Various third party replacement joysticks were also released. Atari Inc. released the Pro-Line Trak-Ball controller for the system, which was almost as large as the 5200 itself. A paddle controller Atari 5200 Paddle Controller Prototypes and an updated self-centering version of the original controller Self Centering Joystick Prototypes were also in development, but never made it to market. Internal differences between the 5200 and the 400/800 Although the Atari 5200's internal design was extensively based on that of the 400/800 home computers, the differences were sufficient that games designed for one would not run directly on the other. One of the most obvious differences, was the 5200's lack of a keyboard. However, there were several others: The 400/800's 10 KB operating system was replaced with a simpler 2 KB BIOS, of which 1 KB is the built-in character set. Transporting Atari computer programs to the Atari 5200, A.N.A.L.O.G. #15 (January 1984), via atarimuseum.com. Article retrieved 2007-04-22. A number of important registers, such as those of the GTIA and POKEY chips appear at different memory locations. The purpose of some registers changed slightly on the 5200. The 5200's analog joysticks required different input handling to the traditional digital joystick input on the 400/800. (However, the 5200 reassigned/rewired two of the 400/800's existing analog paddle registers for each bi-directional analog joystick input). Atari Corp.'s later XE Games System revisited the idea of a console based on the 400/800 hardware. However, as this was essentially just a 65XE computer with a detachable keyboard, it was able to run most of the home computer titles directly. Market failure The Atari 5200 suffered from its software incompatibility with the Atari 2600, though an adapter was later released in 1983 allowing it to play all Atari 2600 games, using the more reliable controllers native to that system. Another problem was the lack of attention that Atari Inc. gave to the console; most of its resources went to the already oversaturated Atari 2600. It faced an uphill battle competing with the ColecoVision's head start and a faltering video game market. At one point during the 5200's lifespan, Atari Inc. planned on developing a smaller cost-reduced version of the Atari 5200, which would have gotten rid of the controller storage bin. Code-named the "Atari 5100" (a.k.a. "Atari 5200 Jr."), only a few fully-working prototype Atari 5100s were made before the project was canceled. 5100/5200 Jr. Technical specifications CPU: Custom 6502C @ 1.79 MHz (not a 65c02). Support Hardware: 2 custom VLSI chips Maximum Screen Resolution: 320×192 resolution, 16 (out of 256) on-screen colors per scan line. Palette can be changed at every scan line using ANTIC display list interrupts, allowing all 256 colors to be displayed at once. Graphics: ANTIC and GTIA Sound: 4-channel sound via the POKEY chip which also handles keyboard scanning, serial I/O, high resolution interrupt capable timers (single cycle accurate), and random number generation RAM: 16 KB ROM: 32 KB ROM window for standard game cartridges, expandable using bank switching techniques. *2 KB on-board BIOS for system startup and interrupt routing Physical Size: 13" x 15" x 4.25" Launch titles Super Breakout Galaxian Space Invaders Asteroids (Prototype) See also History of Atari List of Atari 5200 games Atari 8-bit family References External links AtariAge – Comprehensive Atari 5200 database and information | Atari_5200 |@lemmatized atari:34 supersystem:1 simply:1 video:6 game:11 console:5 introduce:1 inc:7 replacement:2 infamous:1 create:1 compete:3 intellivision:1 wind:1 directly:4 colecovision:2 shortly:1 release:6 number:6 design:8 flaw:2 serious:1 impact:1 usability:1 system:20 generally:2 consider:1 perform:1 poorly:1 market:5 heavily:1 base:4 exist:3 computer:6 internal:4 hardware:5 almost:3 identical:2 however:5 issue:1 aside:1 lack:3 keyboard:4 mean:1 software:3 compatible:2 two:6 origin:1 make:7 powerful:1 proven:1 could:1 quickly:2 bring:1 prototype:6 stage:1 originally:1 call:1 x:5 advanced:1 codenamed:1 pam:2 female:1 employee:1 also:10 rumor:1 actually:1 stand:1 personal:1 arcade:2 machine:2 majority:1 end:2 conversion:1 actual:1 work:3 whose:1 extremely:1 rare:1 initial:1 feature:3 four:4 controller:18 port:7 nearly:1 day:1 revolutionary:1 new:1 analog:5 joystick:7 numeric:1 keypad:1 fire:1 button:2 side:1 function:1 key:1 start:2 pause:2 reset:1 innovation:1 first:1 automatic:1 tv:2 switchbox:1 allow:4 automatically:1 switch:5 regular:1 viewing:1 signal:3 activate:1 previous:1 rf:3 adapter:5 require:3 user:1 slide:1 hand:1 unique:2 box:2 power:3 supply:2 connect:1 dual:1 television:2 setup:1 similar:1 rca:1 studio:1 ii:1 single:2 cable:1 come:2 plug:1 use:7 electricity:1 revision:1 instead:1 change:4 back:1 conventional:1 separate:1 standard:3 non:1 autoswitching:1 cartridge:2 address:1 line:5 year:1 version:3 modification:2 fact:1 towards:1 model:1 production:2 run:3 limited:1 produce:1 include:2 identify:1 asterisk:1 serial:2 electrical:2 development:3 lab:1 yoke:1 gimble:1 mechanism:1 rc:1 airplane:1 kit:1 simple:1 give:3 nice:1 smooth:1 linear:2 control:2 highly:1 reliable:2 quite:1 different:3 great:1 disappointment:1 team:1 weak:1 rubber:1 boot:1 rather:1 spring:1 provide:1 centering:1 prove:1 ungainly:1 unreliable:1 ultimately:1 alienate:1 consumer:1 become:2 achilles:1 heel:1 due:1 combination:1 overly:1 complex:1 mechanical:1 low:1 cost:2 flex:1 circuit:1 another:2 major:1 translate:1 acceleration:1 center:3 arc:1 stick:1 travel:1 awkward:1 tendency:1 lock:2 fix:1 mechanic:1 loose:1 fit:1 sloppy:1 feel:1 novelty:1 time:1 would:3 future:1 various:1 third:1 party:1 pro:1 trak:1 ball:1 large:1 paddle:3 update:1 self:2 original:1 never:1 difference:3 although:1 extensively:1 home:2 sufficient:1 one:3 obvious:1 several:1 others:1 kb:6 operate:1 replace:1 simpler:1 bios:2 built:1 character:1 set:1 transport:1 program:1 n:1 l:1 g:1 january:1 via:2 atarimuseum:1 com:1 article:1 retrieve:1 important:1 register:3 gtia:2 pokey:2 chip:3 appear:1 memory:1 location:1 purpose:1 slightly:1 input:3 handle:2 traditional:1 digital:1 reassign:1 rewire:1 bi:1 directional:1 corp:1 later:2 xe:1 revisit:1 idea:1 essentially:1 detachable:1 able:1 title:2 failure:1 suffer:1 incompatibility:1 though:1 play:1 native:1 problem:1 attention:1 resource:1 go:1 already:1 oversaturated:1 face:1 uphill:1 battle:1 head:1 faltering:1 point:1 lifespan:1 plan:1 develop:1 small:1 reduced:1 get:1 rid:1 storage:1 bin:1 code:1 name:1 k:1 jr:2 fully:1 project:1 cancel:1 technical:1 specification:1 cpu:1 custom:2 mhz:1 support:1 vlsi:1 maximum:1 screen:2 resolution:3 color:2 per:1 scan:2 palette:1 every:1 antic:2 display:2 list:2 interrupt:3 graphic:1 sound:2 channel:1 scanning:1 high:1 capable:1 timer:1 cycle:1 accurate:1 random:1 generation:1 ram:1 rom:2 window:1 expandable:1 bank:1 technique:1 board:1 startup:1 rout:1 physical:1 size:1 launch:1 super:1 breakout:1 galaxian:1 space:1 invader:1 asteroid:1 see:1 history:1 bit:1 family:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 atariage:1 comprehensive:1 database:1 information:1 |@bigram analog_joystick:4 numeric_keypad:1 achilles_heel:1 joystick_input:2 bi_directional:1 ram_kb:1 external_link:1 |
149 | Deutschlandlied | Das Deutschlandlied ("The Song of Germany", also known as Das Lied der Deutschen, "The Song of the Germans") has been used wholly or partially as the national anthem of Germany since 1922. The music was written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 as an anthem for the birthday of the Austrian Emperor Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1841 the German linguist and poet August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the lyrics of "Das Lied der Deutschen" to Haydn's melody, lyrics that were considered revolutionary at the time. It is as well known by the opening words and refrain of the first stanza, Deutschland über alles (Germany above all), but this has never been its title. The line "Germany, Germany above all" meant that the most important goal of the Vormärz revolutionaries should be a unified Germany overcoming the perceived anti-liberal Kleinstaaterei. Alongside the Flag of Germany it was one of the symbols of the March Revolution of 1848. During the Third Reich, German political propaganda altered the meaning of the first verse to stir up feelings of racial superiority. In order endorse its republican and revolutionary tradition the song was chosen for national anthem of Germany in 1922, during the Weimar Republic. Out of similar reasons in 1952, West Germany adopted Deutschlandlied as its official national anthem, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. Upon reunification in 1991, the third stanza only was confirmed as the national anthem. Melody Haydn portrait by Thomas Hardy, 1792 The melody of the Deutschlandlied was originally written by Joseph Haydn in 1797 to provide music to the poem "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" ("God save Francis the Emperor") as a birthday anthem to Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor of the House of Habsburg. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, where Francis continued to rule as Austrian Emperor, "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser" became the official anthem of the emperor of the Austrian Empire and the subsequent Austria-Hungary until the end of the Austrian monarchy in 1918. Haydn also used the melody in the second movement the "Kaiserquartett", a string quartet that is still widely performed today. The tune is often used in the English-speaking world for the hymn "Glorious Things of Thee are Spoken" by John Newton. In this context, the tune is called "Austria", "Austrian Hymn", or "Emperor's Hymn." Glorious Things of Thee Are Spoken The tune is also used for the hymn "Not Alone for Mighty Empire" by William P. Merrill. Not Alone for Mighty Empire Historical background The Holy Roman Empire was already weak when the French Revolution and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars altered the political map of Central Europe. Hopes for the Enlightenment, human rights, republican government, democracy, and freedom after Napoleon's defeat in 1815 were dashed, however, when the Congress of Vienna reinstated many monarchies. In addition, with the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, Chancellor Prince Metternich and his secret police enforced censorship, mainly in universities, to keep a watch on the activities of professors and students, whom he held responsible for the spread of radical liberal ideas. Particularly since hardliners among the monarchs were the main adversaries, demands for freedom of the press and other liberal rights were most often uttered in connection with the demand for a united Germany, even though many revolutionaries-to-be had different opinions whether a republic or a constitutional monarchy would be the best solution for Germany. The German Confederation or German Union (Deutsches Bund) was a loose confederation of 39 monarchial states and republican free cities, with a Federal Assembly in Frankfurt. They began to remove internal customs barriers during the Industrial Revolution, though, and the German Customs Union Zollverein was formed among the majority of the states in 1834. Prior to the Deutschlandlied, Hoffmann wrote a song about the Zollverein http://www.von-fallersleben.de/text252.html , also to Haydn's melody, in which he praised the free trade of German goods which brought Germans and Germany closer. After the March Revolution of 1848, the German Confederation handed over its authority to the Frankfurt Parliament, and Eastern Prussia joined. For a short period of time in the late 1840s, Germany was united within Hoffman's borders, with a democratic constitution in the make, and with the black-red-gold flag to represent it. The two big monarchies put an end to this, and later even waged the Austro-Prussian War against each other. Hoffmann's lyrics August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben in 1841 August Heinrich Hoffmann (who called himself von Fallersleben after his home town to distinguish himself from others with the same common name of Hoffmann) wrote the text in 1841 on vacation on the North Sea island Helgoland, then a possession of the United Kingdom. Hoffmann von Fallersleben intended Das Lied der Deutschen to be sung to Haydn's tune, as the first publication of the poem included the music. The first line, "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, über alles in der Welt" (usually translated into English as "Germany, Germany above everything, above everything in the world"), was an appeal to the various German sovereigns to give the creation of a united Germany a higher priority than the independence of their small states. In the third stanza, with a call for "Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit" (unity and justice and freedom), Hoffmann expressed his desire for a united and free Germany where the rule of law, not monarchical arbitrariness, would prevail. In the era after the Congress of Vienna, which was influenced by Prince Metternich and his secret police, Hoffmann's text had a distinctly revolutionary, liberal connotation, since the demand for a united Germany was most often made in connection with demands for freedom of press and other liberal rights. Its implication that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's sovereign personally was in itself a revolutionary idea. The year after he wrote Das Deutschlandlied, Hoffmann von Fallersleben lost his job as a librarian and professor in Breslau, Prussia because of this and other revolutionary works, and was forced into hiding until being pardoned after the revolutions of 1848. Lyrics and translation The following provides the lyrics of the "Lied der Deutschen" as written by Hoffmann von Fallersleben. Only the third verse is currently the Federal Republic of Germany's national anthem. National Anthem of the Federal Republic of Germany. (Third stanza) Mp3 sound file DeutschlandliedGerman lyrics Approximate translationFirst stanzaDeutschland, Deutschland über alles, Über alles in der Welt, Wenn es stets zu Schutz und Trutze Brüderlich zusammenhält. Von der Maas bis an die Memel, Von der Etsch bis an den Belt, |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, Über alles in der Welt! :|Germany, Germany above all, Above all in the world, When, for protection and defence, it always takes a brotherly stand together. From the Meuse to the Neman, From the Adige to the Belt, |: Germany, Germany above everything, Above everything in the world. :|Second stanzaDeutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang Sollen in der Welt behalten Ihren alten schönen Klang, Uns zu edler Tat begeistern Unser ganzes Leben lang. |: Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang! :|German women, German loyalty, German wine and German song Shall retain in the world Their old beautiful Chime And inspire us to noble deeds During all of our life. |: German women, German loyalty, German wine and German song! :|Third stanza(Germany's National Anthem)Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit Für das deutsche Vaterland! Danach lasst uns alle streben Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; |: Blüh' im Glanze dieses Glückes, Blühe, deutsches Vaterland. :|Unity and justice and freedom For the German fatherland! For these let us all strive Brotherly with heart and hand! Unity and justice and freedom Are the pledge of fortune; |: Flourish in this fortune's blessing, Flourish, German fatherland. :| Geography Geography according to the first stanza, with modern borders (dark green) and territories where German is an official language today (light green) In 1841, when the text was written, the German Confederation was no unified state in the modern sense. It also included some territories inhabited also by non-German speakers, but excluded large parts inhabited by German speakers, like Eastern Prussia. Hoffmann, who in his research had collected German writings and tales, based his definition of Germany on linguistic criteria: he described the approximate area where a significant percentage of German speakers lived at the time, as encountered in his studies. Nineteenth century nationalists generally relied on linguistic criteria to determine the borders of the nation-states they desired. Thus, the borders mentioned in the first stanza reflected the breadth of territory across which German speakers were spread at the time. Von der Maas bis an die Memel, Von der Etsch bis an den Belt.From the Meuse River to the Memel River, From the Adige River to the Little Belt. The German Confederation.This map does not include the Memel river in the northeast. In the west, the Maas River (also known as the Meuse) ran through the Dutch-ruled and Limburgish-speaking Duchy of Limburg which was joined to the German Confederation between September 5, 1839 and August 23, 1866. The modern German border is close to the river in that area. In the east, the lower part of the Memel was located within East Prussia, part of the Kingdom of Prussia, which actually stretched far north, not only beyond the river, but also beyond the city of Memel (Klaipeda). In 1920, the area north of the river was detached from Germany and became known as Memelland. Only few German speakers remained in the area after 1945. In the south, the Adige river (German: Etsch) runs to the Adriatic. In 1841, the Austrian Empire ruled all of its length. The river's northern part was within Austrian Tirol, but became part of Italy after 1918. Then and now, Salurn marks the linguistic border between the German and the Italian speaking population in the valley. To the north, the Treaty of Ribe had proclaimed in 1460 that the Danish Duchy of Schleswig and the German County of Holstein should be "Forever Undivided". This union was not compatible with nationalism growing on both sides in the 19th century. The Schleswig-Holstein Question led to wars in 1848 and 1864, after which the new border ran through the Little Belt between Jutland and Funen. It was moved to the current location by plebiscite in 1920. In the south and in the west, Hoffmann's definition of Germany coincided with the borders of the German Confederation as it existed then. Hoffmann went beyond the Confederation boundaries of 1841 in the north and in the east, as neither South Schleswig nor East Prussia (although both German-speaking) belonged to it at that time yet, but joined before 1866. Thus, when the German Empire was finally founded in 1871, both were parts of the German Empire, whereas Luxemburg, Limburg, and Austria were not (see Kleindeutsche Lösung). Hoffmann picked only one marker in the south and, possibly to avoid confrontation, made no mention of other areas inhabitated by German speakers, like Alsace, Switzerland, or the Eastern part of the Austrian Empire. Use between the World Wars Das Lied der Deutschen was not played at an official ceremony until Germany and Britain had agreed on the Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, when it appeared only appropriate to sing it at the ceremony on the now officially German island of Helgoland. The song became very popular after the 1914 Battle of Langemarck during World War I, when several German regiments, consisting mostly of students no older than 16, attacked the British lines singing the song, suffering heavy casualties. They are buried in the Langemark German war cemetery. The official report of the army embellished the event as one of young German soldiers heroically sacrificing their lives for the fatherland. In reality the untrained troops were sent out to attack the British trenches side by side and were mowed down by machine guns. This report, also known as the "Langemarck Myth", was printed on the first page in newspapers all over Germany. In 1921, a stanza was written that reflected the situation after Germany's defeat (see below for lyrics). This stanza was popular at that time, but never became part of the official anthem, and is largely forgotten today. As a result of the war, the Austro-Hungarian Empire fell apart. The German-speaking part declared itself the Republic of German Austria and intended to join Germany. With this, the united Germany as described 80 years earlier in the Deutschlandlied would have been achieved. Yet, the Treaty of Saint-Germain prohibited this, and required the use of the name Austria instead. In addition, the southern part of Tyrol was occupied and annexed by Italy which now controlled the river Adige in its full length. Also, among other territories, the Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of areas near the other borders that were described 80 years earlier in the Deutschlandlied: in the North, Northern Schleswig at the Belt was ceded to Denmark after the Schleswig Plebiscites in the West, the cities Eupen and Malmedy located well East of the Maas, became part of Belgium in 1925 after plebiscites that required names and addresses of the voters in the East, Memelland beyond the Memel was put under control of France and later transferred to Lithuania without plebiscite, making the Memel the new border in the South, Italy annexed the southern part of Tyrol, and thus all of the river Adige On 11 August 1922 President Friedrich Ebert made Das Lied der Deutschen the official German national anthem. Use during the Nazi rule During the Nazi era, the first stanza was used with an amendment of the fourth line, while the remainder was the Nazi song Horst-Wessel-Lied. National anthem of Germany under the Nazis English translationDeutschland, Deutschland über alles, Über alles in der Welt, Wenn es stets zu Schutz und Trutze Brüderlich zusammenhält. Von der Maas bis an die Memel, Von der Etsch bis an den Belt. Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, Über alles in der Welt. Die Fahne hoch! Die Reihen fest geschlossen! SA marschiert mit ruhig festem Schritt. Kameraden, die Rotfront und Reaktion erschossen, Marschieren im Geist in unseren Reihen mit.Germany, Germany above everything, Above everything in the world, When it always for protection and defence, Brotherly sticks together. From the Meuse to the Memel, From the Adige to the Belt. Germany, Germany above everything, Above everything in the world. The flag high! The ranks tightly closed! SA marches with a calm, firm pace. Comrades whom Red Front and Reaction shot dead, March in spirit within our ranks. In the Anschluss of 1938, Hitler added Austria to the German Reich, and in 1939, pressured Lithuania into returning Memelland. His deal with Mussolini regarding Bolzano-Bozen became the South Tyrol Option Agreement; the population there was required to choose either emigrating to neighboring Nazi Germany or remaining in the province and being forcefully integrated into the mainstream Italian culture, losing its language and cultural heritage. Use after World War II In 1945, after the end of World War II, singing Das Lied der Deutschen and other symbols used by Nazi Germany were banned for some time by the Allies. The described border near the Memel river in the East was now a thing of the past. Germans were expelled up to 500 km to the West, behind the Oder and Neisse rivers. Also, the call for "protection and defiance" and even for "unity and justice and freedom" was not welcome, as Germany was occupied, under martial law and split among four Allies plus Poland. As after the first war, some bitter parodies were written to reflect the situation. After its founding in 1949, West Germany simply did not have a national anthem for official events for some years despite the growing need for proper diplomatic procedures. Different songs were discussed or used, such as Beethoven's Ode An die Freude (Ode To Joy). Though the black, red and gold colours of the national flag had been incorporated into Article 22 of the (West) German constitution, a national anthem was not specified. On 29 April 1952, Chancellor Konrad Adenauer asked President Theodor Heuss in a letter to accept Das Lied der Deutschen as the national anthem, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. President Heuss agreed to this on 2 May 1952. This exchange of letters was published in the Bulletin of the Federal Government. Briefwechsel zur Nationalhymne 1952 Since it was viewed as the traditional right of the president as head of state to set the symbols of the state, the Lied der Deutschen thus became the national anthem. The GDR adopted its own national anthem, Auferstanden aus Ruinen (Risen from the Ruins), which was originally written to fit the same Haydn melody, but later got its own. As the lyrics called for "Germany, united Fatherland", they were not sung anymore when this idea was dropped in the 1970s. When West Germany won the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final in Berne, Switzerland, the lyrics of the first stanza dominated when the crowd sang along to celebrate the surprise victory that was later dubbed Miracle of Bern. This might have been due to a lack of knowledge among Germans about the third stanza lyrics, while the first stanza was still well known, even among foreigners. On 7 March 1990, months before reunification, the Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of Hoffmann von Fallersleben's poem to be protected as a national anthem under criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (Strafgesetzbuch) makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is. In November 1991, President Richard von Weizsäcker and Chancellor Helmut Kohl agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone the national anthem of the enlarged republic. On official occasions, Haydn's music is used, and only the third stanza is supposed to be sung. For other uses, all stanzas may be performed. The singing of the first stanza, however, is considered by many as an expression of right-wing or nationalist political views, depending on the context. Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit (unity and justice and freedom) from the third stanza appears on soldiers' belts. It was engraved into the rim of former 5-Deutsche Mark coins, and is shown on current 2-Euro coins minted in Germany. Apart from official state visits, the music of Haydn is played primarily after German sports victories or before games of the German national football team without any vocals, apart from the crowd present or the athletes involved. Modern criticisms The song has frequently been criticised because of its generally nationalist theme, because of the geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza and the somewhat male chauvinist attitude in the second one. e.g., article in german magazine Der Spiegel: "nach Bund Deutscher Mädel und Mutterkreuz klang auch Strophe Nummer zwei ziemlich schwülstig" ("according to the League of German Girls and the Cross of Honor of the German Mother, stanza two also sounds quite pompous") A French philosopher had translated the third line of the first stanza with si, pour se défendre et attaquer, while Hoffmann used a pleonasm for "to defend oneself". Ulrich Günther: ... über alles in der Welt?. Studien zur Geschichte und Didaktik der deutschen Nationalhymne. Luchterhand: Neuwied am Rhein / Berlin 1966, p. 87. The main negative associations come from the use by the Nazi Party, about 100 years after it was written. Unlike many other anthems (e.g., La Marseillaise, God Save the Queen, The Star Spangled Banner), it does not praise or even mention war, which may have played a role in the decision to continue using it after World War II. Also, it was originally viewed as a drinking song, which may explain the reference to wine and women in the second stanza. However valid the propagandists' interpretation may have been in regard to the Nazis, that interpretation does not reflect Hoffmann's original intention, which was that in times of strife, Germany's welfare and unity must be put "above all else in the world." There was no real, united Germany at the time Hoffmann was writing, only a large number of scattered German states above which Germany was supposed to be held. Hoffmann and many Germans longed for these states to unite, a wish that only came true (except for Austria) when the German Empire was proclaimed in Versailles in 1871. Staatssymbole Zeichen politischer Gemeinschaft – Blickpunkt Bundestag online There were no international claims made. The concept of nationalism changed drastically during the century after the song was composed. In the middle of the 19th century, nationalism was a liberal, progressive idea aimed at overcoming empires and the transnational borders these states had. By the middle of the 20th century, after two World Wars and the establishment of states often according to the nationality of people, nationalism had become, in the opinion of many, a very conservative, chauvinist, jingoist, even fascist concept aimed at territorial expansion. Variants and additions Hoffmann von Fallersleben also intended the text to be used as a drinking song; the second stanza's toast to German women and wine are typical of this genre. The original Helgoland manuscript included a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions: Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit Für das deutsche Vaterland! Danach lasst uns alle streben Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; |: Stoßet an und ruft einstimmig, Hoch, das deutsche Vaterland. :|Unity and justice and freedom For the German fatherland; This let us all pursue, Brotherly with heart and hand. Unity and justice and freedom Are the pledge of fortune. |: Lift your glasses and shout together, Prosper, German fatherland. :| In 1921, Albert Matthai wrote a stanza in reaction to Germany's losses in and after World War I. This stanza was never used as a national anthem and was not part of the Deutschlandlied. Stanza by Matthai, 1921Deutschland, Deutschland über alles Und im Unglück nun erst recht. Nur im Unglück kann die Liebe Zeigen ob sie stark und echt. Und so soll es weiterklingen Von Geschlechte zu Geschlecht: |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles Und im Unglück nun erst recht. :|Germany, Germany above everything, And in times of misfortune more than ever, Only through misfortune can love Show whether it's strong and true; And so shall the song continue From generation to generation |: Germany, Germany above everything, And in times of misfortune more than ever.:| The German musician Nico sometimes performed the national anthem at concerts and dedicated it to militant Andreas Baader, leader of the Red Army Faction who killed himself in a German prison. Her version was thought to be an attempt to re-interpret the anthem in a similar way to Jimi Hendrix's version of the Star Spangled Banner. She included a version of Das Lied der Deutschen on her 1973 album The End. The song California Über Alles by the Dead Kennedys is also inspired heavily from this song. 2006 saw another interpretation of the song by the Slovenian Industrial band Laibach titled Germania. In P.D.Q. Bach's opera parody, "Hansel and Gretel and Ted and Alice," one of the characters is named Alice über Deutschland. References See also August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben Congress of Vienna German Confederation Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser String Quartets, Op. 76 (Haydn) Revolutions of 1848 in the German states External links German national anthem in vocal and instrumental version with lyrics in MP3 format Das Lied der Deutschen – A page with lyrics and mp3 vocal files of the anthem, sponsored by "Welcome to the Leader in Lieder" Deutsche Welle: Germans Stop Humming, Start Singing National Anthem be-x-old:Гімн Нямеччыны | Deutschlandlied |@lemmatized da:11 deutschlandlied:8 song:18 germany:56 also:16 know:6 lie:11 der:26 deutschen:12 german:67 use:17 wholly:1 partially:1 national:24 anthem:29 since:4 music:5 write:14 joseph:2 haydn:11 birthday:2 austrian:8 emperor:6 francis:4 ii:5 holy:4 roman:4 empire:13 linguist:1 poet:1 august:6 heinrich:4 hoffmann:22 von:18 fallersleben:10 lyric:12 melody:6 consider:2 revolutionary:7 time:11 well:3 opening:1 word:1 refrain:1 first:14 stanza:30 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150 | Kevlar | Kevlar's molecular structure; BOLD: monomer unit; DASHED: hydrogen bonds. Kevlar is the registered trademark for a light, strong para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965 by Stephanie Kwolek MIT - Stephanie Kwolek bio it was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as an ingredient in composite material components. Currently, Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to body armor because of its high strength-to-weight ratio—famously: "...5 times stronger than steel on an equal weight basis..." A similar fiber called Twaron with roughly the same chemical structure was introduced by Akzo in 1978, and now manufactured by Teijin. Properties When Kevlar is spun, the resulting fiber has great tensile strength (ca. 3 620 MPa), and a relative density of 1.44. When used as a woven material, it is suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications. There are three grades of Kevlar: (i) Kevlar, (ii) Kevlar 29, and (iii) Kevlar 49. Typically, Kevlar is used as reinforcement in tires and rubber mechanical goods. Kevlar 29's industrial applications are as cables, in asbestos replacement, brake linings, and body armor. Kevlar 49 has the greatest tensile strength of all the aramids, and is used in plastic reinforcement for boat hulls, airplanes, and bicycles. The ultraviolet light component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as UV degradation, and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight. Production Kevlar is synthesised in solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine (para-phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric acid as a byproduct. The result has liquid-crystalline behaviour, and mechanical drawing orients the polymer chains in the fiber's direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) was the polymerization solvent first used, but toxicology tests demonstrated it provoked tumors in the noses of rats, so DuPont replaced it by a N-methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride as the solvent. As this process was patented by Akzo (see above) in the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued. The reaction of 1,4-phenylene-diamine (para-phenylenediamine) with terephthaloyl chloride yielding kevlar. Kevlar (poly paraphenylene terephthalamide) production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning. Chemical properties Fibers of Kevlar consist of long molecular chains produced from PPTA (poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide). There are many inter-chain bonds making the material extremely strong. Kevlar derives part of its high strength from inter-molecular hydrogen bonds formed between the carbonyl groups and protons on neighboring polymer chains and the partial pi stacking of the benzenoid aromatic stacking interactions between stacked strands. These interactions have a greater influence on Kevlar than the van der Waals interactions and chain length that typically influence the properties of other synthetic polymers and fibers such as Dyneema. The presence of salts and certain other impurities, especially calcium, could interfere with the strand interactions and caution is used to avoid inclusion in its production. Kevlar's structure consists of relatively rigid molecules which tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures rather like silk protein. Thermal properties For a polymer, Kevlar has very good resistance to high temperatures, and maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures (-196°C); indeed, it is slightly stronger at low temperatures. At higher temperatures the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10-20%, and after some hours the strength progressively reduces further. For example at 160°C about 10% reduction in strength occurs after 500 hours. At 260°C 50% strength reduction occurs after 70 hours. KEVLAR Technical Guide At 450°C Kevlar sublimates. Applications Armor Kevlar is well-known as a component of some bullet resistant vests and bullet resistant face masks. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces since the early 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Other military uses include bulletproof facemasks used by sentries. Civilian applications include Kevlar reinforced clothing for motorcycle riders to protect against abrasion injuries and also Emergency Service's protection gear if it involves high heat (e.g., tackling a fire), and Kevlar body armor such as vests for police officers, security, and SWAT. Rope and cable The fiber is used in woven rope and in cable, where the fibers are kept parallel within a polyethylene sleeve. Known as "Parafil", the cables have been used in small suspension bridges such as the bridge at Aberfeldy in Scotland. They have also been used to stabilise cracking concrete cooling towers by circumferential application followed by tensioning to close the cracks. Sports equipment Kevlar is very popular material for racing canoes (Adirondack Canoe Classic, Saranac Lake, NY) It is used as an inner lining for some bicycle tires to prevent punctures, and due to its excellent heat resistance, is used for fire poi wicks. It is used for motorcycle safety clothing, especially in the areas featuring padding such as shoulders and elbows. It was also used as speed control patches for certain Soap Shoes models. In Kyudo or Japanese archery, it may be used as an alternative to more expensive hemp for bow strings. It is one of the main materials used for paraglider suspension lines. Audio equipment It has also been found to have useful acoustic properties for loudspeaker cones, specifically for bass and midrange drive units Audio speaker use . Electricity generation Kevlar was used by scientists at Georgia Institute of Technology as a base textile for an experiment in electricity-producing clothing. This was done by weaving zinc oxide nanowires into the fabric. If successful, the new fabric would generate about 80 milliwatts per square meter. Scientific American: Fabric Produces Electricity As You Wear It Drumheads Kevlar is sometimes used as a material in high tension drum heads usually used on marching snare drums. It allows for an extremely high amount of tension, resulting in a cleaner sound. There is usually some sort of resin poured onto the kevlar to make the head airtight, and a nylon top layer to provide a flat striking surface. This is one of the primary types of marching snare drum heads. Remo's falam slam patch is made with kevlar and is used to reinforce bass drum heads where the beater strikes. Woodwind reeds Kevlar is used in the woodwind reeds of Fibracell. The material of these reeds is a composite of aerospace materials designed to duplicate the way nature constructs cane reed. Very stiff but sound absorbing Kevlar fibers are suspended in a lightweight resin formulation. Fiber Optic Cable Kevlar is widely used as a protective outer sheath for optical fiber cable, as its strength protects the cable from damage and kinking. Building construction A retractable roof of over 60,000 square feet (5,575 square metres) of Kevlar was a key part of the design of Montreal's Olympic stadium for the 1976 Summer Olympics. It was spectacularly unsuccessful, as it was completed ten years late and replaced just ten years later in May 1998 after a series of problems. Clem's Baseball ~ Olympic Stadium Brakes The chopped fiber has been used as a replacement for asbestos in brake pads. Dust produced from asbestos brakes is toxic, while aramids are a benign substitute. Expansion joints and hoses Kevlar can be found as a reinforcing layer in rubber bellows expansion joints and rubber hoses, for use in high temperature applications, and for its high strength. It is also found as a braid layer used on the outside of hose assemblies, to add protection against sharp objects. Composite materials Aramid fibers are widely used for reinforcing composite materials, often in combination with carbon fiber and glass fiber. The matrix for high performance composites is usually epoxy resin. Typical applications include monocoque bodies for F1 racing cars, helicopter rotor blades, tennis, table tennis, badminton and squash rackets, kayaks, cricket bats, and field hockey, ice hockey and lacrosse sticks. Kadolph, Sara J. Anna L. Langford. Textiles, Ninth Edition. Pearson Education, Inc 2002. Upper Saddle River, NJ Ronald V. Joven. Manufacturing Kevlar panels by thermo-curing process. Los Andes University, 2007. Bogotá, Colombia. See also Aramid Bulletproof vest DuPont (Company that invented and manufactures Kevlar) Interceptor body armor Personnel Armor System for Ground Troops Innegra S Nomex Vectran Spider silk Twaron Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene UV degradation Soap Shoes Fire dancing Stephanie Kwolek (The inventor of Kevlar) References External links Kevlar Home Page Aramids Kevlar - Design Dictionary. 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151 | Maribor | Maribor (German: ) is the second largest city in Slovenia. The population of Maribor is approximately 133,000 http://www.randburg.com/si/maribor.html . Maribor lies on the river Drava at the meeting point of the Pohorje mountain, the Drava Valley, the Drava Plain, and the Kozjak and Slovenske gorice hill ranges. It is the center of the Slovenian region of Lower Styria and its largest city. Maribor Airport is the second largest international airport in Slovenia. The nearest larger urban center is Graz (Gradec) in Austria which is about 60 km (40 miles) away. Maribor's coat of arms features a white dove flying downwards above a white castle with two towers and a portcullis on a red shield. History In 1164 a castle known as the Marchburch (Middle High German for "March Castle") was documented in Styria. Maribor was first mentioned as a market near the castle in 1204, and received town privileges in 1254. It began to grow rapidly after the victory of Rudolf I of Habsburg over Otakar II of Bohemia in 1278. Maribor withstood sieges by Matthias Corvinus in 1480 and 1481 and by the Ottoman Empire in 1532 and 1683, and the city remained under the control of the Habsburg Monarchy until 1918. Maribor Town Hall Maribor, previously in the Catholic Diocese of Graz-Seckau, became part of the Diocese of Lavant on 1 June 1859, and the seat of its Prince-Bishop. The name of the diocese (the name of a river in Carinthia flowing into the Drava at the Slovenian village of Dravograd) was changed to the Diocese of Maribor on March 5 1962. It was elevated to an archdiocese by Pope Benedict XVI on April 7 2006. Before the First World War, the city had a population of 80% Germans and 20% Slovenes, and most of the city's capital and public life was in German control. Therefore, it was mainly known by its German name . According to the last Austro-Hungarian census in 1910, Maribor and the suburbs Studenci (Brunndorf), Pobrežje (Pobersch), Tezno (Thesen), Radvanje (Rothwein), Krčevina (Kartschowin), and Košaki (Leitersberg) were composed of 31,995 Germans (including Jews) and 6,151 ethnic Slovenes. The wider surrounding area was populated almost exclusively by Slovenes, although many Germans lived in smaller towns like Ptuj. Panoramic view of Maribor from Pohorje Maribor at New Years time During World War I, many Slovenes in Carinthia and Styria were detained for allegedly being enemies of the Austrian Empire, which led to further conflicts between German Austrians and Slovenes. After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Maribor was claimed by both the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and by German Austria. On November 1 1918, a meeting was held by Colonel Anton Holik in Melje's barracks, where it was determined the city would be part of German Austria. Ethnic Slovene major Rudolf Maister, who was present at the meeting, renounced the decision. He was awarded the rank of General Maister's rank of General was recognized by the Ministry of Defence of the National Government of SHS on December 14 1918; published in Official Journal No. 1 by the National Council for (Slovenian) Styria on the same day and organized Slovenian military units in Maribor to successfully take control of the city. All German soldiers and officers were demobilized and sent home to new German Austria. The city council held a secret meeting where a decision was taken to do whatever possible to gain Maribor for German Austria. They organized a military unit, the so-called Green Guard (Schutzwehr). The approximately 400 well-armed soldiers of this ethnic German-Austrian unit threatened pro-Slovenian and pro-Yugoslav major Maister, leading the Slovenian troops to disarm them in the early morning of November 23. Thereafter there was no real threat to the authority of Maister in the city. On 27 January 1919, Germans awaiting the American peace delegation at the city's marketplace were taken under fire by Slovenian troops which feared this crowd of thousands of ethnic German citizens. Nine people were killed and more than eighteen were seriously wounded German wikipedia gives the figures of 13 killed and more than 60 wounded ; who was responsible for the shooting has not been conclusively established. German sources accused Maister's troops of shooting without cause, while Slovene witnesses, such as Dr. Maks Pohar, claimed that the Germans attacked Slovenian soldiers guarding the Maribor city hall. Anyway, the killed Germans had been unarmed. German media called the incident Marburg's Bloody Sunday. Since Maribor was firmly in the hands of the Slovenian forces and encircled with completely Slovenian territory, it was recognized as part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes without a plebiscite in the Treaty of Saint-Germain of September 1919 between the victors of WWI and German Austria. After 1918, many of Maribor's Germans emigrated from the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into Austria, especially German-speaking officials who did not originate from the region. German schools, clubs, and organisations were closed in the new state of Yugoslavia, although ethnic Germans still made up more than 25% of the city's total population in the 1930s. A policy of cultural assimilation was pursued in Yugoslavia against the German minority in response to the Germanization policy of Austria against its Slovene minority in Carinthia. However, in the late 1930s this policy was abandoned and German minority's position improved significantly in order to gain better diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany. In 1941 Lower Styria, the Yugoslav part of Styria, was annexed by Nazi Germany. In late April Adolf Hitler, who encouraged his followers to "make this land German again", visited Maribor where a grand reception was organized by local Germans in the city castle. Immediately after the occupation, Nazi Germany began mass expulsions of Slovenes to the Independent State of Croatia, Serbia, and later on to the concentration and work camps in Germany. The Nazi goal was to exterminate or Germanize the Slovene population of Lower Styria after the war. Many patriots were taken hostages and later shot in the prisons of Maribor and Graz. This led to organized partisans resistance. The city, a major industrial center with extensive armaments industry, later was systematically bombed by the Allies in the last years of World War II. Many local Germans were involved in crimes against local Slovenes; the remaining German population was expelled after the end of the war in 1945 without proof of individual or collective guilt. The Slovenian members of the Slovenian Home Guard, which had fought in alliance with the Italian fascist en Nazi German forces against the Yugoslav partisans (communists) were rounded up and often massacred. After the liberation, Maribor capitalized on its proximity to Austria as well as its skilled workforce, and developed into a major transit and cultural center of Northern Slovenia and the biggest industrial city in Yugoslavia, - enabled by Tito's decision not to build an Iron Curtain at the borders towards Austria and Italy and to provide passports to the citizens. When Slovenia seceded from Yugoslavia in 1991, the loss of the Yugoslav market severely strained the city's economy which was based on heavy industry, resulting in record levels of unemployment of almost 25%. The situation has improved since the mid-1990s with the development of small and medium sized businesses and industry. Slovenia entered the European Union in 2004, introduced the Euro currency in 2007 and joined the Schengen treaty; accordingly all border controls between Slovenia and Austria ceased at Christmas of 2007. Unemployment in June 2007 is 11,5% (:7,8% ) Contemporary Maribor Popular tourist sites in Maribor include the 12th century cathedral in the Gothic style and the town hall constructed in the Renaissance fashion. The castle dates from the 15th century. The city hosts the University of Maribor, established in 1961 German Wikipedia gives the year 1975. Please clarify. , and many other schools. It is also home to the oldest grapevine in the world called Stara trta , which is more than 400 years old. University of Maribor Maribor is hometown of NK Maribor (www), a Slovenian football team. They participated in the UEFA Champions League in the 1999-2000 season. Every January, the skiing centre of Mariborsko Pohorje, situated on the outskirts of the city on the slopes of the Pohorje mountain range, hosts women's slalom and giant slalom races for the Alpine Skiing World Cup known as Zlata lisica (The Golden Fox). Every June, the two-week Festival Lent (named after the waterfront district called Lent) is held, with hundreds of musical, theatrical and other events. Maribor was named as an Alpine city in 2000 and chosen as European Capital of Culture 2012 alongside with Guimarães, Portugal. Maribor will be the host city of the 2013 Winter Universiade. Famous natives and residents Sister cities Maribor is twinned with: Graz, Austria Greenwich, England, United Kingdom Kraljevo, Serbia Marburg, Germany Osijek, Croatia Pétange, Luxembourg Pueblo, Colorado, United States Saint Petersburg, Russia Szombathely, Hungary Tours, France Udine, Italy References External links interactive map of Maribor at Najdi.si Official website Tourism homepage Family travel guide to Maribor Maribor art gallery Maribor at kraji.eu | Maribor |@lemmatized maribor:36 german:34 second:2 large:4 city:21 slovenia:6 population:5 approximately:2 http:1 www:2 randburg:1 com:1 si:2 html:1 lie:1 river:2 drava:4 meeting:4 point:1 pohorje:4 mountain:2 valley:1 plain:1 kozjak:1 slovenske:1 gorice:1 hill:1 range:2 center:4 slovenian:13 region:2 low:3 styria:7 airport:2 international:1 near:2 urban:1 graz:4 gradec:1 austria:13 km:1 mile:1 away:1 coat:1 arm:2 feature:1 white:2 dove:1 fly:1 downwards:1 castle:6 two:2 tower:1 portcullis:1 red:1 shield:1 history:1 know:3 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152 | Hans_Christian_Andersen | Hans Christian Andersen ( in Danish), also known as simply H. C. Andersen ); (April 2 1805 – August 4 1875) was a Danish author and poet, most famous for his fairy tales. Among his best-known stories are "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", "The Snow Queen", "The Little Mermaid", "Thumbelina", "The Little Match Girl", "The Ugly Duckling" and "The Red Shoes". During Andersen's lifetime he was feted by royalty and acclaimed for having brought great enjoyment to a whole generation of children throughout Europe. His fairy tales have been translated into more than 150 languages and they continue to be published in millions of copies all over the world. His fairy tales have inspired the creation of numerous films, theater plays, ballets and film animations. Elias Bredsdorff, Hans Christian Andersen: the story of his life and work 1805-75, Phaidon (1975) ISBN 0-7148-1636-1 Biography Childhood Hans Christian Andersen was born in the town of Odense, Denmark, on Tuesday, April 2, 1805. Most English (as well as German and French) sources often refer to his name as "Hans Christian Andersen". However, in Denmark and in the other Nordic countries he is usually known as "H. C. Andersen". His first name "Hans Christian" consists of two old, traditional Danish names pronounced as a single name. The combination of two individual names being spoken without a pause between the words is uncommon in the Danish language. H.C. Andersen's father was of the belief that he was related to nobility. According to scholars at the Hans Christian Andersen Center, his paternal grandmother had told his father, that their family in the past had belonged to a higher social class. However, later investigations proved that these stories were unfounded. Their family apparently did have some connections to the Danish royalty, but they were only related to the subject of employment or trade. Nevertheless, the speculations that Andersen was the illegitimate son of a member of the royal family continues to persist in Denmark today. These speculations have been bolstered by the fact that King Frederick VI took a personal interest in him as a young man. The king had for example paid for a part of Andersen's education. The writer Rolf Dorset insists that not all options have yet been explored in determining Andersen's ancestry. Philip, Neil. The little prince, The Times, January 8, 2005. Accessed July 2, 2008. He had displayed great intelligence and imagination already as a young boy, qualities which were reinforced by his indulging parents and emphasised by the superstitions of his mother. As a child he built himself a small-scale puppet theatre, as well as clothes for all his puppets. He read dramatic works voraciously, many of which were plays by Ludvig Holberg and William Shakespeare, and throughout his childhood had a passion for literature. He was known to be able to memorise entire plays by Shakespeare and to recite them while using his puppets as actors. Hans Christian Andersen in 1869. H.C. Andersen's father died in 1816. His father had left his family for the millitary amid the war with Sweden. Shortly after having left for the war his father became terminally ill, and Andersen was now forced to support himself. He worked for a while as weaver's apprentice as well as for a tailor. At the age of fourteen, Andersen moved to Copenhagen seeking employment as an actor. He had an excellent soprano voice and was accepted at the Royal Danish Theatre, though his voice soon changed with the onset of puberty. A colleague of his at the theatre had expressed to Andersen, that in his mind, Andersen was a poet. H.C. Andersen took this suggestion very seriously and began to focus on writing. Besides his parents, Andersen also had a half-sister, Karen Marie, to whom he only managed to speak a few occasions before she passed away. Following a coincidental meeting between Andersen and a Mr. Jonas Collins, Collins found a great affection for the eccentric boy, and arranged for Andersen to attend a grammar school in Slagelse, paying for all his expenses. H.C. Andersens skolegang og livet i Slagelse Before being admitted to the grammar-school, Andersen had already succeeded in publishing his first story, The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave in 1822. Although not keen as a student, Andersen studied at two different schools, at Slagelse and also at Elsinore. He studied at these schools until 1827. H.C. Andersens skolegang i Helsingør Latinskole . Andersen stated in later life that his school years were the darkest and most bitter times of his life. While studying, he was living at his school master's residence. There, he had been abused in order to "improve Andersen's character" as he was being told. He also felt alienated from his classmates, being older than most of them. He was considered unattactive and also suffered from being dyslexic. His dyslexia may have caused the learning difficulties which he experienced during his studies. Andersen later claimed that the school faculty had forbidden him and discouraged him from writing in general. Career Early works In 1829, Andersen enjoyed considerable success with a short story titled "A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager". During this same season, he also published a comedy and a collection of poems. He made little writing and publishing progress between 1829 to 1833. However, in 1833 he received a small traveling grant from the King. This grant enabled him to start on the first of his many future European journeys. At Jura near Le Locle,Switzerland,he wrote the story "Agnete and the Merman". In 1833 he visited the Italian seaside village of Sestri Levante where he is credited with the naming of two of the town's bays. (see www.voyagefever.com/sestri-levante-part-1 -- annual festival celebrates this).In October of 1834 he arrived in Rome. Andersen's first novel, The Improvisatore, was published in the beginning of 1835, and it became an instant success. During these traveling years, H.C. Andersen resided in Denmark in an apartment at number 20, Nyhavn, Copenhagen. At this place, a memorial plaque was unveiled on the 8th of May in 1935 as a gift from Peter Schannong Official Tourism Site of Copenhagen . Andersen's Fairy Tales Paper chimney sweep cut by Andersen. It was during 1835 that Andersen published the first installment of his immortal Fairy Tales (Danish: Eventyr). More stories, completing the first volume, were published in 1836 and 1837. The quality of these stories was not immediately recognised, and they sold poorly. At the same time, Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels: O.T. (1836) and Only a Fiddler. His Specialty book that is still known today was the Ugly Duckling. (1837). Jeg er en Skandinav After a visit to Sweden in 1837, Andersen became inspired by Scandinavism and committed himself to writing a poem to convey his feeling of relatedness between the Swedes, the Danes and the Norwegians. Hans Christian Andersen and Music. - I am a Scandinavian. (Accessed January 12, 2007). It was in July 1839 during a visit to the island of Funen that Andersen first wrote the text of his poem Jeg er en Skandinav (I am a Scandinavian). Andersen designed the poem to capture "the beauty of the Nordic spirit, the way the three sister nations have gradually grown together" as part of a Scandinavian national anthem. Composer Otto Lindblad set the poem to music and the composition was published in January 1840. Its popularity peaked in 1845, after which it was seldom sung.. Travelogues In 1851, he published to wide acclaim In Sweden, a volume of travel sketches. A keen traveller, Andersen published several other long travelogues: Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc. etc. in the Summer of 1831 (A Poet's Bazaar (560), In Spain , and A Visit to Portugal in 1866 (The latter describes his visit with his Portuguese friends Jorge and Jose O'Neill, who were his fellows in the mid 1820s while living in Copenhagen.) In his travelogues, Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing; but always developed the genre to suit his own purposes. Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical excurses on topics such as being an author, immortality, and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report. Some of the travelogues, such as In Sweden, even contain fairy-tales. In the 1840s Andersen's attention returned to the stage, however with no great success at all. His true genius was however proved in the miscellany the Picture-Book without Pictures (1840). The fame of his Fairy Tales had grown steadily; a second series began in 1838 and a third in 1845. Andersen was now celebrated throughout Europe, although his native Denmark still showed some resistance to his pretensions. Between 1845 and 1864, H. C. Andersen lived in 67, Nyhavn, Copenhagen, where a memorial plaque is placed. Meetings with Dickens In June 1847, Andersen paid his first visit to England and enjoyed a triumphal social success during the summer. The Countess of Blessington invited him to her parties where intellectual and famous people could meet, and it was at one party that he met Charles Dickens for the first time. They shook hands and walked to the veranda which was of much joy to Andersen. He wrote in his diary "We had come to the veranda, I was so happy to see and speak to England's now living writer, whom I love the most." H.C. Andersen og Charles Dickens 1857 Ten years later, Andersen visited England, primarily to visit Dickens. He stayed at Dickens' home for five weeks, oblivious to Dickens' increasingly blatant hints for him to leave. Dickens' daughter said of Andersen, "He was a bony bore, and stayed on and on." Shortly after Andersen left, Dickens published David Copperfield, featuring the obsequious Uriah Heep, who is said to have been modeled on Andersen. Andersen himself greatly enjoyed the visit, and never understood why Dickens stopped answering his letters. Sexuality Modern biographies often portray him as attracted to both women and men, and there is very clear evidence for both. Andersen often fell in love with unattainable women and many of his stories are interpreted as references to his sexual grief. Hans Christian Andersen The most famous of these was the opera soprano Jenny Lind. One of his stories is "The Nightingale", was a written expression of his passion for Lind, and became the inspiration for her nickname, the "Swedish Nightingale". Andersen was often shy around women and had extreme difficulty in proposing to Lind. When Lind was boarding a train to take her to an opera concert, Andersen gave Lind a letter of proposal. Her feelings towards him were not mutual; she saw him as a brother, writing to him in 1844 "farewell... God bless and protect my brother is the sincere wish of his affectionate sister, Jenny." H.C. Andersen homepage (Danish) A girl named Riborg Voigt was the unrequited love of Andersen's youth. A small pouch containing a long letter from Riborg was found on Andersen's chest when he died. At one point he wrote in his diary: "Almighty God, thee only have I; thou steerest my fate, I must give myself up to thee! Give me a livelihood! Give me a bride! My blood wants love, as my heart does!" The Tales of Hans Christian Andersen Other disappointments in love included Sophie Orsted, the daughter of the physicist Hans Christian Orsted, and Louise Collin, the youngest daughter of his benefactor Jonas Collin. Just like his interest in women, Andersen would become attracted to nonreciprocating men. For example Andersen wrote to Edvard Collin, Hans Christian Andersen's correspondence, ed Frederick Crawford6, London. 1891 : "I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench... my sentiments for you are those of a woman. The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery." Collin, who did not prefer men, wrote in his own memoir: "I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering." Likewise, the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer Harald Scharff and Carl Alexander, the young hereditary duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, did not result in any relationships. Four of his letters to Carl are edited in an anthology by Rictor Norton. In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations. Recorded using "special Greek symbols". Death In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell out of bed and was severely hurt. He never quite recovered, but he lived until August 4 1875, dying quietly in a house called Rolighed (literally: calmness), near Copenhagen, the home of his close friends Moritz Melchior, a banker, and his wife. Bryant, Mark: Private Lives, 2001, p.12 Shortly before his death, he had consulted a composer about the music for his funeral, saying: "Most of the people who will walk after me will be children, so make the beat keep time with little steps." His body was interred in the Assistens Kirkegård in the Nørrebro area of Copenhagen. At the time of his death, he was an internationally renowned and treasured artist. He received a stipend from the Danish Government as a "national treasure". Before his death, steps were already underway to erect the large statue in his honour, which was completed and is prominently placed at the town hall square in Copenhagen. Legacy In the English-speaking world, stories such as "Thumbelina", "The Snow Queen", "The Ugly Duckling", "The Little Mermaid", "The Emperor's New Clothes", and "The Princess and the Pea" remain popular and are widely read. "The emperor's new clothes" and "ugly duckling" have both passed into the English language as well-known expressions. In the Copenhagen harbor there is a statue of The Little Mermaid, placed in honour of Hans Christian Andersen. 2 April, Andersen's birthday, is celebrated as International Children's Book Day. The year 2005 was the bicentenary of Andersen's birth and his life and work was celebrated around the world. In Denmark, particularly, the nation's most famous son has been feted like no other literary figure. In the city of Lublin, Poland is the Puppet & Actor Theatre of Hans Christian Andersen.Theatre Site A $12.5 million theme park based on Andersen's tales and life opened in Shanghai at the end of 2006. Multi-media games as well as all kinds of cultural contests related to the fairytales are available to visitors. He was chosen as the star of the park because he is a "nice, hardworking person who was not afraid of poverty", Shanghai Gujin Investment general manager Zhai Shiqiang was quoted by the AFP news agency as saying. China to open Andersen theme park, BBC News, August 11, 2006. Accessed July 2, 2008. Fairy tales Some of his most famous fairy tales include: The Angel (1843) The Bell (1845) The Emperor's New Clothes (1837) The Fir Tree (1844) The Happy Family (1847) It's Quite True! (1852) The Little Match Girl (1848) The Little Mermaid (1836) Little Tuck (1847) The Nightingale (1844) The Old House (1847) Ole-Lukøie (1841) The Princess and the Pea (1835; also known as The Real Princess) The Red Shoes (1845) The Shadow (1847) The Shepherdess and the Chimney Sweep (1845) The Snow Queen (1844) The Steadfast Tin Soldier (1838) The Story of a Mother (1847) The Swineherd (1841) Thumbelina (1835) The Tinder Box (1835) The Ugly Duckling (1844) The Wild Swans (1838) Contemporary literary and artistic works inspired by Andersen's stories "The Naked King" ("Голый Король" 1937), "The Shadow" ("Тень" 1940), and "The Snow Queen" ("Снежная Королева" 1948) by Eugene Schwartz: reworked and adapted to the contemporary reality plays by one of Russia's most famous playwrights. Schwartz's versions of "The Shadow" and "The Snow Queen" were later made into movies (1971 and 1966, respectively). Sam the Lovesick Snowman at the Center for Puppetry Arts: a contemporary puppet show by Jon Ludwig inspired by The Snow Man. "Jon Ludwig's 'Sam the Lovesick Snowman'" The Ugly Duckling ("Гадкий утенок") (Children's opera) - Opera-Parable By Hans Christian Andersen. For Mezzo-Soprano (Soprano), Three-part Children's Choir And the Piano. 1 Act: 2 Epigraphs, 38 Theatrical Pictures. Length: Approximately 28 minutes. The opera version (Free transcription) Written by Lev Konov (Лев Конов) (1996). On music of Sergei Prokofiev: The Ugly Duckling, op. 18 (1914) And Visions Fugitives, op. 22 (1915-1917). (Vocal score language: Russian, English, German, French). The first representation in Moscow in 1997. The Girl Who Trod on a Loaf by Kathryn Davis: a contemporary novel about fairy tales and opera The Snow Queen by Joan Vinge: an award-winning novel that reworks the Snow Queen's themes into epic science fiction The Nightingale by Kara Dalkey: a lyrical adult fantasy novel set in the courts of old Japan The Wild Swans by Peg Kerr: a novel that brings Andersen's fairy tale to colonial and modern America Daughter of the Forest by Juliet Marillier: a romantic fantasy novel, set in early Ireland, thematically linked to "The Wild Swans" Birdwing by Rafe Martin, a young adult novel that continues the tale of "The Wild Swans" with the story of Ardwin, the brother whose arm remained a wing The Snow Queen by Eileen Kernaghan: a gentle Young Adult fantasy novel that brings out the tale's subtle pagan and shamanic elements "The Snow Queen", a short story by Patricia A. McKillip (published in Snow White, Blood Red) "You, Little Match Girl", a short story by Joyce Carol Oates (published in Black Heart, Ivory Bones) "Sparks", a short story by Gregory Frost (based on The Tinder Box, published in Black Swan, White Raven) "Steadfast", a short story by Nancy Kress (based on The Steadfast Tin Soldier, published in Black Swan, White Raven) "The Sea Hag", a short story by Melissa Lee Shaw (based on The Little Mermaid, published in Silver Birch, Blood Moon) "The Real Princess", a short story by Susan Palwick (based on The Princess and the Pea, published in Ruby Slippers, Golden Tears) "Match Girl", a short story by Anne Bishop (published in Ruby Slippers, Golden Tears) "The Pangs of Love", a short story by Jane Gardam (based on The Little Mermaid, published in Close Company: Stories of Mothers and Daughters) "The Chrysanthemum Robe", a short story by Kara Dalkey (based on The Emperor's New Clothes, published in The Armless Maiden) "The Steadfast Tin Soldier", a short story by Joan Vinge (published in Women of Wonder) "In the Witch's Garden", a short story by Naomi Kritzer (based on The Snow Queen, published in Realms of Fantasy magazine, October 2002 issue) "I Hear the Mermaids Singing", a short story by Nancy Holder (based on The Little Mermaid) "The Last Poems About the Snow Queen", a poem cycle by Sandra Gilbert (published in Blood Pressure) The Little Mermaid (2005) for children's chorus, narrator, orchestra by Richard Mills "La petite marchande d'allumettes", film by Jean Renoir (1928) "The Andersen Project" by Robert Lepage: Freely inspired from two stories by Andersen (The Dryad and The Shadow). "The Little Mermaid (1989 movie) (Walt Disney Pictures)Based on the original story. The Little Match Girl (2006 short) With the DVD Release of The Little Mermaid (Walt Disney Pictures)Based on the original story. The Little Mermaid for actress, two pianos and chamber ensemble/orchestra. "Lior Navok's 'The Little Mermaid'" The Little Match Girl Passion - a choral work composed in 2007 by David Lang. It won the 2008 Pulitzer Prize in Music. The Ghost, an episode in the third series of the British TV show Hustle is based around the theft of an Andersen manuscript from an old English manor house. A Designer's Paradise, an episode in the fourth series of the British TV show Hustle bases a confidence trick around the story of The Emperor's New Clothes Broken Angels (Merciless in the U.S.), a novel by Richard Montanari focuses on a serial killer who murders people in accordance with Hans Christian Andersen stories. Stories included are The Nightingale, Thumbelina, The Red Shoes, The Little Match Girl, The Steadfast Tin Soldier, The Tinderbox, What The Moon Saw, Anne Lisbeth, Little Claus and Big Claus, The Snow Man, and Little Ida's Flowers. "Striking Twelve", a Staged Concert/Musical by the New York band, Groove Lily, about a grumpy guy reading "The Little Match Girl" on New Year's Eve. See also Vilhelm Pedersen, the first illustrator of Andersen's fairy tales Chopin and The Nightingale is a dramatic reading with music in six acts, written by Cecilia and Jens Jorgensen of Icons of Europe for narrator, two sopranos and piano. It enacts the true-life romance of Chopin and Jenny Lind, which happens to resemble The Nightingale story of Hans Christian Andersen. When Chopin dies of tuberculosis in the arms of Jenny Lind, she decides to devote the rest of her life to paying tribute to his music. "Good Morning!", says the emperor / composer the next day. Performed - to celebrate the new Europe and World Tuberculosis Day - at Brussels (2003), Warsaw (2004), Toronto (2005) and New York State (2008). "Did the emperor suffer from tuberculosis?", essay of 17 March 2005 researched and written by Cecilia Jorgensen for World Tuberculosis Day. Danny Kaye, who played him in the 1952 musical film. British artist Stella Vine was likened to Hans Christian Andersen in that she is "a fabulist who is both a grown-up artist and, emotionally, a child so damaged that she cannot grow up" by Jackie Wullschlager in the Financial Times in 2007. Wullschlager, Jackie. "Where art history meets Hello!", Financial Times 21 July 2007. Retrieved 31 January 2009. In 1985, UK synthpop duo Erasure released their second single "Heavenly Action" in a sleeve centered around, and including an excerpt from, The Steadfast Tin Soldier. In 2005, the music video of their song "Breathe" was a modern adaptation of The Little Match Girl. Bibliography Jackie Wullschläger, Hans Christian Andersen. The Life of a Storyteller, Penguin, 2000, ISBN 0-14-028320-X Stig Dalager, Journey in Blue, historical, biographical novel about H.C.Andersen, Peter Owen, London 2006, McArthur & Co., Toronto 2006. Norton, Rictor (ed.) My Dear Boy: Gay Love Letters through the Centuries. Leyland Publications, San Francisco. 1998 ISBN 0-943595-71-1 Ruth Manning-Sanders, Swan of Denmark: The Story of Hans Christian Andersen, Heinemann, 1949 Notes Jens Andersen; Andersen, En Biografi; Gyldendal, Copenhagen, 2 volumes, 2003 External links The Hans Christian Andersen Theatre In the city of Lublin, Poland is the Puppet & Actor Theatre of Hans Christian Andersen The Hans Christian Andersen Center - contains many Andersen's stories in Danish and English The Hans Christian Andersen Museum in Odense has a large digital collection of Hans Christian Andersen papercuts, drawings and portraits - Also you can follow his travels across Europe and explore his Nyhavn study. Andersen's Fairy Tales public domain audio book at LibriVox Hans Christian Andersen's Fairy Tales The Orders and Medals Society of Denmark has descriptions of Hans Christian Andersen's Medals and Decorations. And the cobbler's son became a princely author Details of Andersen's life and the celebrations. Works by Hans Christian Andersen at Internet Archive. Scanned, color illustrated first editions. Hans Christian Andersen Information (mainly in Danish) contains information about his life, childhood home, Hans Christian Andersen House and museum, fairy tales and stories, literary activities, drawings, papercuts and picture pages. Funabashi H. C. Andersen Park (in Japanese) Main Article : H. C. Andersen Park (アンデルセン公園) Hans Christian Andersen paintings by artist Erik Bagge Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tales seen with the eyes and pencil of the Danish artist Erik Bagge. Hans Christian Andersen paintings by artist Vladyslav Yerko Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale with visions by the Ukrainian artist Vladyslav Yerko. The Tales of Hans Christian Andersen: A metasite about the Fairytales and other literary works (Includes translations into many different languages) Various stories by Hans Christian Andersen (full text) Short Stories by Hans Christian Anderson Information about the musical "Striking Twelve" based on the "Little Match Girl". 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153 | Montevideo_Convention | The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States was a treaty (which was later accepted as part of customary international law) signed at Montevideo, Uruguay, on December 26, 1933, during the Seventh International Conference of American States. At the conference, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull declared the so-called Good Neighbor Policy, which opposed U.S. armed intervention in inter-American affairs. This was a diplomatic attempt by Roosevelt to reverse the perception of "Yankee imperialism," brought about by the policies instituted (largely) by his predecessor, President Herbert Hoover. The convention was signed by 19 states. The acceptance of three of the signatories was subject to minor reservations. Those states were Brazil, Peru and the United States List of signatories of the Montevideo Convention Background The convention sets out the definition, rights and duties of statehood. Most well-known is article 1, which sets out the four criteria for statehood that have sometimes been recognized as an accurate statement of customary international law: The state as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with the other states. Furthermore, the first sentence of article 3 explicitly states that "The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states." This is known as the declarative theory of statehood. Some have questioned whether these criteria are sufficient, as they allow less-recognized entities like the Republic of China (Taiwan) or even entirely non-recognized entities like the Nagorno Karabakh Republic to claim full status as states. According to the alternative constitutive theory of statehood, a state exists only insofar as it is recognized by other states. It should not be confused with the Estrada doctrine. There have also been attempts to further broaden the convention's definition, although they have gained less support. Founders of non-territorial micronations commonly assert that the requirement in the Montevideo Convention of a defined territory is in some way wrong-headed, for largely unspecified reasons. Some non-territorial entities, notably the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, are indeed considered subjects of international law, but these do not aspire to statehood. The conference is also notable in American history because one of the U.S. representatives was the famous social worker and educator, Dr. Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge (1866-1948). She was first U.S. female representative at that level in an international conference. Criticisms In most cases the only avenue open to self-determination for colonial or national ethnic minority populations was to achieve international legal personality as a nation state. The Postcoloniality of International Law, Harvard International Law Journal, Volume 46, Number 2, Summer 2005, Sundhya Pahuja, page 5 The majority of delegations at the International Conference of American States represented independent States that had emerged from former colonies. In most cases their own existence and independence had been disputed, or opposed, by one or more of the European colonial empires. They agreed among themselves to criteria that made it easier for other dependent states with limited sovereignty to gain international recognition. "Independence" and "sovereignty" are not mentioned in article 1 of the convention. see for example State Failure, Sovereignty and Effectiveness, Legal Lessons from the Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa, Gerard Kreijen, Published by Martinus Nijhoff, 2004, ISBN 9004139656, page 110 Numerous criticisms have been made about the Montevideo Convention's criteria for statehood because it contains no criteria to prevent boundary disputes in cases involving secessionist movements . Others criticize the aspect of "government," as it makes no distinction as to whether governments and client states established by military occupation, or governments in exile, should be considered legal. Furthermore, this clause effectively rules out anarchic states from existing legally . Signatories The states that signed this convention are: Honduras, United States of America, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Argentina, Venezuela, Uruguay, Paraguay, Mexico, Panama, Guatemala, Brazil, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Chile, Peru, Cuba Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States . However, as a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories, but to all subjects of international law as a whole. Harris, D.J. (ed) 2004 "Cases and Materials on International Law" 6th Ed. at p. 99. Sweet and Maxwell, London The European Union, in the principal statement of its Badinter Committee, The Badinter Arbitration Committee (full title), named for its chair, ruled on the question of whether the Republics of Croatia, Macedonia, and Slovenia, who had formally requested recognition by the members of the European Union and by the EU itself, had met conditions specified by the Council of Ministers of the European Community on December 16, 1991. follows the Montevideo Convention in its definition of a state: by having a territory, a population, and a political authority. The committee also found that the existence of states was a question of fact, while the recognition by other states was purely declaratory and not a determinative factor of statehood. [Opinion No 1., Badinter Arbitration Committee, states that "the state is commonly defined as a community which consists of a territory and a population subject to an organized political authority; that such a state is characterized by sovereignty" and that "the effects of recognition by other states are purely declaratory."] Switzerland, although not a member of the European Union, adheres to the same principle, stating that "neither a political unit needs to be recognized to become a state, nor does a state have the obligation to recognize another one. At the same time, neither recognition is enough to create a state, nor does its absence abolish it." [Switzerland's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, DFA, Directorate of International Law: "Recognition of States and Governments," 2005.] See also Sovereignty Dollar diplomacy External links link to the text of the convention: http://www.taiwandocuments.org/montevideo01.htm References | Montevideo_Convention |@lemmatized montevideo:8 convention:13 right:3 duty:3 state:37 treaty:1 later:1 accept:1 part:1 customary:3 international:15 law:10 sign:3 uruguay:2 december:2 seventh:1 conference:5 american:4 united:3 president:2 franklin:1 roosevelt:2 secretary:1 cordell:1 hull:1 declare:1 call:1 good:1 neighbor:1 policy:2 oppose:2 u:3 arm:1 intervention:1 inter:1 affair:2 diplomatic:1 attempt:2 reverse:1 perception:1 yankee:1 imperialism:1 bring:1 institute:1 largely:2 predecessor:1 herbert:1 hoover:1 acceptance:1 three:1 signatory:3 subject:4 minor:1 reservation:1 brazil:2 peru:2 list:1 background:1 set:2 definition:3 statehood:7 well:1 know:2 article:3 four:1 criterion:4 sometimes:1 recognize:6 accurate:1 statement:2 person:1 possess:1 following:1 qualification:1 permanent:1 population:4 b:1 defined:2 territory:4 c:1 government:5 capacity:1 enter:1 relation:1 furthermore:2 first:2 sentence:1 explicitly:1 political:4 existence:3 independent:2 recognition:7 declarative:1 theory:2 question:3 whether:3 sufficient:1 allow:1 less:2 entity:3 like:2 republic:4 china:1 taiwan:1 even:1 entirely:1 non:3 nagorno:1 karabakh:1 claim:1 full:2 status:1 accord:1 alternative:1 constitutive:1 exist:3 insofar:1 confuse:1 estrada:1 doctrine:1 also:4 broaden:1 although:2 gain:2 support:1 founder:1 territorial:2 micronations:1 commonly:2 assert:1 requirement:1 way:1 wrong:1 head:1 unspecified:1 reason:1 notably:1 sovereign:1 military:2 order:1 malta:1 indeed:1 consider:2 aspire:1 notable:1 history:1 one:3 representative:2 famous:1 social:1 worker:1 educator:1 dr:1 sophonisba:1 preston:1 breckinridge:1 female:1 level:1 criticism:2 case:4 avenue:1 open:1 self:1 determination:1 colonial:2 national:1 ethnic:1 minority:1 achieve:1 legal:4 personality:1 nation:1 postcoloniality:1 harvard:1 journal:1 volume:1 number:1 summer:1 sundhya:1 pahuja:1 page:2 majority:1 delegation:1 represent:1 emerge:1 former:1 colony:1 independence:2 dispute:2 european:5 empire:1 agree:1 among:1 criteria:1 make:3 easy:1 dependent:1 limited:1 sovereignty:5 mention:1 see:2 example:1 failure:1 effectiveness:1 lesson:1 decolonization:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:1 gerard:1 kreijen:1 publish:1 martinus:1 nijhoff:1 isbn:1 numerous:1 contain:1 prevent:1 boundary:1 involve:1 secessionist:1 movement:1 others:1 criticize:1 aspect:1 distinction:1 client:1 establish:1 occupation:1 exile:1 clause:1 effectively:1 rule:2 anarchic:1 legally:1 signatories:1 honduras:1 america:1 el:1 salvador:1 dominican:1 haiti:1 argentina:1 venezuela:1 paraguay:1 mexico:1 panama:1 guatemala:1 ecuador:1 nicaragua:1 colombia:1 chile:1 cuba:1 however:1 restatement:1 merely:2 codify:1 norm:1 principle:2 therefore:1 apply:1 whole:1 harris:1 j:1 ed:2 material:1 p:1 sweet:1 maxwell:1 london:1 union:3 principal:1 badinter:3 committee:4 arbitration:2 title:1 name:1 chair:1 croatia:1 macedonia:1 slovenia:1 formally:1 request:1 member:2 eu:1 meet:1 condition:1 specify:1 council:1 minister:1 community:2 follow:1 authority:2 find:1 fact:1 purely:2 declaratory:2 determinative:1 factor:1 opinion:1 define:1 consist:1 organize:1 characterize:1 effect:1 switzerland:2 adhere:1 neither:2 unit:1 need:1 become:1 obligation:1 another:1 time:1 enough:1 create:1 absence:1 abolish:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 dfa:1 directorate:1 dollar:1 diplomacy:1 external:1 link:2 text:1 http:1 www:1 taiwandocuments:1 org:1 htm:1 reference:1 |@bigram montevideo_convention:7 montevideo_uruguay:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 cordell_hull:1 herbert_hoover:1 nagorno_karabakh:1 estrada_doctrine:1 territorial_micronations:1 self_determination:1 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 martinus_nijhoff:1 el_salvador:1 dominican_republic:1 uruguay_paraguay:1 foreign_affair:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
154 | FIFA_World_Cup | The FIFA World Cup, occasionally called the Football World Cup, but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international football competition contested by the men's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946, because of World War II. The current format of the tournament involves 32 teams competing for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over a period of about a month – this phase is often called the World Cup Finals. A qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, is used to determine which teams qualify for the tournament together with the host nation(s). The World Cup is the most widely-viewed sporting event in the world, with an estimated 715.1 million people watching the 2006 final. 2006 FIFA World Cup broadcast wider, longer and farther than ever before, FIFA.com. Retrieved on September 16, 2008. Of the 18 tournaments held, seven nations have won the title. Brazil are the only team that have played in every tournament and have won the World Cup a record five times. Italy are the current champions and have won four titles, and Germany are next with three. The other former champions are Uruguay, winner of the inaugural tournament, and Argentina, with two titles each, and England and France, with one title each. The most recent World Cup was held in Germany in 2006, and was won by Italy, who defeated France in the final. The next World Cup will be held in South Africa, between 11 June and 11 July 2010, and the 2014 World Cup will be held in Brazil. History Previous international competitions The world's first international football match was a challenge match played in Glasgow in 1872 between Scotland and England, England National Football Team Match No. 1, England Football Online. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. with the first international tournament, the inaugural edition of the British Home Championship, taking place in 1884. At this stage the sport was rarely played outside the United Kingdom. As football began to increase in popularity in other parts of the world at the turn of the century, it was held as a demonstration sport with no medals awarded at the 1900 and 1904 Summer Olympics (however, the IOC has retroactively upgraded their status to official events), and at the 1906 Intercalated Games. After FIFA was founded in 1904, there was an attempt made by FIFA to arrange an international football tournament between nations outside of the Olympic framework in Switzerland in 1906. These were very early days for international football, and the official history of FIFA describes the competition as having been a failure. History of FIFA – FIFA takes shape, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. At the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, football became an official competition. Planned by The Football Association (FA), England's football governing body, the event was for amateur players only and was regarded suspiciously as a show rather than a competition. Great Britain (represented by the England national amateur football team) won the gold medals. They repeated the feat in 1912 in Stockholm, where the tournament was organized by the Swedish Football Association. With the Olympic event continuing to be contested only between amateur teams, Sir Thomas Lipton organized the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy tournament in Turin in 1909. The Lipton tournament was a championship between individual clubs (not national teams) from different nations, each one of which represented an entire nation. The competition is sometimes described as The First World Cup, 'The First World Cup'. The Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy. Shrewsbury and Atcham Borough Council (October 10, 2003). Retrieved on April 11, 2006. and featured the most prestigious professional club sides from Italy, Germany and Switzerland, but the FA of England refused to be associated with the competition and declined the offer to send a professional team. Lipton invited West Auckland, an amateur side from County Durham, to represent England instead. West Auckland won the tournament and returned in 1911 to successfully defend their title, and were given the trophy to keep forever, as per the rules of the competition. In 1914, FIFA agreed to recognise the Olympic tournament as a "world football championship for amateurs", and took responsibility for managing the event. History of FIFA – More associations follow, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. This paved the way for the world's first intercontinental football competition, at the 1920 Summer Olympics, contested by Egypt and thirteen European teams, and won by Belgium. Reyes, Macario (October 18, 1999). VII. Olympiad Antwerp 1920 Football Tournament rec.sport.soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved on June 10, 2006. Uruguay won the next two Olympic football tournaments in 1924 and 1928. First World Cup Estadio Centenario, the location of the first World Cup final in 1930 in Montevideo, Uruguay Due to the success of the Olympic football tournaments, FIFA, with President Jules Rimet the driving force, again started looking at staging its own international tournament outside of the Olympics. On 28 May 1928, the FIFA Congress in Amsterdam decided to stage a world championship organised by FIFA. History of FIFA – The first FIFA World Cup, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. With Uruguay now two-time official football world champions (as 1924 was the start of FIFA's professional era) and to celebrate their centenary of independence in 1930, FIFA named Uruguay as the host country of the inaugural World Cup tournament. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the Atlantic Ocean for European sides. Indeed, no European country pledged to send a team until two months before the start of the competition. Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. In total thirteen nations took part: seven from South America, four from Europe and two from North America. The first two World Cup matches took place simultaneously on 18 July 1930, and were won by France and USA, who beat Mexico 4–1 and Belgium 3–0 respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by Lucien Laurent of France. In the final, Uruguay defeated Argentina 4–2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in Montevideo, and became the first nation to win the World Cup. FIFA World Cup Origin (PDF), FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. Growth After the creation of the World Cup, the 1932 Summer Olympics, held in Los Angeles, did not plan to include football as part of the schedule due to the low popularity of the sport in the United States, as American football had been growing in popularity. FIFA and the IOC also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games. The Olympic Odyssey so far... (Part 1: 1908–1964), FIFA.com. Retrieved on January 8, 2008. Olympic football returned at the 1936 Summer Olympics, but was now overshadowed by the more prestigious World Cup. The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were the difficulties of intercontinental travel, and war. Few South American teams were willing to travel to Europe for the 1934 and 1938 tournaments, with Brazil the only South American team to compete in both. The 1942 and 1946 competitions were cancelled due to World War II and its aftermath. The 1950 World Cup, held in Brazil, was the first to include British participants. British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, and partly as a protest against foreign influence on football, but rejoined in 1946 following FIFA's invitation. The tournament also saw the return of 1930 champions Uruguay, who had boycotted the previous two World Cups. Uruguay won the tournament again by defeating the host nation Brazil in one of the most famous matches in World Cup history, which was later called the "Maracanazo" (Portuguese: Maracanaço). Map of countries' best results Map of countries' number of appearances In the tournaments between 1934 and 1978, 16 teams competed in each tournament, except in 1938, when Austria were absorbed into Germany after qualifying, leaving the tournament with 15 teams, and in 1950, when India, Scotland and Turkey withdrew, leaving the tournament with 13 teams. Glanville, p45 Most of the participating nations were from Europe and South America, with a small minority from North America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. These teams were usually defeated easily by the European and South American teams. Until 1982, the only teams from outside Europe and South America to advance out of the first round were: USA, semi-finalists in 1930; Cuba, quarter-finalists in 1938; Korea DPR, quarter-finalists in 1966; and Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1970. The tournament was expanded to 24 teams in 1982, Glanville, p238 and then to 32 in 1998, Glanville, p359 allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. The one exception is Oceania, who have never had a guaranteed spot in the tournament. In recent years, teams from these regions have enjoyed more success, and those who have reached the quarter-finals include: Mexico, quarter-finalists in 1986; Cameroon, quarter-finalists in 1990; Korea Republic, finishing in fourth place in 2002; and Senegal and USA, both quarter-finalists in 2002. However, European and South American teams have remained the stronger forces. For example, the quarter-finalists in 2006 were all from Europe or South America. 198 nations attempted to qualify for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and a record 204 will attempt to qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Record number of 204 teams enter preliminary competition, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. Other FIFA tournaments An equivalent tournament for women's football, the FIFA Women's World Cup, was first held in 1991 in the People's Republic of China. FIFA Women's World Cup, FIFA.com. Retrieved on December 22, 2007. The women's tournament is smaller in scale and profile than the men's, but is growing; the number of entrants for the 2007 tournament was 120, more than double that of 1991. Football has been included in every Summer Olympic Games except 1896 and 1932. Unlike many other sports, the men's football tournament at the Olympics is not a top-level tournament, and since 1992, an under-23 tournament with each team allowed three over-age players. Regulations Men's Olympic Football Tournament 2008 (PDF), FIFA.com. Retrieved on December 22, 2007. Women's football made its Olympic debut in 1996, and is contested between full national sides with no age restrictions. The FIFA Confederations Cup is a tournament held one year before the World Cup at the World Cup host nation(s) as a dress-rehearsal for the upcoming World Cup. It is contested by the winners of each of the six FIFA confederation championships, along with the FIFA World Cup champion and the host country. FIFA Confederations Cup, FIFA.com. Retrieved on December 22, 2007. FIFA also organizes international tournaments for youth football (FIFA U-20 World Cup, FIFA U-17 World Cup, FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup), club football (FIFA Club World Cup), and football variants such as futsal (FIFA Futsal World Cup) and beach soccer (FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup). Trophy The FIFA World Cup Trophy on a German stamp From 1930 to 1970, the Jules Rimet Trophy was awarded to the World Cup winner. It was originally simply known as the World Cup or Coupe du Monde, but in 1946 it was renamed after the FIFA president Jules Rimet who set up the first tournament. In 1970, Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. However, the trophy was stolen in 1983, and has never been recovered, apparently melted down by the thieves. Jules Rimet Trophy, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. After 1970, a new trophy, known as the FIFA World Cup Trophy, was designed. The experts of FIFA, coming from seven different countries, evaluated the 53 presented models, finally opting for the work of the Italian designer Silvio Gazzaniga. The new trophy is high, made of solid 18 carat (75%) gold and weighs . The base contains two layers of semi-precious malachite while the bottom side of the trophy bears the engraved year and name of each FIFA World Cup winner since 1974. The description of the trophy by Gazzaniga was: "The lines spring out from the base, rising in spirals, stretching out to receive the world. From the remarkable dynamic tensions of the compact body of the sculpture rise the figures of two athletes at the stirring moment of victory." FIFA World Cup Trophy, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. This new trophy is not awarded to the winning nation permanently. World Cup winners retain the trophy until the next tournament and are awarded a gold-plated replica rather than the solid gold original. FIFA Assets – Trophy, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. Format Qualification Since the second World Cup in 1934, qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams, but also subject to lobbying from the confederations. The qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of intercontinental play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the Asian zone will enter a play-off for a spot in the 2010 World Cup. From the 1938 World Cup onwards, host nations have received an automatic berth in the final tournament. This right was also granted to the defending champions between 1938 and 2002, but was withdrawn from the 2006 FIFA World Cup onward, requiring the champions to qualify. Brazil, winners in 2002, thus became the first defending champions to play in a qualifying match. Final tournament The current final tournament features 32 national teams competing over a month in the host nation(s). There are two stages: a group stage followed by a knockout stage. In the group stage, teams compete within eight groups of four teams each. Eight teams are seeded (including the hosts, with the other teams selected using a formula based on both the FIFA World Rankings and performances in recent World Cups) and drawn to separate groups. The other teams are assigned to different "pots", usually based on geographical criteria, and teams in each pot are drawn at random to the eight groups. Since 1998, constraints have been applied to the draw to ensure that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays a round-robin tournament, guaranteeing that every team will play at least three matches. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. This practice has been installed since the 1986 FIFA World Cup. In some cases during previous tournaments (Argentina 6–0 Peru in 1978; West Germany 1–0 Austria in 1982), teams that played the latter match were perceived to gain an unfair advantage by knowing the score of the earlier match, and subsequently obtaining a result that ensured advancement to the next stage. 1978 Argentina and 1982 Spain, CBC Sports. Retrieved on September 1, 2008. The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (prior to this, winners received two points rather than three). If two or more teams end up with the same number of points, tiebreakers are used: first is goal difference, then total goals scored, then head-to-head results, and finally drawing of lots (i.e. determining team positions at random). Regulations of the 2010 FIFA World Cup (PDF), (page 40–41), FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. The knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winner if necessary. It begins with the "round of 16" (or the second round) in which the winner of each group plays against the runner-up of another group. This is followed by the quarter-finals, the semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final. Selection of hosts Early World Cups were given to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The choice of location gave rise to controversies, a consequence of the three-week boat journey between South America and Europe, the two centres of strength in football. The decision to hold the first World Cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these, the 1938 FIFA World Cup, in France was controversial, as the American countries had been led to understand that the World Cup would rotate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the tournament. France 1938, BBC. (April 17, 2002). Retrieved on May 13, 2006. Since the 1958 FIFA World Cup, to avoid future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternating the hosts between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 2002 FIFA World Cup, hosted jointly by South Korea and Japan, was the first one held in Asia, and the only tournament with multiple hosts. In 2010, South Africa will become the first African nation to host the World Cup. The 2014 FIFA World Cup will be hosted by Brazil, the first held in South America since 1978, and will be the first occasion where consecutive World Cups are held outside Europe. The host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Executive Committee. This is done under a single transferable vote system. The national football association of a country desiring to host the event receives a "Hosting Agreement" from FIFA, which explains the steps and requirements that are expected from a strong bid. The bidding association also receives a form, the submission of which represents the official confirmation of the candidacy. After this, a FIFA designated group of inspectors visit the country to identify that the country meets the requirements needed to host the event and a report on the country is produced. The decision on who will host the World Cup is usually made six or seven years in advance of the tournament. However, there have been occasions where the hosts of multiple future tournaments were announced at the same time, as will be the case for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. For the 2010 and 2014 World Cups, the final tournament is rotated between confederations, allowing only countries from the chosen confederation (Africa in 2010, South America in 2014) to bid to host the tournament. The rotation policy was introduced after the controversy surrounding Germany's victory over South Africa in the vote to host the 2006 tournament. However, the policy of continental rotation will not continue beyond 2014, so any country, except those belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments, can apply as hosts for World Cups starting from 2018. This is partly to avoid a similar scenario to the bidding process for the 2014 tournament, where Brazil was the only official bidder. Media coverage The World Cup was first televised in 1954 and is now the most widely-viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the Olympic Games. The cumulative audience of all matches of the 2006 World Cup is estimated to be 26.29 billion. 715.1 million individuals watched the final match of this tournament (a ninth of the entire population of the planet). The 2006 World Cup draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, was watched by 300 million viewers. Socceroos face major challenge: Hiddink, ABC Sport, December 10, 2005. Retrieved on May 13, 2006. Each FIFA World Cup since 1966 has its own mascot. World Cup Willie, the mascot for the 1966 competition, was the first World Cup mascot. FIFA Assets – Mascots, FIFA.com. Retrieved on November 19, 2007. Results World Cup summaries Year Host Nation(s) Final Third Place Match Winner Score Runner-up 3rd PlaceScore 4th Place 1930 Details 4–21934 Details 2–1 aet3–21938 Details 4–24–21950 Details 1954 Details 3–23–11958 Details 5–26–31962 Details 3–11–01966 Details 4–2 aet2–11970 Details 4–11–01974 Details 2–11–01978 Details 3–1 aet2–11982 Details 3–13–21986 Details 3–24–2 aet1990 Details 1–02–11994 Details 0–0 aet (3–2) pen4–01998 Details 3–02–12002 Details & 2–03–22006 Details1–1 aet (5–3) pen3–1 Key aet — after extra time pen — penalty shootout Notes Winners and finalists Map of winning countries In all, 75 nations have played in at least one World Cup. This follows FIFA's consideration that the national teams of Czechoslovakia/Czech Republic, Yugoslavia/Serbia and Montenegro/Serbia, and USSR/Russia are combined respectively for record-keeping. Of these, only 11 have made it to the final match, and only seven have won. The seven national teams that have won the World Cup have added stars to the crest, located on their shirt, with each star representing a World Cup victory. With five titles, Brazil are the most successful World Cup team and also the only nation to have played in every World Cup to date. Brazil (1958 and 1962) and Italy (1934 and 1938) are the only nations to have won consecutive titles. Below is a list of the 11 teams that have played in a World Cup final. Brazil and Germany each finished as either winners or runners-up seven times. TeamTitlesRunners-up5 (1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002)2 (1950*, 1998)4 (1934*, 1938, 1982, 2006)2 (1970, 1994)^3 (1954, 1974*, 1990)4 (1966, 1982, 1986, 2002)2 (1978*, 1986)2 (1930, 1990)2 (1930*, 1950)–1 (1998*)1 (2006)1 (1966*)––2 (1974, 1978)#–2 (1934, 1962)–2 (1938, 1954)–1 (1958*) <div id="1">* = hosts ^ = includes results representing West Germany between 1954 and 1990 # = states that have since split into two or more independent nations Performances by host nations Six of the seven champions have won one of their titles while playing in their own homeland, the exception being Brazil, who finished as runners-up after losing the deciding match on home soil in 1950. England (1966) and France (1998) won their only titles while playing as host nations. Uruguay (1930), Italy (1934) and Argentina (1978) won their first titles as host nations but have gone on to win again, while Germany (1974) won their second title on home soil. Other nations have also been successful when hosting the tournament. Sweden (runners-up in 1958), Chile (third place in 1962), Korea Republic (fourth place in 2002), Mexico (quarter-finals in 1970 and 1986), and Japan (second round in 2002) all have their best results when serving as hosts. So far, all host nations have progressed beyond the first round. Best performances by continental zones To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by European and South American teams. The two continents have won nine titles apiece. Only two teams from outside these two continents have ever reached the semi-finals of the competition: USA (North, Central America and Caribbean) in 1930 and Korea Republic (Asia) in 2002. The best result of an African team is reaching the quarter-finals: Cameroon in 1990 and Senegal in 2002. Oceania has only been represented in the World Cup three times, and an Oceanian qualifier has reached the second round once, as Australia qualified as an Oceanian nation in 2005, although they moved to the Asian Football Confederation before the beginning of the tournament. All World Cups won by European teams have taken place in Europe and the only teams to have won outside Europe come from South America. The only non-European team to win a tournament in Europe is Brazil in 1958. Only twice have consecutive World Cups been won by teams from the same continent – when Italy and Brazil successfully defended their titles in 1938 and 1962 respectively. Awards At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently six awards: The Golden Shoe (sometimes called the Golden Boot) for the top goalscorer (first awarded in 1982, but retrospectively applied to all tournaments from 1930); most recently, the Silver Shoe and the Bronze Shoe have been awarded to the second and third top goalscorers respectively; The Golden Ball for the best player, determined by a vote of media members (first awarded in 1982); the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively; The Yashin Award for the best goalkeeper, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first awarded in 1994); The FIFA Fair Play Trophy for the team with the best record of fair play, according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee (first awarded in 1978); The Most Entertaining Team for the team that has entertained the public the most during the World Cup, determined by a poll of the general public (first awarded in 1994); The Best Young Player Award for the best player aged 21 or younger at the start of the calendar year, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first awarded in 2006). An All-Star Team consisting of the best players of the tournament is also announced for each tournament since 1998. Records and statistics Two players share the record for playing in the most World Cups; Mexico's Antonio Carbajal and Germany's Lothar Matthäus both played in five tournaments. Matthäus has played the most World Cup matches overall, with 25 appearances. Brazil's Pelé is the only player to hold three World Cup winners' medals. The overall leading goalscorer in World Cups is Brazil's Ronaldo, scorer of 15 goals in three tournaments. West Germany's Gerd Müller is second, with 14 goals in two tournaments. The third placed goalscorer, France's Just Fontaine, holds the record for the most goals scored in a single World Cup. All his 13 goals were scored in the 1958 tournament. Brazil's Mário Zagallo and West Germany's Franz Beckenbauer are the only people to date to win the World Cup as both player and head coach. Zagallo won in 1958 and 1962 as a player and in 1970 as head coach. Beckenbauer won in 1974 as captain and in 1990 as head coach. Italy's Vittorio Pozzo is the only head coach to ever win two World Cups. All World Cup winning head coaches were natives of the country they coached to victory. See also List of men's national football teams List of other competitions named World Cup Official FIFA World Cup match balls List of players who have won multiple FIFA World Cups 1980 Mundialito, a tournament held in Uruguay to celebrate the 50-year anniversary of the World Cup FIFA World Cup All-Time Team FIFA Dream Team Homeless World Cup Notes and references External links FIFA World Cup official site Previous FIFA World Cups be-x-old:Чэмпіянат сьвету па футболе | FIFA_World_Cup |@lemmatized fifa:89 world:117 cup:107 occasionally:1 call:4 football:37 usually:5 refer:1 simply:2 international:8 competition:16 contest:7 men:5 national:11 team:68 member:2 fédération:1 internationale:1 de:1 association:7 sport:9 global:1 governing:1 body:3 championship:6 award:21 every:5 four:6 year:11 since:12 first:33 tournament:74 except:4 war:4 ii:2 current:3 format:3 involve:1 compete:6 title:14 venue:2 within:4 host:32 nation:29 period:2 month:3 phase:2 often:1 final:24 qualification:4 currently:2 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155 | Many-worlds_interpretation | The many-worlds interpretation is an interpretation of quantum mechanics. It is also known as MWI, the relative state formulation, theory of the universal wavefunction, parallel universes, many-universes interpretation or just many worlds. Many-worlds denies the objective reality of wavefunction collapse, instead explaining the subjective appearance of wavefunction collapse with the mechanism of quantum decoherence. Many-worlds claims to resolve all of the correlation paradoxes of quantum theory, such as the EPR paradox Bryce Seligman DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds, The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press (1973), ISBN 0-691-08131-X Contains Everett's thesis: The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction, where the claim to resolves all paradoxes is made on pg 118, 149. Hugh Everett, Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, Reviews of Modern Physics vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462. The claim to resolve EPR is made on page 462 , since every possible outcome to every event defines or exists in its own "history" or "world." In layman's terms, this means that there is a very large, perhaps infinite, number of universes and that everything that could possibly happen, or could possibly have happened, in our universe (but doesn't) does happen in some other universe(s). Proponents argue that MWI reconciles how we can perceive non-deterministic events (such as the random decay of a radioactive atom) with the deterministic equations of quantum physics. Prior to many worlds this had been viewed as a single "world-line". Many-worlds rather views it as a many-branched tree where every possible quantum event is realised. The relative state formulation is due to Hugh Everett Hugh Everett, Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, Reviews of Modern Physics vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462. who formulated it in 1957. Later, this formulation was popularized and renamed many worlds by Bryce Seligman DeWitt in the 1960s and '70s. Cecile M. DeWitt, John A. Wheeler eds, The Everett-Wheeler Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Battelle Rencontres: 1967 Lectures in Mathematics and Physics (1968) Bryce Seligman DeWitt, Quantum Mechanics and Reality, Physics Today,23(9) pp 30-40 (1970) also April 1971 letters followup Bryce Seligman DeWitt, The Many-Universes Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Proceedings of the International School of Physics "Enrico Fermi" Course IL: Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Academic Press (1972) Bryce Seligman DeWitt, R. Neill Graham, eds, The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Princeton Series in Physics, Princeton University Press (1973), ISBN 0-691-08131-X Contains Everett's thesis: The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction, pp 3-140. The decoherence approach to interpreting quantum theory has been further explored and developed H. Dieter Zeh, On the Interpretation of Measurement in Quantum Theory, Foundation of Physics, vol. 1, pp. 69-76, (1970). Wojciech Hubert Zurek, Decoherence and the transition from quantum to classical, Physics Today, vol. 44, issue 10, pp. 36-44, (1991). Wojciech Hubert Zurek, Decoherence, einselection, and the quantum origins of the classical, Reviews of Modern Physics, 75, pp 715-775, (2003) becoming quite popular, taken as a class overall. MWI is one of many Multiverse hypotheses in physics and philosophy. It is currently considered a mainstream interpretation along with the other decoherence interpretations and the Copenhagen interpretation. The many worlds interpretation has, controversially, been seen by some as offering the possibility of deriving the Born rule and the appearance of quantum probabilities from simpler assumptions. In fact, this was first attempted by Everett and DeWitt in the 1950s. In a September 2007 conference Perimeter Institute, Many worlds at 50 conference, September 21-24, 2007 David Wallace reported on what is claimed to be a proof by Deutsch and himself of the Born Rule starting from Everettian assumptions Perimeter Institute, Seminar overview, Probability in the Everett interpretation: state of play, David Wallace - Oxford University, 21 Sept 2007 . The status of these arguments remains highly controversial. It is fair to say that some theoretical physicists have taken them as supporting the case for parallel universes. Breitbart.com, Parallel universes exist - study, Sept 23 2007 (Summary only). However, Howard Barnum and co-authors H. Barnum et al., arXiv:quant-ph/9907024 , David Albert, Adrian Kent A. Kent, arxiv:0905.0624 , and Huw Price, among others, have pointed out problems with the arguments and claimed to refute them. Outline Although several versions of MWI have been proposed since Hugh Everett's original work, they all contain one key idea: the equations of physics that model the time evolution of systems without embedded observers are sufficient for modelling systems which do contain observers; in particular there is no observation-triggered wavefunction collapse which the Copenhagen interpretation proposes. Provided the theory is linear with respect to the wavefunction, the exact form of the quantum dynamics modelled, be it the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, relativistic quantum field theory or some form of quantum gravity or string theory, does not alter the validity of MWI since MWI is a metatheory applicable to all linear quantum theories, and there is no experimental evidence for any non-linearity of the wavefunction in physics. MWI's main conclusion is that the universe (or multiverse in this context) is composed of a quantum superposition of very many, possibly infinitely many, increasingly divergent, non-communicating parallel universes or quantum worlds. The idea of MWI originated in Everett's Princeton Ph.D. thesis "The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction", developed under his thesis advisor John Archibald Wheeler, a shorter summary of which was published in 1957 entitled "Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics" (Wheeler contributed the title "relative state"; John Archibald Wheeler, Geons, Black Holes & Quantum Foam, ISBN 0-393-31991-1. pp 268-270 Everett originally called his approach the "Correlation Interpretation", although in Everett's usage the term correlation is what is now called quantum entanglement). The phrase "many worlds" is due to Bryce DeWitt, who was responsible for the wider popularisation of Everett's theory, which had been largely ignored for the first decade after publication. DeWitt's phrase "many-worlds" has become so much more popular than Everett's "Universal Wavefunction" or Everett-Wheeler's "Relative State Formulation" that many forget that this is only a difference of terminology; the content of all three papers is the same. The many-worlds interpretation shares many similarities with later, other "post-Everett" interpretations of quantum mechanics which also use decoherence to explain the process of measurement or wavefunction collapse. MWI treats the other histories or worlds as real since it regards the universal wavefunction as the "basic physical entity" Everett 1957, section 3, 2nd paragraph, 1st sentence or "the fundamental entity, obeying at all times a deterministic wave equation". Everett [1956]1973, "Theory of the Universal Wavefunction", chapter 6 (e) The other decoherent interpretations, such as many histories, consistent histories, the Existential Interpretation etc, either regard the extra quantum worlds as metaphorical in some sense, or are agnostic about their reality; it is sometimes hard to distinguish between the different varieties. MWI is distinguished by two qualities: it assumes realism, which it assigns to the wavefunction, and it has the minimal formal structure possible, rejecting any hidden variables, quantum potential, any form of a collapse postulate (i.e. Copenhagenism) or mental postulates (such as the many-minds interpretation makes). Many worlds is often referred to as a theory, rather than just an interpretation, by those who propose that many worlds can make testable predictions (such as David Deutsch) or is falsifiable (such as Everett) or that all the other, non-MWI, are inconsistent, illogical or unscientific in their handling of measurements; Hugh Everett argued that his formulation was a metatheory, since it made statements about other interpretations of quantum theory; that it was the "only completely coherent approach to explaining both the contents of quantum mechanics and the appearance of the world" Everett . Wavefunction collapse and the problem of interpretation As with the other interpretations of quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpretation is motivated by behavior that can be illustrated by the double-slit experiment. When particles of light (or anything else) are passed through the double slit, a calculation assuming wave-like behavior of light is needed to identify where the particles are likely to be observed. Yet when the particles are observed in this experiment, they appear as particles (i.e. at definite places) and not as non-localized waves. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics proposed a process of "collapse" in which an indeterminate quantum system would probabilistically collapse down onto, or select, just one determinate outcome to "explain" this phenomenon of observation. Wavefunction collapse was widely regarded as artificial and ad-hoc, so an alternative interpretation in which the behavior of measurement could be understood from more fundamental physical principles was considered desirable. Everett's Ph.D. work provided such an alternative interpretation. Everett noted that for a composite system (for example that formed by a particle interacting with a measuring apparatus, or more generally by a subject (the "observer") observing an object (the "observed" system) the statement that a subsystem (i.e. the observer or the observed) has a well-defined state is meaningless—in modern parlance the subsystem states have become entangled -- we can only specify the state of one subsystem relative to the state of the other subsystem, i.e. the state of the observer and the observed are correlated. This led Everett to derive from the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone (i.e. without assuming wavefunction collapse) the notion of a relativity of states of one subsystem relative to another. Everett noticed that the unitary, deterministic dynamics alone decreed that after an observation is made each element of the quantum superposition of the combined subject-object wavefunction contains two relative states: a "collapsed" object state and an associated observer who has observed the same collapsed outcome; what the observer sees and the state of the object are correlated. The subsequent evolution of each pair of relative subject-object states proceeds with complete indifference as to the presence or absence of the other elements, as if wavefunction collapse has occurred, which has the consequence that later observations are always consistent with the earlier observations. Thus the appearance of the object's wavefunction's collapse has emerged from the unitary, deterministic theory itself. (This answered Einstein's early criticism of quantum theory, that the theory should define what is observed, not for the observables to define the theory "Whether you can observe a thing or not depends on the theory which you use. It is the theory which decides what can be observed." Albert Einstein to Werner Heisenberg, objecting to placing observables at the heart of the new quantum mechanics, during Heisenberg's 1926 lecture at Berlin; related by Heisenberg in 1968, quoted by Abdus Salam, Unification of Fundamental Forces, Cambridge University Press (1990) ISBN 0-521-37140-6, pp 98-101 .) Since Everett stopped doing research in theoretical physics shortly after obtaining his Ph.D., much of the elaboration of his ideas was carried out by other researchers and forms the basis of much of the decoherent approach to quantum measurement. Advantages MWI removes the observer-dependent role in the quantum measurement process by replacing wavefunction collapse with quantum decoherence. Since the role of the observer lies at the heart of most if not all "quantum paradoxes," this automatically resolves a number of problems; see for example Schrödinger's cat thought-experiment, the EPR paradox, von Neumann's "boundary problem" and even wave-particle duality. Quantum cosmology also becomes intelligible, since there is no need anymore for an observer outside of the universe. MWI allows quantum mechanics to become a realist, deterministic, local theory making it more akin to classical physics (including the theory of relativity), at the expense of losing counterfactual definiteness. MWI (or other, broader multiverse considerations) provides a context for the anthropic principle which may provide an explanation for the fine-tuned universe. Paul C.W. Davies, Other Worlds, chapters 8 & 9 The Anthropic Principle & Is the Universe an accident?, (1980) ISBN 0-460-04400-1 Paul C.W. Davies, The Accidental Universe, (1982) ISBN 0-521-28692-1 MWI, being a decoherent formulation, is axiomatically more streamlined than the Copenhagen and other collapse interpretations; and thus favoured under certain interpretations of Ockham's razor. Of course there are other decoherent interpretations that also possess this advantage with respect to the collapse interpretations. Objections The many worlds interpretation is very vague about the ways to determine when splitting happens, and nowadays usually the criterion is that the two branches have decohered. However, present day understanding of decoherence does not allow a completely precise, self contained way to say when the two branches have decohered/"do not interact", and hence many worlds interpretation remains arbitrary. This is the main objection opponents of this interpretation raise, saying that it is not clear what is precisely meant by branching, and point to the lack of self contained criteria specifying branching. MWI response: the decoherence or "splitting" or "branching" is complete when the measurement is complete. In Dirac notation a measurement is complete when: where O[i] represents the observer having detected the object system in the i-th state. Before the measurement has started the observer states are identical; after the measurement is complete the observer states are orthonormal. Thus a measurement defines the branching process: the branching is as well- or ill- defined as the measurement is. Thus branching is complete when the measurement is complete. Since the role of the observer and measurement per se plays no special role in MWI (measurements are handled as all other interactions are) there is no need for a precise definition of what an observer or a measurement is -- just as in Newtonian physics no precise definition of either an observer or a measurement was required or expected. In all circumstances the universal wavefunction is still available to give a complete description of reality. Objections response: the MWI response states no special role nor need for precise definition of measurement in MWI, yet uses the word "measurement" in part of its main argument. MWI response: "measurements" are treated a subclass of interactions, which induce subject-object correlations in the combined wavefunction. There is nothing special about measurements (they don't trigger any wave function collapse, for example); they are just another unitary time development process. Also, it is a common misconception to think that branches are completely separate. In Everett's formulation, they may in principle quantum interfere with each other in the future, Tegmark, Max The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics: Many Worlds or Many Words?, 1998. To quote: "What Everett does NOT postulate: “At certain magic instances, the world undergoes some sort of metaphysical 'split' into two branches that subsequently never interact.” This is not only a misrepresentation of the MWI, but also inconsistent with the Everett postulate, since the subsequent time evolution could in principle make the two terms...interfere. According to the MWI, there is, was and always will be only one wavefunction, and only decoherence calculations, not postulates, can tell us when it is a good approximation to treat two terms as non-interacting." although this requires all "memory" of the earlier branching event to be lost, so no observer ever sees another branch of reality. Fundamentally, any arguments based on the definition of "branching" or "decoherence" are simply based on a misunderstanding of MWI. There is circularity in Everett's measurement theory. Under the assumptions made by Everett, there are no 'good observations' as defined by him, and since his analysis of the observational process depends on the latter, it is void of any meaning. The concept of a 'good observation' is the projection postulate in disguise and Everett's analysis simply derives this postulate by having assumed it, without any discussion. Comments on the Everett FAQ, added comment May 13, 2003 Talk of probability in Everett presumes the existence of a preferred basis to identify measurement outcomes for the probabilities to range over. But the existence of a preferred basis can only be established by the process of decoherence, which is itself probabilistic. Many worlds interpretation shown to be circular, David J Baker, Princeton University, 11 April 2006 MWI response: Everett's treatment of observations / measurements covers both idealised good measurements and the more general bad or approximate cases. Everett [1956]1973, "Theory of the Universal Wavefunction", chapter V, section 4 "Approximate Measurements", pp. 100-103 (e) Thus it is legitimate to analyse probability in terms of measurement; no circularity is present. We cannot be sure that the universe is a quantum multiverse until we have a theory of everything and, in particular, a successful theory of quantum gravity. If the final theory of everything is non-linear with respect to wavefunctions then many-worlds would be invalid. MWI response: all accepted quantum theories of fundamental physics are linear with respect to the wavefunction. Whilst quantum gravity or string theory may be non-linear in this respect there is no evidence to indicate this at the moment. Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a Final Theory: The Search for the Fundamental Laws of Nature (1993), ISBN 0-09-922391-0, pg 68-69 Steven Weinberg Testing Quantum Mechanics, Annals of Physics Vol 194 #2 (1989), pg 336-386 Conservation of energy: Conservation of energy is grossly violated if every instant infinite amounts of new matter are generated. MWI response: Conservation of energy is not violated since the energy of each branch has to be weighted by its probability, according to the standard formula for the conservation of energy in quantum theory. This results in the total energy of the multiverse being conserved. Everett FAQ "Does many-worlds violate conservation of energy?" Occam's Razor rules against a plethora of unobservable universes - Occam would prefer the one universe Copenhagen Interpretation. MWI response: Occam's razor actually is a constraint on the complexity of physical theory, not on the number of universes. MWI is a simpler theory since it has fewer postulates. Everett FAQ "Does many-worlds violate Ockham's Razor?" See the "advantages" section. Unphysical universes: If a state is a superposition of two states Psi(A) and Psi(B), i.e. Psi = (a.Psi(A) + b.Psi(B)), i.e. weighted by coefficients a and b, then if b << a, what principle allows a universe with vanishingly small probability b to be instantiated on an equal footing with the much more probable one with probability a? This seems to throw away the information in the probability amplitudes. Such a theory makes little sense. MWI response: The magnitude of the coefficients provides the weighting that makes the branches or universes "unequal", as Everett and others have shown, leading the emergence of the conventional probabilistic rules. Everett FAQ "How do probabilities emerge within many-worlds?" Violation of Relativity: MWI splitting is instant and total: this may conflict with relativity, as an alien in the Andromeda galaxy can't know I collapse an electron over here before she collapses hers there: the relativity of simultaneity says we can't say which electron collapsed first - so which one spilts off another universe first? This leads to a hopeless muddle with everyone splitting differently. Note: EPR is not a get-out here, as the alien's and my electrons need never have been part of the same quantum, i.e. entangled. MWI response: the splitting can be regarded and causal and relativistic, spreading at, or below, the speed of light (e.g. we are not split by Schrödinger's cat until we look in the box). Everett FAQ "When does Schrodinger's cat split?" Brief overview In Everett's formulation, a measuring apparatus M and an object system S form a composite system, each of which prior to measurement exists in well-defined (but time-dependent) states. Measurement is regarded as causing M and S to interact. After S interacts with M, it is no longer possible to describe either system by an independent state. According to Everett, the only meaningful descriptions of each system are relative states: for example the relative state of S given the state of M or the relative state of M given the state of S. Schematic representation of pair of "smallest possible" quantum mechanical systems prior to interaction : Measured system S and measurement apparatus M. Systems such as S are referred to as 1-qubit systems. In DeWitt's formulation, the state of S after a sequence of measurements is given by a quantum superposition of states, each one corresponding to an alternative measurement history of S. For example, consider the smallest possible truly quantum system S, as shown in the illustration. This describes for instance, the spin-state of an electron. Considering a specific axis (say the z-axis) the north pole represents spin "up" and the south pole, spin "down". The superposition states of the system are described by (the surface of) a sphere called the Bloch sphere. To perform a measurement on S, it is made to interact with another similar system M. After the interaction, the combined system is described by a state that ranges over a six-dimensional space (the reason for the number six is explained in the article on the Bloch sphere). This six-dimensional object can also be regarded as a quantum superposition of two "alternative histories" of the original system S, one in which "up" was observed and the other in which "down" was observed. Each subsequent binary measurement (that is interaction with a system M) causes a similar split in the history tree. Thus after three measurements, the system can be regarded as a quantum superposition of 8= 2 × 2 × 2 copies of the original system S. The accepted terminology is somewhat misleading because it is incorrect to regard the universe as splitting at certain times; at any given instant there is one state in one universe. Schematic illustration of splitting as a result of a repeated measurement. Relative state The goal of the relative-state formalism, as originally proposed by Everett in his 1957 doctoral dissertation, was to interpret the effect of external observation entirely within the mathematical framework developed by Paul Dirac, von Neumann and others, discarding altogether the ad-hoc mechanism of wave function collapse. Since Everett's original work, there have appeared a number of similar formalisms in the literature. One such idea is discussed in the next section. The relative-state interpretation makes two assumptions. The first is that the wavefunction is not simply a description of the object's state, but that it actually is entirely equivalent to the object, a claim it has in common with some other interpretations. The second is that observation or measurement has no special role, unlike in the Copenhagen interpretation which considers the wavefunction collapse as a special kind of event which occurs as a result of observation. The many-worlds interpretation is DeWitt's popularisation of Everett's work, who had referred to the combined observer-object system as being split by an observation, each split corresponding to the different or multiple possible outcomes of an observation. These splits generate a possible tree as shown in the graphic below. Subsequently DeWitt introduced the term "world" to describe a complete measurement history of an observer, which corresponds roughly to a single branch of that tree. Note that "splitting" in this sense, is hardly new or even quantum mechanical. The idea of a space of complete alternative histories had already been used in the theory of probability since the mid 1930s for instance to model Brownian motion. Partial trace as relative state. Light blue rectangle on upper left denotes system in pure state. Trellis shaded rectangle in upper right denotes a (possibly) mixed state. Mixed state from observation is partial trace of a linear superposition of states as shown in lower left-hand corner. Under the many-worlds interpretation, the Schrödinger equation, or relativistic analog, holds all the time everywhere. An observation or measurement of an object by an observer is modeled by applying the wave equation to the entire system comprising the observer and the object. One consequence is that every observation can be thought of as causing the combined observer-object's wavefunction to change into a quantum superposition of two or more non-interacting branches, or split into many "worlds". Since many observation-like events have happened, and are constantly happening, there are an enormous and growing number of simultaneously existing states. If a system is composed of two or more subsystems, the system's state will be a superposition of products of the subsystems' states. Once the subsystems interact, their states are no longer independent. Each product of subsystem states in the overall superposition evolves over time independently of other products. The subsystems states have become correlated or entangled and it is no longer possible to consider them independent of one another. In Everett's terminology each subsystem state was now correlated with its relative state, since each subsystem must now be considered relative to the other subsystems with which it has interacted. Successive measurements with successive splittings Comparative properties and experimental support One of the salient properties of the many-worlds interpretation is that observation does not require an exceptional construct (such as wave function collapse) to explain it. Many physicists, however, dislike the implication that there are infinitely many non-observable alternate universes. , there are no practical experiments that distinguish between Many-Worlds and Copenhagen. There may be cosmological, observational evidence. Copenhagen interpretation In the Copenhagen interpretation, the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows one to predict probabilities for the occurrence of various events. In the many-worlds interpretation, all these events occur simultaneously. What meaning should be given to these probability calculations? And why do we observe, in our history, that the events with a higher computed probability seem to have occurred more often? One answer to these questions is to say that there is a probability measure on the space of all possible universes, where a possible universe is a complete path in the tree of branching universes. This is indeed what the calculations give. Then we should expect to find ourselves in a universe with a relatively high probability rather than a relatively low probability: even though all outcomes of an experiment occur, they do not occur in an equal way. As an interpretation which (like other interpretations) is consistent with the equations, it is hard to find testable predictions of MWI. Quantum suicide There is a rather more dramatic test than the one outlined above for people prepared to put their lives on the line: use a machine which kills them if a random quantum decay happens. If MWI is true, they will still be alive in the world where the decay didn't happen and would feel no interruption in their stream of consciousness. By repeating this process a number of times, their continued consciousness would be arbitrarily unlikely unless MWI was true, when they would be alive in all the worlds where the random decay was on their side. From their viewpoint they would be immune to this death process. Clearly, if MWI does not hold, they would be dead in the one world. Other people would generally just see them die and would not be able to benefit from the result of this experiment. See Quantum suicide. The universe decaying to a new vacuum state. Any event that changes the number of observers in the universe may have experimental consequences. Can Quantum Cosmology Give Observational Consequences of Many-Worlds Quantum Theory? by Don N. Page Quantum tunnelling to new vacuum state would reduce the number of observers to zero (i.e. kill all life). Some Cosmologists argue that the universe is in a false vacuum state and that consequently the universe should have already experienced quantum tunnelling to a true vacuum state. This has not happened and is cited as evidence in favour of many-worlds. Many-minds The many-worlds interpretation should not be confused with the many-minds interpretation which postulates that it is only the observers' minds that split instead of the whole world. Axiomatics The existence of many worlds in superposition is not accomplished by introducing some new axiom to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the axiom of the probabilistic collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a physically real quantum superposition, not just formally mathematical superposition, as in other interpretations. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an entangled state.) Hartle James Hartle, Quantum Mechanics of Individual Systems, American Journal of Physics, vol 36 (1968), # 8 showed that in Everett's relative-state theory, Born's probability law The probability of an observable to have the value in a normalized state is the absolute square of the eigenvalue component of the state corresponding to the eigenvalue a: no longer has to be considered an axiom or postulate. It can rather be derived from the other axioms of quantum mechanics. All that has to be assumed is that if the state is an eigenstate of the observable , then the result of the measurement is certain. This means that a second axiom of quantum mechanics can be removed. Hartle's derivation only works in a theory (like Everett's) that does not cut away ("collapse") any superposition components of the wave function. In other interpretations it is not comprehensible why the absolute square is used and not some other arbitrary, more complicated expression of the eigenvalue component say, the square root or some polynomial of its norm. As a consequence Everett's interpretation or metatheory is an alternative formulation of quantum theory requiring fewer axioms than previously required and thus favoured by interpretations of the "Occam's razor" heuristic that emphasize simplicity of the mathematical or logical structure of a theory (as opposed to interpretations that emphasize a minimal number of hypothesized entities or some other aspect). One might argue that postulating the existence of many worlds is some kind of axiomatic assumption, but each world is merely an element in the quantum superposition of the universal wavefunction; quantum superpositions are a common and indispensable part of all interpretations of quantum theory, as is most clearly illustrated in the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics. Even the simple reflection of a photon from a mirror becomes amazingly convoluted when looked at from this perspective, as the photon follows all paths instead of just following the incident and reflected rays, and destructively interferes with itself on all paths save the classical. Everett's theory just considers it a real phenomenon in nature and applies it to macroscopic systems in the same way as it is conventionally applied to microscopic systems. Example MWI describes measurements as a formation of an entangled state which is a perfectly linear process (in terms of quantum superpositions) without any collapse of the wave function. For illustration, consider a Stern-Gerlach experiment and an electron or a silver atom passing this apparatus with a spin polarization in the x direction and thus a superposition of a spin up and a spin down state in z-direction. As a measuring apparatus, take a tracking chamber or another nonabsorbing particle detector; let the electron pass the apparatus and reach the same site in the end on either way so that except for the z-spin polarization the state of the electron is finally the same regardless of the path taken (see The Feynman Lectures on Physics for a detailed discussion of such a setup). Before the measurement, the state of the electron and the measuring apparatus is: The state is factorizable into a tensor factor for the electron and another factor for the measurement apparatus. After the measurement, the state is: The state is no longer factorizable—regardless of the vector basis chosen. As an illustration, understand that the following state is factorizable: since it can be written as (which might be not so obvious if another vector basis is chosen for the states). The state of the above experiment is decomposed into a sum of two so-called entangled states ("worlds") both of which will have their individual history without any interaction between the two due to the physical linearity of quantum mechanics (the superposition principle): All processes in nature are linear and correspond to linear operators acting on each superposition component individually without any notice of the other components being present. This would also be true for two non-entangled superposed states, but the latter can be detected by interference which is not possible for different entangled states (without reversing the entanglement first): Different entangled states cannot interfere; interactions with other systems will only result in a further entanglement of them as well. In the example above, the state of a Schrödinger cat watching the scene will be factorizable in the beginning (before watching) but not in the end: This example also shows that it's not the whole world that is split up into "many worlds", but only the part of the world that is entangled with the considered quantum event. This splitting tends to extend by interactions and can be visualised by a zipper or a DNA molecule which are in a similar way not completely opened instantaneously but gradually, element by element. Imaginative readers will even see the zipper structure and the extending splitting in the formula: If a system state is entangled with many other degrees of freedom (such as those in amplifiers, photographs, heat, sound, computer memory circuits, neurons, paper documents) in an experiment, this amounts to a thermodynamically irreversible process which is constituted of many small individually reversible processes at the atomic or subatomic level as is generally the case for thermodynamic irreversibility in classical or quantum statistical mechanics. Thus there is—for thermodynamic reasons—no way for an observer to completely reverse the entanglement and thus observe the other worlds by doing interference experiments on them. On the other hand, for small systems with few degrees of freedom this is feasible, as long as the investigated aspect of the system remains unentangled with the rest of the world. The MWI thus solves the measurement problem of quantum mechanics by reducing measurements to cascades of entanglements. The formation of an entangled state is a linear operation in terms of quantum superpositions. Consider for example the vector basis and the non-entangled initial state The linear (and unitary and thus reversible) operation (in terms of quantum superpositions) corresponding to the matrix (in the above vector basis) will result in the entangled state Partial trace and relative state The state transformation of a quantum system resulting from measurement, such as the double slit experiment discussed above, can be easily described mathematically in a way that is consistent with most mathematical formalisms. We will present one such description, also called reduced state, based on the partial trace concept, which by a process of iteration, leads to a kind of branching many worlds formalism. It is then a short step from this many worlds formalism to a many worlds interpretation. For definiteness, let us assume that system is actually a particle such as an electron. The discussion of reduced state and many worlds is no different in this case than if we considered any other physical system, including an "observer system". In what follows, we need to consider not only pure states for the system, but more generally mixed states; these are described by certain linear operators on the Hilbert space H. Indeed, as the various measurement scenarios point out, the set of pure states is not closed under measurement. Mathematically, density matrices are statistical mixtures of pure states. Operationally a mixed state can be identified to a statistical ensemble resulting from a specific lab preparation process. Decohered states as relative states Suppose we have an ensemble of particles, prepared in such a way that its state S is pure. This means that there is a unit vector in H (unique up to phase) such that S is the projection operator given in bra-ket notation by Now consider an experimental setup to determine whether the particle has a particular property: For example the property could be that the location of the particle is in some region A of space. The experimental setup can be regarded either as a measurement of an observable or as a filter. As a measurement, it measures the observable Q which takes the value 1 if the particle is found in A and 0 otherwise. As a filter, it filters in those particles in the ensemble which have the stated property of being in A and filtering out the others. Mathematically, a property is given by a self-adjoint projection E on the Hilbert space H: Applying the filter to an ensemble of particles, some of the particles of the ensemble are filtered in, and others are filtered out. Now it can be shown that the operation of the filter "collapses" the pure state in the following sense: it prepares a new mixed state given by the density operator where F = 1 - E. To see this, note that as a result of the measurement, the state of the particle immediately after the measurement is in an eigenvector of Q, that is one of the two pure states with respective probabilities The mathematical way of presenting this mixed state is by taking the following convex combination of pure states: which is the operator S1 above. Remark. The use of the word collapse in this context is somewhat different that its use in explanations of the Copenhagen interpretation. In this discussion we are not referring to collapse or transformation of a wave into something else, but rather the transformation of a pure state into a mixed one. The considerations so far, are completely standard in most formalisms of quantum mechanics. Now consider a "branched" system whose underlying Hilbert space is where H2 is a two-dimensional Hilbert space with basis vectors and . The branched space can be regarded as a composite system consisting of the original system (which is now a subsystem) together with a non-interacting ancillary single qubit system. In the branched system, consider the entangled state We can express this state in density matrix format as . This multiplies out to: The partial trace of this mixed state is obtained by summing the operator coefficients of and in the above expression. This results in a mixed state on H. In fact, this mixed state is identical to the "post filtering" mixed state S1 above. To summarize, we have mathematically described the effect of the filter for a particle in a pure state ψ in the following way: The original state is augmented with the ancillary qubit system. The pure state of the original system is replaced with a pure entangled state of the augmented system and The post-filter state of the system is the partial trace of the entangled state of the augmented system. Multiple branching In the course of a system's lifetime we expect many such filtering events to occur. At each such event, a branching occurs. In order for this to be consistent with the branching structure as depicted in the illustration above, we must show that if a filtering event occurs in one path from the root node of the tree, then we may assume it occurs in all branches. This shows that the tree is highly symmetric, that is for each node n of the tree, the shape of the tree does not change by interchanging the subtrees immediately below that node n. In order to show this branching uniformity property, note that the same calculation carries through even if original state S is mixed. Indeed, the post filtered state will be the density operator: The state S1 is the partial trace of This means that to each subsequent measurement (or branching) along one of the paths from the root of the tree to a leaf node corresponds to a homologous branching along every path. This guarantees the symmetry of the many-worlds tree relative to flipping child nodes of each node.Superposition over paths through observation tree General quantum operations In the previous two sections, we have represented measurement operations on quantum systems in terms of relative states. In fact there is a wider class of operations which should be considered: these are called quantum operations. Considered as operations on density operators on the system Hilbert space H, these have the following form: where I is a finite or countably infinite index set. The operators Fi are called Kraus operators. Theorem. Let Then Moreover, the mapping V defined by is such that If γ is a trace-preserving quantum operation, then V is an isometric linear map where the Hilbert direct sum is taken over copies of H indexed by elements of I. We can consider such maps Φ as imbeddings. In particular: Corollary. Any trace-preserving quantum operation is the composition of an isometric imbedding and a partial trace. This suggests that the many worlds formalism can account for this very general class of transformations in exactly the same way that it does for simple measurements. Branching In general we can show the uniform branching property of the tree as follows: If and where and then a calculation shows This also shows that in between the measurements given by proper (that is, non-unitary) quantum operations, one can interpolate arbitrary unitary evolution. Quantum probabilities explained by continuous branching Dr. David Deutsch along with Oxford colleagues have demonstrated mathematically that the bush-like branching structure created by the universe splitting into parallel versions of itself can explain the probabilistic nature of quantum outcomes. In the New Scientist article on the discovery, Andy Albrecht, a physicist at the University of California at Davis, is quoted as saying "This work will go down as one of the most important developments in the history of science." Deutsch and his Oxford colleagues are thus seen to apparently bolster March - May '07 internet postings of Dr. David Anacker (to physics cognoscenti including Lisa Randall, Lee Smolin, David Deutsch, G. 't Hooft, S. Glashow, S. Weinberg, M. Kaku, L. Susskind, et al.) via internet archive earlier establishing agreement between predictive statistics of the Everett and Copenhagen interpretations. Acceptance among physicists There is a wide range of claims that are considered "many worlds" interpretations. It is often claimed by those who do not believe in MWI Jeffrey A. Barrett, The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds, Oxford University Press, 1999. According to Barret (loc. cit. Chapter 6) "There are many many-worlds interpretations." that Everett himself was not entirely clear as to what he believed; however MWI adherents believe they fully understand Everett's meaning as implying the literal existence of the other worlds. Additionally some MWI adherents point to Everett's reported belief in quantum immortality, which they also take to require belief in the reality of all the many worlds represented by the components of the uncollapsed universal wavefunction. Eugene Shikhovtsev's Biography of Everett, in particular see "Keith Lynch remembers 1979-1980" "Many worlds"-like interpretations are now considered fairly mainstream within the quantum physics community. For example, a poll of 72 leading physicists conducted by the American researcher David Raub in 1995 and published in the French periodical Sciences et Avenir in January 1998 recorded that nearly 60% thought many worlds interpretation was "true". Max Tegmark also reports the result of a poll taken at a 1997 quantum mechanics workshop. Max Tegmark on many worlds (contains MWI poll) According to Tegmark, "The many worlds interpretation (MWI) scored second, comfortably ahead of the consistent histories and Bohm interpretations." Other such polls have been taken at other conferences: see for instance Michael Nielsen's blog Michael Nielsen: The interpretation of quantum mechanics report on one such poll. Nielsen remarks that it appeared most of the conference attendees "thought the poll was a waste of time". MWI sceptics (for instance Asher Peres) argue that polls regarding the acceptance of a particular interpretation within the scientific community, such as those mentioned above, cannot be used as evidence supporting a specific interpretation's validity. However, others note that science is a group activity (for instance, peer review) and that polls are a systematic way of revealing the thinking of the scientific community. A 2005 minor poll on the Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics workshop at the Institute for Quantum Computing University of Waterloo produced contrary results, with the MWI as the least favored. Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics One of MWI's strongest advocates is David Deutsch. David Deutsch, The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes And Its Implications, Penguin Books (1998), ISBN 0-14-027541-X According to Deutsch, the single photon interference pattern observed in the double slit experiment can be explained by interference of photons in multiple universes. Viewed in this way, the single photon interference experiment is indistinguishable from the multiple photon interference experiment. In a more practical vein, in one of the earliest papers on quantum computing, David Deutsch, Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quantum computer, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 400, (1985) , pp. 97–117 he suggested that parallelism that results from the validity of MWI could lead to "a method by which certain probabilistic tasks can be performed faster by a universal quantum computer than by any classical restriction of it". Deutsch has also proposed that when reversible computers become conscious that MWI will be testable (at least against "naive" Copenhagenism) via the reversible observation of spin. Paul C.W. Davies, J.R. Brown, The Ghost in the Atom (1986) ISBN 0-521-31316-3, pp. 34-38: "The Many-Universes Interpretation", pp83-105 for David Deutsch's test of MWI and reversible quantum memories Asher Peres was an outspoken critic of MWI, for example in a section in his 1993 textbook with the title Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories. In fact, Peres questioned whether MWI is really an "interpretation" or even if interpretations of quantum mechanics are needed at all. Indeed, the many-worlds interpretation can be regarded as a purely formal transformation, which adds nothing to the instrumentalist (i.e. statistical) rules of the quantum mechanics. Perhaps more significantly, Peres seems to suggest that positing the existence of an infinite number of non-communicating parallel universes is highly suspect as it violates those interpretations of Occam's Razor that seek to minimize the number of hypothesized entities. Proponents of MWI argue precisely the opposite, by applying Occam's Razor to the set of assumptions rather than multiplicity of universes. In Max Tegmark's formulation, the alternative to many worlds is the undesirable "many words", an allusion to the complexity of von Neumann's collapse postulate). MWI is considered by some to be unfalsifiable and hence unscientific because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating, in the sense that no information can be passed between them. Others claim MWI is directly testable. Everett regarded MWI as falsifiable since any test that falsifies conventional quantum theory would also falsify MWI. According to Martin Gardner MWI has two different interpretations: real or unreal, and claims that Stephen Hawking and Steve Weinberg favour the unreal interpretation. A response to Bryce DeWitt, Martin Gardner, May 2002 Gardner also claims that the interpretation favoured by the majority of physicists is that the other worlds are not real in the same way as our world is real, whereas the "realist" view is supported by MWI experts David Deutsch and Bryce DeWitt. However Stephen Hawking is on record as a saying that the "other worlds are as real as ours" Award winning 1995 Channel 4 documentary Reality on the rocks where Hawking states that the "other worlds are as real as ours" and Tipler reports Hawking saying that MWI is "trivially true" (scientific jargon for "obviously true") if quantum theory applies to all reality Page 1: "It is well-known that if the quantum formalism applies to all reality, both to atoms, to humans, to planets and to the universe itself then the Many Worlds Interpretation is trivially true (to use an expression of Stephen Hawking, expressed to me in a private conversation)." . Roger Penrose agrees with Hawking that QM applied to the universe implies MW, although he considers the current lack of a successful theory of quantum gravity negates the claimed universality of conventional QM. Speculative implications Speculative physics deals with questions also discussed in science fiction. Choice and travel Under the Many-Worlds interpretation, every choice a person makes results in the creation of two or more 'new' universes: one for each 'option' in a given choice. Question: is it possible that all of the universes necessary to accommodate every possible choice (most likely an infinite amount of universes) were already created at the same instant as our own? Does the existence of any single universe necessitate the existence of an infinite number of others? Price gives evidence for both sides to the speculation. On the one hand he says that quantum effects rarely or never affect human decisions. On the other hand he says that all possible decisions are realized in some worlds. It is further speculated that it might be possible to move 'between' these universes, of which there would be an infinite number or a very large finite number. Price believes that travel between worlds is impossible. Quantum suicide It has been claimed that there is an experiment that would clearly differentiate between the many-worlds interpretation and other interpretations of quantum mechanics. It involves a quantum suicide machine and an experimenter willing to risk death. However, at best, this would only decide the issue for the experimenter; bystanders would learn nothing. The flip side of quantum suicide is quantum immortality. Another speculation is that the separate worlds remain weakly coupled (e.g. by gravity) permitting "communication between parallel universes". This requires that gravity be a classical force and not quantized. The many-worlds interpretation has some similarity to modal realism in philosophy, which is the view that the possible worlds used to interpret modal claims actually exist. Unlike philosophy, however, in quantum mechanics counterfactual alternatives can influence the results of experiments, as in the Elitzur-Vaidman bomb-testing problem or the Quantum Zeno effect. Time travel The many-worlds interpretation could be one possible way to resolve the paradoxes that one would expect to arise if time travel turns out to be permitted by physics (permitting closed timelike curves and thus violating causality). Entering the past would itself be a quantum event causing branching, and therefore the timeline accessed by the time traveller simply would be another timeline of many. In that sense, it would make the Novikov self-consistency principle unnecessary. Many worlds in literature and science fiction The many-worlds interpretation (and the somewhat related concept of possible worlds) have been associated to numerous themes in literature, art and science fiction. Some of these stories or films violate fundamental principles of causality and relativity, and are extremely misleading since the information-theoretic structure of the path space of multiple universes (that is information flow between different paths) is very likely extraordinarily complex. Also see Michael Clive Price's FAQ referenced in the external links section below where these issues (and other similar ones) are dealt with more decisively. Another kind of popular illustration of many worlds splittings, which does not involve information flow between paths, or information flow backwards in time considers alternate outcomes of historical events. According to many worlds, most of the historical speculations entertained within the alternate history genre are realised in parallel universes. See also Fabric of Reality Interpretation of quantum mechanics Many-minds interpretation Multiverse Multiple histories Quantum decoherence Quantum immortality - a thought experiment. Garden of Forking Paths Notes Further reading Jeffrey A. Barrett, The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999. Julian Brown, Minds, Machines, and the Multiverse, Simon & Schuster, 2000, ISBN 0-684-81481-1 Asher Peres, Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993. Mark A. Rubin, Locality in the Everett Interpretation of Heisenberg-Picture Quantum Mechanics, Foundations of Physics Letters, 14, (2001) , pp. 301–322, David Wallace, Harvey R. Brown, Solving the measurement problem: de Broglie-Bohm loses out to Everett, Foundations of Physics, David Wallace, Worlds in the Everett Interpretation, Studies in the History and Philosophy of Modern Physics, 33, (2002), pp. 637–661, Paul C.W. Davies, Other Worlds, (1980) ISBN 0-460-04400-1 John A. Wheeler and Wojciech Hubert Zurek (eds), Quantum Theory and Measurement, Princeton University Press, (1983), ISBN 0-691-08316-9 James P. Hogan, The Proteus Operation, Science Fiction involving the Many-Worlds Interpretation, time travel and World War 2 history., baen; Reissue edition (August 1, 1996) ISBN 0671877577 Frank J. Tipler, Testing Many-Worlds Quantum Theory By Measuring Pattern Convergence Rates, arXiv:0809.4422v1 Adrian Kent, One world versus many: the inadequacy of Everettian accounts of evolution, probability, and scientific confirmation, arxiv:0905.0624 External links Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics - Jeffrey A. Barrett's article on Everett's formulation of quantum mechanics in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - Lev Vaidman's article on the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Michael C Price's Everett FAQ -- a clear FAQ-style presentation of the theory. The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics - a description for the lay reader with links. Against Many-Worlds Interpretations by Adrian Kent Many Worlds is a "lost cause" according to R. F. Streater The many worlds of quantum mechanics by John D Sankey Max Tegmark's web page Henry Stapp's critique of MWI, focusing on the basis problem Translation of Schrödinger's Cat paper. Everett hit count on arxiv.org Many Worlds 50th anniversary conference at Oxford "Many Worlds at 50" conference at Perimeter Institute Scientific American report on the Many Worlds 50th anniversary conference at Oxford . 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156 | Left-arm_orthodox_spin | Animation of a slow left arm delivery. Left-arm orthodox spin is a style of bowling in the sport of cricket. Motion Left-arm orthodox spin is bowled by a left-arm bowler using the fingers to spin the ball anticlockwise. This action is the mirror image of that of an off spinner (a right-arm finger spinner), and causes the ball to turn from right to left from the bowler's perspective, or from the leg side to the off side of a right-handed batsman. It is usually considered to be harder for a right-hander to play against than off spin because of the direction of turn, but easier than leg spin since left-arm spinners generally have a smaller repertoire of delivery types and do not turn the ball as much. Left-arm orthodox spin is one of the harder bowling styles to master because it requires long hours of practice to get the right line and flight. The bowlers generally attempt to drift the ball in the air into a right-handed batsman, make it dip, and then make the ball spin away from the batsman upon landing. The flight, dip, sharp turn, and drift in the air are potent weapons in the hands of a good left-arm spin bowler. The major variations of a left-arm spinner are the topspinner (which turns less than expected), the arm ball (which doesn't turn at all but drifts into a right handed batsman in the direction of the bowlers arm movement, also called a 'floater'.), and the left-arm spinner's version of a doosra (which turns the other way). The chinaman (spun with the wrist rather than the fingers, like a leg break) is also a rare variation, especially potent when mixed up with the googly—a great exponent of this was Sir Garfield Sobers of the West Indies. Greater attacking depth can be achieved with the help of variation of amount of spin. Some notable left-arm orthodox spinners Bill Johnston Charlie Macartney Bert Ironmonger Abdur Razzak Mohammad Rafique Shakib Al Hasan Monty Panesar bowling left arm spin Johnny Briggs Phil Edmonds Ashley Giles Richard Illingworth Tony Lock Monty Panesar Wilfred Rhodes Phil Tufnell Derek Underwood Hedley Verity Johnny Wardle Gary Keedy Palwankar Baloo Bishen Bedi Dilip Doshi Murali Kartik Bapu Nadkarni Venkatapathy Raju Ravi Shastri Maninder Singh Sunil Joshi Pragyan Ojha shadab jakati Yuvraj Singh Pragyan Ojha Stephen Boock Hedley Howarth Daniel Vettori Abdur Rehman Iqbal Qasim Mohammad Hussain Nicky Boje Paul Harris Robin Peterson Clive Eksteen Sanath Jayasuriya Rangana Herath Jayantha Silva Sir Garfield Sobers Alf Valentine Ray Price | Left-arm_orthodox_spin |@lemmatized animation:1 slow:1 left:6 arm:14 delivery:2 leave:6 orthodox:4 spin:10 style:2 bowling:3 sport:1 cricket:1 motion:1 bowl:1 bowler:5 use:1 finger:3 ball:6 anticlockwise:1 action:1 mirror:1 image:1 spinner:6 right:7 cause:1 turn:7 perspective:1 leg:3 side:2 hand:4 batsman:4 usually:1 consider:1 hard:1 hander:1 play:1 direction:2 easy:1 since:1 generally:2 small:1 repertoire:1 type:1 much:1 one:1 harder:1 master:1 require:1 long:1 hour:1 practice:1 get:1 line:1 flight:2 attempt:1 drift:3 air:2 make:2 dip:2 away:1 upon:1 land:1 sharp:1 potent:2 weapon:1 good:1 major:1 variation:3 topspinner:1 less:1 expect:1 movement:1 also:2 call:1 floater:1 version:1 doosra:1 way:1 chinaman:1 spun:1 wrist:1 rather:1 like:1 break:1 rare:1 especially:1 mix:1 googly:1 great:2 exponent:1 sir:2 garfield:2 sobers:2 west:1 indie:1 attack:1 depth:1 achieve:1 help:1 amount:1 notable:1 bill:1 johnston:1 charlie:1 macartney:1 bert:1 ironmonger:1 abdur:2 razzak:1 mohammad:2 rafique:1 shakib:1 al:1 hasan:1 monty:2 panesar:2 johnny:2 briggs:1 phil:2 edmonds:1 ashley:1 giles:1 richard:1 illingworth:1 tony:1 lock:1 wilfred:1 rhodes:1 tufnell:1 derek:1 underwood:1 hedley:2 verity:1 wardle:1 gary:1 keedy:1 palwankar:1 baloo:1 bishen:1 bedi:1 dilip:1 doshi:1 murali:1 kartik:1 bapu:1 nadkarni:1 venkatapathy:1 raju:1 ravi:1 shastri:1 maninder:1 singh:2 sunil:1 joshi:1 pragyan:2 ojha:2 shadab:1 jakati:1 yuvraj:1 stephen:1 boock:1 howarth:1 daniel:1 vettori:1 rehman:1 iqbal:1 qasim:1 hussain:1 nicky:1 boje:1 paul:1 harris:1 robin:1 peterson:1 clive:1 eksteen:1 sanath:1 jayasuriya:1 rangana:1 herath:1 jayantha:1 silva:1 alf:1 valentine:1 ray:1 price:1 |@bigram hand_batsman:3 right_hander:1 spin_bowler:1 garfield_sobers:2 west_indie:1 |
157 | AVL_tree | In computer science, an AVL tree is a self-balancing binary search tree, and it is the first such data structure to be invented. Robert Sedgewick, Algorithms, Addison-Wesley, 1983, ISBN 0-201-06672-6, page 199, chapter 15: Balanced Trees. In an AVL tree, the heights of the two child subtrees of any node differ by at most one; therefore, it is also said to be height-balanced. Lookup, insertion, and deletion all take O(log n) time in both the average and worst cases, where n is the number of nodes in the tree prior to the operation. Insertions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more tree rotations. The AVL tree is named after its two inventors, G.M. Adelson-Velskii and E.M. Landis, who published it in their 1962 paper "An algorithm for the organization of information." The balance factor of a node is the height of its right subtree minus the height of its left subtree and a node with balance factor 1, 0, or -1 is considered balanced. A node with any other balance factor is considered unbalanced and requires rebalancing the tree. The balance factor is either stored directly at each node or computed from the heights of the subtrees. AVL trees are often compared with red-black trees because they support the same set of operations and because red-black trees also take O(log n) time for the basic operations. AVL trees perform better than red-black trees for lookup-intensive applications. The AVL tree balancing algorithm appears in many computer science curricula. Operations The basic operations of an AVL tree generally involve carrying out the same actions as would be carried out on an unbalanced binary search tree, but modifications are preceded or followed by one or more operations called tree rotations, which help to restore the height balance of the subtrees. Insertion Pictorial description of how rotations cause rebalancing tree, and then retracing one's steps toward the root updating the balance factor of the nodes. If the balance factor becomes -1, 0, or 1 then the tree is still in AVL form, and no rotations are necessary. If the balance factor becomes 2 or -2 then the tree rooted at this node is unbalanced, and a tree rotation is needed. At most a single or double rotation will be needed to balance the tree. There are basically four cases which need to be accounted for, of which two are symmetric to the other two. For simplicity, the root of the unbalanced subtree will be called P, the right child of that node will be called R, and the left child will be called L. If the balance factor of P is 2, it means that the right subtree outweighs the left subtree of the given node, and the balance factor of the right child (R) must then be checked. If the balance factor of R is 1, it means the insertion occurred on the (external) right side of that node and a left rotation is needed (tree rotation) with P as the root. If the balance factor of R is -1, this means the insertion happened on the (internal) left side of that node. This requires a double rotation. The first rotation is a right rotation with R as the root. The second is a left rotation with P as the root. Deletion If the node is a leaf, remove it. If the node is not a leaf, replace it with either the largest in its left subtree (inorder predecessor) or the smallest in its right subtree (inorder successor), and remove that node. The node that was found as replacement has at most one subtree. After deletion retrace the path back up the tree (parent of the replacement) to the root, adjusting the balance factors as needed. The retracing can stop if the balance factor becomes -1 or 1 indicating that the height of that subtree has remained unchanged. If the balance factor becomes 0 then the height of the subtree has decreased by one and the retracing needs to continue. If the balance factor becomes -2 or 2 then the subtree is unbalanced and needs to be rotated to fix it. If the rotation leaves the subtree's balance factor at 0 then the retracing towards the root must continue since the height of this subtree has decreased by one. This is in contrast to an insertion where a rotation resulting in a balance factor of 0 indicated that the subtree's height has remained unchanged. The time required is O(log n) for lookup, plus a maximum of O(log n) rotations on the way back to the root, so the operation can be completed in O(log n) time. Lookup Lookup in an AVL tree is performed exactly as in an unbalanced binary search tree. Because of the height-balancing of the tree, a lookup takes O(log n) time. No special provisions need to be taken, and the tree's structure is not modified by lookups. (This is in contrast to splay tree lookups, which do modify their tree's structure.) If each node additionally records the size of its subtree (including itself and its descendants), then the nodes can be retrieved by index in O(log n) time as well. Once a node has been found in a balanced tree, the next or previous node can be obtained in amortized constant time. (In a few cases, about 2*log(n) links will need to be traversed. In most cases, only a single link need be traversed. On the average, about two links need to be traversed.) Comparison to other structures Both AVL trees and red-black trees are self-balancing binary search trees, so they are very similar mathematically. The operations to balance the trees are different, but both occur in constant time. The real difference between the two is the limiting height. For a tree of size : an AVL tree's height is limited to a red-black tree's height is limited to The AVL tree is more rigidly balanced than Red-Black trees, leading to slower insertion and removal but faster retrieval. See also Trees Tree rotation Splay tree Red-black tree B-tree T-tree List of data structures References English translation by Myron J. Ricci in Soviet Math. Doklady, 3:1259–1263, 1962. Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3: Sorting and Searching, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 458–475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees. External links Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures C++ Implementation Visual Tutorial of AVL Tree operations Single C header file by Ian Piumarta | AVL_tree |@lemmatized computer:3 science:2 avl:13 tree:49 self:2 balance:27 binary:4 search:4 first:2 data:3 structure:6 invent:1 robert:1 sedgewick:1 algorithm:4 addison:2 wesley:2 isbn:2 page:2 chapter:1 height:14 two:6 child:4 subtrees:3 node:20 differ:1 one:7 therefore:1 also:3 say:1 lookup:8 insertion:7 deletion:4 take:4 log:8 n:9 time:8 average:2 bad:1 case:4 number:1 prior:1 operation:9 may:1 require:4 rebalanced:1 rotation:16 name:1 inventor:1 g:1 adelson:1 velskii:1 e:1 landis:1 publish:1 paper:1 organization:1 information:1 factor:17 right:7 subtree:15 minus:1 left:6 consider:2 balanced:2 unbalanced:6 rebalancing:2 either:2 store:1 directly:1 compute:1 often:1 compare:1 red:7 black:7 support:1 set:1 basic:2 perform:2 good:1 intensive:1 application:1 appear:1 many:1 curriculum:1 generally:1 involve:1 carry:2 action:1 would:1 modification:1 precede:1 follow:1 call:4 help:1 restore:1 pictorial:1 description:2 cause:1 retrace:2 step:1 toward:1 root:9 update:1 become:5 still:1 form:1 necessary:1 need:11 single:3 double:2 basically:1 four:1 account:1 symmetric:1 simplicity:1 p:4 r:5 l:1 mean:3 outweighs:1 give:1 must:2 check:1 occur:2 external:2 side:2 happen:1 internal:1 leave:2 second:1 leaf:2 remove:2 replace:1 large:1 inorder:2 predecessor:1 small:1 successor:1 find:2 replacement:2 path:1 back:2 parent:1 adjust:1 retracing:3 stop:1 indicating:1 remain:2 unchanged:2 decrease:2 continue:2 rotate:1 fix:1 towards:1 since:1 contrast:2 result:1 indicate:1 plus:1 maximum:1 way:1 complete:1 exactly:1 balancing:1 special:1 provision:1 modify:2 splay:2 additionally:1 record:1 size:2 include:1 descendant:1 retrieve:1 index:1 well:1 next:1 previous:1 obtain:1 amortized:1 constant:2 link:4 traverse:3 comparison:1 similar:1 mathematically:1 different:1 real:1 difference:1 limit:3 rigidly:1 lead:1 slower:1 removal:1 fast:1 retrieval:1 see:1 b:1 list:1 reference:1 english:1 translation:1 myron:1 j:1 ricci:1 soviet:1 math:1 doklady:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 programming:1 volume:1 sorting:1 searching:1 third:1 edition:1 section:1 dictionary:1 c:2 implementation:1 visual:1 tutorial:1 header:1 file:1 ian:1 piumarta:1 |@bigram avl_tree:12 addison_wesley:2 insertion_deletion:2 left_subtree:3 subtree_node:1 insertion_removal:1 donald_knuth:1 volume_sorting:1 sorting_searching:1 external_link:1 |
158 | Book_of_Jonah | The Book of Jonah (Hebrew: Sefer Yonah) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, situated in the Nevi'im of the Tanakh and the Prophets of the Old Testament. The book relates a story concerning an obscure Hebrew prophet named Jonah ben Amittai who lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE) II Kings 14:25 . The book itself was probably written in the post-exilic period (after 530 BCE) and based on oral traditions that had been passed down from the eighth century BCE. The book was originally written with eleven other books referred to as the Minor Prophets. The story has an interesting interpretive history (see below) and has become a well-known story through popular children’s stories. In Judaism it is the Haftarah for the afternoon of Yom Kippur due to its story of God's willingness to forgive those who repent. Outline of book The Book of Jonah is primarily a story about the character of God, even His compassion Abraham J. Heschel, The Prophets (Peabody, Mass: Prince Press, 2004), 131 . As such, it can be divided into four sections, roughly divided by each chapter: (1) God's sovereignty, (2) God’s deliverance, (3) God's mercy, and (4) God's righteousness. It may also be outlined in the following manner: God's first commission and Jonah’s rebellion God's deliverance toward Jonah and Jonah’s prayer of thanksgiving God's second commission and Jonah’s obedience God's deliverance toward Nineveh and Jonah’s complaint of ingratitude In the first half of the book, God's deliverance is demonstrated through His sovereignty. In the second half, God's deliverance is demonstrated through His mercy. Finally, God declares His righteousness in choosing to force and choosing to repent. Narrative As mentioned above, the book of Jonah is not written like the other books of the prophets. Jonah is almost entirely narrative with the exception of the psalm in chapter 2. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is only given in passing through the narrative. As with any good story, the story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes. It also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony. Setting The story of Jonah is set against the historical background of Ancient Israel in the eighth-7th centuries BC and the religious and social issues of the late sixth to fourth centuries BC. The views accurately coincide with the latter chapters of the book of Isaiah (sometimes classified as Third Isaiah), where Israel is given a prominent place in the expansion of God's kingdom to the Gentiles. (These facts have led a number of scholars to believe that the book was actually written in this later period.) The Jonah mentioned in II Kings 14:25 lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE) and was from the city of Gath-hepher. This city, modern el-Meshed, located only several miles from Nazareth in what would have been known as Israel in the post-exilic period (as distinct from the southern kingdom, known as Judah) and Galilee around the time of Christ. Nineveh was the capital of the ancient Assyrian empire, which fell to the Medes in 612 BCE. The book itself calls Nineveh a “great city,” probably referring to its affluence, but perhaps to its size as well. (That the story assumes the city’s existence and deliverance from judgment may indeed reflect an older tradition dating back to the eighth-7th century BC.) Assyria often opposed Israel and eventually took the Israelites captive in 722-721 BCE (see History of ancient Israel and Judah). The Assyrian oppression against the Israelites can be seen in the bitter prophecies of Nahum. Characters The story of Jonah is a drama between a passive man and an active God. Jonah, whose name literally means "dove," is introduced to the reader in the very first verse. The name is decisive. While most prophets had heroic names (e.g., Isaiah means "God has saved"), Jonah's name carries with it an element of passivity. Jonah's passive character then is contrasted with the other main character: God (lit. "I will be what I will be"). God's character is altogether active. While Jonah flees, God pursues. While Jonah falls, God lifts up. The character of God in the story is progressively revealed through the use of irony. In the first part of the book, God is depicted as relentless and wrathful; in the second part of the book, He is revealed to be truly loving and merciful. The other characters of the story include the sailors in chapter 1 and the people of Nineveh in chapter 3. These characters are also contrasted to Jonah's passivity. While Jonah sleeps in the hull, the sailors pray and try to save the ship from the storm (1:4-6). While Jonah passively finds himself forced to act under the Divine Will, the people of Nineveh actively petition God to change His mind. Plot The plot centers on a conflict between Jonah and God. God calls Jonah to proclaim judgment to Nineveh, but Jonah resists and attempts to flee. He goes to Joppa and boards a ship bound for Tarshish. God calls up a great storm at sea, and the ship's crew cast Jonah overboard in an attempt to appease God. A great sea creature (the Book of Jonah says it is a fish but the New Testament reference in Matthew and retellings for children conventionally assume it to be a whale) sent by God, swallows Jonah. For three days and three nights Jonah languishes inside the fish's belly. He says a prayer in which he repents for his disobedience and calls upon God for mercy. God speaks to the fish, which vomits out Jonah safely on dry land. After his rescue, Jonah obeys the call to prophesy against Nineveh, and they repent and God forgives them. Ironically, the relentless God demonstrated in the first chapter becomes the merciful God in the last two chapters (see 3:10). In a parallel turnabout, Jonah becomes one of the most effective of all prophets, turning the entire population of Nineveh (about 120,000 people) to God. Interpretive history Jonah preaching to the Ninevites, by Gustave Doré. Jonah Cast Forth By The Whale, by Gustave Doré. As with many canonical books, the Book of Jonah has had a long and varied interpretive history. This history spans from ancient rabbinic interpretations to "post modern" reader-response interpretations. The interpretative styles of Jews, Christians, Muslims, and atheists have all been employed to understand the Book of Jonah. Early Jewish interpretation The story of Jonah has numerous theological implications, and this has long been recognized. In early translations of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish translators tended to remove anthropomorphic imagery in order to prevent the reader from misunderstanding the ancient texts. This tendency is evidenced in both the Aramaic translations (i.e. the Targum) and the Greek translations (i.e. the Septuagint). As far as the Book of Jonah is concerned, Targum Jonah offers a good example of this. Targum Jonah In Jonah 1:6, the Masoretic Text (MT) reads, "...perhaps God will pay heed to us...." Targum Jonah translates this passage as: "...perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us...." The captain's proposal is no longer an attempt to change the divine will; it is an attempt to appeal to divine mercy. Furthermore, in Jonah 3:9, the MT reads, "Who knows, God may turn and relent [lit. repent]?" Targum Jonah translates this as, "Whoever knows that there are sins on his conscience let him repent of them and we will be pitied before the Lord." God does not change His mind; He shows pity. Dead Sea Scrolls Fragments of the book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS), most of which followed the Masoretic Text closely and with Mur XII reproducing a large portion of the text David L. Washburn, A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls (Brill, 2003), 146. . As for the non-canonical writings, the majority of references to biblical texts were made by argumentum ad verecundiam. The Book of Jonah appears to have served less purpose in the Qumran community than other texts, as the writings make no references to it James C. Vanderkam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today (Grand Rapids, Mich: Eerdmans, 1994), 151 . Early Christian interpretation New Testament The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the Gospel of Matthew (see and 16:1-4) and the Gospel of Luke (see Luke 11:29-32). Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus’ interpretation of the story of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16). As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, Jesus’ interpretation is primarily “typological” (see Typology (theology)). Jonah becomes a “type” for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the ground. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of Sheol found in Jonah’s prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, “Out of the belly of Sheol I cried,” Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. And Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented but his generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the story of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting. Augustine of Hippo Contrary to popular belief, the debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is not a modern one. Without a doubt, naturalism and the philosophy of David Hume have impacted modern interpretations of the miraculous story; yet the credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In c. 409 CE, Augustine of Hippo wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes: Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: "As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world." Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matt. 12:39,40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ's. Islamic interpretation In the Qur'an, Jonah is called Yunus (see also Biblical narratives and the Qur'an). Modern interpretation In Jonah (1:17 in English translation), the Hebrew text reads dag gadol (Hebrew: דג גדול), which translated literally means "great fish." The Septuagint translates this phrase into Greek as ketos megas (Hebrew: κητος μεγας). The term ketos alone means "huge fish," and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters See http://www.theoi.com/Ther/Ketea.html for more information regarding Greek mythology and the Ketos . Jerome later translated this phrase as piscis granda in his Latin Vulgate. However, he translated ketos as cetus in . At some point, cetus became synonymous with whale (c.f. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe," and he translated the word ketos (Greek) or cetus (Latin) in as "whale." Tyndale's translation was, of course, later incorporated into the Authorized Version of 1611. Since, the "great fish" in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale. The throats of many large whales (as well as that of a large whale shark specimen, which could be found in the Mediterranean) can accommodate passage of an adult human. There are some 19th century accounts of whalers being swallowed by sperm whales and living to tell about it, but these stories remain unverified. In the line 3:1, the book refers to the fish as Dag Gadol, meaning "great fish", in the masculine. However, in the 3:2, it says "ha'daga" meaning female fish (the ha at the beginning means the). Given the rest of these selected verses "And the lord provided a great fish (dag gadol) for Jonah, and it swallowed him, and Jonah sat in the belly of the fish (still male) for three days and nights.) Then, from the belly of the (female) fish, Jonah began to pray." It has been interpreted that this means Jonah was comfortable in the roomy male fish, so he didn't pray. However, then, God transferred him to a smaller, female fish, in which Jonah was uncomfortable, so he prayed. Historical and literary criticism Some biblical scholars believe Jonah's prayer () to be a later addition to the story (see source criticism for more information on how such conclusions are drawn). Despite questions of its source, the prayer carries out an important function in the narrative as a whole. The prayer is a psalm of thanksgiving. The presence of the prayer serves to interpret the swallowing of the fish to be God's salvation. God has lifted Jonah out of Sheol and set him on the path to carry out His will. The story of descent (from Israel, to Tarshish, to the sea, to under the sea) becomes the story of ascent (from the belly of the fish, to land, to the city of Nineveh). Thus, the use of a psalm creates an important theological point. In the popular understanding of Jonah, the fish is interpreted to be the low point of the story. Yet even the fish is an instrument of God's sovereignty and salvation. Popular Culture Jonah: A VeggieTales Movie by Big Idea Productions, 2002 References | Book_of_Jonah |@lemmatized book:25 jonah:72 hebrew:7 sefer:1 yonah:1 bible:2 situate:1 nevus:1 im:1 tanakh:1 prophet:7 old:3 testament:5 relate:1 story:23 concern:3 obscure:1 name:5 ben:1 amittai:1 live:3 reign:2 jeroboam:2 ii:4 bce:6 king:2 probably:2 write:7 post:3 exilic:2 period:3 base:1 oral:1 tradition:4 pass:4 eighth:3 century:5 originally:1 eleven:1 refer:2 minor:1 interesting:1 interpretive:3 history:5 see:11 become:6 well:4 know:5 popular:4 child:2 judaism:1 haftarah:1 afternoon:1 yom:1 kippur:1 due:1 god:41 willingness:1 forgive:2 repent:8 outline:2 primarily:2 character:9 even:3 compassion:1 abraham:1 j:1 heschel:1 peabody:1 mass:1 prince:1 press:1 divide:2 four:1 section:2 roughly:1 chapter:8 sovereignty:3 deliverance:6 mercy:5 righteousness:2 may:3 also:4 following:1 manner:1 first:5 commission:2 rebellion:1 toward:2 prayer:7 thanksgiving:2 second:3 obedience:1 nineveh:13 complaint:1 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159 | New_York_Stock_Exchange | New York Stock Exchange is an equity (stock) exchange located at 11 Wall Street in lower Manhattan, New York, USA. It is the largest stock exchange in the world by dollar value of its listed companies' securities. As of October 2008, the combined capitalization of all domestic New York Stock Exchange listed companies was US$10.1 trillion. http://www.nyxdata.com/nysedata/default.aspx?tabid=115 The NYSE is operated by NYSE Euronext, which was formed by the NYSE's 2007 merger with the fully-electronic stock exchange Euronext. The NYSE trading floor is located at 11 Wall Street and is composed of four rooms used for the facilitation of trading. A fifth trading room, located at 30 Broad Street, was closed in February 2007. The main building, located at 18 Broad Street, between the corners of Wall Street and Exchange Place, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1978, National Park Service, National Historic Landmarks Survey, New York, retrieved May 31, 2007. as was the 11 Wall Street building. History The origin of the NYSE can be traced to May 17, 1792, when the Buttonwood Agreement was signed by 24 stock brokers outside of 68 Wall Street in New York under a buttonwood tree on Wall Street. On March 8, 1817, the organization drafted a constitution and renamed itself the "New York Stock & Exchange Board". Anthony Stockholm was elected the Exchange's first president (for other presidents, see List of presidents of the New York Stock Exchange). The first central location of the Exchange was a room, rented in 1817 for $200 a month, located at 40 Wall Street. After that location was destroyed in the Great Fire of New York (1835), the Exchange moved to a temporary headquarters. In 1863, the New York Stock & Exchange Board changed to its current name, the New York Stock Exchange. In 1865, the Exchange moved to 10-12 Broad Street. The volume of stocks traded increased sixfold in the years between 1896 and 1901, and a larger space was required to conduct business in the expanding marketplace. The Building NYSE Group history Eight New York City architects were invited to participate in a design competition for a new building; ultimately, the Exchange selected the neoclassic design submitted by architect George B. Post. Demolition of the Exchange building at 10 Broad Street, and adjacent buildings, started on May 10, 1901. The new building, located at 18 Broad Street, cost $4 million and opened on April 22, 1903. The trading floor, at 109 x 140 feet (33 x 42.5 m), was one of the largest volumes of space in the city at the time, and had a skylight set into a -high ceiling. The main façade of the building features six tall Corinthian capitals, topped by a marble sculpture by John Quincy Adams Ward, called “Integrity Protecting the Works of Man”. The building was listed as a National Historic Landmark and added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 2, 1978. National Register Number: 78001877 National Historic Landmark In 1922, a building for offices, designed by Trowbridge & Livingston, was added at 11 Broad Street, as well as a new trading floor called "the garage". Additional trading floor space was added in 1969 and 1988 (the "blue room") with the latest technology for information display and communication. Yet another trading floor was opened at 30 Broad Street in 2000. As the NYSE introduced its hybrid market, a greater proportion of trading came to be executed electronically, and due to the resulting reduction in demand for trading floor space, the NYSE decided to close the 30 Broad Street trading room in early 2006. As the adoption of electronic trading continued to reduce the number of traders and employees on the floor, in late 2007, the NYSE closed the rooms created by the 1969 and 1988 expansions. The Stock Exchange Luncheon Club was situated on the seventh floor from 1898 until its closure in 2006. The floor of the New York Stock Exchange in 1908 The NYSE announced its plans to acquire Archipelago on April 21, 2005, in a deal intended to reorganize the NYSE as a publicly traded company. NYSE's governing board voted to acquire rival Archipelago on December 6, 2005, and become a for-profit, public company. It began trading under the name NYSE Group on March 8, 2006. A little over one year later, on April 4, 2007, the NYSE Group completed its merger with Euronext, the European combined stock market, thus forming the NYSE Euronext, the first transatlantic stock exchange. Presently, Marsh Carter is Chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, having succeeded John S. Reed and the CEO is Duncan Niederauer, having succeeded John Thain. Events The exchange was closed shortly after the beginning of World War I (July 31, 1914), but it partially re-opened on November 28 of that year in order to help the war effort by trading bonds, and completely reopened for stock trading in mid-December. On September 16, 1920, a bomb exploded on Wall Street outside the NYSE building, killing 33 people and injuring more than 400. The perpetrators were never found. The NYSE building and some buildings nearby, such as the JP Morgan building, still have marks on their facades caused by the bombing. The Black Thursday crash of the Exchange on October 24, 1929, and the sell-off panic which started on Black Tuesday, October 29, are often blamed for precipitating the Great Depression of 1929. In an effort to try to restore investor confidence, the Exchange unveiled a fifteen-point program aimed to upgrade protection for the investing public on October 31, 1938. On October 1, 1934, the exchange was registered as a national securities exchange with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, with a president and a thirty-three member board. On February 18, 1971 the non-profit corporation was formed, and the number of board members was reduced to twenty-five. One of Abbie Hoffman's well-known protests took place on August 24, 1967, when he led members of the Yippie movement to the gallery of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). The protesters threw fistfuls of dollars (most of the bills were fake) down to the traders below, some of whom booed, while others began to scramble frantically to grab the money as fast as they could. Hoffman claimed to be pointing out that, metaphorically, that's what NYSE traders "were already doing." "We didn't call the press," wrote Hoffman, "at that time we really had no notion of anything called a media event." The press was quick to respond and by evening the event was reported around the world. Since that incident, the stock exchange has spent $20,000 to enclose the gallery with bulletproof glass. On October 19, 1987, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) dropped 508 points, a 22.6% loss in a single day, the second-biggest one-day drop the exchange had experienced, prompting officials at the exchange to invoke for the first time the "circuit breaker" rule to halt all trading. This was a very controversial move and led to a quick change in the rule; trading now halts for an hour, two hours, or the rest of the day when the DJIA drops 10, 20, or 30 percent, respectively. In the afternoon, the 10% and 20% drops will halt trading for a shorter period of time, but a 30% drop will always close the exchange for the day. The rationale behind the trading halt was to give investors a chance to cool off and reevaluate their positions. Black Monday was followed by Terrible Tuesday, a day in which the Exchange's systems did not perform well and some people had difficulty completing their trades. There was a panic similar to many with a fall of 7.2% in value (554.26 points) on October 27, 1997 prompted by falls in Asian markets, from which the NYSE recovered quickly. On January 26, 2000, an altercation during filming of the music video for Sleep Now in the Fire, which was directed by Michael Moore, caused the doors of the exchange to be closed and the band, Rage Against the Machine, to be escorted from the site by security, after band members attempted to gain entry into the exchange. Trading on the exchange floor, however, continued uninterrupted. Security after the September 11 attacks The NYSE was closed from September 11 until September 17, 2001 as a result of the September 11 attacks. The volume of trading is significantly reduced every year on the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur. Timeline NYSE's stock exchange traders floor before the introduction of electronic readouts and computer screens 1792 - The NYSE acquires its first traded securities 1817 - The constitution of the New York Stock and Exchange Board is adopted 1867 - The First Stock Ticker 1896 - Dow Jones Industrial Average first published in The Wall Street Journal 1903 - NYSE moves into new quarters at 18 Broad Street 1906 - Dow exceeds 100 on January 12 1907 - Panic of 1907 1914 - World War I causes the longest exchange shutdown: four months, two weeks; re-opening December 12 brings the largest one-day percentage drop in the DJIA (24.4%) 1915 - Market price is given in dollars 1929 - Central quote system established; Black Thursday, October 24 and Black Tuesday, October 29 signal the end of the Roaring Twenties bull market 1943 - Trading floor is opened to women ''NYSE: Timeline" 1949 - Longest (eight-year) bull market begins 1954 - Dow surpasses its 1929 peak in inflation-adjusted dollars 1956 - Dow closes above 500 for the first time on March 12 1966 - NYSE creates the Common Stock Index; floor data fully automated 1967 - Protesters led by Abbie Hoffman throw mostly fake dollar bills at traders from gallery, leading to the installation of bullet-proof glass 1970 - Securities Investor Protection Corporation established 1971 - NYSE recognized as Not-for-Profit organization 1972 - Dow closes above 1,000 for the first time on November 14 1977 - Foreign brokers are admitted to NYSE 1979 - New York Futures Exchange established 1982 - Longest bull market in DJIA history begins 1987 - Black Monday, October 19, sees the second-largest one-day DJIA percentage drop (22.6%) in history 1991 - Dow exceeds 3,000 1995 - Dow exceeds 5,000 1996 - Real-time ticker introduced 1999 - Dow exceeds 10,000 on March 29 2000 - Dow peaks at 11,722.98 on January 14; first NYSE global index is launched under the ticker NYIID 2001 - Trading in fractions (n/16) ends, replaced by decimals (increments of $.01, see Decimalisation); September 11, 2001 attacks occur, closing NYSE for 4 sessions 2003 - NYSE Composite Index relaunched and value set equal to 5,000 points 2006 - NYSE and ArcaEx merge, creating NYSE Arca and forming the publicly owned, for-profit NYSE Group, Inc.; in turn, NYSE Group merges with Euronext, creating the first trans-Atlantic stock exchange group; DJIA tops 12,000 on October 19 2007 - US President George W. Bush shows up unannounced to the Floor about an hour and a half before a Federal Open Market Committee interest-rate decision on January 31. NYSE announces its merger with the American Stock Exchange; NYSE Composite closes above 10,000 on June 1; DJIA exceeds 14,000 on July 19 and closes at a peak of 14,164.53 on October 9. 2008 - On September 15, also known as "Ugly Monday" , the DJIA loses more than 500 points amid fears of bank failures, resulting in a permanent prohibition of naked short selling and a three-week temporary ban on all short selling of financial stocks; in spite of this, record volatility continues for the next two months, culminating at 5 1/2-year market lows. 2009 - Markets methodically fall to new 12-year lows in March, briefly trading below 4,200 on the NYSE Composite and 6,500 on the Dow. Trading U.S. Secretary of Commerce Donald L. Evans rings the opening bell at the NYSE on April 23, 2003. Former chairman Jack Womack is also in this picture. The New York Stock Exchange (sometimes referred to as "the Big Board") provides a means for buyers and sellers to trade shares of stock in companies registered for public trading. The NYSE is open for trading Monday through Friday between 9:30–16:00 ET, with the exception of holidays declared by the Exchange in advance. On the trading floor, the NYSE trades in a continuous auction format, where traders can execute stock transactions on behalf of investors. They will gather around the appropriate post where a specialist broker, who is employed by an NYSE member firm (that is, he/she is not an employee of the New York Stock Exchange), acts as an auctioneer in an open outcry auction market environment to bring buyers and sellers together and to manage the actual auction. They do on occasion (approximately 10% of the time) facilitate the trades by committing their own capital and as a matter of course disseminate information to the crowd that helps to bring buyers and sellers together. As of January 24, 2007, all NYSE stocks can be traded via its electronic Hybrid Market (except for a small group of very high-priced stocks). Customers can now send orders for immediate electronic execution, or route orders to the floor for trade in the auction market. In the first three months of 2007, in excess of 82% of all order volume was delivered to the floor electronically. The right to directly trade shares on the exchange is conferred upon owners of the 1366 "seats". The term comes from the fact that up until the 1870s NYSE members sat in chairs to trade. In 1868, the number of seats was fixed at 533, and this number was increased several times over the years. In 1953, the exchange stopped at 1366 seats. These seats are a sought-after commodity as they confer the ability to directly trade stock on the NYSE. Seat prices have varied widely over the years, generally falling during recessions and rising during economic expansions. The most expensive inflation-adjusted seat was sold in 1929 for $625,000, which, today, would be over six million dollars. In recent times, seats have sold for as high as $4 million in the late 1990s and $1 million in 2001. In 2005, seat prices shot up to $3.25 million as the exchange was set to merge with Archipelago and become a for-profit, publicly traded company. Seat owners received $500,000 cash per seat and 77,000 shares of the newly formed corporation. The NYSE now sells one-year licenses to trade directly on the exchange. NYSE Composite Index In the mid-1960s, the NYSE Composite Index () was created, with a base value of 50 points equal to the 1965 yearly close, to reflect the value of all stocks trading at the exchange instead of just the 30 stocks included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average. To raise the profile of the composite index, in 2003 the NYSE set its new base value of 5,000 points equal to the 2002 yearly close. See also Economy of New York City List of American stock exchanges References Bibliography External links New York Stock Exchange website Archived collection of NYSE Transformation NYSE Valuations Price of membership and a seat be-x-old:Нью-Ёрская Фондавая Біржа | New_York_Stock_Exchange |@lemmatized new:26 york:20 stock:37 exchange:51 equity:1 locate:6 wall:9 street:18 low:3 manhattan:1 usa:1 large:5 world:4 dollar:6 value:6 listed:1 company:6 security:7 october:12 combined:2 capitalization:1 domestic:1 list:4 u:4 trillion:1 http:1 www:1 nyxdata:1 com:1 nysedata:1 default:1 aspx:1 tabid:1 nyse:51 operate:1 euronext:5 form:5 merger:3 fully:2 electronic:5 trading:25 floor:17 compose:1 four:2 room:6 use:1 facilitation:1 fifth:1 broad:9 close:14 february:2 main:2 building:14 corner:1 place:3 designate:1 national:8 historic:5 landmark:4 park:1 service:1 survey:1 retrieve:1 may:3 history:4 origin:1 trace:1 buttonwood:2 agreement:1 sign:1 broker:3 outside:2 tree:1 march:5 organization:2 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160 | Geography_of_Laos | Detailed map of Laos Laos is a landlocked nation in Southeast Asia, northeast of Thailand, west of Vietnam, that covers 236,800 square kilometers in the center of the Southeast Asian peninsula, is surrounded by Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, the People's Republic of China, Thailand, and Vietnam. Its location has often made it a buffer between more powerful neighboring states, as well as a crossroads for trade and communication. Migration and international conflict have contributed to the present ethnic composition of the country and to the geographic distribution of its ethnic groups. Geographic coordinates: Topography Most of the western border of Laos is demarcated by the Mekong River, which is an important artery for transportation. The Dong falls at the southern end of the country prevent access to the sea, but cargo boats travel along the entire length of the Mekong in Laos during most of the year. Smaller power boats and pirogues provide an important means of transportation on many of the tributaries of the Mekong. The Mekong at Luang Prabang, Laos The Mekong has thus not been an obstacle but a facilitator for communication, and the similarities between Laos and northeast Thai society--same people, same language--reflect the close contact that has existed across the river for centuries. Also, many Laotians living in the Mekong Valley have relatives and friends in Thailand. Prior to the twentieth century, Laotian kingdoms and principalities encompassed areas on both sides of the Mekong, and Thai control in the late nineteenth century extended to the left bank. Although the Mekong was established as a border by French colonial forces, travel from one side to the other has been significantly limited only since the establishment of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (LPDR, or Laos) in 1975. Topographic map of Laos. The eastern border with Vietnam extends for 2,130 kilometers, mostly along the crest of the Annamite Chain, and serves as a physical barrier between the Chinese-influenced culture of Vietnam and the Indianized states of Laos and Thailand. These mountains are sparsely populated by tribal minorities who traditionally have not acknowledged the border with Vietnam any more than lowland Lao have been constrained by the 1,754-kilometer Mekong River border with Thailand. Thus, ethnic minority populations are found on both the Laotian and Vietnamese sides of the frontier. Because of their relative isolation, contact between these groups and lowland Lao has been mostly confined to trading. Laos shares its short--only 541 kilometers--southern border with Cambodia, and ancient Khmer ruins at Wat Pho and other southern locations attest to the long history of contact between the Lao and the Khmer. In the north, the country is bounded by a mountainous 423-kilometer border with China and shares the 235-kilometer-long Mekong River border with Burma. The topography of Laos is largely mountainous, with elevations above 500 meters typically characterized by steep terrain, narrow river valleys, and low agricultural potential. This mountainous landscape extends across most of the north of the country, except for the plain of Vientiane and the Plain of Jars in Xiangkhoang Province. The southern "panhandle" of the country contains large level areas in Savannakhét and Champasak provinces that are well suited for extensive paddy rice cultivation and livestock raising. Much of Khammouan Province and the eastern part of all the southern provinces are mountainous. Together, the alluvial plains and terraces of the Mekong and its tributaries cover only about 20% of the land area. Only about 4% of the total land area is classified as arable. The forested land area has declined significantly since the 1970s as a result of commercial logging and expanded swidden, or slash-and-burn, farming. Climate On November 30, 2001, MODIS captured this image of southeastern Asia. The image focuses on the countries of Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, left to right respectively. In eastern Thailand, the brown coloring that dominates the center of the image and mimics the country's border with Laos and Cambodia, speaks of the massive deforestation that occurs in this region. One of southeastern Asia's prominent environmental concerns, deforestation has played a major role in flooding in the region. Climate data for Vientiane Laos has a tropical monsoon climate, with a pronounced rainy season from May through October, a cool dry season from November through February, and a hot dry season in March and April. Generally, monsoons occur at the same time across the country, although that time may vary significantly from one year to the next. Rainfall also varies regionally, with the highest amounts-- 3,700 millimeters annually--recorded on the Bolovens Plateau in Champasak Province. City rainfall stations have recorded that Savannakhét averages 1,440 millimeters of rain annually; Vientiane receives about 1,700 millimeters, and Louangphrabang (Luang Prabang) receives about 1,360 millimeters. Rainfall is not always adequate for rice cultivation, however, and the relatively high average precipitation conceals years where rainfall may be only half or less of the norm, causing significant declines in rice yields. Such droughts often are regional, leaving production in other parts of the country unaffected. Temperatures range from highs around 40°C along the Mekong in March and April to lows of 5°C or less in the uplands of Xiangkhoang and Phôngsali in January. Transportation routes Because of its mountainous topography and lack of development, Laos has few reliable transportation routes. This inaccessibility has historically limited the ability of any government to maintain a presence in areas distant from the national or provincial capitals and has limited interchange and communication among villages and ethnic groups. The Mekong and Nam Ou are the only natural channels suitable for large-draft boat transportation, and from December through May low water limits the size of the craft that may be used over many routes. Laotians in lowland villages located on the banks of smaller rivers have traditionally traveled in pirogues for fishing, trading, and visiting up and down the river for limited distances. Otherwise, travel is by ox-cart over level terrain or by foot. The steep mountains and lack of roads have caused upland ethnic groups to rely entirely on pack baskets and horse packing for transportation. Natural resources The road system is not extensive. However, a rudimentary network begun under French colonial rule and continued from the 1950s has provided an important means of increased intervillage communication, movement of market goods, and a focus for new settlements. In mid-1994, travel in most areas was difficult and expensive, and most Laotians traveled only limited distances, if at all. As a result of ongoing improvements in the road system during the early 1990s, however, it is expected that in the future villagers will more easily be able to seek medical care, send children to schools at district centers, and work outside the village. Clear-cut hillside along the Mekong River Expanding commercial exploitation of forests, plans for additional hydroelectric facilities, foreign demands for wild animals and nonwood forest products for food and traditional medicines, and a growing population have brought new and increasing attention to the forests. Traditionally, forests have been important sources of wild foods, herbal medicines, and timber for house construction. Even into the 1990s, the government viewed the forest as a valued reserve of natural products for noncommercial household consumption. Government efforts to preserve valuable hardwoods for commercial extraction have led to measures to prohibit swidden cultivation throughout the country. Further, government restrictions on clearing forestland for swidden cropping in the late 1980s, along with attempts to gradually resettle upland swidden farming villages (ban) to lowland locations suitable for paddy rice cultivation, had significant effects on upland villages. Traditionally, villages rely on forest products as a food reserve during years of poor rice harvest and as a regular source of fruits and vegetables. By the 1990s, however, these gathering systems were breaking down in many areas. At the same time, international concern about environmental degradation and the loss of many wildlife species unique to Laos has also prompted the government to consider the implications of these developments. Natural resources: timber, hydropower, gypsum, tin, gold, gemstones Land use: arable land: 3% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 3% forests and woodland: 54% other: 40% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 1,250 km² (1993 est.) note: rainy season irrigation - 2,169 km²; dry season irrigation - 750 km² (1998 est.) Area and boundaries Area: total: 236,800 km² land: 230,800 km² water: 6,000 km² Area - comparative: slightly larger than Utah Land boundaries: total: 5,083 km border countries: Burma 235 km, Cambodia 541 km, the People's Republic of China 423 km, Thailand 1,754 km, Vietnam 2,130 km Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) Maritime claims: none (landlocked) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mekong River 70 m highest point: Phou Bia 2,817 m Environmental concerns Natural hazards: floods, droughts, blight and earthquakes in the northern areas. Environment - current issues: unexploded ordnance; deforestation; soil erosion; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements See also Laos National Biodiversity Conservation Areas References | Geography_of_Laos |@lemmatized detailed:1 map:2 lao:17 landlocked:3 nation:1 southeast:2 asia:3 northeast:2 thailand:8 west:1 vietnam:7 cover:2 square:1 kilometer:6 center:3 asian:1 peninsula:1 surround:1 burma:4 myanmar:1 cambodia:5 people:4 republic:3 china:3 location:3 often:2 make:1 buffer:1 powerful:1 neighboring:1 state:2 well:2 crossroad:1 trade:1 communication:4 migration:1 international:3 conflict:1 contribute:1 present:1 ethnic:5 composition:1 country:11 geographic:2 distribution:1 group:4 coordinate:1 topography:3 western:1 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161 | Politics_of_Nauru | Politics of Nauru takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nauru is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Political Conditions Nauru's economic viability has rested upon phosphate reserves. Phosphates -- in actuality a resource derived from a 1,000-year cycle of bird droppings -- have been mined on the island since 1906. In the last century, the small Pacific island country has generated healthy revenues from this lucrative -- but finite -- resource. The phosphate supply is reaching levels of extinction in recent years and as such, the future of the people of Nauru is uncertain, and the challenge for the country's policy makers will be to determine a path of continued economic prosperity, without the benefits of this resource. In this regard, the government has tried to develop the island into an offshore financial center, imitating the success of the Bahamas and other island nations around the world that have emerged as major offshore banking centers. The government has invested in property on other islands and is attempting to develop offshore banking services. Over the course of recent years, however, offshore banking institutions and instruments have come under increasing scrunity by international bodies seeking to make international finance a more transparent system. Nauru, as a result, has been a casualty of this movement. Ludwig Scotty, former president (2004-2007) In December 1999, four major United States banks banned dollar transactions with four Pacific island states, including Nauru. The United States Department of State issued a report identifying Nauru as a major money laundering center, used by narcotics traffickers and Russian organized crime figures. Offshore banking aside, the last few years have seen repeated changes of government. Nauru's unsettled political situation never led to civil disturbances; the transitions were always sanctioned by parliament and occurred peacefully. President Bernard Dowiyogo took office in April 2000 for his fourth and, after a minimal hiatus, fifth stints as Nauru's top executive. Dowiyogo first served as president from 1976 to 1978. He returned to that office in 1989, and was re-elected in 1992. A vote in parliament, however, forced him to yield power to Kinza Clodumar in 1995. Dowiyogo regained the presidency when the Clodumar government fell in mid-1998. In April 2000, René Harris, former chairman of the Nauru Phosphate Corporation, became president as he briefly assembled support in parliament. Harris' attempt to put together an administration lasted for only a few days of parliamentary maneuvering. In the end, Harris proved unable to secure parliament's confidence, and Dowiyogo returned yet again to the presidency by the end of the month. Rene Harris was finally able to claim power as the president of Nauru in March 2001 when he was elected to the presidency by the parliament; his term was to last three years, presumably ending in 2004. Phosphate depletion will likely be one of the most important considerations for the government in the next few years as the supply is forecast to be exhausted by 2003. Since Nauru imports almost everything it consumes -- including food, water and fuel -- the need to diversify the economy and to generate other sources of revenue is of paramount importance. As noted above, offshore banking has been one arena into which Nauru has traversed, however, the rewards are limited by growing concern about the ethical parameters of this business. Tourism is another industry that is also being gradually built. Yet another concern is the ecological damage that resulted from a century of phosphate mining. Along with the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand were responsible for the large scale and indiscriminate mining of phosphate on the tiny island for most of the 20th century. The mining left an ecological and economic disaster for Nauru to handle when the country achieved independence in 1968. Not only was the country's principal resource and employment generating activity almost entirely depleted by the rapid mining done by the three countries, the mining companies had also failed to follow the basic principles of restoring and regenerating the lands where mining had been completed. Thus, Nauru was left to handle the immense and expensive task of restoring large chunks of land which were destroyed by the mining. Nauru demanded compensation from the three nations, but was refused. Finally, in 1993, Nauru was forced to turn to the International Court of Justice at The Hague in The Netherlands. It filed a claim of $73 million against the three countries. The case was soon afterwards settled out of court by Australia, with Britain and New Zealand also contributing to the reparations sought by Nauru. Today, Nauru is almost totally dependent on trade with New Zealand, Australia and Fiji. Arable land is very limited as are all other natural resources, now that its long-time economic base of phosphate mines has been almost completely depleted. On the international front, in late July 2002, Taiwan cut its diplomatic ties with Nauru. Taiwan and Nauru had shared diplomatic ties for 22 years; Taiwan has enjoyed diplomatic ties with several Pacific countries even in the face of the "One China" policy by Beijing. Nevertheless, this particular 22-year long legacy was broken when Nauru's president decided to change its allegiance and establish formal relations with China. The move effectively shifted diplomatic recognition from Taipei to Beijing, thus angering the government of Taiwan, which described the shift in policy as "reckless." Nauru's decision to recognize Beijing via the signing of diplomatic papers and a joint commuique ultimately resulted in the cessation of Taiwanese aid. Nauru instead received a US$150 million aid package from Beijing. In early 2003, a fight for power emerged between President Rene Harris and former President Bernard Dowiyogo. The power struggle occurred following a non-confidence vote in parliament, which effectively ejected Harris from the position of president. Reports suggested that Harris was ousted because of rising anxieties regarding economic mismanagement. At the time, Dowiyogo referred to Nauru's political scenario as being "critical." It was reported that Dowiyogo became the president replacing Harris, however, information surrounding the shift in power was sparse. There was very little international coverage of the matter. Regardless, Dowiyogo's tenure did not last for long. In March 2003, Dowiyogo had heart surgery in the United States and died. In May 2003, elections were held within the parliament to select a new president. In those elections, Ludwig Scotty gained the most support and became the new president. The actual results of the parliamentary vote were as follows: Ludwig Scotty -- 10 parliamentary votes, Kinza Clodumar -- 7 parliamentary votes. President Scotty became president on May 29, 2003. He served only until August 2003 when he was ousted in a non-confidence measure. Rene Harris was elected as president. Meanwhile, in parliamentary elections held in May 2003, Nauru First Party won 3 seats and independents garnered 15 in total. In late June 2004, Nauru's former parliament speaker Ludwig Scotty became the country's new president. His presidency followed the exit of outgoing President Rene Harris following yet another non-confidence measure. For his part, Scotty had resigned as parliamentary speaker in April 2004 in protest of the Nauru's financial crisis which included the commencement of receivership proceedings by corporate giant, General Electric. During that period, Nauru faced the seizure of its assets if the country failed to honor its debt payments. Since Scotty's resignation as parliamentary speaker, the parliament was unable to convene as members of parliament could not decide whom to appoint as his replacement. The scenario led to a political crisis, the financial crisis notwithstanding. In mid-2004, the government of Australia sent envoys to help Nauru deal with its financial crisis. By August 2004, a report by the Australian Center for Independent Studies suggested that Nauru might consider relinquishing its independent status in favor of becoming an Australian territory. The report called for radical economic reform as well as the restructuring of both governmental instruments and public service. The author of the report has offered Nauru economic advice in the past. Executive branch |President of Nauru |Marcus Stephen | |19 December 2007 |} The Parliament elects a president from amongst its members, who appoints a Cabinet of 5-6 people. The President is both the head of state and head of government. A series of no-confidence votes, resignations and elections between 1999 and 2003 saw René Harris and Bernard Dowiyogo as President for numerous short periods during a period of political instability. Dowigoyo died in office on March 10, 2003, in Washington, D.C., after heart surgery. Ludwig Scotty was elected President on May 29, 2003, but this did not bring to an end the years of political uncertainty as he was replaced by Harris a few months later. Scotty regained the presidency in 2004, only to be ousted in a vote of no confidence in 2007 "MPs oust Nauru's president", Sydney Morning Herald, December 19, 2007. . Legislative branch Nauru parliament Parliament has 18 members, elected for a three year term in multi-seat constituencies. Each constituency returns 2 members to the Nauruan Parliament, except for Ubenide which returns 4. Voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 20 or more. Political parties and elections Nauru does not have a formal structure for political parties; candidates typically stand as independents. 15 of the 18 members of the current parliament are independents, and alliances within the government are often formed on the basis of extended family ties. Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Republic of Nauru Country Brief - November 2005 URL accessed on 2006-05-02. Three parties that have been active in Nauruan politics are the Democratic Party, Nauru First and the Centre Party. Judicial branch Nauru has a complex legal system. The Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice, is paramount on constitutional issues. Other cases can be appealed to the two-judge Appellate Court. Parliament cannot overturn court decisions, but Appellate Court rulings can be appealed to the High Court of Australia; in practice, this rarely happens. Lower courts consist of the District Court and the Family Court, both of which are headed by a Resident Magistrate, who also is the Registrar of the Supreme Court. Finally, there also are two quasi-courts: the Public Service Appeal Board and the Police Appeal Board, both of which are presided over by the Chief Justice. State Department Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs September 2005 URL Accessed 2006-05-11 Local government Since 1992, local government has been the responsibility of the Nauru Island Council (NIC). The NIC has limited powers and functions as an advisor to the national government on local matters. The role of the NIC is to concentrate its efforts on local activities relevant to Nauruans. An elected member of the Nauru Island Council cannot simultaneously be a member of parliament. Ogden, M.R. Republic of Nauru URL Accessed 2006-05-02. Land tenure in Nauru is unusual: all Naurans have certain rights to all land on the island, which is owned by individuals and family groups; government and corporate entities do not own land and must enter into a lease arrangement with the landowners to use land. Non-Nauruans cannot own lands. Nauru Department of Economic Development and Environment. 2003. First National Report To the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) URL Accessed 2006-05-03 Armed forces Nauru has no armed forces; under an informal agreement, defence is the responsibility of Australia. There is a small police force under civilian control. CIA World Fact Book URL Accessed 2006-05-02 </small> See also Nauru Naoero Amo Internationalist Party of Nauru Commonwealth Nauruan diplomatic missions Notes External links Nauru laws and case law | Politics_of_Nauru |@lemmatized politics:2 nauru:48 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:8 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:3 whereby:1 president:24 head:5 government:16 multi:2 party:8 system:3 executive:4 power:8 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:18 judiciary:1 independent:6 legislature:1 political:8 condition:1 economic:8 viability:1 rest:1 upon:1 phosphate:8 reserve:1 actuality:1 resource:5 derive:1 year:10 cycle:1 bird:1 droppings:1 mine:2 island:10 since:4 last:5 century:3 small:3 pacific:4 country:10 generate:2 healthy:1 revenue:2 lucrative:1 finite:1 supply:2 reach:1 level:1 extinction:1 recent:2 future:1 people:2 uncertain:1 challenge:1 policy:3 maker:1 determine:1 path:1 continued:1 prosperity:1 without:1 benefit:1 regard:2 try:1 develop:2 offshore:6 financial:4 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june:1 speaker:3 exit:1 outgo:1 part:1 resign:1 protest:1 crisis:4 commencement:1 receivership:1 proceeding:1 corporate:2 giant:1 general:1 electric:1 period:3 seizure:1 asset:1 honor:1 debt:1 payment:1 resignation:2 convene:1 member:7 could:1 appoint:2 replacement:1 notwithstanding:1 sent:1 envoys:1 help:1 deal:1 australian:3 study:1 might:1 consider:1 relinquish:1 status:1 favor:1 territory:1 call:1 radical:1 reform:1 well:1 restructuring:1 governmental:1 public:2 author:1 offer:1 advice:1 past:1 branch:3 marcus:1 stephen:1 amongst:1 cabinet:1 series:1 saw:1 numerous:1 short:1 instability:1 dowigoyo:1 washington:1 c:1 bring:1 uncertainty:1 later:1 mp:1 sydney:1 morning:1 herald:1 constituency:2 nauruan:5 except:1 ubenide:1 voting:1 compulsory:1 citizen:1 age:1 structure:1 candidate:1 typically:1 stand:1 current:1 alliance:1 often:1 form:1 basis:1 extend:1 family:3 foreign:1 affair:2 brief:1 november:1 url:5 access:5 active:1 centre:1 judicial:1 complex:1 legal:1 supreme:2 chief:2 constitutional:1 appeal:4 two:2 judge:1 appellate:2 cannot:3 overturn:1 ruling:1 high:1 practice:1 rarely:1 happen:1 low:1 consist:1 district:1 resident:1 magistrate:1 registrar:1 quasi:1 board:2 police:2 preside:1 bureau:1 east:1 asian:1 september:1 local:4 responsibility:2 council:2 nic:3 function:1 advisor:1 national:2 role:1 concentrate:1 effort:1 relevant:1 elected:1 simultaneously:1 ogden:1 r:1 unusual:1 naurans:1 certain:1 right:1 individual:1 group:1 entity:1 must:1 enter:1 lease:1 arrangement:1 landowner:1 development:1 environment:1 convention:1 combat:1 desertification:1 unccd:1 armed:2 informal:1 agreement:1 defence:1 civilian:1 control:1 cia:1 fact:1 book:1 naoero:1 amo:1 internationalist:1 commonwealth:1 mission:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 law:2 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 offshore_banking:5 ludwig_scotty:5 money_laundering:1 nauru_phosphate:1 paramount_importance:1 phosphate_mining:1 hague_netherlands:1 soon_afterwards:1 arable_land:1 sydney_morning:1 morning_herald:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 foreign_affair:1 url_access:5 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:2 appellate_court:2 nauru_url:1 combat_desertification:1 desertification_unccd:1 diplomatic_mission:1 external_link:1 |
162 | Anatomy | Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Gray's Anatomy. Anatomy (from the Greek anatomia, from ana: separate, apart from, and temnein, to cut up, cut open) is a branch of biology and Medicine which studies primarily the internal structure and design of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy (zootomy) and plant anatomy (phytotomy). Anatomy is divided into various sub specialties in some of its facets anatomy is closely related to Embryology, Histology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common roots in evolution. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy (or macroscopic anatomy) and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision with the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, which includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues), and cytology (the study of cells). The history of anatomy has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body including the clinical understanding of how damage to these structures effects other functions in the body. Methods have also advanced dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers (dead human bodies) to technologically complex techniques developed in the 20th century including X-ray technology, Sonogram and MRI technology. Anatomy should not be confused with anatomical pathology (also called morbid anatomy or histopathology), which is the study of the gross and microscopic appearances of diseased organs. Superficial anatomy Superficial anatomy or surface anatomy is important in anatomy being the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the contours or the surface of the body. With knowledge of superficial anatomy, physicians or veterinary surgeons gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures. Human anatomy Para-sagittal MRI scan of the head An X-ray of a human chest. Human anatomy, including gross human anatomy and histology, is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body. Generally, students of certain biological sciences, paramedics, physiotherapists, occupational therapy, nurses, and medical students learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers (dead human bodies). Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format, in line with modern teaching methods. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by all medical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as histopathology and radiology. Academic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Other branches Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals. Anthropological anatomy or physical anthropology relates to the comparison of the anatomy of different races of humans. Artistic anatomy relates to anatomic studies for artistic reasons. See also General anatomy: List of anatomical topics Regional Anatomy History of anatomy Important publications in anatomy Superficial anatomy Anatomical terms of location Body plan Foundational Model of Anatomy Human anatomy: List of human anatomical features List of human anatomical parts named after people References "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray External links American Association of Anatomists promotes anatomical sciences. Argentine Association of Anatomy promotes anatomical information from Argentine anatomists. American Society of Exercise Physiologists Human Anatomy & Physiology Society A society to promote communication among teachers of human anatomy and physiology in colleges, universities, and related institutions. Neuroanatomy is an annual journal of clinical neuroanatomy. International Journal of Anatomical Variations is an annual journal of anatomical variations and clinical anatomy case reports. High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases Free online anatomy atlas The NPAC Visible Human Viewer e-Anatomy Interactive atlas of whole human body cross-sectional anatomy. Online Radiology Anatomy Resources Get Body Smart Anatomy Atlases - a digital library of anatomy information Instant Anatomy - Online anatomy website with podcasts Anatomy quiz for the Level 2 OCR Certificate The Anatomy Wiz. An Interactive Cross-Sectional Anatomy Atlas Anatomia 1522-1867: Anatomical Plates from the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library Free Program with Labeled Anatomic Images For Radiologists and Other Physicians Foundational Model of Anatomy ontology WinkingSkull.com is a free study aid for must-know anatomy. Dissection Team from Argentina home page of the Dissection Team from Argentina. Anatowiki A must-know site for everything anatomy Anatomy Mnemonics Mnemonics in Anatomy. be-x-old:Анатомія | Anatomy |@lemmatized human:21 heart:1 lung:1 old:2 edition:2 gray:3 anatomy:71 greek:1 anatomia:2 ana:1 separate:1 apart:1 temnein:1 cut:2 open:1 branch:2 biology:1 medicine:1 study:13 primarily:2 internal:1 structure:8 design:1 living:1 thing:1 general:2 term:2 include:5 animal:3 zootomy:1 plant:1 phytotomy:1 divide:1 various:1 sub:1 specialty:1 facet:1 closely:1 relate:4 embryology:2 histology:4 comparative:3 common:1 root:1 evolution:1 subdivide:1 gross:7 macroscopic:1 microscopic:6 also:5 call:2 topographical:1 regional:3 anthropotomy:1 anatomical:15 see:3 unaided:1 vision:1 naked:1 eye:1 minute:1 assist:1 microscope:2 organization:1 tissue:2 cytology:1 cell:2 history:2 characterize:1 time:1 continually:1 develop:2 understanding:2 function:2 organ:3 body:10 clinical:3 damage:1 effect:1 method:2 advance:2 dramatically:1 examination:1 dissection:4 cadaver:2 dead:2 technologically:1 complex:1 technique:1 century:1 x:3 ray:2 technology:2 sonogram:1 mri:2 confuse:1 pathology:1 morbid:1 histopathology:2 appearance:1 diseased:1 superficial:4 surface:2 important:2 landmark:1 readily:1 contour:1 knowledge:2 physician:2 veterinary:1 surgeon:2 gauge:1 position:1 associate:1 deeper:1 para:1 sagittal:1 scan:1 head:2 chest:2 scientific:1 morphology:1 adult:1 generally:3 student:4 certain:2 biological:1 science:3 paramedic:1 physiotherapist:1 occupational:1 therapy:1 nurse:1 medical:7 learn:2 model:3 skeleton:1 textbook:2 diagram:1 photograph:1 lecture:1 tutorial:1 aid:2 practical:2 experience:2 examine:1 histological:1 preparation:1 slide:1 addition:1 inspection:1 physiology:3 biochemistry:1 complementary:1 basic:1 teach:5 first:1 year:1 school:2 regionally:1 systemically:1 respectively:1 bodily:1 region:1 specific:1 system:4 nervous:1 respiratory:1 major:1 recently:1 reorganize:1 format:2 line:1 modern:1 thorough:1 working:1 require:1 doctor:2 especially:1 work:1 diagnostic:1 speciality:1 radiology:2 academic:1 anatomist:3 usually:1 employ:1 university:2 hospital:1 often:1 involve:1 research:1 comparison:2 different:2 anthropological:1 physical:1 anthropology:1 race:1 artistic:2 anatomic:2 reason:1 list:3 topic:1 publication:1 location:1 plan:1 foundational:2 feature:1 part:1 name:1 people:1 reference:1 henry:1 external:1 link:1 american:2 association:2 promotes:1 argentine:2 promote:2 information:2 society:3 exercise:1 physiologist:1 communication:1 among:1 teacher:1 college:1 related:1 institution:1 neuroanatomy:2 annual:2 journal:3 international:1 variation:2 case:1 report:1 high:1 resolution:1 cytoarchitectural:1 primate:1 brain:1 atlas:4 free:3 online:3 npac:1 visible:1 viewer:1 e:1 interactive:2 whole:1 cross:2 sectional:2 resource:1 get:1 smart:1 atlases:1 digital:1 library:2 instant:1 website:1 podcasts:1 quiz:1 level:1 ocr:1 certificate:1 wiz:1 plate:1 thomas:1 fisher:1 rare:1 book:1 program:1 labeled:1 image:1 radiologist:1 ontology:1 winkingskull:1 com:1 must:2 know:2 team:2 argentina:2 home:1 page:1 anatowiki:1 site:1 everything:1 mnemonic:2 анатомія:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 comparative_anatomy:2 microscopic_anatomy:4 naked_eye:1 anatomical_pathology:1 veterinary_surgeon:1 mri_scan:1 occupational_therapy:1 anatomy_physiology:3 external_link:1 cross_sectional:2 |
163 | Latin_American_Integration_Association | The Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración (the Latin American Integration Association; known as ALADI or, occasionally, by the English acronym LAIA) is a Latin American trade integration association, based in Montevideo. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region. Signed on August 12th, 1980, the Montevideo Treaty 1980 Treaty of Montevideo LAIA Free Trade Agreement is an international legal framework that establishes and governs the Latin American Integration Association. It sets the following general guidelines regarding trade relations between signatory countries: pluralism, convergence, flexibility, differential treatment and multiplicity. The Latin American Free Trade Association The Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA), by the 1960 Treaty of Montevideo by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Uruguay. The signatories hoped to create a common market in Latin America and offered tariff rebates among member nations. LAFTA came into effect on January 2, 1962. When the trade association commenced it had seven members and its main goal was to eliminate all duties and restrictions on the majority of their trade within a twelve year period. Schmitter, Phillip C. “Mexico and Latin American Economic Integration”. California: Institute of International Studies, 1964. 1. By the late 1960’s the area of LAFTA had a population of 220 million and produced about $90 billion of goods and services annually. By the same time it had an average per capita gross national product of $440. Yudelman, Montague. “Agricultural Development and Economic Integration in Latin America”. London: Inter-American Development Bank, 1969. 23. The goal of the LAFTA is the creation of a free trade zone in Latin America. It should foster mutual regional trade among the member states, as well as with the U.S. and the European Union. To achieve these goals, several institutions are foreseen: the council of foreign ministers a conference of all participating countries a permanent council The LAFTA agreement has important limitations: it only refers to goods, not to services, and it does not include a coordination of policies. Compared e.g. to the European Union the political and economic integration is very limited. By 1970, LAFTA expanded to include four more Latin American nations which were Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela. It now consisted of eleven nations. In 1980, LAFTA reorganized into the Latin American Integration Association (ALADI). LAFTA brought many new positive changes to Latin America. With LAFTA in place existing productive capacity could be used more fully to supply regional needs, industries could reduce costs as a result of potential economies through expanded output and regional specialization, and attraction to new investment occurred as a result of the regional market area. Mathis, Ferdinand John. "Economic Integration in Latin America". Austin: Bureau of Business Research, 1969. 3. Although LAFTA has brought many constructive results, it has also brought problems to individual nations as well as to Latin America as a whole. Some of the problems which the individual countries face are the way they are grouped together by their economic strengths according to LAFTA. The grouping was originally Argentina, Brazil, and Chile in one group, Colombia, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela in the second group, and the last group which included Bolivia, Ecuador, and Paraguay. Mathis, Ferdinand John. "Economic Integration in Latin America". Austin: Bureau of Business Research, 1969. 12. There is a problem in these classifications because these countries are very different economically as well as in other aspects which the classification does not take into account. Problems which Latin America faced as a whole had to deal with many of the nations in the continent being underdeveloped. The Free Trade Agreement was seen as a way of the countries having greater economic interactions amongst each other and thus improving the economic state of the poorer nations. Entry Any Latin-American country can join the 1980 Montevideo Treaty. Cuba was the last to accede, becoming a full member on August 26, 1999. In addition, ALADI is also open to all Latin American countries through agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent, as well as to other developing countries or their respective integration areas outside Latin America. ALADI is now the largest Latin-American group of integration. It is responsible for regulations on foreign trade which includes regulations on technical measures, sanitary regulations, environment protection measures, quality control measures, automatic licensing measures, price control measures, monopolistic measures, as well as other measures. These regulations are put into place in order for trade to be even handed amongst members of ALADI. Methods The ALADI promotes the creation of an area of economic preferences in the region, aiming at a Latin American common market, through three mechanisms: Regional tariff preference granted to products originating in the member countries, based on the tariffs in force for third countries Regional scope agreement, among member countries Partial scope agreements, between two or more countries of the area Either regional or partial scope agreements may cover tariff relief and trade promotion; economic complementation; agricultural trade; financial, fiscal, customs and health cooperation; environmental conservation; scientific and technological cooperation; tourism promotion; technical standards and many other fields. As the Montevideo Treaty is a "framework treaty", by subscribing to it, the governments of the member countries authorize their representatives to legislate through agreements on the economic issues of greatest importance to each country. A system of preferences — which consists of market opening lists, special cooperation programs (business rounds, preinvestment, financing, technological support) and countervailing measures on behalf of the landlocked countries — has been granted to the countries deemed to be less developed (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay), to favour their full participation in the integration process. As the institutional and normative "umbrella" of regional integration that shelters these agreements as well as the subregional ones (Andean Community, MERCOSUR, G-3 Free Trade Agreement, Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas, etc.) it is the aim of the Association to support and favour every effort in order to create a common economic area. See also References | Latin_American_Integration_Association |@lemmatized asociación:1 latinoamericana:1 de:1 integración:1 latin:21 american:13 integration:14 association:8 know:1 aladi:6 occasionally:1 english:1 acronym:1 laia:2 trade:15 base:2 montevideo:6 main:2 objective:1 establishment:1 common:4 market:5 pursuit:1 economic:13 social:1 development:3 region:2 sign:1 august:2 treaty:6 free:6 agreement:10 international:2 legal:1 framework:2 establish:1 govern:1 set:1 following:1 general:1 guideline:1 regard:1 relation:1 signatory:2 country:17 pluralism:1 convergence:1 flexibility:1 differential:1 treatment:1 multiplicity:1 lafta:11 argentina:2 brazil:2 chile:3 mexico:2 paraguay:3 peru:2 uruguay:2 hop:1 create:2 america:10 offer:1 tariff:4 rebate:1 among:3 member:8 nation:6 come:1 effect:1 january:1 commence:1 seven:1 goal:3 eliminate:1 duty:1 restriction:1 majority:1 within:1 twelve:1 year:1 period:1 schmitter:1 phillip:1 c:1 california:1 institute:1 study:1 late:1 area:7 population:1 million:1 produce:1 billion:1 good:2 service:2 annually:1 time:1 average:1 per:1 caput:1 gross:1 national:1 product:2 yudelman:1 montague:1 agricultural:2 london:1 inter:1 bank:1 creation:2 zone:1 foster:1 mutual:1 regional:8 state:2 well:6 u:1 european:2 union:2 achieve:1 several:1 institution:1 foreseen:1 council:2 foreign:2 minister:1 conference:1 participate:1 permanent:1 important:1 limitation:1 refer:1 include:4 coordination:1 policy:1 compare:1 e:1 g:2 political:1 limited:1 expand:2 four:1 bolivia:3 colombia:2 ecuador:3 venezuela:2 consist:2 eleven:1 reorganize:1 bring:3 many:4 new:2 positive:1 change:1 place:2 exist:1 productive:1 capacity:1 could:2 use:1 fully:1 supply:1 need:1 industry:1 reduce:1 cost:1 result:3 potential:1 economy:1 output:1 specialization:1 attraction:1 investment:1 occur:1 mathis:2 ferdinand:2 john:2 austin:2 bureau:2 business:3 research:2 although:1 constructive:1 also:3 problem:4 individual:2 whole:2 face:2 way:2 group:5 together:1 strength:1 accord:1 grouping:1 originally:1 one:2 second:1 last:2 classification:2 different:1 economically:1 aspect:1 take:1 account:1 deal:1 continent:2 underdeveloped:1 see:2 great:2 interaction:1 amongst:2 thus:1 improve:1 poorer:1 entry:1 join:1 cuba:1 accede:1 become:1 full:2 addition:1 open:1 develop:1 respective:1 outside:1 large:1 responsible:1 regulation:4 technical:2 measure:8 sanitary:1 environment:1 protection:1 quality:1 control:2 automatic:1 licensing:1 price:1 monopolistic:1 put:1 order:2 even:1 hand:1 method:1 promote:1 preference:3 aim:2 three:1 mechanism:1 grant:2 originate:1 force:1 third:1 scope:3 partial:2 two:1 either:1 may:1 cover:1 relief:1 promotion:2 complementation:1 financial:1 fiscal:1 custom:1 health:1 cooperation:3 environmental:1 conservation:1 scientific:1 technological:2 tourism:1 standard:1 field:1 subscribe:1 government:1 authorize:1 representative:1 legislate:1 issue:1 importance:1 system:1 opening:1 list:1 special:1 program:1 round:1 preinvestment:1 financing:1 support:2 countervail:1 behalf:1 landlocked:1 deem:1 less:1 developed:1 favour:2 participation:1 process:1 institutional:1 normative:1 umbrella:1 shelter:1 subregional:1 andean:1 community:1 mercosur:1 bolivarian:1 alternative:1 etc:1 every:1 effort:1 reference:1 |@bigram paraguay_peru:1 per_caput:1 colombia_ecuador:1 uruguay_venezuela:1 bolivia_ecuador:2 bolivarian_alternative:1 |
164 | Chinese_language | Chinese or the Sinitic language(s) (汉语/漢語, pinyin: Hànyǔ; 华语/華語, Huáyǔ; or 中文, Zhōngwén) is a language family consisting of languages mutually unintelligible to varying degrees. *David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) , p. 312. “The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages.” Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar (1989), p 2. “The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.” Jerry Norman. Chinese (1988), p.1. “The modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of language. John DeFrancis. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy (1984), p.56. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China." Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the two branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages. About one-fifth of the world’s population, or over one billion people, speak some form of Chinese as their native language. The identification of the varieties of Chinese as "dialects" instead of "languages" is considered inappropriate by linguists and Sinologists. Spoken Chinese is distinguished by its high level of internal diversity, although all spoken varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. There are between seven and thirteen main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most spoken, by far, is Mandarin (about 850 million), followed by Wu (90 million), Min (70 million) and Cantonese (70 million). Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and the Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms and some degree of intelligibility. Chinese is classified as a macrolanguage with 13 sub-languages in ISO 639-3, though the identification of the varieties of Chinese as multiple "languages" or as "dialects" of a single language is a contentious issue. The standardized form of spoken Chinese is Standard Mandarin (Putonghua / Guoyu / Huayu), based on the Beijing dialect, which is part of a larger group of North-Eastern and South-Western dialects, often taken as a separate language, see Mandarin Chinese for more, this language can be referred to as 官话 Guānhuà or 北方话 Běifānghuà in Chinese. Standard Mandarin is the official language of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC), as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. Chinese—de facto, Standard Mandarin—is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Of the other varieties, Standard Cantonese is common and influential in Guangdong Province and Cantonese-speaking overseas communities, and remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong (together with English) and of Macau (together with Portuguese). Hokkien, part of the Min language group, is widely spoken in southern Fujian, in neighbouring Taiwan (where it is known as Taiwanese or Hoklo) and in Southeast Asia (where it dominates in Singapore and Malaysia). Spoken Chinese A map below depicts the linguistic subdivisions ("languages" or "dialect groups") within China itself. The traditionally-recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are: NameHanyu PinyinTrad.Simp.Total SpeakersNotesMandarinBěifānghuàGuānhuà北方話官話北方话官话c. 850 millionincludes Standard MandarinWuWúyǔ吳語吴语c. 90 millionincludes ShanghaineseCantonese (Yue)YuèyǔGuǎngdōnghuà粵語廣東話粤语广东话c. 80 million includes Standard CantoneseMinMǐnyǔ閩語闽语c. 50 millionincludes TaiwaneseXiangXiāngyǔHúnánhuà湘語湖南話湘语湖南话c. 35 millionHakkaKèjiāhuàKèhuà 客家話客話客家话客话c. 35 millionGanGànyǔJiāngxīhuà贛語江西話赣语江西话c. 20 million Dispute classifications by some Chinese linguists: NameHanyu PinyinTrad.Simp.Total SpeakersNotesJinJìnyǔ晉語晋语45 million from MandarinHuizhouHuīzhōuhuà徽州話徽州话from WuPinghuaPínghuà廣西平話广西平话from Cantonese There are also many smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: Danzhou dialect, spoken in Danzhou, on Hainan Island; Xianghua (乡话), not to be confused with Xiang (湘), spoken in western Hunan; and Shaozhou Tuhua, spoken in northern Guangdong. The Dungan language, spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered "Chinese" since it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by Dungan people outside China who are not considered ethnic Chinese. See List of Chinese dialects for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings. In general, the above language-dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries, though Mandarin is the predominant Sinitic language in the North and the Southwest, and the rest are mostly spoken in Central or Southeastern China. Frequently, as in the case of the Guangdong province, native speakers of major variants overlapped. As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified. The Ethnologue lists a total of 14, but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme followed. For instance, the Min variety is often divided into Northern Min (Minbei, Fuchow) and Southern Min (Minnan, Amoy-Swatow); linguists have not determined whether their mutual intelligibility is small enough to sort them as separate languages. In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of South China, a major city's dialect may only be marginally intelligible to close neighbours. For instance, Wuzhou is about 120 miles upstream from Guangzhou, but its dialect is more like Standard Cantonese spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of Taishan, 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, 1987). Standard Mandarin and diglossia Putonghua / Guoyu, often called "Mandarin", is the official standard language used by the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China, and Singapore (where it is called "Huayu"). It is based on the Beijing dialect, which is the dialect of Mandarin as spoken in Beijing. The governments intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. In mainland China and Taiwan, diglossia has been a common feature: it is common for a Chinese to be able to speak two or even three varieties of the Sinitic languages (or “dialects”) together with Standard Mandarin. For example, in addition to putonghua a resident of Shanghai might speak Shanghainese and, if they did not grow up there, his or her local dialect as well. A native of Guangzhou may speak Standard Cantonese and putonghua, a resident of Taiwan, both Taiwanese and putonghua/guoyu. A person living in Taiwan may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from Standard Mandarin and Taiwanese, and this mixture is considered normal under many circumstances. In Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is beginning to take its place beside English and Standard Cantonese, the official languages. Linguistics Linguists often view Chinese as a language family, though owing to China's socio-political and cultural situation, and the fact that all spoken varieties use one common written system, it is customary to refer to these generally mutually unintelligible variants as "the Chinese language". The diversity of Sinitic variants is comparable to the Romance languages. From a purely descriptive point of view, "languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar idiolects, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches technically. However, the idea of a single language has major overtones in politics and cultural self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue. Most Chinese and Chinese linguists refer to Chinese as a single language and its subdivisions dialects, while others call Chinese a language family. Chinese itself has a term for its unified writing system, Zhongwen (中文), while the closest equivalent used to describe its spoken variants would be Hanyu (汉语,“spoken language[s] of the Han Chinese) – this term could be translated to either “language” or “languages” since Chinese possesses no grammatical numbers. In the Chinese language, there is much less need for a uniform speech-and-writing continuum, as indicated by two separate character morphemes 语 yu and 文 wen. Ethnic Chinese often consider these spoken variations as one single language for reasons of nationality and as they inherit one common cultural and linguistic heritage in Classical Chinese. Han native speakers of Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese, for instance, may consider their own linguistic varieties as separate spoken languages, but the Han Chinese race as one – albeit internally very diverse – ethnicity. To Chinese nationalists, the idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that the Chinese identity is much more fragmentary and disunified than it actually is and as such is often looked upon as culturally and politically provocative. Additionally, in Taiwan, it is closely associated with Taiwanese independence, where some supporters of Taiwanese independence promote the local Taiwanese Minnan-based spoken language. Within the People’s Republic of China and Singapore, it is common for the government to refer to all divisions of the Sinitic language(s) beside Standard Mandarin as fangyan (“regional tongues”, often translated as “dialects”). Modern-day Chinese speakers of all kinds communicate using one formal standard written language, although this modern written standard is modeled after Mandarin, generally the modern Beijing substandard. Language and nationality The term sinophone, coined in analogy to anglophone and francophone, refers to those who speak the Chinese language natively, or prefer it as a medium of communication. The term is derived from Sinae, the Latin word for ancient China Written Chinese See also: Classical Chinese and Vernacular Chinese The relationship among the Chinese spoken and written languages is rather complex. Its spoken variations evolved at different rates, while written Chinese itself has changed much less. Classical Chinese literature began in the Spring and Autumn period, although written records have been discovered as far back as the 14th to 11th centuries BCE Shang dynasty oracle bones using the oracle bone scripts. The Chinese orthography centers around Chinese characters, hanzi, which are written within imaginary rectangular blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns. Chinese characters are morphemes independent of phonetic change. Thus the number "one", yi in Mandarin, yat in Cantonese and chi̍t and "yit = first" in Hokkien (form of Min), all share an identical character ("一"). Vocabularies from different major Chinese variants have diverged, and colloquial non-standard written Chinese often makes use of unique "dialectal characters", such as 冇 and 係 for Cantonese and Hakka, which are considered archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in online chat rooms and instant messaging amongst Hong-Kongers and Cantonese-speakers elsewhere. Use of it is considered highly informal, and does not extend to any formal occasion. Also, in Hunan, some women write their local language in Nü Shu, a syllabary derived from Chinese characters. The Dungan language, considered by some a dialect of Mandarin, is also nowadays written in Cyrillic, and was formerly written in the Arabic alphabet, although the Dungan people live outside China. Chinese characters Chinese characters evolved over time from earlier forms of hieroglyphs. The idea that all Chinese characters are either pictographs or ideographs is an erroneous one: most characters contain phonetic parts, and are composites of phonetic components and semantic Radicals. Only the simplest characters, such as ren 人 (human), ri 日 (sun), shan 山 (mountain), shui 水 (water), may be wholly pictorial in origin. In 100 CE, the famed scholar Xǚ Shèn in the Hàn Dynasty classified characters into 6 categories, namely pictographs, simple ideographs, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds and derivative characters. Of these, only 4% were categorized as pictographs, and 80-90% as phonetic complexes consisting of a semantic element that indicates meaning, and a phonetic element that indicates the pronunciation. Generally, the phonetic element is more accurate and more important than the semantic one. There are about 214 radicals recognized in the Kangxi Dictionary. Modern characters are styled after the standard script (楷书/楷書 kǎishū) (see styles, below). Various other written styles are also used in East Asian calligraphy, including seal script (篆书/篆書 zhuànshū), cursive script (草书/草書 cǎoshū) and clerical script (隶书/隸書 lìshū). Calligraphy artists can write in traditional and simplified characters, but tend to use traditional characters for traditional art. There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. The traditional system, still used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau and Chinese speaking communities (except Singapore and Malaysia) outside mainland China, takes its form from standardized character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty. The Simplified Chinese character system, developed by the People's Republic of China in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional glyphs to fewer strokes, many to common caoshu shorthand variants. Singapore, which has a large Chinese communities, is the first – and at present the only – foreign nation to officially adopt simplified characters, although it has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia. The Internet provides the platform to practice reading the alternative system, be it traditional or simplified. A well-educated Chinese today recognizes approximately 6,000-7,000 characters; some 3,000 characters are required to read a Mainland newspaper. The PRC government defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. A large unabridged dictionary, like the Kangxi Dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; less than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.History and evolution Most linguists classify all varieties of modern spoken Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and believe that there was an original language, termed Proto-Sino-Tibetan, from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relation between Chinese and other Sino-Tibetan languages is an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is enough documentation to allow one to reconstruct the ancient Chinese sounds, there is no written documentation that records the division between proto-Sino-Tibetan and ancient Chinese. In addition, many of the older languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly understood and many of the techniques developed for analysis of the descent of the Indo-European languages from PIE don't apply to Chinese because of "morphological paucity" especially after Old Chinese Analysis of the concept "wave" in PST. . Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the Swedish linguist Bernhard Karlgren in the early 1900s; most present systems rely heavily on Karlgren's insights and methods. Old Chinese (), sometimes known as "Archaic Chinese", was the language common during the early and middle Zhou Dynasty (1122 BCE - 256 BCE), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the Shījīng, the history of the Shūjīng, and portions of the Yìjīng (I Ching). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with Qīng dynasty philologists. Some early Indo-European loan-words in Chinese have been proposed, notably 蜜 mì "honey", 獅 shī "lion," and perhaps also 馬 mǎ "horse", 犬 quǎn "dog", and 鵝 é "goose". The source says the reconstructions of old Chinese are tentative, and not definitive so no conclusions should be drawn. The reconstruction of Old Chinese can not be perfect so this hypothesis may be called into question. Encyclopedia Britannica s.v. "Chinese languages": "Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for ‘honey' and ‘lion,' and probably also ‘horse,' ‘dog,' and ‘goose,' are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) A number of words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong-Vietnamese and Mon-Khmer" ; Jan Ulenbrook, Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen (1967) proposes 57 items; see also Tsung-tung Chang, 1988 Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese;. The source also notes that southern dialects of Chinese have more monosyllabic words than the Mandarin Chinese dialects. Middle Chinese () was the language used during the Suí, Táng, and Sòng dynasties (6th through 10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the 切韻 "Qièyùn" rhyme table (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the 廣韻 "Guǎngyùn" rhyme table. Linguists are more confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, "rhyming tables" constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; some scholars have argued that trying to reconstruct, say, modern Cantonese from modern Cantopop rhymes would give a fairly inaccurate picture of the present-day spoken language. The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most Chinese people, in Sìchuān and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their home language. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of middle and southern China promoted linguistic diversity. Until the mid-20th century, most southern Chinese only spoke their native local variety of Chinese. As Nanjing was the capital during the early Ming dynasty, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least until the later years of the officially Manchu-speaking Qing Empire. Since the 17th century, the Empire had set up orthoepy academies () to make pronunciation conform to the Qing capital Beijing's standard, but had little success. During the Qing's last 50 years in the late 19th century, the Beijing Mandarin finally replaced Nanjing Mandarin in the imperial court. For the general population, though, a single standard of Mandarin did not exist. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their various languages for every aspect of life. The new Beijing Mandarin court standard was used solely by officials and civil servants and was thus fairly limited. This situation did not change until the mid-20th century with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC, but not in Hong Kong) of a compulsory educational system committed to teaching Standard Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken by virtually all young and middle-aged citizens of mainland China and on Taiwan. Standard Cantonese, not Mandarin, was used in Hong Kong during the time of its British colonial period (owing to its large Cantonese native and migrant populace) and remains today its official language of education, formal speech, and daily life, but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential after the 1997 handover. Chinese was once the Lingua franca for East Asia countries for centuries, before the rise of European influences in 19th century. Influences on other languages Throughout history Chinese culture and politics has had a great influence on unrelated languages such as Korean and Japanese. Korean and Japanese both have writing systems employing Chinese characters (Hanzi), which are called Hanja and Kanji, respectively. The Vietnamese term for Chinese writing is Hán tự. It was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the 14th century, used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese élites. From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with Chữ nôm, a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. Chữ nôm was completely replaced by a modified Latin script created by the Jesuit missionary priest Alexander de Rhodes, which incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. The Vietnamese language exhibits multiple elements similar to Cantonese in regard to the specific intonations and sharp consonant endings. There is also a slight influence from Mandarin, including the sharper vowels and "kh" (IPA:x) sound missing from other Asiatic languages. In South Korea, the Hangul alphabet is generally used, but Hanja is used as a sort of boldface. In North Korea, Hanja has been discontinued. Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there has been debate about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient. In derived Chinese characters or Zhuang logograms to write songs, even though Zhuang is not a Chinese dialect. Since the 1950s, the Zhuang language has been written in a modified Latin alphabet. Zhou, Minglang: Multilingualism in China: The Politics of Writing Reforms for Minority Languages, 1949-2002 (Walter de Gruyter 2003); ISBN 3-11-017896-6; p. 251–258. Languages within the influence of Chinese culture also have a very large number of loanwords from Chinese. Fifty percent or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin and the influence on Japanese and Vietnamese has been considerable. Chinese has also lent a great deal of many grammatical features to these and neighboring languages, notably the lack of gender and the use of classifiers. Japanese has also a lot of loanwords from Chinese, as does Vietnamese. Loan words from Chinese also exist in European languages such as English. Examples of such words are "tea" from the Minnan pronunciation of 茶 (POJ: tê), "ketchup" from the Cantonese pronunciation of 茄汁 (ke chap), and "kumquat" from the Cantonese pronunciation of 金橘 (kam kuat). PhonologyFor more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each spoken variety. The phonological structure of each syllable consists of a nucleus consisting of a vowel (which can be a monophthong, diphthong, or even a triphthong in certain varieties) with an optional onset or coda consonant as well as a tone. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants and can stand alone as their own syllable. Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to , , , , , , or . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Mandarin, are limited to only two, namely and . Consonant clusters do not generally occur in either the onset or coda. The onset may be an affricate or a consonant followed by a semivowel, but these are not generally considered consonant clusters. The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English DeFrancis (1984) p.42 counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) Monosyllabism in English; London, p.15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English. . All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the four main tones of Standard Mandarin applied to the syllable "ma." The tones correspond to these five characters: "mother" — high level "hemp" or "torpid" — high rising "horse" — low falling-rising "scold" — high falling "question particle" — neutral Phonetic transcriptions The Chinese had no uniform phonetic transcription system until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early rime books and dictionaries. Early Sanskrit and Pali Indian translators were the first to attempt describing the sounds and enunciation patterns of the language in a foreign language. After 15th century CE Jesuits and Western court missionaries’ efforts result in some rudimentary Latin transcription systems, based on the Nanjing Mandarin dialect. Romanization Romanization is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages due to the Chinese's own lack of phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western Christian missionaries in the 16th century. Today the most common romanization standard for Standard Mandarin is Hanyu Pinyin (漢語拼音/汉语拼音), often known simply as pinyin, introduced in 1956 by the People's Republic of China, later adopted by Singapore (see Chinese language romanisation in Singapore). Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across America, Australia and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones for words with which the child is unfamiliar. The Pinyin is usually shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, and alongside the Pinyin is the Chinese symbol. The second-most common romanization system, the Wade-Giles, was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859, later modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As it approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels (hence an Anglicization), it may be particularly helpful for beginner speakers of native English background. Wade-Giles is found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and until recently was widely used in Taiwan (Taipei city now officially uses Hanyu Pinyin and the rest of the island officially uses Tōngyòng Pinyin 通用拼音). When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade-Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade-Giles' extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng (pinyin), and with Taipei than T'ai²-pei³ (Wade-Giles). Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison: +Mandarin Romanization ComparisonCharacters Wade-Giles Hanyu Pinyin Notes中国/中國Chung1-kuo²Zhōngguó"China"北京Pei³-ching1BěijīngCapital of the People's Republic of China台北T'ai²-pei³TáiběiCapital of the Republic of China毛泽东/毛澤東Mao² Tse²-tung1Máo ZédōngFormer Communist Chinese leader蒋介石/蔣介石Chiang³ Chieh4-shih²Jiǎng JièshíFormer Nationalist Chinese leader (better known to English speakers as Chiang Kai-shek, with Cantonese pronunciation)孔子K'ung³ Tsu³Kǒng Zǐ"Confucius" Other systems of romanization for Chinese include Gwoyeu Romatzyh, the French EFEO, the Yale (invented during WWII for U.S. troops), as well as separate systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages or dialects. Other phonetic transcriptions Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The 'Phags-pa script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of pre-modern forms of Chinese. Zhuyin (注音, also known as bopomofo), a semi-syllabary is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools to aid standard pronunciation. Although bopomofo characters are reminiscent of katakana script, there is no source to substantiate the claim that Katakana was the basis for the zhuyin system. A comparison table of zhuyin to pinyin exists in the zhuyin article. Syllables based on pinyin and zhuyin can also be compared by looking at the following articles: Pinyin table Zhuyin table There are also at least two systems of cyrillization for Chinese. The most widespread is the Palladius system. Grammar and morphology Modern Chinese has often been erroneously classed as a "monosyllabic" language. While most of the morphemes are single syllable, modern Chinese today is much less a monosyllabic language in that nouns, adjectives and verbs are largely di-syllabic. The tendency to create disyllabic words in the modern Chinese languages, particularly in Mandarin, has been particularly pronounced when compared to Classical Chinese. Classical Chinese is a highly isolating language, with each idea (morpheme) generally corresponding to a single syllable and a single character; Modern Chinese though, has the tendency to form new words through disyllabic, trisyllabic and tetra-character agglutination. In fact, some linguists argue that classifying modern Chinese as an isolating language is misleading, for this reason alone. Chinese morphology is strictly bound to a set number of syllables with a fairly rigid construction which are the morphemes, the smallest blocks of the language. While many of these single-syllable morphemes ( zì, 字 in Chinese) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllabic compounds, known as cí (词/詞), which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí (“word”) can consist of more than one character-morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. For example: Yun 云 -“cloud” Hanbaobao 汉堡包 –“hamburger” Wo 我 –“I, me” Renmin 人民 –“people” Diqiu 地球 –“earth(globosity)” Shandian 闪电 –“lightning” Meng 梦 –“dream” All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages, in that they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure) rather than morphology — i.e., changes in form of a word — to indicate the word's function in a sentence. In other words, Chinese has few grammatical inflections – it possesses no tenses, no voices, no numbers (singular, plural; though there are plural markers, for example for personal pronouns), and only a few articles (i.e., equivalents to "the, a, an" in English). There is, however, a gender difference in the written language (他 as "he" and 她 as "she"). They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood. In Mandarin Chinese, this involves the use of particles like le 了, hai 还, yijing 已经, etc. Chinese features Subject Verb Object word order, and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic-comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words, another trait shared with neighbouring languages like Japanese and Korean. See Chinese classifiers for an extensive coverage of this subject. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction, pronoun dropping and the related subject dropping. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. See Chinese grammar for the grammar of Standard Mandarin (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars. Tones and homophones Official modern Mandarin has only 400 spoken monosyllables but over 10,000 written characters, so there are many homophones only distinguishable by the four tones. Even this is often not enough unless the context and exact phrase or cí is identified. The mono-syllable jī, first tone in standard Mandarin, corresponds to the following characters: 雞/鸡 chicken, 機/机 machine, 基 basic, 擊/击 (to) hit, 饑/饥 hunger, and 積/积 sum. In speech, the glyphing of a monosyllable to its meaning must be determined by context or by relation to other morphemes (e.g. "some" as in the opposite of "none"). Native speakers may state which words or phrases their names are found in, for convenience of writing: 名字叫嘉英，嘉陵江的嘉，英國的英 Míngzi jiào Jiāyīng, Jiālíng Jiāng de jiā, Yīngguó de yīng "My name is Jiāyīng, the Jia for Jialing River and the ying for the short form in Chinese of UK." Southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Hakka preserved more of the rimes of Middle Chinese and have more tones. The previous examples of jī, for instance, for "stimulated", "chicken", and "machine", have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using jyutping): gik1, gai1, and gei1, respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multi-syllabic words. Vocabulary The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 20,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are now commonly in use. However Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words, there are many times more Chinese words than there are characters as most Chinese words are made up of two or more different characters. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian, an all-inclusive compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including bone oracle versions. The Zhonghua Zihai 中华字海 (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions, and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volumed Hanyu Da Cidian 汉语大词典, records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters, and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai, a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific and technical terms. The latest 2007 5th edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian 现代汉语词典, an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 65,000 entries and defines 11,000 head characters. New words Like any other language, Chinese has absorbed a sizeable amount of loanwords from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Words borrowed from along the Silk Road since Old Chinese include 葡萄 "grape," 石榴 "pomegranate" and 狮子/獅子 "lion." Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including 佛 "Buddha" and 菩萨/菩薩 "bodhisattva." Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 胡同 "hutong." Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as 葡萄 "grape" (pútáo in Mandarin) generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from Sanskrit or Pāli, the liturgical languages of North India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the Gobi, Mongolian or northeast regions generally have Altaic etymologies, such as 琵琶 "pípa", the Chinese lute, or 酪 "cheese" or "yoghurt", but from exactly which Altaic source is not always entirely clear. Modern borrowings and loanwords Foreign words continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, "Israel" becomes 以色列 (pinyin: yǐsèliè), Paris 巴黎. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including 沙發 shāfā "sofa," 马达/馬達 mǎdá "motor," 幽默 yōumò "humor," 逻辑/邏輯 luójí "logic," 时髦/時髦 shímáo "smart, fashionable" and 歇斯底里 xiēsīdǐlǐ "hysterics." The bulk of these words were originally coined in the Shanghainese dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin may be quite off from the English. For example, 沙发/沙發 and 马达/馬達 in Shanghainese actually sound more like the English "sofa" and "motor." Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. Any Latin or Greek etymologies are dropped, making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word telephone was loaned phonetically as 德律风/德律風 ( Shanghainese: télífon [], Standard Mandarin: délǜfēng) during the 1920s and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese 电话/電話 (diànhuà "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent. Other examples include 电视/電視 (diànshì "electric vision") for television, 电脑/電腦 (diànnǎo "electric brain") for computer; 手机/手機 (shǒujī "hand machine") for cellphone, and 蓝牙/藍芽 (lányá "blue tooth") for Bluetooth. 網誌 (wǎng zhì"internet logbook") for blog in Cantonese or people in Hong Kong and Macau. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 汉堡包/漢堡包 (hànbǎo bāo, "Hamburg bun") for hamburger. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes, such as 拖拉机/拖拉機 (tuōlājī, "tractor," literally "dragging-pulling machine"), or 马利奥/馬利奧 for the video game character Mario. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔腾/奔騰 (bēnténg "running leaping") for Pentium and 赛百味/賽百味 (Sàibǎiwèi "better-than hundred tastes") for Subway restaurants. Since the 20th century, another source has been Japan. Using existing kanji, which are Chinese characters used in the Japanese language, the Japanese re-moulded European concepts and inventions into wasei-kango (和製漢語, literally Japanese-made Chinese), and re-loaned many of these into modern Chinese. Examples include diànhuà (电话/電話, denwa, "telephone"), shèhuì (社会, shakai, "society"), kēxué (科学/科學, kagaku, "science") and chōuxiàng (抽象, chūshō, "abstract"). Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, jīngjì (经济/經濟, keizai), which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state", was narrowed to "economy" in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this toing-and-froing process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese share a corpus linguistics of terms describing modern terminology, in parallel to a similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared among European languages. Taiwanese and Taiwanese Mandarin continue to be influenced by Japanese eg. 便当/便當 “lunchbox or boxed lunch” (from bento) and 料理 “prepared cuisine”, have passed into common currency. Western foreign words have had great influence on Chinese language since the 20th century, through transliterations. From French came 芭蕾 (bāléi, "ballet"), 香槟 (xiāngbīn, "champagne"), via Italian 咖啡 (kāfēi, "caffè"). The English influence is particularly pronounced. From early 20th century Shanghainese, many English words are borrowed .eg. the above-mentioned 沙發 (shāfā "sofa"), 幽默 (yōumò "humour"), and 高尔夫 (gāoěrfū, "golf"). Later United States soft influences gave rise to 迪斯科 (dísīkè, "disco"), 可乐 (kělè, "cola") and 迷你 (mínǐ, "mini(skirt)"). Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English like cartoon 卡通 (cartoon), 基佬 (gay people), 的士 (taxi), 巴士 (bus). With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, eg. 粉絲 (fěnsī, "fans"), 駭客 (hèikè, "hacker"), 部落格(bùluōgé,blog) in Taiwanese Mandarin. Learning Chinese Since the People's Republic of China’s economic and political rise in recent years, standard Mandarin has become an increasingly popular subject of study amongst the young in the Western world, as in the UK. BBC NEWS | UK | Magazine | How hard is it to learn Chinese? In 1991 there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test (comparable to English's Cambridge Certificate), while in 2005, the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660. See also Chinese characters Chinese exclamative particles Chinese honorifics Chinese classifier Chinese number gestures Chinese numerals Chinese punctuation Classical Chinese grammar Four-character idiom Han unification Haner language HSK test Languages of China North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics Nü shu References Footnotes External links Books Keys to the Chinese Language: Book II - Google Books A Practical Chinese Grammar - Google BooksDictionaries ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary. Editor: John de Francis. (2003) University of Hawai’i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2766-X. ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Axel Schuessler. 2007. University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu. ISBN 978-0-8248-2975-9. Arch Chinese free online Chinese character and Pinyin learning, Chinese<->English dictionary, writing worksheet generation, etc. CHINGLISH online Chinese <-> English Dictionary nciku free online Chinese dictionary with handwriting recognition, pinyin, sound clips, etc. MDBG free online Chinese-English dictionary Chinese Characters Dictionary: supports Japanese, Korean, Cantonese, Hakka etc. Chinese - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition CEDICT Chinese-English Dictionary Project Stardict free (GPL) multilanguage dictionary including simplified/traditional Chinese for Unix (Linux, FreeBSD, etc.) and win32 English-Chinese Translation Dictionary: Chinese-English-Chinese Online Dictionary (Taiwan-based; simplified characters not recognised) CantoDict: Cantonese-English Dictionary Project Chinese Pronunciation Dictionary Input Chinese words or sentences, get audio file of Mandarin pronunciation. Web-based tool. Pinyin Annotator Add pinyin on top'' of any Chinese text. Mouse over any word to see English translation. Save output to OpenOffice Writer format. Prints nicely. Also adds pinyin to any Chinese web page. Firefox users can install Add-ons for a pinyin annotator Multimedia Dictionary of Chinese Characters Language Tool, Offline Chinese Dictionary. Chinese Scholar Dictionary Chinese English dictionary with Pinyin index Learning A Cognitive Approach to Beginning Chinese: Interactions I and II. Margaret Mian Yan and Jennifer Li-chia Liu, Indiana University Chinese Language Information Page A collection of Chinese language learning resources. Learn Chinese - One At A Time China KeyBoard Google Engine Oneaday.org One Chinese idiom a day (simplified and traditional characters) with pinyin transliteration and English translation. ChinesePodLearn Chinese with mobile audio and video podcasts. Mandarin Tone Drill Testing your knowledge of Mandarin tones. Pinyin Practice Pinyin practice for Mandarin learners in all levels Free Chinese Lessons Free courses including Pinyin, Mandarin and audios. Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks: A large collection of Web resources by a professor of linguistics at Ohio State University 4 words of Chinese every day Why Chinese Is So Damn Hard Chinese Character of the Day Learn to Read Chinese one word at a time. Audio files with basic Chinese words General Introduction of Chinese Language Learn Chinese Characters Chinese Scholar: The Free Chinese Class Learn Chinese language and culture through interactive media Learn Chinese one to one Live Chinese Lessons to learn with qualified Chinese teachers** be-x-old:Кітайская мова | Chinese_language |@lemmatized chinese:247 sinitic:6 language:114 汉语:2 漢語:1 pinyin:28 hànyǔ:1 华语:1 華語:1 huáyǔ:1 中文:2 zhōngwén:1 family:10 consist:3 mutually:3 unintelligible:3 vary:3 degree:3 david:1 crystal:1 cambridge:4 encyclopedia:2 university:6 press:3 p:7 mutual:2 unintelligibility:1 variety:25 main:6 ground:1 refer:6 separate:7 charles:1 n:1 li:2 sandra:1 thompson:1 mandarin:57 functional:2 reference:4 grammar:8 genetically:1 classify:7 independent:2 branch:2 sino:9 tibetan:9 jerry:1 norman:1 modern:23 dialect:34 really:1 like:13 john:2 defrancis:2 fact:4 fantasy:1 call:7 single:10 compose:1 difference:4 mislead:1 minimize:1 disparity:1 accord:2 chao:1 great:4 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165 | C._L._Moore | Catherine Lucille Moore (January 24, 1911–April 4, 1987) was an American science fiction and fantasy writer, as C. L. Moore. She was one of the first women to write in the genre, and paved the way for many other female writers in speculative fiction. Biography She was born on January 24 1911 in Indianapolis, Indiana. She was chronically ill as a child and spent much of her time reading literature of the fantastic. She left college during The Great Depression to work as a secretary at the Fletcher Trust Company in Indianapolis. Her first stories appeared in pulp magazines in the 1930s, including two significant series in Weird Tales. One series concerns the rogue and adventurer, Northwest Smith, and his wanderings through the Solar System; the other is a short fantasy series about Jirel of Joiry (one of the first female protagonists in sword-and-sorcery fiction). The most famous of the Northwest Smith stories is "Shambleau", which marked Moore’s first professional sale. It appeared in the magazine in November 1933, with the sale netting her a hundred dollars. The first and most famous of the Jirel of Joiry stories is "Black God’s Kiss", which received the cover illustration (painted by Margaret Brundage) in the October 1934 Weird Tales. Her early stories were notable for their emphasis on the senses and emotions, which was highly unusual at the time. Moore's work also appeared in Astounding Science Fiction magazine throughout the 1940s. Several stories written for that magazine were later collected in her first published book, Judgment Night, published by Gnome Press in 1952. Included in that collection were “Judgment Night” (first published in August and September, 1943), the lush rendering of a future galactic empire with a sober meditation on the nature of power and its inevitable loss; “The Code” (July, 1945), an homage to the classic Faust with modern theories and Lovecraftian dread; “Promised Land” (February, 1950) and “Heir Apparent” (July, 1950) both documenting the grim twisting that mankind must undergo in order to spread into the solar system; and “Paradise Street” (September, 1950), a futuristic take on the Old West conflict between lone hunter and wilderness-taming settlers. Moore met Henry Kuttner, also a science fiction writer, in 1936 when he wrote her a fan letter (mistakenly thinking that "C. L. Moore" was a man), and they married in 1940. Afterwards, almost all of their stories were written in collaboration under various pseudonyms, most commonly “Lewis Padgett”. (Another pseudonym, one Moore often employed for works that involved little or no collaboration, was "Lawrence O’Donnell".) In this very prolific partnership they managed to combine Moore's style with Kuttner's more cerebral storytelling. Their stories include the classic "Mimsy were the Borogoves" (the basis for the film The Last Mimzy) and "Vintage Season". They also collaborated on a story that combined Moore’s signature characters, Northwest Smith and Jirel of Joiry: "Quest of the Starstone" (1937). After Kuttner's death in 1958, Moore wrote almost no fiction and taught his writing course at the University of Southern California. She did write for a few television shows under her married name, but upon marrying Thomas Reggie (who was not a writer) in 1963, she ceased writing entirely. C. L. Moore died on April 4 1987 at her home in Hollywood, California after a long battle with Alzheimer's disease. Partial bibliography Earth's Last Citadel (with Henry Kuttner; 1943) Vintage Season (with Henry Kuttner, as "Lawrence O'Donnell"; 1946) - filmed in 1992 as Timescape The Mask of Circe (with Henry Kuttner; 1948) Beyond Earth's Gates (1949) Judgment Night (stories, 1952) Shambleau and Others (stories, 1953) Northwest of Earth (stories, 1954) No Boundaries (with Henry Kuttner; stories, 1955) Doomsday Morning (1957) Jirel of Joiry (1969) The Best of C. L. Moore, edited by Lester Del Rey. Nelson Doubleday, 1975. Contains an autobiographical afterword by C. L. Moore, and a biographical introduction by Del Rey, which is carefully noncommittal about the influence of her personal life on her writing. Black God's Shadow (1977) Black God's Kiss. Paizo Publishing, LLC. 2007. ISBN 978-1601250452. The five Jirel of Joiry stories collected in one volume. Northwest of Earth: The Complete Northwest Smith. Paizo Publishing, LLC. 2008. ISBN 978-1601250810. Thirteen Northwest Smith stories collected in one volume. External links Profile at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame A brief biography of C.L. Moore Moore at Fantastic Fiction More biographical information, and discrepancies in records Moore at IMDb Review of Black God's Kiss Rosemarie Arbur: Literary Descendants of C.L. Moore Past Masters - A Kuttner Above the Rest (But Wait! There's Moore!) by Bud Webster, at Baen's Universe | C._L._Moore |@lemmatized catherine:1 lucille:1 moore:18 january:2 april:2 american:1 science:4 fiction:8 fantasy:2 writer:4 c:7 l:8 one:6 first:7 woman:1 write:8 genre:1 pave:1 way:1 many:1 female:2 speculative:1 biography:2 bear:1 indianapolis:2 indiana:1 chronically:1 ill:1 child:1 spent:1 much:1 time:2 reading:1 literature:1 fantastic:2 leave:1 college:1 great:1 depression:1 work:3 secretary:1 fletcher:1 trust:1 company:1 story:14 appear:3 pulp:1 magazine:4 include:3 two:1 significant:1 series:3 weird:2 tale:2 concern:1 rogue:1 adventurer:1 northwest:7 smith:5 wandering:1 solar:2 system:2 short:1 jirel:5 joiry:5 protagonist:1 sword:1 sorcery:1 famous:2 shambleau:2 mark:1 professional:1 sale:2 november:1 net:1 hundred:1 dollar:1 black:4 god:4 kiss:3 receive:1 cover:1 illustration:1 paint:1 margaret:1 brundage:1 october:1 early:1 notable:1 emphasis:1 sens:1 emotion:1 highly:1 unusual:1 also:3 astound:1 throughout:1 several:1 later:1 collect:3 publish:3 book:1 judgment:3 night:3 gnome:1 press:1 collection:1 august:1 september:2 lush:1 rendering:1 future:1 galactic:1 empire:1 sober:1 meditation:1 nature:1 power:1 inevitable:1 loss:1 code:1 july:2 homage:1 classic:2 faust:1 modern:1 theory:1 lovecraftian:1 dread:1 promise:1 land:1 february:1 heir:1 apparent:1 document:1 grim:1 twisting:1 mankind:1 must:1 undergo:1 order:1 spread:1 paradise:1 street:1 futuristic:1 take:1 old:1 west:1 conflict:1 lone:1 hunter:1 wilderness:1 taming:1 settler:1 meet:1 henry:5 kuttner:8 fan:1 letter:1 mistakenly:1 think:1 man:1 marry:2 afterwards:1 almost:2 collaboration:2 various:1 pseudonym:2 commonly:1 lewis:1 padgett:1 another:1 often:1 employ:1 involve:1 little:1 lawrence:2 donnell:2 prolific:1 partnership:1 manage:1 combine:2 style:1 cerebral:1 storytelling:1 mimsy:1 borogoves:1 basis:1 film:2 last:2 mimzy:1 vintage:2 season:2 collaborate:1 signature:1 character:1 quest:1 starstone:1 death:1 teach:1 course:1 university:1 southern:1 california:2 television:1 show:1 married:1 name:1 upon:1 thomas:1 reggie:1 cease:1 entirely:1 die:1 home:1 hollywood:1 long:1 battle:1 alzheimer:1 disease:1 partial:1 bibliography:1 earth:4 citadel:1 timescape:1 mask:1 circe:1 beyond:1 gate:1 others:1 boundary:1 doomsday:1 morning:1 best:1 edit:1 del:2 rey:2 nelson:1 doubleday:1 contain:1 autobiographical:1 afterword:1 biographical:2 introduction:1 carefully:1 noncommittal:1 influence:1 personal:1 life:1 writing:1 shadow:1 paizo:2 publishing:2 llc:2 isbn:2 five:1 volume:2 complete:1 thirteen:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 museum:1 hall:1 fame:1 brief:1 information:1 discrepancy:1 record:1 imdb:1 review:1 rosemarie:1 arbur:1 literary:1 descendant:1 past:1 master:1 rest:1 wait:1 bud:1 webster:1 baen:1 universe:1 |@bigram science_fiction:4 indianapolis_indiana:1 chronically_ill:1 pulp_magazine:1 weird_tale:2 sword_sorcery:1 astound_science:1 heir_apparent:1 henry_kuttner:5 mimsy_borogoves:1 alzheimer_disease:1 del_rey:2 publishing_llc:2 external_link:1 hall_fame:1 |
166 | Archery | Archery is the art, practice or skill of shooting with bow and arrow. Archery has historically been used in hunting and combat and has become a precision sport. A person practicing archery is called an archer or bowman, and one who is fond of or an expert at archery is sometimes called a toxophilite. Archery competition in Germany in the early 1980s A Rikbaktsa archer competes at Brazil's Indigenous Games History The bow seems to have been invented in the late Paleolithic or early Mesolithic periods. The oldest indication for its use in Europe comes from the Stellmoor in the Ahrensburg valley north of Hamburg, Germany and date from the late Paleolithic, about 10,000 - 9,000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a mainshaft and a 15-20 centimetre (6-8 inches) long foreshaft with a flint point. There are no definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by atlatls rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far come from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark. Bows eventually replaced the atlatl as the predominant means for launching shafted projectiles, on every continent except Australia. Bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian culture since its predynastic origins. In the Levant, artifacts which may be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, (ca. 12,800–10,300 BP (before present)) onwards. The Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads. Classical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Persians, Parthians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. Archery was highly developed in Asia and in the Islamic world. In East Asia the ancient Korean civilizations were well-known for their archery skills. Central Asian and American Plains tribesmen were extremely adept at archery on horseback. Decline, last uses, and survival of archery The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in England, Korea, China, Japan, Turkey, Armenia, America, Egypt, and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the relative neglect of archery. Early firearms were vastly inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very susceptible to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armour without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower by sheer weight of numbers, and highly-trained archers became almost obsolete on the battlefield. However, archers are still effective and have seen action even in the 21st century. Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas. Modern primitive archery In the United States, competition archery and bowhunting for many years used English-style longbows. The revival of modern primitive archery may be traced to Ishi, who came out of hiding in California in 1911. Ishi was the last of the Yahi Indian tribe. His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's archery skills, and passed them on. The Pope and Young Club, founded in 1961 and named in honor of Pope, is one of North America's leading bowhunting and conservation organizations. Founded as a nonprofit scientific organization, the Club is patterned after the prestigious Boone and Crockett Club. The Club advocates and encourages responsible bowhunting by promoting quality, fair chase hunting, and sound conservation practices. From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts. They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Additional reading). Mythology Archers are deities or heroes in several mythologies, including Greek Artemis and Apollo, Roman Diana and Cupid, Germanic Agilaz, continued in legends like those of William Tell, Palnetoke, or Robin Hood. Armenian Hayk and Babylonian Marduk, Indian Arjuna and Rama, and Persian Arash were all archers. Earlier Greek representations of Heracles normally depict him as an archer. In East Asia, Yi the archer features in several early Chinese myths, and the historical character of Zhou Tong features in many fictional forms. Jumong, the first Taewang of the Goguryeo kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is claimed by legend to have been a near-godlike archer. Equipment Types of bows While there is great variety in the construction details of bows (both historic and modern) all bows consist of a string attached to elastic limbs that store mechanical energy imparted by the user drawing the string. Bows may be broadly split into two categories: those drawn by pulling the string directly and those that use a mechanism to pull the string. Directly drawn bows may be further divided based upon differences in the method of limb construction, notable examples being self bows, laminated bows and composite bows. Bows can also be classified by the bow shape of the limbs when unstrung; in contrast to simple straight bows, a recurve bow has tips that curve away from the archer when the bow is unstrung. The cross-section of the limb also varies; the classic longbow is a tall bow with narrow limbs that are D-shaped in cross section, and the flatbow has flat wide limbs that are approximately rectangular in cross-section. A compound bow is a directly-drawn bow designed to reduce the force required at full draw to hold the string taut. Most compound designs use cams or elliptical wheels on the ends of the limbs. The cams on a compound bow are engineered in such a way that the archer can hold twice as much draw weight for an extended period of time. Although the archer starts the draw at full weight, there is a 65%-75% let-off at full draw. For example, a bow set at sixty pounds would allow the archer to draw for a short period but hold 65-75% less than that at full draw. The unique Penobscot bows or double-bows of Wabenaki region (New England and the Canadian Maritimes) are sometimes suggested to be an ancient compound bow. They involved a small bow attached to the back of a larger main bow. This combination results in both substantially increased draw weight for a relatively small main bow, useful for hunting the moose and caribou of the region, and the ability to adjust the draw weight by tensioning the small bow. Mechanically drawn bows typically have a stock or other mounting, such as the crossbow. They are not limited by the strength of a single archer, and larger varieties have been used as siege engines. Types of arrows and fletching A normal arrow consists of a shaft with an arrowhead attached to the front end, with fletchings and a nock at the other. Shafts are usually made of solid wood, fiberglass, aluminum alloy, carbon/alloy composite or carbon fiber. Wooden arrows are prone to warping. Fiberglass arrows are brittle, but are more easily produced to uniform specifications. Aluminum shafts were a very popular high-performance choice in the later half of the 20th century due to their straightness, lighter weight, and subsequently higher speed and flatter trajectories. Carbon fiber arrows became popular in the 1990s and are very light, flying even faster and flatter than aluminum arrows. Today carbon/alloy arrows are the most popular tournament arrows at Olympic Events, especially the Easton X10 and A/C/E. The arrowhead is the primary functional part of the arrow, and plays the largest role in determining its purpose. Some arrows may simply use a sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but it is far more common for separate arrowheads to be made, usually from metal, stone, or some other hard material. The most commonly used forms are target points, field points, and broadheads, although there are also other types, such as bodkin, judo, and blunt heads. Shield cut straight fletching - here the hen feathers are barred red Fletching is traditionally made from bird feathers, but also solid plastic vanes and thin sheetlike spin vanes are used. They are attached near the nock (rear) end of the arrow with thin double sided tape, glue, or, traditionally, sinew. Three fletches is the most common configuration in all cultures, though more may be used. When three-fletched the fletches are equally spaced around the shaft with one placed such that it is perpendicular to the bow when nocked on the string (though with modern equipment, variations are seen especially when using the modern spin vanes). This fletch is called the "index fletch" or "cock feather" (also known as "the odd vane out" or "the nocking vane") and the others are sometimes called the "hen feathers". Commonly, the cock feather is of a different color, traditionally the hens are solid and the cock is barred. However, if archers are using fletching made of feather or similar material they may use same color vanes, as different dyes can give varying stiffness to vanes, resulting in less precision. Also, like-colored fletching and nocks can assist in learning instinctive shooting (i.e. without sights), a technique often preferred by "traditional" archers (shooters of longbows and recurves). When four-fletched often two opposing fletches are cock-feathers and occasionally the fletches are not evenly spaced. The fletching may be either parabolic (short feathers in a smooth parabolic curve) or shield (generally shaped like one-half of a narrow shield) cut and is often attached at an angle, known as helical fletching, to introduce a stabilizing spin to the arrow while in flight. Whether helicial or straight fletched, when natural fletching (bird feathers) are used it is critical that all feathers come from the same side of the bird. Oversized fletchings can be used to accentuate drag and thus limit the range of the arrow significantly; these arrows are called flu-flus. Misplacement of fletchings can often change the arrow's flight path dramatically. Bow string Dacron and other modern materials offer high strength for their weight and are used on most modern bows. Linen and other traditional materials are still used on traditional bows. Almost any fiber can be made into a bow string. The author of "Arab Archery" suggests the hide of a young, emaciated camel. Njál's saga describes the refusal of a wife, Hallgerður, to cut her hair in order to make an emergency bowstring for her husband, Gunnar Hámundarson, who is then killed. Protective equipment Finger tab <Center>The traditional bonnet of the Kilwinning Archers of Scotland. Most archers wear a bracer (also known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm and prevent clothing from catching the bow string. The Navajo people have developed highly-ornamented bracers as non-functional items of adornment. Some archers also wear protection on their chests, called chestguards or plastrons. Roger Ascham mentions one archer, presumably with an unusual shooting style, who wore a leather guard for his face. The drawing fingers, or thumb in the case of archers using the thumb or Mongolian draw, are normally protected by a leather tab, glove, or thumb ring. A simple tab of leather is commonly used, as is a skeleton glove. Medieval Europeans probably used a complete leather glove. Eurasiatic archers using the Mongolian draw protected their thumbs, usually with leather according to the author of "Arab Archery", but also with special rings of various hard materials. Many surviving Turkish and Chinese examples are works of considerable art; some are so highly ornamented that they could not have been used to loose an arrow. Presumably these were items of personal adornment. In traditional Japanese archery a special glove is used, provided with a ridge which is used to draw the string. Release aids Archers using compound bows usually use a release aid to hold the string steadily and release it precisely. This attaches to the bowstring at the nocking point and permits the archer to release the string by pulling a trigger. The "trigger" may be an actual trigger lever which is depressed by a finger or thumb (or held then released) but it may also be some other mechanism. Hydraulic and mechanical time delay triggers have been used, as have "back tension" triggers which are operated by either a change in the position of the release or "true back tension"; that is to say the release triggers when a pre-determined draw weight is reached. A mechanical release aid permits a single point of contact on the string instead of three fingers. This allows less deformity in the string at full draw, as well as providing a more consistent release than can be achieved by human fingers. Shooting technique and form The bow is held in the hand opposite to the archer's dominant eye, though holding the bow in the dominant hand side is advocated by some. This hand is referred to as the bow hand and its arm the bow arm. The opposite hand is called the drawing hand or string hand. Terms such as bow shoulder or string elbow follow the same convention. Right-eye-dominant archers hold the bow with their left hand, have their left side facing the target, sight towards the target with their right eye and handle the arrow and string with their right hand. Modern international competitive form To shoot an arrow, an archer first assumes the correct stance. The body should be perpendicular to the target and the shooting line, with the feet placed shoulder-width apart. As an archer progresses from beginner to a more advanced level an 'open stance' is used/developed. Each archer will have a particular preference but mostly this term indicates that the leg furthest from the shooting line will be a half to a whole foot-length in front of the other, on the ground. To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground and the shaft of the arrow is placed on an arrow rest which is attached in the bow window. The back of the arrow is attached to the bowstring with the 'nock' (a small plastic component which is typified by a 'v' groove for this purpose). This is called nocking the arrow. As said above, typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane is pointing away from the bow. The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers. When using a sight, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below. The string is usually placed in either the first or second joint of the fingers. The bow is then raised and drawn. This is often one fluid motion which tends to vary from archer to archer. The string hand is drawn towards the face, where it should rest lightly at an anchor point. This point is consistent from shot to shot and is usually at the corner of the mouth or on the chin. The bow arm is held outwards toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated so that the inner elbow is parallel to the ground though Archers with hyper extendable elbows tend to angle the inner elbow toward the ground as exemplified by the Korean archer Jang Yong Ho. In proper form, the archer stands erect, forming a 'T'. The archer's lower trapezius muscles are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Some bows will be equipped with a mechanical device, called a clicker, which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length. The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand (see Bow draw). Usually this type of release aims to keep the drawing arm rigid and move it back using the back muscles, as opposed to using arm motion. An archer should also pay attention to the recoil or follow through of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with form (technique). Aiming methods There are two main forms of aiming in archery: using the sight picture or not. The sight picture includes the target and the bow, as seen at the same time by the archer. With a fixed "anchor point" (where the string is brought to, or close to, the face), and a fully extended bow arm, successive shots taken with the sight picture in the same position will fall on the same point. This allows the archer to adjust aim with successive shots in order to achieve a good standard of accuracy. It cannot be used with short bows, which by definition do not allow a full draw. Modern archery equipment usually includes sights which mark the predicted impact point. Sight picture aiming is universally used with modern equipment and also by many archers who use traditional bows. It allows good accuracy to be achieved after a moderate amount of practice. When using shortbows, or shooting from horseback, it is difficult to use the sight picture. The archer may look at the target but without including the weapon in the field of accurate view. Aiming involves the same sort of coordination between vision and motion that is used when throwing. With sufficient practice, such archers can normally achieve good practical accuracy for hunting or for war. Aiming without a sight picture may allow more rapid shooting. Instinctive shooting is a term often used, but there is no agreed definition. Some use it to mean shooting with a sight picture but without giving it conscious attention. Others use it to mean shooting without a sight picture. Physics Bows function by converting elastic potential energy stored in the limbs into kinetic energy of the arrow. In this process, some energy is dissipated through elastic hysteresis, reducing the overall amount released when the bow is shot. Of the energy remaining, some is damped both by the limbs of bow and the bowstring. Depending on the elasticity of the arrows, some of the energy is also absorbed by compressing the arrow, causing it to "bow out" to one side. This results in an in-flight oscillation of the arrow in which its center protrudes out to one side and then the other repeatedly. The straight flight of an arrow is dependent on its fletching. The arrow's manufacturer can arrange fletching to cause the arrow to rotate along its axis if desired. This improves accuracy by evening pressure buildups that would otherwise cause the arrow to slowly tilt in a random direction after shooting. If the fletching is not arranged to induce rotation, it will still improve accuracy by causing a restoring torque any time the arrow tilts away from its vector of travel. Arrows themselves may be designed to spread or concentrate force, depending on their applications. Practice arrows, for instance, use a blunt tip that spreads the force over a wider area to reduce the risk of injury. Arrows designed to pierce armor in the Middle Ages would use a very narrow and sharp tip to concentrate the force. Arrows used for hunting would use a narrow tip that broadens further down the shaft to facilitate both penetration and a large wound. The speed of the arrow depends on the shape of its shaft and tip. The tip must be somewhat pointed and the shaft straight Hunting Using archery to take game animals is known as bowhunting. Bowhunting differs markedly from hunting with firearms as the distances between the hunter and the game are much shorter in order to ensure a humane kill. The skills and practices of bowhunting therefore emphasize very close approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or waiting in a blind or treestand. In many countries, including much of the United States, bowhunting for large and small game is legal. Bowhunters generally enjoy longer seasons than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting and may feature fiber optic sights and other enhancements. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as bowfishing. Modern competitive archery Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of archery worldwide and is called target archery. A form particularly popular in Europe and America is field archery, shot at targets generally set at various distances in a wooded setting. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms, as well as archery novelty games. Note the tournament rules vary from organization to organization. FITA rules are often considered normative, but large non-FITA-affiliated archery organizations do exist with different rules. Target archery Outdoor target competition. Modern competitive target archery is often governed by the International Archery Federation, abbreviated FITA (Fédération Internationale de Tir à l'Arc). Olympic rules are derived from FITA rules. Target archery competitions may be held indoors or outdoors. Indoor distances are and . Outdoor distances range from to . Competition is divided into ends of 3 or 6 arrows. After each end, the competitors walk to the target to score and retrieve their arrows. Archers have a set time limit in which to shoot their arrows. Targets are marked with 10 evenly spaced concentric rings, which have score values from 1 through 10 assigned to them. In addition, there is an inner 10 ring, sometimes called the X ring. This becomes the 10 ring at indoor compound competitions. Outdoors, it serves as a tiebreaker with the archer scoring the most X's winning. Archers score each end by summing the scores for their arrows. Line breakers, an arrow just touching a scoring boundary line, will be awarded the higher score. Different rounds and distances use different size target faces. These range from ( FITA Indoor) to ( and FITA, used in Olympic competition). Field archery A field archer shooting freestyle recurve at 60 meters. Field archery involves shooting at targets of varying (and sometimes unmarked) distance, often in rough terrain. Three common types of rounds (in the NFAA) are the field, hunter, and animal. A round consists of 28 targets in two units of 14. Field rounds are at 'even' distances up to 80 yards (some of the shortest are measured in feet instead), using targets with a black bullseye (5 points), a white center (4) ring, and black outer (3) ring. Hunter rounds use 'uneven' distances up to , and although scoring is identical to a field round, the target has an all-black face with a white bullseye. Children and youth positions for these two rounds are closer, no more than 30 and , respectively. Animal rounds use life-size 2D animal targets with 'uneven' distances reminiscent of the hunter round. The rules and scoring are also significantly different. The archer begins at the first station of the target and shoots his first arrow. If it hits, he does not have to shoot again. If it misses, he advances to station two and shoots a second arrow, then to station three for a third if needed. Scoring areas are vital (20, 16, or 12) and nonvital (18, 14, or 10) with points awarded depending on which arrow scored first. Again, children and youth shoot from reduced range. One goal of field archery is to improve the technique required for bowhunting in a more realistic outdoor setting, but without introducing the complication and guesswork of unknown distances. As with golf, fatigue can be an issue as the athlete walks the distance between targets across sometimes rough terrain. A home-made Archery target IFAA Field and International rounds are used in European Professional Archery competition. Other modern competitions The following are listed on the FITA website. These competitions are not as popular as the two listed above, but they are competed internationally. 3D archery 3D archery is a subset of field archery focusing on shooting at life-size models of game and is popular with hunters. It is most common to see unmarked distances in 3D archery, as the goal is to accurately recreate a hunting environment for competition. On these animals there are 4 rings, only 3 of these are used in ASA shoots. The one that isn't used very often is the 14 ring. This can only be scored if you call it before you shoot, and even then it may not be allowed. Next is the 12 ring inside of the 10 ring, inside of the 8 ring. Anything on the target that is outside of the 8, 10, 12, or 14 rings is a 5. If you miss the target, you score a zero. Though the goal is hunting practice, hunting tips (broadheads) are not used, as they would tear up the foam targets too much. Normal target or field tips, of the same weight as the intended broadhead, are used instead. Clout archery (G.N.A.S. rules in the United Kingdom) Archers shooting clout. Similar to target archery, except that the archer attempts to drop arrows at long range (180 yards / for the men and 140 yards / for women; there are shorter distances for juniors depending on age) into a group of concentric circular scoring zones on the ground surrounding a marker flag. The flag is 12 inches () square and is fixed to a stick. The flag should be as near to the ground as is practicable. Archers shoot 'ends' of six arrows then, when given the signal to do so, archers proceed to the target area. A Clout round usually consists of 36 arrows. Clout tournaments are usually a 'Double Clout' round (36 arrows shot twice). They can be shot in one direction (one way) or both directions (two way). All bow types may compete (longbows, recurve, barebow and compound). Scoring. A 'rope' with a loop on the end is placed over the flag stick. This rope is divided into the scoring zones of the target: Gold (5 points), Red (4 points), Blue (3 points), Black (2 points) and White (1 point). The rope is 'walked' around the target area and arrows falling within a particular scoring zone are withdrawn and, on completion of the full circle, are laid out on the rope on the corresponding colours. The designated scorer would then call out the archers' names and the archers would (in turn) call out their scores as they pick up their arrows. The scores must be called in descending order as with target archery. Crossbow archery (IAU rules internationally) IAU ‘Field’ crossbow archery The International Crossbow-shooting Union (Internationale Armbrustschutzen Union – IAU) was founded in Landshut, Germany on June 24, 1956 as the world governing body for crossbow target shooting. The IAU supervises World, Continental and International crossbow shooting championships in 3 disciplines; 30m Match-crossbow, 10m Match-crossbow and Field-crossbow archery. IAU World Championships take place every two years with Continental Championships on intervening years. Other International and IAU-Cup events take place annually. Field-crossbow archery was first adopted by the IAU during their General Assembly at Frütigen, Switzerland in 1977. Since then the sport has become the most poplar, in terms of worldwide activity, of the IAU's three target crossbow disciplines. A feature of this sport is that many crossbow archers make their own equipment. By following the detailed guidelines issued by the IAU’s Technical Committee it is possible to construct a field-crossbow from locally available archery materials and target shooting accessories. The IAU's Field regulations call for the wearing of light-weight sports clothing - thereby eliminating the need for specialized (and costly) shooting clothing. Shooting takes place on open sports fields or in sports halls using portable archery target buttresses, once again avoiding the need for the expense of permanent shooting ranges (subject to IAU and local safety regulations being met). Crossbow archers shoot from the standing position and they must draw the bow string by hand without mechanical assistance. At outdoor competitions Bolts (arrows) are shot in "ends" (series) of three (3) at multi-coloured 10-zone archery target faces. A time limit of three (3) minutes is allowed per three shots. After a sound signal from the official in charge of shooting, all competitors walk forward together to score and collect their bolts from the targets. This sequence is repeated until the completion of the competition 'Round'. An IAU Field-crossbow Championship (Outdoor) is a three day event. The competition round is known as the ‘IR-900’ and shooting takes place from three distances 65, 50 and 35 meters using 60 cm archery target faces (40cm three-spot face at 35m). On Days 1 and 2 all competitors shoot a single 'IR-900' Round. The scores from Day 1 will decide the Team championships. For the Individual events, the top eight (8) competitors after two (2) IR-900 Rounds (scores from Days 1 and 2 combined) will qualify for the 50m Finals (10 shots on command) on Day 3. The winners of the Gold, Silver and Bronze Medals are the three competitors with the highest combined scores (two IR-900 Rounds plus the 10 shot Final). If scores are tied after 10 Final shots the competitors concerned continue shot-by-shot until a winner is declared A typical Field-crossbowEquipment - Field-crossbows are designed to specifications laid-down by the International Crossbow-shooting Union (IAU). These rules limit the power, weight and physical dimensions of equipment for use in archery-style competition. Other restrictions include the use of mechanical triggers and open sights only. The bowstring has to be drawn by hand without the use of mechanical assistance. The materials used in construction include laminated hardwoods, aluminium alloy and composites. The prod, or bow, is usually made from laminated carbon-fibre or glass-fibre which is fitted with a bowstring made from synthetic fibres. The maximum permitted draw weight is 43 kilos at a maximum power stroke of 30 cm. Shooting a 20 gram bolt this set-up will generate an initial velocity of around 67 meters-per-second. Field-crossbow bolts are made from tubular aluminium or carbon-fibre archery shaft materials. The majority of the crossbows used in this sport are custom-made in small quantities, often by the archers themselves. IAU Championships Timeline - 1958 1st European Match-crossbow Championships Gent Belgium, 1979 1st World Match-crossbow Championships Linz Austria, 1982 1st World Field-crossbow Championships Mikkeli Finland, 1989 1st European Field-crossbow Championships Wolverhampton England, 1992 1st Asian Field-crossbow Championships Tainan Taiwan ROC. Flight archery Shooting a specialised compound flight bow. In flight archery the aim is to shoot the greatest distance; accuracy or penetrating power are not relevant. It requires a large flat area such as an aerodrome; the Ottoman empire established an "arrow field" (Ok-Meidan) in Istanbul and there were others in several major cities. Turkish flight archery astonished early modern Europeans, whose wooden longbows and heavy arrows had much shorter maximum ranges. Modern rules have flight archers shooting in various classes and weights. Generally they shoot six arrows at each "end" and then search for all of them. Only four ends are usual in one shoot (as per UK rules - in the US only one end is permitted). At the end of the shoot, archers stay by or mark their furthest arrows while judges and their assistants measure the distances achieved. Flight archery relies on the finest in performance equipment, optimized for the single purpose of greater range, and the search for better flight archery equipment has led to many developments in archery equipment in general, such as the development of carbon arrows. Ski archery An event very similar to the sport of biathlon except a recurve bow is used in place of a gun. The athletes ski around a cross-country track and there are two stances in which the athlete must shoot the targets: kneeling and standing. During competition the skis must not be removed at any time. The athlete may unfasten the ski when shooting in the kneeling position but must keep the foot in contact with the ski. The shooting distance is 18 meters and the targets in diameter. In certain events, for every missed target, the athlete must ski one penalty loop. The loop is 150 meters long. Traditional competitions The following are not listed on the FITA website but are competitions that have a long tradition in their respective countries. Beursault A traditional northern French and Belgian archery contest. Archers teams shoot alternately at two targets facing each other, 50 meters away. A perpendicular array of wooden walls secures a path parallel to the shooting range. After each round, the archers take their own arrow and shoot directly in the opposite direction (thus having opposite windage). One always shoots the same arrow, supposedly the best built, as it was difficult in medieval times to have constant arrow quality. The round black-and-white target mimics the size of a soldier: its diameter is shoulder-wide, the center is heart-sized. Popinjay (or Papingo) <center>Two papingos in the Kilwinning Abbey tower museum, Scotland. A form of archery originally derived from shooting birds on church steeples. Popinjay is popular in Belgium, and in Belgian Clubs internationally but little known elsewhere. Traditionally, archers stand within () of the bottom of a () mast and shoot almost vertically upwards with 'blunts' (arrows with rubber caps on the front instead of a pile), the object being to dislodge any one of a number of wooden 'birds'. These birds must be one Cock, four Hens, and a minimum of twenty-four Chicks. A Cock scores 5 points when hit and knocked off its perch; a Hen, 3; and a Chick, 1 point. A horizontal variation with Flemish origins also exists and is also practiced in Canada and the United States A Papingo is also hosted during the summer in Scotland by the Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers. The archers shoot at a wooden bird suspended from the steeple of Kilwinning Abbey. Here only one bird is the target, and the archers take it in turn to shoot with a longbow until the "bird" is shot down. Roving marks Roving marks is the oldest form of competitive archery, as practiced by Henry VIII. The archers will shoot to a "mark" then shoot from that mark to another mark. A mark is a post or flag to be aimed at. As with clout a rope or ribbon is used to score the arrows. In the Finsbury Mark the scoring system is 20 for hitting the mark, 12 for within ~3ft, 7 points for within the next ~6ft and 3 points for within the next ~9ft. "Hoyles" are marks that are chosen at the time from the variety of debris, conspicuous weeds, and so on found in most outdoor areas. As the distances have to be estimated this is good practice for bowhunting, and it requires minimal equipment. Wand shoot A Traditional English archery contest. Archers take turns shooting at a vertical strip of wood, the wand, usually about six feet high and three to six inches (152 mm) wide. Points are awarded for hitting the strip. As the target is a long vertical strip this competition allows for more errors in elevation, however since no points are awarded for near misses the archers windage accuracy becomes more important. The wand shoot is, in some respects, similar to the traditional Cherokee game of cornstalk shooting. Other competitions Archers often enjoy adding variety to their sport by shooting under unusual conditions or by imposing other special restrictions or rules on the event. These competitions are often less formalized and are more or less considered as games. Some forms include the broadhead round, bionic and running bucks, darts, archery golf, night shooting, and turkey tester. Historical reenactment Four reenactors practice Tudor-style 'Skirmish' archery Archery is popularly used in historical reenactment events. This sort of event usually combines education of the audience of aspects of archery (such as the bow, arrows, and practice drill), combined with a demonstration or competition of archery in the style most favored by the period on display, generally in period costume. Archery education A relatively new program has developed in U.S. schools called the National Archery in Schools Program (NASP). In this students use Genesis bows (a compound-style bow without a let-off). This is similar to a physical education programmes, and students who want to can also go to state and national shoots to compete against other schools. Though started in the United States, it has begun to spread to other countries. Many sportsman's clubs and similar establishments throughout the US and other countries offer archery education programs for those under 18. These programs are commonly referred to as Junior Olympic Archery Development Programs, or simply JOAD. There are over 250 JOAD Clubs recognized by the National Archery Association. Archery with humans as targets, or very near the target Demonstrations of archery skill are sometimes featured as entertainment in circuses or wild west shows. Sometimes these acts feature a performer acting as a human "target" (strictly speaking they are not the target as the objective of the archer is to narrowly miss them, however they are frequently referred to as human targets). Archery in this context is sometimes known as one of the "impalement arts", a category which also includes knife throwing and sharpshooting demonstrations. Apache boys were trained to protect themselves by giving them a shield and having several warriors shoot at them with blunt arrows, which can still do severe damage. In some recreational groups, a form of archery known as combat archery is practiced, where several archers divided into "lights" and "heavies", namely those wearing armour or not, shoot at each other with rubber tipped arrows from low-powered longbows, with a maximum draw-weight of . The rules of combat archery dictate that no archer may shoot at a light, however all may shoot at a heavy. Combat archery can be very popular, as it involves shooting at moving targets, and can be used to re-create battles. It is important to note the strict separation between archery practised as a competitive sport and archery as an impalement art. For example, organising bodies for competitive archery prohibit activity that involves deliberate shooting in the general direction of a human being. For example, impalement arts contravene rules 101(b) and 102(a) of the UK Grand National Archery Society (GNAS) Rules of Shooting (see ) and represent "substantial" or "intolerable" risk under GNAS Archery range health and safety policy (see ) The separation between the worlds of competition archery and the impalement arts is more marked than that between, for example, knife throwing as a sport and as an entertainment. While some competition knife throwers have also performed circus acts and there are official organisations that embrace both worlds, there is little or no evidence of such crossover in archery, with perhaps the sole exception of reenactment groups (e.g. Society for Creative Anachronism), where archers can both compete in a tournament (target archery) and participate in combat archery, shooting with light bows and special safety arrows at well armoured warriors (often knights). However archery involving a person in the vicinity of the target is a particularly dangerous practice and, even with very experienced performers, there have been cases of very serious injury. Another situation where archery features as an entertainment is in its portrayal in movies. Howard Hill used his extraordinary accuracy for the archery in the movie The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938) starring Errol Flynn. He used a heavy hunting bow to hit small reinforced target areas on the chests of actors in motion. Hill also performed stunts such as shooting an apple held by a volunteer and shooting a stone as it was thrown in the air. Some of his stunts can be seen in the short film Cavalcade of Archery (1946). See also Bow draw Bowhunting Sagittarii Archery at the Summer Olympics FITA Archery World Cup 2009 World Indoor Archery Championships List of archery terms List of notable archers List of notable archery civilizations Gungdo practicing Kuk Gung, or ancient Korean Archery Kyūdō, the Japanese art of archery Horse archer Grand National Archery Society FITA The Glade Magazine References Additional reading The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 1. The Lyons Press, 1992. ISBN 1-58574-085-3 The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 2. The Lyons Press, 1992. ISBN 1-58574-086-1 The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 3. The Lyons Press, 1994. ISBN 1-58574-087-X The Traditional Bowyers Bible Volume 4. The Lyons Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-9645741-6-8 Hunting with the Bow and Arrow Saxton Pope. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1925. Yahi Archery. Saxton Pope. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1918. The Witchery of Archery: A Complete Manual of Archery. Maurice Thompson. Scribner & Sons, New York, 1878. The Theory and Practice of Archery. Horace Ford. Longmans, Green, London. 1887. A Chapter In The Evolution Of Archery In America. Paul Klopsteg. Smithsonian Institution, 1963. American Archery; a Vade Mecum of the Art of Shooting with the Long Bow. Elmer, Robert P. (Robert Potter). National Archery Association of the United States, Columbus, Ohio, 1917. Additional notes on arrow release. Edward Morse. Peabody Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, 1922. The Book of Archery : Being the Complete History and Practice of the Art, Ancient and Modern.... Hansard, George Agar. H.G. Bohn, London, 1841. Anecdotes of archery; from the earliest ages to the year 1791. Including an account of the most famous archers of ancient and modern times; with some curious particulars in the life of Robert Fitz-Ooth Earl of Huntington, vulgarly called Robin Hood... Hargrove, Ely. 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167 | NBC | The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is an American television network headquartered in the GE Building in New York City's Rockefeller Center. It is sometimes referred to as the Peacock Network due to its stylized peacock logo, created exclusively for color broadcasts. Formed in 1926 by the Radio Corporation of America (RCA), NBC was the first major broadcast network in the United States. In 1986, control of NBC passed to General Electric (GE), with GE's $6.4 billion purchase of RCA. After the acquisition, the chief executive of NBC was Bob Wright, until he retired, giving his job to Jeff Zucker. The network is currently part of the media company NBC Universal, a unit of General Electric (80%) and Vivendi (20%). NBC is available in an estimated 112 million households, or 98.6% of the country. NBC has 10 owned-and-operated stations and nearly 200 affiliates in the United States and its territories. History NBC Headquarters in New York City Radio Earliest stations: WEAF & WJZ During a period of early broadcast business consolidation, the radio-making Radio Corporation of America (RCA) had acquired New York radio station WEAF from American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T). An RCA shareholder, Westinghouse, had a competing facility in Newark, New Jersey pioneer station WJZ (no relation to the current WJZ-TV), which also served as the flagship for a loosely-structured network. This station was transferred from Westinghouse to RCA in 1923, and moved to New York. WEAF acted as a laboratory for AT&T's manufacturing and supply outlet Western Electric, whose products included transmitters and antennas. The Bell System, AT&T's telephone utility, was developing technologies to transmit voice- and music-grade audio over short and long distances, using both wireless and wired methods. The 1922 creation of WEAF offered a research-and-development center for those activities. WEAF had a regular schedule of radio programs, including some of the first commercially sponsored programs, and was an immediate success. In an early example of chain or networking broadcasting, the station linked with the Outlet Company's WJAR in Providence, Rhode Island; and with AT&T's station in Washington, D.C., WCAP. New parent RCA saw an advantage in sharing programming, and after getting a license for station WRC in Washington, D.C., in 1923, attempted to transmit audio between cities via low-quality telegraph lines. AT&T refused outside companies access to its high-quality phone lines. The early effort fared poorly, since the uninsulated telegraph lines were susceptible to atmospheric and other electrical interference. In 1925, AT&T decided WEAF and its embryonic network were incompatible with AT&T's primary goal of providing a telephone service. AT&T offered to sell the station to RCA in a deal that included the right to lease AT&T's phone lines for network transmission. Red & Blue Networks RCA spent $1 million to buy WEAF and Washington sister station WCAP, shut down the latter station, and announced in late 1926 the creation of a new division known as The National Broadcasting Company. The new division was divided in ownership between RCA (fifty percent), General Electric (thirty percent), and Westinghouse (twenty percent). NBC launched officially on November 15, 1926. WEAF and WJZ, the flagships of the two earlier networks, operated side-by-side for about a year as part of the new NBC. On January 1, 1927 NBC formally divided their respective marketing strategies: the Red Network offered commercially sponsored entertainment and music programming; the Blue Network carried sustaining or non-sponsored broadcasts, especially news and cultural programs. Various histories of NBC suggest the color designations for the two networks came from the color of the push pins NBC engineers used to designate affiliates of WEAF (red) and WJZ (blue), or from the use of double-ended red and blue colored pencils. A similar two-part/two-color strategy appeared in the recording industry, dividing the market between classical and popular offerings. On April 5, 1927, NBC reached the West Coast with the launch of the NBC Orange Network, also known as The Pacific Coast Network. This was followed by the debut on October 18, 1931, of the NBC Gold Network, also known as The Pacific Gold Network. The Orange Network carried Red Network programming and the Gold Network carried programming from the Blue Network. Initially the Orange Network recreated Eastern Red Network programming for West Coast stations at KPO in San Francisco, California. In 1936 the Orange Network name was dropped and affiliate stations became part of the Red Network. At the same time the Gold Network became part of the Blue Network. NBC also developed a network for shortwave radio stations in the 1930s called the NBC White Network. GE Building entrance RCA moved its corporate headquarters into the new Rockefeller Center in 1933, signing the leases in 1931. RCA was the lead tenant at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the RCA Building (now the GE Building). The building housed NBC studios, as well as theaters for RCA-owned RKO Pictures. Rockefeller Center's founder and financier John D. Rockefeller, Jr., arranged the deal with the chairman of GE, Owen D. Young, and the president of RCA, David Sarnoff. RCA Lead Tenant of Rockefeller Center, see: The chimes The famous three-note NBC chimes came about after several years of development. The three note sequence G-E-C were heard first over Atlanta's WSB. See the article on WSB, the origination station for a 1930 broadcast of Charles Davis Tillman which spread the appeal of southern gospel to NBC listeners network wide. The chimes outline what is known to musicians as a second inversion C Major triad. Someone at NBC in New York heard the WSB version of the notes during the networked broadcast of a Georgia Tech football game and asked permission to use it on the national network. NBC started to use the three notes in 1931, and it was the first audio trademark to be accepted by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. A variant sequence was also used that went G-E-C-G, known as "the fourth chime" and used during wartime (especially in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor), on D-Day, and disasters. The NBC chimes were mechanized in 1932 by Richard H. Ranger of the Rangertone company; their purpose was to send a low level signal of constant amplitude that would be heard by the various switching stations manned by NBC and AT&T engineers, and thus used as a system cue for switching different stations between the Red and Blue network feeds. Contrary to popular legend, the three musical notes, G-E-C, did not originally stand for NBC's current parent corporation, the General Electric Company; although GE's radio station in Schenectady, New York, WGY, was an early NBC affiliate, and GE was an early shareholder in NBC's founding parent RCA. General Electric did not own NBC outright until 1986. G-E-C is still used on NBC-TV. A variant with two preceding notes is used on the MSNBC cable television network. NBC's radio branch no longer exists. New beginnings: The Blue Network becomes ABC The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had, since its creation in 1934, studied the monopolistic effects of network broadcasting. The FCC found that NBC's two networks and its owned-and-operated stations dominated audiences, affiliates and advertising in American radio. In 1939 the FCC ordered RCA to divest itself of one of the two networks. RCA fought the divestiture order, but in 1940 divided NBC into two companies in case an appeal was lost. The Blue Network became NBC Blue Network, Inc. (now Citadel Media), and NBC Red became NBC Red Network, Inc. In January 1942, the two networks formally divorced operations, and the Blue Network was referred to on the air as either Blue or Blue Network, with official corporate name Blue Network Company, Inc. NBC Red, on the air, became known simply as NBC. After losing its final appeal before the U.S. Supreme Court in May 1943, RCA sold Blue Network Company, Inc., for $8 million to Life Savers magnate Edward J. Noble, completing the sale in October 1943. Noble got the network name, leases on land-lines and the New York studios; two-and-a half stations (WJZ in Newark/New York; KGO in San Francisco, and WENR in Chicago, which shared a frequency with Prairie Farmer station WLS); and about 60 affiliates. Noble wanted a better name for the network and in 1944 acquired the rights to the name American Broadcasting Company from George Storer. The Blue Network became ABC officially on June 15, 1945, after the sale was completed. NBC Tower in Chicago Defining radio’s golden age The Front Entrance of The NBC Tower at 454 N. Columbus Drive, Chicago, IL. In the golden days of network broadcasting, 1930 to 1950, NBC was at the pinnacle of American radio. NBC broadcast radio's earliest mass hit, Amos 'n' Andy, beginning in 1926–27 in its original fifteen-minute serial format. The show set a standard for nearly all serialized programming in the original radio era, both comedies and soap operas. The appeal of the two struggling title characters landed a broad audience, especially during the Great Depression. NBC became home to many of the most popular performers and programs on the air. Al Jolson, Jack Benny, Edgar Bergen, Bob Hope, Fred Allen, and Burns and Allen called NBC home, as did Arturo Toscanini's NBC Symphony Orchestra, which the network helped him create. Other programs were Vic and Sade, Fibber McGee and Molly, The Great Gildersleeve (arguably broadcasting's first spin-off program, from Fibber McGee), One Man's Family, Ma Perkins, and Death Valley Days. NBC stations were often the most powerful, and some occupied unique clear-channel national frequencies, reaching many hundreds or thousands of miles at night. In the late 1940s, rival Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) gained ground by allowing radio stars to use their own production companies, which was a tax break. In early radio years, stars and programs commonly hopped between networks when their short-term contracts expired. In 1948–49, beginning with the nation's top radio star, Jack Benny, many NBC performers jumped to CBS. In addition, NBC stars began moving toward television, including comedian Milton Berle, whose Texaco Star Theater on NBC became television's first major hit. Conductor Arturo Toscanini made ten television appearances on NBC between 1948 and 1952. Aiming to keep classic radio alive as television matured, and to challenge CBS's Sunday night radio lineup, much of which had jumped from NBC with Jack Benny, NBC launched The Big Show in November 1950. This 90-minute variety show updated radio's earliest musical variety style with sophisticated comedy and dramatic presentations. Featuring stage legend Tallulah Bankhead as hostess, it lured prestigious entertainers, including Fred Allen, Groucho Marx, Lauritz Melchior, Ethel Barrymore, Louis Armstrong, Ethel Merman, Bob Hope, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., and Ella Fitzgerald. But The Big Shows initial success didn't last despite critical praise. The show endured two years, with NBC losing perhaps a million dollars on the project. NBC's last major radio programming push, beginning June 12, 1955, was Monitor, a continuous all-weekend mixture of music, news, interviews and features, with a variety of hosts including well-known television personalities Dave Garroway, Hugh Downs, Ed McMahon, Joe Garagiola and Gene Rayburn. The potpourri show tried to keep vintage radio alive by featuring segments from Jim and Marian Jordan (in character as Fibber McGee and Molly); Peg Lynch's dialog comedy Ethel and Albert (with Alan Bunce); and iconoclastic satirist Henry Morgan. Monitor was a success for a number of years, but after the mid-1960s, local stations, especially in larger markets, were reluctant to break from their established formats to run non-conforming network programming. After Monitor went off the air January 26, 1975, little remained of NBC network radio beyond hourly newscasts and news features. The last years of NBC Radio Beginning on June 18, 1975, NBC launched the NBC News and Information Service (NIS), which provided up to 55 minutes of news per hour around the clock to local stations that wanted to adopt an all-news format. NIS attracted several dozen subscribing stations, largely in smaller markets, but not enough for NBC to expect profitability, and NBC discontinued it May 29, 1977. In 1979, NBC started The Source, a modestly successful secondary network providing news and short features to FM rock stations. The NBC Radio Network also pioneered personal advice call-in national talk radio with a satellite-distributed talk show in the evening entitled TalkNet, featuring Bruce Williams (personal financial advice) and Sally Jesse Raphael (personal / romantic advice). While never much of a ratings success, TalkNet nonetheless helped further the national talk radio format. For affiliates, many of them struggling AM stations, TalkNet helped fill the evenings with free programming, allowing the stations to sell local advertising in a dynamic format without the cost associated with producing local programming. Some in the industry feared this trend would lead to ever-more control of radio content by networks and syndicators. GE acquired NBC in 1986, and it decided that radio did not fit its strategy; additionally, the radio division had not been profitable for many years. In the summer of 1987, GE sold NBC Radio's network operations to Westwood One, and sold off the NBC-owned stations to different buyers. In 1989 the NBC Radio Network as an independent programming service ceased to exist, becoming a brand name for content produced by Westwood One, and ultimately by CBS Radio. The Mutual Broadcasting System, which Westwood One had acquired two years earlier, met the same fate, and essentially merged with NBC Radio. It should be noted that GE's divestiture of NBC's entire radio division was the first cannon shot of what would play out in the national broadcast media, as each of the Big 3 broadcast networks were soon acquired by other corporate entities. The NBC case was particularly noteworthy in that it was the first to be bought -- and was bought by a corporate behemoth outside the broadcast industry. Prior to the acquisition by GE, NBC operated its radio division partly out of tradition, and partly to meet its then-FCC-mandated requirement to distribute programming for the public good (the now-defunct "Fairness Doctrine"). Syndicators such as Westwood One were not subject to such rules as they owned no stations. Thus did GE's divestiture of NBC Radio -- "America's First Network" -- in many ways mark the "beginning of the end" of the old broadcasting era and the ushering in of the new, largely unregulated industry that we see today. By the late 1990s, Westwood One was producing NBC Radio-branded newscasts, on weekday mornings only. In 1999, these were discontinued, and the few remaining NBC Radio Network affiliates began to receive CNN Radio-branded newscasts around the clock. But in 2003, Westwood One began distributing a new service called NBC News Radio, consisting of one-minute news updates read by television anchors and reporters from NBC News and MSNBC. The content, however, is written by employees of Westwood One - not NBC News. Television 30 Rockefeller Center, also known as the GE Building, is the world headquarters of NBC. For many years NBC was closely identified with David Sarnoff, who used it as a vehicle to sell consumer electronics. It was Sarnoff who ruthlessly stole innovative ideas from competitors, using RCA's muscle to prevail in the courts. RCA and Sarnoff had dictated the broadcasting standards put in place by the FCC in 1938, and stole the spotlight by introducing all-electronic television to the public at the 1939–40 New York World's Fair, simultaneously initiating a regular schedule of programs on the NBC-RCA television station in New York City. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt appeared at the fair, before the NBC cameras, becoming the first U.S. president to appear on television on April 30, 1939. The David Sarnoff Library has available an actual, off-the-monitor photograph of the FDR telecast. The broadcast was transmitted by NBC's New York television station W2XBS Channel 1 (now WNBC-TV channel 4) and was seen by about 1,000 viewers within the station's roughly coverage area from their Empire State Building transmitter location. The next day, May 1, four models of RCA television sets went on sale to the general public in various New York City department stores, promoted in a series of splashy newspaper ads. It is to be noted that DuMont (and others) actually offered the first home sets in 1938 in anticipation of NBC's announced April 1939 start-up. Later in 1939, NBC took its cameras to professional football and baseball games in the New York City area, establishing many "firsts" in the history of television. Actual NBC "network" broadcasts (more than one station) began about this time with occasional special events — such as the British King and Queen's visit to the New York World's Fair — being seen in Philadelphia (over the station which would become WPTZ, now KYW) and in Schenectady (over the station which would become WRGB), two pioneer stations in their own right. The most ambitious NBC television "network" program of this pre-war era was the telecasting of the Republican National Convention in 1940 from Philadelphia, which was fed live to New York and Schenectady. However, despite major promotion by RCA, television set sales in New York in the 1939-1940 period were disappointing, primarily due to the high cost of the sets, and the lack of compelling regular programming. Most sets were sold to bars, hotels and other public places, where the general public viewed special sporting and news events. Television's experimental period ended, and the FCC allowed full commercial telecasting to begin on July 1, 1941. NBC's New York station W2XBS received the first commercial license, adopting the call letters WNBT (it is now WNBC-TV). The first official, paid television commercial on that day broadcast by any station in the United States was for Bulova Watches, seen just before the start of a Brooklyn Dodgers telecast on NBC's WNBT, New York. A test pattern, featuring the newly assigned WNBT call letters, was modified to look like a clock, complete with functioning hands. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern. A photograph of the NBC camera telecasting the test pattern-advertisement for that first official TV commercial can be seen at http://www.earlytelevision.org/images/rca_bulova_ad-1.jpg Limited programming continued until the U.S. entered World War II. Telecasts were curtailed in the early years of the war, then expanded as NBC began to prepare for full service upon the war's end. On V-E Day, May 8, 1945, WNBT broadcast hours of news coverage, and remotes from around New York City. This event was pre-promoted by NBC with a direct-mail card sent to television set owners in the New York area. Includes WNBT card mailed to set owners announcing the impending coverage of V-E Day. At one point, a WNBT camera placed atop the marquee of the Hotel Astor panned the crowd below celebrating the end of the war in Europe. The vivid coverage was a prelude to television's rapid growth after the war ended. The NBC television network grew from its initial post-war lineup of four stations. The 1947 World Series featured two New York teams (Yankees and Dodgers), and local TV sales boomed, since the games were telecast in New York. More stations along the East Coast and in the Midwest were connected by coaxial cable through the late 1940s, and in September 1951 the first transcontinental telecasts took place. The early 1950s brought success for NBC in the new medium. Television's first big star, Milton Berle, drew large audiences to NBC with his antics on the The Texaco Star Theater. Legendary conductor Arturo Toscanini, who had been conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra on radio since 1937, conducted ten concerts on NBC television between 1948 and 1952. All of these concerts were simulcast on radio, a pioneering event at that time. The simulcasts included a two-part complete performance in concert of Verdi's opera Aida, starring Richard Tucker and Herva Nelli, and the first complete televised performance of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. The network launched Today and The Tonight Show, which would bookend the broadcast day for over fifty years, and which still lead their competitors. Color television While rivals CBS and DuMont also offered color broadcasting plans, RCA convinced a waffling FCC to approve its color system in December 1953. NBC was ready with color programming within days of the FCC's decision. NBC began with some shows in 1954, and that summer broadcast its first program to air all episodes in color, The Marriage. In 1955, on the television anthology Producers' Showcase, NBC broadcast a live production in color of Peter Pan, a Broadway musical adaptation of J.M. Barrie's beloved play, with its entire original cast, the first such telecast of its kind. Mary Martin starred as Peter and Cyril Ritchard played the dual role of Mr. Darling and Captain Hook. The broadcast drew the highest ratings for a television program up to then. It was so successful that NBC restaged it live a mere ten months later, and in 1960, long after after Producers' Showcase had ended its run, Peter Pan, with most of the 1955 cast, was restaged again, this time as a TV special on its own, and videotaped so that it would no longer have to be done live on television. In 1956 during a National Association meeting in Chicago, NBC announced that its Chicago TV station WNBQ (now WMAQ-TV) was the first color TV station in the nation (at least six hours of color broadcasts a day). The television edition of the Bell Telephone Hour premiered in color on NBC in 1959, and in September 1961, the Walt Disney anthology television series moved from ABC to NBC, where the show continued its very long run, this time in color. As many of the Disney programs shown in black-and-white on ABC had actually been filmed in color, they could easily be repeated on the NBC edition of the program. The 1962 Rose Bowl was the first color television broadcast of a college football game. By 1963, much of NBC's prime time schedule was in color, although some popular programs like The Man from U.N.C.L.E., which premiered in late 1964, had their entire first season in black-and-white. Without television sets to sell, rival networks followed more slowly, finally committing to color in the 1965-66 season. Days of our Lives was the first soap opera to premiere in color. In 1967, NBC acquired MGM's classic 1939 film The Wizard of Oz after CBS, which had televised the film beginning in 1956, had been unwilling to meet MGM's increased price for more television showings. Oz had been, up to then, one of the few programs that CBS had telecast in color, but by 1967, color was the norm on TV, and the film became another in the list of color specials telecast by NBC. The network showed the film annually for eight years, beginning in 1968, after which CBS, realizing that they may have committed a colossal blunder by letting it go, now agreed to pay MGM more money so that the rights to show the film could revert back to them. Two distinctive features of the film's showings on NBC were: 1) the film was shown for the first time without a host to introduce it as had always been previously done, 2) the film was slightly cut to make room for more commercials. Despite the cuts, however, it continued to score excellent television ratings in those pre-VCR days, as audiences were generally unable to see the film any other way at that time. 1970s doldrums The 1970s started strongly for the network thanks to hits like Adam-12, Laugh-In, Emergency!, The Dean Martin Show, and The Flip Wilson Show, but this did not last. In spite of the success of such new shows as The NBC Mystery Movie, Sanford and Son, Chico and the Man, Little House on the Prairie, The Rockford Files, and Quincy, M.E., as well as continued success from veterans like The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and The Wonderful World of Disney, the network entered a slump in the middle of the decade. Disney, in particular, saw its ratings nosedive once CBS put 60 Minutes up against it in the 1975-1976 season. None of the new shows NBC introduced in the fall of 1975 earned a second season, all failing in the face of established competition. In 1974 under new president Herb Schlosser, the network tried to go after younger viewers with a series of costly movies, miniseries and specials. This failed to attract the desirable 18-34 demographic, and alienated older viewers. NBC did launch the successful and influential Saturday Night Live, in a time slot previously held by reruns of The Tonight Show. In 1978 Schlosser was promoted to executive vice presidency at RCA, and a desperate NBC lured Fred Silverman away from number-one ABC to turn the network's fortunes around. With the notable exceptions of Diff'rent Strokes, Real People, The Facts of Life, and the mini-series Shogun, he couldn't find a hit. Failures accumulated rapidly under his watch (such as Hello, Larry, Supertrain, Pink Lady and Jeff, and The Waverly Wonders). Ironically many of them were beaten in the ratings by shows Silverman had greenlighted at CBS and ABC. Also during this time, NBC suffered the defections of several longtime affiliates in markets such as: Atlanta (WSB), Baltimore (WBAL), Charlotte (WSOC), Dayton (WDTN), Indianapolis (WRTV), Jacksonville (WTLV), Minneapolis-St. Paul (KSTP-TV), and San Diego (KGTV). Most were wooed away by ABC, which was the number-one network during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In markets such as San Diego, Charlotte, and Jacksonville, NBC was forced to replace the lost stations with new affiliates broadcasting on the UHF band. Other smaller television markets like Yuma, Arizona waited many years to get another local NBC affiliate (see TV stations KIVA and KYMA). The stations in Baltimore, Dayton and Jacksonville, however, have since rejoined the network. When U.S. President Jimmy Carter pulled the American team out of the 1980 Summer Olympics, NBC canceled a planned 150 hours of coverage (which had cost $87,000,000), and the network's future was in doubt. It had been counting on $170,000,000 in advertising revenues and on the broadcasts to help promote fall shows. The press was merciless towards Silverman, but two of the most savage attacks on his leadership came from within. The company that composed NBC's on-air promo music created a spoof of the Proud as a Peacock ad campaign. Comedian Al Franken satirized Silverman in a Saturday Night Live sketch titled "Limo for a Lame-O." Silverman admitted he "never liked Al Franken to begin with", and the sketch may have hurt Franken's chance of succeeding Lorne Michaels as executive producer of SNL. Tartikoff's turnaround In the summer of 1981, Fred Silverman resigned. Grant Tinker became president of the network and Brandon Tartikoff became chief of programming. Tartikoff inherited a schedule full of aging dramas and very few sitcoms, but showed patience with promising programs. One such show was the critically acclaimed Hill Street Blues, which rated poorly in its first season. Instead of canceling it, he moved the Emmy-winning police drama to Thursday night where its ratings improved dramatically. He used the same tactic with St. Elsewhere. Shows like these were able to get the same ad revenue as their higher-rated, mass-audience competition because of their desirable demographics, upscale, 18-34 year-old viewers. While the network claimed moderate successes with Gimme a Break!, Silver Spoons, Knight Rider and Remington Steele, its biggest hit in this period was The A-Team, which, at tenth place, was the network's only top-20 rated show of the 1982–1983 season, and it reached third place the next year. These shows helped NBC through the disastrous 1983-84 season, in which none of its new shows gained a second year. The nine new shows of 1983-84 were Bay City Blues, Boone, For Love and Honor, Jennifer Slept Here, Manimal, The Rousters, Mr. Smith, We Got it Made, and The Yellow Rose. It was the only time that a network's entire line of new series had failed to be renewed since the network's 1975 lineup. In 1982 NBC canceled Tom Snyder's The Tomorrow Show and gave the time slot to 34-year-old comedian David Letterman. Though Letterman had had an unsuccessful daytime series in 1980, Late Night with David Letterman proved much more successful. In 1984 the huge success of The Cosby Show led to a renewed interest in sitcoms, while Family Ties and Cheers, both of which premiered in 1982 to mediocre ratings, saw their viewership increase from having Cosby as a lead-in. The network moved from third place to second place that year. It reached first place in the Nielsen rankings in the 1985-86 season, with hits The Golden Girls, Miami Vice, 227, Night Court, Highway to Heaven, and Hunter. The network's upswing continued through the decade with ALF, Amen, Matlock, L.A. Law, The Hogan Family, A Different World, Empty Nest, and In the Heat of the Night. In the 1988-89 season, NBC, which had an amazing 18 shows inside the top 30 at the time, won every week in the ratings for over a full year, an achievement not since duplicated. "Must See TV" In 1991, Tartikoff left NBC to take a position at Paramount Pictures. In one decade he had taken control of a network with no shows in the Nielsen Top 10 and left it with five. Warren Littlefield took his place. His start was shaky due to the end of most of the Tartikoff-era hits. Some blamed him for losing David Letterman to CBS after giving The Tonight Show to Jay Leno, following Johnny Carson's 1992 retirement. Things turned around with hit series Friends, Mad About You, Frasier, ER, and Will & Grace. One of Tartikoff's late acquisitions, Seinfeld, initially struggled, but became one of NBC's top-rated shows after it was moved into the timeslot following Cheers. The Must-See TV tag line was applied to Thursday night's strong lineup. After popular show Seinfeld ended its run in 1998, Friends became the most popular sitcom on NBC. It dominated the ratings, never leaving the top 5 watched shows of the year in its second through tenth season and landing on the number 1 spot in season eight (2001-2002 season). Frasier was also popular and, despite not being as highly rated as Friends, still landed in the top 40. Friends finished its run in 2004 along with Frasier and NBC's Must See TV declined. Friends spin-off Joey (despite a relatively good start) started to fail during its second season. New leadership and decline At the start of the 2000s, however, NBC's fortunes took a rapid turn for the worse. In 2001, CBS chose its hit reality series Survivor to anchor its Thursday night line-up. Its success was taken as a suggestion that NBC's nearly two decades of Thursday night dominance could be broken. With the loss of Friends and Frasier in 2004, NBC was left with several moderately rated shows and few true hits. Competing with CBS's popular CSI franchise, and various police procedural dramas like The Mentalist, FOX's American Idol and Family Guy, ABC hits Lost, Desperate Housewives and Grey's Anatomy, and The CW hit America's Next Top Model, NBC dropped to fourth in the ratings race. CBS led for most of the decade, followed by a resurgent ABC, and Fox (which would eventually become the most watched network for the 2007-08 season). Adding to its woes, all of the networks face shrinking audiences due to increased competition from cable, home video, and the internet. Most of the network in the 2000's was being watched mostly by 18-34 year old suburban males, and teenagers; the least TV watching demographic. With the 2004-2005 season, NBC became the first major network to produce its programming in widescreen, hoping to attract new viewers. NBC saw only a slight boost. In December 2005, NBC began its first week-long primetime game show event, Deal or No Deal, garnering high ratings, and returning multi-weekly in March 2006. On sustained success, Deal or No Deal returned in the fall of 2006. Otherwise, the 2005-06 season was one of the worst for NBC in three decades, with only one fall series, the sitcom My Name Is Earl, surviving for a second season. The 2006-07 season was a mixed bag, with Heroes becoming a surprise hit on Monday nights, while the highly touted Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, from the creator of NBC's hit drama The West Wing, lost a third of its premiere-night viewers by week six and was eventually canceled. Sunday Night NFL football returned to NBC after eight years, Deal or No Deal stayed strong, and its comedies The Office and 30 Rock won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for three consecutive years. However, NBC has remained in fourth place. In 2008-2009, no new primetime hits emerged (despite NBC's rare good fortune to have both the Super Bowl and the Olympic Games in which to promote their new offerings), while Heroes and Deal or No Deal both collapsed in the ratings. NBC Universal President/CEO Jeff Zucker had previously said that NBC no longer believed that they could be #1 in prime time. In fact, the 2008-09 season was even worse than previous seasons, with the network finishing in a disastrous fifth place behind the The CW and only ahead of MyNetworkTV, even Spanish language Univision has outrated NBC for the first time, and it is also the first time a "Big Three" network has reached fifth place. All but one of the shows NBC introduced during the '08-'09 season were cancelled (Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday being the only show to survive into a second season). > In March 2007, NBC announced that it would offer full-length prime-time television shows like The Office and Heroes on-demand to play on mobile phones. This was a first for the United States, as the market shifts away from traditional television. NBC News NBC News Washington Bureau CNBC Dateline NBC Early Today Meet the Press MSNBC NBC Nightly News with Brian Williams The Today Show The Weather Channel Programming NBC presently operates on an 87-hour regular network programming schedule. It provides 22 hours of prime time programming to affiliated stations: 8-11pm(ET/PT)/7:00-10:00 pm(CT,MT,AT)/6-9 pm (HT) Monday through Saturday and 7-11 pm on Sundays. Programming is also provided 7-11 am weekdays in the form of Today, which also has a two-hour Saturday and one-hour Sunday edition; the one-hour weekday drama Days of our Lives; nightly editions of NBC Nightly News; the Sunday political talk show Meet the Press; weekday early-morning news program Early Today; late night talk shows The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Last Call with Carson Daly; sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live; Late-late-night poker series Poker After Dark; weeknight rebroadcasts of The Tonight Show under the banner NBC All Night; and a three-hour Saturday morning animation block under the name qubo. In addition, sports programming is also provided weekend afternoons any time from 12-6 pm. ET, or tape-delayed PT. Daytime programs NBC is currently the home of only one daytime soap opera, Days of our Lives, which has been broadcast on the network since 1965. Long-running NBC Daytime dramas of the past include The Doctors (1963–1982), Another World (1964-1999), Santa Barbara (1984–1993), and Passions (1999-2007). NBC also aired the final four and a half years of Search for Tomorrow (1982–1986) after that series was dropped by CBS, although many NBC affiliates did not air the show in its final years. NBC has also aired numerous short-lived soaps, including Generations (1989–1991), Sunset Beach (1997–1999), and the two Another World spin-offs, Somerset (1970–1976) and Texas (1980–1982). Notable daytime game shows that once aired on NBC include The Price Is Right (1956-63), Concentration (1958-1973 and 1987-1991), The Match Game (1962-1969), Let's Make a Deal (1963-1968), Jeopardy! (1964-1975 and 1978-1979), The Hollywood Squares (1966-1980), Wheel of Fortune (1975-1989 and 1991), Password Plus/Super Password (1979-1982 and 1984-1989), Sale of the Century (1969-1973 and 1983-1989) and Scrabble (1984-1990 and 1993). The final game show to air on NBC's daytime schedule was the short-lived Caesars Challenge, which ended in January 1994. Children's programming Children's programming has played a part in NBC's programming since its initial roots in television. In 1947, NBC's first major children's series was Howdy Doody, one of the era's first breakthrough television shows. The series, which ran for 13 years, featured a frecklefaced marionette and a myriad of other characters and hosted by "Buffalo" Bob Smith. Howdy Doody spent most of its run on weekday afternoons. In 1956, NBC abandoned the children's programming lineup on weekday afternoons, relegating the lineup to Saturdays only with Howdy Doody as their marquee franchise for the series' remaining four years. From the mid-1960s until 1992, the bulk of NBC's children's programming were derived from theatrical shorts like The Pink Panther Show and Looney Tunes, reruns of popular television series like The Flintstones and The Jetsons, foreign acquisitions like Astro Boy and Kimba the White Lion, original animated series (most notably The Smurfs and Alvin and the Chipmunks in the 1980s), cartoon adaptations of Gary Coleman, Mr. T, Punky Brewster, ALF and Star Trek, and original live-action series including The Banana Splits, The Bugaloos, and H.R. Pufnstuf. From 1984 to 1989, One to Grow On PSAs were shown after the end credits of every show or every other children's show. In 1989, NBC premiered Saved by the Bell, which originated at The Disney Channel as Good Morning, Miss Bliss. Saved by the Bell, despite bad reviews from tv critics, would become one of the most popular teen series in television history as well as the number one series on Saturday mornings, dethroning The Bugs Bunny and Tweety Show in its first season. NBC abandoned the animated series in August 1992 in favor of a Saturday edition of Today and more live-action series under the name TNBC (Teen NBC). Most of the series on the TNBC lineup were series produced by Peter Engel such as City Guys, Hang Time, California Dreams, One World and the Saved by the Bell spinoff, Saved by the Bell: The New Class. NBA Inside Stuff was also a part of the TNBC lineup during the duration of the NBA season. In 2000, after eight years NBC discontinued the TNBC Saturday morning block. In 2002, NBC began a deal with Discovery Communications' Discovery Kids channel to air their original FCC-mandated educational programming under the banner Discovery Kids on NBC. The schedule originally consisted of only live-action series, including a kid-themed version of Trading Spaces and J. D. Roth's Emmy-nominated reality game show Endurace, but has expanded to include some animated series such as Kenny the Shark, Tutenstein, and Time Warp Trio. In 2006, Discovery Kids on NBC was discontinued. In May 2006, in order to replace the Discovery Kids Saturday Morning block, NBC announced plans to launch a new children's block on Saturday mornings starting in September 2006 as part of the qubo endeavor teaming parent company NBC Universal with ION Media Networks, Scholastic Press, Corus Entertainment and Classic Media/Mike Young. qubo will include blocks to air on NBC, Telemundo (the Spanish-language network owned by NBC Universal), and ION Media Networks's ION Television, as well as a 24/7 digital broadcast kids channel, video on demand services and a branded website. The "Discovery Kids on NBC" block aired for the final time on September 2, 2006. On Saturday, September 9, 2006, NBC started airing the following qubo programs: VeggieTales, Dragon, VeggieTales Presents: 3-2-1 Penguins!, Babar, Jane and the Dragon, and Jacob Two-Two. NBCi In April 2000, NBCi''' purchased a company that specialized with search engines that learned from the users' searches for $32 million, called GlobalBrain. In 2001–2002, NBC briefly changed its web address to "NBCi.com", in a heavily-advertised attempt to launch an Internet portal and start page. This move saw NBC teaming up with XOOM.com, e-mail.com, AllBusiness.com, and Snap.com (eventually acquiring all four of them), launching a multi-faceted internet portal with e-mail, webhosting, community, chat, personalization and news capabilities. This experiment lasted roughly one season, failed, and NBCi was folded back into NBC. The NBC-TV portion of the website reverted to NBC.com. However, the NBCi web site continued as a portal for NBC-branded content (NBCi.com redirected to NBCi.msnbc.com), using a co-branded version of InfoSpace to deliver minimal portal content. In mid 2007, NBCi.com began to mirror NBC.com. Evolution of the NBC logo NBC has used a number of logos throughout its history; early logos were similar to the logo of its then parent company, RCA, but later logos included stylized peacock images. International broadcasts Canada Many cities in Canada receive many United States NBC affiliates either over the air, and on cable television and satellite television providers. In places far from the border, cable and satellite are the only ways to pick up NBC signals clearly. Aside from Simultaneous substitution, the programming and broadcasting are the same as in the United States. Europe, Latin America and the Middle East NBC Nightly News, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, and Late Night with Conan O'Brien are shown on CNBC Europe. NBC is no longer shown outside the Americas on a channel in its own right. However, both NBC News and MSNBC are shown for a few hours a day on Orbit News in Europe, Africa and the Middle East. MSNBC is also shown occasionally on sister network CNBC Europe during breaking news. Border cities in the US-Mexican border can easily receive NBC on-the-air, as well cable and satellite subscribers across Mexico especially the Mexico City region. NBC Super Channel becomes NBC Europe In 1993, the Pan-European cable network Super Channel was taken over by General Electric, the parent of NBC, and became NBC Super Channel. In 1996, the channel was renamed NBC Europe, but was, from then on, almost always referred to as simply "NBC" on the air. Most of NBC Europe's prime time programming was produced in Europe due to rights restriction associated with US primetime shows, but after 11PM Central European Time on weekday evenings, the channel aired The Tonight Show, Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Later, hence its slogan "Where the Stars Come Out at Night." Many NBC News programs were broadcast on NBC Europe, including Dateline NBC, Meet The Press and NBC Nightly News, which was aired live. The Today Show was also initially shown live in the afternoons, but was later broadcast the following morning instead, by which time it was more than half a day old. In 1999, NBC Europe stopped broadcasting to most of Europe. At the same time the network was relaunched as a German language computer channel, targeting a young demographic. The main show on the new NBC Europe was called NBC GIGA. In 2005, the channel was relaunched once again, this time as a free-to-air movie channel under the name "Das Vierte". GIGA started an own digital channel then, which can be received via satellite and many cable networks in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.The Tonight Show, Late Night and NBC Nightly News continue to be broadcast on CNBC Europe. Canal de Noticias In 1993, NBC began production of Canal de Noticias NBC. This service was beamed to Latin America from the NBC Newschannel headquarters located in Charlotte, North Carolina. Over 50 journalists were brought to produce, write, anchor and technically produce a 24 hour news service based on the popular "wheel" conceived at CNN. The service folded in 1997 as sales departments were not able to generate any revenue. After Mexican Noticias ECO, Canal de Noticias NBC holds the distinction of being the first 24 hour news service to be seen in Latin America. Telenoticias, at one point owned by CBS, came later followed by CNN en Español. Caribbean In the Caribbean, many cable television and satellite television providers air local NBC affiliates, or the main network feed from WNBC-TV New York City or WTVJ in Miami, though a few locally-owned NBC affiliates do exist (in the case of Puerto Rico). The island and the nearby U.S. Virgin Islands are the main receivers of NBC programs available in English and Spanish via the SAP option. Bermuda NBC's full program lineup is carried by local affiliate VSB-TV, received from the network's East Coast satellite feed. Netherlands Antilles In Aruba, the network programming is carried on station ATV 15. Asia Pacific Guam KUAM-TV is an NBC affiliate in Guam and carries the full NBC program lineup via satellite. American Samoa KKHJ-LP is the NBC affiliate for Pago Pago; it signed onto the network in 2005. NBC Asia and CNBC Asia In 1995, NBC launched a channel in Asia called NBC Asia available in Japan, Malaysia, South Korea, Taiwan and Thailand. Like NBC Europe, NBC Asia featured most of NBC's news programs as well as the Tonight Show and Late Night. Like its European counterpart, it couldn't broadcast US-produced primetime shows due to rights restrictions. It also had NBC Super Sports for the latest action in selected sporting events. During weekday evenings, NBC Asia had a regional evening news program. It occasionally simulcasted some programs from CNBC Asia and MSNBC. On 1 July 1998, NBC Asia was replaced by the National Geographic Channel. Like in the case of NBC Europe however, selected Tonight Show and Late Night episodes and Meet the Press can still be seen on CNBC Asia during weekends. CNBC Asia shows NFL games and also brands them as Sunday Night Football. The Philippines The Philippines with a primarily fluent English-speaking population can receive NBC network programming via satellite feed on NBC Asia service, principally in the Manila region in the island of Luzon. There is also terrestrial coverage of NBC in various Filipino cities as well, primarily a simulcast feed from KING-TV, an NBC affiliate in Seattle. Regional partners Through regional partners, NBC-produced programs are seen in some countries in the region. In the Philippines, Solar Entertainment's ETC airs The Tonight Show, Late Night, Will and Grace and Saturday Night Live, while 2nd Avenue airs NBC News programs like Today Show, Early Today, Weekend Today and Dateline. Australia The Seven Network in Australia has close ties with NBC and has used many of its slogans (including Let's All Be There). Seven News has featured The Mission as its news theme since the mid 1980s. Local newscasts were named Seven Nightly News from the mid 80s until around 2000. Seven rebroadcasts some of NBC's news and current affairs programming it includes.TodayWeekend TodayDateline NBCMeet the Press with David GregoryAfilliates world broadcasters of NBC All are dubbed in the Spanish language. La Sexta (Spain) TVN (Chile) Once TV (Mexico) Radio Caracas Televisión (Venezuela) Library Over the years, NBC has produced many shows in-house in addition to airing content from other producers, notably Revue Studios and its successor Universal Television. Notable in-house productions of NBC included Get Smart, Bonanza, Little House on the Prairie, Las Vegas and Crossing Jordan. NBC sold the rights to their pre-1973 shows to National Telefilm Associates in 1973, and are today owned by CBS Paramount Television/CBS Studios. NBC continues to own its post-1973 productions, through sister company NBC Universal Television (the successor to Universal TV), and as a result, NBC in a way now owns several other series aired on the network prior to 1973 (such as Wagon Train''). See also CNBC KNBC-TV List of NBC personalities List of NBC slogans List of NBC affiliates, arranged by market List of NBC affiliates, arranged by state List of programs broadcast by NBC List of shows previously aired by NBC MSNBC Must See TV NBC chimes NBC Daytime NBC News NBC pages NBC Sports NBC Studios The Weather Channel (United States) TNBC WNBC-TV References External links NBC Television official site NBC press releases and photos on NBC Universal Media Village Museum of Broadcast Communications - NBC History NBC corporate archive at the Wisconsin Historical Society - The original NBC office files from 1921-1955 (1.2 million documents, 3100 audio recordings) | NBC |@lemmatized national:11 broadcasting:10 company:17 nbc:255 american:8 television:50 network:104 headquarter:1 ge:14 building:6 new:47 york:23 city:14 rockefeller:7 center:6 sometimes:1 refer:3 peacock:4 due:6 stylized:2 logo:7 create:3 exclusively:1 color:23 broadcast:35 form:2 radio:44 corporation:3 america:8 rca:27 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168 | Edward_Elgar | Sir Edward Elgar Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet, OM, GCVO (2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934) was an English composer. Several of his first major orchestral works, including the Enigma Variations and the Pomp and Circumstance Marches, were greeted with acclaim. He also composed oratorios, chamber music, symphonies, instrumental concertos, and songs. He was appointed Master of the King's Musick in 1924. Biography Early years Edward Elgar was born in the small village of Lower Broadheath outside Worcester, England to William Elgar, a music dealer, and his wife Anne (née Greening). Elgar was the fourth of their seven children: Henry John (known as Harry, 15 October 1848– 5 May 1864), Lucy Ann (Loo, Elgar's mother Anne referred to Lucy as 'Loo' in a letter to Polly 11 December 1898: see Percy Young Elgar O.M. p.81 born 29 May 1852), Susannah Mary (Pollie, 28 December 1854), Edward William (Ted, According to his sister Lucy's diary, 14 July 1872: 'Ted played the organ at church for Mass for first time' - Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.8. 2 June 1857), Frederick Joseph (Jo, 28 August 1859- 1866), Francis Thomas (Frank, 1 October 1861), and Helen Agnes (Dott or Dot, 1 January 1864). Michael Kennedy The Life of Elgar Hardback ISBN 9780521810760, ISBN 0521810760 Paperback ISBN 9780521009072, ISBN 0521009073 His mother, Anne, had converted to Catholicism shortly before Edward's birth, so Edward was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic. Elgar was an early riser, and would often turn to reading Voltaire, Drayton historical classics, Longfellow and other works encouraged by his mother. By the age of eight, he was taking piano and violin lessons, and would often listen to his father playing the organ at St. George's church, and soon also took it up. His prime interest, however, was the violin, and his first written music was for that instrument. Surrounded by sheet music, instruments, and music textbooks in his father's shop in Worcester's High Street, the young Elgar became self-taught in music theory. On warm summer days, he would take scores into the countryside to study them (he was a passionate and adventurous early cyclist from the age of 5). Thus there began for him a strong association between music and nature. As he was later to say, "There is music in the air, music all around us, the world is full of it and you simply take as much as you require." At the age of 15, Elgar had hoped to go to Leipzig, Germany to study music, but lacking the funds he instead left school and began working for a local solicitor. Around this time he made his first public appearances as a violinist and organist. After a few months, he left the solicitor and embarked on a musical career, giving piano and violin lessons, and working occasionally in his father's shop. Elgar was an active member of the Worcester Glee Club, along with his father, and he accompanied singers, played violin, composed and arranged works, and even conducted for the first time. At 22 he took up the post of bandmaster at the Worcester and County Lunatic Asylum in Powick, three miles south-west of Worcester, a progressive institution which believed in the recuperative powers of music. He composed here too; some of the pieces for the asylum orchestra (music in dance forms) were rediscovered and performed locally in 1996. In many ways, his years as a young Worcestershire violinist were his happiest. He played in the first violins at the Worcester and Birmingham Festivals, and one great experience was to play Antonín Dvořák's Symphony No. 6 and Stabat Mater under the composer's baton. As part of a wind quintet and for his musical friends, he arranged dozens of pieces by Mozart, Beethoven, Haydn, and other masters, honing his arranging and compositional skills, and applying them to his earliest pieces. Although somewhat solitary and introspective by nature, Elgar thrived in Worcester's musical circles. Elgar's Salut d'Amour is one of his most well-known works. In his first trips abroad in 1880-82, Elgar visited Paris and Leipzig, attended concerts by first rate orchestras, and was exposed to the music of Richard Wagner, an immensely popular musician of the time. Returning to his more provincial milieu increased his desire for a wider fame. He often went to London in an attempt to get his works published, but this period in his life found him frequently despondent and low on money. He wrote to a friend in April 1884, "My prospects are about as hopeless as ever ... I am not wanting in energy I think, so sometimes I conclude that 'tis want of ability...I have no money--not a cent." Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.15. At 29, through his teaching, he met (Caroline) Alice Roberts, daughter of the late Major-General Sir Henry Roberts and a published author of verse and prose fiction. Eight years older than Elgar, she became his wife three years later, against the wishes of her family. They were married on 8 May 1889, at Brompton Oratory. Alice's faith in him and her courage in marrying 'beneath her class' were strongly supportive to his career. She dealt with his mood swings and was a generous musical critic. She was also his business manager and social secretary. She did her best to gain him the attention of influential society, though with limited success. In time he would learn to accept the honours given him, realizing that they mattered more to her and her social class. She also gave up some of her personal aspirations to further his career. In her diary she later admitted, "The care of a genius is enough of a life work for any woman." Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.115. As an engagement present, Elgar presented her with the short violin and piano piece Salut d'Amour. With Alice's encouragement, the Elgars moved to London to be closer to the centre of British musical life, and Edward started composing in earnest. The stay was unsuccessful, however, and they were obliged to return to Great Malvern, where Edward could earn a living teaching and conducting local musical ensembles. Though disappointed at the London episode, the return to the country proved better for Elgar's health and as a base of musical inspiration, bringing him closer to nature and to his friends. Their only child, Carice Irene, was born at their Avonmore Road home in Fulham on 14 August 1890. She was called by the name revealed in Elgar's dedication of Salut d'Amour: a contraction of her mother's names Caroline and Alice. Growing reputation During the 1890s Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer, chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the English Midlands. The Black Knight and King Olaf (1896), both inspired by Longfellow, The Light of Life and Caractacus were all modestly successful and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Company. He also generously recommended the young composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor to the Three Choirs Festival for a concert piece, which helped establish the younger man's career. Elgar was catching the eyes of the prominent critics, although their reviews were still lukewarm, and he was in demand as a festival composer, but he was just getting by financially and not feeling appreciated the way he wanted to be. In 1898, he continued to be "very sick at heart over music" and hoped to find a way to succeed with a larger work. His friend August Jaeger tried to lift his spirits, "A day's attack of the blues...will not drive away your desire, your necessity, which is to exercise those creative faculties which a kind providence has given you. Your time of universal recognition will come." Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.50. In 1899, that prediction suddenly came true. At the age of 42, Elgar's produced his first major orchestral work, the Enigma Variations, which was premiered in London under the baton of the eminent German conductor Hans Richter. In Elgar's own words, "I have sketched a set of Variations on an original theme. The Variations have amused me because I've labelled them with the nicknames of my particular friends ... that is to say I've written the variations each one to represent the mood of the 'party' (the person) ... and have written what I think they would have written--if they were asses enough to compose". Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.55. Elgar dedicated the work "To my friends pictured within". The large-scale work was received with general acclaim, heralded for its originality, charm, and fine craftsmanship, and it established Elgar as the pre-eminent British composer of his generation. It is formally titled Variations on an Original Theme; the word "Enigma" appears over the first six measures of music, which led to the familiar version of the title. The enigma is that, although there are fourteen variations on the "original theme", the 'enigma' theme, which Elgar said 'runs through and over the whole set' is never heard. Many later commentators have observed that although Elgar is today regarded as a characteristically English composer, his orchestral music and this work in particular share much with the Central European tradition typified at the time by the work of Richard Strauss. Indeed, the Enigma Variations were well-received in Germany, and persist to this day as a world-wide concert favourite. The following year saw the production at the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival of his choral setting of Cardinal Newman's poem The Dream of Gerontius. Despite a disastrous first performance due to poorly-prepared performers, the German premiere was much better received and the work was established within a few years as one of Elgar's greatest. It is now regarded as one of the finest examples of English choral music from any era. Elgar is probably best known for the five Pomp and Circumstance Marches, composed between 1901 and 1930. Shortly after he composed the first march, Elgar set the trio melody to words by A. C. Benson in his Coronation Ode to mark the coronation of King Edward VII. The suggestion had already been made (allegedly by the future King himself) that words should be fitted to the broad tune which formed the trio section of this march. Against the advice of his friends, Elgar suggested that Benson furnish further words to allow him to include it in the new work. The result was Land of Hope and Glory, which formed the finale of the Ode and was also issued (with slightly different words) as a separate song. The work was immensely popular and is now considered an unofficial national anthem. At last, he had made the leap from accomplished back-country musician to England's foremost composer. It also gained Elgar the highest recognition he could have dreamed of--honorary degrees, a knighthood, special royal audiences, and a triumphal three-day festival of his music at Covent Garden attended by the King and Queen. In 1904 Elgar and his family moved to Plas Gwyn, Photo by Pauline Eccles. Elgar Court, once known as Plas Gwyn Home to Sir Edward Elgar from 1904 to 1911. a large house on the outskirts of Hereford, overlooking the River Wye, and they lived there until 1911. Between 1902 and 1914 Elgar enjoyed phenomenal success, made four visits to the USA including one conducting tour, and earned considerable fees from the performance of his music. Between 1905 and 1908 Elgar held the post of Peyton Professor of Music at the University of Birmingham (he was succeeded by his friend Granville Bantock Keith Anderton, slevenotes, Bantock: Hebridean Symphony, Naxos 8.555473, 1989 ). His lectures there caused controversy owing to remarks he made about other English composers and English music in general; he was quoted as saying "English music is white - it evades everything". The University of Birmingham's Special Collections contain an archive of letters written by Elgar. His new life as a celebrity was a mixed blessing as it often provoked ill-health from his high-strung nature and interrupted his privacy. He complained to Alfred Jaeger in 1903, "My life is one continual giving up of little things which I love." Michael Kennedy, Portrait of Elgar, Oxford University Press, 1968, p.144. Elgar's Symphony No. 1 (1908) was given one hundred performances in its first year. The Violin Concerto in B minor (1910) was commissioned by the world-renowned violinist Fritz Kreisler and was a resounding success, premiered by Kreisler with the Philharmonic Society of London, the composer conducting. In 1911, the year of the completion of his Symphony No. 2, he had the Order of Merit bestowed upon him. In 1912 he moved back to London, again to be closer to musical society but to the detriment of his love of the countryside and to his general mood. Elgar's musical legacy is primarily orchestral and choral, but he did write for soloists and smaller instrumental groups. His one work for brass band, the Severn Suite (later arranged by the composer for orchestra), remains an important part of the brass band repertoire. This work was dedicated to his friend George Bernard Shaw. It is occasionally performed in its arrangement by Sir Ivor Atkins for organ as the composer's second Organ Sonata; Elgar's first, much earlier (1895) Organ Sonata was written specifically for the instrument in a highly orchestral style, and remains a cornerstone of the English Romantic organ repertoire. Later years During World War I his music began to fall out of fashion. The war was overturning his world and his time. He himself grew to hate his 'Pomp and Circumstance' March No.1 with its popular tune (identified as 'Land of Hope and Glory' when the words were later added), which he felt had been made into a jingoistic song, not in keeping with the tragic loss of life in the war. This was captured in the film Elgar by Ken Russell. After the death of his wife in 1920, loneliness and declining interest in his art fostered little in the way of new works of importance. Shortly before her death he composed the elegiac Cello Concerto, often described as his last masterpiece. This was one of a late cluster of works composed while he lived between 1917 and 1921 at 'Brinkwells', a house near Fittleworth in Sussex which he had rented from the painter Rex Vicat Cole. Elgar lived in the village of Kempsey, Worcestershire from 1923 to 1927. It was during this time, a few weeks before the performance of his Empire March and eight songs Pageant of Empire for the 1924 British Empire Exhibition, that he was made Master of the King's Musick. He was the first composer to make extensive recordings of his own compositions. The Gramophone Company recorded much of his music acoustically from 1914 onwards and then began a series of electrical recordings in 1926 that continued until 1933, including his Enigma Variations, Falstaff, the first and second symphonies, his cello and violin concertos, all of the Pomp and Circumstance marches, and other orchestral works. Part of a 1927 rehearsal of the second symphony with the London Symphony Orchestra was also recorded and later issued. In November 1931, Elgar was filmed by Pathé for a newsreel depicting a recording session of Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1 at the opening of the famous Abbey Road Studios in London. It is believed to be the only surviving sound film of Elgar, who makes a brief remark before conducting the London Symphony Orchestra, asking the musicians to "play this tune as though you've never heard it before." Sir Edward Elgar, 1931 "Land of hope & glory" THE MASTER OF THE KING'S MUSICK Silent films of the composer have also survived. In the 1932 recording of the Violin Concerto, the aging composer worked with the American violinist Yehudi Menuhin, who was then only 16 years old; they worked well together and Menuhin warmly recalled his association with the composer years later, when he performed the concerto with the San Francisco Symphony. Menuhin later conducted an award-winning recording of Elgar's Cello Concerto with the cellist Julian Lloyd Webber and much of the major orchestral music. Elgar's recordings usually featured such orchestras as the London Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Albert Hall Orchestra (which reverted in 1928 to its earlier name, New Symphony Orchestra) and, in 1933, the newly-founded London Philharmonic Orchestra. Elgar's recordings were released on 78-rpm discs by both HMV and RCA Victor. In later years, EMI reissued the recordings on LP and CD. In his later years, Elgar befriended young conductors such as Adrian Boult and Malcolm Sargent who championed his music when it was out of fashion. Music and Friends, pp. 42-7, 56-9, 96-8 Aldous, p. 124 At the end of his life Elgar began work on an opera, The Spanish Lady, and accepted a commission from the BBC to compose a Third Symphony. His final illness prevented their completion. He died from inoperable cancer (discovered during an operation in September 1933) on 23 February 1934 and was buried, at St. Wulstan's Church in Little Malvern, next to his wife Alice. Within four months, two more great English composers - Gustav Holst and Frederick Delius - were also dead. Legacy The statue of Edward Elgar at the end of Worcester High Street The house in Lower Broadheath where Elgar was born is now a museum devoted to his life and work. The statue of him at the end of Worcester High Street stands facing the cathedral, only yards from where his father's shop once stood. Another statue of the composer is at the top of Church Street in Malvern, overlooking the town and giving visitors an opportunity to stand next to the composer in the shadow of the Hills which he so often regarded. In September 2005, a statue sculpted by Jemma Pearson was unveiled near Hereford Cathedral in honour of his many musical and other associations with that city. It features Elgar with his bicycle. From 1999 until early 2007, new Bank of England twenty pound notes featured a portrait of Elgar: from then, a new series of notes featured a portrait of Adam Smith. The change generated controversy, particularly because 2007 was the 150th anniversary of Elgar's birth. Elgar's sketches for his third symphony were "elaborated" in the 1990s by the composer Anthony Payne, See the remarks made by Elgar to his friend "Billy" Reed, a few weeks before he died, regarding the possibility of anyone 'completing' the Third Symphony from the existing sketches: "...the symphony all bits and pieces...no one would understand...don't let anyone tinker with it..." He was asking Reed to promise that no one should attempt to complete the symphony, and Reed assured him. From W. H. Reed Elgar as I knew him, London: 1973, page 114. A section of that book (from page 160) describes the collected fragments and sketches, with 42 pages of facsimiles. who also subsequently produced a performing version of the sketches for a sixth Pomp and Circumstance march, premiered at the Proms in August 2006. In 2007, the Elgar Society commissioned Payne to complete the orchestration of the music for Elgar’s Crown of India Suite, Op. 66. Elgar's sketches for a piano concerto dating from 1913 were elaborated by the composer Robert Walker and first performed in August 1997 by the pianist David Owen Norris. The realisation has since been extensively revised. Elgar's music is associated with two well-known occasions in Britain's annual calendar: the Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1 is played at the Last Night of the Proms, while at the Remembrance Day ceremony at the Cenotaph in London, 'Nimrod' from his Enigma Variations is performed by massed bands. One section of Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1 is ubiquitously used in the United States for high school and university graduations, and is known as "The Graduation Song" there. The hit track Clubbed To Death by Rob Dougan, featured on the soundtrack to the 1999 movie The Matrix, is partially based on the Enigma Variations. Venetian Snares used samples from Elgar's Cello Concerto In E Minor, Op. 85 on the track Szamár Madár on his album Rossz Csillag Alatt Született. Many streets in the UK are named after Elgar: there are eleven Elgar Avenues, including one in Malvern, Worcestershire, and another close to the house where Elgar lived, "Plas Gwyn" in Hereford. A street in North Springfield, Virginia and a major road in Box Hill, Melbourne are also named after him. On film and television, Elgar has been portrayed by George McGrath (in Elgar) and Graham Leaman (in Penda's Fen). Extra-musical interests Elgar was an ardent Wolverhampton Wanderers fan and may have travelled to home games from Worcester on his bicycle. Elgar bought two Wolverhampton-produced Royal Sunbeam bicycles in 1903, which he named Mr Phoebus, and visited the Sunbeam Works in Upper Villiers Street for 'tuning'. During the first rehearsal for the young Yehudi Menuhin's forthcoming recording of the Violin Concerto, the violinist had played Elgar only the first page when the composer announced that all was going to be well, and that he was going to leave Menuhin and go "off to the races" at Pitchcroft, Worcester's racecourse. Lord Menuhin would often tell press interviewers this story; he would describe it as one of his favourite memories of Elgar. Elgar was a keen amateur chemist, practising the hobby from a laboratory erected in his back garden. The original manuscript of the prelude to The Kingdom is stained with chemicals. Quotations "[Elgar's music is] wonderful in its heroic melancholy" - William Butler Yeats, on the incidental music for Grania and Diarmid. "The trees are singing my music", Elgar wrote. "Or have I sung theirs?" Elgar - His Music : The Dream of Gerontius - A Musical Analysis "This is the best of me; for the rest, I ate, and drank, and slept, loved and hated, like another. My life was as the vapour, and is not; but this I saw, and knew; this, if anything of mine, is worth your memory". - John Ruskin, quoted by Elgar on the manuscript score of The Dream of Gerontius. "Well, my boy, it's damned hard work" - Elgar to a young aspiring composer Alan Bush, on being asked what it was like to be a composer. (Recounted by Bush to members of the Workers' Music Association). Honours and awards 1904 - Elgar was made a knight bachelor. This entitled him to the title 'Sir Edward Elgar', but no post-nominal letters. 1911 - He was admitted to the Order of Merit. He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar OM'. 1924 - He was made Master of the King's Musick 1925 - He received the Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society 1928 - Elgar was created a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar OM KCVO'. 1931 - He was made a baronet, becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM KCVO'. A baronetcy is an hereditary honour, but is passed on only through the male line. As Elgar had only a daughter, the baronetcy became extinct on his death. 1933 - Elgar was promoted within the Royal Victorian Order to Knight Grand Cross. He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM GCVO'. Between 1900 and 1931 Elgar received honorary degrees from the Universities of Cambridge, Durham, Leeds, Oxford, Yale (USA), Aberdeen, Western Pennsylvania (USA), Birmingham and London. Foreign academies of which he was made a member were Regia Accademia di Santa Cecilia, Rome; Accademia del Reale Istituto Musicale, Florence; Académie des Beaux Arts, Paris; Institut de France; American Academy of Arts. Titles Mr Edward Elgar (1857–1904) Sir Edward Elgar (1904–1911) Sir Edward Elgar OM (1911–1928) Sir Edward Elgar OM KCVO (1928–1931) Sir Edward Elgar, 1st Baronet OM KCVO (1931–1933) Sir Edward Elgar, 1st Baronet OM GCVO (1933–1934) Works Here, the works are sorted by genre. For a list sorted by opus number, see List of compositions by Edward Elgar. Orchestral Three symphonies Symphony No. 1 in A-flat, Op. 55 (1907-08) Symphony No. 2 in E-flat, Op. 63 (1909-11) Symphony No. 3, Op. 88 (sketches, 1932-34, elaborated by Anthony Payne 1972-97) Sevillaña, Op. 7 (1884) Though Elgar's title is the fictitious "Sevillaña", he was probably aware that the correct Spanish would be "Sevillana" Froissart, concert-overture, Op. 19 (1890) Serenade, for string orchestra, Op. 20 (revised version of Three Pieces for string orchestra, 1888-92) 1. Allegro piacevole; 2. Larghetto; 3. Allegretto Sursum corda, for strings, brass and organ, Op. 11 (1894) Minuet, Op. 21 (1897 piano version, orchestrated in 1899) Three Bavarian Dances, Op. 27 (1897) 1. The Dance (Sonnenbichl); 2. Lullaby (In Hammersbach); 3. The Marksmen (Bei Murnau) Imperial March, Op. 32 (1897) Variations on an Original Theme (Enigma), Op. 36 (1899) Theme, (Enigma) (andante); Var.1. C.A.E. (andante); 2. H.D.S.-P. (allegro); 3. R.B.T. (allegretto); 4. W.M.B. (allegro di molto); 5. R.P.A. (moderato); 6. Ysobel (andantino); 7. Troyte (presto); 8. W.N. (allegretto); 9. Nimrod (adagio); 10. Intermezzo, Dorabella (allegretto); 11. G.R.S. (allegro di molto); 12. B.G.N. (andante); 13. Romanza, *** (moderato); Finale, E.D.U. (allegro) Three Characteristic Pieces, Op. 10 (1899) 1. Mazurka; 2. Sérénade Mauresque; 3. Contrasts: The Gavotte A.D. 1700 and 1900 Chanson de Nuit, Op. 15 No. 1 (1899, originally for violin and piano 1897) Sérénade Lyrique (1900) Cockaigne (In London Town), Concert-overture, Op. 40 (1900-01) Chanson de Matin, Op. 15 No. 2 (1901, originally for violin and piano 1899) Pomp and Circumstance, five marches, all Op. 39 (1901-1930) March No. 1 in D (1901) (The trio contains the tune known as Land of Hope and Glory) March No. 2 in A minor (1901) March No. 3 in C minor (1904) March No. 4 in G (1907) (In 1940, set to words by A. P. Herbert as Song of Liberty) March No. 5 in C (1930) also March No. 6 (sketches, elaborated by Anthony Payne 2005-06) Dream Children (Enfants d'un Rêve), two pieces for small orchestra, Op. 43 (1902) 1. Andante; 2. Allegretto In the South (Alassio), Concert-overture, Op.50 (1903-04) Introduction and Allegro for Strings (Quartet and Orchestra), Op. 47 (1904-05) The Wand of Youth, Suite No. 1, Op. 1a (1867-71, rev. 1907) 1. Overture; 2. Serenade; 3. Minuet; 4. Sun Dance; 5. Fairy Pipers; 6. Slumber Scene; 7. Fairies and Giants The Wand of Youth, Suite No. 2, Op. 1b (1867-71, rev. 1908) 1. March; 2. The Little Bells; 3. Moths and Butterflies; 4. Fountain Dance; 5. The Tame Bear; 6. The Wild Bears Elegy, for string orchestra, Op. 58 (1909) Coronation March, Op. 65 (1911) The Crown of India, suite, Op. 66 (1911-12) Carissima (1913) Falstaff, symphonic study, Op. 68 (1913) Sospiri for string orchestra, harp and organ (or harmonium), Op. 70 (1914) Polonia, symphonic prelude, Op. 76 (1915) Rosemary (orchestration of the original work Douce Pensée for piano trio) (1915) Empire March for orchestra (1924) Suite from Arthur for chamber orchestra (from the incidental music to Laurence Binyon's Arthur, 1924) Civic Fanfare for orchestra excluding violins (1927) The Civic Fanfare was written for the mayoral procession at the opening of the Hereford Festival on 4 September 1927. The orchestration includes fanfares for the orchestral brass accompanied by wind and percussion; but the only strings which take part are violas, celli and double basses. The work was written to precede a performance of Elgar's transcription of 'God Save the King' and is ended by a side-drum roll which leads directly into the National Anthem, when the violins join the full orchestra and choir in a triumphant entry. May-Song for small orchestra (orchestration of the original work for piano) (1928) Minuet from Beau Brummel (1928-29) Nursery Suite for orchestra (1931) "Dedicated by permission to their Royal Highnesses, the Duchess of York and the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret Rose" 1. Aubade (Awake); 2. The Serious Doll; 3. Busy-ness; 4. The Sad Doll; 5. The Wagon (Passes); 6. The Merry Doll; 7. Dreaming - Envoy (coda) Severn Suite, for orchestra, Op. 87 (1932) (originally composed for Brass Band in 1930) 1. Introduction (Worcester Castle); 2. Toccata (Tournament); 3, Fugue (The Cathedral); 4. Minuet (Commandery); 5. Coda Mina for small orchestra (1933) Concertante Violin Concerto in B minor, Op. 61 (1909-10) Romance for bassoon and orchestra, Op. 62 (1909)Cello Concerto in E minor, Op. 85 (1918-19)Piano Concerto, Op. 90 (sketches, 1909-25, elaborated by Robert Walker) StageGrania and Diarmid, incidental music to a play by George Moore and W. B. Yeats, for contralto soloist and orchestra, Op. 42 (1901) 1. Incidental Music and Funeral March; 2. Song, "There are seven that pull the thread"The Crown of India, imperial masque for contralto and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 66 (1911-12)Carillon, recitation with orchestra, Op. 75 (1914)Une voix dans le désert, recitation with soprano solo and orchestra, Op. 77 (1915) includes the song "Quand nos bourgeons se rouvriront" ("When the spring comes round")The Starlight Express, for baritone and soprano soloists and orchestra - music to a play by Violet Pearn Dramatist Violet Pearn, born at Plymouth in 1890, was the author of many plays, and adapted several of Algernon Blackwood's tales. based on the story "A Prisoner in Fairyland" by Algernon Blackwood, Op. 78 (1915-1916)The Fringes of the Fleet, words by Rudyard Kipling (1917)1. "The Lowestoft Boat (A Chanty)"2. "Fate's Discourtesy"3. "Submarines"4. "The Sweepers""Inside the Bar" (A Sailor's Song), for four baritones, words by Gilbert Parker (1917)Le drapeau belge (The Belgian Flag), recitation with orchestra, Op. 79 (1917)The Sanguine Fan, ballet (based on a fan designed by Charles Conder), Op. 81 (1917)Arthur, incidental music to a play by Laurence Binyon, for orchestra (1923)Beau Brummel, dramatic music to a play by Bertram P. Matthews, for orchestra (1928) Vocal/choral orchestralThe Black Knight, Symphony/Cantata for chorus and orchestra, Op. 25 (1889-92)The Light of Life (Lux Christi), oratorio for soprano, alto, tenor and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 29 (1896)Scenes From The Saga Of King Olaf, cantata for soprano, tenor and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 30 (1896) The Banner of St. George, ballad for chorus and orchestra, Op. 33 (1897) Caractacus, cantata for soprano, tenor, baritone and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 35 (1897-98) Sea Pictures, song cycle for contralto or mezzo-soprano and orchestra, Op.37 (1897-99) 1. Sea-Slumber Song; 2. In Haven (Capri); 3. Sabbath Morning at Sea; 4. Where Corals Lie; 5. The SwimmerThe Dream of Gerontius, oratorio for mezzo-soprano, tenor and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 38 (1899-1900)Coronation Ode for soprano, contralto, tenor and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 44 (1902) I - Crown the King, for soloists and chorus II - (a) The Queen, for chorus; (b) Daughter of ancient Kings, for chorus III - Britain, ask of thyself, for bass solo and men's chorus IV - (a) Hark upon the hallowed air, for soprano and tenor soloists; (b) Only let the heart be pure, for soprano, contralto, tenor and bass soloists V - Peace, gentle peace, for soprano, contralto, tenor and bass soloists and chorus unaccompanied VI - Finale Land of hope and glory, for contralto solo, with chorusThe Apostles, oratorio for soprano, contralto, tenor and three bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 49 (1902-03) The Kingdom, oratorio for soprano, contralto, tenor and bass soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 51 (1901-06)O Hearken Thou, offertory for chorus and orchestra (Intende vocis orationis meae), Op. 64 (1911). For the Coronation of King George VThe Music Makers, ode for contralto or mezzo-soprano soloist, chorus and orchestra, Op. 69 (1912)The Spirit of England, for soprano and contralto or tenor soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op. 80 (1915-17) 1. The Fourth of August (1917) 2. To Women (1915) 3. For the Fallen (1915) The Smoking Cantata, for baritone soloist and orchestra. Written in 1919, this piece was probably never intended to be performed and was given the absurd opus number of 1001. Its duration is less than a minute. Queen Alexandra's Memorial Ode (So many true Princesses who have gone) Queen Alexandra's Memorial Ode was written when Elgar was Master of the King's Musick, for the unveiling of the Memorial to Queen Alexandra on 8 June 1932 , for choir (SATB) and orchestra, words by John Masefield (1932) Vocal with piano accompaniment, unless otherwise noted "The Language of Flowers", words by "Percival" "Percival" is likely the composer himself, assisted by his mother (1872) (unpublished)"The Self Banished", song for soprano or tenor, Poem by Edmund Waller (1875) (unpublished)"A Soldier's Song", words by C. Flavell Hayward Charles Flavell Hayward (1863-1906) was born in Wolverhampton, England into a show-business family. He was an actor, poet, violinist, conductor, composer and arranger of music. He was a friend of Elgar's and played at the same desk in the violins. His father Henry Hayward was a violinist known as the "English Paganini". The family emigrated to New Zealand where he, his brothers, their wives and other family (known as "The Brescian Family") made their living in the theatre, which included the novelty of a moving picture show or bioscope as it was called. He died in Adelaide, Australia. His most well-known song (he wrote the lyrics and the music) is called "Come back to me" which was sung by his sister Florence Hayward. (1884) Republished in 1903 as "A War Song", Op. 5 "Through the Long Days", words by John Hay, Op.16 No.2 (1885) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"Is she not passing fair?", From Sibley Music Library Digital Scores Collection, Lay, written by Charles, Duke of Orleans (1391-1466) and translated by Louisa Stuart Costello (1886) but published in 1908"As I laye a-thynkynge", the last lines of Thomas Ingoldsby (1888)"The Wind at Dawn", poem by C. Alice Roberts (1888)"Queen Mary's Song", words by Alfred Tennyson (1889) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"Clapham Town End" (1890) An arrangement of a Yorkshire No doubt Clapham Town End is a Yorkshire song, but it is the same tune as "Richard of Taunton Dene", a traditional Somersetshire song song (unpublished) "A Song of Autumn", words by Adam Lindsay Gordon (1892) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"Like to the Damask Rose", words by Simon Wastell Simon Wastell (1560-1635), headmaster of the Free School at Northampton (1892) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"The Poet's Life", words by Ellen Burroughs “Ellen Burroughs” was the pseudonym of the American poet Sophie Jewett (1861—1909) (1892) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"The Shepherd's Song", words by Barry Pain, Op.16 No.1 (1892) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"Rondel", words by Longfellow from a Rondel by Froissart, Op.16 No.3 (1894) Republished in Seven Lieder in 1907"Roundel: The little eyes that never knew Light", words from the Roundel "A Baby's Death" by Swinburne (1897) (unpublished)"Love alone will stay", words by C. Alice Elgar (1898)"Dry those fair, those crystal eyes", words by Henry King (1591-1669) Bishop of Chichester (1899) Vocal settings of Salut d'Amour, Op.12"Woo thou, sweet Music", words by A. C. Bunten, Alice Chambers Bunten, scholar, author and lyricist for many songs, well-known for her Life of Alice Barnham, Wife of Sir Francis Bacon, London: Oliphants Ltd. 1928 adapted by Max Laistner Max Laistner (1853-1917) was a German musician, a concert pianist and director of the Max Laistner Choir. He made piano transciptions of the classics, including an "Etude de Concert" after Chopin's Valse in D-flat major "Minute Waltz" (1899)"Pansies", words by Percy E. Pinkerton, adapted by Max Laistner (1900)"After", words by Philip Bourke Marston, Op.31 No.1 (1900)"A Song of Flight", words by Christina Rossetti, Op.31 No.2 (1900)"The Pipes of Pan", words by Adrian Ross (1900)"Always and Everywhere", words by F. H. Fortey Frank H. Fortey (born in India 1876) was a translator of Polish literature. His main work was the poems of Mickiewicz. He lived in King's Norton, Worcester from the Polish of Krasinski (1901)"There are seven that pull the thread", for contralto and orchestra, from Grania and Diarmid, words by W. B. Yeats (1901)"Come, gentle night!", words by Clifton Bingham Clifton Bingham (1859-1913) was an English author of poems and childrens books, many of them illustrated by Louis Wain. (1901)"In the Dawn", words by Arthur Christopher Benson, Op.41 No.1 (1901)"Speak, Music", words by Arthur Christopher Benson. Op.41 No.2 (1901)"Land of Hope and Glory", words by Arthur Christopher Benson (1902)"Speak, my Heart!", words by Arthur Christopher Benson (1903)"A War Song", words by C. Flavell Hayward, Op.5 (1903)"In Moonlight", words by P. B. Shelley, adapted to the Canto popolare from Elgar's concert-overture In the South (Alassio) (1904)Seven Lieder of Edward Elgar (1907)"Like to the Damask Rose", words by Simon Wastell (1892)"Queen Mary's Song", words by Alfred Tennyson (1889)"A Song of Autumn", words by Adam Lindsay Gordon (1892)"The Poet's Life", words by Ellen Burroughs (1892)"Through the Long Days", words by John Hay, Op.16 No.2 (1885)"Rondel", words by Longfellow from a Rondel by Froissart, Op.16 No.3 (1894)"The Shepherd's Song", words by Barry Pain, Op.16 No.1 (1892)"Pleading", words by Arthur L. Salmon, Arthur Leslie Salmon (born 1865), lover of literature, poet, music critic and author of British travel guides. Op.48 This song was published as his Op.48, No.1, but no other Op.48 works exist (1908) "A Child Asleep", words by Mrs. Browning (1910)"Oh, soft was the song", poem by Gilbert Parker, Op.59 No.3 Of the songs in Elgar's planned Op.59, nos. 1, 2 and 4 were never published, and not even their titles are known (1910)"Was it some Golden Star?", poem by Gilbert Parker, Op.59 No.5 (1910)"Twilight", poem by Gilbert Parker, Op.59 No.6 (1910)"The Torch", words by 'Pietro d'Alba', "Pietro d'Alba" (alias "Peter Rabbit") was Elgar's pseudonym for himself Op.60 No.1 (1910) "The River", Folk-Song (Eastern Europe) paraphrased by 'Pietro d'Alba', Op,60 No.2 (1910)"The King's Way", words by C. Alice Elgar (1910)"Arabian Serenade", words by Margery Lawrence Margery Lawrence was the maiden name of Margery Harriet Lawrence Towle (Mrs. Arthur E. Towle)(1889-1969). She was a British writer who also wrote under the name Jerome Latimer (1914)"The Chariots of the Lord", words by the Rev. John Brownlie D.D. John Brownlie, D.D. (1857-1925) Scottish hymnologist - photo and biography (1914)"Follow the Colours", words by Capt. W. de Courcy Stretton, According to the Stretton Manuscripts in RootsWeb, Capt. William de Courcy Stretton of the Royal Artillery was the eldest son of Col. Severus Wiliam Lynam Stretton (1793-1884) of Nottingham, and the Hon. Catherine Adela de Courcy, youngest daughter of the 28th Lord Kingsale, premier baron of Ireland adapted from Marching Song for solo and optional male chorus and orchestra (1914)"Quand nos bourgeons se rouvriront" ("When the spring comes round again"), for soprano, from the recitation with orchestra "Une voix dans le désert", words by Émile Cammaerts (1915) "Fight for Right", words from a poem by William Morris (1916)The Starlight Express, words by Algernon Blackwood, Op.78 (1916)Organ Grinder's Songs, piano accompaniment arranged by Julius Harrison Julius Harrison (1885-1863), composer and conductor. Philip Scowcroft on Julius Harrison 1. "To the Children"2. "The Blue-Eyes Fairy"3. "My Old Tunes"Pageant of Empire, poems by Alfred Noyes (1924). Nos. 5 and 7 also arranged for chorus SATB. All solo songs, except No. 8 for SATB. (some also with orchestral accompaniment)1. "Shakespeare's Kingdom"2. "The Islands (A Song of New Zealand)"3. "The Blue Mountains (A Song of Australia)"4. "The Heart of Canada"5. "Sailing Westward"6. "Merchant Adventurers"7. "The Immortal Legions"8. "A Song of Union" (part-song SATB)"It isnae me", words by Sally Holmes (1930)"XTC", words by the composer (1930) ChoralO Happy Eyes, part-song SATB unacc., words by C. Alice Elgar,, Op.18 No.1 (1890)Love, part-song SATB unacc., words by Arthur Macquarie, dedicated to C. Alice Elgar, Op.18 No.2 (1890)My Love Dwelt in a Northern Land, part-song SATB unacc., words by Andrew Lang, dedicated to Rev. J. Hampton (1890)Spanish Serenade (Stars of the Summer Night), part-song SATB acc. orchestra, words by H. W. Longfellow, Op.23 (1892) (also acc. 2 violins and piano)The Snow, part-song SSA acc. 2 violins and piano, words by C. Alice Elgar, dedicated to Mrs. E. B. Fitton, Op.26 No.1 (1894) (also with orchestral accompaniment, 1903, and various other combinations of voices SATB etc.)Fly, Singing Bird, part-song SSA acc. 2 violins and piano, words by C. Alice Elgar, dedicated to Mrs. E. B. Fitton, Op.26 No.2 (1894) (also with orchestral accompaniment, 1903)From the Bavarian Highlands, choral songs SATB and orchestra, words by C. Alice Elgar, Op. 27 (1895-96) 1. The Dance (Sonnenbichl); 2. False Love (Wamberg); 3. Lullaby (In Hammersbach); 4. Aspiration (Bei Sankt Anton); 5. On the Alm (Hoch Alp); 6. The Marksmen (Bei Murnau)Te Deum and Benedictus, for choir and organ, Op.34 (1897)Grete Malverne on a Rocke, Christmas carol SATB unacc. (1897)To Her Beneath Whose Steadfast Star, part-song SATB unacc., words by H. W. Longfellow, dedicated to Queen Victoria (1899)Ave verum corpus / Jesu, Word of God Incarnate, motet/anthem for choir and organ, Op.2 No.1, dedication "In mem. W. H." (1902, but written in 1887)Five Partsongs from the Greek Anthology, part-songs TTBB, Op.45 (1902) 1. Yea, cast me from height of the mountains, tr. Alma Strettell; 2. Whether I find thee, tr. Andrew Lang; 3. After many a dusty mile, tr. Edmund Gosse; 4. It's oh! to be a wild wind, tr. W. M. Hardinge; 5. Feasting I watch, tr. Richard GarnettWeary Wind of the West, part-song SATB unacc., words by T. E. Brown, composed for Morecambe Festival (1903)Evening Scene, part-song SATB unacc., words by Coventry Patmore, In Memoriam R. G. H. Howson (1905)Ave Maria / Jesu, Lord of Life and Glory, motet/anthem for choir and organ, Op.2 No.2, dedicated to Mrs H. A. Leicester (1907, but written in 1887)Ave maris stella / Jesu, Meek and Lowly, motet/anthem for choir amd organ, Op.2 No.3, dedicated to Rev. Canon Dolman A friend of Elgar's, the Very Rev. Canon Charles Vincent Dolman, O.S.B. was the priest of the Roman Catholic Church of St. Francis Xavier in Broad Street, Hereford (1907, but written in 1887)How calmly the evening, part-song SATB unacc., words by T. Lynch Biography and hymns of Thomas Toke Lynch (1818-1871) (1907)There is sweet Music, part-song SSAATTBB unacc., words by Tennyson, dedicated to Canon Gorton, Op.53 No.1 (1907)Deep in my Soul, part-song SATB unacc., words by Byron, dedicated to Julia H. Worthington, Op.53 No.2 (1907)O Wild West Wind, part-song SATB unacc., words by Shelley, dedicated to W. G. McNaught, Op.53 No.3 (1907)Owls (An Epitaph), part-song SATB unacc., words by 'Pietro d'Alba', Op.53 No.4 (1907)The Reveille, part-song TTBB unacc., words by Bret Harte, dedicated to Henry C. Embleton (1907)Marching Song, part-song SATB, words by Capt. W. de Courcy Stretton (1908). Republished in 1914 as Follow the ColoursAngelus (Tuscany), part-song SATB unacc., words from the Tuscan dialect, dedicated to Mrs. Charles Stuart-Wortley, Op.56 (1909)Go, Song of Mine, part-song SATB unacc., words by Cavalcanti, tr. D. G. Rossetti, dedicated to Alfred H. Littleton, Alfred Henry Littleton was chairman of the publishers Novello. At then time that he wrote the song, Elgar and his wife were staying at the villa of his friend Julia Worthington at Careggi near Florence when they were visited by Littleton, whose wife had just died Op.57 (1909)Lo! Christ the Lord is Born, Christmas carol SATB unacc., words by Shapcott Wensley (1909) The Birthright, part-song SATB unacc., words by G. A. Stocks (1914) The Shower, part-song SATB unacc., words by Henry Vaughan, dedicated to Frances Smart, Op.71 No.1 (1914) The Fountain, part-song SATB unacc., words by Henry Vaughan, dedicated to W. Mann Dyson, Op.71 No.2 (1914) Death on the Hills, choral-song SATB unacc., words from the Russian of Maikov, Vasily Ivanovich Maikov (1728—1778), Russian poet and dramatist. See ru: Майков, Василий Иванович tr. Rosa Newmarch, dedicated to Percy C. Hull, Op.72 (1914) Love's Tempest, part-song SATB unacc., words from the Russian of Maikov, tr. Rosa Newmarch, dedicated to C. Sanford Terry, Op.73 No.1 (1914) Serenade, part-song SATB unacc., words from the Russian of Maikov, tr. Rosa Newmarch, dedicated to Percy C. Hull, Op.73 No.2 (1914) The Merry-go-round, unison song acc. piano, words by Florence C. Fox Florence C. Fox was an American writer of books and poems, and lyricist of songs for children. Her childrens' books include "Fox's Indian Primer" about American Indians and how they lived. (1914) (Published in the USA.) Elgar made four visits to the USA: the last in 1911. He wrote three songs: The Merry-go-round for (children's) voices in unison with piano accompaniment; The Brook a simple two-part song with piano accompaniment; and Windlass Song for four-part voices (SATB) unaccompanied. The songs were published by Silver, Burdett & Co. of New York City in "The Progressive Music Series", books Two (1914), Three (1915) and Four (1915) respectively. All three songs are short: The Merry-go-round 13 bars with two verses - the tune of this is simple and the notation unusually large, indicating that this was written for young children; The Brook 13 bars with three verses; and Windlass Song 14 bars with four verses. Elgar signed a schedule excluding their publication in any form apart from that series, and specifically not to be published outside the USA, though in 1921 Elgar gave permission for them to be published in the Canadian edition of that series. (Information provided on April 1 1980 by Elsie Plant, Senior Editor Music Publications, Silver Burdett Company, 250 James Street, Morristown, NJ) The Brook, 2-part song acc. piano, words by Ellen Soule (1915) (Published in the USA.) The Windlass Song, part-song SATB unacc., words by William Allingham (1915) (Published in the USA.) The Wanderer, part-song TTBB unacc., words Anon. adapted from Wit and Drollery, 1661 (1923) Zut, zut, zut, part-song TTBB unacc., words by Richard Marden (1923) A Song of Union, part-song SATB, words by Alfred Noyes (1924) (one of the Pageant of Empire songs)The Herald, part-song SATB unacc., words by Alexander Smith (1925) The Prince of Sleep, part-song SATB unacc., words by Walter de la Mare (1925) I sing the Birth, Christmas carol SATB unacc., words by Ben Jonson, dedicated to Rev. Harcourt B. S. Fowler (1928) Good Morrow ('A simple carol for His Majesty's happy recovery'), SATB unacc. or acc. piano, words by George Gascoigne, dedicated to King George V (1929) The Rapid Stream, unison song, words by Charles Mackay (1931) When Swallows Fly, unison song, words by Charles Mackay (1931) The Woodland Stream, unison song, words by Charles Mackay (1933) ChamberHarmony Music, for wind quintet Harmony Music performing edition by Richard McNicol, Belwin Mills, London 1977 (1878-1879) (The instrumentation is two flutes, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon or cello) Vol. 1: Six Promenades (1878) - 1. Moderato e molto maestoso; 2. Moderato "Madame Taussaud's"; Elgar's spelling is "Madame Taussaud's" not the correct "Madame Tussaud's" 3. Presto; 4. Andante "Somniferous"; 5. Allegro molto; 6. Allegro Maestoso "Hell and Tommy" Vol. 2: Harmony Music 1 & 2 (1878) - 1. Allegro Molto; 2. Allegro non tanto Vol. 3: Harmony Music 3 & 4 (1879) - 3. Fragment (Allegro); 4. Allegro molto "The Farm Yard" Vol. 4: Harmony Music 5 (1879) - 1. Allegro moderato "The Mission"; 2. Menuetto and Trio; 3. Andante "Noah's Ark"; 4. Finale (Allegro) Vol. 5: Five Intermezzos (1879) - 1. Allegro moderato "The Farmyard"; 2. Adagio; 3. Allegretto "Nancy"; 4. Andante con moto; 5. Allegretto Vol. 6: Four Dances (1879) - 1. Menuetto; 2. Gavotte "The Alphonsa"; 3. Sarabande; 4. Gigue Vol. 7: (1878) - 1. Adagio Cantabile "Mrs Winslow's soothing syrup" 2. Andante Con Variazione "Evesham Andante" Powick Asylum Music, for the asylum band (1879-1884) (The instrumentation is generally: piccolo, flute, clarinet, 2 cornets, euphonium, 1st & 2nd violins, cello, double bass and piano - variations to this are shown)La Brunette: 5 Quadrilles (1879)Die Junge Kokette: 5 Quadrilles (or Caledonians) (1879) (no euphonium)L'Assomoir: 5 Quadrilles (1879) (The 5th quadrille was later used as the "Wild Bears" in the second "Wand of Youth" Suite). (no piccolo)The Valentine: Set of Lancers (1880)Maud: Polka (1880)Paris: 5 Quadrilles (1880) 1. Châtelet; 2. L'Hippodrome; 3. Alcazar d'Été (Champs Élysées); 4. La! Suzanne; 5. Café des Ambassadeurs: "La femme de l'emballeur"Nelly: Polka (1881) (viola added)La Blonde: Polka (1882) (no flute; trombone replaces euphonium)Helcia: Polka (1883) (no flute; viola added)Blumine: Polka (1884) (no piccolo; no euphonium)Duett for trombone and double bass (1887) String Quartet in E minor, Op. 83 (1918). Dedicated to the Brodsky Quartet Piano Quintet in A minor, Op. 84 (1918-19). Dedicated to Ernest Newman InstrumentalRomance, for violin and piano, Op. 1 (1878) Dedicated to Oswin GraingerIdylle (Esquisse Facile), for violin and piano, Op. 4 No. 1 (1883) Dedicated to E. E., InvernessPastourelle, for violin and piano, Op. 4 No. 2 (1883) Dedicated to Miss Hilda Fitton, MalvernVirelai, for violin and piano, Op. 4 No. 3 (1883) Dedicated to Frank WebbGavotte, for violin and piano (1885) Dedicated to Dr. C. W. BuckAllegretto on G.E.D.G.E., for violin and piano (1888). Dedicated to The Misses Gedge, MalvernSalut d'Amour (Liebesgruss), for violin and piano, Op.12 (1888) Dedication "à Carice"Mot d'Amour, for violin and piano, Op. 13 No. 1 (1889)Bizarrerie, for violin and piano, Op. 13 No. 2 (1890)La Capricieuse, for violin and piano, Op. 17 (1891) Dedicated to Fred WardVery Melodious Exercises in the First Position, for violin and piano, Op. 22 (1892). Dedicated to May Grafton, Elgar's niece.Etudes Caractéristiques, for solo violin, Op. 24 (1892)Chanson de Nuit for violin and piano, Op. 15 No. 1 (1897). Dedicated to F. Ehrke, M.D. Dr. Frank Ehrke of the Manor House, Kempsey was 1st violin in the Worcestershire Philharmonic Society Orchestra Arranged by the composer for orchestra 1899. Chanson de Matin for violin and piano, Op. 15 No. 2 (1899). Arranged by the composer for orchestra 1901.Offertoire (Andante Religioso), for violin and piano (1903) Dedicated to Serge Derval, Antwerp Violin Sonata in E minor, Op. 82 (1918) Dedicated to Marie JoshuaSoliloquy for solo oboe (1930) Keyboard All for piano unless otherwise indicated Cantique, Op. 3, for organ (1879; originally Adagio solonelle, arranged for orchestra 1912) Douce Pensée, for piano trio (1882) Griffinesque (1884) Presto (1889) 11 Vesper Voluntaries, Op. 14, for organ May-Song (1901) Concert Allegro, Op. 46 (1901; unpublished) Skizze (1903) In Smyrna (1905) Sonatina (pub. 1932) Adieu (pub. 1932) Serenade (pub. 1932) Organ Sonata in G Major, Op. 28 Memorial Chimes for a Carillon (1923; composed for the opening of the Loughborough War Memorial Carillon) Brass bandSevern Suite, Op. 87 (1930) (transcribed for orchestra in 1932) 1. Introduction (Worcester Castle); 2. Toccata (Tournament); 3, Fugue (The Cathedral); 4. Minuet (Commandery); 5. CodaTranscriptions and arrangements J. S. Bach, Fantasia and Fugue in C minor, BWV 537, transcription for orchestra, Op.86 (1921-1922) Hubert Parry, Jerusalem (1922) Handel, Overture in D minor (Overture to Chandos Anthem "In the Lord put I my Trust", HWV247), transcription for orchestra (1923) Chopin, Funeral March from the Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat minor Op. 35, transcription for orchestra (1933) See also Dorabella Cipher Bibliography Fiction Footnotes External links The Elgar Society and The Elgar Foundation The Elgar Birthplace Museum Claines Church where Elgar's maternal grandparents are buried A detailed chronology of Elgar's works with information and articles to all works, by The Elgar Society Newsreel film of Elgar speaking, then conducting the Trio of his Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1 at the opening of EMI's Abbey Road studios, 12 November 1931 (Italian) Edward Elgar: Pomp and Circumstance listen track on Magazzini-Sonori 'The Growing Significance of Elgar', lecture by Simon Mundy given at Gresham College on 29 June 2007 Spetchley Park where Elgar often stayed and composed, specifically the Dream of Gerontius'' Films of Elgar: black and white silent movies 1. Elgar conducting; 2. & 3. Elgar with his dogs Marco and Mina; 4. Outside Hereford Cathedral (can you lip read?); 5. 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169 | Golem | In Jewish folklore, a golem (גולם, sometimes, as in Yiddish, pronounced goilem) is an animate being created entirely from inanimate matter. In modern Hebrew the word golem literally means "cocoon", but can also mean "fool", "silly", or even "stupid". The name appears to derive from the word gelem (גלם), which means "raw material". Alternatively some sources indicate it is a corruption of the Hebrew go′al 'enu (גואלנו) our redeemer or our avenger, this version is supported by the 16th century Prague ghetto stories (see below). History Origins of the word The word golem is used in the Bible to refer to an embryonic or incomplete substance: Psalm 139:16 uses the word , meaning my unshaped form. The Mishnah uses the term for an uncultivated person ("Seven characteristics are in an uncultivated person, and seven in a learned one", Pirkei Avot 5:6 in the hebrew text, varies in english translations). Similarly, golems are often used today in metaphor either as brainless lunks or as entities serving man under controlled conditions but hostile to him in others. Similarly, it is a Yiddish slang insult for someone who is clumsy or slow. Earliest stories The earliest stories of golems date to early Judaism. Adam is described in the Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin 38b) as initially created as a golem when his dust was "kneaded into a shapeless hunk". Like Adam, all golems are created from clay. They were a creation of those who were very holy and close to God. A very holy person was one who strove to approach God, and in that pursuit would gain some of God's wisdom and power. One of these powers was the creation of life. No matter how holy a person became, however, a being created by that person would be but a shadow of one created by God. Early on, the notion developed that the main disability of the golem was its inability to speak. In Sanhedrin 65b, is the description of Rava creating a man (gavra). He sent him to Rav Zeira; Rav Zeira spoke to him, but he did not answer. Said Rav Zeira, "You were created by the magicians; return to your dust." Owning and activating golems Having a golem servant was seen as the ultimate symbol of wisdom and holiness, and there are many tales of golems connected to prominent rabbis throughout the Middle Ages. Other attributes of the golem were gradually added over time. In many tales the Golem is inscribed with magic or religious words that keep it animated. Writing one of the names of God on its forehead, a slip of paper in its mouth, or inscribed on its body, or writing the word Emet (אמת, "truth" in the Hebrew language) on its forehead are examples of such words. By erasing the first letter aleph in Emet to form Met (מת, "dead" in Hebrew, when the aleph letter א is cancelled) the golem could be deactivated. Another way is by writing a specific incantation in the owner's blood on calfskin parchment, and placing it in the mouth. Removing the parchment will deactivate the golem. It is likely that this is the same incantation that the Rabbi recites in the classic narrative. The classic narrative The most famous golem narrative involves Judah Loew ben Bezalel the late 16th century chief rabbi of Prague known as the Maharal, who reportedly created a golem to defend the Prague ghetto from anti-Semitic attacks. This story of the Golem first appeared in print in 1847 in Galerie der Sippurim, a collection of Jewish tales published by Wolf Pascheles of Prague. In 1911 an account in Hebrew and Yiddish was published by Yudl Rosenberg in Lwow, supposedly based on the found diary of Rabbi Loew's son-in-law, who had helped create the golem; but the authenticity of this manuscript is in dispute. Depending on the version of the legend, under Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor, the Jews in Prague were to be either expelled or killed. To protect the Jewish community the rabbi constructed the Golem out of clay from the banks of the Vltava river and brought it to life through rituals and Hebrew incantations. As this golem grew it became increasingly violent, killing gentiles and spreading fear. A different story tells of the Golem falling in love, and when rejected, he became the violent monster as seen in most accounts. Some versions have the Golem eventually turning on its creator and perhaps even attacking other Jews. The Emperor begged Rabbi Loew to destroy the Golem, promising to stop the persecution of the Jews. To deactivate the Golem, the rabbi rubbed out the first letter of the word "emet" (truth or reality) from the creature's forehead leaving the Hebrew word "met", meaning death. The Emperor understood that the Golem's body, stored in the attic genizah of the Old New Synagogue, would be restored to life again if needed. Accordingly, the body of Rabbi Loew's golem still lies in the synagogue's attic, although some versions of the tale have the golem stolen from the genizah and entombed in a graveyard in Prague's Žižkov district where now the great Žižkovská tower stands. A recent legend is told of a Nazi agent ascending to the synagogue attic during World War II and trying to stab the Golem, but perishing instead. At any rate, the attic is not open to the general public. The existence of a golem is sometimes a mixed blessing. Golems are not intelligent — if commanded to perform a task, they will take the instructions perfectly literally. In some incarnations of the legend, the Maharal's Golem had superhuman powers to aid it in its tasks. These include invisibility, a heated touch, and the ability to use the Maharal's walking stick to summon spirits from the dead. This last power was often crucial, as the Golem could summon dead witnesses to testify in Prague courts. The hubris theme In many depictions golems are inherently perfectly obedient. However, in its earliest known modern form the story has Rabbi Eliyahu of Chełm creating a golem that became enormous and uncooperative. In one version of this the rabbi had to resort to trickery to deactivate it, whereupon it crumbled upon its creator and crushed him. There is a similar hubris theme in Frankenstein, The Sorcerer's Apprentice and some golem-derived stories in popular culture. The theme also manifests itself in R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), Karel Čapek's 1921 play which coined the term robot; the novel was written in Prague and while Capek denied that he modeled the robot after the golem, there are many similarities in the plot. R.U.R.- Rossums Universal Robots by Karel Capek, transl. By Voyen Koreis The golem in European culture In the late 20th century the golem was adopted by mainstream European society. Most notably Gustav Meyrink's 1914 novel Der Golem based on the tales of the golem created by Judah Loew ben Bezalel. This book inspired a classic set of expressionistic silent movies, Paul Wegener's Golem series, of which The Golem: How He Came Into the World (also released as The Golem, 1920, USA 1921--the only surviving film of the trilogy) is especially famous. Another famous treatment from the same era is H. Leivick's 1921 Yiddish-language "dramatic poem in eight sections" The Golem. Also notable is Julien Duvivier's "Le Golem" (1936), a sequel to the Wegener film. Nobel prize winner Isaac Bashevis Singer also wrote a version of the legend. These tales saw a dramatic change of the golem. The golem became a creation of overambitious and overreaching mystics, who would inevitably be punished for their blasphemy, as in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and the alchemical homunculus. The homunculus appears occasionally in the folklore of Eastern Europe as a construct made from natural materials such as dirt, roots, insects, feces, and other substances. In these stories the creature is revived through incantation and acts as a vehicle for the astrally projected mind of a sorcerer. Dutch novelist, Harry Mulisch's 1999 novel, The Procedure is in part a modern re-interpretation of the Golem myth, starting with a 'historical' description of the kabbalistic experiment which results in a murderous female Golem. Czech Republic The golem is a popular figure in the Czech Republic. There are several restaurants and other businesses named after him. Strongman René Richter goes by the nickname "Golem", and a Czech monster truck outfit calls itself the "Golem Team". The golem had a main role in the 1951 Czech movie Císařův pekař a pekařův císař (released in the US as The Emperor and the Golem). Composer Karel Svoboda finished his last musical based on the legend of Golem only two months before his suicide. This musical seems to be a flop due to an overcomplicated plot and a lack of musical ideas in songs. In modern culture Golems appear in a wide variety of books, comic books, films, television shows, fantasy anime and games, ranging from an umbrella term for automata and simulacra. Golems are common characters in computer RPG videogames and tabletop games such as Dungeons & Dragons, Diablo or Heroes of Might and Magic, being usually made of earth; but also metal, flesh or other substances. Typically, a golem is a creation of a wizard or sorcerer to act as a servant or guardian. These are some notable contemporary uses of the golem mythos: The Golem of Prague has appeared in stories across many media, including Michael Chabon's 2000 Pulitzer Prize winning novel The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay, in which Josef Kavalier helps save the Golem of Prague from Nazi invasion, Gregory Keyes' A Calculus of Angels, Umberto Eco's Foucault's Pendulum, and Marge Piercy's He, She and It. It! is the 1966 British-made film about a golem run amok in England. Actor Roddy McDowall stars as mad assistant curator Arthur Pimm who brings to life the museum's golem statue. The Digimon Golemon is based on a Golem in both of its forms. Several creatures in the Pokémon universe and video game series are named after, or based on, golems. The character Astaroth in the Soul series of video games is a large, axe-wielding golem. In Halloweentown 2: Kalabar's Revenge the character Kal creates a golem named Alex using frogs, which pretends to be his father. In the "Kaddish" episode of The X-Files (season 4, episode 15), agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully suspect a murdered Jewish bookstore clerk may have been resurrected as a golem and is exacting revenge by the murders of three young anti-semites. In the science fiction novel Kiln People (2002) by David Brin people can create clay duplicates of themselves called dittos or golems. Brin, who is Jewish, used several names from golem stories as names of characters: one is named Maharal, for example. In the fantasy series Discworld By Terry Pratchett, many characters are Golems, some given the ability of speech and ownership of themselves. In the children's fantasy trilogy Bartimaeus by British author Jonathan Stroud, the central book of the trilogy, The Golem's Eye, features a golem. In Ash: A Secret History by British fantasy and science fiction writer Mary Gentle, golem (singular and plural), are used as servants and war machines by an alternate-history Carthage; the creature also appears in Gentle's Ilario: The Lion's Eye and its sequel, Ilario: The Stone Golem. Again, a rabbi of Prague is the inventor. In the 1980s Chabad Lubavitch published a comic called Mendy and the Golem, where a 13 year old boy would get into trouble and be saved by his own personal Golem. Godzilla's ally King Caesar is a golem resembling a lion with flopped-over ears. In the Fablehaven series, there is a golem named Hugo. In the first book, Hugo gains possession of himself. He is still obedient, but he can be convinced to disobey orders. Further reading References R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, translation by David Wyllie | Golem |@lemmatized jewish:5 folklore:2 golem:80 גולם:1 sometimes:2 yiddish:4 pronounce:1 goilem:1 animate:2 create:13 entirely:1 inanimate:1 matter:2 modern:4 hebrew:8 word:10 literally:2 mean:5 cocoon:1 also:7 fool:1 silly:1 even:2 stupid:1 name:9 appear:6 derive:2 gelem:1 גלם:1 raw:1 material:2 alternatively:1 source:1 indicate:1 corruption:1 go:2 al:1 enu:1 גואלנו:1 redeemer:1 avenger:1 version:6 support:1 century:3 prague:11 ghetto:2 story:9 see:3 history:3 origin:1 use:8 bible:1 refer:1 embryonic:1 incomplete:1 substance:3 psalm:1 unshaped:1 form:4 mishnah:1 term:3 uncultivated:2 person:5 seven:2 characteristic:1 learned:1 one:7 pirkei:1 avot:1 text:1 varies:1 english:1 translation:2 similarly:2 often:2 today:1 metaphor:1 either:2 brainless:1 lunks:1 entity:1 serve:1 man:2 controlled:1 condition:1 hostile:1 others:1 slang:1 insult:1 someone:1 clumsy:1 slow:1 early:5 stories:1 date:1 judaism:1 adam:2 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machine:1 alternate:1 carthage:1 ilario:2 lion:2 stone:1 inventor:1 chabad:1 lubavitch:1 mendy:1 year:1 boy:1 get:1 trouble:1 personal:1 godzilla:1 ally:1 king:1 caesar:1 resemble:1 flopped:1 ear:1 fablehaven:1 hugo:2 possession:1 convince:1 disobey:1 order:1 reading:1 reference:1 wyllie:1 |@bigram raw_material:1 talmud_tractate:1 tractate_sanhedrin:1 judah_loew:2 loew_ben:2 ben_bezalel:2 anti_semitic:1 sorcerer_apprentice:1 nobel_prize:1 isaac_bashevis:1 bashevis_singer:1 mary_shelley:1 shelley_frankenstein:1 czech_republic:2 dungeon_dragon:1 michael_chabon:1 pulitzer_prize:1 gregory_keyes:1 umberto_eco:1 foucault_pendulum:1 marge_piercy:1 anti_semite:1 science_fiction:2 david_brin:1 terry_pratchett:1 singular_plural:1 chabad_lubavitch:1 |
170 | Niklaus_Wirth | Niklaus Emil Wirth (born February 15, 1934) is a Swiss computer scientist, best known for designing several programming languages, including Pascal, and for pioneering several classic topics in software engineering. In 1984 he won the Turing Award for developing a sequence of innovative computer languages. Biography Wirth was born in Winterthur, Switzerland, in 1934. In 1959 he earned a degree in Electronics Engineering from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich (ETH Zürich). In 1960 he earned an M.Sc. from Université Laval, Canada. Then in 1963 he was awarded a Ph.D.in EECS from the University of California, Berkeley, supervised by the computer designer pioneer Harry Huskey. From 1963 to 1967 he served as assistant professor of Computer Science at Stanford University and again at the University of Zurich. Then in 1968 he became Professor of Informatics at ETH Zürich, taking a two year sabbatical at Xerox PARC in California. Wirth retired in 1999. Programming Languages Niklaus Wirth, 1969 Wirth was the chief designer of the programming languages Euler, Algol W, Pascal, Modula, Modula-2 and Oberon. He was also a major part of the design and implementation team for the Lilith and Oberon operating systems, and for the Lola digital hardware design and simulation system. He received the ACM Turing Award for the development of these languages and in 1994 he was inducted as a Fellow of the ACM. He designed the simple programming language PL/0 to illustrate compiler design. It has formed the basis for many university compiler design classes. Notable publications His article Program Development by Stepwise Refinement, about the teaching of programming, is considered to be a classic text in software engineering. In 1975 he wrote the book Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs, which gained wide recognition and is still useful today. Wirth's law In 1995, he popularized the adage now known as Wirth's law: "Software is getting slower more rapidly than hardware becomes faster." In his 1995 paper A Plea for Lean Software he attributes it to Martin Reiser. Quotes See also Extended Backus–Naur form Wirth syntax notation Bucky bits Wirth's law Wirth-Weber precedence relationship References External links Biography at ETH Zürich. Personal home page at ETH Zürich. Program Development by Stepwise Refinement, Communications of the ACM, 14(4):221–227, April 1971. Pascal and its Successors paper by Niklaus Wirth – also includes short biography. A Few Words with Niklaus Wirth The School of Niklaus Wirth: The Art of Simplicity, by László Böszörményi, Jürg Gutknecht, Gustav Pomberger (editors). dpunkt.verlag / Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2000. ISBN 3-932588-85-1 / ISBN 1-55860-723-4. The book about the Oberon language and Operating System is now available as a PDF file. Project Oberon - The Design of an Operating System and Compiler The PDF file has an additional appendix Ten Years After: From Objects to Components. The book Compiler Construction a lot more books in PDF format : http://fruttenboel.verhoeven272.nl/Oberon/index.html | Niklaus_Wirth |@lemmatized niklaus:5 emil:1 wirth:13 born:1 february:1 swiss:2 computer:4 scientist:1 best:1 know:2 design:7 several:2 programming:4 language:6 include:2 pascal:3 pioneer:2 classic:2 topic:1 software:4 engineering:3 win:1 turing:2 award:3 develop:1 sequence:1 innovative:1 biography:3 bear:1 winterthur:1 switzerland:1 earn:2 degree:1 electronics:1 federal:1 institute:1 technology:1 zürich:5 eth:4 sc:1 université:1 laval:1 canada:1 ph:1 eec:1 university:4 california:2 berkeley:1 supervise:1 designer:2 harry:1 huskey:1 serve:1 assistant:1 professor:2 science:1 stanford:1 zurich:1 become:2 informatics:1 take:1 two:1 year:2 sabbatical:1 xerox:1 parc:1 retire:1 program:4 chief:1 languages:1 euler:1 algol:1 w:1 modula:2 oberon:5 also:3 major:1 part:1 implementation:1 team:1 lilith:1 operate:1 system:4 lola:1 digital:1 hardware:2 simulation:1 receive:1 acm:3 development:3 induct:1 fellow:1 simple:1 pl:1 illustrate:1 compiler:4 form:2 basis:1 many:1 class:1 notable:1 publication:1 article:1 stepwise:2 refinement:2 teaching:1 consider:1 text:1 write:1 book:4 algorithm:1 data:1 structure:1 gain:1 wide:1 recognition:1 still:1 useful:1 today:1 law:3 popularize:1 adage:1 get:1 slow:1 rapidly:1 faster:1 paper:2 plea:1 lean:1 attribute:1 martin:1 reiser:1 quote:1 see:1 extend:1 backus:1 naur:1 syntax:1 notation:1 bucky:1 bit:1 weber:1 precedence:1 relationship:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 personal:1 home:1 page:1 communication:1 april:1 successor:1 short:1 word:1 school:1 art:1 simplicity:1 lászló:1 böszörményi:1 jürg:1 gutknecht:1 gustav:1 pomberger:1 editor:1 dpunkt:1 verlag:1 morgan:1 kaufmann:1 publisher:1 isbn:2 operating:2 available:1 pdf:3 file:2 project:1 additional:1 appendix:1 ten:1 object:1 component:1 construction:1 lot:1 format:1 http:1 fruttenboel:1 nl:1 index:1 html:1 |@bigram eth_zürich:4 xerox_parc:1 niklaus_wirth:4 modula_modula:1 acm_turing:1 backus_naur:1 external_link:1 communication_acm:1 morgan_kaufmann:1 kaufmann_publisher:1 |
171 | Cairo | Cairo ( ), is the capital city of Egypt, and is the largest city in Africa, and the Arab World. List of largest cities of the Arab League It is the largest metropolitan area in Egypt, and is one of the most populous in the world. Cairo has long been the center of the region's cultural and artistic life, and has the oldest and largest film and music industries in the Arab World, earning it the name of the "Hollywood of the East". While Al-Qahirah is the official name of the city in Arabic, Egyptians often refer to it simply as Misr (the Arabic name for Egypt itself). Cairo was founded by the Fatimid Caliphate, replacing Fustat as the seat of the government, and serving as the capital of Egypt ever since. Cairo has a population of about 8 million people, according to the 2008 population census. The number of inhabitants was about a million higher at the time of the census, but this was adjusted downwards on the 17th of April 2008 when the new government of Helwan was created from parts of the old Cairo government. Cairo's metropolitan area has a population of about 17.8 million people. Microsoft Word - dmgua2007-front.doc Cairo is the sixteenth most populous metropolitan area in the world. It is also the most populous metropolitan area in Africa. The challenge of urban growth in Cairo Cairo has a mix of historical and modern cultural sights. This includes the Pyramids, the Hanging Church, Saladin's Citadel, the Virgin Mary's Tree, the Sphinx, and Heliopolis, Al-Azhar, the Mosque of Amr ibn al-A'as, Saqqara, the Cairo Tower, and the Old City. Cairo is nicknamed "The City of A Thousand Minarets". Etymology The name Al-Qahirah has been said to mean "the Antisaint", and is often translated as "the Victorious". The origin of Al-Qahirah is said to come from the appearance of the planet Mars during the foundation of the City of Cairo. The planet Mars, which in Greek was called Ares, was associated with ruin or destruction and was called Al Najm Al Qahir in Arabic. Al Najm Al Qahir is transliterated as "the destroyer star [planet]". The legacy of the name evolved into “Qahirat Al Adaa” meaning “the subduer of the enemies”. This title was given to the city as many armies were destroyed in attempts to invade Cairo or defeated elsewhere by troops sent from the settlement. The Arabic word "qa'id" means commander of the house or Kingdom. "Alqaida" means Foot or Rear End. The root of these words is seen in the Romanized Arabic word "qa'ad", which means to die, wander, or stand, which in Swahili is "kaa". This connection is questionable, however, because the Arabic roots 'qaf-alif-dal', meaning "to lead" (and from whence comes the word "qa'id", meaning "commander, and 'qaf-'ayin'-dal", meaning "to sit" (hence qa'ida - base) are not related, despite their similar appearance in English. "Qa" corresponds to the Latin word "cola" meaning seat [tail] and cultivated land. The prefix of Cairo may also mean the landing or the quay, the small hill by the river, that serves as a wharf. In Swahili, "harabu" means to ruin or destroy, and the Persian word "CARR←O" means army or the camp of an army. History Cairo was founded in 969 AD as the royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliphs, while the actual economic and administrative capital was in nearby Fustat. Modern Cairo encompasses Fustat, as well as other previous capitals — Al-Askar and Al-Qatta'i. Fustat was established by Arab military commander 'Amr ibn al-'As following the conquest of Egypt in 641, and took over as the capital which previously was located in Alexandria. Al-Askar, located in what is now Old Cairo, was the capital of Egypt from 750 to 868. Ahmad ibn Tulun established Al-Qatta'i as the new capital of Egypt, and remained the capital until 905, when the Fustat once again became the capital. After Fustat was destroyed in 1168/1169 to prevent its capture by the Crusaders, the administrative capital of Egypt moved to Cairo, where it has remained ever since. It took four years for the General Jawhar Al Sikilli (the Sicilian) to build Cairo and for the Fatimid Calif Al Muizz to leave his old Mahdia in Tunisia and settle in the new Capital of Fatimids in Egypt. After Memphis, Heliopolis, Giza and the Byzantine fortress of Babylon-in-Egypt, Fustat was a new city built as a military garrison for Arab troops. It was the closest central location to Arabia that was accessible to the Nile. Fustat became a regional center of Islam during the Umayyad period. It was where the Umayyad ruler, Marwan II, made his last stand against the Abbasids. Later, during the Fatimid era, Al-Qahira (Cairo) was officially founded in 969 as an imperial capital just to the north of Fustat. Over the centuries, Cairo grew to absorb other local cities such as Fustat, but the year 969 is considered the "founding year" of the modern city. Cairo soon became a center of learning, with the library of Cairo containing as many as two million books. Patricia Skinner (2001), Unani-tibbi, Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine In 1250, the slave soldiers or Mamluks seized Egypt and ruled from their capital at Cairo until 1517, when they were defeated by the Ottomans. By the 16th century, Cairo had high-rise apartment buildings where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. Napoleon's French army briefly occupied Egypt from 1798 to 1801, after which an Albanian officer in the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali Pasha made Cairo the capital of an independent empire that lasted from 1805 to 1882. The city then came under British control until Egypt attained independence in 1922. Geography Cairo is located on the banks and islands of the Nile River in the north of Egypt, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and breaks into two branches into the low-lying Nile Delta region. Referring to Cairo often means Greater Cairo, which is composed of Cairo governate, part of Giza and Qaluobyia governates. Since May 2008 Greater Cairo has been divided into 4 new governates: Cairo, Helwan, Giza Governorate and the 6th of October Governorate. Cairo University is in Giza governate, while Cairo governate has the Ain Shams University. The oldest part of the city is east of the river. The city gradually spreads west, engulfing the agricultural lands next to the Nile. These western areas, built on the model of Paris by Khedive Ismail in the mid-19th century, are marked by wide boulevards, public gardens, and open spaces. The older eastern section of the city is very different: having grown up haphazardly over the centuries, it is filled with small lanes and crowded tenements. While western Cairo is dominated by tater government buildings and modern architecture, the eastern half is filled with hundreds of ancient mosques. Extensive water systems have also allowed the city to expand east into the desert. Bridges link the Nile islands of Gezira and Roda, where many government buildings are located and government officials live. Bridges also cross the Nile attaching the city to the suburbs of Giza and Imbabah (part of the Cairo conurbation). West of Giza, in the desert, is part of the ancient necropolis of Memphis on the Giza plateau, with its three large pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza. Approximately 11 miles (18 km) to the south of modern Cairo is the site of the ancient Egyptian city of Memphis and adjoining necropolis of Saqqara. These cities were Cairo's ancient predecessors, when Cairo was still in this approximate geographical location. In Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a mixture between mediterranean climate and desert climate (BWh according to the system), but often with high humidity due to the river valley's effects. Wind storms can be frequent, bringing Saharan dust into the city during the months of March and April. High temperatures in winter range from 13°C to 19°C, while nighttime lows drop to below 8°C, often to 5°C. In summer, the highs rarely surpass 40°C, and lows drop to about 20°C. Rainfall is sparse, but sudden showers do cause harsh flooding. In a city near Cairo called New Cairo, the temperatures often drop below zero during winter. New Cairo's weather is generally cooler than that of Cairo due to its high altitude. Infrastructure Health Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main center for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of medical care in the country. Cairo's hospitals include As-Salam International Hospital- Corniche El Nile; Maadi (Egypt's largest private hospital with 350 beds), Ain Shams University Hospital, Dar El Fouad Hospital, as well as Qasr El Ainy General Hospital. Education Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services not only for Egypt but also for the whole Arab world. Today, Cairo is the center for many government offices governing the Egyptian educational system, has the largest number of educational schools, and higher learning institutes among other cities and governorates of Egypt. Some of the International Schools found in Cairo include: Universities in Cairo: + University Date of Foundation Al Azhar University 975 - world's second oldest surviving degree granting university Cairo University 1908 American University in Cairo 1919 Ain Shams University 1950 Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport 1972 Helwan University 1975 Sadat Academy for Management Sciences 1981 Modern Academy In Maadi 1993 Misr International University 1996 Misr University for Science and Technology 1996 Modern Sciences and Arts University 1996 Université Française d'Égypte2002 German University in Cairo 2003 Canadian International College 2004 British University in Egypt 2005 Nile University 2006 Transportation Transportation in Cairo comprises an extensive road network, rail system, subway system, and maritime services. Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately-owned public buses, and microbuses. Cairo, specifically Ramses Square, is the center of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network. The subway system, officially called "Metro (مترو)", is a fast and efficient way of getting around Cairo. It can get very crowded during rush hour. Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want. An extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages. There is a new Ring Road that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts. There are flyovers, and bridges such as the Sixth of October bridge that, when it doesn't experience heavy traffic, allows fast means of transportation from one side of the city to the other. Cairo traffic is known to be overwhelming and overcrowded. Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace. Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at intersections, taking turns going, with police aiding in traffic control of some congested areas. Cairo International Airport Ramses Railway Station Cairo Tram Cairo Transportation Authority CTA Cairo Taxi Cairo Yellow Cab Cairo Nile Ferry Sports Soccer is the most popular sport in Egypt, and Cairo has a number of sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues. The best known teams are Al-Ahly and El Zamalek, whose annual football tournament is perhaps the most watched sports event in Egypt as well as the African and Arabian World. Both teams are known as the "rivals" of Egyptian football, and are the first and the second champions in the African continent and the Arab World. Both teams play their home games at Cairo International Stadium or Naser Stadium , which is Cairo's, Egypt's, Africa's and the Middle East's largest stadium and one of the largest in the world. The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960 and its multi-purpose sports complex that houses the main football stadium, an indoor stadium, several satellite fields that held several regional, continental and global games, including the African Games, U17 Football World Championship and was one of the stadiums scheduled that hosted the 2006 African Nations Cup which was played on January, 2006, which Egypt won its title for the record number of five times in African Continental Competition's history. Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, which was hosted in Beijing, China. However, Cairo will host the Pan-Arab Games this year and next year. There are several other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including el Gezira Sporting Club, el Shams Club, el Seid Club, Heliopolis Club and several smaller clubs, but the biggest clubs in Egypt (not in area but in sports) are Al Zamalek & Al Ahly. They have the two biggest football teams in Egypt. Most of the sports federations of the country are also located in the city suburbs, including the Egyptian Football Association. The headquarters of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in 6 October City, a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts. On October 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the International Rugby Board. Culture Over the ages, and as far back as four thousand years, Egypt stood as the land where civilizations have always met. The Pharaohs together with the Greeks and the Romans have left their imprints here. Muslims from the Arab Peninsula, led by Amr ibn al-A'as, introduced Islam into Egypt. Khedive Mohammad Ali, with his Albanian family roots, put Egypt on the road to modernity. If anything, the cultural mix in this country is natural, given its heritage. Egypt can be likened to an open museum with monuments of the different historical periods on display everywhere. Cairo Opera House President Mubarak inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centers on October 10, 1988, seventeen years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire. The National Cultural Center was built with the help of JICA, the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the Japanese-Egyptian co-operation and the friendship between these two nations. Egypt is proud to be the only state in the region which built two opera houses within a century. Khedivial Opera House The Khedivial Opera House or Royal Opera House was the original opera house in Cairo, Egypt. It was dedicated on November 1, 1869 and burned down on October 28, 1971. After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988. Cairo International Film Festival Egypt's love of the arts in general can be traced back to the rich heritage bequeathed by the Pharaohs. In modern times, Egypt has enjoyed a strong cinematic tradition since the art of filmmaking was first developed, early in the 20th century. A natural progression from the active theatre scene of the time, cinema rapidly evolved into a vast motion picture industry. This together with the much older music tradition, raised Egypt to become the cultural capital of the Arab world. For more than 500 years of recorded history, Egypt has fascinated the West and inspired its creative talents from play writer William Shakespeare, poet and dramatist John Dryden, and novelist and poet Lawrence Durrell to film producer Cecil B. de Mille. Since the silent movies Hollywood has been capitalising on the box-office returns that come from combining Egyptian stories with visual effects. Egypt has also been a fount of Arabic literature, producing some of the 20th century's greatest Arab writers such as Taha Hussein and Tawfiq al-Hakim to Nobel Laureate, novelist Naguib Mahfouz. Each of them has written for the cinema. With these credentials, it was clear that Cairo should aim to hold an international film festival. This dream came true on Monday August 16, 1976, when the first Cairo International Film Festival was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh. The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983. This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the FIAPF with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival. The request was granted. In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, Hussein Fahmy, who was appointed by the Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosni, after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba. Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president. For 29 years, the home of the Pyramids and Nile has hosted international superstars like Nicolas Cage , John Malkovich, Morgan Freeman, Bud Spencer, Gina Lollobrigida, Ornella Mutti, Sophia Loren, Claudia Cardinale, Victoria Abril, Elizabeth Taylor, Shashi Kapoor, Alain Delon, Greta Scacchi, Catherine Deneuve, Peter O'toole, Christopher Lee, Irene Pappas, Marcello Mastroianni, Kurt Russell, Goldie Hawn, Alicia Silverstone and Omar Sharif, as well as great directors like Robert Wise, Elia Kazan, Vanessa Redgrave, Oliver Stone, Roland Joffe, Carlos Saura, Ismail Merchant and Michel Angelo Antonioni, in an annual celebration and examination of the state of cinema in the world today. Cairo Geniza The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the genizah of the Ben Ezra synagogue (built 882) of Fostat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century. These documents were written from about 870 to as late as 1880 AD and have now been archived in various American and European libraries. The Taylor-Schechter collection in the University of Cambridge runs to 140,000 manuscripts; there are a further 40,000 manuscripts at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Al-Azhar Park Inaugurated in May 2005, Al-Azhar Park is located adjacent to Cairo's Darb al-Ahmar district. The Park was created by the Historic Cities Support Programme (HCSP) of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC), an entity of the Aga Khan Development Network, and was a gift to Cairo from His Highness the Aga Khan. It is interesting to note that the city of Cairo was founded in the year 969 by the Fatimid Imam-Caliphs who were ancestors of the Aga Khan. During the development of the park, a part of the 12th century Ayyubid wall was discovered and subsequently restored. The wall had originally been built by Salah al-Din al-Ayubbi as a defense against the crusaders. The discovery prompted additional research into the nearby historic neighborhood of Darb al-Ahmar, and eventually led to a major project encompassing the restoration of several mosques, palaces and historic houses. The HCSP also established social and economic programs to provide a wide range of assistance for local residents. Media Egyptian Media Production City in Cairo The 6th of October city-based Media Production city ( MPC) is the biggest ever built information and media complex, which, together with the Egyptian media satellites "Nilesat 101", "Nilesat 102", will allow Egypt to step into the new world of the 21st century. Thereby, Cairo will be well-qualified and well-equipped to maintain its pioneering role in the field of satellite television Economy Cairo is also in every respect the center of Egypt, as it has been almost since its founding in 969 AD. 15% of all Egyptians live there. The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city. The great majority of publishing houses and media outlets and nearly all film studios are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities. This has fueled rapid construction in the city—one building in five is less than 15 years old. This astonishing growth until recently surged well ahead of city services. Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all suddenly in short supply. Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like "hyper-urbanization". Tourism The Egyptian Museum The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world. It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms Khan El-Khalili Khan el-Khalili is for many the most entertaining part of Cairo. It is an ancient shopping area, nothing less, but some of the shops have also their own little factories or workshops. The suq (which is the Arabic name for bazaar, or market) dates back to 1382, when Emir Djaharks el-Khalili built a big caravanserai (or khan) right here. A caravanserai was a sort of hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for economic activity for any surrounding area. This caravanserai is still there, you just ask for the narrow street of Sikka Khan el-Khalili and Badestan. Old Cairo The part of Cairo that contains Coptic Cairo and Fostat, which contains the Coptic Museum, Babylon Fortress, Hanging Church, the Greek Church of St. George, many other Coptic churches, the Ben Ezra Synagogue and Amr ibn al-'As Mosque. Cairo Tower The Cairo Tower is a free-standing concrete TV tower in Cairo. It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the city centre. At 187 meters, it is 43 meters higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some 15 km to the southwest. Pollution Cairo is a rapidly expanding city, which has led to many environmental problems. The air pollution in Cairo is a matter of serious concern. Greater Cairo's volatile aromatic hydrocarbon levels are higher than many other similar cities. Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of lead, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter concentrations due to decades of unregulated vehicle emissions, urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning. There are over 2,000,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features like catalytic converters. Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect. A mysterious black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) appears over Cairo every fall and causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens. Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care. Cairo also has many unregistered lead and copper smelters which heavily pollute the city. The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with particulate matter in the air reaching over three times normal levels. It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases. Lead has been shown to cause harm to the central nervous system and neurotoxicity particularly in children. In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and emissions tests on cars. 20,000 buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high. The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution. Cairo produces 10,000 tons of rubbish each day, 4,000 tons of which is not collected or managed. This once again is a huge health hazard and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this. The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the rubbish; however, they also work with the Zabbaleen (or Zabaleen), a community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's rubbish since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as Manshiyat naser. Both are working together to pick up as much rubbish as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem. The city also suffers from water pollution as the sewer system tends to fail and overflow. On occasion, sewage has escaped onto the streets to create a health hazard. This problem is hoped to be solved by a new sewer system funded by the European Union, which could cope with the demand of the city. The dangerously high levels of mercury in the city's water system has global health officials concerned over related health risks. There is also more concern about environmental issues among Egyptians than before. There is now general awareness and some projects are laid down to help make the public aware of the importance of clean environment. International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Cairo is twinned with: Athens, Greece (1996) Rome, Italy Seoul, South Korea (1997) Stuttgart, Germany (1979) Tunis, Tunisia (2000) Tokyo, Japan (1987) Frankfurt, Germany (1979) {{cite web|url=http://www.frankfurt.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=502645|title=Frankfurt -Partner Cities|publisher=© 2008 Stadt Frankfurt am Main|accessdate=2008-12-05}} Buenos Aires, Argentina (1991) Amsterdam, Netherlands Beirut, Lebanon (1998) Amman, Jordan (1988) Istanbul, Turkey Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Khartoum, Sudan Baghdad, Iraq (1978) Damascus, Syria Algiers, Algeria (1985) Rabat, Morocco (1987) Lisbon, Portugal (2002) Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006) London, United Kingdom Ankara, Turkey {{cite web|url=http://www.ankara-bel.gov.tr/AbbSayfalari/hizmet_birimleri/dis_dairesi_baskanligi/avrupa_gunu_kutlamasi.aspx|title=Ankara Metropolitan Municipality: Sister Cities of Ankara|publisher=© 2007 Ankara Büyükşehir Belediyesi - Tüm Hakları Saklıdır. Kullanım Koşulları & Gizlilik.|accessdate=2008-12-08}} Moscow, Russia Beijing, China (1990) New York City, United States (1982) Paris, France (1985) Prague, Czech Republic Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (2000) Hanoi, Vietnam (2003) Famous Cairenes Abu Sa'id al-Afif - Fifteenth Century Samaritian Boutros Boutros-Ghali, former Secretary-General of the United Nations Naguib Mahfouz, novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988. Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Dalida Egyptian singer who lived most of her life in France She received 55 golden records and was the first singer to receive a diamond disc . Naguib Sawiris, 62nd richest person on earth in a 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding Farouk El Baz, a great contributor to NASA Sir Magdi Yacoub, leading cardiologist, knight Constantin Xenakis (1931) Greek artist Voula Zouboulaki (1931) Greek actress Raffi Cavoukian, Canadian children's singer, born 1948 Mohamed Al Fayed, Billionaire owner of Harrods and well known London football team Fulham FC Hossam Ghaly, Professional football player with Derby County FC Mohamed Shawky, Professional football player with Middlesbrough FC Mido, Professional football player with Middlesbrough FC Ahmed Zewail- Winner of Nobel prize in chemistry Anwar El Sadat- Egyptian President, Nobel prize in Peace Omar Sharif- Egyptian Hollywood Actor, Lawrence of Arabia Umm Kalthoum-Diva Singer of the Arab world (also known as 'kawkab ash-sharq' or Star of the East) See also Charles Ayrout Large Cities Climate Leadership Group Maadi References Further reading Artemis Cooper, Cairo in the War, 1939-1945, Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. ISBN 0-14-024781-5 (Pbk) André Raymond, Cairo, trans. Willard Wood. Harvard University Press, 2000. Max Rodenbeck, Cairo the City Victorious, Picador, 1998. ISBN 0-330-33709-2 (Hbk) ISBN 0-330-33710-6 (Pbk) Peter Theroux, Cairo - Clamorous heart of Egypt National Geographic Magazine April 1993 Cynthia Myntti, Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque, American University in Cairo Press, 2003. Cairo's belle époque architects 1900 - 1950, by Samir Raafat. Antonine Selim Nahas, one of city's major belle époque (1900-1950) architects. External links General information New Projects in Cairo From Worldarab Cairo City Government Demographia - Cairo: Central City & Suburban Population & Density Coptic Churches of Cairo Mosques in Cairo Photos and videos Egyptian Museum Cairo in 100 pictures page in French. Cairo 360-degree full-screen images The Cairo Page: photos and descriptions of Cairo Impressions of Cairo's Streetlife Cairo Travel Photos Pictures of Cairo published under Creative Commons License Call to Cairo Time-lapse film of Cairo cityscapes Cairo - photos be-x-old:Каір | Cairo |@lemmatized cairo:134 capital:15 city:58 egypt:41 large:10 africa:3 arab:13 world:15 list:2 league:2 metropolitan:5 area:10 one:8 populous:3 long:2 center:9 region:3 cultural:6 artistic:1 life:2 old:16 film:8 music:2 industry:2 earn:1 name:7 hollywood:3 east:6 al:33 qahirah:3 official:3 arabic:8 egyptian:26 often:6 refer:3 simply:1 misr:3 found:6 fatimid:5 caliphate:1 replace:1 fustat:10 seat:2 government:9 serve:2 ever:3 since:7 population:4 million:4 people:3 accord:2 census:2 number:5 inhabitant:1 high:13 time:6 adjust:1 downwards:1 april:3 new:15 helwan:3 create:4 part:8 microsoft:1 word:7 front:1 doc:1 sixteenth:1 also:19 challenge:1 urban:2 growth:2 mix:2 historical:2 modern:9 sight:1 include:8 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172 | Amati | Amati is the name of a family of Italian violin makers, who flourished at Cremona from about 1549 to 1740. Family members Andrea Amati Andrea Amati (ca. 1505 – ca. 1578) was the earliest maker of violins whose instruments still survive today. Indeed he seems more or less responsible for giving the instruments of the modern violin family their definitive profile. A small number of his instruments survive, dated between the years of 1500 and 1574 and most bearing the coat of arms of Charles IX of France. His work is marked by great elegance and an awareness of geometrical principles in design. Dilworth, John. "The Violin and Bow-Origins and Development." The Cambridge Companion to the Violin. Ed. Robin Stowell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 1-29. Antonio and Girolamo Amati Andrea Amati was succeeded by his sons Antonio Amati (born ca. 1550) and Girolamo Amati (1551-1635). "The Brothers Amati", as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the f-holes. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of viola, in contrast to older tenor violas. Nicolo Amati Nicolò Amati (December 3, 1596 – April 12, 1684) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His pattern was unusually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the "Grand Amati", which have become his most sought-after violins. Of his pupils, the most famous were Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri, the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers. (There is much controversy regarding the apprenticeship of Antonio Stradivari. While Stradivari's first known violin states that he was a pupil of Amati, the validity of his statement is questioned.) Girolamo Amati The last maker of the family was Nicolo's son, Girolamo Amati, known as Hieronymus II (February 26, 1649 – February 21, 1740). Although he improved on the arching of his father's instruments, by and large they are inferior and no match for the greatest maker of his day, Antonio Stradivari. Extant Amati instruments One of a group of seven Andrea Amati violins, now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, believed to have been created in 1558, which would make it one of the earliest known violins in existence. Amati instruments at the (University of South Dakota, US) National Music Museum: Andrea Amati: Cello, "The King", circa 1545, the world's oldest extant cello Viola, 1560 Violin, 1560 Violin, 1574 Girolamo Amati: Violin, 1604 Violin, 7/8-size, 1609 Violino piccolo, 1613 Nicolò Amati: Violin, 1628 Amati instruments at the (New York, US) Metropolitan Museum of Art Andrea Amati: Violin, ca. 1560 Nicolò Amati: Violin, 1669 In popular culture In the manga and anime series Gunslinger Girl, the child assassins often conceal their weapons by carrying them in Amati violin cases. See also Antonio Stradivari Amati Quartet Luthier References Dilworth, John. "The Violin and Bow-Origins and Development." The Cambridge Companion to the Violin. Ed. Robin Stowell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 1-29. External links Andrea Amati: Violin, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Amati |@lemmatized amati:28 name:1 family:6 italian:1 violin:21 maker:5 flourish:1 cremona:1 member:1 andrea:8 ca:4 early:2 whose:1 instrument:8 still:1 survive:2 today:1 indeed:1 seem:1 less:1 responsible:1 give:1 modern:2 definitive:1 profile:1 small:2 number:1 date:1 year:1 bear:2 coat:1 arm:1 charles:1 ix:1 france:1 work:1 mark:1 great:3 elegance:1 awareness:1 geometrical:1 principle:1 design:2 dilworth:2 john:2 bow:2 origin:2 development:2 cambridge:6 companion:2 ed:2 robin:2 stowell:2 university:3 press:2 antonio:6 girolamo:6 succeed:1 son:3 brother:1 know:4 implement:1 far:1 reach:1 innovation:1 include:1 perfection:1 shape:1 f:1 hole:1 also:3 think:1 pioneer:1 alto:1 format:1 viola:3 contrast:1 older:1 tenor:1 nicolo:2 nicolò:3 december:1 april:1 eminent:1 improve:2 model:2 adopt:1 rest:1 produce:1 capable:1 yield:1 power:1 tone:1 pattern:1 unusually:1 make:2 wide:1 grand:1 become:1 sought:1 pupil:2 famous:1 stradivari:5 guarneri:2 first:2 much:1 controversy:1 regard:1 apprenticeship:1 state:1 validity:1 statement:1 question:1 last:1 hieronymus:1 ii:1 february:2 although:1 arching:1 father:1 large:1 inferior:1 match:1 day:1 extant:2 one:2 group:1 seven:1 metropolitan:3 museum:4 art:4 believe:1 create:1 would:1 known:1 existence:1 south:1 dakota:1 u:2 national:1 music:1 cello:2 king:1 circa:1 world:1 old:1 size:1 violino:1 piccolo:1 new:1 york:1 popular:1 culture:1 manga:1 anime:1 series:1 gunslinger:1 girl:1 child:1 assassin:1 often:1 conceal:1 weapon:1 carry:1 case:1 see:1 quartet:1 luthier:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 heilbrunn:1 timeline:1 history:1 |@bigram andrea_amati:7 coat_arm:1 girolamo_amati:6 antonio_stradivari:4 amati_violin:7 manga_anime:1 external_link:1 |
173 | Fat | Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at normal room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances. The word "oil" is used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil) and heating oil, regardless of its chemical structure. Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Examples of edible animal fats are lard (pig fat), fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are obtained from fats in the milk, meat and under the skin of the animal. Examples of edible plant fats are peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Chemical structure A triglyceride molecule There are many different kinds of fats, but each is a variation on the same chemical structure. All fats consist of fatty acids (chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms, with a carboxylic acid group at one end) bonded to a backbone structure, often glycerol (a "backbone" of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen). Chemically, this is a triester of glycerol, an ester being the molecule formed from the reaction of the carboxylic acid and an organic alcohol. As a simple visual illustration, if the kinks and angles of these chains were straightened out, the molecule would have the shape of a capital letter E. The fatty acids would each be a horizontal line; the glycerol "backbone" would be the vertical line that joins the horizontal lines. Fats therefore have "ester" bonds. The properties of any specific fat molecule depend on the particular fatty acids that constitute it. Different fatty acids are comprised of different numbers of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon atoms, each bonded to two neighboring carbon atoms, form a zigzagging chain; the more carbon atoms there are in any fatty acid, the longer its chain will be. Fatty acids with long chains are more susceptible to intermolecular forces of attraction (in this case, van der Waals forces), raising its melting point. Long chains also yield more energy per molecule when metabolized. A fat's constituent fatty acids may also differ in the number of hydrogen atoms that are bonded to the chain of carbon atoms. Each carbon atom is typically bonded to two hydrogen atoms. When a fatty acid has this typical arrangement, it is called "saturated", because the carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen; meaning they are bonded to as many hydrogens as possible. In other fats, a carbon atom may instead bond to only one other hydrogen atom, and have a double bond to a neighboring carbon atom. This results in an "unsaturated" fatty acid. More specifically, it would be a "monounsaturated" fatty acid, whereas, a "polyunsaturated" fatty acid would be a fatty acid with more than one double bond. Saturated and unsaturated fats differ in their energy content and melting point. Since an unsaturated fat contains fewer carbon-hydrogen bonds than a saturated fat with the same number of carbon atoms, unsaturated fats will yield slightly less energy during metabolism than saturated fats with the same number of carbon atoms. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can freeze easily and are typically solid at room temperature. But the rigid double bond in an unsaturated fat fundamentally changes the chemistry of the fat. There are two ways the double bond may be arranged: the isomer with both parts of the chain on the same side of the double bond (the cis-isomer), or the isomer with the parts of the chain on opposite sides of the double bond (the trans-isomer). Most trans-isomer fats (commonly called trans fats) are commercially produced rather than naturally occurring. The cis-isomer introduces a kink into the molecule that prevents the fats from stacking efficiently as in the case of fats with saturated chains. This decreases intermolecular forces between the fat molecules, making it more difficult for unsaturated cis-fats to freeze; they are typically liquid at room temperature. Trans fats may still stack like saturated fats, and are not as susceptible to metabolization as other fats. Trans fats and saturated fats significantly increase the risk of coronary heart disease. PMID 16611951 Importance for living organisms Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble, meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are also sources of essential fatty acids, an important dietary requirement. Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy skin and hair, insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. They also serve as energy stores for the body. Fats are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy. Fat also serves as a useful buffer towards a host of diseases. When a particular substance, whether chemical or biotic—reaches unsafe levels in the bloodstream, the body can effectively dilute—or at least maintain equilibrium of—the offending substances by storing it in new fat tissue. This helps to protect vital organs, until such time as the offending substances can be metabolized and/or removed from the body by such means as excretion, urination, accidental or intentional bloodletting, sebum excretion, and hair growth. While it is nearly impossible to remove fat completely from the diet, it would be unhealthy to do so. Some fatty acids are essential nutrients, meaning that they can't be produced in the body from other compounds and need to be consumed in small amounts. All other fats required by the body are non-essential and can be produced in the body from other compounds. Adipose tissue The obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right. In animals, adipose, or fatty tissue is the body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. Depending on current physiological conditions, adipocytes store fat derived from the diet and liver metabolism or degrade stored fat to supply fatty acids and glycerol to the circulation. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (i.e., insulin, glucagon and epinephrine). The location of the tissue determines its metabolic profile: "Visceral fat" is located within the abdominal wall (i.e., beneath the wall of abdominal muscle) whereas "subcutaneous fat" is located beneath the skin (and includes fat that is located in the abdominal area beneath the skin but above the abdominal muscle wall). Visceral fat was recently discovered to be a significant producer of signaling chemicals (ie, hormones), among which are several which are involved in inflammatory tissue responses. One of these is resistin which has been linked to obesity, insulin resistance, and Type 2 diabetes. This latter result is currently controversial, and there have been reputable studies supporting all sides on the issue. See also Animal fat Brown fat Carbohydrate Dieting Human weight Lipid National Weight Control Registry Obesity Omega-3 fatty acid Omega-6 fatty acid Trans-fats Triglyceride Protein Vegetable fats and oils White fat (adipocytes) Yellow grease National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance References | Fat |@lemmatized fat:64 consist:2 wide:1 group:2 compound:3 generally:2 soluble:2 organic:2 solvent:1 largely:1 insoluble:1 water:2 chemically:2 triesters:1 glycerol:7 fatty:20 acid:21 may:5 either:1 solid:4 liquid:4 normal:4 room:5 temperature:6 depend:3 structure:6 composition:1 although:1 word:2 oil:9 lipid:6 use:7 refer:4 usually:2 along:1 related:1 substance:5 mix:1 greasy:1 feel:1 petroleum:1 crude:1 heat:1 regardless:1 chemical:6 form:4 category:2 distinguish:1 physical:1 property:2 molecule:8 important:3 many:3 life:1 serve:3 structural:1 metabolic:4 function:2 part:3 diet:4 heterotroph:1 include:2 human:2 break:2 body:11 enzyme:1 call:3 lipase:1 produce:4 pancreas:1 example:3 edible:2 animal:4 lard:1 pig:1 fish:1 butter:1 ghee:1 obtain:1 milk:1 meat:1 skin:4 plant:1 peanut:1 soya:1 bean:1 sunflower:1 sesame:1 coconut:1 olive:1 vegetable:3 margarine:1 shortening:1 derive:2 mainly:1 bake:1 categorize:1 saturated:5 unsaturated:7 triglyceride:2 different:3 kind:1 variation:1 chain:10 carbon:14 hydrogen:9 atom:15 carboxylic:2 one:4 end:1 bond:14 backbone:3 often:1 oxygen:1 triester:1 ester:2 reaction:1 alcohol:1 simple:1 visual:1 illustration:1 kink:2 angle:1 straighten:1 would:6 shape:1 capital:1 letter:1 e:4 horizontal:2 line:3 vertical:1 join:1 therefore:1 specific:1 particular:2 constitute:1 comprise:1 number:4 two:3 neighbor:1 zigzagging:1 long:3 susceptible:2 intermolecular:2 force:3 attraction:1 case:2 van:1 der:1 waals:1 raise:1 melting:1 point:2 also:6 yield:2 energy:6 per:1 metabolize:2 constituent:1 differ:2 typically:3 typical:1 arrangement:2 saturate:5 meaning:1 possible:1 instead:1 double:6 neighboring:1 result:2 specifically:1 monounsaturated:1 whereas:2 polyunsaturated:1 content:1 melt:1 since:1 contains:1 slightly:1 less:1 metabolism:2 stack:3 closely:1 packed:1 freeze:2 easily:1 rigid:1 fundamentally:1 change:1 chemistry:1 way:1 arrange:1 isomer:6 side:3 ci:3 opposite:1 trans:6 commonly:1 commercially:1 rather:1 naturally:1 occur:1 introduce:1 prevent:1 efficiently:1 decrease:1 make:1 difficult:1 still:1 like:1 metabolization:1 significantly:1 increase:1 risk:1 coronary:1 heart:1 disease:2 pmid:1 importance:1 live:1 organisms:1 vitamin:1 k:1 mean:4 digest:1 absorb:1 transport:1 conjunction:1 source:2 essential:3 dietary:1 requirement:1 play:1 vital:2 role:1 maintain:3 healthy:2 hair:2 insulate:1 organ:2 shock:1 promote:1 cell:1 store:6 release:1 free:1 convert:1 glucose:1 liver:2 thus:1 useful:1 buffer:1 towards:1 host:1 whether:1 biotic:1 reach:1 unsafe:1 level:1 bloodstream:1 effectively:1 dilute:1 least:1 equilibrium:1 offending:1 new:1 tissue:7 help:1 protect:1 time:2 offend:1 remove:2 excretion:2 urination:1 accidental:1 intentional:1 bloodletting:1 sebum:1 growth:1 nearly:1 impossible:1 completely:1 unhealthy:1 nutrient:1 need:1 consume:1 small:1 amount:2 require:1 non:1 adipose:4 obese:1 mouse:2 left:1 large:1 comparison:1 show:1 right:1 extended:1 period:1 current:1 physiological:1 condition:1 adipocytes:2 degrade:1 supply:1 circulation:1 activity:1 regulate:1 several:2 hormone:2 insulin:2 glucagon:1 epinephrine:1 location:1 determine:1 profile:1 visceral:2 locate:3 within:1 abdominal:4 wall:3 beneath:3 muscle:2 subcutaneous:1 area:1 recently:1 discover:1 significant:1 producer:1 signal:1 ie:1 among:1 involve:1 inflammatory:1 response:1 resistin:1 link:1 obesity:2 resistance:1 type:1 diabetes:1 latter:1 currently:1 controversial:1 reputable:1 study:1 support:1 issue:1 see:1 brown:1 carbohydrate:1 weight:2 national:2 control:1 registry:1 omega:2 protein:1 white:1 yellow:1 grease:1 association:1 advance:1 acceptance:1 reference:1 |@bigram organic_solvent:1 glycerol_fatty:1 fatty_acid:19 crude_oil:1 saturated_fat:4 unsaturated_fat:5 hydrogen_atom:5 carboxylic_acid:2 carbon_atom:10 van_der:1 der_waals:1 unsaturated_fatty:1 polyunsaturated_fatty:1 saturate_unsaturated:1 hydrogen_bond:1 saturate_fat:2 ci_isomer:2 isomer_isomer:1 trans_isomer:2 coronary_heart:1 fat_soluble:1 acid_glycerol:2 accidental_intentional:1 adipose_tissue:3 abdominal_muscle:2 carbohydrate_diet:1 omega_fatty:2 |
174 | Orchestra | The Jalisco Philharmonic Orchestra An orchestra is an instrumental ensemble, usually fairly large with string, brass, woodwind sections, and possibly a percussion section as well. The term orchestra derives from the name for the area in front of an ancient Greek stage reserved for the Greek chorus. The orchestra grew by accretion throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but changed very little in composition during the course of the twentieth century. A smaller sized orchestra for this time period (of about fifty players or fewer) is called a chamber orchestra. A full size orchestra (about 100 players) may sometimes be called a "symphony orchestra" or "philharmonic orchestra"; these prefixes do not necessarily indicate any strict difference in either the instrumental constitution or role of the orchestra, but can be useful to distinguish different ensembles based in the same city (for instance, the London Symphony Orchestra and the London Philharmonic Orchestra). A symphony orchestra will usually have over eighty musicians on its roster, in some cases over a hundred, but the actual number of musicians employed in a particular performance may vary according to the work being played and the size of the venue. A leading chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians; some are much smaller than that. Instrumentation Apo Hsu and the NTNU Symphony Orchestra on stage in the National Concert Hall in Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. The typical symphony orchestra consists of four proportionate groups of similar musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the standard instruments in each group. In the history of the orchestra, its instrumentation has been expanded over time, often agreed to have been standardized by the classical period and Beethoven's influence on the classical model. Beethoven's influence The so-called "standard complement" of double winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven. The exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No. 4, which each specify a single flute. The composer's instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns and trumpets. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral "palette" in Symphonies 3, 5, 6, and 9 for an innovative effect. The third horn in the "Eroica" Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of "choral" brass in the Trio. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver storm and sunshine in the Sixth. The Ninth asks for a second pair of horns, for reasons similar to the Eroica (four horns has since become standard); Beethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and unpitched percussion – plus chorus and vocal soloists – in his finale, are his earliest suggestion that the timbral boundaries of "symphony" might be expanded for good. But for several decades after his departure, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethoven's well-established model, with few exceptions. Expanded instrumentation Apart from the core orchestral complement, various other instruments are called for occasionally. These include the classical guitar, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord, and organ. Saxophones, for example, appear in a limited range of 19th and 20th century scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Ravel's orchestration of Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's Bolero and Walton's Belshazzar's Feast, as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben. The Wagner Tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring Des Nibelungen and several other works by Richard Strauss, Bela Bartok, and others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major. The Wagner Tuba, Cornets appear in Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Debussy's La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz. Unless these instruments are played by members doubling on another instrument (for example, a trombone player changing to euphonium for a certain passage), orchestras will use freelance musicians to augment their regular rosters. With this history in mind, the orchestra can be seen to have a general evolution as outlined below. The first is a classical orchestra (i.e. Beethoven/Haydn), the second an early romantic (i.e. Brahms/Tchaikovsky), late romantic (i.e. Wagner/Mahler/Strauss), modern (i.e. Stravinsky to present day). Classical Orchestra Woodwinds 2 Flutes 2 Oboes 2 Clarinets in B-flat, A 2 Bassoons Brass 2 or 4 Horns (in any key) 2 Trumpets (in any key) Percussion Timpani Strings 8 Violins I 8 Violins II 6 Violas 4 Violoncellos 3 Double basses Early Romantic Orchestra Woodwinds (Piccolo) 2 Flutes 2 Oboes (English horn) 2 Clarinets in B-flat, A 2 Bassoons (Contrabassoon) Brass 4 Horns in F 2 Trumpets in F (2 Cornets in B-flat) 3 Trombones (Tuba) Percussion Timpani Snare Drum Bass Drum Cymbals Triangle Tambourine Glockenspiel Strings Harp 14 Violins I 12 Violins II 10 Violas 8 Violoncellos 6 Double Basses Late Romantic Orchestra Woodwinds Piccolo 4 Flutes 4 Oboes English Horn Clarinet in E-flat 4 Clarinets in B-flat, A Bass Clarinet 4 Bassoons Contrabassoon Brass 8 Horns in F 4 Trumpets in C, B-flat, F 4 Trombones (3 Tenor, Bass) (Euphonium) Tuba Percussion Timpani Snare Drum Bass Drum Cymbals Tam-tam Triangle Tambourine Glockenspiel Xylophone Chimes Keyboards Celesta Organ Strings 2 Harps 16 Violins I 16 Violins II 12 Violas 12 Violoncellos 10 Double Basses Modern Orchestra Woodwinds Piccolo 3 Flutes 3 Oboes English Horn Clarinet in E-flat 3 Clarinets in B-flat, A Bass Clarinet 3 Bassoons Contrabassoon Brass 4 Horns in F 3 Trumpets in C, B-flat, F 3 Trombones (2 Tenor, Bass) Tuba Percussion Timpani Snare Drum Tenor Drum Bass Drum Cymbals Tuned Gongs Tam-tam Triangle Wood Block Tambourine Glockenspiel Xylophone Vibraphone Chimes Castanets Congas Bongos Güiro Whip (instrument) Keyboards Piano Celeste Strings Harp 16 Violins I 14 Violins II 12 Violas 10 Violoncellos 8 Double Basses Organization Lorin Maazel conducting Among the instrument groups and within each group of instruments, there is a generally accepted hierarchy. Every instrumental group (or section) has a principal who is generally responsible for leading the group and playing orchestral solos. The violins are divided into two groups, first violin and second violin, each with its principal. The principal first violin is called the concertmaster (or "leader" in the UK) and is considered the leader of not only the string section, but of the entire orchestra, subordinate only to the conductor. The principal trombone is considered the leader of the low brass section, while the principal trumpet is generally considered the leader of the entire brass section. Similarly, the principal oboe is considered the leader of the woodwind section, and is the player to whom all others tune. The horn, while technically a brass instrument, often acts in the role of both woodwind and brass. Most sections also have an assistant principal (or co-principal or associate principal), or in the case of the first violins, an assistant concertmaster, who often plays a tutti part in addition to replacing the principal in his or her absence. A section string player plays unison with the rest of the section, except in the case of divided (divisi) parts, where upper and lower parts in the music are often assigned to "outside" (nearer the audience) and "inside" seated players. Where a solo part is called for in a string section, for example in the violins, the section leader invariably plays that part. Tutti wind and brass players generally play a unique but non-solo part. Section percussionists play parts assigned to them by the principal percussionist. In modern times, the musicians are usually directed by a conductor, although early orchestras did not have one, using instead the concertmaster or the harpsichordist playing the continuo for this role. Some modern orchestras also do without conductors, particularly smaller orchestras and those specializing in historically accurate performances of baroque music and earlier. The most frequently performed repertoire for a symphony orchestra is Western classical music or opera. However, orchestras are sometimes used in popular music, and are used extensively in film music. The Budapest Symphony Orchestra History of the orchestra Early history The history of the modern orchestra that we are familiar with today goes all the way back to Ancient Egypt. The first orchestras were made up of small groups of musicians that gathered for festivals, holidays or funerals. During the time of the Roman Empire, the government suppressed the musicians and informal ensembles were banned, but they reappeared after the collapse of the Empire. It was not until the 11th century that families of instruments started to appear with differences in tones and octaves. True modern orchestras started in the late 16th century when composers started writing music for instrumental groups. In the 15th and 16th centuries in Italy the households of nobles had musicians to provide music for dancing and the court, however with the emergence of the theatre, particularly opera, in the early 17th century, music was increasingly written for groups of players in combination, which is the origin of orchestral playing. Opera originated in Italy, and Germany eagerly followed. Dresden, Munich and Hamburg successively built opera houses. At the end of the 17th century opera flourished in England under Henry Purcell, and in France under Lully, who with the collaboration of Molière also greatly raised the status of the entertainments known as ballets, interspersed with instrumental and vocal music. In the 17th century and early 18th century, instrumental groups were taken from all of the available talent. A composer such as Johann Sebastian Bach had control over almost all of the musical resources of a town, whereas Handel would hire the best musicians available. This placed a premium on being able to rewrite music for whichever singers or musicians were best suited for a performance—Handel produced different versions of the Messiah oratorio almost every year. As nobility began to build retreats away from towns, they began to hire musicians to form permanent ensembles. Composers such as the young Joseph Haydn would then have a fixed body of instrumentalists to work with. At the same time, travelling virtuoso performers would write concerti that showed off their skills, and they would travel from town to town, arranging concerts along the way. The aristocratic orchestras worked together over long periods, making it possible for ensemble playing to improve with practice. Mannheim School This change, from civic music making where the composer had some degree of time or control, to smaller court music making and one-off performance, placed a premium on music that was easy to learn, often with little or no rehearsal. The results were changes in musical style and emphasis on new techniques. Mannheim had one of the most famous orchestras of that time, where notated dynamics and phrasing, previously quite rare, became standard (see Mannheim school). It also attended a change in musical style from the complex counterpoint of the baroque period, to an emphasis on clear melody, homophonic textures, short phrases, and frequent cadences: a style that would later be defined as classical. Throughout the late 18th century composers would continue to have to assemble musicians for a performance, often called an "Academy", which would, naturally, feature their own compositions. In 1781, however, the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra was organized from the merchants concert society, and it began a trend towards the formation of civic orchestras that would accelerate into the 19th century. In 1815, Boston's Handel and Haydn Society was founded, in 1842 the New York Philharmonic and the Vienna Philharmonic were formed, and in 1858, the Hallé Orchestra was formed in Manchester. There had long been standing bodies of musicians around operas, but not for concert music: this situation changed in the early 19th century as part of the increasing emphasis in the composition of symphonies and other purely instrumental forms. This was encouraged by composer critics such as E.T.A. Hoffmann who declared that instrumental music was the "purest form" of music. The creation of standing orchestras also resulted in a professional framework where musicians could rehearse and perform the same works repeatedly, leading to the concept of a repertoire in instrumental music. Performance standards In the 1830s, conductor François Antoine Habeneck, began rehearsing a selected group of musicians in order to perform the symphonies of Beethoven, which had not been heard of in their entirety in Paris. He developed techniques of rehearsing the strings separately, notating specifics of performance, and other techniques of cuing entrances that were spread across Europe. His rival and friend Hector Berlioz would adopt many of these innovations in his touring of Europe. Instrumental craftsmanship The invention of the piston and rotary valve by Gottfried Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel, both Silesians, in 1815, was the first in a series of innovations, including the development of modern keywork for the flute by Theobald Boehm and the innovations of Adolphe Sax in the woodwinds. These advances would lead Hector Berlioz to write a landmark book on instrumentation, which was the first systematic treatise on the use of instrumental sound as an expressive element of music. Hector Berlioz. Traite d'instrumentation et d'orchestration (Paris: Lemoine, 1843). The effect of the invention of valves for the brass was felt almost immediately: instrument-makers throughout Europe strove together to foster the use of these newly refined instruments and continuing their perfection; and the orchestra was before long enriched by a new family of valved instruments, variously known as tubas, or euphoniums and bombardons, having a chromatic scale and a full sonorous tone of great beauty and immense volume, forming a magnificent bass. This also made possible a more uniform playing of notes or intonation, which would lead to a more and more "smooth" orchestral sound that would peak in the 1950s with Eugene Ormandy and The Philadelphia Orchestra and the conducting of Herbert von Karajan with The Berlin Philharmonic. During this transition period, which gradually eased the performance of more demanding "natural" brass writing, many composers (notably Wagner and Berlioz) still notated brass parts for the older "natural" instruments. This practice made it possible for players still using natural horns, for instance, to perform from the same parts as those now playing valved instruments. However, over time, use of the valved instruments became standard, indeed universal, until the revival of older instruments in the contemporary movement towards authentic performance (sometimes known as "historically informed performance"). At the time of the invention of the valved brass, the pit orchestra of most operetta composers seems to have been modest. An example is Sullivan's use of two flutes, one oboe, two clarinets, one bassoon, two horns, two cornets (a piston), two trombones, drums and strings. During this time of invention, winds and brass were expanded, and had an increasingly easy time playing in tune with each other: particularly the ability for composers to score for large masses of wind and brass that previously had been impractical. Works such as the Requiem of Hector Berlioz would have been impossible to perform just a few decades earlier, with its demanding writing for twenty woodwinds, as well as four gigantic brass ensembles each including around four trumpets, four trombones, and two tubas. Wagner's influence The next major expansion of symphonic practice came from Wagner's Bayreuth orchestra, founded to accompany his musical dramas. Wagner's works for the stage were scored with unprecedented scope and complexity: indeed, his score to Das Rheingold calls for six harps. Thus, Wagner envisioned an ever-more-demanding role for the conductor of the theater orchestra, as he elaborated in his influential work "On Conducting". Richard Wagner. On Conducting (Ueber das Dirigiren), a treatise on style in the execution of classical music (London: W. Reeves, 1887). This brought about a revolution in orchestral composition, and set the style for orchestral performance for the next eighty years. Wagner's theories re-examined the importance of tempo, dynamics, bowing of string instruments and the role of principals in the orchestra. Conductors who studied his methods would go on to be influential themselves. 20th century orchestra As the early 20th century dawned, symphony orchestras were larger, better funded, and better trained than ever before; consequently, composers could compose larger and more ambitious works. With the recording era beginning, the standard of performance reached a pinnacle. In recordings, small errors in a performance could be "fixed", but many older conductors and composers could remember a time when simply "getting through" the music as best as possible was the standard. Combined with the wider audience made possible by recording, this led to a renewed focus on particular conductors and on a high standard of orchestral execution. See Lance W. Brunner, "The Orchestra and Recorded Sound", in The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations, ed. Joan Peyser (New York: Scribner's Sons, 1986), 479-532. As sound was added to silent film, the virtuoso orchestra became a key component of the establishment of motion pictures as mass-market entertainment. Counter-revolution In the 1920s and 1930s, economic as well as artistic considerations led to the formation of smaller concert societies, particularly those dedicated to the performance of music of the avant-garde, including Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg. This tendency to start festival orchestras or dedicated groups would also be pursued in the creation of summer musical festivals, and orchestras for the performance of smaller works. Among the most influential of these was the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields under the baton of Sir Neville Marriner. With the advent of the early music movement, orchestras where players worked on execution of works in styles derived from the study of older treatises on playing became common. These include the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, the London Classical Players under the direction of Sir Roger Norrington and the Academy of Ancient Music under Christopher Hogwood, among others. Recent trends The late 20th century saw a crisis of funding and support for orchestras in Europe and North America. The size and cost of a symphony orchestra, compared to the size of the base of supporters, became an issue that struck at the core of the institution. The drastic falling-off of revenues from recording, tied to no small extent to changes in the recording industry itself, began a period of change that has yet to reach its conclusion. Critics such as Norman Lebrecht were vocal in their diagnosis of the problem as the "jet set conductor" and the problems of orchestral repertory and management, while other music administrators such as Michael Tilson Thomas and Esa-Pekka Salonen argued that new music, new means of presenting it, and a renewed relationship with the community could revitalize the symphony orchestra. Conductorless orchestras The post-revolutionary symphony orchestra Persimfans was formed in the USSR in 1922. The unusual aspect of the orchestra was that, believing that in the ideal Marxist state all people are equal, its members felt that there was no need to be led by the dictatorial baton of a conductor; instead they were led by a committee. Although it was a partial success, the principal difficulty with the concept was in changing tempo. The orchestra survived for ten years before Stalin's cultural politics effectively forced it into disbandment by draining away its funding. John Eckhard, "Orchester ohne Dirigent", Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik 158, no. 2 (1997): 40-43. Some ensembles, such as the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra, based in New York City, have had more success, although decisions are likely to be deferred to some sense of leadership within the ensemble (for example, the principal wind and string players). Others have returned to the tradition of a principal player, usually a violinist, being the artistic director and running rehearsals (such as the Australian Chamber Orchestra and the New Century Chamber Orchestra). Multiple conductors The techniques of polystylism and polytempo music have recently led a few composers to write music where multiple orchestras perform simultaneously. These trends have brought about the phenomenon of polyconductor music, wherein separate sub-conductors conduct each group of musicians. Usually, one principal conductor conducts the sub-conductors, thereby shaping the overall performance. Some pieces are enormously complex in this regard, such as Evgeni Kostitsyn's Third Symphony, which calls for nine conductors. Charles Ives often used two conductors, one for example to simulate a marching band coming through his piece. Realizations for Symphonic Band includes one example from Ives. Other meanings of orchestra In Ancient Greece, the orchestra was the space between the auditorium and the proscenium (or stage), in which were stationed the chorus and the instrumentalists. The Greek word for orchestra literally means "a dancing place". In some theaters, the orchestra is the area of seats directly in front of the stage (called primafila or platea); the term more properly applies to the place in a theatre, or concert hall reserved for the musicians. See also List of symphony orchestra concert halls List of symphony orchestras List of symphony orchestras in Europe List of symphony orchestras in the United States List of youth orchestras in the United States Orchestration Radio orchestra Shorthand for orchestra instrumentation Typical instrument layout Notes References External links The Orchestra: A User's Manual - A fairly concise overview, including detailed video interviews with players of each instrument and various resources | Orchestra |@lemmatized jalisco:1 philharmonic:6 orchestra:80 instrumental:11 ensemble:9 usually:6 fairly:2 large:4 string:13 brass:20 woodwind:9 section:13 possibly:1 percussion:7 well:5 term:2 derives:1 name:1 area:2 front:2 ancient:4 greek:3 stage:5 reserve:2 chorus:3 grow:1 accretion:1 throughout:3 eighteenth:1 nineteenth:1 century:19 change:9 little:2 composition:4 course:1 twentieth:1 small:9 sized:1 time:12 period:6 fifty:2 player:14 call:12 chamber:5 full:2 size:5 may:2 sometimes:3 symphony:24 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175 | GNU_Hurd | GNU Hurd (usually referred to as the Hurd) is a free software computer kernel, released under the GNU General Public License. It consists of a set of servers (or daemons, in Unix terminology) that work on top of a microkernel; together they form the kernel of GNU. The Hurd aims to surpass Unix kernels in functionality, security, and stability, while remaining largely compatible with them. HURD is a mutually recursive acronym, standing for HIRD of Unix-Replacing Daemons, where HIRD stands for HURD of Interfaces Representing Depth. It is also a play on the words herd of gnus, reflecting how it works. The GNU Hurd - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) Development history Development on the GNU operating system began in 1984 and initially made good progress. Free GNU tools started to acquire a good reputation and were often adopted in preference to inferior proprietary tools provided by system vendors. By the early 1990s, the only major component missing was the kernel. Linux and the GNU Project Development on the Hurd began in 1990 after an abandoned kernel attempt in 1986, based on the research TRIX operating system developed by Professor Steve Ward and his group at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS). According to Thomas Bushnell, the initial Hurd architect, their early plan was to adapt the 4.4BSD-Lite kernel and, in hindsight, "It is now perfectly obvious to me that this would have succeeded splendidly and the world would be a very different place today". However, in 1987, due to a lack of cooperation from the Berkeley programmers, Richard Stallman proposed instead to use the Mach microkernel developed at Carnegie-Mellon University. Work on this was delayed for three years due to uncertainty over whether CMU would release the Mach code under a suitable license. With the release of the Linux kernel in 1991, the primary consumer of GNU's userland components soon became operating systems based on GNU and Linux as the kernel, prompting the coining of the controversial term GNU/Linux. Development of the Hurd has proceeded slowly. Despite an optimistic announcement by Stallman in 2002 predicting a release of GNU/Hurd later that year, the Hurd is still not considered suitable for production environments. Development in general has not met expectations, and there are still bugs and missing features. http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd.html#status This has resulted in a poorer product than many (including Stallman) had expected. "This is the way, also, that people thought was the cleanest possible way to design kernels back in 1990. Well, it took many many many years to get this kernel to run at all, and it still doesn't run well, and it looks like there may be fundamental problems with this design, which nobody knew about back in 1990." "The Free Software Movement and the Future of Freedom; March 9th 2006", transcript of a lecture given by Richard Stallman in Zagreb. The Debian project, among others, have worked on the Hurd project to produce binary distributions of Hurd-based GNU operating systems for PC compatible systems. Debian GNU/HURD project Architecture Unlike the majority of Unix-like kernels, the Hurd builds on top of a microkernel which is responsible for providing the most basic kernel services – coordinating access to the hardware: the CPU (through process management and scheduling), RAM (via memory management), and other various input/output devices (via I/O scheduling) for sound, graphics, mass storage, etc. In theory the microkernel design would allow for all device drivers to be built as servers working in user space, but today most drivers of this kind are still contained inside GNU Mach, the currently used microkernel. That is because initially user-space drivers would have suffered from performance loss, due to the overhead of the Mach interprocess communication. With the performance of today's machines, it is possible that this overhead would no longer cause a significant performance problem. Re: Device drivers in Mach? Choice of microkernel From early on, the Hurd was developed to use GNU Mach as the microkernel. This was a technical decision made by Richard Stallman, and one that he later saw as a mistake. From 2004 onward, various efforts were launched to port the Hurd to more modern microkernels. The L4 microkernel was the original choice in 2004, but progress slowed to a halt. In 2005, there was a discussion of whether to change to L4.sec (a different L4 microkernel) or to Coyotos (EROS successor). Re: A comment about changing kernels Although no formal decision was made, most of the Hurd developers' time has gone into thinking about Coyotos, Re: seL4, L4.sec and coyotos mess especially since 2006. One of the outcomes of the initial attempt to port Hurd to the L4 microkernel was an effort to make Hurd more microkernel independent, rather than relying solely on the Mach interfaces. GNU Hurd History: Porting to L4 Other Unix-like systems working on top of the Mach microkernel include OSF/1, Lites, and MkLinux. These are implemented as a single Unix server which, together with the microkernel, replaces the monolithic kernel of a traditional Unix system. Mac OS X and NEXTSTEP use hybrid kernels based on Mach. In the Hurd, elements of a monolithic kernel are instead handled by separate server processes. Such a "set of servers" was one of the main design goals of Mach, but Hurd appears to be the first Mach-based system to be implemented in this way. (QNX and Minix-3 are similar, but are based on their own microkernels.) It is not entirely clear why this happened, but it might have something to do with the high performance hit of Mach IPC. OSKit-Mach began as a branch of the GNU Mach 1.2 kernel, but since the release of GNU Mach 1.3 was merged as the new GNU Mach 2.x mainline. In 2005, Hurd developer Neal Walfield finished the initial memory management framework for the L4/Hurd port, and Marcus Brinkmann ported essential parts of glibc; namely, getting the process startup code working, allowing programs to run, thus allowing the first user programs (trivial ones such as the hello world program in C) to run. In 2006, Marcus Brinkmann and associates met with Jonathan Shapiro (a primary architect of the Coyotos Operating System) to aid in and discuss the use of the Coyotos kernel for GNU/Hurd. These discussions continued into 2007, but progress is slow. As of 2008, Neal Walfield is working on the Viengoos microkernel as an alternative to GNU Mach or L4. walfield.org GNU Hurd/ microkernel/viengoos Unix extensions A number of traditional Unix concepts are replaced or extended in the Hurd. Under Unix every program running has an associated user id, which normally corresponds to the user that started the process. This id largely dictates the actions permitted to the program. No outside process can change the user id of a running program. A Hurd process, on the other hand, runs under a set of user ids, which can contain multiple ids, one, or none. A sufficiently privileged process can add and remove ids to another process. For example there is a password server that will hand out ids in return for a correct login password. Regarding the file system, a suitable program can be designated as a translator for a single file or a whole directory hierarchy. Every access to the translated file, or files below a hierarchy in the second case, is in fact handled by the program. For example a file translator may simply redirect read and write operations to another file, not unlike a Unix symbolic link. The effect of Unix mounting is achieved by setting up a filesystem translator (using the "settrans" command). Translators can also be used to provide services to the user. For example, the ftpfs translator allows a user to encapsulate remote FTP sites within a directory. Then, standard tools such as ls, cp, and rm can be used to manipulate files on the remote system. Even more powerful translators are ones such as UnionFS, which allows a user to unify multiple directories into one; thus listing the unified directory reveals the contents of all the directories (a feature that is missing in many Unixes, although available in modern BSDs). The Hurd requires a multiboot-compliant boot loader, such as GRUB. Architecture of the servers According to the Debian documentation there are 24 servers (18 core servers and 6 file system servers) named as follows: Preliminary GNU/Hurd User Interface Description Core servers auth (authentication server) : Receives requests and passwords from programs and gives them an ID, which changes the privileges of the program. crash (crash server): exec (execution server): Translates an executable image (currently ELF and a.out are supported) to a runnable image in memory. fifo (FIFO translator): new-fifo (new FIFO server) firmlink (the firmlink translator): fwd (forward server) hostmux (host multiplexer server); ifsock (server for sockets interface): init (init server) magic (magic server) null (null server): implements /dev/null and /dev/zero pfinet (pfinet server) pflocal (pflocal server) proc (process server) symlink (symbolic link translator) term (terminal server) usermux (user multiplexer server) Filesystem servers The ext2fs server "ext2fs" The ext2 filesystem translator. It receives disk blocks from the microkernel and gives files and directories to the applications. The iso filesystem server "isofs" The translator for the ISO 9660 filesystem. Translates blocks of a CD or DVD to files and directories for the applications. The nfs server "nfs" See Network File System. The ufs server "ufs" Translator for the BSD filesystem of the same name, UFS. The ftp filesystem translator "ftpfs" See File transfer protocol "storeio" The storage translator The servers collectively implement the POSIX API, with each server implementing a part of the interface. For instance, the various filesystem servers each implement the filesystem calls. The storage server will work as a wrapping layer, similar to the block layer of Linux. The equivalent of VFS of Linux is achieved by libdiskfs and libpager, mere libraries used by these servers. GNU/Hurd-based distributions See also List of Live Distros#GNU-based Bee GNU/Hurd Debian GNU/Hurd Superunprivileged.org GNU/Hurd Live CD Error messages A "computer bought the farm" message is an error message displayed on GNU Hurd when one of the servers that provide kernel-like functions reaches a "hopeless" situation (after which it is usually terminated). This is a rough equivalent of a kernel panic in monolithic Unix-like kernels. Its corresponding error code is the Hurd-specific EIEIO. See also Free Software Foundation Hurd User Group GNU Debian GNU/Hurd - Debian's implementation of GNU Hurd Minix 3 References External links The GNU Hurd by Brinkmann Marcus The GNUFans Wiki - unofficial but current documentation of the Hurd Towards a New Strategy of OS Design Debian GNU/Hurd installation CDs Interview with Neal Walfield, Hurd and Hurd/L4 developer. (2001) Interview with Marcus Brinkmann, Hurd and Hurd/L4 developer. (2005) A GNU/Hurd on Mach Live CD, based on Debian GNU/Hurd #hurd IRC channel | GNU_Hurd |@lemmatized gnu:39 hurd:52 usually:2 refer:1 free:5 software:5 computer:3 kernel:21 release:5 general:2 public:1 license:2 consist:1 set:4 server:36 daemon:2 unix:14 terminology:1 work:9 top:3 microkernel:16 together:2 form:1 aim:1 surpass:1 functionality:1 security:1 stability:1 remain:1 largely:2 compatible:2 mutually:1 recursive:1 acronym:1 stand:2 hird:2 replacing:1 interface:5 represent:1 depth:1 also:5 play:1 word:1 herd:1 reflect:1 project:5 foundation:2 fsf:1 development:5 history:2 operate:5 system:14 begin:3 initially:2 make:4 good:2 progress:3 tool:3 start:2 acquire:1 reputation:1 often:1 adopt:1 preference:1 inferior:1 proprietary:1 provide:4 vendor:1 early:3 major:1 component:2 miss:3 linux:6 abandon:1 attempt:2 base:9 research:1 trix:1 develop:3 professor:1 steve:1 ward:1 group:2 mit:1 laboratory:1 science:1 lcs:1 accord:2 thomas:1 bushnell:1 initial:3 architect:2 plan:1 adapt:1 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176 | Assistive_technology | Assistive technology (AT) is a generic term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (US Public Law 100-407) states that it is "technology designed to be utilized in an assistive technology device or assistive technology service." AT promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. Likewise, disability advocates point out that technology is often created without regard to people with disabilities, creating unnecessary barriers to hundreds of millions of people. Assistive technology and universal accessibility Universally Accessible Street Cross at Evanston, Illinois Universal (or broadened) accessibility, or universal design means greater usability, particularly for people with disabilities. Universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user as well; good accessible design is universal design. One example is the "curb cuts" (or dropped curbs) in the sidewalk at street crossings. While these curb cuts enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street, they also aid parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, and travellers and workers with pull-type bags. As an example, the modern telephone is inaccessible to people who are deaf or hard of hearing. Combined with a text telephone (also known as a TDD Telecommunications device for the deaf and in the USA generally called a TTY[TeleTYpewriter]), which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line, a deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance. Together with "relay" services, in which an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says, the deaf person is then given access to everyone's telephone, not just those of people who possess text telephones. Many telephones now have volume controls, which are primarily intended for the benefit of people who are hard of hearing, but can be useful for all users at times and places where there is significant background noise. Some have larger keys well-spaced to facilitate accurate dialling. Also, a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using calculators. Speech recognition software recognizes short commands and makes use of calculators easier. People with learning disabilities like dyslexia or dysgraphia are using text-to-speech (TTS) software for reading and spelling programs for assistance in writing texts. Computers with their peripheral devices, editing, spellchecking and speech synthesis software are becoming the core-stones of the assistive technologies coming for relief to the people with learning disabilities and to the people with visual impairments. The assisting spelling programs and voice facilities are bringing better and more convenient text reading and writing experience to the general public. Toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities may have advantages for non-disabled children as well. The Lekotek movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families. Occupational Therapists are a professional group skilled in the assessment for and support of assitive technology for people with disabilities. Occupational therapy research on assistive technology and physical environmental issues: A literature review, Ivanoff et al. (2006), Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy Identifying best practice in the occupational therapy assistive technology evaluation: an analysis of three focus groups, Angelo et al. (1997), American Journal of Occupational Therapy Assistive technology products Telecare Telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for hypothermia risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild dementia). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately. Technology similar to Telecare can also be used to act within a person's home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis. Using one of the examples above, gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened. Designing for people with dementia is a good example of how the design of the interface of a piece of AT is critical to its usefulness. People with dementia or any other identified user group must be involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and usable. In the example above, a voice message could be used to remind the person with dementia to turn off the gas himself, but whose voice should be used, and what should the message say? Questions like these must be answered through user consultation, involvement and evaluation. Accessible computer input Sitting at a desk with a QWERTY keyboard and a mouse remains the dominant way of interacting with a personal computer. Some Assistive Technology reduces the strain of this way of work through ergonomic accessories with height-adjustable furniture, footrests, wrist rests, and arm supports to ensure correct posture. Keyguards fit over the keyboard to help prevent unintentional keypresses. Alternatively, Assistive Technology may attempt to improve the ergonomics of the devices themselves: Ergonomic keyboards reduce the discomfort and strain of typing. Chorded keyboards have a handful of keys (one per digit per hand) to type by ‘chords’ which produce different letters and keys. Expanded keyboards with larger, more widely-spaced keys. Compact and miniature keyboards. Dvorak and other alternative layouts may offer more ergonomic layouts of the keys. There are also variants of Dvorak in which the most common keys are located at either the left or right side of the keyboard. Input devices may be modified to make them easier to see and understand: Keyboards with lowercase keys Keyboards with big keys. Large print keyboard with high contrast colors (such as white on black, black on white, and black on ivory). Large print adhesive keyboard stickers in high contrast colors (such as white on black, black on white, and black on yellow). Embossed locator dots help find the ‘home’ keys, F and J, on the keyboard. Scroll wheels on mice remove the need to locate the scrolling interface on the computer screen. Footmouse - Foot-operated mouse. More ambitiously, and quite crucially when keyboard or mouse prove unusable, AT can also replace the keyboard and mouse with alternative devices such as the LOMAK keyboard, trackballs, joysticks, graphics tablets, touchpads, touch screens, foot mice, a microphone with speech recognition software, sip-and-puff input, switch access, and vision-based input devices. Software can also make input devices easier to use: Keyboard shortcuts and MouseKeys allow the user to substitute keyboarding for mouse actions. Macro recorders can greatly extend the range and sophistication of keyboard shortcuts. Sticky keys allows characters or commands to be typed without having to hold down a modifier key (Shift, Ctrl, Alt) while pressing a second key. Similarly, ClickLock is a Microsoft Windows feature that remembers a mouse button is down so that items can be highlighted or dragged without holding the mouse button down throughout. Customization of mouse or mouse alternatives' responsiveness to movement, double-clicking, and so forth. ToggleKeys is a feature of Microsoft Windows 95 onwards. A high sound is heard when the CAPS LOCK, SCROLL LOCK, or NUM LOCK key is switched on and a low sound is heard when any of those keys are switched off. Customization of pointer appearance, such as size, color and shape. Predictive text Spell checkers and grammar checkers Durable Medical Equipment (DME) Seating products that assist people to sit comfortably and safely (seating systems, cushions, therapeutic seats). Standing products to support people with disabilities in the standing position while maintaining/improving their health (standing frame, standing wheelchair, active stander). Walking products to aid people with disabilities who are able to walk or stand with assistance (canes, crutches, walkers, gait trainers). Advanced technology walking products to aid people with disabilities, such as paraplegia or cerebral palsy, who would not at all able to walk or stand (exoskeletons). Wheeled mobility products that enable people with reduced mobility to move freely indoors and outdoors (wheelchairs/scooters) Robot-aided rehabilitation is a sensory-motor rehabilitation technique based on the use of robots and mechatronic devices Learning difficulties Age-appropriate software Cause and effect software Hand-eye co-ordination skills software Diagnostic assessment software Mind mapping software Study skills software Symbol-based software Text-to-speech Touch typing software Visual impairment Choice of appropriate hardware and software will depend on the user's level of functional vision. RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage) has the potential to help both low vision and the blind navigate outside and indoors. Hardware Large monitors. Adjustable task lamp, using a fluorescent bulb, shines directly onto the paper and can be adjusted to suit. Copyholder holds printed material in near vertical position for easier reading and can be adjusted to suit. Closed circuit television (CCTV) or video magnifiers. Printed materials and objects are placed under a camera and the magnified image is displayed onto a screen. Modified cassette recorder. To record a lecture, own thoughts, ideas, notes etc. Desktop compact cassette dictation system. To allow audio cassette playback with the aid of a foot pedal. Fusers produce tactile materials, for example diagrams and maps, by applying heat to special swell paper. Scanner. A device used in conjunction with OCR software. The printed document is scanned and converted into electronic text, which can then be displayed on screen as recognisable text. Standalone reading aids integrate a scanner, optical character recognition (OCR) software, and speech software in a single machine. These function together without a separate PC. Refreshable Braille display. An electronic tactile device which is placed below the computer keyboard. A line of cells which correspond to Braille text move up and down to represent a line of text on the computer screen. Electronic Notetaker. A portable computer with a Braille or QWERTY keyboard and synthetic speech. Some models have an integrated Braille display. Braille embosser. Embosses Braille output from a computer by punching dots onto paper. It connects to a computer in the same way as a text printer. Perkins Brailler. To manually emboss Grade 1 or 2 Braille. Software Customization of graphical user interfaces to alter the colors and size of desktops, short-cut icons, menu bars and scroll bars. Screen magnifiers Screen readers Self-voicing applications Optical character recognition. Converts the printed word into text, via a scanner. Braille translation. Converts the printed word into Braille, which can then be embossed via a Braille embosser. Text-to-speech and Speech-to-text Spell checkers and Grammar checkers Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) Augmentative and alternative communication is a well defined specialty within AT. It involves ways of communication that either enhance or replace verbal language. When combined with Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) teaching methods, AAC has improved communication skills in children with Autism. AAC devices vary widely with respect to their technological sophistication: Low-tech systems. Simple paper or object based systems, i.e. do not require a battery (e.g., Talking Mats, Dry Erase Boards, Clipboards, 3-Ring Binders, Manila File Folders, Photo Albums, Laminated PCS/Photographs, Highlight tape). Light-tech systems. Typically consisting of a digitized speech recorder with a touch-sensitive display pad and sometimes switch access. Lite-tech systems require a battery (e.g., Tape Recorder, Language Master, Overhead Projector, Timers, Calculators). High-tech systems. Computerized VOCAs that vary from single purpose appliance-like systems to multipurpose computer-based communication aids. Typically high-tech systems require training and ongoing support to operate the devices (e.g., Video Cameras, Computers and Adaptive Hardware, Complex Voice Output Devices). Deafness and hearing loss Audiometer Fire alarm paging system Loop system (portable and fixed) Radio aids Telecommunications device for the deaf Teletext Video cassette recorders that can read and record subtitles (Closed Captioning). Vibrating fire alarm placed under pillow when asleep. Door bell lighting system. Others Wakamaru provides companionship, reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong. CARE (Call Reassurance) community based program that calls seniors at home ensuring their well-being . Cosmobot is part of a play therapy system designed to motivate children to participate in therapy. Guide is an interactive verbal prompting system that talks people with cognitive impairment through routine daily tasks . References See also Design for All Computer accessibility Web accessibility Occupational Therapy Robot-aided rehabilitation Matching Person & Technology Model Further reading Behrmann, M. & Schaff, J.(2001). Assisting educators with assistive technology: Enabling children to achieve independence in living and learning. Children and Families 42(3), 24-28. Bishop, J. (2003). The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 19(4), 546-556. Available as a free download Cain, S. (2001). Accessing Technology - Using technology to support the learning and employment opportunities for visually impaired users. Royal National Institute for the Blind. ISBN 1-85878-517-0. Cook, A., & Hussey, S. (2002). Assistive Technologies - Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0-323-00643-4 Franklin, K.S. (1991). Supported employment and assistive technology-A powerful partnership. In S.L. Griffin & W.G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide to supported employment. Richmond, VA: Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment. Van der Heijden, D. (2005). How Does Alternative Access to Computers Work? Available as an online article. Lahm, E., & Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO. Lee, C. (1999). Learning disabilities and assistive technologies; an emerging way to touch the future. Amherst, MA: McGowan Publications. McKeown, S. (2000). Unlocking Potential - How ICT can support children with special needs. The Questions Publishing Company Ltd. ISBN 1-84190-041-9 Nisbet, P. & Poon, P. (1998). Special Access Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free download The CALL Centre. ISBN 1-898042-11-X Nisbet, P., Spooner, R., Arthur, E. & Whittaker P. (1999). Supportive Writing Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free download The CALL Centre. ISBN 1-898042-13-6 Rose, D. & Meyer, A. (2000). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43. Orpwood, R. Design methodology for aids for the disabled. J Med Eng Technol. 1990 Jan-Feb;14(1):2-10. | PubMed ID: 2342081 Scherer, M. J. (2005). Living in the State of Stuck: How Assistive Technology Impacts the Lives of People with Disabilities, Fourth Edition. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books: ISBN 1-571-29098-2. Scherer, M.J. (2004). Connecting to Learn: Educational and Assistive Technology for People with Disabilities. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA) Books: ISBN 1-557-98982-6. Scherer, M.J. (Ed.). (2002). Assistive Technology: Matching Device and Consumer for Successful Rehabilitation. Washington, DC: APA Books: ISBN 1-557-98840-4. Swann, J.I. (2007) Promoting independence and activity in older people Quay Books: ISBN 9781856423342 Adlam, T. et al. The installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia." IEEE transactions on information technology in biomedicine (1089-7771) yr:2004 vol:8 iss:3 pg:253-257 | download from IEEE (694k PDF) | Assistive_technology |@lemmatized assistive:21 technology:34 generic:1 term:1 include:2 adaptive:2 rehabilitative:1 device:18 people:28 disability:15 process:2 use:17 select:1 locating:1 related:1 assistance:3 individual:3 act:2 u:1 public:2 law:1 state:2 design:12 utilize:1 service:2 promotes:1 great:4 independence:3 enable:4 perform:1 task:4 formerly:1 unable:1 accomplish:3 difficulty:3 provide:2 enhancement:1 change:1 method:2 interact:2 need:3 likewise:1 advocate:1 point:1 often:1 create:2 without:4 regard:1 unnecessary:1 barrier:1 hundred:1 million:1 universal:5 accessibility:4 universally:2 accessible:5 street:3 cross:2 evanston:1 illinois:1 broaden:1 mean:1 usability:1 particularly:1 yield:1 reward:1 typical:1 user:9 well:5 good:3 one:3 example:7 curb:3 cut:3 drop:1 sidewalk:1 crossing:1 pedestrian:1 mobility:4 impairment:6 also:8 aid:10 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177 | Bohemia | Bohemia (; There is no distinction in the Czech language between adjectives referring to Bohemia and to the Czech Republic; i.e. český means both Bohemian and Czech. ; ; ; ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Czech Republic. In a broader meaning, it often refers to the entire Czech territory, including Moravia and Czech Silesia, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05 especially in historical contexts, such as the Kingdom of Bohemia. Bohemia has an area of 52,750 km² and 6.25 million of the Czech Republic's 10.3 million inhabitants. It is bordered by Germany to the southwest, west, and northwest, Poland to the north-east, the Czech historical region of Moravia to the east, and Austria to the south. Bohemia's borders are marked with mountain ranges such as the Bohemian Forest, the Ore Mountains, and the Krkonoše within the Sudeten mountains. History Ancient Bohemia Roman authors provide the first clear reference to this area as Boiohaemum, from Germanic Boi-Heim, "home of the Boii", a Celtic people. As part of the territory often crossed during the Migration Period by major Germanic and Slavic tribes, the western half was conquered and settled from the 1st century BC by Germanic (probably Suebic) peoples including the Marcomanni; the elite of some Boii then migrated west to modern Switzerland and southeastern Gaul. Those Boii that remained in the eastern part were eventually absorbed by the Marcomanni. Part of the Marcomanni, renamed the Bavarians (Baiuvarum), later migrated to the southwest. After the Bavarian emigration, Bohemia was partially repopulated around the sixth century by the Slavic precursors of today's Czechs, though the exact amount of Slavic immigration is a subject of debate. The Slavic influx was divided into two or (more probably) three waves. The first wave came from the southeast and east, when the Germanic Langobards left Bohemia (circa 568 AD). Later immigrants came from the Black Sea region, as shown by their place names—for example "Dudleb" (today in Prachens region, South Bohemia) is of Iranian origin and "Charvat" is of Turkic origin. Soon after, from the 630s to 660s, the territory was taken by Samo's tribal confederation. His death marked the end of the archaic-"Slavonic" confederation, just the second attempt to establish such a Slavonic union after Carantania in Carinthia. Other sources (Descriptio civitatum et regionum ad septentrionalem plagam Danubii, Bavaria, 800-850) divide the population of Bohemia at this time into the Merehani, Marharaii, Beheimare (Bohemani) and Fraganeo. (The suffix -ani or -ni means "people of-"). The great tribes of Dudleb, Lemuz and Charvat are missing from this list, which shows a linguistic and cultural shift in favor of Slavonic dialects, a common occurrence in nomadic immigrations. The first religions of these "Bohemians" are unclear, although some Iranian religion-inspired cults (for example, the god Mihr) have been discovered in extant graves (from Pohořelice, Kal, Mikulčice in the 8th century), and a temple of the Fire called Žīži in the center of Fraga. Christianity first appeared in the early 9th century, but became dominant much later, in the 10th or 11th century. The ninth century was crucial for the future of Bohemia - the manorial system sharply declined (as in Bavaria) and the power of central Fraganeo - Czechs grew. It was caused because they kept strategical central cult in their territory. They were predominately Slavs and it contributed to transformation of neighbouring populations into new nation named and led by them with united slavic ethnical subconsciousness. Petr Charvát: "Zrod Českého státu" [Origin of the Bohemian State], March 2007, ISBN 80-7021-845-2, in Czech Přemysl dynasty Initially, Bohemia was a part of Greater Moravia. The latter, which had been weakened by years of internal conflict and constant warfare, ultimately succumbed and fragmented due to the continual incursions of the invading nomadic Magyars and Avars. However, Bohemia's initial incorporation into the Moravian Empire resulted in the extensive Christianization of the population. A native monarchy arose to the throne, and Bohemia came under the rule of the Přemyslid dynasty, which would rule the Czech lands for the next several hundred years. The Přemyslids secured their frontiers from the remnant Asian interlocurs, after the collapse of the Moravian state, by entering into a state of semi-vallage to the Frankish rulers, including Charlemagne. Charlemagne campaigned extensively against the Avars in the late eighth and early ninth century. This alliance was facilitated by Bohemia's conversion to Christianity, in the ninth century. Continuing close relations were developed with the East Frankish kingdom, which devolved from the Carolingian Empire, into East Francia, eventually becoming the Holy Roman Empire. After a decisive victory of the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia over invading Magyars in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld, Boleslaus I of Bohemia was granted the March of Moravia by German emperor Otto the Great. Bohemia would remain a largely autonomous state under the Holy Roman Empire for several decades. The jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire was definitively reasserted when Jaromír of Bohemia was granted fief of the Kingdom of Bohemia by Emperor King Henry II of the Holy Roman Empire, with the promise that he hold it as a vassal once he re-occupied Prague with a German army in 1004, ending the rule of Boleslaw I of Poland. The first to use the title of "King of Bohemia" were the Přemyslid dukes Vratislav II (1085) and Vladislav II (1158), but their heirs would return to the title of duke. The title of king became hereditary under Ottokar I (1198). His grandson Ottokar II (king from 1253–1278) conquered a short-lived empire which contained modern Austria and Slovenia. The mid-thirteenth century saw the beginning of substantial German immigration as the court sought to replace losses from the brief Mongol invasion of Europe in 1241. Germans settled primarily along the northern, western, and southern borders of Bohemia, although many lived in towns throughout the kingdom. Luxembourg dynasty The House of Luxembourg accepted the invitation to the Bohemian throne with the crowning of John I of Bohemia in 1310. His son, Charles IV became King of Bohemia in 1346 and founded Charles University in Prague, central Europe's first university, two years later. His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to also be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule the Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany. Hussite Bohemia During the ecumenical Council of Constance in 1415, Jan Hus, the rector of Charles University and a prominent reformer and religious thinker, was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite the fact that Hus was granted formal protection by Emperor Sigismund of Luxembourg prior to the journey. Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court, but with the emperor's approval, he was executed on July 6 1415. The execution of Hus, as well as a papal crusade against followers of Hus, forced the Bohemians to defend themselves. Their stubborn defense and rebellion against Roman Catholics became known as the Hussite Wars. The uprising against imperial forces was led by a former mercenary, Jan Žižka of Trocnov. As the leader of the Hussite armies, he utilized innovative tactics and weapons, such as howitzers, pistols, and fortified wagons, which were revolutionary for the time and established Žižka as a great general who never lost a battle. After Žižka's death, Prokop the Great took over the command for the army, and under his lead the Hussites were victorious for another ten years, to the sheer terror of Europe. The Hussite cause gradually splintered into two main factions, the moderate Utraquists and the more fanatic Taborites. The Utraquists began to lay the ground work for an agreement with the Catholic Church and found the more radical views of the Taborites distasteful. Additionally, with general war weariness and yearning for order, the Utraquists were able to eventually defeat the Taborites in the Battle of Lipany in 1434. Sigismund said after the battle that "only the Bohemians could defeat the Bohemians." Despite an apparent victory for the Catholics, the Bohemian Utraquists were still strong enough to negotiate freedom of religion in 1436. This happened in the so-called Basel Compacts, declaring peace and freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. It would only last for a short period of time, as Pope Pius II declared the Basel Compacts to be invalid in 1462. In 1458, George of Podebrady was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up a pan-European "Christian League", which would form all the states of Europe into a community based on religion. In the process of negotiating, he appointed Leo of Rozmital to tour the European courts and to conduct the talks. However, the negotiations were not completed, because George's position was substantially damaged over time by his deteriorating relationship with the Pope. Habsburg Monarchy After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became King of Bohemia and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg Monarchy. Bohemia enjoyed religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time. In 1609, Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II who made Prague again the capital of the Empire at the time, himself a Roman Catholic, was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish Maiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the older Confessio Bohemica of 1575. After Emperor Ferdinand II began oppressing the rights of Protestants in Bohemia, the resulting Bohemian rebellion resulted in the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618. Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate, a Protestant, was elected by the Bohemian nobility to replace Ferdinand on the Bohemian throne, and was known as the Winter King. Frederick's wife, the popular Elizabeth Stuart and subsequently Elizabeth of Bohemia, known as the Winter Queen or Queen of Hearts, was the daughter of King James I of England. However, after Frederick's defeat in the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, 26 Bohemian estates leaders together with Jan Jesenius, rector of the Charles University of Prague were executed on the Prague's Old Town Square and the rest were exiled from the country; their lands were then given to Catholic loyalists (mostly of Bavarian and Saxon origin), this ended the pro-reformation movement in Bohemia and also ended the role of Prague as ruling city of the Empire. Until the so-called "renewed constitution" of 1627, the German language was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. The Czech language remained the first language in the kingdom. Both German and Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes, although German became increasingly dominant, while Czech was spoken in much of the countryside. The formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when the Bohemian Diet approved administrative reform in 1749. It included the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire and the centralization of rule; this essentially meant the merging of the Royal Bohemian Chancellery with the Austrian Chancellery. At the end of the eighteenth century, the Czech national revivalist movement, in cooperation with part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the kingdom's historic rights, whereby the Czech language was to replace German as the language of administration. The enlightened absolutism of Joseph II and Leopold II, who introduced minor language concessions, showed promise for the Czech movement, but many of these reforms were later rescinded. During the Revolution of 1848, many Czech nationalists called for autonomy for Bohemia from Habsburg Austria, but the revolutionaries were defeated. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved, although the Czech language experienced a rebirth as romantic nationalism developed among the Czechs. In 1861, a new elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia, and Duchy of Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy ("state rights program"), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called "Verfassungstreue"). After the defeat of Austria in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, Hungarian politicians achieved the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, ostensibly creating equality between the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire. An attempt of the Czechs to create a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) failed in 1871. However, the "state rights program" remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918. Twentieth century After World War I, Bohemia (as the biggest and most populated land) became the core of the newly-formed country of Czechoslovakia, which combined Bohemia, Moravia, Austrian Silesia, Upper Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and Carpathian Ruthenia into one state. Under its first president, Tomáš Masaryk, Czechoslovakia became a rich and liberal democratic republic. Following the Munich Agreement in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans (Sudetenland) were annexed to Nazi Germany; this was the only time in Bohemian history that its territory was divided. The remnants of Bohemia and Moravia were then annexed by Germany in 1939, while the Slovak lands became the Slovak Republic, a client state of Nazi Germany. From 1939 to 1945 Bohemia (without the Sudetenland) formed with Moravia the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren). After World War II ended in 1945, the vast majority of remaining Germans were expelled. After World War II Czechoslovakia was re-established. In 1946, the Communist Party strongly subsidized by the Soviet Union (due to an agreement amongst the Allies, Patton's armies did not enter Prague and the city had to liberate itself before being officially liberated by the Soviet Red Army) won elections. In February 1948 the Communists ousted the remaining democratic ministers in a coup d'état from the government and abolished democratic sandels Beginning in 1949, Bohemia ceased to be an administrative unit of Czechoslovakia, as the country was divided into administrative regions. Between 1949 and 1989 Czechoslovakia (from 1960 officially called Czechoslovak Socialistic Republic) became a Soviet satellite even though there wasn't a Soviet army present (interestingly enough, surrounding countries including Austria were occupied by the Red Army) until Czechoslovak Communist Party started to reform and democratize itself in 1968. This "Prague Spring" process was stopped abruptly by an invasion of 'brotherly' armies of Warsaw Pact in August 1968. In 1989, Agnes of Bohemia became the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by Pope John Paul II before the "Velvet Revolution" later that year. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993 (the "Velvet Divorce"), the territory of Bohemia became part of the new Czech Republic. The Czech constitution from 1992 refers to the "citizens of the Czech Republic in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia" and proclaims continuity with the statehood of the Bohemian Crown. Bohemia is not currently an administrative unit of the Czech Republic. Instead, it is divided into the Prague, Central Bohemian, Plzeň, Karlovy Vary, Ústí nad Labem, Liberec, and Hradec Králové Regions, as well as parts of the Pardubice, Vysočina, South Bohemian and South Moravian Regions. See also History of the Czech lands List of rulers of Bohemia Sudetenland German Bohemia Bohemianism Lech, Czech and Rus References External links Bohemia "Bohemia – what did it mean to be Bohemian?" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Norman Davies, Karin Friedrich and Robert Pynsent be-x-old:Багемія | Bohemia |@lemmatized bohemia:53 distinction:1 czech:32 language:9 adjective:1 refer:2 republic:9 e:1 český:1 mean:4 bohemian:28 historical:3 region:8 central:6 europe:5 occupy:2 western:3 two:4 third:1 traditional:1 land:8 currently:2 broad:1 meaning:1 often:2 entire:1 territory:6 include:5 moravia:11 silesia:5 columbia:1 encyclopedia:1 sixth:2 edition:1 especially:1 context:1 kingdom:7 area:4 million:2 inhabitant:1 border:4 germany:5 southwest:2 west:2 northwest:1 poland:2 north:1 east:5 austria:7 south:4 mark:2 mountain:4 range:1 forest:1 ore:1 krkonoše:1 within:1 sudeten:1 history:3 ancient:1 roman:10 author:1 provide:1 first:10 clear:1 reference:2 boiohaemum:1 germanic:4 boi:1 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178 | History_of_painting | Cave painting of aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius), Lascaux, France, prehistoric art The history of painting reaches back in time to artifacts from pre-historic humans, and spans all cultures, that represents a continuous, though disrupted, tradition from Antiquity. Across cultures, and spanning continents and millennia, the history of painting is an ongoing river of creativity, that continues into the 21st century. Art of the Western World: From Ancient Greece to Post Modernism (Paperback) by Bruce Cole, Simon and Shuster, 1981, accessed 27 October 2007 Until the early 20th century it relied primarily on representational, religious and classical motifs, after which time more purely abstract and conceptual approaches gained favor. Developments in Eastern painting historically parallel those in Western painting, in general, a few centuries earlier. The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art, Revised and Expanded edition (Hardcover)by Michael Sullivan, African art, Islamic art, Indian art, NY Times, Holland Cotter, accessed online 27 October 2007] Chinese art, and Japanese art Japonisme: The Japanese Influence on Western Art Since 1858 (Paperback) by Siegfried Wichmann# Publisher: Thames & Hudson; New Ed edition (19 November 1999), ISBN 0500281637, ISBN 978-0500281635 each had significant influence on Western art, and, eventually, vice-versa. The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art, Revised and Expanded edition (Hardcover)by Michael Sullivan, Publisher: University of California Press; Rev Exp Su edition (1 June 1989), ISBN 0520059026, ISBN 978 0520059023 Recommended articles: Painting, Outline of painting history. Pre-history The oldest known paintings are at the Grotte Chauvet in France, claimed by some historians to be about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using red ochre and black pigment and show horses, rhinoceros, lions, buffalo, mammoth or humans often hunting. There are examples of cave paintings all over the world—in France, India, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia etc. Various conjectures have been made as to the meaning these paintings had to the people that made them. Prehistoric men may have painted animals to "catch" their soul or spirit in order to hunt them more easily or the paintings may represent an animistic vision and homage to surrounding nature, or they may be the result of a basic need of expression that is innate to human beings, or they could have been for the transmission of practical information. In Paleolithic times, the representation of humans in cave paintings was rare. Mostly, animals were painted, not only animals that were used as food but also animals that represented strength like the rhinoceros or large Felidae, as in the Chauvet Cave. Signs like dots were sometimes drawn. Rare human representations include handprints and half-human / animal figures. The Chauvet Cave in the Ardèche Departments of France contains the most important preserved cave paintings of the Paleolithic era, painted around 31,000 BC. The Altamira cave paintings in Spain were done 14,000 to 12,000 BC and show, among others, bisons. The hall of bulls in Lascaux, Dordogne, France, is one of the best known cave paintings from about 15,000 to 10,000 BC. If there is meaning to the paintings, it remains unknown. The caves were not in an inhabited area, so they may have been used for seasonal rituals. The animals are accompanied by signs which suggest a possible magic use. Arrow-like symbols in Lascaux are sometimes interpreted as calendar or almanac use. But the evidence remains inconclusive. M. Hoover, Art of the Paleolithic and Neolithic Eras]", from Art History Survey 1, San Antonio College (July 2001; accessed 11 June 2005). The most important work of the Mesolithic era were the marching Warriors, a rock painting at Cingle de la Mola, Castellón, Spain dated to about 7,000 to 4,000 BC. The technique used was probably spitting or blowing the pigments onto the rock. The paintings are quite naturalistic, though stylized. The figures are not three-dimensional, even though they overlap The earliest known Indian paintings (see section below) were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, (see above) and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals. Eastern painting East Asian painting See also Chinese painting, Japanese painting, Korean painting. China, Japan and Korea have a strong tradition in painting which is also highly attached to the art of calligraphy and printmaking (so much that it is commonly seen as painting). Far east traditional painting is characterized by water based techniques, less realism, "elegant" and stylized subjects, graphical approach to depiction, the importance of white space (or negative space) and a preference for landscape (instead of human figure) as a subject. Beyond ink and color on silk or paper scrolls, gold on lacquer was also a common medium in painted East Asian artwork. Although silk was a somewhat expensive medium to paint upon in the past, the invention of paper during the 1st century AD by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun provided not only a cheap and widespread medium for writing, but also a cheap and widespread medium for painting (making it more accessible to the public). The ideologies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism played important roles in East Asian art. Medieval Song Dynasty painters such as Lin Tinggui and his Luohan Laundering (housed in the Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art) of the 12th century are excellent examples of Buddhist ideas fused into classical Chinese artwork. In the latter painting on silk (image and description provided in the link), bald-headed Buddhist Luohan are depicted in a practical setting of washing clothes by a river. However, the painting itself is visually stunning, with the Luohan portrayed in rich detail and bright, opaque colors in contrast to a hazy, brown, and bland wooded environment. Also, the tree tops are shrouded in swirling fog, providing the common "negative space" mentioned above in East Asian Art. In Japonisme, late 19th century artists like the Impressionists, Van Gogh, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec and Whistler admired traditional Japanese Ukiyo-e artists like Hokusai and Hiroshige and their work was influenced by it. Chinese painting Spring Morning in the Han Palace, by Ming-era artist Qiu Ying (1494–1552 AD) The earliest (surviving) examples of Chinese painted artwork date to the Warring States Period (481 - 221 BC), with paintings on silk or tomb murals on rock, brick, or stone. They were often in simplistic stylized format and in more-or-less rudimentary geometric patterns. They often depicted mythological creatures, domestic scenes, labor scenes, or palatial scenes filled with officials at court. Artwork during this period and the subsequent Qin Dynasty (221 - 207 BC) and Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) was made not as a means in and of itself or for higher personal expression. Rather artwork was created to symbolize and honor funerary rights, representations of mythological deities or spirits of ancestors, etc. Paintings on silk of court officials and domestic scenes could be found during the Han Dynasty, along with scenes of men hunting on horseback or partaking in military parade. There was also painting on three dimensional works of art on figurines and statues, such as the original-painted colors covering the soldier and horse statues of the Terracotta Army. During the social and cultural climate of the ancient Eastern Jin Dynasty (316 - 420 AD) based at Nanjing in the south, painting became one of the official pastimes of Confucian-taught bureaucratic officials and aristocrats (along with music played by the guqin zither, writing fanciful calligraphy, and writing and reciting of poetry). Painting became a common form of artistic self-expression, and during this period painters at court or amongst elite social circuits were judged and ranked by their peers. The Sakyamuni Buddha, by Zhang Shengwen, 1173–1176 AD, Song Dynasty period. The establishment of classical Chinese landscape painting is accredited largely to the Eastern Jin Dynasty artist Gu Kaizhi (344 - 406 AD), one of the most famous artists of Chinese history. Like the elongated scroll scenes of Kaizhi, Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD) Chinese artists like Wu Daozi painted vivid and highly detailed artwork on long horizontal handscrolls (which were very popular during the Tang), such as his Eighty Seven Celestial People. Painted artwork during the Tang period pertained the effects of an idealized landscape environment, with sparse amount of objects, persons, or activity, as well as monochromatic in nature (example: the murals of Price Yide's tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum). There were also figures such as early Tang-era painter Zhan Ziqian, who painted superb landscape paintings that were well ahead of his day in portrayal of realism. However, landscape art did not reach greater level of maturity and realism in general until the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907 - 960 AD). During this time, there were exceptional landscape painters like Dong Yuan (refer to this article for an example of his artwork), and those who painted more vivid and realistic depictions of domestic scenes, like Gu Hongzhong and his Night Revels of Han Xizai. Loquats and Mountain Bird, anonymous artist of the Southern Song Dynasty; paintings in leaf album style such as this were popular in the Southern Song (1127–1279). During the Chinese Song Dynasty (960 - 1279 AD), not only landscape art was improved upon, but portrait painting became more standardized and sophisticated than before (for example, refer to Emperor Huizong of Song), and reached its classical age maturity during the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644 AD). During the late 13th century and first half of the 14th century, Chinese under the Mongol-controlled Yuan Dynasty were not allowed to enter higher posts of government (reserved for Mongols or other ethnic groups from Central Asia), and the Imperial examination was ceased for the time being. Many Confucian-educated Chinese who now lacked profession turned to the arts of painting and theatre instead, as the Yuan period became one of the most vibrant and abundant eras for Chinese artwork. An example of such would be Qian Xuan (1235–1305 AD), who was an official of the Song Dynasty, but out of patriotism, refused to serve the Yuan court and dedicated himself to painting. Examples of superb art from this period include the rich and detailed painted murals of the Yongle Palace , or "Dachunyang Longevity Palace", of 1262 AD, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Within the palace, paintings cover an area of more than 1000 square meters, and hold mostly Daoist themes. It was during the Song Dynasty that painters would also gather in social clubs or meetings to discuss their art or others' artwork, the praising of which often led to persuasions to trade and sell precious works of art. However, there were also many harsh critics of others art as well, showing the difference in style and taste amongst different painters. In 1088 AD, the polymath scientist and statesman Shen Kuo once wrote of the artwork of one Li Cheng, who he criticized as follows: Emperor Qianlong Practicing Calligraphy, mid-18th century. Although high level of stylization, mystical appeal, and surreal elegance were often preferred over realism (such as in shan shui style), beginning with the medieval Song Dynasty there were many Chinese painters then and afterwards who depicted scenes of nature that were vividly real. Later Ming Dynasty artists would take after this Song Dynasty emphasis for intricate detail and realism on objects in nature, especially in depictions of animals (such as ducks, swans, sparrows, tigers, etc.) amongst patches of brightly-colored flowers and thickets of brush and wood (a good example would be the anonymous Ming Dynasty painting Birds and Plum Blossoms , housed in the Freer Gallery of the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, D.C.). There were many renowned Ming Dynasty artists; Qiu Ying is an excellent example of a paramount Ming era painter (famous even in his own day), utilizing in his artwork domestic scenes, bustling palatial scenes, and nature scenes of river valleys and steeped mountains shrouded in mist and swirling clouds. During the Ming Dynasty there were also different and rivaling schools of art associated with painting, such as the Wu School and the Zhe School. Classical Chinese painting continued on into the early modern Qing Dynasty, with highly realistic portrait paintings like seen in the late Ming Dynasty of the early 17th century. The portraits of Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor, and Qianlong Emperor are excellent examples of realistic Chinese portrait painting. During the Qianlong reign period and the continuing 19th century, European Baroque styles of painting had noticeable influence on Chinese portrait paintings, especially with painted visual effects of lighting and shading. Likewise, East Asian paintings and other works of art (such as porcelain and lacquerware) were highly prized in Europe since initial contact in the 16th century. Muromachi period, Shingei, (1431–1485), Viewing a Waterfall, Nezu Museum, Tokyo. Japanese painting Japanese painting (絵画) is one of the oldest and most highly refined of the Japanese arts, encompassing a wide variety on genre and styles. As with the history of Japanese arts in general, the history Japanese painting is a long history of synthesis and competition between native Japanese aesthetics and adaptation of imported ideas. Ukiyo-e, "pictures of the floating world", is a genre of Japanese woodblock prints (or woodcuts) and paintings produced between the 17th and the 20th centuries, featuring motifs of landscapes, the theatre and pleasure quarters. It is the main artistic genre of woodblock printing in Japan. Japanese printmaking especially from the Edo period exerted enormous influence on Western painting in France during the 19th century. South Asian painting Indian painting Indian paintings historically revolved around the religious deities and kings. Indian art is a collective term for several different schools of art that existed in the Indian subcontinent. The paintings varied from large frescoes of Ellora to the intricate Mughal miniature paintings to the metal embellished works from the Tanjore school. The paintings from the Gandhar-Taxila are influenced by the Persian works in the west. The eastern style of painting was mostly developed around the Nalanda school of art. The works are mostly inspired by various scenes from Indian mythology. History The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places like the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are older than 5500 BC. Such works continued and after several millennia, in the 7th century, carved pillars of Ajanta, Maharashtra state present a fine example of Indian paintings, and the colors, mostly various shades of red and orange, were derived from minerals.Bhimbetka rock painting Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, India are rock-cut cave monuments dating back to the second century BCE and containing paintings and sculpture considered to be masterpieces of both Buddhist religious art UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ajanta Caves, India: Brief Description. Retrieved 27 October 2006. and universal pictorial art. UNESCO International Council on Monuments and Sites. 1982. Ajanta Caves: Advisory Body Evaluation. Retrieved 27 October 2006. A fresco from Cave 1 of Ajanta. Madhubani painting Madhubani painting is a style of Indian painting, practiced in the Mithila region of Bihar state, India. The origins of Madhubani painting are shrouded in antiquity. Mother Goddess A miniature painting of the Pahari style, dating to the eighteenth century. Pahari and Rajput miniatures share many common features. Rajput painting Rajput painting, a style of Indian painting, evolved and flourished, during the 18th century, in the royal courts of Rajputana, India. Each Rajput kingdom evolved a distinct style, but with certain common features. Rajput paintings depict a number of themes, events of epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Krishna's life, beautiful landscapes, and humans. Miniatures were the preferred medium of Rajput painting, but several manuscripts also contain Rajput paintings, and paintings were even done on the walls of palaces, inner chambers of the forts, havelies, particularly, the havelis of Shekhawait. The colors extracted from certain minerals, plant sources, conch shells, and were even derived by processing precious stones, gold and silver were used. The preparation of desired colors was a lengthy process, sometimes taking weeks. Brushes used were very fine. Mughal painting Mughal painting is a particular style of Indian painting, generally confined to illustrations on the book and done in miniatures, and which emerged, developed and took shape during the period of the Mughal Empire 16th -19th centuries). Tanjore painting Tanjore painting is an important form of classical South Indian painting native to the town of Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. The art form dates back to the early 9th century, a period dominated by the Chola rulers, who encouraged art and literature. These paintings are known for their elegance, rich colors, and attention to detail. The themes for most of these paintings are Hindu Gods and Goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. In modern times, these paintings have become a much sought after souvenir during festive occasions in South India. The process of making a Tanjore painting involves many stages. The first stage involves the making of the preliminary sketch of the image on the base. The base consists of a cloth pasted over a wooden base. Then chalk powder or zinc oxide is mixed with water-soluble adhesive and applied on the base. To make the base smoother, a mild abrasive is sometimes used. After the drawing is made, decoration of the jewellery and the apparels in the image is done with semi-precious stones. Laces or threads are also used to decorate the jewellery. On top of this, the gold foils are pasted. Finally, dyes are used to add colors to the figures in the paintings. The Madras School During British rule in India, the crown found that Madras had some of the most talented and intellectual artistic minds in the world. As the British had also established a huge settlement in and around Madras, Georgetown was chosen to establish an institute that would cater to the artistic expectations of the royals in London. This has come to be known as the Madras School. At first traditional artists were employed to produce exquisite varieties of furniture, metal work, and curios and their work was sent to the royal palaces of the Queen. Unlike the Bengal School where 'copying' is the norm of teaching, the Madras School flourishes on 'creating' new styles, arguments and trends. The Bengal School Abanindranath Tagore, Bharat Mata The Bengal School of Art was an influential style of art that flourished in India during the British Raj in the early 20th century. It was associated with Indian nationalism, but was also promoted and supported by many British arts administrators. The Bengal School arose as an avant garde and nationalist movement reacting against the academic art styles previously promoted in India, both by Indian artists such as Ravi Varma and in British art schools. Following the widespread influence of Indian spiritual ideas in the West, the British art teacher Ernest Binfield Havel attempted to reform the teaching methods at the Calcutta School of Art by encouraging students to imitate Mughal miniatures. This caused immense controversy, leading to a strike by students and complaints from the local press, including from nationalists who considered it to be a retrogressive move. Havel was supported by the artist Abanindranath Tagore, a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore painted a number of works influenced by Mughal art, a style that he and Havel believed to be expressive of India's distinct spiritual qualities, as opposed to the "materialism" of the West. Tagore's best-known painting, Bharat Mata (Mother India), depicted a young woman, portrayed with four arms in the manner of Hindu deities, holding objects symbolic of India's national aspirations. Tagore later attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as part of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of art. The Bengal School's influence in India declined with the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s. In the post-independence period, Indian artists showed more adaptability as they borrowed freely from european styles and amalgamated them freely with the Indian motifs to new forms of art. While artists like Francis Newton Souza and Tyeb Mehta were more western in their approach, there were others like Ganesh Pyne and Maqbool Fida Husain who developed thoroughly indigenous styles of work. Today after the process of liberalization of market in India, the artists are experiencing more exposure to the international art-scene which is helping them in emerging with newer forms of art which were hitherto not seen in India. Jitish Kallat had shot to fame in the late 90s with his paintings which were both modern and beyond the scope of generic definition. However while artists in India in the new century are trying out new styles, themes and metaphors, it would not have been possible to get such quick recognition without the aid of the business houses which are now entering the art field like they had never before. Western painting Egypt, Greece and Rome Ancient Egypt, a civilization with very strong traditions of architecture and sculpture (both originally painted in bright colours) also had many mural paintings in temples and buildings, and painted illustrations on papyrus manuscripts. Egyptian wall painting and decorative painting is often graphic, sometimes more symbolic than realistic. Egyptian painting depicts figures in bold outline and flat silhouette, in which symmetry is a constant characteristic. Egyptian painting has close connection with its written language - called Egyptian hieroglyphs. Painted symbols are found amongst the first forms of written language. The Egyptians also painted on linen, remnants of which survive today. Ancient Egyptian paintings survived due to the extremely dry climate. The ancient Egyptians created paintings to make the afterlife of the deceased a pleasant place. The themes included journey through the afterworld or their protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld. Some examples of such paintings are paintings of the gods and goddesses Ra, Horus, Anubis, Nut, Osiris and Isis. Some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the New Kingdom and later, the Book of the Dead was buried with the entombed person. It was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife. To the north of Egypt was the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete. The wall paintings found in the palace of Knossos are similar to that of the Egyptians but much more free in style. Around 1100 B.C., tribes from the north of Greece conquered Greece and the Greek art took a new direction. Ancient Greece had great painters, great sculptors (though both endeavours were regarded as mere manual labour at the time), and great architects. The Parthenon is an example of their architecture that has lasted to modern days. Greek marble sculpture is often described as the highest form of Classical art. Painting on pottery of Ancient Greece and ceramics gives a particularly informative glimpse into the way society in Ancient Greece functioned. Black-figure vase painting and Red-figure vase painting gives many surviving examples of what Greek painting was. Some famous Greek painters on wooden panels who are mentioned in texts are Apelles, Zeuxis and Parrhasius, however no examples of Ancient Greek panel painting survive, only written descriptions by their contemporaries or later Romans. Zeuxis lived in 5-6 BC and was said to be the first to use sfumato. According to Pliny the Elder, the realism of his paintings was such that birds tried to eat the painted grapes. Apelles is described as the greatest painter of Antiquity for perfect technique in drawing, brilliant color and modeling. Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. However, Roman painting does have important unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such painting can be grouped into 4 main "styles" or periods Roman Painting and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape. Roman Wall Painting Almost the only painted portraits surviving from the Ancient world are a large number of coffin-portraits of bust form found in the Late Antique cemetery of Al-Fayum. Although these were neither of the best period nor the highest quality, they are impressive in themselves, and give an idea of the quality that the finest ancient work must have had. A very small number of miniatures from Late Antique illustrated books also survive, and a rather larger number of copies of them from the Early Medieval period. Middle Ages The rise of Christianity imparted a different spirit and aim to painting styles. Byzantine art, once its style was established by the 6th century, placed great emphasis on retaining traditional iconography and style, and has changed relatively little through the thousand years of the Byzantine Empire and the continuing traditions of Greek and Russian Othodox icon-painting. Byzantine painting has a particularly hieratic feeling and icons were and still are seen as a reflection of the divine. There were also many wall-paintings in fresco, but fewer of these have survived than Byzantine mosaics. In general Byzantium art borders on abstraction, in its flatness and highly stylised depictions of figures and landscape. However there are periods, especially in the so-called Macedonian art of around the 10th century, when Byzantine art became more flexible in approach. In post-Antique Catholic Europe the first distinctive artistic style to emerge that included painting was the Insular art of the British Isles, where the only surviving examples (and quite likely the only medium in which painting was used) are miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells. These are most famous for their abstract decoration, although figures, and sometimes scenes, were also depicted, especially in Evangelist portraits. Carolingian and Ottonian art also survives mostly in manuscripts, although some wall-painting remain, and more are documented. The art of this period combines Insular and "barbarian" influences with a strong Byzantine influence and an aspiration to recover classical monumentality and poise. Walls of Romanesque and Gothic churches were decorated with frescoes as well as sculpture and many of the few remaining murals have great intensity, and combine the decorative energy of Insular art with a new monumentality in the treatment of figures. Far more miniatures in Illuminated manuscripts survive from the period, showing the same characteristics, which continue into the Gothic period. Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto. From Giotto on, the treatment of composition by the best painters also became much more free and innovative. They are considered to be the two great medieval masters of painting in western culture. Cimabue, within the Byzantine tradition, used a more realistic and dramatic approach to his art. His pupil, Giotto, took these innovations to a higher level which in turn set the foundations for the western painting tradition. Both artists were pioneers in the move towards naturalism. Churches were built with more and more windows and the use of colorful stained glass become a staple in decoration. One of the most famous examples of this is found in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. By the 14th century Western societies were both richer and more cultivated and painters found new patrons in the nobility and even the bourgeoisie. Illuminated manuscripts took on a new character and slim, fashionably dressed court women were shown in their landscapes. This style soon became known as International style and tempera panel paintings and altarpieces gained importance. Renaissance and Mannerism The Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting. Roughly spanning the 14th through the mid 17th century. In Italy artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of an unprecedented refinement in drawing and painting techniques. Flemish, Dutch and German painters of the Renaissance such as Hans Holbein the Younger, Albrecht Dürer, Lucas Cranach, Matthias Grünewald, Hieronymous Bosch, and Pieter Brueghel represent a different approach from their Italian colleagues, one that is more realistic and less idealized. Genre painting became a popular idiom amongst such Northern painters as Pieter Brueghel. A new verisimilitude in depicting reality became possible with the adoption of oil painting, whose invention was traditionally, but erroneously, credited to Jan Van Eyck (an important transitional figure who bridges painting in the Middle Ages with painting of the early Renaissance). Unlike the Italians whose work drew heavily from the art of ancient Greece and Rome, the northerners retained a stylistic residue of the sculpture and illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. These tendencies are also see in the art of Tudor England, which was heavily influenced by Protestant refugees from the Low Countries. Renaissance painting reflects the revolution of ideas and science (astronomy, geography) that occur in this period, the Reformation, and the invention of the printing press. Dürer, considered one of the greatest of printmakers, states that painters are not mere artisans but thinkers as well. With the development of easel painting in the Renaissance, painting gained independence from architecture. Following centuries dominated by religious imagery, secular subject matter slowly returned to Western painting. Artists included visions of the world around them, or the products of their own imaginations in their paintings. Those who could afford the expense could become patrons and commission portraits of themselves or their family. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, panel paintings which could be hung on walls and moved around at will, became increasingly popular for both churches and private houses, rather than fresco wall-paintings or paintings incorporated into on permanent structures, such as altarpieces. The High Renaissance gave rise to a stylized art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterized art at the dawn of the sixteenth century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. Baroque and Rococo Baroque painting is associated with the Baroque cultural movement, a movement often identified with Absolutism and the Counter Reformation or Catholic Revival Counter Reformation, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online, latest edition, full-article. Counter Reformation, from The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05. ; the existence of important Baroque painting in non-absolutist and Protestant states also, however, underscores its popularity, as the style spread throughout Western Europe. Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, "Gardner's Art Through the Ages" (Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005) Baroque painting is characterized by great drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark shadows. Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had been prized during the Renaissance. During the period beginning around 1600 and continuing throughout the 17th century, painting is characterized as Baroque. Among the greatest painters of the Baroque are Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Rubens, Velázquez, Poussin, and Jan Vermeer. Caravaggio is an heir of the humanist painting of the High Renaissance. His realistic approach to the human figure, painted directly from life and dramatically spotlit against a dark background, shocked his contemporaries and opened a new chapter in the history of painting. Baroque painting often dramatizes scenes using light effects; this can be seen in works by Rembrandt, Vermeer, Le Nain and La Tour. During the 18th century, Rococo followed as a lighter extension of Baroque, often frivolous and erotic. Rococo developed first in the decorative arts and interior design in France. Louis XV's succession brought a change in the court artists and general artistic fashion. The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France exemplified by the works of Antoine Watteau and François Boucher. Rococo still maintained the Baroque taste for complex forms and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of diverse characteristics, including a taste for Oriental designs and asymmetric compositions. The Rococo style spread with French artists and engraved publications. It was readily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia, and Austria, where it was merged with the lively German Baroque traditions. German Rococo was applied with enthusiasm to churches and palaces, particularly in the south, while Frederician Rococo developed in the Kingdom of Prussia. The French masters Watteau, Boucher and Fragonard represent the style, as do Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin who was considered by some as the best French painter of the 18th century - the Anti-Rococo. Portraiture was an important component of painting in all countries, but especially in England, where the leaders were William Hogarth, in a blunt realist style, and Maurice Quentin de La Tour, Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, Francis Hayman, Angelica Kauffman, Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds in more flattering styles influenced by Antony Van Dyck. William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not intentionally referencing the movement, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism). The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the "ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants" in contemporary interiors. By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques Louis David. 19th century: Neo-classicism, History painting, Romanticism, Impressionism, Post Impressionism, Symbolism also see main articles Neoclassicism, History painting, Romanticism, Impressionism, Post Impressionism, Symbolism After Rococo there arose in the late 18th century, in architecture, and then in painting severe neo-classicism, best represented by such artists as David and his heir Ingres. Ingres' work already contains much of the sensuality, but none of the spontaneity, that was to characterize Romanticism. This movement turned its attention toward landscape and nature as well as the human figure and the supremacy of natural order above mankind's will. There is a pantheist philosophy (see Spinoza and Hegel) within this conception that opposes Enlightenment ideals by seeing mankind's destiny in a more tragic or pessimistic light. The idea that human beings are not above the forces of Nature is in contradiction to Ancient Greek and Renaissance ideals where mankind was above all things and owned his fate. This thinking led romantic artists to depict the sublime, ruined churches, shipwrecks, massacres and madness. By the mid-19th century painters became liberated from the demands of their patronage to only depict scenes from religion, mythology, portraiture or history. The idea "art for art's sake" began to find expression in the work of painters like Francisco de Goya, John Constable, and J.M.W. Turner. Romantic painters turned landscape painting into a major genre, considered until then as a minor genre or as a decorative background for figure compositions. Some of the major painters of this period are Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Géricault, J. M. W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich and John Constable. Francisco de Goya's late work demonstrates the Romantic interest in the irrational, while the work of Arnold Böcklin evokes mystery and the paintings of Aesthetic movement artist James McNeill Whistler evoke both sophistication and decadence. In the United States the Romantic tradition of landscape painting was known as the Hudson River School: Novack, Barbara American Sublime Artforum, 2002, retrieved October 30, 2008 exponents include Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Albert Bierstadt, Thomas Moran, and John Frederick Kensett. Luminism was a movement in American landscape painting related to the Hudson River School. The leading Barbizon School painter Camille Corot painted in both a romantic and a realistic vein; his work prefigures Impressionism, as does the paintings of Eugène Boudin who was one of the first French landscape painters to paint outdoors. Boudin was also an important influence on the young Claude Monet, whom in 1857 he introduced to Plein air painting. A major force in the turn towards Realism at mid-century was Gustave Courbet. In the latter third of the century Impressionists like Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Mary Cassatt, and Edgar Degas worked in a more direct approach than had previously been exhibited publicly. They eschewed allegory and narrative in favor of individualized responses to the modern world, sometimes painted with little or no preparatory study, relying on deftness of drawing and a highly chromatic pallette. Manet, Degas, Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt concentrated primarily on the human subject. Both Manet and Degas reinterpreted classical figurative canons within contemporary situations; in Manet's case the re-imaginings met with hostile public reception. Renoir, Morisot, and Cassatt turned to domestic life for inspiration, with Renoir focusing on the female nude. Monet, Pissarro, and Sisley used the landscape as their primary motif, the transience of light and weather playing a major role in their work. While Sisley most closely adhered to the original principals of the Impressionist perception of the landscape, Monet sought challenges in increasingly chromatic and changeable conditions, culminating in series of monumental works, and Edvard Munch, 1893, early example of Expressionism Pissarro adopted some of the experiments of Post-Impressionism. Slightly younger Post-Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, and Georges Seurat, along with Paul Cézanne led art to the edge of modernism; for Gauguin Impressionism gave way to a personal symbolism; Seurat transformed Impressionism's broken color into a scientific optical study, structured on frieze-like compositions; Van Gogh's turbulent method of paint application, coupled with a sonorous use of color, predicted Expressionism and Fauvism, and Cézanne, desiring to unite classical composition with a revolutionary abstraction of natural forms, would come to be seen as a precursor of 20th century art. The spell of Impressionism was felt throughout the world, including in the United States, where it became integral to the painting of American Impressionists such as Childe Hassam, John Twachtman, and Theodore Robinson. It also exerted influence on painters who were not primarily Impressionistic in theory, like the portrait and landscape painter John Singer Sargent. At the same time in America at the turn of the century there existed a native and nearly insular realism, as richly embodied in the figurative work of Thomas Eakins, the Ashcan School, and the landscapes and seascapes of Winslow Homer, all of whose paintings were deeply invested in the solidity of natural forms. The visionary landscape, a motive largely dependent on the ambiguity of the nocturne, found its advocates in Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Albert Blakelock. In the late 19th century there also were several, rather dissimilar, groups of Symbolist painters whose works resonated with younger artists of the 20th century, especially with the Fauvists and the Surrealists. Among them were Gustave Moreau, Odilon Redon, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Henri Fantin-Latour, Arnold Böcklin, Edvard Munch, Félicien Rops, and Jan Toorop, and Gustave Klimt amongst others including the Russian Symbolists like Mikhail Vrubel. Symbolist painters mined mythology and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul, seeking evocative paintings that brought to mind a static world of silence. The symbols used in Symbolism are not the familiar emblems of mainstream iconography but intensely personal, private, obscure and ambiguous references. More a philosophy than an actual style of art, the Symbolist painters influenced the contemporary Art Nouveau movement and Les Nabis. In their exploration of dreamlike subjects, symbolist painters are found across centuries and cultures, as they are still today; Bernard Delvaille has described René Magritte's surrealism as "Symbolism plus Freud". Delvaille, Bernard, La poésie symboliste: anthologie, introduction. ISBN 2-221-50161-6 20th century Modern and Contemporary The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. Pioneers of the 20th century The heritage of painters like Van Gogh, Cézanne, Gauguin, and Seurat was essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with "wild", multi-colored, expressive, landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism - (as seen in the gallery above). Henri Matisse's second version of The Dance signifies a key point in his career and in the development of modern painting. Russell T. Clement. Four French Symbolists. Greenwood Press, 1996. Page 114. It reflects Matisse's incipient fascination with primitive art: the intense warm colors against the cool blue-green background and the rhythmical succession of dancing nudes convey the feelings of emotional liberation and hedonism. Pablo Picasso made his first cubist paintings based on Cézanne's idea that all depiction of nature can be reduced to three solids: cube, sphere and cone. With the painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon 1907, (see gallery) Picasso dramatically created a new and radical picture depicting a raw and primitive brothel scene with five prostitutes, violently painted women, reminiscent of African tribal masks and his own new Cubist inventions. Analytic cubism (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, exemplified by Violin and Candlestick, Paris, (seen above) from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. Henri Matisse 1909, late Fauvism Giorgio de Chirico 1914, pre-Surrealism Les Fauves (French for The Wild Beasts) were early 20th century painters, experimenting with freedom of expression through color. The name was given, humorously and not as a compliment, to the group by art critic Louis Vauxcelles. Fauvism was a short-lived and loose grouping of early 20th century artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the imaginative use of deep color over the representational values. Fauvists made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and an interesting prescient prediction of the Fauves was expressed in 1888 by Paul Gauguin to Paul Sérusier, "How do you see these trees? They are yellow. So, put in yellow; this shadow, rather blue, paint it with pure ultramarine; these red leaves? Put in vermilion." The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain — friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers. Ultimately Matisse became the yang to Picasso's yin in the 20th century. Fauvist painters included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, and Picasso's partner in Cubism, Georges Braque amongst others. The "Wild Beasts" Fauvism and its Affinities, John Elderfield, Museum of Modern Art 1976, ISBN 0-87070-638-1 Fauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions. Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self-establishment in the academic art world. His 1905 portrait of Mme. Matisse The Green Line, (above), caused a sensation in Paris when it was first exhibited. He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition. In 1906 at the suggestion of his dealer Ambroise Vollard, André Derain went to London and produced a series of paintings like Charing Cross Bridge, London (above) in the Fauvist style, paraphrasing the famous series by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet. Masters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard continued developing their narrative styles independent of any movement throughout the 20th century. Pierre Bonnard, 1913, European modernist Narrative painting By 1907 Fauvism no longer was a shocking new movement, soon it was replaced by Cubism on the critics radar screen as the latest new development in Contemporary Art of the time. In 1907 Appolinaire, commenting about Matisse in an article published in La Falange, said, "We are not here in the presence of an extravagant or an extremist undertaking: Matisse's art is eminently reasonable." Picasso and Braque pioneering cubism William Rubin, published by the Museum of Modern Art, New York, copyright 1989, ISBN 0 87070-676-4 p.348. Analytic cubism (see gallery) was jointly developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque from about 1908 through 1912. Analytic cubism, the first clear manifestation of cubism, was followed by Synthetic cubism, practised by Braque, Picasso, Fernand Léger, Juan Gris, Albert Gleizes, Marcel Duchamp and countless other artists into the 1920s. Synthetic cubism is characterized by the introduction of different textures, surfaces, collage elements, papier collé and a large variety of merged subject matter. During the years between 1910 and the end of World War I and after the heyday of cubism, several movements emerged in Paris. Giorgio De Chirico moved to Paris in July 1911, where he joined his brother Andrea (the poet and painter known as Alberto Savinio). Through his brother he met Pierre Laprade a member of the jury at the Salon d’Automne, where he exhibited three of his dreamlike works: Enigma of the Oracle, Enigma of an Afternoon and Self-Portrait. During 1913 he exhibited his work at the Salon des Indépendants and Salon d’Automne, his work was noticed by Pablo Picasso and Guillaume Apollinaire and several others. His compelling and mysterious paintings are considered instrumental to the early beginnings of Surrealism. (see gallery) Pioneers of Modern art In the first two decades of the 20th century and after cubism, several other important movements emerged; Futurism (Balla), Abstract art (Kandinsky), Der Blaue Reiter), Bauhaus, (Kandinsky) and (Klee), Orphism, (Robert Delaunay and František Kupka), Synchromism (Morgan Russell), De Stijl (Mondrian), Suprematism (Malevich), Constructivism (Tatlin), Dadaism (Duchamp, Picabia, Arp) and Surrealism (De Chirico, André Breton, Miró, Magritte, Dalí, Ernst). Modern painting influenced all the visual arts, from Modernist architecture and design, to avant-garde film, theatre and modern dance and became an experimental laboratory for the expression of visual experience, from photography and concrete poetry to advertising art and fashion. Van Gogh's painting exerted great influence upon 20th century Expressionism, as can be seen in the work of the Fauves, Die Brücke (a group led by German painter Ernst Kirchner), and the Expressionism of Edvard Munch, Egon Schiele, Marc Chagall, Amedeo Modigliani, Chaim Soutine and others.. Edvard Munch, 1893, early example of Expressionism Wassily Kandinsky 1913, birth of Abstract Art Wassily Kandinsky a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist, one of the most famous 20th-century artists is generally considered the first important painter of modern abstract art. As an early modernist, in search of new modes of visual expression, and spiritual expression, he theorized as did contemporary occultists and theosophists, that pure visual abstraction had corollary vibrations with sound and music. They posited that pure abstraction could express pure spirituality. His earliest abstractions were generally titled as the example in the (above gallery) Composition VII, making connection to the work of the composers of music. Kandinsky included many of his theories about abstract art in his book Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Robert Delaunay was a French artist who is associated with Orphism, (reminiscent of a link between pure abstraction and cubism). His later works were more abstract, reminiscent of Paul Klee. His key contributions to abstract painting refer to his bold use of color, and a clear love of experimentation of both depth and tone. At the invitation of Wassily Kandinsky, Delaunay and his wife the artist Sonia Delaunay, joined The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter), a Munich-based group of abstract artists, in 1911, and his art took a turn to the abstract. Other Major pioneers of early abstraction include Russian painter Kasimir Malevich, who after the Russian Revolution in 1917, and after pressure from the Stalinist regime in 1924 returned to painting imagery and Peasants and Workers in the field, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasimir_Malevich http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suprematism and Swiss painter Paul Klee whose masterful color experiments made him an important pioneer of abstract painting at the Bauhaus.Still other important pioneers of abstract painting include the Swedish artist Hilma af Klint, Czech painter, František Kupka and Synchromism, an art movement founded in 1912 by American artists Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Morgan Russell that closely resembles Orphism. Gustav Klimt, Expressionism, 1907–1908 Expressionism and Symbolism are broad rubrics that describes several important and related movements in 20th century painting that dominated much of the avant-garde art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. Expressionism was painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. Fauvism, Die Brücke, and Der Blaue Reiter are three of the best known groups of Expressionist and Symbolist painters. Artists as interesting and diverse as Marc Chagall, whose painting I and the Village, (above) tells an autobiographical story that examines the relationship between the artist and his origins, with a lexicon of artistic Symbolism. Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Chaim Soutine, James Ensor, Oskar Kokoschka, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Max Beckmann, Franz Marc, Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz, Georges Rouault, Amedeo Modigliani and some of the Americans abroad like Marsden Hartley, and Stuart Davis, were considered influential expressionist painters. Although Alberto Giacometti is primarily thought of as an intense Surrealist sculptor, he made intense expressionist paintings as well. Pioneers of abstraction Piet Mondrian's art was also related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908 he became interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. Blavatsky believed that it was possible to attain a knowledge of nature more profound than that provided by empirical means, and much of Mondrian's work for the rest of his life was inspired by his search for that spiritual knowledge. De Stijl also known as neoplasticism, was a Dutch artistic movement founded in 1917. The term De Stijl is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931 founded in the Netherlands. De Stijl is also the name of a journal that was published by the Dutch painter, designer, writer, and critic Theo van Doesburg propagating the group's theories. Next to van Doesburg, the group's principal members were the painters Piet Mondrian, Vilmos Huszàr, and Bart van der Leck, and the architects Gerrit Rietveld, Robert van 't Hoff, and J.J.P. Oud. The artistic philosophy that formed a basis for the group's work is known as neoplasticism — the new plastic art (or Nieuwe Beelding in Dutch). Proponents of De Stijl sought to express a new utopian ideal of spiritual harmony and order. They advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and colour; they simplified visual compositions to the vertical and horizontal directions, and used only primary colors along with black and white. Indeed, according to the Tate Gallery's online article on neoplasticism, Mondrian himself sets forth these delimitations in his essay 'Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art'. He writes, "... this new plastic idea will ignore the particulars of appearance, that is to say, natural form and colour. On the contrary, it should find its expression in the abstraction of form and colour, that is to say, in the straight line and the clearly defined primary colour." The Tate article further summarizes that this art allows "only primary colours and non-colours, only squares and rectangles, only straight and horizontal or vertical line." The Guggenheim Museum's online article on De Stijl summarizes these traits in similar terms: "It [De Stijl] was posited on the fundamental principle of the geometry of the straight line, the square, and the rectangle, combined with a strong asymmetricality; the predominant use of pure primary colors with black and white; and the relationship between positive and negative elements in an arrangement of non-objective forms and lines." De Stijl movement was influenced by Cubist painting as well as by the mysticism and the ideas about "ideal" geometric forms (such as the "perfect straight line") in the neoplatonic philosophy of mathematician M.H.J. Schoenmaekers. The works of De Stijl would influence the Bauhaus style and the international style of architecture as well as clothing and interior design. However, it did not follow the general guidelines of an "ism" (Cubism, Futurism, Surrealism), nor did it adhere to the principles of art schools like Bauhaus; it was a collective project, a joint enterprise. Dada and Surrealism Marcel Duchamp, came to international prominence in the wake of his notorious success at the New York City Armory Show in 1913, (soon after he denounced artmaking for chess). After Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase became the international cause celebre at the 1913 Armory show in New York he created the The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even, Large Glass (see above). The Large Glass pushed the art of painting to radical new limits being part painting, part collage, part construction. Duchamp became closely associated with the Dada movement that began in neutral Zürich, Switzerland, during World War I and peaked from 1916 to 1920. The movement primarily involved visual arts, literature (poetry, art manifestoes, art theory), theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti war politic through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. Francis Picabia (see above), Man Ray, Kurt Schwitters, Tristan Tzara, Hans Richter, Jean Arp, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, along with Duchamp and many others are associated with the Dadaist movement. Duchamp and several Dadaists are also associated with Surrealism, the movement that dominated European painting in the 1920s and 1930s. Francis Picabia 1916, Dada Joan Miró, 1923-1924, abstract Surrealism In 1924 André Breton published the Surrealist Manifesto. The Surrealist movement in painting became synonymous with the avant-garde and which featured artists whose works varied from the abstract to the super-realist. With works on paper like Machine Turn Quickly, (above) Francis Picabia continued his involvement in the Dada movement through 1919 in Zürich and Paris, before breaking away from it after developing an interest in Surrealist art. Yves Tanguy, René Magritte and Salvador Dalí are particularly known for their realistic depictions of dream imagery and fantastic manifestations of the imagination. Joan Miró's The Tilled Field of 1923-1924 verges on abstraction, this early painting of a complex of objects and figures, and arrangements of sexually active characters; was Miro's first Surrealist masterpiece. Spector, Nancy. "The Tilled Field, 1923-1924". Guggenheim display caption. Retrieved on 30 May 2008. The more abstract Joan Miró, Jean Arp, André Masson, and Max Ernst were very influential, especially in the United States during the 1940s. Rene Magritte 1928-1929, Surrealism Throughout the 1930s, Surrealism continued to become more visible to the public at large. A Surrealist group developed in Britain and, according to Breton, their 1936 London International Surrealist Exhibition was a high water mark of the period and became the model for international exhibitions. Surrealist groups in Japan, and especially in Latin America, the Caribbean and in Mexico produced innovative and original works. Dalí and Magritte created some of the most widely recognized images of the movement. The 1928/1929 painting This Is Not A Pipe, by Magritte is the subject of a Michel Foucault 1973 book, This is not a Pipe (English edition, 1991), that discusses the painting and its paradox. Dalí joined the group in 1929, and participated in the rapid establishment of the visual style between 1930 and 1935. Surrealism as a visual movement had found a method: to expose psychological truth by stripping ordinary objects of their normal significance, in order to create a compelling image that was beyond ordinary formal organization, and perception, sometimes evoking empathy from the viewer, sometimes laughter and sometimes outrage and bewilderment. 1931 marked a year when several Surrealist painters produced works which marked turning points in their stylistic evolution: in one example (see gallery above) liquid shapes become the trademark of Dalí, particularly in his The Persistence of Memory, which features the image of watches that sag as if they are melting. Evocations of time and its compelling mystery and absurdity. [http://www.moma.org/collection/browse_results.php?object_id=79018The Persistence of Memory] in the MoMA Online Collection The characteristics of this style - a combination of the depictive, the abstract, and the psychological - came to stand for the alienation which many people felt in the modernist period, combined with the sense of reaching more deeply into the psyche, to be "made whole with one's individuality." André Masson, 1922, early Surrealism Max Ernst whose 1923 painting Men Shall Know Nothing of This, (seen above) studied philosophy and psychology in Bonn and was interested in the alternative realities experienced by the insane. This painting may have been inspired by the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's study of the delusions of a paranoiac, Daniel Paul Schreber. Freud identified Schreber's fantasy of becoming a woman as a castration complex. The central image of two pairs of legs refers to Schreber's hermaphroditic desires. Ernst's inscription on the back of the painting reads: The picture is curious because of its symmetry. The two sexes balance one another. From the Tate Modern During the 1920s André Masson's work was enormously influential in helping the newly arrived in Paris and young artist Joan Miró find his roots in the new Surrealist painting. Miró acknowledged in letters to his dealer Pierre Matisse the importance of Masson as an example to him in his early years in Paris. Long after personal, political and professional tensions have fragmented the Surrealist group into thin air and ether, Magritte, Miro, Dalí and the other Surrealists continue to define a visual program in the arts. Between the Wars Der Blaue Reiter was a German movement lasting from 1911 to 1914, fundamental to Expressionism, along with Die Brücke which was founded the previous decade in 1905 and was a group of German expressionist artists formed in Dresden in 1905. Founding members of Die Brücke were Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner and Karl Schmidt-Rottluff. Later members included Max Pechstein, Otto Mueller and others. The group was one of the seminal ones, which in due course had a major impact on the evolution of modern art in the 20th century and created the style of Expressionism. "The Artists' Association 'Brücke'", Brücke Museum. Retrieved 7 September 2007. Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, Alexej von Jawlensky, whose psychically expressive painting of the Russian dancer Portrait of Alexander Sakharoff, 1909 is in the gallery above, Marianne von Werefkin, Lyonel Feininger and others founded the Der Blaue Reiter group in response to the rejection of Kandinsky's painting Last Judgement from an exhibition. Der Blaue Reiter lacked a central artistic manifesto, but was centered around Kandinsky and Marc. Artists Gabriele Münter and Paul Klee were also involved. Paul Klee, 1921, Bauhaus The name of the movement comes from a painting by Kandinsky created in 1903 (see illustration). It is also claimed that the name could have derived from Marc's enthusiasm for horses and Kandinsky's love of the colour blue. For Kandinsky, blue is the colour of spirituality: the darker the blue, the more it awakens human desire for the eternal. Otto Dix, 1926, German Expressionism In the USA during the period between World War I and World War II painters tended to go to Europe for recognition. Artists like Marsden Hartley, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy and Stuart Davis, created reputations abroad. In New York City, Albert Pinkham Ryder and Ralph Blakelock were influential and important figures in advanced American painting between 1900 and 1920. During the 1920s photographer Alfred Stieglitz exhibited Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur Dove, Alfred Henry Maurer, Charles Demuth, John Marin and other artists including European Masters Henri Matisse, Auguste Rodin, Henri Rousseau, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso, at his gallery the 291. Expressionism and Symbolism are broad rubrics that describes several important and related movements in 20th century painting that dominated much of the avant-garde art being made in Western, Eastern and Northern Europe. Expressionism was painted largely between World War I and World War II, mostly in France, Germany, Norway, Russia, Belgium, and Austria. Expressionist artists are related to both Surrealism and Symbolism and are each uniquely and somewhat eccentrically personal. Fauvism, Die Brücke, and Der Blaue Reiter are three of the best known groups of Expressionist and Symbolist painters. Artists as interesting and diverse as Marc Chagall, Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, Emil Nolde, Chaim Soutine, James Ensor, Oskar Kokoschka, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Max Beckmann, Franz Marc, Otto Dix, Käthe Schmidt Kollwitz, Georges Rouault, Amedeo Modigliani and some of the Americans abroad like Marsden Hartley, and Stuart Davis, were considered influential expressionist painters. Although Alberto Giacometti is primarily thought of as an intense Surrealist sculptor, he made intense expressionist paintings of figures as well. Social Consciousness During the 1920s and the 1930s and the Great Depression, Surrealism, late Cubism, the Bauhaus, De Stijl, Dada, German Expressionism, Expressionism, and modernist and masterful color painters like Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard characterized the European art scene. In Germany Max Beckmann, Otto Dix, George Grosz and others politicized their paintings, foreshadowing the coming of World War II. While in America American Scene painting and the Social Realism and Regionalism movements that contained both political and social commentary dominated the art world. Artists like Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, Grant Wood, George Tooker, John Steuart Curry, Reginald Marsh, and others became prominent. In Latin America besides the Uruguayan painter Joaquín Torres García and Rufino Tamayo from Mexico, the muralist movement with Diego Rivera, David Siqueiros, José Orozco, Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martinez Delgado and the Symbolist paintings by Frida Kahlo began a renaissance of the arts for the region, with a use of color and historic, and political messages. Frida Kahlo's Symbolist works also relate strongly to Surrealism and to the Magic Realism movement in literature. The psychological drama in many of Kahlo's self portraits (above) underscore the vitality and relevance of her paintings to artists in the 21st century. American Gothic is a painting by Grant Wood from 1930 (see gallery). Portraying a pitchfork-holding farmer and a younger woman in front of a house of Carpenter Gothic style, it is one of the most familiar images in 20th century American art. Art critics had favorable opinions about the painting, like Gertrude Stein and Christopher Morley, they assumed the painting was meant to be a satire of rural small-town life. It was thus seen as part of the trend towards increasingly critical depictions of rural America, along the lines of Sherwood Anderson's 1919 Winesburg, Ohio, Sinclair Lewis' 1920 Main Street, and Carl Van Vechten's The Tattooed Countess in literature. Fineman, Mia, The Most Famous Farm Couple in the World: Why American Gothic still fascinates., Slate, 8 June 2005 However, with the onset of the Great Depression, the painting came to be seen as a depiction of steadfast American pioneer spirit. Diego Rivera is perhaps best known by the public world for his 1933 mural, "Man at the Crossroads", in the lobby of the RCA Building at Rockefeller Center. When his patron Nelson Rockefeller discovered that the mural included a portrait of Lenin and other communist imagery, he fired Rivera, and the unfinished work was eventually destroyed by Rockefeller's staff. The film Cradle Will Rock includes a dramatization of the controversy. Frida Kahlo (Rivera's wife's) works are often characterized by their stark portrayals of pain. Of her 143 paintings 55 are self-portraits, which frequently incorporate symbolic portrayals of her physical and psychological wounds. Kahlo was deeply influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, which is apparent in her paintings' bright colors and dramatic symbolism. Christian and Jewish themes are often depicted in her work as well; she combined elements of the classic religious Mexican tradition--which were often bloody and violent--with surrealist renderings. While her paintings are not overtly Christian - she was, after all, an avowed communist - they certainly contain elements of the macabre Mexican Christian style of religious paintings. Political activism was an important piece of David Siqueiros' life, and frequently inspired him to set aside his artistic career. His art was deeply rooted in the Mexican Revolution, a violent and chaotic period in Mexican history in which various social and political factions fought for recognition and power. The period from the 1920s to the 1950s is known as the Mexican Renaissance, and Siqueiros was active in the attempt to create an art that was at once Mexican and universal. He briefly gave up painting to focus on organizing miners in Jalisco. He ran a political art workshop in New York City in preparation for the 1936 General Strike for Peace and May Day parade. The young Jackson Pollock attended the workshop and helped build floats for the parade. Between 1937 and 1938 he fought in the Spanish Civil War alongside the Spanish Republican forces, in opposition to Francisco Franco's military coup. He was exiled twice from Mexico, once in 1932 and again in 1940, following his assassination attempt on Leon Trotsky. World conflict During the 1930s radical leftist politics characterized many of the artists connected to Surrealism, including Pablo Picasso. Lewis, Helena. Dada Turns Red. 1990. University of Edinburgh Press. A history of the uneasy relations between Surrealists and Communists from the 1920s through the 1950s. On 26 April 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, the Basque town of Gernika was the scene of the "Bombing of Gernika" by the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Francisco Franco to overthrow the Basque Government and the Spanish Republican government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayan assembly and the Oak of Gernika survived. Pablo Picasso painted his mural sized Guernica to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Gernika In its final form, Guernica is an immense black and white, 3.5 metre (11 ft) tall and 7.8 metre (23 ft) wide mural painted in oil. The mural presents a scene of death, violence, brutality, suffering, and helplessness without portraying their immediate causes. The choice to paint in black and white contrasts with the intensity of the scene depicted and invokes the immediacy of a newspaper photograph. Pablo Picasso - Biography, Quotes & Paintings, retrieved 14 June 2007. Picasso painted the mural sized painting called Guernica in protest of the bombing. The painting was first exhibited in Paris in 1937, then Scandinavia, then London in 1938 and finally in 1939 at Picasso's request the painting was sent to the United States in an extended loan (for safekeeping) at MoMA. The painting went on a tour of museums throughout the USA until its final return to the Museum of Modern Art in New York City where it was exhibited for nearly thirty years. Finally in accord with Pablo Picasso's wish to give the painting to the people of Spain as a gift, it was sent to Spain in 1981. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernica_%28painting%29 During the Great Depression of the 1930s, through the years of World War II American art was characterized by Social Realism and American Scene Painting (as seen above) in the work of Grant Wood, Edward Hopper, Ben Shahn, Thomas Hart Benton, and several others. Nighthawks (1942) is a painting by Edward Hopper that portrays people sitting in a downtown diner late at night. It is not only Hopper's most famous painting, but one of the most recognizable in American art. It is currently in the collection of the Art Institute of Chicago. The scene was inspired by a diner (since demolished) in Greenwich Village, Hopper's home neighborhood in Manhattan. Hopper began painting it immediately after the attack on Pearl Harbor. After this event there was a large feeling of gloominess over the country, a feeling that is portrayed in the painting. The urban street is empty outside the diner, and inside none of the three patrons is apparently looking or talking to the others but instead is lost in their own thoughts. This portrayal of modern urban life as empty or lonely is a common theme throughout Hopper's work. The Dynamic for artists in Europe during the 1930s deteriorated rapidly as the Nazi's power in Germany and across Eastern Europe increased. The climate became so hostile for artists and art associated with Modernism and abstraction that many left for the Americas. Degenerate art was a term adopted by the Nazi regime in Germany to describe virtually all modern art. Such art was banned on the grounds that it was un-German or Jewish Bolshevist in nature, and those identified as degenerate artists were subjected to sanctions. These included being dismissed from teaching positions, being forbidden to exhibit or to sell their art, and in some cases being forbidden to produce art entirely. Degenerate Art was also the title of an exhibition, mounted by the Nazis in Munich in 1937, consisting of modernist artworks chaotically hung and accompanied by text labels deriding the art. Designed to inflame public opinion against modernism, the exhibition subsequently traveled to several other cities in Germany and Austria. German artist Max Beckmann and scores of others fled Europe for New York. In New York City a new generation of young and exciting Modernist painters led by Arshile Gorky, Willem de Kooning, and others were just beginning to come of age. Arshile Gorky's portrait of Willem de Kooning (above) is an example of the evolution of Abstract Expressionism from the context of figure painting, cubism and surrealism. Along with his friends de Kooning and John D. Graham Gorky created bio-morphically shaped and abstracted figurative compositions that by the 1940s evolved into totally abstract paintings. Gorky's work seems to be a careful analysis of memory, emotion and shape, using line and color to express feeling and nature. Towards Mid Century The 1940s in New York City heralded the triumph of American abstract expressionism, a modernist movement that combined lessons learned from Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Surrealism, Joan Miró, Cubism, Fauvism, and early Modernism via great teachers in America like Hans Hofmann and John D. Graham. American artists benefited from the presence of Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger, Max Ernst and the André Breton group, Pierre Matisse's gallery, and Peggy Guggenheim's gallery The Art of This Century, as well as other factors. Post-Second World War American painting called Abstract expressionism included artists like Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Clyfford Still, Franz Kline, Adolph Gottlieb, Mark Tobey, Barnett Newman, James Brooks, Philip Guston, Robert Motherwell, Conrad Marca-Relli, Jack Tworkov, William Baziotes, Richard Pousette-Dart, Ad Reinhardt, Hedda Sterne, Jimmy Ernst, Bradley Walker Tomlin, and Theodoros Stamos, among others. American Abstract expressionism got its name in 1946 from the art critic Robert Coates. It is seen as combining the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism. Abstract expressionism, Action painting, and Color Field painting are synonymous with the New York School. Technically Surrealism was an important predecessor for Abstract expressionism with its emphasis on spontaneous, automatic or subconscious creation. Jackson Pollock's dripping paint onto a canvas laid on the floor is a technique that has its roots in the work of André Masson. Another important early manifestation of what came to be abstract expressionism is the work of American Northwest artist Mark Tobey, especially his "white writing" canvases, which, though generally not large in scale, anticipate the "all over" look of Pollock's drip paintings. Abstract Expressionism Additionally, Abstract expressionism has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, rather nihilistic. In practice, the term is applied to any number of artists working (mostly) in New York who had quite different styles, and even applied to work which is not especially abstract nor expressionist. Pollock's energetic "action paintings", with their "busy" feel, are different both technically and aesthetically, to the violent and grotesque Women series of Willem de Kooning. As seen above in the gallery Woman V is one of a series of six paintings made by de Kooning between 1950 and 1953 that depict a three-quarter-length female figure. He began the first of these paintings, Woman I collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, in June 1950, repeatedly changing and painting out the image until January or February 1952, when the painting was abandoned unfinished. The art historian Meyer Schapiro saw the painting in de Kooning's studio soon afterwards and encouraged the artist to persist. De Kooning's response was to begin three other paintings on the same theme; Woman II collection: The Museum of Modern Art, New York City, Woman III, Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Woman IV, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. During the summer of 1952, spent at East Hampton, de Kooning further explored the theme through drawings and pastels. He may have finished work on Woman I by the end of June, or possibly as late as November 1952, and probably the other three women pictures were concluded at much the same time. National Gallery of Australia The Woman series are decidedly figurative paintings. Another important artist is Franz Kline, as demonstrated by his painting Number 2, 1954 (see gallery) as with Jackson Pollock and other Abstract Expressionists, was labelled an "action painter because of his seemingly spontaneous and intense style, focusing less, or not at all, on figures or imagery, but on the actual brush strokes and use of canvas. Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, (see above), Adolph Gottlieb, and the serenely shimmering blocks of color in Mark Rothko's work (which is not what would usually be called expressionist and which Rothko denied was abstract), are classified as abstract expressionists, albeit from what Clement Greenberg termed the Color field direction of abstract expressionism. Both Hans Hofmann (see gallery) and Robert Motherwell (gallery) can be comfortably described as practitioners of action painting and Color field painting. Abstract Expressionism has many stylistic similarities to the Russian artists of the early twentieth century such as Wassily Kandinsky. Although it is true that spontaneity or of the impression of spontaneity characterized many of the abstract expressionists works, most of these paintings involved careful planning, especially since their large size demanded it. An exception might be the drip paintings of Pollock. Why this style gained mainstream acceptance in the 1950s is a matter of debate. American Social realism had been the mainstream in the 1930s. It had been influenced not only by the Great Depression but also by the Social Realists of Mexico such as David Alfaro Siqueiros and Diego Rivera. The political climate after World War II did not long tolerate the social protests of those painters. Abstract expressionism arose during World War II and began to be showcased during the early 1940s at galleries in New York like The Art of This Century Gallery. The late 1940s through the mid 1950s ushered in the McCarthy era. It was after World War II and a time of political conservatism and extreme artistic censorship in the United States. Some people have conjectured that since the subject matter was often totally abstract, Abstract expressionism became a safe strategy for artists to pursue this style. Abstract art could be seen as apolitical. Or if the art was political, the message was largely for the insiders. However those theorists are in the minority. As the first truly original school of painting in America, Abstract expressionism demonstrated the vitality and creativity of the country in the post-war years, as well as its ability (or need) to develop an aesthetic sense that was not constrained by the European standards of beauty. Although Abstract expressionism spread quickly throughout the United States, the major centers of this style were New York City and California, especially in the New York School, and the San Francisco Bay area. Abstract expressionist paintings share certain characteristics, including the use of large canvases, an "all-over" approach, in which the whole canvas is treated with equal importance (as opposed to the center being of more interest than the edges. The canvas as the arena became a credo of Action painting, while the integrity of the picture plane became a credo of the Color Field painters. Robert Motherwell, Elegy to the Spanish Republic No. 110 During the 1950s Color Field painting initially referred to a particular type of abstract expressionism, especially the work of Mark Rothko, Clyfford Still, Barnett Newman, Robert Motherwell and Adolph Gottlieb. It essentially described abstract paintings with large, flat expanses of color that expressed the sensual, and visual feelings and properties of large areas of nuanced surface. Art critic Clement Greenberg perceived Color Field painting as related to but different from Action painting. The overall expanse and gestalt of the work of the early color field painters speaks of an almost religious experience, awestruck in the face of an expanding universe of sensuality, color and surface. During the early to mid-1960s Color Field painting was the term used to describe artists like Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, and Helen Frankenthaler, whose works were related to second generation abstract expressionism, and to younger artists like Larry Zox, and Frank Stella, - all moving in a new direction. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. In Mountains and Sea, from 1952, (see above) a seminal work of Colorfield painting by Helen Frankenthaler the artist used the stain technique for the first time. In Europe there was the continuation of Surrealism, Cubism, Dada and the works of Matisse. Also in Europe, Tachisme (the European equivalent to Abstract expressionism) took hold of the newest generation. Serge Poliakoff, Nicolas de Staël, Georges Mathieu, Vieira da Silva, Jean Dubuffet, Yves Klein and Pierre Soulages among others are considered important figures in post-war European painting. Eventually abstract painting in America evolved into movements such as Neo-Dada, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, Lyrical Abstraction, Neo-expressionism and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. As a response to the tendency toward abstraction imagery emerged through various new movements, notably Pop art. Pop Art The term "Pop Art" was used by Lawrence Alloway in England in 1958 to describe paintings that celebrated consumerism of the post World War II era. This movement rejected Abstract expressionism and its focus on the hermeneutic and psychological interior, in favor of art which depicted, and often celebrated material consumer culture, advertising, and iconography of the mass production age. Topics in American Art since 1945, Pop Art the words, p.119-122, by Lawrence Alloway, copyright 1975 by W.W.Norton and Company, NYC ISBN 0-393-04401-7 The early works of David Hockney and the works of Richard Hamilton Peter Blake and Eduardo Paolozzi were considered seminal examples in the movement. Pop Art in America was to a large degree initially inspired by the works of Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, and Robert Rauschenberg. Although the paintings of Gerald Murphy, Stuart Davis and Charles Demuth during the 1920s and 1930s set the table for Pop Art in America. In New York City during the mid 1950s Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns created works of art that at first seemed to be continuations of Abstract expressionist painting. Actually their works and the work of Larry Rivers, were radical departures from abstract expressionism especially in the use of banal and literal imagery and the inclusion and the combining of mundane materials into their work. The innovations of Johns' specific use of various images and objects like chairs, numbers, targets, beer cans and the American Flag; Rivers paintings of subjects drawn from popular culture such as George Washington crossing the Delaware, and his inclusions of images from advertisements like the camel from Camel cigarettes, and Rauschenberg's surprising constructions using inclusions of objects and pictures taken from popular culture, hardware stores, junkyards, the city streets, and taxidermy gave rise to a radical new movement in American art. Eventually by 1963 the movement came to be known worldwide as Pop Art. American Pop-Art is exemplified by artists: Andy Warhol, Claes Oldenburg, Wayne Thiebaud, James Rosenquist, Jim Dine, Tom Wesselmann and Roy Lichtenstein among others. Pop art merges popular and mass culture with fine art, while injecting humor, irony, and recognizable imagery and content into the mix. In October 1962 the Sidney Janis Gallery mounted The New Realists the first major Pop Art group exhibition in an uptown art gallery in New York City. Sidney Janis mounted the exhibition in a 57th Street storefront near his gallery at 15 E. 57th Street. The show sent shockwaves through the New York School and reverberated worldwide. Earlier in the fall of 1962 an historically important and ground-breaking New Painting of Common Objects exhibition of Pop Art, curated by Walter Hopps at the Pasadena Art Museum sent shock waves across the Western United States. While in the downtown scene in New York City's East Village 10th Street galleries artists were formulating an American version of Pop Art. Claes Oldenburg had his storefront, and the Green Gallery on 57th Street began to show Tom Wesselmann and James Rosenquist. Later Leo Castelli exhibited other American artists including the bulk of the careers of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein and his use of Benday dots, a technique used in commercial reproduction. There is a connection between the radical works of Duchamp, and Man Ray, the rebellious Dadaists - with a sense of humor; and Pop Artists like Alex Katz, Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein and the others. While throughout the 20th century many painters continued to practice landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, like Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Nicolas de Staël, Andrew Wyeth, Lucian Freud, Frank Auerbach, Philip Pearlstein, David Park, Nathan Oliveira, David Hockney, Malcolm Morley, Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, Vija Celmins and Richard Diebenkorn. Figurative, Landscape, Still-Life, and Realism During the 1930s through the 1960s abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as Abstract Expressionism, Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, and Lyrical Abstraction. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction, allowing figurative imagery to continue through various new contexts like the Bay Area Figurative Movement in the 1950s and new forms of expressionism from the 1940s through the 1960s. In Italy during this time, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still life painter, exploring a wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen implements. David Piper, p. 635 Throughout the 20th century many painters practiced Realism and used expressive imagery; practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like still-life painter Giorgio Morandi, Milton Avery, John D. Graham, Fairfield Porter, Edward Hopper, Andrew Wyeth, Balthus, Francis Bacon, Leon Kossoff, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, Grace Hartigan, Robert De Niro, Sr., Elaine de Kooning and others. Along with Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, and other 20th century masters. Francis Bacon 1953, British Expressionism Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953 (see above) is a painting by the Irish born artist Francis Bacon and is an example of Post World War II European Expressionism. The work shows a distorted version of the Portrait of Innocent X painted by the Spanish artist Diego Velázquez in 1650. The work is one of a series of variants of the Velázquez painting which Bacon executed throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, over a total of forty-five works. Schmied, Wieland (1996). Francis Bacon: Commitment and Conflict. (Munich) Prestel. ISBN 3-7913-1664-8, p.17 When asked why he was compelled to revisit the subject so often, Bacon replied that he had nothing against the Popes, that he merely "wanted an excuse to use these colours, and you can't give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false fauve manner." Peppiatt, Michael, Anatomy of an Enigma. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3520-5 (1996), p.147 The Pope in this version seethes with anger and aggression, and the dark colors give the image a grotesque and nightmarish appearance. Schmied (1996), p20 The pleated curtains of the backdrop are rendered transparent, and seem to fall through the Pope's face. Peppiatt (1996), p148 Italian painter Giorgio Morandi was an important 20th century, early pioneer of Minimalism. Born in Bologna, Italy in 1890, throughout his career, Morandi concentrated almost exclusively on still lives and landscapes, except for a few self-portraits. With great sensitivity to tone, color, and compositional balance, he would depict the same familiar bottles and vases again and again in paintings notable for their simplicity of execution. Morandi executed 133 etchings, a significant body of work in its own right, and his drawings and watercolors often approach abstraction in their economy of means. Through his simple and repetitive motifs and economical use of color, value and surface, Morandi became a prescient and important forerunner of Minimalism. He died in Bologna in 1964. After World War II the term School of Paris often referred to Tachisme, the European equivalent of American Abstract expressionism and those artists are also related to Cobra. Important proponents being Jean Dubuffet, Pierre Soulages, Nicholas de Staël, Hans Hartung, Serge Poliakoff, and Georges Mathieu, among several others. During the early 1950s Dubuffet (who was always a figurative artist), and de Staël, abandoned abstraction, and returned to imagery via figuration and landscape. De Staël 's work was quickly recognised within the post-war art world, and he became one of the most influential artists of the 1950s. His return to representation (seascapes, footballers, jazz musicians, seagulls) during the early 1950s can be seen as an influential precedent for the American Bay Area Figurative Movement, as many of those abstract painters like Richard Diebenkorn, David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Wayne Thiebaud, Nathan Oliveira, Joan Brown and others made a similar move; returning to imagery during the mid-1950s. Much of de Staël 's late work - in particular his thinned, and diluted oil on canvas abstract landscapes of the mid-1950s predicts Color Field painting and Lyrical Abstraction of the 1960s and 1970s. Nicolas de Staël 's bold and intensely vivid color in his last paintings predict the direction of much of contemporary painting that came after him including Pop art of the 1960s. Art Brut, New Realism, Bay Area Figurative Movement, Neo-Dada, Photorealism During the 1950s and 1960s as abstract painting in America and Europe evolved into movements such as Color Field painting, Post painterly abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Minimal art, shaped canvas painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and the continuation of Abstract expressionism. Other artists reacted as a response to the tendency toward abstraction with Art brut, [[[Jean Dubuffet]]: L’Art brut préféré aux arts culturels [1949](=engl in: Art brut. Madness and Marginalia, special issue of Art & Text, No. 27, 1987, p. 31-33) Fluxus, Neo-Dada, New Realism, allowing imagery to re-emerge through various new contexts like Pop art, the Bay Area Figurative Movement and later in the 1970s Neo-expressionism. The Bay Area Figurative Movement of whom David Park, Elmer Bischoff, Nathan Oliveira and Richard Diebenkorn whose painting Cityscape 1, 1963 is a typical example (see above) were influential members flourished during the 1950s and 1960s in California. Although throughout the 20th century painters continued to practice Realism and use imagery, practicing landscape and figurative painting with contemporary subjects and solid technique, and unique expressivity like Milton Avery, Edward Hopper, Jean Dubuffet, Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, Philip Pearlstein, and others. Younger painters practiced the use of imagery in new and radical ways. Yves Klein, Arman, Martial Raysse, Christo, Niki de Saint Phalle, David Hockney, Alex Katz, Malcolm Morley, Ralph Goings, Audrey Flack, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Susan Rothenberg, Eric Fischl, and Vija Celmins were a few who became prominent between the 1960s and the 1980s. Fairfield Porter (see above) was largely self-taught, and produced representational work in the midst of the Abstract Expressionist movement. His subjects were primarily landscapes, domestic interiors and portraits of family, friends and fellow artists, many of them affiliated with the New York School of writers, including John Ashbery, Frank O'Hara, and James Schuyler. Many of his paintings were set in or around the family summer house on Great Spruce Head Island, Maine. Also during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against painting. Critics like Douglas Crimp viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: Postminimalism, Earth art, Video art, Installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others. Neo-Dada is also a movement that started 1n the 1950s and 1960s and was related to Abstract expressionism only with imagery. Featuring the emergence of combined manufactured items, with artist materials, moving away from previous conventions of painting. This trend in art is exemplified by the work of Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg, whose "combines" in the 1950s were forerunners of Pop Art and Installation art, and made use of the assemblage of large physical objects, including stuffed animals, birds and commercial photography. Robert Rauschenberg, (see untitled combine, 1963, above), Jasper Johns, Larry Rivers, John Chamberlain, Claes Oldenburg, George Segal, Jim Dine, and Edward Kienholz among others were important pioneers of both abstraction and Pop Art; creating new conventions of art-making; they made acceptable in serious contemporary art circles the radical inclusion of unlikely materials as parts of their works of art. New abstraction from the 1950s through the 1980s Color Field painting clearly pointed toward a new direction in American painting, away from abstract expressionism. Color Field painting is related to Post-painterly abstraction, Suprematism, Abstract Expressionism, Hard-edge painting and Lyrical Abstraction. During the 1960s and 1970s abstract painting continued to develop in America through varied styles. Geometric abstraction, Op art, hard-edge painting, Color Field painting and minimal painting, were some interrelated directions for advanced abstract painting as well as some other new movements. Morris Louis (see gallery) was an important pioneer in advanced Colorfield painting, his work can serve as a bridge between Abstract expressionism, Colorfield painting, and Minimal Art. Two influential teachers Josef Albers and Hans Hofmann introduced a new generation of American artists to their advanced theories of color and space. Josef Albers is best remembered for his work as an Geometric abstractionist painter and theorist. Most famous of all are the hundreds of paintings and prints that make up the series Homage to the Square, (see gallery). In this rigorous series, begun in 1949, Albers explored chromatic interactions with flat colored squares arranged concentrically on the canvas. Albers' theories on art and education were formative for the next generation of artists. His own paintings form the foundation of both hard-edge painting and Op art. Josef Albers, Hans Hofmann, Ilya Bolotowsky, Burgoyne Diller, Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Frank Stella, Morris Louis, Kenneth Noland, Terry Fenton, online essay about Kenneth Noland, and acrylic paint, accessed 30 April 2007 Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Larry Poons, Ronald Davis, Larry Zox, and Al Held are artists closely associated with Geometric abstraction, Op art, Color Field painting, and in the case of Hofmann and Newman Abstract expressionism as well. In 1965, an exhibition called The Responsive Eye, curated by William C. Seitz, was held at the Museum of Modern Art, in New York City. The works shown were wide ranging, encompassing the[Minimalism of Frank Stella, the Op art of Larry Poons, the work of Alexander Liberman, alongside the masters of the Op Art movement: Victor Vasarely, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Bridget Riley and others. The exhibition focused on the perceptual aspects of art, which result both from the illusion of movement and the interaction of color relationships. Op art, also known as optical art, is used to describe some paintings and other works of art which use optical illusions. Op art is also closely akin to geometric abstraction and hard-edge painting. Although sometimes the term used for it is perceptual abstraction. Op art is a method of painting concerning the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing. John Lancaster. Introducing Op Art, London: BT Batsford Ltd, 1973, p. 28. Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in only black and white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping. Color Field painting sought to rid art of superfluous rhetoric. Artists like Clyfford Still, Mark Rothko, Hans Hofmann, Morris Louis, Jules Olitski, Kenneth Noland, Helen Frankenthaler, Larry Zox, and others often used greatly reduced references to nature, and they painted with a highly articulated and psychological use of color. In general these artists eliminated recognizable imagery. Certain artists quoted references to past or present art, but in general color field painting presents abstraction as an end in itself. In pursuing this direction of modern art, artists wanted to present each painting as one unified, cohesive, monolithic image. Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Ellsworth Kelly, Barnett Newman, Ronald Davis, Neil Williams, Robert Mangold, Charles Hinman, Richard Tuttle, David Novros, and Al Loving are examples of artists associated with the use of the shaped canvas during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and Hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character. The Andre Emmerich Gallery, the Leo Castelli Gallery, the Richard Feigen Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Color Field painting, shaped canvas painting and Lyrical Abstraction in New York City during the 1960s. There is a connection with post-painterly abstraction, which reacted against abstract expressionisms' mysticism, hyper-subjectivity, and emphasis on making the act of painting itself dramatically visible - as well as the solemn acceptance of the flat rectangle as an almost ritual prerequisite for serious painting. During the 1960s Color Field painting and Minimal art were often closely associated with each other. In actuality by the early 1970s both movements became decidedly diverse. Washington Color School, Shaped Canvas, Abstract Illusionism, Lyrical Abstraction Another related movement of the late 1960s Lyrical Abstraction is a European term that was borrowed by Larry Aldrich (the founder of the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum, Ridgefield Connecticut) in 1969 to describe what Aldrich said he saw in the studios of many artists at that time. Aldrich, Larry. Young Lyrical Painters, Art in America, v.57, n6, November-December 1969, pp.104-113. It is also the name of an exhibition that originated in the Aldrich Museum and traveled to the Whitney Museum of American Art and other museums throughout the United States between 1969 and 1971. Lyrical Abstraction, Exhibition Catalogue, the Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Ridgefield, Conn. 1970. Lyrical Abstraction in the late 1960s is characterized by the paintings of Dan Christensen, Ronnie Landfield, Peter Young and others, and along with the Fluxus movement and Postminimalism (a term first coined by Robert Pincus-Witten in the pages of Artforum in 1969) Movers and Shakers, New York, "Leaving C&M", by Sarah Douglas, Art and Auction, March 2007, V.XXXNo7. sought to expand the boundaries of abstract painting and Minimalism by focusing on process, new materials and new ways of expression. Postminimalism often incorporating industrial materials, raw materials, fabrications, found objects, installation, serial repetition, and often with references to Dada and Surrealism is best exemplified in the sculptures of Eva Hesse. Lyrical Abstraction, Conceptual Art, Postminimalism, Earth Art, Video, Performance art, Installation art, along with the continuation of Fluxus, Abstract Expressionism, Color Field Painting, Hard-edge painting, Minimal Art, Op art, Pop Art, Photorealism and New Realism extended the boundaries of Contemporary Art in the mid-1960s through the 1970s. Martin, Ann Ray, and Howard Junker. The New Art: It's Way, Way Out, Newsweek 29 July 1968: pp.3,55-63. Lyrical Abstraction is a type of freewheeling abstract painting that emerged in the mid-1960s when abstract painters returned to various forms of painterly, pictorial, expressionism with a predominate focus on process, gestalt and repetitive compositional strategies in general. Lyrical Abstraction shares similarities with Color Field Painting and Abstract Expressionism Lyrical Abstraction as exemplified by the 1968 Ronnie Landfield painting For William Blake, (above) especially in the freewheeling usage of paint - texture and surface. Direct drawing, calligraphic use of line, the effects of brushed, splattered, stained, squeegeed, poured, and splashed paint superficially resemble the effects seen in Abstract Expressionism and Color Field Painting. However the styles are markedly different. Setting it apart from Abstract Expressionism and Action Painting of the 1940s and 1950s is the approach to composition and drama. As seen in Action Painting there is an emphasis on brushstrokes, high compositional drama, dynamic compositional tension. While in Lyrical Abstraction there is a sense of compositional randomness, all over composition, low key and relaxed compositional drama and an emphasis on process, repetition, and an all over sensibility. The Aldrich Museum of Contemporary Art, Lyrical Abstraction, exhibition: 5 April through 7 June 1970 , Lyrical Abstraction Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 25 May - 6 July 1971 Hard-edge painting, Minimalism, Postminimalism, Monochrome painting Agnes Martin, Robert Mangold (see above), Brice Marden, Jo Baer, Robert Ryman, Richard Tuttle, Neil Williams, David Novros, Paul Mogenson, are examples of artists associated with Minimalism and (exceptions of Martin, Baer and Marden) the use of the shaped canvas also during the period beginning in the early 1960s. Many Geometric abstract artists, minimalists, and Hard-edge painters elected to use the edges of the image to define the shape of the painting rather than accepting the rectangular format. In fact, the use of the shaped canvas is primarily associated with paintings of the 1960s and 1970s that are coolly abstract, formalistic, geometrical, objective, rationalistic, clean-lined, brashly sharp-edged, or minimalist in character. The Bykert Gallery, and the Park Place Gallery were important showcases for Minimalism and shaped canvas painting in New York City during the 1960s. During the 1960s and 1970s artists as powerful and influential as Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb, Phillip Guston, Lee Krasner, Cy Twombly, Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Richard Diebenkorn, Josef Albers, Elmer Bischoff, Agnes Martin, Al Held, Sam Francis, Ellsworth Kelly, Morris Louis, Helen Frankenthaler, Gene Davis, Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Joan Mitchell, Friedel Dzubas, and younger artists like Brice Marden, Robert Mangold, Sam Gilliam, Sean Scully, Pat Steir, Elizabeth Murray, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Dan Christensen, Joan Snyder, Ross Bleckner, Archie Rand, Susan Crile, and dozens of others produced vital and influential paintings. During the 1960s and 1970s, there was a reaction against abstract painting. Some critics viewed the work of artists like Ad Reinhardt, and declared the 'death of painting'. Artists began to practice new ways of making art. New movements gained prominence some of which are: Postminimalism, Earth art, Video art, Installation art, arte povera, performance art, body art, fluxus, mail art, the situationists and conceptual art among others. However still other important innovations in abstract painting took place during the 1960s and the 1970s characterized by Monochrome painting and Hard-edge painting inspired by Ad Reinhardt, Barnett Newman, Milton Resnick, and Ellsworth Kelly. Artists as diversified as Agnes Martin, Al Held, Larry Zox, Frank Stella, Larry Poons, Brice Marden and others explored the the power of simplification. The convergence of Color Field painting, Minimal art, Hard-edge painting, Lyrical Abstraction, and Postminimalism blurredthe distinction between movements that became more apparent in the 1980s and 1990s. The Neo-expressionism movement is related to earlier developments in Abstract expressionism, Neo-Dada, Lyrical Abstraction and Postminimal painting. Neo Expressionism In the late 1960s the abstract expressionist painter Philip Guston helped to lead a transition from abstract expressionism to Neo-expressionism in painting, abandoning the so-called "pure abstraction" of abstract expressionism in favor of more cartoonish renderings of various personal symbols and objects. These works were inspirational to a new generation of painters interested in a revival of expressive imagery. His painting Painting, Smoking, Eating 1973, seen above in the gallery is an example of Guston's final and conclusive return to representation. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, there was also a return to painting that occurred almost simultaneously in Italy, Germany, France and . These movements were called Transavantguardia, Neue Wilde, Figuration Libre, Tate online glossary Neo-expressionism and the School of London respectively. These painting were characterized by large formats, free expressive mark making, figuration, myth and imagination. All work in this genre came to be labeled neo-expressionism. Critical reaction was divided. Some critics regarded it as driven by profit motivations by large commercial galleries. This type of art continues in popularity into the 21st century, even after the art crash of the late 1980s. Anselm Kiefer is a leading figure in European Neo-expressionism by the 1980s, (see To the Unknown Painter 1983, in the gallery above) Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on Germany's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involves not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life. During the late 1970s in the United States painters who began working with invigorated surfaces and who returned to imagery like Susan Rothenberg gained in popularity, especially as seen above in paintings like Horse 2, 1979. During the 1980s American artists like Eric Fischl, (see Bad Boy, 1981, above), David Salle, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, and Keith Haring, and Italian painters like Mimmo Paladino, Sandro Chia, and Enzo Cucchi, among others defined the idea of Neo-expressionism in America. Neo-expressionism was a style of modern painting that became popular in the late 1970s and dominated the art market until the mid-1980s. It developed in Europe as a reaction against the conceptual and minimalistic art of the 1960s and 1970s. Neo-expressionists returned to portraying recognizable objects, such as the human body (although sometimes in a virtually abstract manner), in a rough and violently emotional way using vivid colours and banal colour harmonies. The veteran painters Philip Guston, Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Gerhard Richter, A. R. Penck and Georg Baselitz, along with slightly younger artists like Anselm Kiefer, Eric Fischl, Susan Rothenberg, Francesco Clemente, Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, Keith Haring, and many others became known for working in this intense expressionist vein of painting. Painting still holds a respected position in contemporary art. Art is an open field no longer divided by the objective versus non-objective dichotomy. Artists can achieve critical success whether their images are representational or abstract. What has currency is content, exploring the boundaries of the medium, and a refusal to recapitulate the works of the past as an end goal. Contemporary painting into the 21st Century At the beginning of the 21st century Contemporary painting and Contemporary art in general continues in several contiguous modes, characterized by the idea of pluralism. The "crisis" in painting and current art and current art criticism today is brought about by pluralism. There is no consensus, nor need there be, as to a representative style of the age. There is an anything goes attitude that prevails; an "everything going on", and consequently "nothing going on" syndrome; this creates an aesthetic traffic jam with no firm and clear direction and with every lane on the artistic superhighway filled to capacity. Consequently magnificent and important works of art continue to be made albeit in a wide variety of styles and aesthetic temperaments, the marketplace being left to judge merit. Hard-edge painting, Geometric abstraction, Appropriation, Hyperrealism, Photorealism, Expressionism, Minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, Pop Art, Op Art, Abstract Expressionism, Color Field painting, Monochrome painting, Neo-expressionism, Collage, Intermedia painting, Assemblage painting, Digital painting, Postmodern painting, Neo-Dada painting, Shaped canvas painting, environmental mural painting, traditional figure painting, Landscape painting, Portrait painting, are a few continuing and current directions in painting at the beginning of the 21st century. Painting in the Americas During the period before and after European exploration and settlement of the Americas, including North America, Central America, South America and the Islands of the Caribbean, the Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and other island groups, indigenous native cultures produced creative works including architecture, pottery, ceramics, weaving, carving, sculpture, painting and murals as well as other religious and utilitarian objects. Each continent of the Americas hosted societies that were unique and individually developed cultures; that produced totems, works of religious symbolism, and decorative and expressive painted works. African influence was especially strong in the art of the Caribbean and South America. The arts of the indigenous people of the Americas had an enormous impact and influence on European art and vice-versa during and after the Age of Exploration. Spain, Portugal, France, The Netherlands, and England were all powerful and influential colonial powers in the Americas during and after the 15th century. By the 19th century cultural influence began to flow both ways across the Atlantic Mexico and Central America South America North America United States Canada Caribbean Islamic painting The depiction of humans, animals or any another figurative subjects is forbidden within Islam to prevent believers from idolatry so there is no religiously motivated painting (or sculpture) tradition within Muslim culture. Pictorial activity was reduced to Arabesque, mainly abstract, with geometrical configuration or floral and plant-like patterns. Strongly connected to architecture and calligraphy, it can be widely seen as used for the painting of tiles in mosques or in illuminations around the text of the Koran and other books. In fact abstract art is not an invention of modern art but it is present in pre-classical, barbarian and non-western cultures many centuries before it and is essentially a decorative or applied art. Notable illustrator M. C. Escher was influenced by this geometrical and pattern based art. Art Nouveau (Aubrey Beardsley and the architect Antonio Gaudi) re-introduced abstract floral patterns into western art. Note that despite the taboo of figurative visualization, some muslim countries did cultivate a rich tradition in painting, though not in its own right, but as a companion to the written word. Iranian or Persian art, widely known as Persian miniature, concentrates on the illustration of epic or romantic works of literature. Persian illustrators deliberately avoided the use of shading and perspective, though familiar with it in their pre-islamic history, in order to abide by the rule of not creating any life-like illusion of the real world. Their aim was not to depict the world as it is, but to create images of an ideal world of timeless beauty and perfect order. In present days, painting by art students or professional artists in arab and non-arab muslim countries follow the same tendencies of Western culture art. Iran Oriental historian Basil Gray believes "Iran has offered a particularly unique [sic] art to the world which is excellent in its kind". Caves in Iran's Lorestan province exhibit painted imagery of animals and hunting scenes. Some such as those in Fars Province and Sialk are at least 5,000 years old. Painting in Iran is thought to have reached a climax during the Tamerlane era when outstanding masters such as Kamaleddin Behzad gave birth to a new style of painting. Paintings of the Qajar period, are a combination of European influences and Safavid miniature schools of painting such as those introduced by Reza Abbasi. Masters such as Kamal-ol-molk, further pushed forward the European influence in Iran. It was during the Qajar era when "Coffee House painting" emerged. Subjects of this style were often religious in nature depicting scenes from Shia epics and the like. Pakistan Australia Africa African traditional culture and tribes do not seem to have great interest in two-dimensional representations in favour of sculpture and Relief. However, decorative painting in African culture is often abstract and geometrical. Another pictorial manifestation is body painting, and face painting present for example in Maasai and Kĩkũyũ culture in their ceremony rituals. Ceremonial Cave painting in certain villages can be found to be still in use. Note that Pablo Picasso and other modern artists were influenced by African sculpture and Masks in their varied styles. Contemporary African artists follow western art movements and their paintings have little difference from occidental art works. Influence on Western art At the start of the 20th century, artists like Picasso, Matisse, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin and Modigliani became aware of, and were inspired by, African art. In a situation where the established avant garde was straining against the constraints imposed by serving the world of appearances, African Art demonstrated the power of supremely well organised forms; produced not only by responding to the faculty of sight, but also and often primarily, the faculty of imagination, emotion and mystical and religious experience. These artists saw in African Art a formal perfection and sophistication unified with phenomenal expressive power. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_art References Selected Sources Clement Greenberg, Art and Culture, Beacon Press, 1961 Lyrical Abstraction, Exhibition Catalogue, Whitney Museum of American Art, NYC, 1971. O'Connor, Francis V. Jackson Pollock Exhibition Catalogue, (New York, Museum of Modern Art, [1967]) OCLC 165852 Pictures of Nothing: Abstract Art since Pollock (A.W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts), Kirk Varnedoe, 2003 The Triumph of Modernism: The Art World, 1985-2005, Hilton Kramer, 2006, ISBN 0 1-56663-708 David Piper, The Illustrated Library of Art, Portland House, New York, 1986, ISBN 0-517-62336-6 See also Art periods, Eastern art history, Hierarchy of genres History of art, History painting Outline of painting history List of painters Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects Painting Self portrait Western art history, Western painting Painting in the Americas before Colonization Native American art External links History of Art: From Paleolithic Age to Contemporary Art History of Painting Kandinsky Concerning the Spiritual in Art, accessed online 28 May 2007 Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline of Art History | History_of_painting |@lemmatized cave:16 painting:319 aurochs:1 bos:1 primigenius:2 lascaux:3 france:13 prehistoric:4 art:291 history:25 paint:109 reach:5 back:4 time:18 artifact:1 pre:6 historic:2 human:16 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179 | Old_Catholic_Church | The Old Catholic Church is a Christian denomination originating with mainly German-speaking groups that split from the Holy See in the 1870s because they disagreed with the solemn declaration of the doctrine of papal infallibility promulgated by the First Vatican Council (1869–1870). The Old Catholic Church holds close to ideas of ecclesiastical liberalism (Liberal Christianity). The Church is not in communion with the Holy See, though the Union of Utrecht of Old Catholic Churches is in full communion with the Anglican Communion. The term "Old Catholic" was first used in 1853 to describe the members of the See of Utrecht who were not under papal authority. As the groups that split from the Holy See in the 1870s had no bishop, they joined Utrecht to form the Union of Utrecht. The Old Catholic Churches which form the Union of Utrecht are not in communion with any of the various groups which style themselves Independent (Old) Catholic. Old Catholic Thought & Beliefs Old Catholics reject papal infallibility, instead proposing that only the Church in Ecumenical Council may speak infallibly. For Old Catholics, the fullness of authoritative power in the Church is vested in the Bishopric, and a Council of the Bishops as a whole alone may speak infallibly. Old Catholics view the Pope as primus inter pares or "First Among Equals". Old Catholics usually refer to the Church Father St. Vincent of Lerins in his saying: "We must hold fast to that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, and by all the Faithful." Old Catholics consider themselves wholly Catholic and are offended by being thought of as any less by Roman Catholics. History The Netherlands Old Catholic Archbishop of Utrecht Gerardus Gul (1892–1920). St. Willibrord was consecrated to the episcopacy by Pope Sergius I in 696 at Rome. Upon his return to the Netherlands, he established his see at Utrecht. In addition, he established the dioceses at Deventer and Haarlem. The Diocese of Utrecht provided the only Dutch pope Adrian VI in 1552 and two prominent writers on the spiritual life, Geert Groote, who founded the Brethren of the Common Life, and Thomas à Kempis, who wrote the Imitation of Christ. At the request of the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad II, and Bishop Heribert of Utrecht, in 1125 Pope Eugene III gave Utrecht the right to elect its own bishops, and this was affirmed by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. In 1520, Pope Leo X granted to the then Bishop of Utrecht (Philip of Burgundy), that no clergy or laity from Utrecht, would ever be tried by a Roman tribunal. During the Reformation the Catholic Church was persecuted and the Dutch dioceses north of the Rhine and Waal were suspended by the Holy See. Protestants occupied most church buildings, and those remaining were confiscated by the government of the Dutch Republic of Seven Provinces which favoured Calvinism. However, about one third of the population in the northern Netherlands remained Catholic, and the popes appointed apostolic vicars (based in Utrecht) to care for these people. Clergy secretly celebrated the sacraments in a variety of places and were cared for by German and Flemish missionaries. The person named as apostolic vicar was also called Archbishop of Utrecht in partibus infidelium (i.e., archbishop in the land of unbelievers). In 1691, the Jesuits accused Petrus Codde, the then apostolic vicar of favouring the Jansenist heresy. Pope Innocent XII appointed a commission of cardinals to investigate the accusations - apparently violating the exemption granted in 1520. The commission concluded that the accusations were groundless. In 1700 a new pope, Clement XI, summoned Codde to Rome in order to participate in the Jubilee Year, whereupon a second commission was appointed to try Codde. The result of this second proceeding was again a complete acquittal. However, in 1701 Clement XI decided to suspend Codde and appoint a successor. The Church in Utrecht refused to accept the replacement, and Codde continued in office until he resigned in 1703. After Codde's resignation, the Diocese of Utrecht chose Cornelius van Steenoven as bishop, and he was consecrated by Dominique Marie Varlet the bishop of Babylon (1678-1742), who was visiting the Netherlands. Van Steenoven appointed and ordained bishops to the sees of Deventer, Haarlem and Groningen. Although the pope was duly notified of all proceedings, the Holy See still regarded these dioceses as vacant due to papal permission not being sought; therefore, the pope continued to appoint apostolic vicars for the Netherlands. Van Steenoven and the other bishops were excommunicated, and thus began the Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands Most Dutch Catholics remained in full communion with pope and with the apostolic vicars appointed by him. However, due to prevailing anti-papal feeling among the powerful Dutch Calvinists, the Church of Utrecht was tolerated and even praised by the government of the Dutch Republic. In 1853 Pope Pius IX received guarantees of religious freedom from the Dutch King Willem II, and established a Catholic hierarchy, loyal to the pope, in the Netherlands; this existed alongside that of the Old Catholic See of Utrecht. Thereafter in the Netherlands the Utrecht hierarchy was referred to as the 'Old Catholic Church' to distinguish it from those in union with the pope. In the mind of the Holy See, the Old Catholic Church of Utrecht had maintained apostolic succession, and its clergy thus celebrated valid sacraments in every respect; the Diocese of Utrecht was considered schismatic but not in heresy. Impact of the First Vatican Council Old Catholic Parish Church in Gablonz an der Neiße, Austria-Hungary (now Jablonec nad Nisou, Czech Republic). A considerable number of ethnic German Catholics supported Döllinger in his rejection of the dogma of papal infallibility. After the First Vatican Council (1869-1870), several groups of Austrian, German and Swiss Catholics rejected the solemn declaration concerning papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals, and left to form their own churches. These were supported by the `Old Catholic´ Archbishop of Utrecht, who ordained priests and bishops for them; later the Dutch were united more formally with many of these groups under the name "Utrecht Union of Churches". In the spring of 1871 a convention in Munich attracted several hundred participants, including Church of England and Protestant observers. The most notable leader of the movement, though maintaining a certain distance from the Old Catholic Church as an institution, was the renowned church historian and priest Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger (1799–1890), who had been excommunicated by the pope because of his support for the affair. The convention decided to form the "Old Catholic Church" in order to distinguish its members from what they saw as the novel teaching of papal infallibility in the Catholic Church. Although it had continued to use the Roman Rite, from the middle of the 18th century the Dutch Old Catholic See of Utrecht had increasingly used the vernacular instead of Latin. The churches which broke from the Holy See in 1870 and subsequently entered into union with the Old Catholic See of Utrecht gradually introduced the vernacular into the Liturgy until it completely replaced Latin in 1877. In 1874 Old Catholics removed the requirement of clerical celibacy. The Old Catholic Church in Germany received some support from the new German Empire of Otto von Bismarck, whose policy was increasingly hostile towards the Catholic Church in the 1870s and 1880s. In Austrian territories, pan-Germanic nationalist groups, like those of Georg Ritter von Schönerer, promoted the conversion to Old Catholicism or Lutheranism of those Catholics loyal to the Holy See. The Old Catholic Church shares much doctrine and liturgy with the Roman Catholic Church, but has a more liberal stance on most issues, such as the ordination of women, the morality of homosexual acts, artificial contraception and liturgical reforms such as open communion. Its liturgy has departed significantly from the Tridentine Mass, as is shown in the English translation of the German Altarbook (missal). In 1994 the German bishops decided to ordain women as priests, and put this into practice on 27 May 1996; similar decisions and practices followed in Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands. Frauenordination (Ordination of women) The Utrecht Union allows those who are divorced to have a new religious marriage and upholds no teaching on birth control, leaving such decisions to the married couple. Ehe, Scheidung, Wiederheirat (Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage) The "Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany" (Katholisches Bistum der Alt-Katholiken in Deutschland) is autonomous, episcopally, synodally structured, catholic a church, which acknowledges the diversity and the essential teaching and institutions of the early, undivided church during the first millennium. Its origins lie in various Catholic reform movements. Polish National Catholic Church This church is not in communion with any other body, and it is the largest of the Old Catholic communities in the United States. The Polish National Catholic Church began in the late 19th century over issues concerning the ownership of church property and the domination of the U.S. hierarchy by Irish prelates. The church traces its apostolic succession directly to the Utrecht Union and thus possesses orders and sacraments which are recognised by the Holy See. In 2003 the church withdrew from the Utrecht Union due to Utrecht's acceptance of the ordination of women and open attitude towards homosexuality, both of which the Polish Church rejects. References See also List of Old Catholic Churches American Catholic Church in the United States Arnold Harris Mathew Catholic Charismatic Church of Canada Episcopi vagantes Franz Heinrich Reusch Free Church of Antioch German Catholics Independent Catholic Churches King's Family of Churches The Liberal Catholic Church North American Old Catholic Church Old Catholic Church in Europe Old Catholic Church of America Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands Randall Garrett The Evangelical Old Catholic Communion Warren Prall Watters Willibrord Society External links Official pages of the Old Catholic Churches Union of Utrecht of The Old Catholic Churches Old-Catholic Church of the Netherlands Catholic Diocese of the Old Catholics in Germany Old-Catholic Church of Switzerland Old-Catholic Church of Austria Old-Catholic Church of the Czech Republic Polish-Catholic Church of Poland Other links Conference of North American Old Catholic Bishops British Old Catholic Church Old-Catholic Church of Slovakia Apostolic Catholic and Spiritual Church American Apostolic Catholic Church King's Family of Churches Old Catholic Communion of North America Table of the Old Catholic Apostolic Succession New York Times, 30 August 1879: Is the Old Catholic Movement a Failure? The Old Catholics, by Anthony Cekada in The Roman Catholic Magazine, 1980. Catholic Encyclopedia on the Old Catholics (Döllingerites) Ecclesia Apostolica Jesu Christi Kerkgemeenschap van de Goede Herder Traditional Catholic Orthodox Church Reformed Catholic Church in Poland The Old Catholic Church Oratory of the Common Life Bibliography Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church. Henry R.T. Brandreth. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1947. Episcopi vagantes in church history. A.J. Macdonald. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945. History of the So-Called Jansenist Church of Holland. John M. Neale. New York: AMS Press, 1958. Old Catholic: History, Ministry, Faith & Mission. Andre J. Queen. iUniverse title, 2003. The Old Catholic Church: A History and Chronology (The Autocephalous Orthodox Churches, No. 3). Karl Pruter. Highlandville, Missouri: St. Willibrord's Press, 1996. The Old Catholic Sourcebook (Garland Reference Library of Social Science). Karl Pruter and J. Gordon Melton. New York: Garland Publishers, 1983. The Old Catholic Churches and Anglican Orders. C.B. Moss. The Christian East, January, 1926. The Old Catholic Movement. C.B. Moss. 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180 | Dan_Simmons | Dan Simmons (born April 4, 1948 in Peoria, Illinois) is an American author most widely known for his Hugo Award-winning science fiction series, known as the Hyperion Cantos, and for his Locus-winning Ilium/Olympos cycle. He spans genres such as science fiction, horror and fantasy, sometimes within the same novel: a typical example of Simmons' ability to intermingle genres is Song of Kali (1985), winner of World Fantasy Award. He is also a respected author of mysteries and thrillers, some of which feature the continuing character Joe Kurtz. Biography Simmons received a B.A. in English from Wabash College in 1970, and, in 1971, a Masters in Education from Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri. He subsequently worked in elementary education until 1989. He soon started to write short stories, although his career did not take off until 1982, when, through Harlan Ellison's help, his short story "The River Styx Runs Upstream" was published and awarded first prize in a Twilight Zone Magazine story competition. His first novel, Song of Kali, was released in 1985. Horror fiction Summer of Night (1991) recounts the childhood of a group of pre-teens who band together in the 1960s to defeat a centuries-old evil that terrorizes their hometown, Elm Haven, Illinois. This novel, which was praised by Stephen King, is similar to King's It, in its focus on small town life, the corruption of innocence, the return of an ancient evil, and the responsibility for others that emerges with the transition from youth to adulthood. In the sequel to Summer of Night, A Winter Haunting, the protagonist, now an adult, revisits his boyhood town to come to grips with mysteries that have disrupted his adult life. Another pseudo-sequel is Children of the Night which features a much older Mike O'Rourke, now a Roman Catholic priest, who is sent on a mission to investigate bizarre events in a European city. Another Summer of Night character, Dale's younger brother, Lawrence Stewart, appears as a minor character in Simmons' thriller Darwin's Blade while the adult Cordie Cooke appears in Fires of Eden. Soon after Summer of Night, Simmons, who had written mostly horror fiction, began to focus on writing science fiction, although in 2007 he returned with a work of historical fiction and horror, The Terror. In 2009 he also wrote a book. Drood, based on Charles Dickens' The Mystery of Edwin Drood.<ref>Q&A: Dan Simmons, author of "Drood", The Seattle Times, February 15, 2009</ref> Science fiction Simmons became famous in 1989 for Hyperion, winner of Hugo and Locus Awards for the best science fiction novel. This novel deals with a space war, and is inspired in its structure by Boccaccio's Decameron and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Many of his works have similarly strong ties with classic literature: Carrion Comfort derives its title and many of its themes from Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem "Vanni Fucci Is Alive and Well and Living In Hell", a 1988 short story lampooning televangelists included in Prayers to Broken Stones, is about a brief return to earth by the title character, an inhabitant of Dante's Inferno The Hyperion Cantos take their titles from poems by the English Romantic, John Keats. The basic structure of Hyperion is taken from the Middle-English cycle of stories The Canterbury Tales. A varied group of individuals are on a pilgrimage to solicit a kind of demon-god called "the Shrike" on the planet "Hyperion" in a universe on the edge of the apocalypse. Each pilgrim tells his or her tale of why they are going to see the Shrike. The Fall of Hyperion is the conclusion to the story of the pilgrims rather than a stand-alone sequel. Hyperion and Fall of Hyperion are essentially one work in two volumes. The Hollow Man (1992) is influenced by Dante's Inferno and T. S. Eliot A short story from 1993, "The Great Lover", is inspired by the World War I War Poets. In The Fall of Hyperion, John Keats appears as one of the main characters. His Ilium/Olympos cycle is inspired by Homer's works. Both Shakespeare and Proust are mentioned as well. The character of Ada and her home Ardis Hall in the Ilium cycle are inspired by Vladimir Nabokov's novel Ada or Ardor, which was Nabokov's foray into the science fiction genre and alternate history. Joe Kurtz Early in 2001, Simmons began writing a series of hard-boiled crime-fiction novels featuring Joe Kurtz as a lead character. The first, Hardcase, was followed by Hard Freeze and Hard as Nails in 2002 and 2003 respectively. Movie adaptation In January 2004, it was announced that the screenplay he wrote for his novels Ilium and Olympos would be made into a film by Digital Domain and Barnet Bain Films, with Simmons acting as executive producer. Ilium is described as an "epic tale that spans 5,000 years and sweeps across the entire solar system, including themes and characters from Homer's Iliad and Shakespeare's The Tempest." In July 2004, Ilium received a Locus Award for best science fiction novel of 2003. Works Hyperion Cantos Hyperion (1989) - Hugo Award 1990, Locus Award 1990 The Fall of Hyperion (1990) - Locus SF Award 1991 Endymion (1996) The Rise of Endymion (1997) Locus SF Award 1998 Ilium/Olympos Ilium (2003) - Locus SF Award 2004 Olympos (2005) Joe Kurtz Hardcase (2001) Hard Freeze (2002) Hard as Nails (2003) Other books Song of Kali (1985) - World Fantasy Award 1986 Carrion Comfort (1989) - Bram Stoker Award 1989 Phases of Gravity (1989) Entropy's Bed at Midnight (1990) Prayers to Broken Stones (1990, short story collection) Summer of Night (1991) Summer Sketches (1992, short story collection} Children of the Night (1992) - Locus Award 1993 (Horror) Lovedeath (1993, short story collection) The Hollow Man (1992) Fires of Eden (1994) The Crook Factory (1999) Darwin's Blade (2000) A Winter Haunting (2002) Worlds Enough & Time (2002, short story collection) The Terror (2007) Muse of Fire (2008, novella) Drood'' (2009) Awards Wins Bram Stoker Award Best Collection (1992): Prayers to Broken Stones Best Novel (1990): Carrion Comfort Best Novellette (1994): Death in Bangkok Best Short story (1993): This Year's Class Picture British Fantasy Society Award Best Novel (1990): Carrion Comfort British Science Fiction Award Best Novel (1991): The Fall of Hyperion Hugo Award Best Novel (1990): Hyperion International Horror Guild Award Best Novel (2003): A Winter Haunting Locus Award Best Horror Novel (1990): Carrion Comfort Best Science Fiction Novel (1990) : Hyperion Best Novelette (1991) : Entropy's Bed at Midnight Best Science Fiction Novel (1991) : The Fall of Hyperion Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1992) : Summer of Night Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1993) : Children of the Night Best Novelette (1994) : Death in Bangkok Best Horror/Dark Fantasy Novel (1995) : Fires of Eden Best Science Fiction Novel (1998) : The Rise of Endymion Best Novella (2000) : Orphans of the Helix Best Science Fiction Novel (2004) : Ilium Readercon Award Science Fiction Chronicle Reader Awards Seiun Award Best Foreign Novel (1995) : Hyperion Best Novel (1996) : The Fall of Hyperion (tied with Timelike Infinity by Stephen Baxter) Best Foreign Short Story (1999) : This Year's Class Picture World Fantasy Award Best Novel (1986): Song of Kali Best Short story (1993): This Year's Class Picture Nominations Dan Simmons has been nominated on numerous occasions in a range of categories for his fiction, including the Arthur C. Clarke Award, Bram Stoker Award, British Fantasy Society Award, Hugo Award, Nebula Award, and World Fantasy Award. References External links Dan Simmons Interview from March 2009 Official Site Interviews An Interview with Dan Simmons on wotmania.com When Mental Growth Outruns Maturity: An Interview with Dan Simmons (Archive link | Dan_Simmons |@lemmatized dan:6 simmons:13 bear:1 april:1 peoria:1 illinois:2 american:1 author:3 widely:1 know:2 hugo:5 award:30 win:3 science:13 fiction:18 series:2 hyperion:18 canto:3 locus:9 ilium:9 olympos:5 cycle:4 span:2 genre:3 horror:10 fantasy:10 sometimes:1 within:1 novel:25 typical:1 example:1 ability:1 intermingle:1 song:4 kali:4 winner:2 world:6 also:2 respected:1 mystery:3 thriller:2 feature:3 continue:1 character:8 joe:4 kurtz:4 biography:1 receive:2 b:1 english:3 wabash:1 college:1 master:1 education:2 washington:1 university:1 st:1 louis:1 missouri:1 subsequently:1 work:6 elementary:1 soon:2 start:1 write:6 short:11 story:14 although:2 career:1 take:3 harlan:1 ellison:1 help:1 river:1 styx:1 run:1 upstream:1 publish:1 first:3 prize:1 twilight:1 zone:1 magazine:1 competition:1 release:1 summer:7 night:9 recount:1 childhood:1 group:2 pre:1 teen:1 band:1 together:1 defeat:1 century:1 old:2 evil:2 terrorize:1 hometown:1 elm:1 praise:1 stephen:2 king:2 similar:1 focus:2 small:1 town:2 life:2 corruption:1 innocence:1 return:3 ancient:1 responsibility:1 others:1 emerge:1 transition:1 youth:1 adulthood:1 sequel:3 winter:3 haunting:2 protagonist:1 adult:3 revisit:1 boyhood:1 come:1 grip:1 disrupt:1 another:2 pseudo:1 child:3 much:1 mike:1 rourke:1 roman:1 catholic:1 priest:1 send:1 mission:1 investigate:1 bizarre:1 event:1 european:1 city:1 dale:1 younger:1 brother:1 lawrence:1 stewart:1 appear:3 minor:1 darwin:2 blade:2 cordie:1 cooke:1 fire:4 eden:3 mostly:1 begin:2 historical:1 terror:2 book:2 drood:4 base:1 charles:1 dickens:1 edwin:1 ref:2 q:1 seattle:1 time:2 february:1 become:1 famous:1 best:26 deal:1 space:1 war:3 inspire:4 structure:2 boccaccio:1 decameron:1 chaucer:1 canterbury:2 tale:4 many:2 similarly:1 strong:1 tie:2 classic:1 literature:1 carrion:5 comfort:5 derive:1 title:3 theme:2 gerard:1 manley:1 hopkins:1 poem:2 vanni:1 fucci:1 alive:1 well:2 live:1 hell:1 lampoon:1 televangelist:1 include:3 prayer:3 break:3 stone:3 brief:1 earth:1 inhabitant:1 dante:2 inferno:2 romantic:1 john:2 keats:2 basic:1 middle:1 varied:1 individual:1 pilgrimage:1 solicit:1 kind:1 demon:1 god:1 call:1 shrike:2 planet:1 universe:1 edge:1 apocalypse:1 pilgrim:2 tell:1 go:1 see:1 fall:7 conclusion:1 rather:1 stand:1 alone:1 essentially:1 one:2 two:1 volume:1 hollow:2 man:2 influence:1 eliot:1 great:1 lover:1 poet:1 main:1 homer:2 shakespeare:2 proust:1 mention:1 ada:2 home:1 ardis:1 hall:1 vladimir:1 nabokov:2 ardor:1 foray:1 alternate:1 history:1 early:1 hard:5 boil:1 crime:1 lead:1 hardcase:2 follow:1 freeze:2 nail:2 respectively:1 movie:1 adaptation:1 january:1 announce:1 screenplay:1 would:1 make:1 film:2 digital:1 domain:1 barnet:1 bain:1 act:1 executive:1 producer:1 describe:1 epic:1 year:4 sweep:1 across:1 entire:1 solar:1 system:1 iliad:1 tempest:1 july:1 sf:3 endymion:3 rise:2 bram:3 stoker:3 phase:1 gravity:1 entropy:2 bed:2 midnight:2 collection:5 sketch:1 lovedeath:1 crook:1 factory:1 enough:1 muse:1 novella:2 novellette:1 death:2 bangkok:2 class:3 picture:3 british:3 society:2 international:1 guild:1 haunt:1 novelette:2 dark:3 orphan:1 helix:1 readercon:1 chronicle:1 reader:1 seiun:1 foreign:2 timelike:1 infinity:1 baxter:1 nomination:1 nominate:1 numerous:1 occasion:1 range:1 category:1 arthur:1 c:1 clarke:1 nebula:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 interview:4 march:1 official:1 site:1 wotmania:1 com:1 mental:1 growth:1 outrun:1 maturity:1 archive:1 |@bigram dan_simmons:6 peoria_illinois:1 science_fiction:13 hyperion_canto:3 ilium_olympos:4 harlan_ellison:1 river_styx:1 twilight_zone:1 younger_brother:1 charles_dickens:1 edwin_drood:1 hugo_locus:1 boccaccio_decameron:1 chaucer_canterbury:1 canterbury_tale:2 carrion_comfort:5 gerard_manley:1 manley_hopkins:1 dante_inferno:2 vladimir_nabokov:1 novel_ilium:2 homer_iliad:1 locus_sf:3 bram_stoker:3 stephen_baxter:1 external_link:1 |
181 | Foreign_relations_of_Burma | Burma (also known as Myanmar) remains a pariah state to several nations due mainly to its human rights record. While Burma's foreign relations with many states (particularly Western nations) are strained, it shares close connections with some of its neighbor states. European Union and the United States The United States has placed broad sanctions on Burma because of the military crackdown in 1988 and because of the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the European Union has placed embargoes on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of humanitarian aid. US and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Burma and to initiate new investments, particularly in natural resource extraction. The French oil company Total S.A. is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the European Union's sanctions on Burma. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for the condoning and use of Burman civilian slavery to construct the named pipeline. Experts say that the human rights abuses along the gas pipeline are the direct responsibility of Total S.A. and its American partner Chevron with aid and implementation by the Tatmadaw. Prior to its acquisition by Chevron, Unocal settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Burma is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and part of ASEAN+3 and the East Asia Summit. While Burma's presence in ASEAN was seen as a test of the organisation's philosophy of constructive engagement, the presence of Burma in ASEAN however has started to be seen as an embarrassment to the organisation, because of Burma's human rights record and lack of democracy . Burma agreed to relinquish its turn to hold the rotating ASEAN presidency in 2006 due to others member states' concern. . Asean will not defend Burma at any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary Ahmad Shabery Cheek said Malaysia and other Asean members had decided not to defend Burma if the country was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Burma has to defend itself if it was bombarded at any international forum," he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from Opposition Leader Lim Kit Siang on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and Asean with the Burmese military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Burma and support efforts to bring the situation in Burma to the UN Security Council's attention. Bilateral relations People's Republic of China The People's Republic of China had poor relations with Burma until the late 1980s. Between 1967-1970, Burma broke relations with Beijing because of the latters support for the Communist Party of Burma. Singh, N. K. Encyclopaedia of Bangladesh. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-8126113903. Deng Xiaoping visited Yangon in 1978 and withdrew support for the long running insurgency of the Communist Party of Burma. However, in the early 1950s Burma enjoyed a bitter-sweet relationship with China. Burma's U Thant and U Nu lobbied for China's entry as a permanent member into the Security Council, but denounced the invasion of Tibet. Bingham, June. (1966). U Thant; the Search for Peace. Gollancz. (p. 9) China and Burma had many border disputes, long before British annexation of Burma. The last border dispute culminated in 1956, when the People's Liberation Army invaded northern Burma, but were repulsed. A border agreement was reached in 1960. In the late 1960s, due to Ne Win's propaganda that the Chinese were responsible for crop failures, and the increasing number of ethnic Chinese students supporting Mao Zedong, by carrying the Quotations from Chairman Mao Zedong books, anti Chinese riots broke out. China heavily berated the Burmese government and started a word war, but no other actions were taken. The anti Chinese riots continued till the early 1970s. However, after 1986, China subsequently switched sides and began supplying the military junta with the majority of its arms in exchange for increased access to Burmese markets and a rumoured navy base on Coco Islands in the Andaman Sea. China is supposed to have an intelligence gathering station on the Great Coco Island to monitor Indian naval activity as well as ISRO & DRDO missile and space launch activities. The influx of Chinese arms turned the tide in Burma against the ethnic insurgencies, many of which had relied indirectly on Chinese complicity. As a result the military junta of Burma is highly reliant on the Chinese for their currently high level of power. Burma has an embassy in Beijing and consulate-generals in Kunming and Hong Kong. Republic of China Although Burma does not officially recognize the Republic of China, there is much other interaction between the two countries. Many Taiwanese own businesses in Burma, and the Chinese community in major Burmese cities, like Yangon are closer to Taiwan than Mainland China. Another fact would be the existence of a direct flight route to Taipei, along with direct flight routes to some major cities in China, including Kunming, Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Air China also operates a direct flight (CA905) linking Beijing and Yangon. Republic of India As a result of increased Chinese influence in Burma as well as the safe haven and arms trafficking occurring along the Indo-Burmese border India has sought in recent years to shore up ties with the military junta. Numerous economic arrangements have been established including a roadway connecting the isolated provinces of Northeastern India with Mandalay which opens up trade with China, Burma, and gives access to the Burmese ports. Relations between India and Burma have been strained in the past however due to India's support for the pro-democracy movement in Burma. In an interview on the BBC, George Fernandes, former Indian Defence Minister and prominent Burma critic, said that Coco Island was part of India until it was donated to Burma by Nehru. Coco Island is located at 18 km from the Indian Nicobar Islands. Burma has an embassy in New Delhi. Pakistan Pakistan and Myanmar have cordial relations with each other, with embassies in their respective capitals. Bangladesh Despite border (both territorial and nautical) tensions and the forced migration of 270,000 Rohingya Muslims from Buddhist Burma in 1978 , relations have generally been cordial albeit at times tense. As a result of bilateral discussions and with the cooperation and assistance of the UNHCR, most of the Rohingya refugees have now returned to Burma . As of 2000, about 22,000 refugees remain in camps in southern Bangladesh. At the 2008 ASEAN Regional forum summit in Singapore, Bangladesh and Myanmar have pledged to solve their maritime border disputes as quickly as possible especially that a UN deadline in claiming maritime territories will expire in three years time. Bangladesh, Myanmar pledge to resolve disputes over maritime borders - Irna In late 2008 Myanmar sent in ships into disputed waters in the Bay of Bengal for exploration of oil and natural gas. Bangladesh responded by sending in three war ships to the area and diplomatically pursued efforts to pressure the Myanmar junta to withdraw the ships. During the crisis Myanmar deployed thousands of troops on its border with Bangladesh. However within a week the ships withdrew and the crisis ended. Thailand Relations between Burma and Thailand focus mainly on economic issues and trade. There is sporadic conflict with Thailand over the alignment of the border. Recently, Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva made clear that dialogue encouraging political change is a priority for Thailand, but not through economic sanctions. He also made clear to reconstruct temples damaged in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis. Abhisit calls for change in Burma, Bangkok Post, January 12, 2009. Burma has an embassy in Bangkok. North Korea In 1983, North Korean agents attempted to assassinate then South Korean President Chun Doo-hwan during a visit to Burma. Although the President was unharmed, 21 people were killed and Burma suspended diplomatic relations in response. Explosion Strikes at Memorial, Ocala Star, October 10, 1983 Relations were normalized in April 2007 during a visit by North Korean Vice Foreign Minister Kim Yong-il to Burma. Burma, North Korea restore ties, BBC News Online, April 26, 2007 Timeline of diplomatic representation Below are the years that countries have established ambassador-level diplomatic relationships with Burma. 1947: Pakistan, United Kingdom, United States of America 1948: France, India, Netherlands, Russia, Thailand 1949: Indonesia, Sri Lanka 1950: Italy, China (as People's Republic of China), Serbia (as Yugoslavia) 1953: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Egypt, Israel 1954: Finland, Germany, Japan 1955: Cambodia, Denmark, Poland 1956: Afghanistan, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary, Iraq, Lao, Mongolia, Norway, Philippines, Romania, Sweden 1957: Switzerland 1958: Canada, Greece, New Zealand, Malaysia, Turkey 1960: Nepal 1966: Singapore 1967: Spain 1968: Algeria, Iran 1970: Maldives, Nigeria 1972: Bangladesh, Syria 1975: Argentina, North Korea (withdrawn from 1983-but reinstated 2007), South Korea, Vietnam 1976: Albania, Cuba, Mauritania, Mexico, Portugal 1977: Costa Rica 1978: Mauritius, Morocco 1982: Brazil, Chile, Panama 1985: Cyprus 1987: Vanuatu 1988: Colombia 1989: Peru 1990: Venezuela 1991: Papua New Guinea 1993: Brunei 1995: Ghana, South Africa 1997: Kenya 1998: Kuwait 1999: Azerbaijan, Belarus, Croatia, Georgia, Jamaica, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine 2000: Kyrgyzstan 2001: Uruguay, Uzbekistan 2003: Macedonia 2005: Ireland, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sudan 2006: Montenegro, Slovenia 2007: North Korea United Nations In 1961, U Thant, then Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organization and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years. Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was the young Aung San Suu Kyi. Until 2005, the United Nations General Assembly annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Burma by consensus. But in 2006 a divided United Nations General Assembly voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights. In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the United Nations Security Council calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution, arguing that since there were no peace and security concerns raised by its neighbours, the question did not belong in the Security Council when there were other more appropriate bodies to represent it, adding, "Ironically, should the Security Council adopt [this resolution] ... the Human Rights Council would not be able to address the situation in Myanmar while the Council remains seized with the matter." The issue had been forced onto the agenda against the votes of Russia and the China by the United States (veto power applies only to resolutions) claiming that the outflow from Burma of refugees, drugs, HIV-AIDS, and other diseases threatened international peace and security. The following September after the uprisings began and the human rights situation deteriorated, the Secretary-General dispatched his special envoy for the region, Ibrahim Gambari, to meet with the government. After seeing most parties involved, he returned to New York and briefed the Security Council about his visit. During this meeting, the ambassador said that the country "indeed [has experienced] a daunting challenge. However, we have been able to restore stability. The situation has now returned to normalcy. Currently, people all over the country are holding peaceful rallies within the bounds of the law to welcome the successful conclusion of the national convention, which has laid down the fundamental principles for a new constitution, and to demonstrate their aversion to recent provocative demonstrations. On 11 October the Security Council met and issued a statement and reaffirmed its "strong and unwavering support for the Secretary-General's good offices mission", especially the work by Ibrahim Gambari (During a briefing to the Security Council in November, Gambari admitted that no timeframe had been set by the Government for any of the moves that he had been negotiating for.) Throughout this period the World Food Program has continued to organize shipments from the Mandalay Division to the famine-struck areas to the north. See also Outposts of tyranny List of diplomatic missions in Burma Burmese diplomatic missions External links Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Burma References | Foreign_relations_of_Burma |@lemmatized burma:55 also:5 know:1 myanmar:9 remain:6 pariah:1 state:8 several:2 nation:10 due:5 mainly:2 human:8 right:8 record:2 foreign:5 relation:10 many:5 particularly:2 western:3 strain:2 share:1 close:2 connection:1 neighbor:1 european:5 union:3 united:11 place:2 broad:1 sanction:6 military:9 crackdown:1 regime:2 refusal:2 honour:1 election:2 result:5 people:7 assembly:3 similarly:1 embargo:2 include:3 arm:4 cessation:1 trade:3 preference:1 suspension:1 aid:4 exception:1 humanitarian:1 u:6 government:7 couple:1 boycott:1 direct:5 pressure:2 corporation:2 supporter:1 burmese:9 democracy:4 movement:2 withdrawal:1 company:3 however:7 loophole:1 asian:3 generally:2 willing:1 continue:3 invest:1 initiate:1 new:6 investment:1 natural:3 resource:1 extraction:1 french:2 oil:2 total:3 able:3 operate:2 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182 | Dubbing_(filmmaking) | In filmmaking, dubbing or looping is the process of recording or replacing voices for a motion picture. The term most commonly refers to voices recorded that do not belong to the original actors and speak in a different language from the one in which the actor is speaking. "Dubbing" also describes the process of an actor re-recording lines they spoke during filming that must be replaced to improve audio quality or reflect dialog changes. This process is called automated dialogue replacement, or ADR for short. Music is also dubbed onto a film after editing is completed. Foreign-language films, videos and sometimes video games are often dubbed into the local language of their target markets to increase their popularity with the local audience by making them more accessible. Dubbing is common both in theatrically released film and in television series, including Hollywood series and serialized Japanese anime that have received foreign distribution. Automated dialogue replacement / post-sync Automated dialogue replacement or Additional dialogue recording (ADR) is a film sound technique involving the re-recording of dialogue after photography, also known as "looping" or a looping session. In the UK it is called post-synchronisation or post-sync. In conventional film production, a production sound mixer records dialogue during photography, but several uncontrollable issues, such as traffic or animal noise, during principal photography can cause the production sound to be unusable. This is also true for computer-generated imagery, since some of the "actors" were not actually present at the set. In addition, ADR is also used to change the lines which the actor originally said while being filmed. When the film is in post-production, a Supervising Sound Editor or ADR Supervisor reviews all of the dialogue in the film and rules which actor lines will have to be replaced using the ADR technique. ADR is recorded during an ADR session. An actor, usually the original actor on set, is called to a sound studio equipped with video playback equipment and sound playback and recording equipment. The actor wears headphones and is shown the line of the film that must be replaced, and often he or she will be played the production sound recording. The film is then projected several times, and the actor attempts to re-perform the line while watching the image on the screen, while an ADR Recordist records the performances. Several takes are made, and based on the quality of the performance and sync, one is selected and edited by an ADR Editor for use in the film. Sometimes, a different actor is used from the actual actor on set. One famous example is the Star Wars character Darth Vader, portrayed by David Prowse and later Hayden Christensen. In postproduction, James Earl Jones always dubbed the character's voice. Many fans therefore think of Jones as "the man who played Darth Vader" rather than the actors who wore the suit on set. There are variations of the ADR process. ADR does not have to be recorded in a studio, but can be recorded on location, with mobile equipment; this process was pioneered by Matthew Wood of Skywalker Sound for Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. ADR can also be recorded without showing the actor the image they must match, but only by having him listen to the performance. This process was used for years at Universal Studios. An alternative method, called "rythmo band” (or "lip-sync band") was historically used in Canada and France. This band provides a more precise guide for the actors, directors and technicians and can be used to complement the traditional headphone method. The band is actually a clear 35 mm film leader on which is written, in India ink, the dialogue and numerous indications for the actor (laughs, cries, length of syllables, mouth sounds, mouth openings and closings, etc.). The lip-sync band is projected in studio and scrolls in perfect synchronization with the picture. Thanks to the high efficiency of the lip-sync band, the number of retakes are reduced, resulting in a substantial savings in recording time (as much as 50% compared to headphones-only recording). Historically, the preparation of the lip-sync band is a long, tedious and complex process involving a series of specialists in an old fashioned manual production line. Until recently, such constraints have prevented this technique from being adopted internationally, particularly in the United States. Advanced software technology has been able to digitally reproduce the rythmo-band output in a fraction of the time. This technology is being adapted in all markets and is proven to reduce the amount of studio time and number of takes required for actors to achieve accurate synchronization. Using the traditional ADR technique (headphones and video) actors can average 10-12 lines per hour. Using the newer digital rythmo-band technologies, actors can output from 35-50 lines per hour, and much more with experience. Studio output with multiple actors can therefore reach two to four hundred lines per hour. dubStudio has pioneered the digital rythmo-band technology and has been used by several large dubbing studios. ADR can usually be used to redub singing. This technique was used by, among many others, Billy Boyd and Viggo Mortensen in The Lord of the Rings. Adding or replacing non-vocal sounds, such as sound effects, is the task of a foley artist. Practice of dubbing foreign films throughout the world Dubbing is often used to localize a foreign movie. The new voice track will usually be spoken by a voice artist. In many countries, most actors who regularly perform this duty are generally little-known, outside of popular circles such as anime fandom, for example, or when their voice has become synonymous with the role or the actor or actress whose voice they usually dub. In the United States, many of these actors also employ pseudonyms or go uncredited due to Screen Actors Guild regulations or simple desire to dissociate themselves from the role. However, famous local actors can also be hired to perform the dubbing, particularly for comedies and animated movies, as their names are supposed to attract moviegoers, and the entire Hollywood cast is dubbed by a local cast of similar notoriety. Europe Dubbing only for children In North-West Europe – meaning the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands and Scandinavia – generally only movies and TV shows intended for children are dubbed, while all TV shows and movies for older audiences are subtitled (though animated productions in particular tend to be an exception). For children's movies in cinemas usually both a dubbed and a subtitled version is available. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the vast majority of foreign films are subtitled although some, mostly animated films and TV programmes, are dubbed in English. These usually originate from North America as opposed to being dubbed locally, although there have been notable examples of films and TV programmes successfully dubbed in the UK, such as Monkey and The Magic Roundabout. When airing films on television, channels in the UK and Ireland will often choose subtitling over dubbing, even if an English dub already exists. It is also a fairly common practice that animation aimed at pre-school children is re-dubbed with British voice actors replacing the original voices, although this is not done with shows aimed at older audiences. Some animated films and TV programmes are also dubbed into Welsh and Scottish Gaelic. Similarly, in Ireland, animated series shown on TG4 are shown dubbed in Irish. In Croatia foreign films and TV series are always subtitled while some children programs and cartoons are dubbed into Croatian. Recently more efforts have been made to introduce dubbing, but public reception was poor. Regardless of language, Croatian audience prefers subtitling to dubbing. Some previously quite popular shows (e.g. Sailor Moon) lost their appeal completely after dubbing started and were eventually taken off the program. The situation is similar with theatre movies with only those intended for children being dubbed (Finding Nemo, Shark Tale) but they are also regularly shown subtitled as well. In Finland, dubbing is exclusively used in young children's cartoons. Cartoon films and other films for children are usually released dubbed in Finnish, although many theaters also screen the original versions. For the 6% Swedish-speaking minority, the dubbed version from Sweden is also made available at certain cinemas, and later on video/DVD. In movie theaters the films have both Finnish and Swedish subtitles, the Finnish printed in basic font and the Swedish printed below the Finnish in cursivated font. In the early ages of television, foreign TV-shows and movies were dubbed by one actor in Finland, as in Russian Gavrilov translation. Later subtitles became a practice also in Finnish television. Dubbing is very unwanted in Finland, as with many other countries. A good example for this is The Simpsons Movie. While the original version was well-received, the Finnish dubbed version got poor reviews, some critics even calling it a disaster. In Greece, all films are released theatrically in their original versions and contain subtitles. Only cartoon films (e.g. Finding Nemo, The Incredibles etc.) are released in both original and dubbed versions, for children that cannot yet read fast or at all. Foreign TV shows are also shown in their original versions except for most cartoons. For example The Flintstones is always dubbed, while Family Guy is subtitled and contains the original dialogue, since it is mostly for adults rather than children. In Portugal, only children's TV series are dubbed, and on Cable TV even children's series such as Doraemon are subtitled. Animated movies used to be dubbed in Brazilian Portuguese for decades -The Lion King was the first feature fim dubbed in Portugal. Recently, children's Live-Action movies (such as the Harry Potter series) have also been dubbed into Portuguese. While the quality of these dubs is recognised, usually original versions with subtitles are still preferred by the public and they get even distribution in cinemas (Bee Movie is a good example of this). It is not common practice to dub animation for adults (such as The Simpsons or South Park). When The Simpsons Movie was dubbed and the Portuguese version was largely distributed in cinemas, with some small cities not even getting the original version, there were protests from the public. Live action series and movies are always shown in the original language with subtitles. In Romania, virtually all programmes intended for children are dubbed in Romanian, including cartoons on Jetix, Cartoon Network, Minimax as well as those shown on generalist television networks, children-focused series like Power Rangers, The New Addams Family, The Planet's Funniest Animals or movies screened on children television. Animation movies are shown in theatres with Romanian dubbing, but usually those cinemas with more screening rooms also provide the original subtitled version; that was the case of such movies like Babe, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, Finding Nemo, Cars, Shrek the Third, Ratatouille, Kung Fu Panda or WALL-E. Other foreign TV shows and movies are shown in the original language with Romanian subtitles. Usually subtitles are preferred in the Romanian market, except for children-intended programme: according to "Special Eurobarometer 243" of the European Commission (research carried out in November and December 2005), 62% of Romanians prefer to watch foreign films and programmes with subtitles, rather than dubbed; nonetheless 22% prefer dubbing, while other 16% declined to answer. Special Eurobarometer 243 of the European Commission with the title "Europeans and their Languages", published on February 2006 with research carried out in November and December 2005 This is led by the missconception that watching movies in their original version is very efficient in learning foreign languages. However, only 7 percent of the respondents in that same survey claimed they learned a foreign language by doing so (EU average: 10 percent), compared to 69 percent that learned a foreign language during language lessons at school (EU average: 69 percent). Moreover, according to the Eurobarometer, virtually no Romanian found this method – watching movies in their original version – as the most efficient way of learning foreign languages, compared to 53 percent that chose language lessons at school. In Serbia (and most other Serbo-Croat speaking parts of former Yugoslavia), foreign films and TV series are always subtitled while children's movies and cartoons are dubbed into Serbo-Croat. The dubbing of cartoon classics during the 80s had a twist of its own: famous Belgrade actors provided the voices for Bugs, Daffy Duck, Elmer Fudd, Goofy, Donald Duck and other characters, frequently using region specific phrases and sentences and thus adding a dose of local humor to the translation of the original lines. These phrases became immensely popular and are still being used for tongue-in-cheek comments in specific situations. Even though these dubbed classics are seldom aired nowadays, younger generations continue to use these phrases without even knowing their true origin. In Slovenia, all foreign films and television programmes are subtitled without exceptions. Traditionally, children movies and animated cartoons used to be dubbed, but subtitling has gradually spread into that genre, as well. Nowadays, only movies for preschool children, who cannot read, remain dubbed. Generally dubbing countries In the Russian, French, German, Spanish and Italian-speaking markets of Europe, virtually all foreign films and television shows are dubbed. There are few opportunities to watch foreign movies in their original versions, and, even in the largest cities, there are virtually no cinemas that screen original versions with subtitles, or no translation at all. However, digital pay-TV programming is often available in the original language, including the latest movies. Prior to the rise of DVDs, which in these countries are mostly issued with multi-language audio tracks, original language films other than in the country's official language were rare, whether in theaters, on TV, or on home video, and subtitled versions were considered a product for small niche markets such as intellectual or art films. In France, movies and TV series are always released dubbed in French. Films are usually released theatrically in both dubbed and original versions in large cities main street theatres, and a theatre showing a subtitled movie typically has a sign on the poster advising the moviegoers the movie is in the original language version (usually abbreviated VO [version originale] or VOST [version originale sous-titrée] as opposed to VF [version française]). Art house movies are often available in their original version only due to limited distribution. Some voice talents, such as Roger Carel, Richard Darbois, Edgar Givry, Jacques Frantz, Jacques Balutin or Francis Lax, have achieved significant popularity. The Germanophone dubbing market is the largest in Europe. Germany has the most foreign movie dubbing studios per capita and per given area in the world. In Germany, Austria and the German speaking part of Switzerland, practically all films, shows, television series and foreign soap operas are shown in the dubbed versions created for the German market. Even computer games and video games feature German text menus and are dubbed into the German language if containing any speaking parts in the games. However, in recent years, Swiss-German television, SF1 and SF2 have been showing increasing numbers of movies in "dual sound" which means the viewer can choose between the original language (usually English) or German. In addition, Swiss-French television shows many broadcasts available in original language or French, as does Swiss-Italian television TSI. A common example is the American detective series Columbo and other popular series based broadcasts such as Starsky and Hutch. Dubbing films has been and is still tradition and is common practice in the German speaking area since subtitles are not accepted and used as much as in other European countries. According to an European study, Austria is the country with the highest rejection (more than 70 percent) with regard of using subtitles followed by Italy, Spain and Germany. Although voice actors play only a secondary role, they are still notable for providing familiar voices to well-known actors. Famous foreign actors are known and recognized for their German voice and the German audience is used to them and so dubbing is also a matter of authenticity. However, in larger cities, there are theaters where movies can be seen in their original versions as English has become more popular, especially among younger viewers. On German TV, few movies are subtitled, although pay-per-view programming is often available in its original language. German dubbed versions diverge sometimes far from the original, especially adding humorous elements to the original. In extreme cases, like The Persuaders! the dubbed version was more successful than the English original. Often it also adds sexually explicit gags the U.S. versions might not be allowed to use, like in Bewitched, translating The Do-not-disturb sign will hang at the door tonight to The only hanging thing tonight will be the Do-not-disturb sign. Some movies dubbed before reunification exist in different versions for the east and the west. They use different translations, and often they are different in the style of dubbing. Italy is the country where the use of dubbing is systematic, with a long tradition going back to the 1930s in Rome, Milan and Turin. Back in Mussolini's fascist Italy, foreign languages were banned. Rome is the principal base of the dubbing industry, where they dub major productions such as movies, drama, documentaries and some cartoons. However in Milan it is mostly cartoons and some minor productions which are dubbed. Practically every American film, of every genere, whether for kids or adults, as well as TV shows, are dubbed in Italian. In big cities original version movies can also be seen. Subtitles are usually available on late night programmes on mainstream tv channels, and on pay-TV all movies are available in English with Italian subtitles, and many shows feature the original English soundtrack. But for fans of dubbing, there are some little-known sites on the internet that offer the free streaming of movies with their Italian soundtrack. Early in his career, Nino Manfredi worked extensively as a dubbing actor. Furthermore, common practice at one point in Italian cinema was to shoot scenes MOS and dub the dialogue in post-production - a noticeable example being The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly, wherein even the actors speaking English on screen had to dub in their own voices. In Latvia, dubbing is hugely popular - almost all shows are dubbed. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, virtually all foreign films and television programmes shown on television are dubbed, often by well-known actors. In Slovakia often the Czech dub is shown instead of producing a local one. Some auidences actively prefer the Czech dubs because they are felt to be of higher quality. In both countries dubbing actors often "overact" causing audiences to express views that American films are of low intellectual quality. In cinemas, films are usually shown subtitled, unless they are intended for children of 12 years of age and younger; Slovak law requires those films be dubbed or rated as MP-12 (roughly equivalent to PG-13, without a cautionary meaning in this case.). Cinemas sometimes offer both dubbed and subtitled screenings for either very major movie releases (e.g. the Lord of the Rings movie trilogy) that would have otherwise not been dubbed, or conversely for children's films or family films that are expected to also attract mature viewers (e.g. Shrek) to maximize the potential audience. In Spain, practically all foreign television programmes are shown dubbed in Spanish, as are most films. Some dubbing actors have achieved popularity for their voices like Constantino Romero, who dubs Clint Eastwood, Darth Vader and Schwarzenegger's Terminator among others. Mixed areas In Bulgaria, television series are dubbed. But most television channels in Bulgaria use subtitles for the action and drama movies. AXN uses subtitles for its series, but as of 2008 emphasizes on dubbing. Only Diema channels dub all programmes. Movies in theathers, excepting films for children, use subtitles. In Hungary, practically all television programmes are dubbed, and about 50 per cent of movies in theaters. In the socialist era, every one of them was dubbed with professional and mostly popular actors. Great care was taken to make sure the same voice actor would lend their voice to the same character. In the early 1990s, as cinemas tried to keep up with showing newly released films, subtitling became dominant in cinema. This, in turn, forced TV channels to make their own cheap versions of dub soundtracks for movies they presented, resulting in a constant degrading in dubbing quality, which once became customary, cinema distributors brought back the habit of dubbing to cinemas for popular productions, presenting them with the quality varying from very poor to average. However, every single feature is presented with original soundtrack in at least one cinema in large towns and cities. There is a more recent problem arising from dubbing included on DVD releases. Many generations have grown up with an original, and by the current technological standards outdated soundtrack, which either technologically (mono or bad quality stereo sound) or legally (expired soundtrack licence) is unsuitable for a DVD release. Many original features are released on DVD with a new soundtrack, which in some cases proves extremely unpopular, thus forcing DVD producers to include the original soundtrack. In some rare cases the Hungarian soundtrack is left out altogether. This happens notably with Warner Home Video Hungary, who ignored the existence of Hungarian soundtracks completely. This was because they did not want to pay the licensees for the soundtracks to be included on their new DVD releases, which appear with improved picture quality, but a very poor subtitle. Voice-over In Poland, cinema releases are almost exclusively subtitled, and television screenings of movies, as well as made-for-TV shows, are usually shown with the original soundtrack kept, and translation spoken over by lector - it is almost exactly the same as the so-called Gavrilov translation in Russia. Standard dubbing is not widely popular with most audiences, with the exception of animated and children's movies and shows, which are often dubbed both in cinema and TV releases. One of the major breakthroughs in dubbing was the Polish release of Shrek, which contained many references to local culture and Polish humor. Since then, people seem to have grown to like dubbed versions more, and pay more attention to the dubbing actors. However, it seems that it's the case only with animated films, as live-action dubbing is still considered a bad practice. In the case of DVD, most discs contain both the original soundtrack and subtitles, and either lector or dubbed Polish track. Russian television is generally dubbed with only a couple of voice actors, with the original speech still audible underneath. In the Soviet Union most foreign movies to be officially released were dubbed, however with the fall of the regime many popular foreign movies, previously forbidden or at least questionable under communist rule started flooding in, in the form of low-quality home-copied videos. Being unofficial releases, they were dubbed in a very primitive way, i.e. the translator spoke the text directly over the audio of a video being copied, using most primitive equipment. The quality of the resulting dub was very low, the translated phrases were off-sync, interfered with the original voices, background sounds leaked into, translation was inaccurate and most importantly, all dub voices were made by a single person and usually lacked intonation of the original, making comprehension of some scenes quite difficult. In modern Russia, the overdubbing technique is still used in many cases, although with vastly improved quality and now with multiple voice actors dubbing different original voices. The Americas In Spanish-American countries, all foreign language programmes, films, cartoons and documentaries shown in free aired TV channels are dubbed into Neutral Spanish, while in cable and satellite pan-regional channels are both dubbed or subtitled. For theaters, only the films made for children are dubbed into Neutral Spanish (usually with Mexican pronunciation) and sometimes dubbed into local Spanish for major markets like Argentine ones. In Mexico, departing from the conventions of other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries, Blockbuster films are featured in all movie theaters with dubbing. In addition most of the cinema-theaters, primarily in big cities, offer to see the film in the original language with subtitles. The people who attend the screening of films in the original language are often people from middle and upper class backgrounds. These people tend to find dubbed films as terrible. Also most of the movies released in DVD have the feature of Neutral Spanish. On broadcast TV foreign programs are dubbed. For legislation, in movie theaters, the documentaries, animated and children movie are dubbed. In Pay TV most shows and movies are subtitled. In Brazil, foreign programmes are invariably dubbed into Portuguese on broadcast TV, with only a few exceptions. Films shown at cinemas are generally offered with both subtitled and dubbed versions, although subtitling is preferential for adult movies and dubbing is preferential for children movies. Pay TV commonly offers both dubbed and subtitled movies, but subtitling is predominant. In Quebec, Canada, most films and TV programmes in English are dubbed into Quebec French (with an International French accent for ease of comprehension and regional neutrality). Occasionally, the dubbing of a series or a movie, such as The Simpsons, is made using the more widely-spoken joual variety of Quebec French. This has the advantage of making children's films and TV series comprehensible to younger audiences, but many bilingual Québécois prefer subtitling since they would understand some or all of the original audio. In addition, all films are shown in English as well in certain theatres (especially in major cities and English-speaking areas such as the West Island), and in fact, some theatres, such as the Scotiabank Cinema Montreal, show only movies in English. Most American television series are only available in English on DVD, or on English language channels, but some of the more popular ones have French dubs shown on mainstream networks, and are released in French on DVD as well, sometimes separately from an English-only version. Formerly, all French-language dubbed films in Quebec were imported from France, and to this day some still are. Such a practice was criticized by former politician Mario Dumont after he took his children to see the Parisian French dub of Shrek the Third, which Dumont found incomprehensible. After Dumont's complaints and a proposed bill, Bee Movie, the following film from DreamWorks Animation, was dubbed in Quebec, making it the studio's first animated film to have a Quebec French dub, as all DreamWorks Animation films had previously been dubbed in France. Doublage Québec . In addition, because Canadian viewers usually find Quebec French more comprehensible than other dialects of the language, some older film series that had the French-language versions of previous installments dubbed in France have later ones dubbed in Quebec, often creating inconsistencies within the French version of the series' canon. Lucasfilm's Star Wars and Indiana Jones series are examples. Both series had films released in the 1970s and 80s with no Québecois French dubbed versions; instead, the Parisian French versions with altered character and object names, terms, etc. were distributed in the province. However, later films in both series released 1999 and later were dubbed in Quebec, using different voice actors and "reversing" name changes made in France's dubbings due to the change in studio. In the United States and most of Canada outside Quebec, dubbing is rare except for animations: televised Japanese anime is almost always aired in its dubbed format regardless of its content or target age group, with the sole exceptions occurring either when an English dub has not been produced for the program (usually in the case of feature films) or when the program is being presented by a network that places importance on presenting it in its original format (as was the case when Turner Classic Movies aired several of Hayao Miyazaki's works, which were presented both dubbed and subtitled). Most anime DVDs contain options for original Japanese, Japanese with subtitles, and English dubbed, except for a handful of series which have been heavily edited and/or Americanized. Usually, Tokusatsu and daikaiju films are dubbed when imported into the U.S.; the poor quality of the dubbing of these films has become the subject of much mockery. Asia China has a long tradition of dubbing foreign films into the Mandarin Chinese which started in 1930s. Beginning from late 1970s, not only films, but popular TV series from the United States, Japan and Mexico were also dubbed. The Shanghai Film Dubbing Studio has been the most celebrated one in the dubbing industry in China. In order to generate high-quality products, they divide each film into short segments, each one lasting only a few minutes, and then work on the segments one by one. In addition to the correct meaning in translation, they make tremendous effort to match the lips of the actors. As a result, viewers can hardly detect that the films they are seeing are actually dubbed. The cast of dubbers is acknowledged at the end of a dubbed film. Quite a few dubbing actors and actresses of the Shanghai Film Dubbing Studio became well-known celebrities, among whom are Qiu Yuefeng, Bi Ke, Li Zi, and Liu Guangning. In Hong Kong, foreign television programmes including English program and Chinese Mandarin program (mostly China & Taiwan) are dubbed in Cantonese, while Japanese programs, including anime, are also dubbed in Cantonese. The only exception is the TVB drama, which is originally Cantonese, is dubbed to Mandarin for selling to China and Taiwan. But broadcast in Cantonese in Malaysia, Hong Kong and overseas. In Thailand, foreign television programmes are dubbed, but the original soundtrack is often simultaneously carried or "simulcast" on the radio. Nearly all movie theaters throughout the country show only dubbed versions of English-language movies. Even in Bangkok, the majority of theaters showing English-language movies are dubbed. In Indonesia and Malaysia, South American telenovelas are dubbed, while English language programmes are usually shown in the original language with Indonesian and Malay subtitles respectively. However, recently in Malaysia, this has changed and South American telenovelas now retain their original language, with Malay subtitles. Most but not all Korean and Japanese dramas are still dubbed in Mandarin with Malay subtitles on terrestrial television channels. Cantonese, Mandarin, Tamil and Hindi programmes are shown in original language all this while, usually with Malay subtitling (and in some cases, multilingual subtitling). Cartoons and anime are also dubbed as well, although English-language cartoons are normally not dubbed, and some anime do retain their original Japanese language. In the Philippines, Japanese anime are dubbed in Filipino. One network, which focuses on anime and tokusatsu shows, has all its foreign programs dubbed in Filipino. Popular also in the Philippines are Chinese, Korean, and Mexican TV programs which are termed Chinovelas, Koreanovelas, and Mexicanovelas respectively, and all these are also dubbed. Unfortunately, a large number of these dubbed foreign shows suffer from poor dialogue-to-lip syncing - oftentimes the length of the characters' spoken dialogue is disproportionate to their lip movement, or the spoken dialogue doesn't match well with the lip movement. The awkward results are easily visible to the viewer, and becomes a significant detraction to the dub quality. The problem is also present in some Filipino dubbed anime but is far less prevalent. It is not uncommon in the Filipino dub industry to have most of the voices in a series to be dubbed by only a handful of voice talents. English language media usually isn't dubbed, because of the local language of English. Subtitling is usually only done for films shown in theaters, which translates non-English and non-Tagalog dialogue and on-screen text. In Mongolia, most television dubbing uses the same method as Russian, using only few voice actors, and the original language audible underneath. In movie theatres, foreign films are shown in their original language with Mongolian subtitles underneath. In India, where "foreign films" are synonymous with Hollywood films, dubbing is done mostly in Hindi which is the national language and a few regional languages like Tamil and Telugu, the finished works are released into the towns and lower tier settlements of the respective states (where English penetration is low), often with the English language originals being released in the metropolitan areas. In all other states, the English originals are released along with the dubbed versions where often the dubbed version collections are outstanding than original. The most recent dubbing of Spider-Man 3 was also done in Bhojpuri a language popular in northern India. In Pakistan, almost 60% of population speak Punjabi as their mother-tongue in country. Therefore Punjabi films make more business than Urdu films. The film companies produced Punjabi films and re-record all films in Urdu and released it as a "Double Version" film. Also in Pakistan, where "foreign films" are synonymous with Hollywood films, dubbing is done mostly in Urdu which is the national language, the finished works are released into the metros of all over the country. In Vietnam, foreign-language films and programs are dubbed on television, usually with just one voice actor. Programs aimed at children might have multiple voice actors. Chinese-language series available on DVD or for rent are dubbed with multiple voice actors, done by overseas Vietnamese. Subtitling is rarely seen. In multilingual Singapore, English language programmes on the free to air terrestrial channels are usually subtitled in Chinese or Malay, while Chinese, Malay and Tamil programmes are almost always are subtitled in English. Dual sound programs like Korean and Japanese dramas offer sound in original languages and subtitled or are Mandarin dubbed and subtitled. The deliberate policy to encourage Mandarin among citizens has led to other Chinese dialects (Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew) programmes to be dubbed into Mandarin; exceptions being traditional operas. In a recent development, news bulletins are subtitled. Middle East In Iran, dubbing starts from 1946 with the advent of movies and cinemas in this country. Since then, foreign movies have always been dubbed for the cinema and TV. Using various voice actors and adding local hints and witticisms to the original contents, the dubbing played a major role in attracting people to the cinemas and making them interested in other cultures. The dubbing art in Iran reached its culminant point during the 1960’s and 1970’s with inflow of American, European and Hindi movies. Most famous musicals of the time, such as My fair lady and Sound of music were translated, adjusted and performed in Persian by the voice talents. After the 1978’s Revolution, the dubbing industry has been on the downfall, with movies to be dubbed only for the state TV channels. During the recent years DVDs with Persian subtitles have found a market among the educated societies, but most of the people still prefer Persian-spoken versions. Nowadays, The Association of Tehran’s Young Voice Actors is seeking to revive the national tradition of dubbing, by adding a local tinge to the original and making it more appealing to the public ( e.g. Finding Nemo, Incredibles, Horton Hears a Who!, etc). This association has taken a big leap forward in adapting and performing songs and poems used in animations which is unprecedented. Africa The Maghreb In Algeria and Morocco, most foreign movies (especially Hollywood productions) are shown with French dubbing. These movies are usually imported directly from French film distributors. The choice of movies dubbed into French can be explained by the colonization past of these countries and the widespread use of the French language (mainly among the intellectual elite) in addition to the marginalization of national languages (mainly Arabic and other Berber languages). Another important factor is that local theaters and private media companies do not dub in local languages to avoid high costs compared to small local markets. Starting from the eighties, dubbed series and movies for children in Modern Standard Arabic became a popular choice among most TV channels, cinemas and VHS/DVD stores. But it should be noted that dubbing is still imported and performed in other Arab Countries with strong tradition of dubbing and subtitling (mainly Syria, Lebanon and Jordan). The evolution of movies targeting the adult audience was different. After the satellite boom in the Arab World and the emergence of Pan-Arab channels, the use of subtitles which was already popular in the Middle-East was received with a huge popularity among local viewers in Algeria and Morocco. In Tunisia, theaters usually show French dubbed movies but the cinema attendance in the country for such movies is in a continuous degradation compared to Tunisian and Arab Movies. This decline can be traced to the huge popularity of free-to-air Pan-Arab movie channels offering mainly subtitled content and the government lesser efforts to limit piracy. Tunisia National Television (TNT), the public broadcaster of Tunisia, is not allowed to show any content in any language other than Arabic which pushed it to broadcast only dubbed content (This restriction was lately obsoleted only for commercials). During the seventies and eighties, TNT (known as ERTT at the time) started dubbing famous cartoons in Tunisian and Standard Arabic. This move was received with a big success locally but was not able to compete with mainstream dubbing companies (especially in the Middle-East). In the private sector, television channels are not subject to the language rule and broadcast sometimes foreign content dubbed into French (excluding children content), although some of them, such as Hannibal TV started adopting subtitling in Arabic instead which was proved to be more popular than simply importing French dubbed content. South Africa In South Africa, many television programmes, including Beverly Hills, 90210 were dubbed in Afrikaans, with the original soundtrack (usually in English, but sometimes Dutch or German) "simulcast" in FM stereo on Radio 2000. However, this has declined as a result of the reduction of airtime for the language on SABC TV, and the increase of locally produced material in Afrikaans on other channels like KykNet and MK. Similarly, many programmes, such as The Jeffersons, were dubbed into Zulu The New York Times > Magazine > South Africa: Dream and Reality , but this has declined as local drama production has increased. Oceania In common with other English-speaking countries, there has traditionally been little dubbing in Australia, with foreign language television programmes and films being shown (usually on SBS) with subtitles. This has also been the case in New Zealand, but the Maori Television Service, launched in 2004, has dubbed animated films, like Watership Down, into Maori. However, some TV commercials which originated from foreign countries are dubbed, even if the original commercial came from another English-speaking country. Insistence on subtitling Subtitles can be used instead of dubbing, as different countries have different traditions regarding the choice between dubbing and subtitling. In most English-speaking countries, dubbing is comparatively rare. In Israel, some programmes need to be comprehensible to speakers of both Hebrew and Arabic or Russian. This cannot be accomplished with dubbing, so subtitling is much more commonplace — sometimes even with subtitles in multiple languages, with the soundtrack remaining in the original language, usually English. The same thing also applies to certain television shows in Finland, where Finnish and Swedish are both official languages. In the Netherlands, Flanders, Nordic countries and Estonia, films and television programmes are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only cartoons and children movies and programs are dubbed, such as the Harry Potter series, Finding Nemo, Shrek, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory etc. Cinemas usually both show a dubbed version and one with subtitles of this kind of movies, with the subtitled version later in the evening. In Portugal this has traditionally also been the case (at least for live-action material), but one terrestrial channel, TVI, dubs U.S. series like Dawson's Creek into Portuguese. RTP also transmitted Friends in a dubbed version, but it was poorly received and later re-aired in a subtitled version. Cartoons, on the other hand, are usually dubbed, sometimes by well-known actors, even on TV. Animated movies are usually released to the cinemas in both subtitled and dubbed versions. On DVDs with higher translation budgets, the option for both types will often be provided to account for individuals' preferences; purists often demand subtitles. For small markets (small language area or films for a select audience) subtitling is more suitable because it is cheaper. For films for small children, who can not yet read, or not yet very fast, dubbing is necessary. In Argentina, terrestrial channels air films and TV series in a dubbed version, as demanded by law. However, those same series can be seen on cable channels at more accessible timeslots in their subtitled version, and usually before they are shown on open TV. In contrast, the series The Simpsons is aired in its Mexican dubbed version both on terrestrial television, and on the cable station Fox, that broadcasts the series for the area. Although the first season of the series has once appeared with subtitles, this was not continued for the following seasons. Apart from airing dubbed TV series (for example, Lost, ER and House) the Argentinian open TV station Telefé has bought the rights to produce and air a "ported version" of Desperate Housewives in Argentina, with local actors and actresses. Use in video games With recent video games placing a heavy emphasis on dialogue, many video games, when translated into another language for the foreign markets of North America, Japan and/or Europe, are also dubbed into the market's main languages. Due to the fact that characters' mouth movements are often part of the game's code, lip sync is often achieved by re-coding the mouth movements to match the dialogue in the new language. For the European version of a game, the text of the game is available in various languages, and in many cases, the dialogue is dubbed into the respective languages as well. The American version of any game is always available in English with translated text and dubbed dialogue if necessary, as well as other languages in some cases, especially when the American version of the game contains the same data as the European version. Due to the fact that the English voice casts of many Japanese games are perceived negatively, some Japanese games, such as those in the Sonic the Hedgehog and Soulcalibur series, include the original Japanese audio as well as an English translated version. Other uses Dubbing is occasionally used on network television broadcasts of films which have dialogue that the network executives or censors have decided to replace; this is usually done to remove profanity. In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty; instead, an actor with a similar voice is called in. The results are sometimes seamless, but in many cases the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue needs to be replaced. Also, often easy to notice, is the sudden absence of background sounds in the movie during the dubbed dialogue. Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the Smokey and the Bandit and the Die Hard film series as shown on broadcasters such as TBS. In the case of Smokey and the Bandit, extensive dubbing was done for the first network airing on ABC Television in 1978, especially for Jackie Gleason's character, Buford T. Justice. The dubbing of his phrase "Sombitch" became the more palatable (and memorable) "Scum Bum," which became a catchphrase of the time. Dubbing is commonly used in science fiction television as well. Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets or by actors' movements on elaborate multi-level plywood sets (e.g., starship bridges or other command centers) will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable. Stargate and Farscape are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio. Since some anime series contain some amount of profanity, the studios recording the English dubs often re-record certain lines if a series or movie is going to be broadcast on Cartoon Network, removing references to death and hell as well. Some companies will offer both an edited version and uncut version of the series on DVD, so there is also an edited script in case the series is broadcast. Other companies also edit the full-length version of a series, meaning that even on the uncut DVD, characters say things like "Blast!" "Darn!" in place of the original dialogue's profanity (Bandai Entertainment's English dub of G Gundam is infamous for this, among many other things, with such lines as "Bartender, more milk."). Dubbing has also been used for comedic purposes, replacing lines of dialogue to create comedies from footage that was originally another genre. Examples include the Australian shows The Olden Days and Bargearse, redubbed from 1970s Australian drama and action series respectively, and the Irish show Soupy Norman, redubbed from a Polish soap opera. Dubbing into a foreign language does not always entail the deletion of the original language; in some countries, a performer may read the translated dialogue as a voiceover. This often occurs in Russia and Poland, where "lektories" or "lektors" read the translated dialogue into Russian and Polish. In Poland, a single person reads all parts of the performance, both male and female. However, it is almost exclusively done for the television and home video markets, while theatrical releases are usually subtitled. Though, as of recently, the amount of high-quality, fully dubbed films has increased, especially for cartoons and children's movies. If a quality dubbed version exists for some film, it is shown in theaters (however, some films, such as Harry Potter or Star Wars, are shown in both dubbed and subtitled versions varying with the time of the show) as well as on TV (although some channels drop it and do standard one narrator translation) and VHS/DVD. In other countries, like Vietnam, the voiceover technique is also used for theatrical releases. In Russia, the reading of all lines by a single person is referred to as a Gavrilov translation, and is generally found only in illegal copies of films and on cable television. Professional copies always include at least two actors of opposite gender translating the dialogue (some titles in Poland have been dubbed this way, too, but this method lacks public appeal so it is very rare now). On special occasions, such as film festivals, live interpreting is often done by professionals. See also dubtitle. Criticism and defense of dubbing Dubbing has been criticized in several ways, particularly in countries where it is not common practice. Those who dislike dubbing sometimes claim that it devalues films or TV programs, as original soundtracks are closer to what the director intended. The humorous effect of Inspector Clouseau's accent is, of course, entirely lost in the French dubbing. Some consider that the body language of Italian actors make their performances particularly ill-suited to dubbing, as foreign post-synchronization often destroys much of the original Italian language's feeling. Comedy performers such as Peter Sellers, Louis de Funès, Steve Martin or Roberto Benigni are considered to lose great part of their impact when dubbed into foreign languages, as the humorous effect resulting from the interaction between their voices and bodies is partially lost. Some feel that dubbing can make the film or program less authentic. For example, German officers in WWII movies can be distracting to some if not speaking German, while in the German-dubbed versions of these films, the contrast between Germans and speakers of other languages is lost. The best example here is from the Indiana Jones movies, where the German characters had to be dubbed by native Germans for the German release and for the later re-release of the movies for television and DVD, they kept the dubbed lines even for original soundtrack to make it more authentic. Original films (usually English films) in which an actor is talking in German is then often contrasted by dubbing the original German speaking actor in other German dialects for example Eastern German dialects, Austro-Bavarian German or Swiss German, as it was done with Üter Zörker from the Simpsons who is a German in the English version, but a Swiss in the German version of the Simpsons. Likewise, some claim it is distracting in English dubbed anime when many characters speak in North American accents, which may not match their ethnicity and nationality or the time and setting of the story. Similarly, in dubbed versions the different accents of the protagonists which may be important to the story (for example in Upstairs, Downstairs, portraying the lives of an upper-class London family and their servants in the early 20th century) can not always be adequately reproduced in certain languages. In addition, a significant part of actor's performance consists of their vocal inflections. Very often, memorable lines from popular films are frequently quoted, not for their substance, but for the way they were spoken; a good example is a famous sentence, uttered by Jack Nicholson, in the film A Few Good Men, "You can't handle the truth!". For these reasons, some may feel they miss part of film's artistic value when watching a film dubbed into another language. Also, lip synchronization is normally lost when dubbing, even with quality dubbing between closely related languages. There are examples which have been reshot or reanimated to remedy this problem. The dubbing of many television series is often criticized: the French dubbing of Dynasty and many American soap operas was and still is considered especially poor and ill-synchronized, and in addition it sometimes appears as if it was filmed with the camera on a different setting. Dubbing performers are occasionally known to take liberties with some works they do not hold in particular esteem, or consider exploitation films. The French dubbing of the anime Fist of the North Star is notorious, as the performers disliked the violence of the series so much that, after post-synchronizing a few episodes, they only agreed on continuing their work if they could turn the show into a spoof Ken le Survivant - Interview de Philippe Ogouz . This resulted in episodes full of idiotic puns, absurd dialogue and extreme overacting by everybody. This dubbing has gathered a cult following in France for that precise reason, although many anime fans consider it highly disrespectful to the original work. Another example is the German dub of Monty Python and the Holy Grail. The people responsible for the dub deemed Monty Python's humour unsuitable for the German audience (which was disproven by the huge success of Monty Python in Germany up to the present day, the group having even produced a German-language TV show and actually speaking the language in it) and introduced a lot of awkward puns into the dialogue, whereby they often completely killed the original humour. However, this practice had been a success with The Persuaders!, where Tony Curtis' and Roger Moore's suddenly very humorous dialogue has generated a cult following in Germany, while the series was received not as well in its original country, England. Perhaps one of the most notorious examples of this is all anime dubbed by 4Kids Entertainment in the U.S., such as One Piece. Not only are the American voice actors ill-received with the anime fanbase, but many awkward puns are inserted, names and settings are changed, edits are made to make the show suitable for a younger audience, and some or all of the original music is changed. The dubs are popular with young children but almost universally disliked among anime fans. Occasionally, dubbing teams can show some disregard for the meaning and setting of the movies, regardless of their perceived quality: the French version of Gunfight at the O.K. Corral renames Wyatt Earp "Edward Thorpe", as Earp's name is somewhat difficult to pronounce in French; since Wyatt Earp was not the most familiar Old West figure to French audiences, the adaptators did not feel bound to give particular regard to the historical figure. Defenders of dubbing maintain that subtitling interferes with the visual experience, as it obscures part of the picture. Some people also find that the act of reading itself is distracting, especially in pictures that rely on subtle motion: one would be too busy reading the subtitles to pay attention to what everyone is doing. Also, some viewers who understand both the original language and the language used in the subtitles say they find that it is confusing and distracting to mentally process the dialogues in both languages at the same time. In other cases, viewers may not consider subtitling (and alternate forms of translation) to be distracting or inadequate; rather, they simply chose to listen to dubbed versions as a matter of personal preference. These people sometimes argue that as long as dubbing does not prevent others from viewing programs in the language format that they chose, it finds its merit simply because there are people who enjoy dubbing. Another defense for dubbing is that it works better in action movies, in particular scenes involving special effects with occasional dialog, since subtitles distract from the action or effects. In many European countries, Hollywood movies are regularly dubbed and some people maintain that a creative translation (not necessarily faithful to the original English words) can occasionally bring additional fun and depth to films. English-language series such as The Persuaders! and Starsky and Hutch are greatly popular in France for their talented dubbing. The French version of "The Persuaders!" was in fact a translation of the German version instead of the English original - and was also successful. A German fan has asserted that the German dubbing was "a unique mixture of streetslang (sic) and ironic tongue-in-cheek remarks" and that it "even mentioned Lord Sinclair becoming 007 at one or two occasions".[19] It also frequently included remarks about the series itself like "Junge, lass doch die Sprüche, die setzen ja die nächste Folge ab!" (Stop those jokes, or they'll cancel the series) or about the dubbing: "Du musst jetzt etwas schneller werden, sonst bist Du nicht synchron" (Talk faster, or you aren't in sync any more). In Hungary it is common for translators to create the Hungarian text to rhyme for comedies and cartoons with well-known local actors providing their voices to read it. The most famous example is perhaps the The Flintstones, with its entire Hungarian text in rhymes. In many cases, dubbing of films or series involves the addition of dialogue where there previously was none. This often happened during the dubbing of anime for television. Extended silent scenes with no dialogue are often used for dramatic effect in anime as in live action. This is typically considered too slow-paced for North American childrens cartoons where dialogue is considered the most important element. This was commonly seen in early anime dubs such as Robotech or Voltron where narration or character voiceovers (an animated equivalent to "thought balloons" in comics) would fill in silence. American cartoons are known for rarely having scenes without background music due to the same concerns over slow pacing. Therefore, in anime dubs, background music would also be edited into scenes that previously contained no background music. Dubbing the same language several times In the case of languages with large communities (like English, Chinese, German, Spanish or French), a single translation may sound foreign to some groups, or even all of them. This is why a film may be translated to a certain language more than once: for example, the animated movie The Incredibles was translated to European Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Venezuelan Spanish and Rioplatense Spanish. However, people from Chile and Uruguay clearly noticed a strong porteño accent from most of the characters of the Rioplatense Spanish translation. Another example is the French dubbing of The Simpsons, which is entirely different in Quebec and France, the humor being highly different for each audience (see Non-English versions of The Simpsons). Audiences in Quebec are generally critical of France's dubbing of the Simpsons, which they often do not find amusing. The French-language Télétoon network once aired the Quebec Simpsons dub, as well as Parisian French dubs of Futurama and Family Guy, which were both similar to the Parisian Simpsons dub. The two latter shows have since been taken off the network (probably due to a lack of popularity), while The Simpsons continues its run on Télétoon. The Quebec French dubbing of films, while generally made in accent-less Standard French, often sounds peculiar to audiences in France, because of the persistence of some regionally neutral expression which may not sound quite natural to all audiences, and because Quebec French performers pronounce Anglo-Saxon names with an American accent, while French performers do not. Occasionally, for reasons of cost, American direct-to-video films, such as the 1995 film When the bullet hits the bone, are released in France with a Quebec French dubbing, sometimes resulting in what some members of French audiences perceive as unintentional humor. Portugal and Brazil also use different versions of dubbed films and series. Because dubbing has never been very popular in Portugal, for decades children films and television series were distributed using the good-quality Brazilian dub. Only in the 1990s dubbing began to gain importance in Portugal, thanks to the popularity of dubbed series like Dragon Ball. The Lion King became the first Disney feature film to be completely dubbed into European Portuguese, and subsequently all major animation films and series gained European Portuguese versions. In recent DVD releases, most of these Brazilian-dubbed classics were released with new Portuguese dubs, eliminating the predominance of Brazilian Portuguese dubs in Portugal. Austria and Switzerland generally use the German dubbed versions made in Germany. Although there are sometimes some differences concerning some local words or the pronunciation of some words there's no need to dub into their own versions because all films, shows and series are still dubbed into one single German version made for the German speaking audience irrespective of any geographical borders. Now and then it occurs that Austrian or Swiss actors also provide their voices in German dubbings but they have to speak in High German pronunciation of course, as it was for the film Beauty and the Beast and Mulan. Nevertheless there are also exceptions. For the film Babe and its sequel Babe: Pig in the City there exists three different German versions. In addition to the Standard German version, the films were completely dubbed into Austrian German and into Swiss German including their own voice actors speaking in their own dialects. For Walt Disney films there also exist several versions. In 1998 when the film The little Mermaid was released anew, the film was redubbed in many other languages and so there was made a special cinema version, in which the characters speak in Viennese German where Ursula, the Sea Witch was dubbed by the famous Austrian singer Jazz Gitti. This version was specially made for the cinema and was never available for Videotape or DVD but then there was produced a second Austrian version, which now is available for DVD. But instead of using the Viennese characters in this version, only a few characters were dubbed anew into standard Austrian and the other characters were kept in the standard German version from 1998. In this way there exist Austrian versions for Shrek 2 and Cars. The many martial arts movies from Hong Kong that were imported under the unofficial banner Kung Fu Theater were notorious for their seemingly careless dubbing which included poor lip sync and awkward dialogue. Since the results were frequently unintentionally hilarious, this has become one of the hallmarks that endear these films to part of the 1980s culture. While the voice actors involved usually bear the brunt of criticisms towards poor dubbing, other factors may include script translation and audio mixing. A literal translation of dialogue typically contains speech patterns and sentence structure that are native to the foreign language but would appear awkward if translated literally. English dubs of Japanese animation, for example, must rewrite the dialogue so that it flows smoothly and follows the natural pattern of English speech. Voice actors in a dubbing capacity typically do not have the luxury of viewing the original film with the original voice actor and thus have little idea on how to perform the role. Also, on some occasions, voice actors record their dialogue separately, which lacks the dynamics gained from performing as a group. New technology It is now becoming possible to overcome some of the problems associated with dubbing using new technology. An application developed at New York University, known as Video Rewrite, uses computer animation to match lip movements with the new voice track. In a video clip made using this technology, John F. Kennedy appears to be saying "Video Rewrite gives lip-synced movies". Video Rewrite Media Movers, Inc., a dubbing company, has developed a piece of proprietary software which can automatically sync ADR/dubbed tracks with pre-defined algorithms. TM Systems received Emmy awards in 2002 and 2007 for their dubbing and subtitling software. Television Academy announces recipients of the 2007 primetime Emmy Engineering Awards References External links How to film with non-synchronized cameras and dub Translator, Adapter, Screenwriter Translating for the audiovisual Robert Paquin Dubbed American movies Russian dvds | Dubbing_(filmmaking) |@lemmatized filmmaking:1 dub:208 looping:2 process:8 record:17 replace:9 voice:47 motion:2 picture:5 term:3 commonly:4 refers:1 belong:1 original:85 actor:70 speak:21 different:17 language:92 one:27 also:52 describe:1 line:16 film:131 must:4 improve:2 audio:7 quality:20 reflect:1 dialog:2 change:7 call:7 automated:1 dialogue:38 replacement:4 adr:16 short:2 music:6 onto:1 edit:6 complete:1 foreign:49 video:19 sometimes:16 game:14 often:36 local:19 target:3 market:14 increase:5 popularity:7 audience:20 make:30 accessible:2 dubbing:58 common:9 theatrically:3 release:35 television:44 series:58 include:16 hollywood:6 serialized:1 japanese:13 anime:21 receive:8 distribution:3 automate:2 post:7 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183 | Macro_virus | In computing terminology, a macro virus is a virus that is written in a macro language: that is to say, a language built into a software application such as a word processor. Since some applications (notably, but not exclusively, the parts of Microsoft Office) allow macro programs to be embedded in documents, so that the programs may be run automatically when the document is opened, this provides a distinct mechanism by which viruses can be spread. This is why it may be dangerous to open unexpected attachments in e-mails. Modern antivirus software detects macro viruses as well as other types. Fundamentals A macro is a series of commands and actions that help to automate some tasks - effectively a program, but usually quite short and simple. However they are created, they need to be executed by some system which interprets the stored commands. Some macro systems are self-contained programs, but others are built into complex applications (for example word processors) to allow users to repeat sequences of commands easily, or to allow developers to tailor the application to local needs. The step which has made some applications susceptible to macro viruses was to allow macros to be stored in the very documents which are being edited or processed by the application. This makes it possible for a document to carry a macro, not obvious to the user, which will be executed automatically on opening the document. Operation A macro virus can be spread through e-mail attachments, discs, networks, modems, and the Internet and is notoriously difficult to detect. Uninfected documents contain normal macros. Most malicious macros start automatically when a document is opened or closed, however they can be set to activate when a certain time is reached or even when the system has been left idle for a period of time, to avoid detection, however this is uncommon as it is a difficult method. A common way for a macro virus to infect a computer is by replacing normal macros with the virus. The macro virus replaces the regular commands with the same name and runs when the command is selected. In the cases where the macro is run automatically, the macro is opened without the user knowing. Once the application opens a file that contains a macro virus, the virus can infect the system. When triggered, it will begin to embed itself in other documents and templates, as well as future ones created. It may corrupt other parts of the system as well, depending on what resources a macro in this application can get access to. As the infected documents are shared with other users and systems, the virus will spread. The macro virus has also been known to be used as a way of installing software on a system without the users consent as it can be used to look up software on the internet, go through with downloading and installing the software through the use of automated key-presses etc, however this is uncommon as it is usually un-fruitful for the virus coder since the installed software is usually noticed and uninstalled by the user. A well known example of a macro virus is the Melissa Virus from 1999. A document was created with the virus in it and anyone who opened it would ‘catch’ the virus. The virus would then send itself by email to the first 50 people in the person’s address book. This made the virus replicate at a fast rate. Since a macro virus depends on the application rather than the operating system, it can infect a computer running any operating system to which the targeted application has been ported. In particular, since Microsoft Word is available on Macintosh computers, word macro viruses can attack these as well as Windows platforms. The macro virus can be avoided by exercising caution when opening email attachments and other documents. Not all macro viruses can be detected by anti virus. Common macro viruses Concept Virus Melissa worm References Further reading Microsoft Corporation. (2006). Introduction to Security. Retrieved June 18, 2006, from the World Wide Web: http://office.microsoft.com/en-au/assistance/HA010450711033.aspx The Trustees of Indiana University. (2006). What are computer Viruses, Worms, and Trojan Horses. Retrieved June 18, 2006 from the World Wide Web: http://kb.iu.edu/data/aehm.html Macro Virus from Security News & Information http://www3.ca.com/securityadvisor/newsinfo/collateral.aspx?cid=33338 | Macro_virus |@lemmatized compute:1 terminology:1 macro:27 virus:29 write:1 language:2 say:1 build:2 software:6 application:10 word:4 processor:2 since:4 notably:1 exclusively:1 part:2 microsoft:4 office:2 allow:4 program:4 embed:2 document:11 may:3 run:4 automatically:4 open:8 provide:1 distinct:1 mechanism:1 spread:3 dangerous:1 unexpected:1 attachment:3 e:2 mail:2 modern:1 antivirus:1 detect:3 well:5 type:1 fundamental:1 series:1 command:5 action:1 help:1 automate:1 task:1 effectively:1 usually:3 quite:1 short:1 simple:1 however:4 create:3 need:2 execute:2 system:9 interpret:1 stored:1 self:1 contain:3 others:1 complex:1 example:2 user:6 repeat:1 sequence:1 easily:1 developer:1 tailor:1 local:1 step:1 make:3 susceptible:1 store:1 edit:1 process:1 possible:1 carry:1 obvious:1 operation:1 disc:1 network:1 modem:1 internet:2 notoriously:1 difficult:2 uninfected:1 normal:2 malicious:1 start:1 close:1 set:1 activate:1 certain:1 time:2 reach:1 even:1 leave:1 idle:1 period:1 avoid:2 detection:1 uncommon:2 method:1 common:2 way:2 infect:3 computer:4 replace:2 regular:1 name:1 select:1 case:1 without:2 knowing:1 file:1 trigger:1 begin:1 template:1 future:1 one:1 corrupt:1 depend:2 resource:1 get:1 access:1 infected:1 share:1 also:1 know:2 use:3 instal:2 consent:1 look:1 go:1 downloading:1 automated:1 key:1 press:1 etc:1 un:1 fruitful:1 coder:1 installed:1 notice:1 uninstalled:1 melissa:2 anyone:1 would:2 catch:1 send:1 email:2 first:1 people:1 person:1 address:1 book:1 replicate:1 fast:1 rate:1 rather:1 operating:2 target:1 port:1 particular:1 available:1 macintosh:1 attack:1 window:1 platform:1 exercise:1 caution:1 anti:1 concept:1 worm:2 reference:1 reading:1 corporation:1 introduction:1 security:2 retrieve:2 june:2 world:2 wide:2 web:2 http:3 com:2 en:1 au:1 assistance:1 aspx:2 trustee:1 indiana:1 university:1 trojan:1 horse:1 kb:1 iu:1 edu:1 data:1 aehm:1 html:1 news:1 information:1 ca:1 securityadvisor:1 newsinfo:1 collateral:1 cid:1 |@bigram macro_virus:16 notoriously_difficult:1 virus_infect:2 virus_worm:1 trojan_horse:1 |
184 | Andes | The Andes are the world's longest exposed The world's longest mountain range of any type is the undersea Ocean ridge, with a length of , and the total length of the system is . mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. The range is over long, to wide (widest between 18° to 20°S latitude), and of an average height of about . The Andean range is composed principally of two great ranges, the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Occidental, often separated by a deep intermediate depression, in which arise other chains of minor importance, the chief of which is Chile's Cordillera de la Costa. Other small chains arise on the sides of the great chains. The Cordillera de la Costa starts from Tres Montes Peninsula at 46° S and runs in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number of islands and afterwards forming the western boundary of the great central valley of Chile. The Andes mountains extend over seven countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, some of which are known as Andean States. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia. The highest peak, Aconcagua, rises to above sea level. The summit of Mount Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center, because of the equatorial bulge. Geography The Andes can be divided into three sections: the Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile; the Central Andes, including the Chilean and Peruvian cordilleras and parts of Bolivia; and the northern section in Venezuela, Colombia, and northern Ecuador consisting of two parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. In Colombia, north to the border with Ecuador, the Andes split in three parallel ranges, western, central and eastern. (cordillera occidental, central y oriental). The eastern range is the only one that extends to Venezuela. The term cordillera comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'. The Andes range is approximately 200 km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is wide. The islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range. Geology Map of the volcanic arcs, flat-slab segments and [[subduction Rift valley near Quilotoa, Ecuador. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate. The boundary between the two plates is marked by the Peru-Chile oceanic trench. The formation of the Andes began in the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. Tectonic forces along the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The Andes range has many active volcanoes, which are distributed in four volcanic zones: Bucaramanga flat-slab segment The North Volcanic Zone (NVZ) that includes the volcanoes of northern Colombia, Ecuador and northern Peru. Peruvian flat-slab segment The Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) compromising the volcanoes of southern Peru, Bolivia, and northern Chile and Argentina Pampean flat-slab segment The South Volcanic Zone (SVZ), spanning from Central Chile to the Chile Triple Junction Patagonian Volcanic Gap The Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ) begins south of the Chile Triple Junction and is caused by the subduction of the Antarctic Plate Climate Central Andes The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on location, altitude, and proximity to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500–4,800 m (14,800–15,800 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,800–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to on Aconcagua at 32°S, at 40°S, at 50°S, and only in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extends from the latitudes of Atacama Desert to the area of Maule River, precipitation is more sporadical and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area. Flora Rainforests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. The small tree Cinchona pubescens, a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. The high-altitude Polylepis forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. Fauna A male Andean Cock-of-the-rock, a species found in humid Andean forests The Andes is rich in fauna and flora. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot. With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes is the most important region in the world for amphibians. Tropical Andes - biodiversityhotspots.org Animal diversity in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (c. 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptiles (c. 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fishes (c. 1/3 endemic). The Vicuña and Guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated Llama and Alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The nocturnal chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabits the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean Condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, cougar, foxes in the genus Pseudalopex, and, for birds, certain species of Tinamous (notably members of the genus Nothoprocta), Andean Goose, Giant Coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), Lesser Rhea, Andean Flicker, Diademed Sandpiper-Plover, miners, sierra-finches and Diuca-finches. Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca Flightless Grebe and Titicaca Water Frog. A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above , but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exists, exceptions being the threatened Mountain Tapir, Spectacled Bear and Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey. Birds of humid Andean forests include Mountain-Toucans, Quetzals and the Andean Cock-of-the-rock, while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and Furnariids commonly are seen - in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens, tapaculos and antpittas. As a direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and/or xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert. A number of species such as the Royal Cinclodes and White-browed Tit-spinetail are associated with Polylepis, and consequently also threatened. Human activity Map showing cultural influence in the Andes. The Andes mountains forms north-south axis of cultural influences. The Inca Empire developed in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads, some of which, like those created by the Romans a thousand years before them, are still in existence today. Devastated by deadly European diseases to which they had no immunity, and by a terrible civil war, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands allies from nations they had subjugated (Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris, etc) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Pizarro. One of the few Inca cities the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu, which lay hidden on a peak on the edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. Transportation Several major cities exist in the Andes, among them Bogotá, Quito, La Paz, and Cusco. These and most other cities are now connected with asphalted roads, while smaller town often are connected by dirt roads, which may require a 4x4 vehicle. Because of the arduous terrain, localities where vehicles are of little use remain. Locally, Llamas continue to play an important role as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Agriculture The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people. However, they were mainly used for the production of the culturally important chicha. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine. Photograph of young Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans. Mining There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are also important. Peaks This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see bellow). Argentina Aconcagua, Cerro Bonete, Galán, Mercedario, Pissis, Border between Argentina and Chile Cerro Bayo, Cerro Chaltén, or 3,405 m, Patagonia, also known as Cerro Fitz Roy Cerro Escorial, Cordón del Azufre, Falso Azufre, Incahuasi, Lastarria, Llullaillaco, Maipo, Marmolejo, Ojos del Salado, Olca, Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas, Socompa, Nevado Tres Cruces, 6,749 m (south summit) (III Region) Tronador, Tupungato, Nacimiento, Bolivia Ancohuma, Cabaray, Chacaltaya, Huayna Potosí, Illampu, Illimani, Macizo de Larancagua, Macizo de Pacuni, Nevado Anallajsi, Nevado Sajama, Patilla Pata, Tata Sabaya, Border between Bolivia and Chile Acotango, Cerro Minchincha, Irruputuncu, Licancabur, Olca, Parinacota, Paruma, Pomerape, Chile Monte San Valentin, Cerro Paine Grande, c. Cerro Macá, c. Monte Darwin, c. Volcan Hudson, c. Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c. Mount Tarn, c. Polleras, Colombia Galeras, Nevado del Huila, Nevado del Ruiz, Ritacuba Blanco, Nevado del Quindío, Ecuador Antisana, Cayambe, Chimborazo, Corazón, Cotopaxi, El Altar, Illiniza, Pichincha, Quilotoa, Reventador, Sangay, Tungurahua, Titicacha, Peru Alpamayo, Artesonraju, Carnicero, El Misti, El Toro, Huascarán, Jirishanca, Pumasillo, Rasac, Rondoy, Sarapo, Seria Norte, Siula Grande, Yerupaja, Yerupaja Chico, Venezuela Pico Bolívar, Pico Humboldt, Pico Bonpland, Pico La Concha, Pico Piedras Blancas, Notes References John Biggar, The Andes: A Guide For Climbers, 3rd. edition, 2005, ISBN 0-9536087-2-7 Tui de Roy, The Andes: As the Condor Flies. 2005, ISBN 1-55407-070-8 Fjeldså, J., & N. Krabbe (1990). The Birds of the High Andes. Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen. ISBN 87-88757-16-1 Fjeldså, J. & M. Kessler. 1996. Conserving the biological diversity of Polylepis woodlands of the highlands on Peru and Bolivia, a contribution to sustainable natural resource management in the Andes. NORDECO, Copenhagen. See also Cordillera Mountains in the Phillipines External links Andes geology (University of Arizona) Climate and animal life of the Andes http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/southamerica.html Complete list of mountains in South America with a prominence of at least be-x-old:Анды | Andes |@lemmatized andes:50 world:3 long:4 expose:1 mountain:15 range:14 type:2 undersea:1 ocean:1 ridge:1 length:3 total:1 system:1 lie:3 continuous:1 chain:5 highland:2 along:4 western:5 coast:4 south:14 america:3 wide:5 latitude:2 average:2 height:1 andean:15 compose:2 principally:1 two:5 great:3 cordillera:9 oriental:3 occidental:3 often:2 separate:2 deep:1 intermediate:1 depression:1 arise:2 minor:2 importance:1 chief:1 chile:17 de:6 la:4 costa:2 small:5 side:1 start:1 tres:2 monte:3 peninsula:2 run:1 northerly:1 direction:1 parallel:3 break:1 begin:5 number:2 island:2 afterwards:1 form:4 boundary:2 central:9 valley:3 extend:2 seven:1 country:2 argentina:9 bolivia:9 colombia:9 ecuador:8 peru:11 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185 | Book_of_Job | The Book of Job (Hebrew: אֶיוֹב) is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. It relates the story of Job, his trials at the hands of Satan, his theological discussions with friends on the origins and nature of his suffering, and finally a response from God. The Book itself comprises a didactic poem set in a prose framing device and has been called “the most profound and literary work of the entire Old Testament”. John L. McKenzie, Dictionary of the Bible, Simon & Schuster, 1965 p 440. The Book itself, along with its numerous exegeses, are attempts to address the problem of evil, i.e. the problem of reconciling the existence of evil or suffering in the world with the existence of God. Scholars are divided as to the origin, intent, and meaning of the book. Narrative There was an extremely pious man named Job. He was very prosperous and had seven sons, and three daughters. Constantly fearing that his sons may have sinned and "cursed God in their hearts" he habitually offered burnt offerings as a pardon for their sins. The angels of heaven (the Hebrew word translated as "Angels" means "the Sons of God") and Satan (literally, the Hebrew word means "the accuser" or "the adversary") present themselves to God. God asks Satan his opinion on Job, apparently a truly pious man. Satan answers that Job is only pious because he is prosperous. In response to Satan's assertion, God gives Satan permission to destroy Job's possessions and family. , King James Bible All of Job's possessions are destroyed and all of his offspring are killed. Job does not curse God after this but instead shaves his head, tears his clothes and says, "Naked I came out of my mother's womb, and naked shall I return : YHWH has given, and YHWH has taken away; blessed be the name of YHWH" (Simplified). , King James Bible As Job endures these calamities without reproaching Divine Providence, Satan solicits permission to afflict his person as well, and God says, "Behold, he is in your hand, but don’t touch his life." Satan, therefore, smites him with dreadful boils, and Job, seated in ashes, scrapes his skin with broken pottery. His wife prompts him to "curse God, and die" but Job answers, "You speaks as one of the foolish speaks. Moreover, shall we receive good from God and shall not receive evil?" In all this, Job did not sin in his lips. And the three of Job's friends heard all this evil that came on him, and they came every man from his place — Eliphaz the Temanite (Heb: Aliphaz the Thimanite), Bildad the Shuhite (Heb: Bildad the Shuchite), and Zophar Naamathite (Heb: Zuphar the Nomathite). A fourth, Elihu the Buzite (Heb: Alieua ben Barakal the Buzite), first begins talking in chapter 32 and bears a distinguished part in the dialogue; his arrival is not noted. The friends spend 7 days sitting on the ground with Job, without saying anything to him because they see that he is suffering and in much pain. Job at last breaks his silence and "curses the day he was born". Speeches of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar Job's friends do not waver from their belief that Job must have sinned to incite God's punishment. As the speeches progress, Job's friends increasingly berate him for refusing to confess his sins, although they themselves are at a loss as to which sin he has committed. The three friends continue to argue that Job must have sinned, and therefore must deserve his misfortune. They also assume, in their view of theology, that God always rewards good and punishes evil, with no apparent exceptions allowed. There seems to be no room in their understanding of God for divine discretion and mystery in allowing and arranging suffering for purposes other than retribution. Job's friends never use the name YHWH in the story, they refer to God as El Shaddai, Eloahh, and Elohiym. Speeches of Job Job, confident of his own innocence, maintains that his suffering is unjustified as he has not sinned, and that there is no reason for God to punish him thus. However, he does not curse God's name or accuse God of injustice but rather seeks an explanation or an account of his wrongdoing. Job is guilty of the same theological error as his friends. He assumes that God should always reward faithfulness and always punish wickedness in a uniform way. Like his friends, he believes God is in complete control of the affairs of the world. Despite his friends' insistence upon his guilt, Job believes himself to be righteous. Therefore, he questions God's fairness in allowing this calamity. Interestingly, he claims that if there were a mediator between him and God, he would be declared innocent. Despite Job's doubts and declarations, the author maintains that in all this, Job did not sin. Speech of Elihu Elihu, whose name means 'My God is He' or 'My God is YHVH', takes a mediator's path — he attempts to maintain the sovereignty and righteousness and gracious mercy of God. Elihu strongly condemns the approach taken by the three friends, and argues that Job is misrepresenting God's righteousness and discrediting his loving character. Elihu says he spoke last because he is much younger than the other three friends, but says that age makes no difference when it comes to insights and wisdom. In his speech, Elihu argues for God's power, redemptive salvation, and absolute rightness in all his conduct. God is mighty, yet just, and quick to warn and to forgive. Elihu takes a distinct view of the kind of repentance required by Job. Job's three friends claim that repentance requires Job to identify and renounce the sins that gave rise to his suffering. By contrast, Elihu stresses that repentance inextricably entails renouncing any moral authority or cosmological perspective, which is God's alone. Elihu therefore underscores the inherent arrogance in Job's desire to 'make his case' before God, which presupposes that Job possesses a superior moral standard that can be prevailed upon God. Apparently, Elihu acts in a prophetic role preparatory to the appearance of God. His speech maintains that Job, while righteous, is not perfect. Job does not disagree with this, and, proving that Elihu's speech was wise and correct, God did not rebuke him. After Elihu's speech ends with the last verse of Chapter 37, God appears and in the second verse of Chapter 38. God says, probably speaking of Job, “Who is this that darkeneth counsel by words without knowledge?“ God also rebukes Job's three friends. "Why me?"(Book of Job) by Einar Hákonarson Alternatively, Bill Cotton argues that Elihu's argument is a arrogant, brutal waste of time, which would not be missed were it to be excluded from the text. Whilst criticizing the friend's views, he brings little new to the debate, talking twice as long as even God. The Testament of Job goes as far to suggest that Elihu is "inspired by satan", but perhaps this is too far. God's response After several rounds of debate between Job and his friends, in a divine voice, described as coming from a "cloud" or "whirlwind", God describes, in evocative and lyrical language, what the experience of being the creator of the world is like, and asks if Job has ever had the experiences or the authority that God has had. God's answer underscores that Job shares the world with numerous powerful and remarkable creatures, creatures with lives and needs of their own, for whom God must provide, and the young of some hunger in a way that can only be satisfied by taking the lives of others. God's speech also emphasizes his sovereignty in creating and maintaining the world. The thrust is not merely that God has experiences that Job does not, but also that God is King over the world and is not necessarily subject to questions from his creatures, including men. The point of these speeches, and ultimately the entire book of Job, is to defend the absolute freedom of God over his creation. God is not in need of the approval of his creation. He is free. Furthermore, Job's lack of knowledge and the ability to see the world as God does prevents him from fully understanding God's reasons for allowing Job's suffering. In the epilogue, God condemns Job's friends for their ignorance and lack of understanding while admonishing Job for his righteous words, commands them to prepare burnt offerings and reassures them that Job will pray for their forgiveness. Job is restored to health, gaining double the riches he possessed before and having 7 sons and 3 daughters (his wife did not die in this ordeal). His new daughters were the most beautiful in the land, and were given inheritance along with their brothers. Job is blessed once again and lives on another 140 years after the ordeal, living to see his children to the fourth generation and dying peacefully of old age. Satan in the Book of Job The term "Satan" appears in the prose prologue of the Book of Job, with his usual connotation of "the adversary", as a distinct being. He is shown as one of the celestial beings before the Deity, replying to the inquiry of God as to whence he had come, with the words: "from going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it" (Job 1:7). There is some question as to whether this is "Satan" as the proper name for "Satan" is not used, but rather, a better translation is "The Satan". So, the question is whether this is some other demonic accuser or "Satan", than the one who was in charge of the rebellion. The dialogue that ensues characterizes Satan as the member of the divine council who watches over human activity; but with the purpose of searching out men's sins and appearing as their accuser. He is, as it were, a celestial "prosecutor", who sees only iniquity; for he persists in his evil opinion of Job even after the man of Uz has passed successfully through his first trial by surrendering to the will of God, whereupon Satan demands another test through physical suffering (Job 2:3–5). Satan challenges God by saying that Job's belief is only built upon the material goods he has been given, and that his faith will disappear as soon as they are taken from him. God accepts the challenge. The introduction of "the adversary" occurs in the (very short) framing story alone: he is never alluded to in the (very long) central poem at all, although Hades is mentioned in the central poem. The Jewish and Christian interpretations of who "ha-satan" (literally, "the adversary") is tend to differ. Many from a Christian perspective believe 'Satan' to be the Devil. 'Satan' is generally considered in that tradition to be the adversary of God, and is typically conflated with Lucifer. Thus, 'Satan' is viewed by Christians as evil personified. Skeptic's Dictionary - see additional references at the bottom of linked page The Jewish view of "the adversary" is as a sort of prosecuting attorney for God. JewishEncyclopedia.com - SATAN: While "the adversary" is equated with the Angel of Death, he is generally considered to be the adversary of humanity rather than God, and he is often shown obeying the will of God. Job's wife Job's wife is introduced in Job 2:9 when she suggests that Job curse God and die. She is not directly mentioned at any other place in the book. Throughout the ordeal, she survives and lives on with Job to bear him ten more children. Identities of Job's friends The first speaker to address Job, 'Eliphaz the Temanite', is likely identified in the Book of Genesis, chap. 36, verses eleven through twelve, in a genealogy: 'And the sons of Eliphaz were Teman, Omar, Zepho, Gatam and Kenaz. Now Timna was the concubine of Eliphaz, Esau's son, and she bore Amalek to Eliphaz. These the sons of Adah, Esau's wife.' This would probably identify the Eliphaz in the Book of Job as a descendant of Teman, and therefore designated as a 'Temanite', meaning 'a relative' or 'a descendant'; 'son of', or 'of the tribe of', rather than as coming from a place called Teman, which there probably was, and also was probably named after its founder, i.e. the original Teman, the son of Eliphaz mentioned in Genesis chapter 36. Origin A great diversity of opinion exists as to the origin of this book. McKenzie, John L, "Dictionary of the Bible", Touchstone, 1995 and the identity of Job The book of Job begins, “There was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job.” The Epistle of James declares, “Ye have heard of the patience of Job” (Jas. 5.11), whilst Ezekiel, speaking of judgment to come upon the land, says, “Though these three men, Noah, Daniel and Job, were in it, they should deliver but their own souls” (Ezek. 14.14). Nevertheless, even to those who accept the Bible as God’s inspired word, Job appears as a somewhat enigmatic figure. The Talmud (Tractate Bava Basra 15a-b) maintains that the Book of Job was written by Moses, although the Sages dispute whether it was based on historical reality or intended as a parable. Although Moses' authorship is accepted as definitive, other opinions in the Talmud ascribe it to the period of before the First Temple, the time of the patriarch Jacob, or King Ahaserus. In contrast, comparative literary and historical examinations of the text more generally conclude that, though archaic features such as the "council in heaven" survive, and though the story of Job was familiar to Ezekiel (Chapter 14 verse 14), the present form of Job was fixed in the postexilic period 6th century BC - 5th century BC. Bergant, Dianne "The Wisdom Books", The Catholic Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 1990 RG233. Ezekiel places Job in comparison with other righteous figures such as Noah and Daniel. The story of Job apparently originated in the land of Edom, which has been retained as the background. Fragments of Job are found among the Dead Sea scrolls, and Job remains prominent in haggadic legends. The later Greek Testament of Job figures among the apocrypha. Scholars agree that the introductory and concluding sections of the book, the framing devices, were composed to set the central poem into a prose "folk-book", as the compilers of the Jewish Encyclopedia expressed it. In the prologue and epilogue, the name of God is the Tetragrammaton, a name that even the Edomites use. The central poem is from another source. Among the Dead Sea Scrolls is the Targum of Job 11Q10. Another example of text from the last chapter or epilogue of Job can be found in the book, The Dead Sea Scrolls a New Translation. Here we are shown examples of how fragments of The Book of Job found among the scrolls differ from the traditional text. If the prologue and epilogue were added to the central poem, then this would have happened before 100 BC or the time attributed to the Dead Sea Scrolls The medieval exegete Abraham ibn Ezra believed that Job was translated from another language and it is therefore unclear "like all translated books". (Ibn Ezra Job 2:11) Possible Sumerian source The Assyriologist and Sumerologist Samuel Noah Kramer in his 1959 book History Begins at Sumer: Thirty-Nine "Firsts" in Recorded History (1956), provided a translation of a Sumerian text which Professor Kramer argued evinces a parallel with the Biblical story of Job. Professor Kramer drew an inference that the Hebrew version is in some way derived from a Sumerian predecessor. See Ludlul bēl nēmeqi Later interpolations and additions Various interpolations have been claimed to have been made in the text of the central poem. The most common such claims are of two kinds: the "parallel texts", which are parallel developments of the corresponding passages in the base text, and the speeches of Elihu (Chapters 32-37), which consist of a polemic against the ideas expressed elsewhere in the poem, and so are claimed to be interpretive interpolations. The speeches of Elihu (who is not mentioned in the prologue) are claimed to contradict the fundamental opinions expressed by the "friendly accusers" in the central body of the poem, according to which it is impossible that the righteous should suffer, all pain being a punishment for some sin. Elihu, however, reveals that suffering may be decreed for the righteous as a protection against greater sin, for moral betterment and warning, and to elicit greater trust and dependence on a merciful, compassionate God in the midst of adversity. The status of Elihu's interrupting didactic sermon is brought further into question by his extremely sudden appearance and disappearance from the text; he is not mentioned in Job 2:11, in which Job's friends are introduced, nor is he mentioned at all in the epilogue, 42:7-10, in which God expresses anger at Job's friends. It is suggested that had Elihu appeared in the original source, his spirited and virtuous defence of the divine right to punish would have been rewarded by God in the conclusion, or at the very least mentioned. Additionally, Elihu's first spoken words are a confession of his youthful status, being much younger than the three canonical friends, including a claim to be speaking because he cannot bear to remain silent; it has been suggested that this interesting statement may have been symbolic of a "younger" (that is to say, later and interpolating) writer, who has written Elihu's sermon to respond to what he views as morally and theologically scandalous statements being made within the book of Job, and creating the literary device of Elihu to provide what seemed to be a much-needed faith-based response to further refute heresy and provide a satisfying counter-argument, a need partially provided by God's ambiguous and unspecific response to Job at the end of the book. Subjects of further contention among scholars are the identity of claimed corrections and revisions of Job's speeches, which are claimed to have been made for the purpose of harmonizing them with the orthodox doctrine of retribution. A prime example of such a claim is the translation of the last line Job speaks (42:6), which is extremely problematic in the Hebrew. Traditional translations have him say, "Therefore I despise myself, and repent in dust and ashes." This is consonant with the central body of the poem and Job's speeches, other mortal encounters with the divine in the Bible (Isaiah in Chapter 6, for example), and the fact that there would have been no restoration without Job's humble repentant acknowledgment of mortality faced with divinity in all its majesty and glory. However, other scholarly interpretations of this verse also exist (for example) Exegesis Exegesis of Job largely concerns the question, "Is misfortune always a divine punishment for something?" Job's three friends argued in the affirmative, stating that Job's misfortunes were proof that he had committed some sins for which he was being punished. His friends also advanced the converse position that good fortune is always a divine reward, and that if Job would renounce his supposed sins, he would immediately experience the return of good fortune. In response, Job asserted that he was a righteous man, and that his misfortune was therefore not a punishment for anything. This raised the possibility that God acts in capricious ways, and Job's wife urged him to curse God, and die. Instead, Job responded with equanimity: "The Lord gave, and the Lord has taken away; blessed be the name of the Lord." (Job 1:21) He went even further, in verse 22, by not charging any wrong to God. The climax of the book occurs when God responds to Job, not with an explanation for Job's suffering but rather with a question: Where was Job when God created the world? God's response itself may be read in a variety of ways. Some see it as an attempt to humble Job. Yet Job is comforted by God's appearance, and the fact that he 'saw God and lived', suggesting that the author of the book was more concerned with whether or not God is present in people's lives, than with the question of whether or not God is just. Job chapter 28 rejects these efforts to fathom divine wisdom. The framing story complicates the book further: in the introductory section God, during a conversation with Satan, allows Satan to inflict misery on Job and kill his children. The appended conclusion has God restoring Job to wealth, granting him new children, and possibly restoring his health, although this is more implied than explicitly stated. This may suggest that the faith of the perfect believer is rewarded. However, God speaks directly to this question, condemns Job's friends, and says that Job is the only man who has faithfully represented the true nature of God - that all his friends were wrong to say that faith and righteousness are rewarded. Only after Job's friends make a sacrifice to God and are prayed for by afflicted Job does God restore all Job's good fortune. The Testament of Job There are many parallel accounts about Job and one such account, found in the Pseudepigrapha is the Testament of Job. There are legendary details such as the fate of Job's wife, the inheritance of Job's daughters, and the ancestry of Job. In folktale manner in the style of Jewish Midrash , it elaborates upon the Book of Job making Job a king in Egypt. Like many other Testament of ... works in the Old Testament apocrypha, it gives the narrative a framing-tale of Job's last illness, in which he calls together his sons and daughters to give them his final instructions and exhortations. The Testament of Job contains all the characters familiar in the Book of Job, with a more prominent role for Job's wife, given the name Sitidos, and many parallels to Christian beliefs that Christian readers find, such as intercession with God and forgiveness. Unlike the Biblical Book of Job, Satan's vindictiveness towards Job is described in the Testament as being due to Job destroying a non-Jewish temple, indeed Satan is described in a far more villainous light, than simply being a prosecuting counsel. Job is equally portrayed differently; Satan is shown to directly attack Job, but fails each time due to Job's willingness to be patient, unlike the Biblical narrative where Job falls victim but retains faith. The latter section of the work, dedicated like the Biblical text to Job's comforters, deviates even further from the Biblical narrative. Rather than complaining or challenging God, Job consistently asserts his faith despite the laments of his comforters. While one of the comforters gives up, and the others try to get him medical treatment, Job insists his faith is true, and eventually the voice of God tells the comforters to stop their behavior. When most of the comforters choose to listen to God's voice, they decide to taunt the one remaining individual who still laments Job's fate. In Judaism The Talmud occasionally discusses Job. Most traditional Torah scholarship has not doubted Job's existence. He was seen as a real and powerful figure. One Talmudic opinion has it that Job was in fact one of three advisors that Pharaoh consulted, prior to taking action against the increasingly multiplying "Children of Israel" mentioned in the Book of Exodus during the time of Moses' birth. The episode is mentioned in the Talmud (Tractate Sotah): Balaam gives evil advice urging Pharaoh to kill the Hebrew male new-born babies, Jethro opposes Pharaoh and tells him not to harm the Hebrews at all, and Job keeps silent and does not reveal his mind even though he was personally opposed to Pharaoh's destructive plans. It is for his silence that God subsequently punishes him with his bitter afflictions.. There is a minority view among the rabbis of the Talmud, that of Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish, that Job never existed (Midrash Genesis Rabbah LXVII, Talmud Bavli, Bava Batra 15a). In this view, Job was a literary creation by a prophet who used this form of writing to convey a divine message or parable. On the other hand, the Talmud (in Tractate Baba Batra 15a-16b) goes to great lengths trying to ascertain when Job actually lived, citing many opinions and interpretations by the leading sages. Job is further mentioned in the Talmud as follows : Job's resignation to his fate (in Tractate Pesachim 2b) Anyone who associated with Job when he was prosperous, including to buy from him or sell to him, was blessed (in Tractate Pesachim 112a) Job's reward for being generous (in Tractate Megillah 28a) King David, Job, and Ezekiel described the Torah's length without putting a number to it (in Tractate Eruvin 21a) Two further Talmudic traditions hold that Job either lived in the time of Abraham or of Jacob. Levi ben Laḥma held that Job lived in the time of Moses, by whom the Book of Job was written. Others argue that it was written by Job himself (see ), or by Elihu, or Isaiah. Source for Jewish Law Some of the laws and customs of mourning in Judaism are derived from the Book of Job's depiction of Job's mourning and the behavior of his companions. For example, according to , the behavior of Job's comforters, who kept silence until he spoke to them, is the source for a norm applicable to contemporary traditional Jewish practice, that visitors to a house of mourning should not speak to the mourner until they are spoken to. Liturgical use In most traditions of Jewish liturgy, the Book of Job is not read publicly in the manner of the Pentateuch, Prophets, or megillot. However, there are some Jews, particularly the Spanish-Portuguese, who do hold public readings of the Book of Job on the Tisha B'Av fast (a day of mourning over the destruction of the First and Second Temples and other tragedies). The cantillation signs for the large poetic section in the middle of the Book of Job differ from those of most of the biblical books, using a system shared with it only by Psalms and Proverbs. A sample of how the cantillations are chanted is found below. Many quotes from the Book of Job are used throughout Jewish liturgy, especially at funerals and times of mourning. Philosophical approach Maimonides, a twelfth century rabbi, discusses Job in his work The Guide for the Perplexed. According to Maimonides (III 22–23), each of Job's friends represents famous, distinct schools of thought concerning God and divine providence. Moreover, Job reflects the view of Aristotle, that God destroys the innocent and the wicked together (Job 9). If Job held this point of view, then he did not believe in divine providence, even if he did believe in God's existence. According to Maimonides, the correct view of providence lies with Elihu, who teaches Job that one must examine his/her religion (Job 33). This view corresponds with the notion that "the only worthy religion in the world is an examined religion." A habit religion, such as that originally practiced by Job, is never enough. One has to look deep into the meaning of religion in order to fully appreciate it and make it a genuine part of one's life. Elihu believed in the concepts of divine providence, rewards to individuals, as well as punishments. He believed, according to Maimonides, that one has to practice religion in a rational way. The more one investigates religion, the more he/she will be rewarded or find it rewarding. In the beginning, Job was an unexamining, pious man, not a philosopher, and he didn't have providence. He was unwise, simply grateful for what he had. God, according to Elihu, did not single out Job for punishment, but rather abandoned him and let him be dealt with by natural, unfriendly forces. Conversely, in more recent times, Russian existentialist philosopher Lev Shestov viewed Job as the embodiment of the battle between reason (which offers general and seemingly comforting explanations for complex events) and faith in a personal god, and one man's desperate cry for him. In fact, Shestov used the story of Job as a central signifier for his core philosophy (the vast critique of the history of Western philosophy, which he saw broadly as a monumental battle between Reason and Faith, Athens and Jerusalem, secular and religious outlook): "The whole book is one uninterrupted contest between the 'cries' of the much-afflicted Job and the 'reflections' of his rational friends. The friends, as true thinkers, look not at Job but at the 'general.' Job, however, does not wish to hear about the 'general'; he knows that the general is deaf and dumb - and that it is impossible to speak with it. 'But I would speak to the Almighty, and I desire to argue my case with God' (13:3). The friends are horrified at Job's words: they are convinced that it is not possible to speak with God and that the Almighty is concerned about the firmness of his power and the unchangeability of his laws but not about the fate of the people created by him. Perhaps they are convinced that in general God does not know any concerns but that he only rules. That is why they answer, 'You who tear yourself in your anger, shall the earth be forsaken for you or the rock be removed from its place?' (18:4). And, indeed, shall rocks really be removed from their place for the sake of Job? And shall necessity renounce its sacred rights? This would truly be the summit of human audacity, this would truly be a 'mutiny,' a 'revolt' of the single human personality against the eternal laws of the all-unity of being!" (Speculation and Apocalypse). Mystical approach According to the mystical approach, Job is being punished because he is a heretic. One reason why Job can be seen as a heretic is because in Chapter 3, he automatically assumed and was convinced that he did not sin and God therefore has no right to punish him. According to Job, who reflected the views of Aristotle, God gave the world over to astrology. This is evident in Job's lamentation, "Curse the day I was born on" (3:2) Job cursed his birthday because he believed that his birthday was bad luck, in the astrological sense. Given the context of the passage, it is more likely that this phrase refers to Job wishing he'd never been born at all. According to Nachmanides, Job's children did not die in the beginning of the story, but rather were taken captive and then return from captivity by the end of the story. In Christianity Christians accept the Book of Job as part of the Old Testament canon. The character of Job is also mentioned in the New Testament, as an example of perseverance in suffering (). There are several references to the Book of Job throughout the New Testament, especially the Epistles. Specifically: Rev. 9:6 alludes to ; compare 2 Thes. 2:8 to ; 1 Cor. 3:19 quotes ; Heb. 12:5, Jas. 1:12, and Rev. 3:19 all parallel and ; compare Jas. 4:14 to ; compare Heb. 2:6 with ; compare Heb. 12:26 with ; Rom. 9:20 alludes to ; Rom. 11:33 parallels ; compare Acts 17:28 with ; compare 1 Cor. 4:5 with ; compare 1 Pet. 1:24 with ; compare Lk. 19:22 with ; Rom. 1:9 parallels ; compare 1 John 3:2 with ; Rev. 14:10, 19:15 parallel ; both Rom. 11:34 and 1 Cor. 2:16 quote Isa. 40:13, which parallels ; Mt. 25:42 alludes to ; Jas. 4:6 and 1 Pet. 5:5 both quote Prov. 3:34, which parallels ; compare Acts 1:7 with ; Heb. 4:13 parallels ; Mt. 16:26 alludes to ; compare Jas. 1:5 with ; 1 Jo. 1:9 alludes to ; Jas. 5:4 alludes to ; Rev. 16:21 alludes to ; Mt. 6:26 alludes to ; and finally, Rom. 11:35 quotes . (see Good News Bible special edition) Christian themes include God's mercy (not treating sinners as they truly deserve), grace (treating unworthy sinners as they do not deserve), compassion (toleration of much discrediting, inappropriate mortal speculation impugning the divine character, and allegations of unrighteous/unfair dealings with men), restoration (where sin abounds, generosity superabounds) omnipotence, omnisapience , omnipresence, omniliberty, aseity and infinite love. Many Christians hold that Job is a historical prototype of Jesus: the Man of Sorrows. Messianic anticipation in the book The book of Job contains several verses which have been taken by Christians to be prophecies of the Messiah, anticipating him as a mediator between Job and God. These may be found at 9:33, 16:19-21, 17:3, 19:23-27, and 33:23-28. In chapter nine, Job recognizes the chasm that exists between him and God: “For he is not a man, as I am, that I might answer him, that we should come to trial together.” Job 9:32, RSV Job’s regret is that he has no arbiter to act as a go-between; that Job can not reconcile himself with God anticipates the need for the Messiah to become Incarnate. Walter Kaiser, The Messiah in the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995), p. 62. In verse 33, Job wishes that there was an “umpire” (Heb. mokiah) to decide between him and God. One scholar says, “This person would have to be superior in authority to either party, ” Marvin Pope, Job: The Anchor Bible, (New York: Doubleday, 1965), 74. ; thus the arbiter for whom Job hopes would have to himself be divine, or else he would no more be qualified to “lay his hand upon” God than is Job. This idea of a divine arbiter is returned to at Job 16:19. Job again expresses his desire for a witness, and then declares, “my eyes pour out tears to God, that he would maintain the right of a man with God”. Job 16:20b-21a Job addresses God, desiring that God will advocate on Job’s behalf with himself. James Smith, What the Bible Teaches about the Promised Messiah, (Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1993), 213. Job knows that no man such as himself, conceived in sin, can appeal to God on his behalf; so God must do it himself. The language used earlier is that of a judicial judgement , in which God is both judge of and lawyer for Job. Job “draws a distinction in God” , and this distinction anticipates the multiplicity of God’s persons. Job’s faith in this arbiter is again brought up in chapter 19. It is commonly accepted that the “Redeemer” of 19:25 is the same person as the witness of 16:19. e.g., John Telgren, The Identity of Job’s Goel in Job 19:25, 1999, 4. This verse in particular is often seen as an anticipation of Christianity. Telgren notes that it has been suggested that verses 25 and 26 have a poetic structure of ABBA. If this is true it would support the notion that God is himself the Redeemer, by associating him with the living Redeemer in the parallel structure. The RSV’s “Redeemer” is a translation of the Hebrew go’el. That this go’el could refer to God is explicitly demonstrated in the Psalms and Proverbs, and elsewhere. Job's unjust suffering has often been interpreted as a prophetic anticipation, or type, of the suffering of Christ. Liturgical use The Eastern Orthodox Church reads from Job during Holy Week. Alexander Schmemann, "A Liturgical Explanation for the Days of Holy Week" The Roman Catholic Church traditionally reads from the Book of Job during Matins in the first two weeks of September. In the revised Liturgy of the Hours, Job is read during the Eighth and Ninth Weeks in Ordinary Time. In Palestinian folk tradition, Ayyub's place of trial is Al-Joura, a village outside the town of Al Majdal (Ashkelon). It was there, God rewarded him with a Fountain of Youth that removed whatever illnesses he had, and restored his youth. The town of Al-Joura was a place of annual festivities (4 days in all) when people of many faiths gathered and bathed in a natural spring. In Turkey, Job is known as Eyüp, and he is supposed to have lived in Şanlıurfa. There is also a tomb of Job outside the city of Salalah in Oman. References to Ayyub (Job) in the Qur'an Job's prophecy: 4:163, 6:84 Trial and patience: 21:83-84, 38:41 Modern approaches to Job Adam's Apples,(Adams Æbler) Danish film from 2005 Carl Jung, Answer to Job (1952) "Answer to Job" in Psychology and Religion, v.11, Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Princeton. It was first published as "Antwort auf Hiob", Zürich, 1952 and translated into English in 1954, in London. G. K. Chesterton, The Man Who Was Thursday Robert A. Heinlein, Job: A Comedy of Justice Harold Kushner, "When Bad Things Happen to Good People" C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain Henry M. Morris, "The Remarkable Record of Job" James Morrow, "Blameless in Abaddon" Joseph Roth, "Job" Neil Simon, God's Favorite Robert Frost, A Masque of Reason Elie Wiesel, "Night" Archibald MacLeish, J.B. David Adams Richards, Mercy among the Children William Safire, The First Dissident: The Book of Job in Today's Politics Gustavo Gutierrez, "On Job" References in art and music William Blake famously illustrated the Book of Job, including imagery of Satan. Ralph Vaughan Williams' orchestral work, Job: A Masque for Dancing was directly inspired by Blake's work. Joni Mitchell's song The Sire of Sorrow (Job's Sad Song), on Turbulent Indigo, is inspired by the Book of Job. Sir Peter Maxwell Davies composed an oratorio, Job, focusing on the moral questions it raises. Brett Gurewitz, "Sorrow (Bad Religion song)" Disturbed, Prayer (song) The Golden Gate Quartet have a song about Job O Brother Where Art Thou - Constant Sorrow References Michael Wise, Martin Abegg, Jr, and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, (1996), HarperSanFrancisco paperback 1999, ISBN 0-06-069201-4, (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls), Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid's Tale External links Jewish translations: Iyov - Job (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org Christian translations: An online, searchable, self-referential concordance to the Authorised King James Version Other translations: The Trial of Job (translation as drama with hyperlinked notes) The Book Of Job The Musical (translation as musical) Jewish Cantillations Sephardic Cantillations for the Book of Job by David M. Betesh and the Sephardic Pizmonim Project Related articles: Excerpts from "Answer to Job" by Carl Jung Jewish Encyclopedia: Job; Book of Job Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897: Job; Book of Job "Short Articles on the Book of Job": Bill Long "Putting God on Trial- The Biblical Book of Job" by Robert Sutherland A complete online commentary. Job at the Catholic Encyclopedia Biblical Job: A Vision of God Exegetical Paper on Job 19:23-27 by Rudolph E. Honsey The Paramount Lesson of Job: God's Glory Magnified by Faith Triumphant over Tribulation by J.T. 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186 | Fudge_(role-playing_game_system) | Fudge is a generic role-playing game system for use in freeform role-playing games. The name "FUDGE" was once an acronym for Freeform Universal Donated (later, Do-it-yourself) Gaming Engine and, though the acronym has since been dropped, that phrase remains a good summation of the game's design goals. Fudge has been nominated for an Origins Award for Best Role-Playing Game System for the Deryni Role-Playing Game. Rather than being a rigidly pre-defined set of rules like d20 System or GURPS, Fudge offers a customizable toolkit for building the users' own specialized role-playing game system. Such things as what attributes and skills will define characters are left to be determined by the Game Master and players, and several different optional systems for resolving actions and conflicts are offered. Fudge is not tied to any particular genre or setting and world builders are encouraged to invent appropriate attributes and rules tailored to the campaign. History The project that would lead to Fudge was first proposed by Steffan O'Sullivan on 17 November 1992 on the rec.games.design newsgroup, net.rpg.freeform 1 of 2 and over the following months that online community would contribute to the directed project. net.rpg.freeform 2 of 2 One of the earliest stipulations of O'Sullivan was that the basic system would always remain free to the public over the internet, and the PDF of the 1995 version still is. Fudge Designer's notes The 1995 version of Fudge is available under a non-commercial Open Content licence. Grey Ghost Press, with the endorsement of Steffan O'Sullivan, publishes an expanded form of the Fudge system. There have been three Grey Ghost editions, the most current being the Fudge 10th Anniversary Edition, which includes several suggested rules systems for common RPG elements and an example basic fantasy "build" of the game. In March 2004, Grey Ghost acquired the copyright of Fudge, and in April 6, 2005, they released a version of Fudge under Open Gaming License. The OGL license has allowed the FATE role-playing game to use Fudge as its underlying mechanic. In 1999 Pyramid magazine named Fudge as one of The Millennium's Most Underrated Games. Editor Scott Haring stated that "Fudge is an extremely flexible, rules-light system. It works great, and everybody who plays it, loves it. Why isn't it more popular? I dunno." Name At the time Fudge was conceived, it was stylish to give role-playing games acronyms for names (for instance, GURPS and TWERPS) and originally the usenet design project referred to the game as SLUG, for "Simple Laid-back Universal Game". However, this was soon changed to FUDGE for "Free-form Universal Donated Gaming Engine", but also because the word invoked connotations of an easy to make source of fun. This again was changed when Grey Ghost Press released their 1995 hardcopy version of the game, to "Free-form Universal Do-it-yourself Gaming Engine". With the publication of the Expanded Edition in 2000, the fad for acronym-based names had long since faded, and the writer and the publisher both felt that the forced acronym had become irrelevant. The game has been referred to officially as just Fudge ever since, though fans often still refer to it in the old manner as FUDGE. Game mechanics Probability of results when rolling 4dF In Fudge, character Traits such as Attributes and Skills, are rated on a seven-level, ascending adjective scale: Terrible, Poor, Mediocre, Fair, Good, Great, and Superb. Fudge characters can also have Gifts and Faults, which are positive and negative traits that do not fit into the adjective scale. Fudge uses customized "Fudge dice" which have an equal number of plus, minus and blank sides. A number of these dice are rolled, usually four at a time ("4dF" in Fudge dice notation), and for every plus side that comes up the result of using the Trait is considered one step higher (e.g. from Fair to Good) and for every minus side that comes up the result is considered one step lower. The goal is to match or surpass the difficulty level, also on the adjective scale, of the test. Thus, a Good attribute is considered to be Great if you were to roll two plus sides, one minus side, and one blank—the minus side cancels out one of the plus sides and the remaining plus side raises the result by one step. The same Good attribute would be considered Poor if you were to roll three minus sides and one blank. There are also several alternative dice systems available that use regular six-sided or ten-sided dice, coins, or playing cards. Complexity The rules of Fudge are highly customizable and can be adjusted for the level of simplicity or complexity desired by the Game Master and Players. Overall, the system is designed to encourage role-playing over strict adherence to an arbitrary set of rules. In fact, the main Fudge documents encourage players to "Just Fudge It"; that is, to focus on the story being created rather than on the game rules. For example, one character creation method encourages players to first write prose descriptions of their characters and then translate those into Fudge Traits. References External links Grey Ghost Press' Fudge webpage Seraphim Guard's webpage. Seraphim Guard publishes HeartQuest, the first commercially published Fudge-based role-playing game, in addition to other Fudge games, and support for other gaming systems as well. The Unofficial Fudge RPG Forum, used by many of the authors of Fudge products. Fudge Forum webpage The Fudge Guide home Wiki webpage Dragonlance: What If, a Fudge RPG online text based game based in an alternative Dragonlance game world | Fudge_(role-playing_game_system) |@lemmatized fudge:36 generic:1 role:9 playing:8 game:27 system:12 use:6 freeform:4 name:5 acronym:4 universal:4 donate:2 later:1 engine:3 though:2 since:3 drop:1 phrase:1 remain:3 good:5 summation:1 design:4 goal:2 nominate:1 origin:1 award:1 best:1 deryni:1 rather:2 rigidly:1 pre:1 define:2 set:2 rule:7 like:1 gurps:2 offer:2 customizable:2 toolkit:1 build:2 user:1 specialized:1 thing:1 attribute:5 skill:2 character:5 leave:1 determine:1 master:2 player:4 several:3 different:1 optional:1 resolve:1 action:1 conflict:1 tie:1 particular:1 genre:1 setting:1 world:2 builder:1 encourage:4 invent:1 appropriate:1 tailor:1 campaign:1 history:1 project:3 would:4 lead:1 first:3 propose:1 steffan:2 sullivan:3 november:1 rec:1 newsgroup:1 net:2 rpg:5 following:1 month:1 online:2 community:1 contribute:1 direct:1 one:10 early:1 stipulation:1 basic:2 always:1 free:3 public:1 internet:1 pdf:1 version:4 still:2 designer:1 note:1 available:2 non:1 commercial:1 open:2 content:1 licence:1 grey:5 ghost:5 press:3 endorsement:1 publish:2 expanded:2 form:3 three:2 edition:3 current:1 anniversary:1 include:1 suggest:1 common:1 element:1 example:2 fantasy:1 march:1 acquire:1 copyright:1 april:1 release:2 gaming:1 license:2 ogl:1 allow:1 fate:1 underlying:1 mechanic:2 pyramid:1 magazine:1 millennium:1 underrated:1 editor:1 scott:1 hare:1 state:1 extremely:1 flexible:1 light:1 work:1 great:3 everybody:1 play:3 love:1 popular:1 dunno:1 time:2 conceive:1 stylish:1 give:1 acronyms:1 instance:1 twerp:1 originally:1 usenet:1 refer:3 slug:1 simple:1 lay:1 back:1 however:1 soon:1 change:2 also:4 word:1 invoke:1 connotation:1 easy:1 make:1 source:1 fun:1 hardcopy:1 publication:1 fad:1 base:4 long:1 fade:1 writer:1 publisher:1 felt:1 forced:1 become:1 irrelevant:1 officially:1 ever:1 fan:1 often:1 old:1 manner:1 probability:1 result:4 roll:4 trait:4 rat:1 seven:1 level:3 ascend:1 adjective:3 scale:3 terrible:1 poor:2 mediocre:1 fair:2 superb:1 gift:1 fault:1 positive:1 negative:1 fit:1 customize:1 dice:5 equal:1 number:2 plus:5 minus:5 blank:3 side:10 usually:1 four:1 notation:1 every:2 come:2 consider:4 step:3 high:1 e:1 g:1 lower:1 match:1 surpass:1 difficulty:1 test:1 thus:1 two:1 cancel:1 raise:1 alternative:2 regular:1 six:1 ten:1 sided:1 coin:1 card:1 complexity:2 highly:1 adjust:1 simplicity:1 desire:1 overall:1 strict:1 adherence:1 arbitrary:1 fact:1 main:1 document:1 focus:1 story:1 create:1 creation:1 method:1 write:1 prose:1 description:1 translate:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webpage:4 seraphim:2 guard:2 publishes:1 heartquest:1 commercially:1 addition:1 support:1 well:1 unofficial:1 forum:2 many:1 author:1 product:1 guide:1 home:1 wiki:1 dragonlance:2 text:1 |@bigram plus_minus:1 dice_roll:1 strict_adherence:1 external_link:1 |
187 | Joyce_K._Reynolds | Joyce K. Reynolds is a computer scientist. Reynolds holds bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Southern California, United States. She has been active in the development of the protocols underlying the Internet. In particular, she has authored or co-authored many RFCs, most notably those introducing and specifying the Telnet protocol. Joyce Reynolds served as part of the editorial team of the Request For Comments series from 1987 to 2006, and also performed the IANA function with Jon Postel until this was transferred to ICANN, and worked with ICANN in this role until 2001. As Area Director of the User Services area, she was a member of the Internet Engineering Steering Group of the IETF from 1990 to March 1998 IETF official list of IESG members Together with Bob Braden, she received the 2006 Postel Award in recognition of her services to the Internet. She is mentioned, along with a brief biography, in RFC 1336, Who's Who in the Internet (1992). Notes External links Biography, 2003 | Joyce_K._Reynolds |@lemmatized joyce:2 k:1 reynolds:3 computer:1 scientist:1 hold:1 bachelor:1 master:1 degree:1 university:1 southern:1 california:1 united:1 state:1 active:1 development:1 protocol:2 underlie:1 internet:4 particular:1 author:2 co:1 many:1 rfcs:1 notably:1 introduce:1 specify:1 telnet:1 serve:1 part:1 editorial:1 team:1 request:1 comment:1 series:1 also:1 perform:1 iana:1 function:1 jon:1 postel:2 transfer:1 icann:2 work:1 role:1 area:2 director:1 user:1 service:2 member:2 engineering:1 steer:1 group:1 ietf:2 march:1 official:1 list:1 iesg:1 together:1 bob:1 braden:1 receive:1 award:1 recognition:1 mention:1 along:1 brief:1 biography:2 rfc:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram jon_postel:1 external_link:1 |
188 | Noble_Eightfold_Path | The Dharma wheel, often used to represent the noble eightfold path The Noble Eightfold Path is one of the principal teachings of the Buddha, who described it as the way leading to the cessation of suffering (dukkha) and the achievement of self-awakening. It is used in Buddhist practice as a technique to develop insight into the true nature of phenomena (or reality) and to eradicate greed, hatred, and delusion. The Noble Eightfold Path is the fourth of the Buddha's Four Noble Truths; the first element of the Noble Eightfold Path is, in turn, an understanding of the Four Noble Truths. It is also known as the Middle Path or Middle Way. All eight elements of the Path begin with the word "right", which translates the word samyañc (in Sanskrit) or sammā (in Pāli). These denote completion, togetherness, and coherence, and can also suggest the senses of "perfect" or "ideal". See, for instance, Allan (2008). In Buddhist symbolism, the Noble Eightfold Path is often represented by means of the dharma wheel, whose eight spokes represent the eight elements of the path. Origin According to discourses found in both the Theravada school's Pali canon and the Agamas (a class of early Buddhist school sutras that were preserved in the Chinese Mahayana tradition), the Noble Eightfold Path was rediscovered by Gautama Buddha during his quest for enlightenment. The scriptures describe an ancient path which has been followed and practised by all the previous Buddhas. The Noble Eightfold Path is a practice said to lead its practitioner toward self-awakening and liberation. The path was taught by the Buddha to his disciples so that they, too, could follow it. The practice of the Noble Eightfold Path varies from one Buddhist school to another. Depending on the school, it may be practiced as a whole, only in part, or it may have been modified. Each Buddhist lineage claims the ability to implement the path in the manner most conducive to the development of its students. The threefold division of the path The Noble Eightfold Path is sometimes divided into three basic divisions, as follows: <tr> Division Eightfold Path factors Acquired factors <tr> Wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā, Pāli: paññā) 1. Right view 9. Right knowledge <tr> 2. Right intention 10. Right liberation <tr> Ethical conduct (Sanskrit: śīla, Pāli: sīla) 3. Right speech <tr> 4. Right action <tr> 5. Right livelihood <tr> Concentration (Sanskrit and Pāli: samādhi) 6. Right effort <tr> 7. Right mindfulness <tr> 8. Right concentration <tr> This presentation is called the 'Three Higher Trainings' in Mahayana Buddhism; higher moral discipline, higher concentration and higher wisdom. 'Higher' here refers to the fact that these trainings that lead to liberation and enlightenment are engaged in with the motivation of renunciation or bodhichitta. The practice According to the bhikkhu (monk) and scholar Walpola Rahula, the divisions of the noble eightfold path "are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far as possible according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked together and each helps the cultivation of the others." Rahula 46 Bhikkhu Bodhi explains that "with a certain degree of progress all eight factors can be present simultaneously, each supporting the others. However, until that point is reached, some sequence in the unfolding of the path is inevitable". According to the discourses in the Pali and Chinese canons, right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness are used as the support and requisite conditions for the practice of right concentration. Understanding of the right view is the preliminary role, and is also the forerunner of the entire Noble Eightfold Path. The practitioner should first try to understand the concepts of right view. Once right view has been understood, it will inspire and encourage the arising of right intention within the practitioner. Right intention will lead to the arising of right speech. Right speech will lead to the arising of right action. Right action will lead to the arising of right livelihood. Right livelihood will lead to the arising of right effort. Right effort will lead to the arising of right mindfulness. The practitioner must make the right effort to abandon the wrong view and to enter into the right view. Right mindfulness is used to constantly remain in the right view. This will help the practitioner restrain greed, hatred and delusion. Once these support and requisite conditions have been established, a practitioner can then practice right concentration more easily. During the practice of right concentration, one will need to use right effort and right mindfulness to aid concentration practice. In the state of concentration, one will need to investigate and verify his or her understanding of right view. This will then result in the arising of right knowledge, which will eliminate greed, hatred and delusion. The last and final factor to arise is right liberation. Wisdom (Prajñā • Paññā) "Wisdom", sometimes translated as "discernment" at its preparatory role, provides the sense of direction with its conceptual understanding of reality. It is designed to awaken the faculty of penetrative understanding to see things as they really are. At a later stage, when the mind has been refined by training in moral discipline and concentration, and with the gradual arising of right knowledge, it will arrive at a superior right view and right intention. Right view Right view ( • ) can also be translated as "right perspective", "right vision" or "right understanding". It is the right way of looking at life, nature and the world as they really are. It is to understand how reality works. It acts as the reasoning for the practictioner to start practicing the path. It explains the reasons for human existence, suffering, sickness, aging, death, the existence of greed, hatred and delusion. It gives direction and efficacy to the other seven path factors. Right view begins with concepts and propositional knowledge but through the practice of right concentration it gradually becomes transmuted into wisdom which can eradicate the fetters of the mind. Understanding of right view will inspire the person to lead a virtuous life in line with right view. In the Pali and Chinese canons, it is explained thus: There are two types of right view: View with taints: this view is mundane. Having this type of view will bring merit and will support the favourable existence of the sentient being in the realm of samsara. View without taints: this view is supramundane. It is a factor of the path and will lead the holder of this view toward self-awakening and liberation from the realm of samsara. Right view has many facets, its elementary form is suitable for lay followers, while the other which requires deeper understanding is suitable for monastic. Usually it involves understanding the following reality: Moral law of karma: Every action (by way of body, speech and mind) will have karmic results (a.k.a. reaction). Wholesome and unwholesome actions will produce results and effects that correspond with the nature of that action. It is the right view about the moral process of the world. The three characteristics: everything that arises will cease (impermanence). Mental and body phenomena are impermanent, source of suffering and not-self. Suffering: Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, distress and despair are suffering. Not being able to obtain what one wants is also suffering. The arising of craving is the root cause of the arising of suffering and the cessation of craving is the root cause of the cessation of the suffering. The way leading to the cessation of suffering is the noble eightfold path. This type of right view is explained in terms of Four Noble Truths. Right view for monastics is explained in detail in the ("Right View Discourse"), in which Ven. Sariputta instructs that right view can alternately be attained by the thorough understanding of the unwholesome and the wholesome, the four nutriments, the twelve nidanas or the three taints. "Wrong view" arising from ignorance (avijja), is the precondition for wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness and wrong concentration. The practitioner should use right effort to abandon the wrong view and to enter into right view. Right mindfulness is used to constantly remain in right view. The purpose of right view is to clear one's path of the majority of confusion, misunderstanding and deluded thinking. It is a means to gain right understanding of reality. Right view should be held with a flexible, open mind, without clinging to that view as a dogmatic position. In this way, right view becomes a route to liberation rather than an obstacle. Right intention Right intention () can also be translated as "right thought", "right resolve", "right conception" , "right aspiration" or "the exertion of our own will to change". In this factor, the practitioner should constantly aspire to rid themselves of whatever qualities they know to be wrong and immoral. Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to discern the differences between right intention and wrong intention. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus: It means the renunciation of the worldly things and an accordant greater commitment to the spiritual path; good will; and a commitment to non-violence, or harmlessness, towards other living beings. Ethical conduct (Śīla • Sīla) For the mind to be unified in concentration, it is necessary to restrain from unwholesome deeds of body and speech to prevent the faculties of bodily action and speech from becoming tools of the defilements. Ethical conduct is used primarily as aids for mental purification. Right speech Right speech (samyag-vāc • sammā-vācā), deals with the way in which a Buddhist practitioner would best make use of their words. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus: The Samaññaphala Sutta, Kevatta Sutta and Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta elaborate : The Abhaya Sutta elaborates: Right action Right action (samyak-karmānta • sammā-kammanta) can also be translated as "right conduct". As such, the practitioner should train oneself to be morally upright in one's activities, not acting in ways that would be corrupt or bring harm to oneself or to others. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained as: For the lay follower, the Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta elaborates: For the monastic, the Samaññaphala Sutta adds: Right livelihood Right livelihood (samyag-ājīva • sammā-ājīva). This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus: The five types of businesses that are harmful to undertake are: Business in weapons: trading in all kinds of weapons and instruments for killing. Business in human beings: slave trading, prostitution, or the buying and selling of children or adults. Business in meat: "meat" refers to the bodies of beings after they are killed. This includes breeding animals for slaughter. Business in intoxicants: manufacturing or selling intoxicating drinks or addictive drugs. Business in poison: producing or trading in any kind of toxic product designed to kill. Samādhi: Mental Discipline, Concentration, Meditation Samadhi is literally translated as "concentration", it is achieved through training in the higher consciousness, which brings the calm and collectedness needed to develop true wisdom by direct experience. Right effort Right effort (samyag-vyāyāma • sammā-vāyāma) can also be translated as "right endeavor". In this factor, the practitioners should make a persisting effort to abandon all the wrong and harmful thoughts, words, and deeds. The practitioner should instead be persisting in giving rise to what would be good and useful to themselves and others in their thoughts, words, and deeds, without a thought for the difficulty or weariness involved. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained thus: Although the above instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers from both genders. The above four phases of right effort mean: make effort to prevent the unwholesome that has not yet arisen in oneself. make effort to destroy the unwholesome that has arisen in oneself. make effort to arouse the wholesome that has not yet arisen in oneself. make effort to maintain the wholesome that has arisen in oneself. Right mindfulness Right mindfulness ( • sammā-sati), also translated as "right memory", "right awareness" or "right attention". Here, practitioners should constantly keep their minds alert to phenomena that affect the body and mind. They should be mindful and deliberate, making sure not to act or speak due to inattention or forgetfulness. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus: Although the above instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers from both genders.. Bhikkhu Bodhi, a monk of the Theravada tradition, further explains the concept of mindfulness as follows: Bodhi 1998 The Maha Satipatthana Sutta also teaches that by mindfully observing these phenomena, we begin to discern its arising and subsiding and the Three Characteristics of Dharma in direct experience, which leads to the arising of insight and the qualities of dispassion, non-clinging, and release Right concentration Right concentration (samyak-samādhi • sammā-samādhi), as its Pali and Sanskrit names indicate, is the practice of concentration (samadhi). As such, the practitioner concentrates on an object of attention until reaching full concentration and a state of meditative absorption (jhana). Traditionally, the practice of samadhi can be developed through mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), through visual objects (kasina), and through repetition of phrases. Samadhi is used to suppress the five hindrances in order to enter into jhana. Jhana is an instrument used for developing wisdom by cultivating insight and using it to examine true nature of phenomena with direct cognition. This leads to cutting off the defilements, realizing the dhamma and, finally, self-awakening. During the practice of right concentration, the practitioner will need to investigate and verify their right view. In the process right knowledge will arise, followed by right liberation. In the Pali Canon, it is explained thus: Although this instruction is given to the male monastic order, it is also meant for the female monastic order and can be practiced by lay followers from both genders. According to the Pali and Chinese canon, right concentration is dependent on the development of preceding path factors: The acquired factors In the Mahācattārīsaka Sutta which appears in the Chinese and Pali canons, the Buddha explains that cultivation of the noble eightfold path leads to the development of two further factors, which are right knowledge/insight (sammā-ñāṇa) and right liberation/release (sammā-vimutti). These two factors fall under the category of wisdom (paññā). Right knowledge and right liberation Right knowledge is seeing things as they really are by direct experience, not as they appear to be, nor as the practitioner wants them to be, but as they truly are. A result of Right Knowledge is the tenth factor - Right liberation These two factors are the end result of correctly practicing the noble eightfold path, which arise during the practice of right concentration. The first to arise is right knowledge: this is where deep insight into the ultimate reality arises. The last to arise is right liberation: this is where self-awakening occurs and the practitioner has reached the pinnacle of their practice. The noble eightfold path and cognitive psychology In the essay "Buddhism Meets Western Science", Gay Watson explains: Watson 2001 </div> The noble eightfold path is, from this psychological viewpoint, an attempt to change patterns of thought and behavior. It is for this reason that the first element of the path is right understanding (), which is how one's mind views the world. Under the wisdom (paññā) subdivision of the noble eightfold path, this worldview is intimately connected with the second element, right thought (), which concerns the patterns of thought and intention that controls one's actions. These elements can be seen at work, for example, in the opening verses of the Dhammapada: Carter & Palihawadana 13 Thus, by altering one's distorted worldview, bringing out "tranquil perception" in the place of "perception polluted", one is able to ease suffering. Watson points this out from a psychological standpoint: Research has shown that repeated action, learning, and memory can actually change the nervous system physically, altering both synaptic strength and connections. Such changes may be brought about by cultivated change in emotion and action; they will, in turn, change subsequent experience. See also Four Noble Truths Threefold Training Four Right Exertions The Five Precepts 37 Enlightenment Factors Three Vajras (Body speech and mind) Notes References Allan, John (2008). The Eight-fold Path. Retrieved 2008-03-06 from "BuddhaNet" at http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/8foldpath.htm. Bhikkhu Bodhi. The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. Retrieved 4 July 2006. Bogoda, Robert (1994). A Simple Guide to Life (Wheel No. 397/398). Kandy: BPS. Retrieved 2008-02-04 from "Access to Insight" (1996) at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bogoda/wheel397.html. Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. Curzon Press: London. ISBN 0-312-82540-4 Carter, John Ross and Palihawadana, Mahinda; tr. Buddhism: The Dhammapada. New York: History Book Club, 1992. Harderwijk, Rudy. A View on Buddhism: Mind and Mental Factors. Retrieved 4 July 2006. Kohn, Michael H.; tr. The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambhala, 1991. Ñanamoli Thera (tr.) & Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed., rev.) (1991). The Discourse on Right View: The Sammaditthi Sutta and its Commentary (The Wheel Publication No. 377/379; includes translations of MN 9 and the associated commentary from the Papañcasudani). Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society. Retrieved 22 Sep 2007 from "Access to Insight" (1994) at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/nanamoli/wheel377.html. Niimi, J. Buddhism and Cognitive Science. Retrieved 8 July 2006. Nyanasobhano, Bhikkhu (1989). Two Dialogues on Dhamma (Wheel No. 363/364). Kandy: BPS. Retrieved 2008-02-04 from "Access to Insight" (2005) at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/price/wheel363.html. Rahula, Walpola. What the Buddha Taught. New York: Grove Press, 1974. ISBN 0-802-13031-3. Rewata Dhamma. The First Discourse of the Buddha. Somerville, Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications, 1997. ISBN 0-86171-104-1. Snelling, John. The Buddhist Handbook: A Complete Guide to Buddhist Schools, Teaching, Practice, and History. Rochester: Inner Traditions, 1991. ISBN. Sri Lanka Buddha Jayanti Tipitaka Series (SLTP) (n.d.). Avijjāvaggo (SN 44 [Sinhalese ed.], ch. 1, in Pali). Retrieved on 16 July 2007 from "Mettanet - Lanka" at: http://mettanet.org/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/3Samyutta-Nikaya/Samyutta5/44-Magga-Samyutta/01-Avijjavaggo-p.html. Thanissaro Bhikkhu; tr. Magga-vibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path (SN 45.8), 1996. Retrieved 25 June 2006 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn45/sn45.008.than.html. —. Abhaya Sutta: To Prince Abhaya (On Right Speech) (MN 58); 1997a. Retrieved 20 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.058.than.html. —. Avijja Sutta: Ignorance (SN 45.1); 1997f. Retrieved 2008-02-04 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn45/sn45.001.than.html. —. Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta: To Cunda the Silversmith (AN 10.176); 1997b. Retrieved 19 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.176.than.html. —. Kevatta (Kevaddha) Sutta: To Kevatta (DN 11); 1997c. Retrieved 19 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.11.0.than.html. —. Maha-cattarisaka Sutta: The Great Forty (MN 117); 1997d. Retrieved 2 October 2006 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.117.than.html. —. : The Fruits of the Contemplative Life (DN 2); 1997e. Retrieved 19 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html. —. Canki Sutta: With Canki (excerpt) (MN 95); 1999. Retrieved 20 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.095x.than.html. —. Maha-satipatthana Sutta: The Great Frames of Reference (DN 22); 2000. Retrieved 18 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.22.0.than.html. —. Vanijja Sutta: Business (Wrong Livelihood) (AN 5.177); 2001. Retrieved 2 October 2006 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.177.than.html. —. Micchatta Sutta: Wrongness (AN 10.103); 2004. Retrieved 2008-02-04 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an10/an10.103.than.html. —. Saccavibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Truths (MN 141); 2005. Retrieved 18 July 2007 from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.141.than.html. Watson, Gay. Buddhism Meets Western Science. Retrieved 8 July 2006. Related texts Sangharakshita, 'The Buddha's Noble Eightfold Path', Windhorse Publications, 2007. ISBN 1899579818. External links The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering by Bhikkhu Bodhi Wings to Awakening: An Anthology from the Pali Canon by Thanissaro Bhikkhu The Path to Peace and Freedom for the Mind by Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo The Craft of the Heart by Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2006). Ambalatthika-rahulovada Sutta: Instructions to Rahula at Mango Stone (MN 61). Retrieved from "Access to Insight" at http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.061.than.html. In this sutta, the Buddha instructs his son about skillful mental, verbal and bodily actions. 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189 | Colony | This article is about a type of political territory. For other uses see Colony (disambiguation). In politics and in history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state. For colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. The metropolitan state is the state that owns the colony. In Ancient Greece, the city that owned a colony was called the metropolis within its political organization. Mother country is a reference to the metropolitan state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. There is a United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. People who migrated to settle permanently in colonies controlled by their country of origin were called colonists or settlers. A colony differs from a puppet state or satellite state in that a colony has no independent international representation, and the top-level administration of a colony is under direct control of the metropolitan state. The term "informal colony" is used by some historians to describe a country which is under the de facto control of another state, although this description is often contentious. Definitions In the modern usage, colony is generally distinguished from overseas possession. In the former case, the local population, or at least the part of it not coming from the "metropolitan" (controlling) country, does not enjoy full citizenship rights. The political process is generally restricted, especially excluding questions of independence. In this case, there are settlers from a dominating foreign country, or countries, and often the property of indigenous peoples is seized, to provide the settlers with land. Foreign mores, religions and/or legal systems are imposed. In some cases, the local population has been held for unfree labour, submitted to brutal force, or even to policies of genocide. By contrast, in the case of overseas possessions, citizens are formally equal, regardless of origin and it is possible for legal independence movements to form; should they gain a majority in the oversea possession, the question of independence may be brought, for instance, to referendum. However, in some cases, settlers have come to outnumber indigenous people in overseas possessions, and it is possible for colonies to become overseas possessions against the wishes of indigenous peoples. This often results in ongoing and long-lasting independence struggles by the descendants of the original inhabitants.Culture is one of Colonists’ influences to the native people. Most of the countries that were part of Europe’s colonies still had a lot of different cultures. It was because after the colonists came to new lands, these races influenced the native people with their traditions. These cultural impacts sometimes caused a lot of struggles and these issues included different religions, languages and behaviors. Most of the colonists decided to recover these issues with battles. However, there were still some colonists who tried to solve the issues pacifically with the natives. Meyers said that, “Some European settlers, particularly the French, established close, respectful relationships with the native tribes they encountered. For a number of reasons, however, the relationship between Native Americans and the English settlers was quite different.”(Colonialism and the Revolutionary Period, p.5) The word colony may also be used for countries that, while independent or considering themselves independent of a former colonizing power, still have a political and social structure where the rulers are a minority originating from the colonizing power. Such was the case with Rhodesia after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence. The term informal colony has also been used in relation to countries which, while they have never been conquered by force or officially ruled by a foreign power, have a clearly subordinate social or economic relationship to one. History Colonization and imperialism at the end of World War II (1945) Originally, as with the ancient (Hellenic) Greek apoikia (αποικια), the term colonization referred to the foundation of a new city or settlement, more often than not with nonviolent means (but see for instance the Athenian re-colonisation of Melos after wiping out the earlier settlement). The term colony is derived from the Latin colonia, which indicated a place meant for agricultural activities; these Roman colonies and others like them were in fact usually either conquered so as to be inhabited by these workers, or else established as a cheap way of securing conquests made for other reasons. The name of the German city Köln, which is "Cologne" in English, also derives from colonia. In the modern era, communities founded by colonists or settlers became known as settler colonies. The "Age of Discovery" began in the 15th century with the initiation of the vast Portuguese Empire and lasted until the mid-20th century. Curiously, the first great European colonial empire to be created, the Portuguese, was also the last one to be dismantled. In this long period, the Spanish, the British, the French, the Dutch, the German, and other Colonial Empires were created. During these centuries European states, the United States and others took political control of much of the world's population and landmass. The term "colony" came to mean an overseas district with a majority indigenous population, administered by a distant colonial government. (Exceptions occurred: Russian colonies in Central Asia and Siberia, American settlements in the American West, and German colonies in Eastern Europe were not "overseas"; British colonies (or "overseas territories") like the Falkland Islands and Tristan da Cunha lacked a native population.). Most non-European countries were colonies of Europe at one time or another, or were handled in a quasi-colonial manner. The European colonies and former colonies in America made extensive use of slave labor, initially using the native population, then through the importation of slaves from black Africa. There existed various statuses and modes of operation for foreign countries, direct control by the colonizing country being the most obvious. Some colonies were operated through corporations (the British East India Company for India; the Russian-American Company for Alaska; the Congo Free State under the very brutal rule of Léopold II of Belgium); some were run as protectorates. Quasi-colonies were run through proxy or puppet governments, generally kingdoms or dictatorships. For instance, it may be argued that Cuba before the Revolution was a quasi-colony of the United States, with an enormous influence of US economic and political interests; see banana republic. The United Kingdom used Australia as a penal colony: British convicts would be sent to forced labour there, with the added benefit that the freed convicts would settle in the colony and thus augment the European population there. Similarly, France once deported prostitutes and various "undesirables" to populate its colonies in North America, and until the 20th century operated a penitentiary on Devil's Island in French Guiana. The independence of these colonies began with that of 13 colonies of Britain that formed the United States, finalised in 1783 with the conclusion of a war begun in 1776, and has continued until about the present time, with for example Algeria and East Timor being relinquished by European powers only in 1962 and 1975 respectively (although the latter was forcibly made an Indonesian possession instead of becoming fully independent). This process is called decolonization, though the use of a single term obscures an important distinction between the process of the settler population breaking its links with the mother country while maintaining local political supremacy and that of the indigenous population reasserting themselves (possibly through the expulsion of the settler population). The movement towards decolonization was not uniform, with more newer powers, sometimes themselves ex-colonies or once threatened by colonial power, trying to carve a colonial empire. The United States, itself a former colony, expanded westwards. It also colonized Hawaii, waged various wars, and conducted armed expeditions so as to assert power over local governments (in Japan, with Commodore Matthew C. Perry and in Cuba, for example). European countries and the United States, exploiting the weakness of China's waning imperial regime, also maintained so-called international concessions in that country, a sort of colonial enclave; the coastal towns of Macau and Hong Kong were held on long-term leases by Portugal and the United Kingdom. During the first half of the 20th century, until its defeat the Second World War, Japan, once afraid of becoming a European or American colony, built itself a colonial empire in Korea, Taiwan, South Sakhalin, northeast part of China, and the Western Pacific, using brutal military force. Under the Geneva Conventions of 1949, it is a war crime to transfer, directly or indirectly, the civilian population of a country power onto land under that country's military occupation. The reasoning for this crime is apparently to emphasise that it is now a violation of international law to annex territory through military force. This phrase describes many of acts of colonisation in the past, and arguably outlaws colonisation.See also: Belgian colonial empire, British Empire, Dutch colonial empire, French colonial empire, Portuguese Empire, Spanish Empire, Colonialism, Colonial mentality, Colonization, British Nationality Law, Slavery, Imperialism, New Imperialism, settler.Compare protectorate, Crown colony, dominion, Proprietary colony. Colonies in ancient civilizations (examples)See Colonies in antiquity. Carthage was a Phoenician colony Cyrene was a colony of the Greeks of Thera Naples formed as a Greek colony Durrës formed as a Greek colony dome Modern colonies (examples) Indonesia was a Dutch colony for 350 years, from 1600 to 1945/49, occupied by Japan from 1942 to 1945. Hong Kong was a British colony from 1841 to 1997, and Macau was a Portuguese colony from 1557 to 1999. Parts of India were under the direct control of the government of the United Kingdom between 1858 and 1947. See also Crown colony.'' Taiwan was a colony of Japan between 1895 and 1945. Prior to that, Taiwan was a territory and, briefly, a province of the Qing Empire nominally, considering the fact that it was occupied by rebellists till the fall of Qing and Qing had no governance on Taiwan for centuries. Some Pro-Independent Taiwanese groups consider the government of the Republic of China is also a colonial government. The Philippines, previously a colony of Spain, was a colony of the United States from 1898 to 1946. During World War II between 1942 and 1945, it was occupied by the Japanese forces. East Timor was a colony of Indonesia from 1975 to 1999. Today, the colonizing European and North American powers hold few colonies in the traditional sense of the term, with exceptions in the case of the United States (including Guam, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands - see next section), France and the UK (including the Falkland Islands, The British Virgin Islands and the Channel Islands. Some of their former colonies have been integrated as dependent areas or have closer integration with the country. Current colonies (examples) Puerto Rico's subjection to United States sovereignty is considered by many countries to constitute a colonial imposition since Puerto Ricans are subject to laws passed by Congress without their consent and they are excluded from electoral participation in elections of the officials that hold ultimate sovereignty over their national government. According to the U.S. President's Task Force Report on the Political Status of Puerto Rico the extent of United States power over Puerto Rico is so great, that the U.S. may dispose of Puerto Rico by transferring it to any other sovereign country as a mere disposition of property. "While the approval of the commonwealth constitution marked a historic change in the civil government for the islands, neither it, nor the public laws approved by Congress in 1950 and 1952, revoked statutory provisions concerning the legal relationship of Puerto Rico to the United States. This relationship is based on the Territorial Clause of the U.S. Constitution", further, in a footnote, "The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.” U.S. Const., Art. IV, Sec. 3, cl. 2.", This view is shared by many supporters of independence and statehood for this Caribbean island, as well as by supporters of an "enhanced" Commonwealth status. However, some other Puerto Ricans do not agree with this perception. In a recent letter addressed to U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, the Head of Government of Puerto Rico, Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, accused the United States of having deceived the United Nations and the international community in 1953, when it succeeded in having the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico recognized as a provisional decolonized status subject to continued monitoring; Acevedo-Vila claimed that it was ironic that this is the position taken by the Government of Iran and that the Governor of Puerto Rico will soon feel forced to support Iran's claims regarding the U.S. government's alleged-hypocritical actions with regards to Puerto Rico's "colonial" status. Prensa Latina, Nestor Rosa-Marbrell, November 20, 2007; last verified on December 1st, 2007 El Gobernador pide a Rice que enmiende el informe sobre el estatus político de P.Rico; Yahoo News; November 19, 2007 - Last verified, December 1st, 2007. In 2006, The UN General Assembly Special Committee on decolonization approved a draft resolution that calls on the United States to expedite the process to allow Puerto Ricans to exercise fully their inalienable right to self-determination and independence. H.R. 1230, The Puerto Rico Self-Determination Act of 2007, introduced in the U.S. Congress on February 28, 2007, would recognize the right of the People of Puerto Rico to call a Constitutional Convention through which the people would exercise their natural right to self-determination, and it would establish a mechanism for congressional consideration of such decision. ^ MeyersKaren. Colonialism and the Revolutionary Period. New York: DWJ Books, 2006. Similarly, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands are also considered to have a colonial relationship with the United States, as its citizens are also subject to the laws of Congress passed without their consent. These territories, along with Puerto Rico, are known as unincorporated territories. The French Overseas Departments are integral regions, although seen by others as still modern day colonies under France. Tokelau is a colony of New Zealand West Papua is a colony of Indonesia traded from the Netherlands in the 1962 New York Agreement at the request of the United States. The British Overseas Territories former status were that of Crown Colonies. Many of the larger, populated territories, have their own political system, but still swear loyalty to the United Kingdom and have Governors. However, this is more or less the same for the Commonwealth realms, as they also have Governor-Generals, who act on the Queen's behalf. See also List of dominant sovereign states and their servient territories United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories Space colonization Settler colonialism Crown colony Proprietary colony Commonwealth Colony (song) References External links Non-Self-Governing Territories Listed by the United Nations General Assembly in 2002 | Colony |@lemmatized article:1 type:1 political:10 territory:15 us:1 see:9 colony:66 disambiguation:1 politics:1 history:2 immediate:1 control:8 state:30 antiquity:2 city:4 would:6 often:5 find:1 historically:1 country:21 others:4 without:3 definite:1 statehood:2 inception:1 metropolitan:4 ancient:3 greece:1 call:6 metropolis:1 within:1 organization:1 mother:2 reference:2 point:1 view:2 citizen:3 live:1 united:23 nation:4 list:4 non:4 self:6 governing:1 people:8 migrate:1 settle:2 permanently:1 origin:2 colonist:6 settler:12 differs:1 puppet:2 satellite:1 independent:5 international:4 representation:1 top:1 level:1 administration:1 direct:3 term:8 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190 | Economy_of_the_Czech_Republic | Economy of the Czech RepublicCurrency1 Czech koruna (Kč or CZK) Fiscal yearcalendar yearTrade organizationsEU, WTO, OECD and NATOStatisticsGDP ranking39th by nominal volume; 39th by nominal volume per capita; 41st by volume adjusted for PPP; 36th per capita adjusted for PPP (2004) GDP PPP$273.7 billion (2008)GDP growth rate 3.5% (2008)GDP per capita$26,800 (2008 est.)GDP by sector agriculture (2.6%), industry (38.7%), services (58.7%) (2008)Inflation rate2.2% (January 2009)Pop below poverty line N/ALabour force 5.37m (2008)Labour force by occupationservices (58.7%), industry (37.6%), agriculture (3.7%) (2006)Unemployment5.5% Main industriesmotor vehicles and parts, machine tools, electric power equipment, metals, chemicals, coal, food processing, glass, beverages, tourismTrading partnersExports$150.5bn (2008)Main partnersGermany 30.7%, Slovakia 8.7%, Poland 5.9%, France 5.4%, UK 5.1%, Italy 4.9%, Austria 4.6% (2007)Imports$145.1bn (2008)Main partnersGermany 31.8%, Netherlands 6.7%, Slovakia 6.7%, Poland 6.3%, Austria 5.1%, China 5.1%, Russia 4.5%, Italy 4.4%, France 4.1% (2007)Public financesPublic debt26.6% of GDP (2008)External debt $43.2bn ( 30 June 2005 est.)Revenues $48.16bn (2005 est.)Expenses$53.04bn (2005 est.)Economic aid $2.4bn from EU funds (2004-06) Of the emerging democracies in central and eastern Europe, the Czech Republic has one of the most developed industrialized economies. It is one of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. GDP per capita at purchasing power parity was $26,800 in 2008, which is 82% of the EU average. The principal industries are heavy and general machine-building, iron and steel production, metalworking, chemical production, electronics, transportation equipment, textiles, glass, brewing, china, ceramics, and pharmaceuticals. Its main agricultural products are sugarbeets, fodder roots, potatoes, wheat, and hops. History Its strong industrial tradition dates to the 19th century, when Bohemia and Moravia were the economic heartland of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Today, this heritage is both an asset and a liability. The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a well-developed infrastructure, but its industrial plants and much of its industrial equipment are obsolete. According to the Stalinist development policy of planned interdependence, all the economies of the socialist countries were linked tightly with that of the Soviet Union. With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in 1991, Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries to the east. 1990-1995 The "Velvet Revolution" in 1989 offered a chance for profound and sustained political and economic reform. Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) labelled the "big bang" of January 1991. Since then, consistent liberalization and astute economic management has led to the removal of 95% of all price controls, low unemployment, a positive balance of payments position, a stable exchange rate, a shift of exports from former communist economic bloc markets to Western Europe, and relatively low foreign debt. Inflation has been higher than in some other countries - mostly in the 10% range - and the government has run consistent modest budget deficits. Two government priorities have been strict fiscal policies and creating a good climate for incoming investment in the republic. Following a series of currency devaluations, the crown has remained stable in relation to the U.S. dollar. The Czech crown became fully convertible for most business purposes in late 1995. In order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing investment. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country, till that point highly dependent on exports to the USSR, had to make a radical shift in economic outlook: away from the East, and towards the West. This necessitated the restructuring of existing banking and telecommunications facilities, as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards. Further minimizing reliance on a single major partner, successive Czech governments have welcomed U.S. investment (amongst others) as a counter-balance to the strong economic influence of Western European partners, especially of their powerful neighbour, Germany. Although foreign direct investment (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the Netherlands. Progress toward creating a stable investment climate was recognized when the Czech Republic to become the first post-communist country to receive an investment-grade credit rating by international credit institutions. The republic boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has privatized most state-owned heavy industries through the voucher privatization system. Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company. The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, increasing the capital base of the chosen company, and creating a nation of citizen share-holders. This is in contrast to Russian privatization, which consisted of sales of communal assets to private companies rather than share-transfer to citizens. The effect of this policy has been dramatic. Under communism, state ownership of businesses was estimated to be 97% . Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992. By 1998, more than 80% of enterprises were in private hands. Now completed , the program has made Czechs, who own shares of each of the Czech companies, one of the highest per-capita share owners in the world. 1995-2000 The republic's economic transformation is far from complete. A recession in 1997 revealed that the government still faces serious challenges in completing industrial restructuring, increasing transparency in capital market transactions, fully privatizing the banking sector, transforming the housing sector and solving serious environmental problems. Political and financial crises in 1997 shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The currency was forced out of its fluctuation band as investors worried that the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of GDP to introduce two austerity packages later in the spring (called vernacularly "The Packages"), which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, -2.3% in 1998, and -0.5% in 1999. The basic transition problem continues to be too much direct and indirect government influence on the privatized economy. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program - to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities include accelerating legislative convergence with EU norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatizing banks and utilities. The economy, fuelled by increased export growth and investment, is expected to recover in 2000. 2000-2005 Growth in 2000-05 was supported by exports to the EU, primarily to Germany, and a strong recovery of foreign and domestic investment. Domestic demand is playing an ever more important role in underpinning growth as interest rates drop and the availability of credit cards and mortgages increases. Current account deficits of around 5% of GDP are beginning to decline as demand for Czech products in the European Union increases. Inflation is under control. Recent accession to the EU gives further impetus and direction to structural reform. In early 2004 the government passed increases in the Value Added Tax (VAT) and tightened eligibility for social benefits with the intention to bring the public finance gap down to 4% of GDP by 2006, but more difficult pension and healthcare reforms will have to wait until after the next elections. Privatization of the state-owned telecommunications firm Český Telecom took place in 2005. Intensified restructuring among large enterprises, improvements in the financial sector, and effective use of available EU funds should strengthen output growth. Energy The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade brown coal as a source of energy.. Nuclear energy presently provides about 30% of total power needs, and its share is projected to increase to 40%. Natural gas is procured from Russian Gazprom (roughly three-fourths of domestic consumption) and from Norwegian companies (most of the remaining one-fourth). Russian gas is imported via Ukraine (Friendship pipeline), Norwegian gas is transported through Germany. The gas consumption (approx. 100 TWh in 2003-5) is almost two times higher than the electricity consumption. South Moravia has a small oil and gas deposits. Statistical indicators From the CIA World Factbook 2008 Background GDP (pp.): $251 billion (2007) GDP Growth: 6.6% (2007) GDP per capita (pp.): $24,500 (2007) GDP by sector: Agriculture: 2.7% Industry: 38.7% Services: 58.6% (2007) Inflation: 2.9% (2007) Labour Force: 5,360,000 (2007) Unemployment: 6.6% (2007) Industrial production growth rate: 9.8% (2007) Household income or consumption by percentage share: (1996) lowest 10%: 4.3% highest 10%: 22.4% Public Debt: 26% GDP (2007) Trade and Finance Exports: $122 billion (2007) Export goods: machinery and transport goods 52%, raw materials 9%, chemicals 5%, other 34% (2003). Imports: $116.6 billion Import goods: machinery and transport goods 46%, raw materials and fuels 16%, chemicals 10%, other 28% (2003) Current Account balance: -$4,533,000 (2007) Export partners: Germany 30.8%, Slovakia 8.7%, Poland 5.9%, France 5.4%, 5.1%, Italy 4.9%, Austria 4.6% (2007). Import partners: Germany 31.4%, Netherlands 6.7%, Slovakia 6.4%, Poland 6.3%, Austria 5.1%, China 5.1%, Russia 4.5%, Italy 4.4%, France 4.1% (2007). Reserves: $34.59 billion (2007) Foreign Direct Investment: $86.75 billion (2007) Czech Investment Abroad: $6.058 billion (2007) External debt: $74.7 billion (2007) Value of Publicly Traded Shares: $48.6 billion (2006) Exchange rates: koruny (Kč) per US$1 - 18.277 (December 2007) 23.957 (2005), 25.7 (2004), 28.2 (2003), 32.7 (2002), 38.0 (2001), 38.6 (2001), 34.6 (1999), 32.3 (1998), 31.7 (1997), 27.1 (1996), 26.5 (1995) Energy (production and consumption) Electricity production: 77.38 GWh (2005) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 75.54% hydro: 2.55% nuclear: 20.37% other: 1.54% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 59.72 GWh (2005) Electricity - exports: 24.99 GWh (2005) Electricity - imports: 12.35 GWh (2005) Oil - production: 18,030 bbl/day (2005) Oil - consumption: 213,000 bbl/day (2005 est.) Oil - exports: 20,930 bbl/day (2004) Oil - imports: 203,700 bbl/day (2004) Oil - proved reserves: 15 million bbl (1 January 2006) Natural gas - production: 165 million m³ (2005 est.) Natural gas - consumption: 9.076 billion m³ (2005 est.) Natural gas - exports: 81.52 million m³ (2005 est.) Natural gas - imports: 8.976 billion m³ (2005 est.) Natural gas - proved reserves: 3.802 billion m³ (1 January 2006) Natural resources: coal, timber, lignite, uranium, magnesite. Agriculture - products: wheat, rye, oats, corn, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit; pigs, cattle, poultry, horses; forest products See also Škoda Works Czech National Bank Prague Stock Exchange Economy of Europe Resources Statistická ročenka České republiky (Statistical Yearbook of the Czech Republic) by the Czech Statistical Office. The current line is published annually since 1957. Recent yearbooks can be read online (in Czech and English). Czechoslovakia published its first statistical yearbook in 1920. Historically used names: Statistická příručka Republiky československé, Statistická ročenka Protektorátu Čechy a Morava (during the occupation) and Statistická ročenka Československé socialistické republiky. Statistics about the Czech lands in Austria-Hungary were collected by Zemský statistický úřad Království českého (Provincial Statistical Office of the Czech Kingdom) founded in 1897. Two detailed books (in Czech and German) were published in 1909 and 1913. External links OECD Economic Survey of the Czech Republic OECD's Czech Republic country Web site Doing business in Czech Republic Current economic data Economy: Development and potential | Economy_of_the_Czech_Republic |@lemmatized economy:9 czech:26 koruna:1 kč:2 czk:1 fiscal:2 yearcalendar:1 yeartrade:1 organizationseu:1 wto:1 oecd:3 natostatisticsgdp:1 nominal:2 volume:3 per:7 caput:5 adjust:3 ppp:3 gdp:15 billion:12 growth:8 rate:5 capita:1 est:9 sector:6 agriculture:4 industry:5 service:2 inflation:4 january:4 pop:1 poverty:1 line:2 n:1 alabour:1 force:4 labour:2 occupationservices:1 main:4 industriesmotor:1 vehicle:1 part:1 machine:2 tool:1 electric:1 power:3 equipment:3 metal:1 chemical:4 coal:3 food:1 processing:1 glass:2 beverage:1 tourismtrading:1 partnersexports:1 partnersgermany:2 slovakia:4 poland:4 france:4 uk:1 italy:4 austria:5 import:8 netherlands:3 china:3 russia:2 public:3 financespublic:1 external:3 debt:4 june:1 revenue:1 expense:1 economic:13 aid:1 eu:6 fund:3 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191 | Plate_appearance | In baseball statistics, a player is credited with a plate appearance (denoted by PA) each time he completes a turn batting. A player completes a turn batting when: He strikes out or is declared out before reaching first base; or He reaches first base safely or is awarded first base (by a base on balls, hit by pitch, or catcher's interference); or He hits a fair ball which causes a preceding runner to be put out for the third out before he himself is put out or reaches first base safely (see also left on base, fielder's choice, force play) A batter does not have a plate appearance if, while he was at bat, a preceding runner is put out on the basepaths for the third out in a way other than by the batter putting the ball into play (i.e., picked off, caught stealing). In this case, the same batter continues his turn batting in the next inning with no balls or strikes against him. A batter also does not have a plate appearance in the rare instance when he is replaced by a pinch hitter after having already started his turn at bat. In this case, the pinch hitter would receive the plate appearance; however, if a batter is replaced when he already has 2 strikes against him, and the pinch hitter then completes the strikeout, the at-bat is charged to the first batter. PA = AB + BB + HBP + SH + SF + Times Reached on Defensive Interference (Plate appearances = at-bats + bases on balls (i.e., walks) + hit by pitch + sacrifice hits + sacrifice flies + times reached on defensive interference) Basically, "plate appearances" = at bats + some of the scenarios excluded from at bats such as base on balls, hit by pitch, sacrifice or catcher's interference which positively affect the offensive team. In common terminology, the term "at bat" is sometimes used to mean "plate appearance" (for example, "he fouled off the ball to keep the at bat alive"). The intent is usually clear from the context, although the term "official at bat" is sometimes used to explicitly refer to an at bat as distinguished from a plate appearance. However, terms such as turn at bat or time at bat are synonymous with plate appearance. Section 10 of the official rules states what an at bat is not: "Number of times batted, except that no time at bat shall be charged when a player: (i) hits a sacrifice bunt or sacrifice fly; (ii) is awarded first base on four called balls; (iii) is hit by a pitched ball; or (iv) is awarded first base because of interference or obstruction " The main use of the plate appearance statistic is in determining a player's eligibility for leadership in some offensive statistical categories, notably batting average; currently, a player must have 3.1 PAs per game scheduled to qualify for the batting title (for the 162-game schedule, that means 502 PAs). Also, it is often erroneously cited that total plate appearances is the divisor (i.e., denominator) used in calculating on base percentage (OBP), an alternative measurement of a player's offensive performance; in reality, the OBP denominator does not include certain PAs, such as sacrifice hits and times reached via either catcher’s interference or fielder’s obstruction. Plate appearances are also used by scorers for "proving" a box score. If the game has been scored correctly, the total number of plate appearances for a team should equal the total of that team's runs, men left on base, and men put out. Jimmy Rollins owns the major league record for plate appearances in a season with 778 in 2007. | Plate_appearance |@lemmatized baseball:1 statistic:2 player:6 credit:1 plate:14 appearance:14 denote:1 pa:5 time:7 complete:3 turn:5 batting:4 strike:3 declare:1 reach:6 first:7 base:12 safely:2 award:3 ball:9 hit:8 pitch:3 catcher:3 interference:6 fair:1 cause:1 precede:1 runner:2 put:5 third:2 see:1 also:4 leave:2 fielder:2 choice:1 force:1 play:2 batter:6 bat:16 preceding:1 basepaths:1 way:1 e:3 pick:1 catch:1 steal:1 case:2 continue:1 next:1 inning:1 rare:1 instance:1 replace:2 pinch:3 hitter:3 already:2 start:1 would:1 receive:1 however:2 strikeout:1 charge:2 ab:1 bb:1 hbp:1 sh:1 sf:1 defensive:2 walk:1 sacrifice:6 fly:2 basically:1 scenario:1 exclude:1 positively:1 affect:1 offensive:3 team:3 common:1 terminology:1 term:3 sometimes:2 use:5 mean:2 example:1 foul:1 keep:1 alive:1 intent:1 usually:1 clear:1 context:1 although:1 official:2 explicitly:1 refer:1 distinguish:1 synonymous:1 section:1 rule:1 state:1 number:2 except:1 shall:1 bunt:1 ii:1 four:1 call:1 iii:1 pitched:1 iv:1 obstruction:2 main:1 determine:1 eligibility:1 leadership:1 statistical:1 category:1 notably:1 average:1 currently:1 must:1 per:1 game:3 schedule:2 qualify:1 title:1 often:1 erroneously:1 cite:1 total:3 divisor:1 denominator:2 calculate:1 percentage:1 obp:2 alternative:1 measurement:1 performance:1 reality:1 include:1 certain:1 via:1 either:1 scorer:1 prove:1 box:1 score:2 correctly:1 equal:1 run:1 men:2 jimmy:1 rollins:1 major:1 league:1 record:1 season:1 |@bigram catcher_interference:3 fielder_choice:1 pinch_hitter:3 bb_hbp:1 sacrifice_bunt:1 |
192 | Hewlett-Packard | The Hewlett-Packard Company (), commonly referred to as HP, is a technology corporation headquartered in Palo Alto, California, United States. HP is the largest technology company in the world and operates in nearly every country. HP specializes in developing and manufacturing computing, storage, and networking hardware, software and services. Major product lines include personal computing devices, enterprise servers, related storage devices, as well as a diverse range of printers and other imaging products. Other product lines, including electronic test equipment and systems, medical electronic equipment, solid state components and instrumentation for chemical analysis were spun off as Agilent Technologies in 1999. HP markets its products to households, small to medium size businesses and enterprises both directly, via online distribution, consumer-electronics and office-supply retailers, software partners and major technology vendors. HP posted US $91.7 billion in annual revenue in 2006 http://media.corporate-ir.net/media_files/irol/71/71087/pdf/HP_2006AR.pdf HP 2006 Annual Report compared to US$91.4 billion for IBM, making it the world's largest technology vendor in terms of sales. In 2007 the revenue was $104 billion, HP Reports Fourth Quarter 2007 Results: Financial News - making HP the first IT company in history to report revenues exceeding $100 billion. http://redmondmag.com/reports/article.asp?EditorialsID=494 RedmondMag.com - The Race to $100 Billion HP is the largest worldwide seller of personal computers, surpassing rival Dell, according to market research firms Gartner and IDC reported in January 2008; Source: Gartner http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=584210 the gap between HP and Dell widened substantially at the end of 2007, with HP taking a near 3.9% market share lead. HP is also the 5th largest software company in the world. Software Top 100: "The World's Largest Software Companies" It is one of the only American PC-focused computer companies publicly traded under the New York Stock Exchange. Company history Founding William (Bill) Hewlett and David (Dave) Packard both graduated in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1935. The company originated in a garage in nearby Palo Alto during a fellowship they had with a past professor, Frederick Terman at Stanford during the Great Depression. Terman was considered a mentor to them in forming Hewlett-Packard. 3963 with an investment of US$538. HP History: HP's Garage Hewlett and Packard tossed a coin to decide whether the company they founded would be called Hewlett-Packard or Packard-Hewlett. Packard won the coin toss but named their electronics manufacturing enterprise the "Hewlett-Packard Company". HP incorporated on August 18, 1947, and went public on November 6, 1957. Of the many projects they worked on, their very first financially successful product was a precision audio oscillator, the Model HP200A. Their innovation was the use of a small light bulb as a temperature dependent resistor in a critical portion of the circuit. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200. The Model 200 series of generators continued until at least 1972 as the 200AB, still tube-based but improved in design through the years. At 33 years, it was perhaps the longest-selling basic electronic design of all time. One of the company's earliest customers was The Walt Disney Company, which bought eight Model 200B oscillators (at $71.50 each) for use in certifying the Fantasound surround sound systems installed in theaters for the movie Fantasia. Early years The company was originally rather unfocused, working on a wide range of electronic products for industry and even agriculture. Eventually they elected to focus on high-quality electronic test and measurement equipment. From the 1940s until well into the 1990s the company concentrated on making electronic test equipment – signal generators, voltmeters, oscilloscopes, frequency counters, thermometers, time standards, wave analyzers, and many other instruments. A distinguishing feature was pushing the limits of measurement range and accuracy; many HP instruments were more sensitive, accurate, and precise than other comparable equipment. Following the pattern set by the company's first product, the 200A, test instruments were labelled with three to five digits followed by the letter "A". Improved versions went to suffixes "B" through "E". As the product range grew wider HP started using product designators starting with a letter for accessories, supplies, software, and components. The 1960s HP is recognized as the symbolic founder of Silicon Valley, although it did not actively investigate semiconductor devices until a few years after the "Traitorous Eight" had abandoned William Shockley to create Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957. Hewlett-Packard's HP Associates division, established around 1960, developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use. Instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices. HP partnered in the 1960s with Sony and the Yokogawa Electric companies in Japan to develop several high-quality products. The products were not a huge success, as there were high costs in building HP-looking products in Japan. HP and Yokogawa formed a joint venture (Yokogawa-Hewlett-Packard) in 1963 to market HP products in Japan. HP History : 1960s HP bought Yokogawa Electric's share of Hewlett-Packard Japan in 1999. Yokogawa Electric Corporation and Hewlett-Packard Company Announce "Hewlett-Packard Japan to become Wholly Owned HP Subsidiary" HP and Yokogawa Sign Agreement HP spun off a small company, Dynec, to specialize in digital equipment. The name was picked so that the HP logo "hp" could be turned upside down to be the logo "dy" of the new company. Eventually Dynec changed to Dymec, then was folded back into HP. HP experimented with using Digital Equipment Corporation minicomputers with its instruments. But after deciding that it would be easier to buy another small design team than deal with DEC, HP entered the computer market in 1966 with the HP 2100 / HP 1000 series of minicomputers. These had a simple accumulator-based design, with registers arranged somewhat similarly to the Intel x86 architecture still used today. The series was produced for 20 years, in spite of several attempts to replace it, and was a forerunner of the HP 9800 and HP 250 series of desktop and business computers. The 1970s The HP 3000 was an advanced stack-based design for a business computing server, later redesigned with RISC technology, that has only recently been retired from the market. The HP 2640 series of smart and intelligent terminals introduced forms-based interfaces to ASCII terminals, and also introduced screen labeled function keys, now commonly used on gas pumps and bank ATMs. Although scoffed at in the formative days of computing, HP would eventually surpass even IBM as the world's largest technology vendor in sales. HP is identified by Wired magazine as the producer of the world's first marketed, mass-produced personal computer, the Hewlett-Packard 9100A, introduced in 1968. Wired 8.12 HP called it a desktop calculator because, as Bill Hewlett said, "If we had called it a computer, it would have been rejected by our customers' computer gurus because it didn't look like an IBM. We therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense disappeared." An engineering triumph at the time, the logic circuit was produced without any integrated circuits; the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in discrete components. With CRT display, magnetic-card storage, and printer, the price was around $5000. The machine's keyboard was a cross between that of a scientific calculator and an adding machine. There was no alphabetical keyboard. Steve Wozniak, co-founder of Apple, originally designed the Apple I computer while working at HP and offered it to them under their right of first refusal to his work, but they did not take it up as the company wanted to stay in scientific, business, and industrial markets. The company earned global respect for a variety of products. They introduced the world's first handheld scientific electronic calculator in 1972 (the HP-35), the first handheld programmable in 1974 (the HP-65), the first alphanumeric, programmable, expandable in 1979 (the HP-41C), and the first symbolic and graphing calculator, the HP-28C. Like their scientific and business calculators, their oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and other measurement instruments have a reputation for sturdiness and usability (the latter products are now part of spin-off Agilent's product line). The company's design philosophy in this period was summarized as "design for the guy at the next bench". The 98x5 series of technical desktop computers started in 1975 with the 9815, and the cheaper 80 series, again of technical computers, started in 1979 with the 85. These machines used a version of the BASIC programming language which was available immediately after they were switched on, and used a proprietary magnetic tape for storage. HP computers were similar in capabilities to the much later IBM Personal Computer, although the limitations of available technology forced prices to be high. The 1980s In 1984, HP introduced both inkjet and laser printers for the desktop. Along with its scanner product line, these have later been developed into successful multifunction products, the most significant being single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines. The print mechanisms in HP's tremendously popular LaserJet line of laser printers depend almost entirely on Canon's components (print engines), which in turn use technology developed by Xerox. HP develops the hardware, firmware, and software that convert data into dots for the mechanism to print. In 1987, the Palo Alto garage where Hewlett and Packard started their business was designated as a California State historical landmark. The 1990s In the 1990s, HP expanded their computer product line, which initially had been targeted at university, research, and business customers, to reach consumers. HP also grew through acquisitions, buying Apollo Computer in 1989 and Convex Computer in 1995. Later in the decade HP opened hpshopping.com as an independent subsidiary to sell online, direct to consumers; in 2005 the store was renamed "HP Home & Home Office Store." In 1999, all of the businesses not related to computers, storage, and imaging were spun off from HP to form Agilent. Agilent's spin-off was the largest initial public offering in the history of Silicon Valley. The spin-off created an $8 billion company with about 30,000 employees, manufacturing scientific instruments, semiconductors, optical networking devices, and electronic test equipment for telecom and wireless R&D and production. In July 1999, HP appointed Carly Fiorina as CEO, the first female CEO of a company in the Dow Jones Industrial Average. Fiorina served as CEO during the tech downtown of the turn of the 2nd millenium. During her tenure, the market halved HP’s value commensurate with other tech companies at the time and the company incurred heavy job losses. HP's share price moved from 45.36 to 20.14 during Fiorina's leadership, a performance of -56% (share price data from Bloomberg); the market as a whole, as measured by the benchmark Dow Jones U.S. Large Cap Technology Index,fell by 51% between 1999-07-19 and 2005-02-09. The HP Board of Directors asked Fiorina to step down in 2005, and she resigned on February 9, 2005. 2000 and beyond Compaq merger. HP merged with Compaq in 2002. Compaq itself had bought Tandem Computers in 1997 (which had been started by ex-HP employees), and Digital Equipment Corporation in 1998. Following this strategy HP became a major player in desktops, laptops, and servers for many different markets. After the merger with Compaq, the new ticker symbol became "HPQ", a combination of the two previous symbols, "HWP" and "CPQ", to show the significance of the alliance. In 2006 hp outsourced its enterprise support to countries with lower cost workers: the Spanish support (for Spain) moved to Slovakia, the German support moved to Bulgaria, English support moved to Costa Rica, and so on. EDS purchase. On May 13, 2008, HP and Electronic Data Systems announced [http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press/2008/080513a.html?jumpid=reg_R1002_USEN press release that they had signed a definitive agreement under which HP would purchase EDS. On June 30, HP announced HP Press Release: HP Announces Expiration of Waiting Period Under HSR Act that the waiting period under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976 had expired. "The transaction still requires EDS stockholder approval and regulatory clearance from the European Commission and other non-U.S. jurisdictions and is subject to the satisfaction or waiver of the other closing conditions specified in the merger agreement." The agreement was finalized on August 26, 2008 and it was publicly announced that EDS would be re-branded "EDS an HP company." HP also expanded its presence in Israel first with the acqusistion in 2002 of Indigo Digital Press and in November 2005 with the acquisition of Scitex Vision from Scitex Corporation Ltd.. In October 2008, Hewlett-Packard (Canada) Co. was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine. Later that month, Hewlett-Packard (Canada) Co. was also named one of Greater Toronto's Top Employers, which was announced by the Toronto Star newspaper. Technology and products HP has successful lines of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstation computers, and computers for home and small business use computers; many of the computers came from the 2002 merger with Compaq. HP today promotes itself as supplying not just hardware and software, but also a full range of services to design, implement and support IT infrastructure. The three business segments: Enterprise Storage and Servers (ESS), HP Services (HPS), and HP Software are structured beneath the broader Technology Solutions Group (TSG). Imaging and Printing Group (IPG) According to HP's 2005 U.S. SEC 10-K filing, http://www.shareholder.com/Common/Edgar/47217/1047469-05-28479/05-00.pdf HP's Imaging and Printing Group is "the leading imaging and printing systems provider in the world for printer hardware, printing supplies and scanning devices, providing solutions across customer segments from individual consumers to small and medium businesses to large enterprises." This division is currently headed by Vyomesh Joshi. Products and technology associated with the Imaging and Printing Group include: Inkjet and LaserJet printers, consumables and related products Officejet all-in-one multifunction printer/scanner/faxes Large Format Printers Indigo Digital Press HP Web Jetadmin printer management software HP Output Management suite of software, including HP Output Server LightScribe optical recording technology that laser-etches labels on disks HP Photosmart digital cameras and photo printers HP SPaM Hosted within IPG, SPaM is an internal consulting group that supports all HP businesses on mission-critical strategic and operation decisions. On December 23, 2008, HP releases iPrint Photo for iPhone a free downloadable software application that allows to print 4" x 6" photos. http://www.hp.com/united-states/consumer/digital_photography/free/software/iprint-photo.html?jumpi=ex_r602_go/iprintphoto Personal Systems Group (PSG) HP's Personal Systems Group claims to be "one of the leading vendors of personal computers ("PCs") in the world based on unit volume shipped and annual revenue." Personal Systems Group products/technology include: Business PCs and accessories Consumer PCs and accessories including the HP Pavilion, Compaq Presario and VoodooPC series Workstations for Unix, Windows and Linux systems Handheld Computing including iPAQ Pocket PC handheld computing devices (from Compaq) Digital "Connected" Entertainment including HP MediaSmart TVs, HP MediaSmart Servers, HP MediaVaults, and DVD+RW drives. HP resold the Apple iPod until November 2005. Home Storage Servers Technology Solutions Group (TSG) TSG incorporates Technical services, EDS, HP Software & Solutions, Enterprise Storage and Servers Group (ESS) and ProCurve Networking. Enterprise Storage and Servers Group (ESS) "Back end" products including storage and servers: HP ProLiant: entry line of x86 based servers (from Compaq) ProLiant BL: x86-based blade servers (from Compaq) Integrity: server line using the Itanium processor architecture running several operating systems including HP-UX and OpenVMS. Integrity BL: Itanium-based blade servers HP Integrity Superdome: line of high-end servers HP 9000: line of servers and workstations based on PA-RISC processors and running HP-UX HP 9000 Superdome: line of high-end servers AlphaServer: product line using the Alpha processor (from DEC) and running either: Tru64 operating system (from DEC) OpenVMS operating system (from DEC) NonStop: high-reliability Itanium-based architecture and operating system (from Tandem Computers) StorageWorks: product line (from DEC), which includes business class and enterprise class data storage and protection products. Data Storage Products, Solutions, and Services from HP StorageWorks HP XP high-end storage arrays (from Hitachi) StorageWorks EVA mid-range storage arrays (from Compaq) HP Software the OpenView family of management software With the major acquisitions of Peregrine and Mercury Interactive completed, HP has dropped the names OpenView, Peregrine and Mercury from its portfolio. The Business Technology Optimization (BTO)part of the software organization is now being referred to as HP Software & Solutions. The OpenCall branding still remains. HP Data Protector software HP Integrated Archive Platform HP Database Archiving HP Email Archiving for Microsoft Exchange HP Email Archiving for IBM Lotus Domino HP File Archiving HP Medical Image Archiving HP TRIM software (previously TOWER Software) HP-UX operating system developed since 1983 ProCurve Networking Business Unit HPs networking business unit, ProCurve, are responsible for the family of network switches, wireless access points, and routers. HP ProCurve Networking - Network of Choice . Originally under the control of the Office of Strategy and Technology, since November 1 2008 they are a Business Unit of TSG. Office of Strategy and Technology HP's Office of Strategy and Technology HP Executive Team Bios: Shane Robison , under Executive Vice President Shane Robison: Steers the company's $3.6 billion research and development investment — including HP Labs. Fosters the development of the company's global technical community. Leads the company's strategy and corporate development efforts — including mergers, acquisitions, divestitures, intellectual property licensing, venture capital partnerships, and the ProCurve Networking Business Unit. ProCurve Networking by HP - Features Performs worldwide corporate marketing activities — including external and internal communications, brand marketing, customer intelligence, and corporate affairs. HP Labs HP Labs (or HP Laboratories) is the research arm of HP. Founded in 1966, HP Labs' function is to deliver new technologies and to create business opportunities that go beyond HP's current strategies. An example of recent HP Lab technology includes the Memory spot chip. HP IdeaLab HP IdeaLab www.hp.com/idealab provides a web forum on early-state innovations to encourage open feedback from consumers and the development community. Title of backgrounder Environmental record In 1998, the United States Environmental Protection Agency sought a $2.5 million penalty against Hewlett Packard for violations against the Substance Control Act. The PA EPA alleged that the company had not filed a Pre-Manufacturing Notice (PMN) before it began manufacturing and exporting chemicals. Without filing these PMNs, the EPA cannot conduct risk analysis of new chemicals. In 2002, Scorecard.org ranked Hewlett Packard facilities in the top 10-20 percentile for total environmental releases and top 30-40 percentile for air releases of recognized developmental toxicants. It also showed that HPs factory in Puerto Rico released of air released TRI pollutants, and had a total of of production related wastes. In July 2007, the company announced that it had met its target, set in 2004, to recycle 1 billion pounds of electronics and toner and ink cartridges. It has set a new goal of recycling a further 2 billion pounds of hardware by the end of 2010. In 2006, the company recovered 187 million pounds of electronics, 73 percent more than its closest competitor. HP Certified Professionals Hewlett-Packard's Certified Professional (HP-CP) program was developed to confirm the technical skills, sales competencies and knowledge that is required to propose and deploy, service and support technology and solutions sold by HP. HP-CP is intended for customers, resellers, and HP employees. Sponsorships HP has many sponsorships. One well known sponsorship is of Walt Disney World's Epcot Park's Mission: SPACE. Others can be found on Hewlett-Packard's website . From 1995 to 1999 they were the shirt sponsor of English Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur. They also sponsored the BMW Williams Formula 1 team. Hewlett-Packard also has the naming rights arrangement for the HP Pavilion at San Jose, home of the San Jose Sharks NHL hockey team. Product legacy Agilent Technologies, not HP, retains the direct product legacy of the original company founded in 1963. Agilent's current portfolio of electronic instruments are descended from HP's very earliest products. HP entered the computer business only after its instrumentation competencies were well-established. After the acquisition of Compaq in 2002, HP has maintained the "Compaq Presario" brand on low-end home desktops and laptops, the "HP Compaq" brand on business desktops and laptops, and the "HP ProLiant" brand on Intel-architecture servers. (The "HP Pavilion" brand is used on home entertainment laptops and all home desktops.) HP United States - Computers, Laptops, Servers, Printers & more HP uses DEC's "StorageWorks" brand on storage systems; Tandem's "NonStop" servers are now branded as "HP Integrity NonStop". Large Enterprise Business IT products, services, and solutions - HP Culture The founders, known to friends and employees alike as Bill and Dave, developed a unique management style that has come to be known as the HP Way. In Bill's words, the HP Way is "a core ideology ... [which] includes a deep respect for the individual, a dedication to affordable quality and reliability, a commitment to community responsibility, and a view that the company exists to make technical contributions for the advancement and welfare of humanity." Hewlett-Packard Alumni "HP Way" page Controversy HP pretexting scandal On September 5, 2006 Newsweek published a story Phone-Records Scandal at HP - Newsweek Business - MSNBC.com revealing that the chairwoman of HP, Patricia Dunn, had hired a team of independent electronic-security experts that later spied on HP board members and several journalists, to determine the source of a leak of confidential details regarding HP's long-term strategy in January, 2006. The independent, third party company used a technique known as pretexting to obtain call records of HP board members and nine journalists, including reporters for CNET, the New York Times and the Wall Street Journal. Dunn has claimed she did not know the methods the investigators used to determine the source of the leak. HP chairwoman defends probe of board's leaks Board member George Keyworth was ultimately outed as the source. On September 12, 2006 Keyworth resigned from the board and HP announced that Mark Hurd, the current CEO and president, would replace Dunn as Chairman after the HP board meeting on January 18, 2007. On September 22, 2006 Hurd announced at a special press briefing that Dunn had resigned effective immediately from both the Chairmanship role and as a director of the Board; On September 28, 2006, Ann Baskins, HP's general counsel (head attorney) resigned hours before she was to appear as a witness at which she would later invoke the Fifth Amendment to "not be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime." Investigation by the government On October 4, 2006, California Attorney General Bill Lockyer filed criminal charges and arrest warrants against Kevin Hunsaker, Dunn and three outside investigators. On September 11, 2006, the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce wrote to Patricia Dunn stating that they have been conducting an investigation on Internet-based data brokers who allegedly use "lies, fraud and deception" to acquire personal information, and allow anyone who paid a "modest fee" to acquire "itemized incoming and outgoing call logs", and when had learned about HP's use of pretexting through their September 6 SEC filing and through their own inquiry of HP's Nominating and Governance Committee, stating they are "troubled" by the information, "particularly that it involves HP—one of America's corporate icons." The committee requested, under Rules X and XI of the United States House of Representatives, information from HP by September 18, 2006: At the September 28, 2006 hearing, Dunn and Hurd Hurd's prepared testimony. both testified extensively about the investigation. Dunn testified that until June or July 2006, she did not realize that "pretexting" could involve identity misrepresentation. Dunn repeatedly insisted that she had believed that personal phone records could be obtained through legal methods. Other witnesses refused to answer questions due to the ongoing criminal investigations. Perceived impact on the company's operations Despite the intense media coverage, investors continue to show faith in the company. As of October 23, the price of the company's stock had increased from $36.50 to $39.87 per share. HPQ: Historical Prices for HEWLETT PACKARD CO - Yahoo! Finance On October 8, 2006 Reuters ran a story describing pretexting used by Hewlett-Packard and other companies. http://biz.yahoo.com/rb/061008/investigations.html?.v=2 On October 12, 2006 hp announced the appointment of Jon Hoak as vice president and chief ethics and compliance officer. Hoak served as senior vice president and general counsel for NCR from 1993 until May 2006. HP Press Release: HP Appoints Chief Ethics and Compliance Officer On December 7, 2006 hp paid $14.5 Million to settle civil charges brought by the California Attorney General. HP settles with California in spy scandal In December 2006, two members of Congress requested that HP provide more information regarding CEO Mark Hurd's sale of $1.4 million of stock options on August 25, the same day he was questioned by attorneys investigating the pretexting scandal. Feds charge investigator in H-P boardroom case Mark Hurd explained that the August trade was part of his normal investment strategy to diversify assets and was made during a regularly scheduled trading window for senior officers and directors. Additionally, Hurd assured the Subcommittee that the August trade had nothing to do with his interview by attorneys investigating the leak investigation and that he had initiated the trade before any such request had been made to him. Traceable e-mail Fred Adler of HP revealed before a U.S. Congressional Inquiry that HP used an e-mail tracking service to trace a leak in an e-mail sent to CNET reporter Dawn Kawamoto. How HP bugged e-mail | CNET News.com The e-mail contained a Web bug. Adler stated that HP considers Web bugs to be a legitimate investigative tool, and has used them a number of times. PC World - Business Center: Web Bugs Trained to Track Your E-Mail The California attorney general's office has said that this practice was not part of the Pretexting charges. News - CIO.com - Business Technology Leadership Management Chairman of the Board, CEO, and President: Mark Hurd (March 29, 2005–current, appointed Chairman September 22, 2006) History Co-founder: David Packard (President: 1947; Chairman: 1964–1969; Chairman 1971–1993) Co-founder: William Hewlett (Vice President: 1947; Executive Vice President: 1957; President: 1964; CEO: 1969; Chairman of the Executive Committee 1978; Vice Chairman 1983–1987) CEO: John A. Young (1978–October 31, 1992) CEO: Lewis Platt (November 1, 1992–July 18, 1999; Chairman 1993–July 18, 1999) Chairman: Richard Hackborn (January, 2000–September 22, 2000; Lead Independent Director September 22, 2006–) CEO: Carly Fiorina (July 19, 1999–February 9, 2005; Chairwoman September 22, 2000–February 9, 2005) Interim CEO: Robert Wayman (February 9, 2005–March 28, 2005) Chairwoman: Patricia C. Dunn (February 9, 2005–September 22, 2006). CEO: Mark Hurd (CEO: April 1, 2005–; Chairman: September 22, 2006–) See also List of Hewlett-Packard products List of computer system manufacturers Memristor HP Linux Imaging and Printing References External links HPshopping.com HP Printing and The Science Museum of Minnesota The Museum of HP Calculators HP History Links Classic HP test equipment collector | Hewlett-Packard |@lemmatized hewlett:27 packard:27 company:40 commonly:2 refer:2 hp:180 technology:25 corporation:5 headquarter:1 palo:3 alto:3 california:6 united:5 state:12 large:11 world:11 operate:3 nearly:1 every:1 country:2 specialize:2 develop:9 manufacture:4 computing:3 storage:15 network:7 hardware:5 software:21 service:8 major:4 product:34 line:14 include:17 personal:10 device:8 enterprise:10 server:21 relate:3 well:4 diverse:1 range:6 printer:13 imaging:6 electronic:11 test:6 equipment:10 system:15 medical:2 solid:1 component:4 instrumentation:2 chemical:3 analysis:2 spin:6 agilent:6 market:11 household:1 small:6 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193 | Nolo_contendere | is a legal term that comes from the Latin for "I do not wish to contend." It is also referred to as a plea of "No Contest." In criminal trials, and in some common law jurisdictions, it is a plea where the defendant neither admits nor disputes a charge, serving as an alternative to a pleading of guilty or not guilty. A no contest plea, while not technically a guilty plea, has the same immediate effect as a guilty plea, and is often offered as a part of a plea bargain. In many jurisdictions a plea of is not a right, and carries various restrictions on its use. Origin In an essay on the origin of the Nolo Contendere Plea, Anthony J. Fejfar argues that the Nolo Contendere plea has biblical origins. Fejfar argues that it entered English Common Law "based upon English ecclesiastical Law which is modeled after the encounter of Jesus with Pilate during Holy Week" http://www.scribd.com/doc/206334/The-Origin-of-the-Nolo-Contendere-Plea-in-Criminal-Law . In the encounter, Jesus neither agreed nor denied guilt to the charge of calling himself the messiah, effectively pleading "no contest." Derived from English Common Law, several Common Law jurisdictions, including the United States also adopted the nolo contendere concept. United States In the United States, state law determines whether, and under what circumstances a defendant may plead no contest. Several other common law countries, however, prohibit the plea altogether. Residual effects A plea has the same immediate effects as a plea of guilty, but may have different residual effects or consequences in future actions. For instance, a conviction arising from a nolo plea is subject to any and all penalties, fines, and forfeitures of a conviction from a guilty plea in the same case, and can be considered as an aggravating factor in future criminal actions. However, unlike a guilty plea, a defendant in a plea may not be required to allocute the charges. This means that a conviction typically may not be used to establish either negligence per se, malice, or whether the acts were committed at all in later civil proceedings related to the same set of facts as the criminal prosecution. Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, See Federal Rule of Evidence 410; Federal Rule of Evidence 803(22). and most state rules which parallel them, pleas may not be used to defeat the hearsay prohibition if offered as an "Admission of [a] Party-Opponent". See Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(2). Assuming the appropriate gravity of the charge, and all other things being equal, a guilty plea to the same charge would cause the reverse effect: An opponent at trial could introduce the plea, over a hearsay objection, as evidence to establish a certain fact. See Federal Rule of Evidence 803(22). Alaska In Alaska, a criminal conviction based on a "nolo" plea may be used against the defendant in future civil actions. The Alaska Supreme Court ruled in 2006 that a "conviction based on a no contest plea will collaterally estop the criminal defendant from denying any element in a subsequent civil action against him that was necessarily established by the conviction, as long as the prior conviction was for a serious criminal offense and the defendant in fact had the opportunity for a full and fair hearing" http://www.allbusiness.com/services/legal-services/4112972-1.html . Florida In Florida, the state Supreme Court held in 2005 that "no contest" convictions may be treated as prior convictions for the purposes of future sentencing . ... in Florida that the term “conviction” means a determination of guilty by verdict of the jury or by plea of guilty. An adjudication of guilty following a plea of “No contest” also qualifies as a conviction. But a no contest plea followed by a withhold of adjudication is not a conviction. - 5 - The state is in error by stating “If a plea of nolo contendere which has been accepted and entered by the court, a judicial determination of guilty has been made.” citing Fla. R. Crim. P. 3. 172(1).(AB 9) Rule 3.3172(a) says absolutely nothing about a judicial determination of guilty being made by the court. Furthermore, the fact that a court accepts a plea of nolo contendere does not mean that a determination of guilt has been made as this court has determined in State v. Raydo that a defendant entering a plea of nolo contendere does not admit guilt. Raydo supra. at 1000. Therefore, the state’s further analysis based upon this erroneous interpretation of this rule is also erroneous. http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/flsupct/sc02-1943/02-1943rep.pdf Texas In Texas, the right to appeal the results of a plea bargain taken from a plea of is highly restricted. Defendants who have entered a plea of may only appeal the judgment of the court if the appeal is based on written pretrial motions ruled upon by the court . 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194 | George_Eliot | Mary Anne (Mary Ann, Marian) Evans (22 November 1819 – 22 December 1880), better known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist. She was one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. Her novels, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their realism and psychological insight. She used a male pen name, she said, to ensure that her works were taken seriously. Female authors published freely under their own names, but Eliot wanted to ensure that she was not seen as merely a writer of romances. An additional factor may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny and to prevent scandals attending her relationship with the married George Henry Lewes. Biography George Eliot's birthplace at South Farm, Arbury Mary Anne Evans was the third child of Robert Evans (1773-1849) and Christiana Evans (née Pearson), the daughter of a local farmer, (1788-1836). When born, Mary Anne, sometimes shortened to Marian, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/collections/projects/eliot/middlemarch/bio.html#mary According to a University of Virginia research forum published here, her baptismal records record the spelling as Mary Anne, and she uses this spelling in her earliest letters. Around 1857, she began to use Mary Ann. In 1859, she was using Marian, but she reverted to Mary Ann in 1880. had two teenage siblings, a half-brother, Robert (1802-1864), and sister, Fanny (1805-1882), from her father's previous marriage to Harriet Poynton (?1780-1809). Robert Evans was the manager of the Arbury Hall Estate for the Newdigate family in Warwickshire, and Mary Anne was born on the estate at South Farm. In early 1820 the family moved to a house named Griff, part way between Nuneaton and Coventry. Her full siblings were Christiana, known as Chrissey (1814-1859), Isaac (1816-1890), and twin brothers who survived a few days in March 1821. The young Evans was obviously intelligent, and due to her father's important role on the estate, she was allowed access to the library of Arbury Hall, which greatly aided her education and breadth of learning. Her classical education left its mark; Christopher Stray has observed that "George Eliot's novels draw heavily on Greek literature (only one of her books can be printed correctly without the use of a Greek typeface), and her themes are often influenced by Greek tragedy". Classics Transformed, p. 81 Her frequent visits also allowed her to contrast the wealth in which the local landowner lived with the lives of the often much poorer people on the estate, and different lives lived in parallel would reappear in many of her works. The other important early influence in her life was religion. She was brought up within a narrow low church Anglican family, but at that time the Midlands was an area with many religious dissenters, and those beliefs formed part of her education. She boarded at schools in Attleborough, Nuneaton and Coventry. At the second she was taught by the evangelical Maria Lewis—to whom her earliest surviving letters are addressed—and at the Coventry school she received instruction from Baptist sisters. As described by the Religion & Ethics section of the BBC website, "a powerful, but rather unexpected attack on Christianity came from a group of people, including the writer George Eliot, who thought that Christianity was immoral." Despite, or because of, her upbringing, Eliot decried organized religion. In 1836 her mother died and Evans returned home to act as housekeeper, but she continued her education with a private tutor and advice from Maria Lewis. When she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry. The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles and Cara Bray. Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in building schools and other philanthropic causes. He was a freethinker in religious matters, a progressive in politics, and his home, Rosehill, was a haven for people who held and debated radical views. The people whom the young woman met at the Brays' house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau and Ralph Waldo Emerson. Through this society, Evans was introduced to more liberal theologies, many of which cast doubt on the supernatural elements of Biblical stories, and she stopped going to church. This caused a rift between herself and her family, with her father threatening to throw her out, although that did not happen. Instead, she respectably attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849. Her first major literary work was the translation of David Strauss' Life of Jesus (1846), which she completed after it had been begun by another member of the Rosehill circle. Only five days after her father's funeral, she travelled to Switzerland with the Brays. She decided to stay in Geneva alone and on her return in 1850, moved to London with the intent of becoming a writer and calling herself Marian Evans. She stayed at the house of John Chapman, the radical publisher whom she had met at Rosehill and who had printed her translation. Chapman had recently bought the campaigning, left-wing journal The Westminster Review, and Evans became its assistant editor in 1851. Although Chapman was the named editor, it was Evans who did much of the work in running the journal, contributing many essays and reviews, until her departure in 1856. Now in this vast ugliness resides a most powerful beauty which, in a very few minutes, steals forth and charms the mind, so that you end, as I ended, in falling in love with her.... — Henry James, in a letter to his father Women writers were not uncommon at the time, but Evans's role at the head of a literary enterprise was. The mere sight of an unmarried young woman mixing with the predominantly male society of London at that time was unusual, even scandalous to some. Although clearly strong-minded, she was frequently sensitive, depressed, and crippled by self-doubt. She was well aware of her ill-favoured appearance, She had a low forehead, a dull grey eye, a vast pendulous nose, a huge mouth full of uneven teeth and a chin and jawbone 'qui n'en finissent pas'... Now in this vast ugliness resides a most powerful beauty which, in a very few minutes, steals forth and charms the mind, so that you end, as I ended, in falling in love with her. Yes, behold me in love with this great horse-faced bluestocking. Henry James, in a letter to his father, published in Edel, Leon (ed.) Henry James: Selected Letters (1990) and she formed a number of embarrassing, unreciprocated emotional attachments, including that to her employer, the married Chapman, and Herbert Spencer. However, another highly inappropriate attraction would prove to be much more successful and beneficial for Evans. The philosopher and critic George Henry Lewes met Evans in 1851, and by 1854 they had decided to live together. Lewes was married to Agnes Jervis, but they had agreed to have an open marriage, and in addition to the three children they had together, Agnes had also had several children by other men. Since Lewes was named on the birth certificate as the father of one of these children despite knowing this to be false, and was therefore considered complicit in adultery, he was not able to divorce Agnes. In July 1854 Lewes and Evans travelled to Weimar and Berlin together for the purpose of research. Before going to Germany, Evans continued her interest in theological work with a translation of Ludwig Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity and while abroad she wrote essays and worked on her translation of Baruch Spinoza's Ethics, which she completed in 1856, but which was not published in her life-time. Hughes, Kathryn, George Eliot: The Last Victorian, 168. The trip to Germany also served as a honeymoon as Evans and Lewes were now effectively married, with Evans calling herself Marian Evans Lewes, and referring to Lewes as her husband. It was not unusual for men and women in Victorian society to have affairs; Charles Bray, John Chapman, Charles Dickens, Friedrich Engels and Wilkie Collins all had committed relationships with women they were not married to, though more discreetly than Lewes and Evans. What was scandalous was the Leweses' open admission of the relationship. On their return to England, they lived apart from the literary society of London, both shunning and being shunned in equal measure. While continuing to contribute pieces to the Westminster Review, Evans had resolved to become a novelist, and she set out a manifesto for herself in one of her last essays for the Review: Silly Novels by Lady Novelists. The essay criticised the trivial and ridiculous plots of contemporary fiction by women. In other essays she praised the realism of novels written in Europe at the time, and an emphasis placed on realistic story-telling would become clear throughout her subsequent fiction. She also adopted a new nom-de-plume, the one for which she would become best known: George Eliot. This masculine name was chosen partly in order to distance herself from the lady writers of silly novels, but it also quietly hid the tricky subject of her marital status. George Eliot died at 4 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea. In 1858 Amos Barton, the first of the Scenes of Clerical Life, was published in Blackwood's Magazine and, along with the other Scenes, was well received. Her first complete novel, published in 1859, was Adam Bede and was an instant success, but it prompted an intense interest in who this new author might be. Scenes of Clerical Life was widely believed to have been written by a country parson or perhaps the wife of a parson. With the release of the incredibly popular Adam Bede, speculation increased markedly, and there was even a pretender to the authorship, one Joseph Liggins. In the end, the real George Eliot stepped forward: Marian Evans Lewes admitted she was the author. The revelations about Eliot's private life surprised and shocked many of her admiring readers, but this apparently did not affect her popularity as a novelist. Eliot's relationship with Lewes afforded her the encouragement and stability she so badly needed to write fiction, and to ease her self-doubt, but it would be some time before they were accepted into polite society. Acceptance was finally confirmed in 1877, when they were introduced to Princess Louise, the daughter of Queen Victoria, who was an avid reader of George Eliot's novels. After the popularity of Adam Bede, she continued to write popular novels for the next fifteen years. Within a year of completing Adam Bede, she finished The Mill on the Floss, inscribing the manuscript: "To my beloved husband, George Henry Lewes, I give this MS. of my third book, written in the sixth year of our life together, at Holly Lodge, South Field, Wandsworth, and finished 21st March 1860." Her last novel was Daniel Deronda, published in 1876, whereafter she and Lewes moved to Witley, Surrey; but by this time Lewes's health was failing and he died two years later on 30 November, 1878. Eliot spent the next two years editing Lewes's final work Life and Mind for publication, and she found solace with John Walter Cross, an American banker whose mother had recently died. Grave of George Eliot in Highgate Cemetery On 16 May 1880 George Eliot courted controversy once more by marrying a man twenty years younger than herself, and again changing her name, this time to Mary Anne Cross. The legal marriage at least pleased her brother Isaac, who sent his congratulations after breaking off relations with his sister when she had begun to live with Lewes. John Cross was a rather unstable character, and apparently jumped or fell from their hotel balcony into the Grand Canal in Venice during their honeymoon. Cross survived and they returned to England. The couple moved to a new house in Chelsea but Eliot fell ill with a throat infection. This, coupled with the kidney disease she had been afflicted with for the past few years, led to her death on the 22 December 1880 at the age of 61. The possibility of burial in Westminster Abbey being rejected due to her denial of Christian faith and "irregular" though monogamous life with Lewes, she was buried in Highgate Cemetery (East), Highgate, London in the area reserved for religious dissenters, next to George Henry Lewes. In 1980, on the centenary of her death, a memorial stone was established for her in the Poets’ Corner. Several key buildings in her birthplace of Nuneaton are named after her or titles of her novels. For example George Eliot Hospital, George Eliot Community School and Middlemarch Junior School. Literary assessment Eliot wrote the novel Middlemarch. Making masterful use of a counterpointed plot, Eliot presents the stories of a number of denizens of a small English town on the eve of the Reform Bill of 1832. The main characters, Dorothea Brooke and Tertius Lydgate, long for exceptional lives but are powerfully constrained both by their own unrealistic expectations and by a conservative society. The novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits. Throughout her career, Eliot wrote with a politically astute pen. From Adam Bede to The Mill on the Floss and Silas Marner, Eliot presented the cases of social outsiders and small-town persecution. No author since Jane Austen had been as socially conscious and as sharp in pointing out the hypocrisy of the country squires. Felix Holt, the Radical and The Legend of Jubal were overtly political, and political crisis is at the heart of Middlemarch. Readers in the Victorian era particularly praised her books for their depictions of rural society, for which she drew on her own early experiences, and she shared with Wordsworth the belief that there was much interest and importance in the mundane details of ordinary country lives. Eliot did not, however, confine herself to her bucolic roots. Romola, an historical novel set in late 15th century Florence and touching on the lives of several real persons such as the priest Girolamo Savonarola, displays her wider reading and interests. In The Spanish Gypsy, Eliot made a foray into verse, creating a work whose initial popularity has not endured. The religious elements in her fiction also owe much to her upbringing, with the experiences of Maggie Tulliver from The Mill on the Floss sharing many similarities with the young Mary Anne Evans's own development. When Silas Marner is persuaded that his alienation from the church means also his alienation from society, the author's life is again mirrored with her refusal to attend church. She was at her most autobiographical in Looking Backwards, part of her final printed work Impressions of Theophrastus Such. By the time of Daniel Deronda, Eliot's sales were falling off, and she faded from public view to some degree. This was not helped by the biography written by her husband after her death, which portrayed a wonderful, almost saintly, woman totally at odds with the scandalous life people knew she had led. In the 20th century she was championed by a new breed of critics; most notably by Virginia Woolf, who called Middlemarch "one of the few English novels written for grown-up people". The various film and television adaptations of Eliot's books have re-introduced her to the wider-reading public. Works Novels Adam Bede, 1859 The Mill on the Floss, 1860 Silas Marner, 1861 Romola, 1863 Felix Holt, the Radical, 1866 Middlemarch, 1871–72 Daniel Deronda, 1876 Poetry Poems by George Eliot include: The Spanish Gypsy (a dramatic poem) 1868 Agatha, 1869 Armgart, 1871 Stradivarius, 1873 The Legend of Jubal, 1874 Arion, 1874 A Minor Prophet, 1874 A College Breakfast Party, 1879 The Death of Moses, 1879 From a London Drawing Room, Count That Day Lost, ? I Grant You Ample Leave Other works Translation of "The Life of Jesus Critically Examined" by David Strauss, 1846 Translation of "The Essence of Christianity" by Ludwig Feuerbach, 1854 Scenes of Clerical Life, 1858 The Sad Fortunes of the Rev. Amos Barton Mr Gilfil's Love Story Janet's Repentance The Lifted Veil, 1859 Brother Jacob, 1864 Impressions of Theophrastus Such, 1879 Notes Christopher Stray, Classics Transformed: Schools, Universities, and Society in England, 1830-1960. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. Bibliography Haight, Gordon S., George Eliot: A Biography, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968, ISBN 0-19-811666-7. Haight, Gordon S., ed., George Eliot: Letters, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1954, ISBN 0-300-01088-5. Uglow, Jennifer, George Eliot, London, Virago, 1987, ISBN 0-394-75359-3. Jenkins, Lucien, Collected Poems of George Eliot, London, Skoob Books Publishing, 1989, ISBN 1-871438-35-7 Context and background Beer, Gillian, Darwin's Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983, ISBN 0-521-78392-5. Beer, Gillian, George Eliot, Prentice Hall / Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1986, ISBN 0-7108-0511-X. Chapman, Raymond, The Sense of the Past in Victorian Literature, London, CroomHelm, 1986, ISBN 0-7099-3441-6. Cosslett, Tess, The 'Scientific Movement' and Victorian Literature, Brighton, Harvester, 1982, ISBN 0-312-70298-1. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1979, ISBN 0-300-08458-7. Hughes, Kathryn, George Eliot: The Last Victorian, New York, Farrar Straus Giroux, 1998, ISBN 0-374-16138-0. Edel, Leon (ed.) Henry James: Selected Letters, Belknap Press (1990) ISBN 0674387945 Pinney, Thomas, ed., Essays of George Eliot, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1963, ISBN 0-231-02619-6. Shuttleworth, Sally, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make-Believe of a Beginning, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, ISBN 0-521-25786-7. Uglow, Jenny, George Eliot, London, Virago Press, 1988, ISBN 0 86068 400 8. Willey, Basil, Nineteenth-Century Studies: Coleridge to Matthew Arnold, London, Chatto & Windus, 1964, ISBN 0-14-021709-6. Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City, London, Chatto & Windus, 1973, ISBN 0-19-519810-7. Critical studies Alley, Henry, "The Quest for Anonymity: The Novels of George Eliot", University of Delaware Press, 1997. Ashton, Rosemary, George Eliot, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983. Beaty, Jerome, Middlemarch from Notebook to Novel: A Study of George Eliot's Creative Method, Champaign, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1960. Carroll, David, ed., George Eliot: The Critical Heritage, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1971. Daiches, David, George Eliot: Middlemarch, London, Edward Arnold, 1963. Dentith, Simon, George Eliot, Brighton, Harvester, 1986. Garrett, Peter K., The Victorian Multiplot Novel: Studies in Dialogical Form, New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1980. Graver, Suzanne, George Eliot and Community: A Study in Social Theory and Fictional Form, Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1984. Harvey, W. J, The Art of George Eliot, London, Chatto & Windus, 1961. Kettle, Arnold. An Introduction to the English Novel, vol. I, London, Hutchinson, 1951. Leavis, F RThe Great Tradition, London, Chatto & Windus, 1948. Neale, Catherine, Middlemarch: Penguin Critical Studies,London, Penguin, 1989 Swinden, Patrick, eel., George Eliot: Middlemarch, London, Macmillan, 1972. External links George Eliot at The Victorian Web Literary Encyclopedia biography Biography Bibliography George Eliot in LoveToKnow 1911 Encyclopdia George Eliot Quotations A Summary of "The Mill On The Floss" Athenaeum review of The Mill on the Floss by Geraldine Jewsbury, (7 April 1860) Works by George Eliot in e-book BBC Coventry & Warwickshire - George Eliot Chronological list by date of publication of George Eliot's novels, short stories and poems Ebook downloads from Feedbooks Ebook downloads from Penn State University George Eliot Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin Free to read on a cell phone - Eliot works. | George_Eliot |@lemmatized mary:11 anne:7 ann:3 marian:6 evans:24 november:2 december:2 well:4 know:5 pen:3 name:9 george:44 eliot:56 english:4 novelist:4 one:7 lead:3 writer:7 victorian:9 era:2 novel:19 largely:1 set:3 provincial:1 england:4 realism:2 psychological:2 insight:2 use:7 male:2 say:1 ensure:2 work:12 take:2 seriously:1 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195 | Franc | Franc 1 Swiss franc 1983 obverse 1 Swiss franc 1983 reverse 1 Swiss franc 1983 1 French franc 1991 coin obverse 1 French franc 1991 coin reverse 1 French franc 1991 1 Belgian franc 1996 coin obverse 1 Belgian franc 1996 coin reverse 1 Belgian franc 1996 1 Luxembourg franc 1990 obverse 1 Luxembourg franc 1990 coin reverse 1 Luxembourg franc 1990 1 Monaco franc 1978 coin obverse 1 Monaco franc 1978 coin reverse 1 Monegasque franc 1978 100 Saar francs reverse and obverse 100 Saar francs 1956 The franc is the name of several currency units, most notably the French franc, the currency of France until it adopted the euro in 1999 (by law, 2002 de facto), and the Swiss franc, still a major world currency today due to the prominence of Swiss financial institutions. The name is said to derive from the Latin inscription francorum rex ("King of the Franks") on early French coins, or from the French franc, meaning "free" (and "frank"). The countries that use francs include Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and most of the Francophone countries of Africa. Before the introduction of the euro, francs were also used in France, Belgium and Luxembourg, while Andorra and Monaco accepted the French franc as legal tender (Monegasque franc). The franc was also used within the French Empire's colonies, including Algeria and Cambodia. The franc is sometimes italianised or hispanicised as the Franco, for instance in Luccan Franco. One franc is typically divided into 100 centimes. The French franc symbol was an F with a line through it (₣). Origins The franc was originally a French gold coin of 3.87 g minted in 1360 on the occasion of the release of King John II ("the good"), held by the English since his capture at the Battle of Poitiers four years earlier. It was equivalent to one livre tournois (Tours pound). French franc The French franc was the national currency of France from 1360 until 1641 and again from 1795 until 1999 (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by Louis XIII in 1641 in favor of the gold louis and silver écu, the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the livre tournois. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algeria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination. The value of the French franc was locked to the euro at 1 euro = 6.55957 FRF on 1998-12-31, and after the introduction of the euro notes and coins, ceased to be legal tender after 2002-02-28 (although still exchangeable at banks). CFA and CFP francs Fourteen African countries use the franc CFA (in west Africa, Communauté financière africaine; in equatorial Africa, Coopération financière en Afrique centrale), originally (1945) worth 1.7 French francs and then from 1948, 2 francs (from 1960: 0.02 new franc) but after January 1994 worth only 0.01 French franc. Therefore, from January 1999, 1 CFA franc is equivalent to €0.00152449. A separate (franc CFP) circulates in France's Pacific territories, worth €0.0084 (formerly 0.055 French franc). Comorian franc In 1981, The Comoros established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc. Originally, 50 Comorian francs were worth 1 French franc. In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc. Since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro. Belgian franc and Luxembourg franc The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation. Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of Belgium in 1832 adopted its own Belgian franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by Luxembourg adopting the Luxembourg franc in 1848 and Switzerland in 1850. Newly unified Italy adopted the lira on a similar basis in 1862. In 1865, France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy created the Latin Monetary Union (to be joined by Greece in 1868): each would possess a national currency unit (franc, lira, drachma) worth 4.5 g of silver or 0.290 322 g of gold (fine), all freely exchangeable at a rate of 1:1. In the 1870s the gold value was made the fixed standard, a situation which was to continue until 1914. In 1926 Belgium as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the belga of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year. The 1921 monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in 1932. Like the French franc, the Belgian/Luxemburgese franc ceased to exist in January 1, 1999, when it became fixed at 1 EUR= 40.3399 BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth €0.024789. Old franc coins and notes lost their legal tender status in February 28, 2002. 1 Luxembourg franc was equal to 1 Belgian franc. Belgian francs were legal tender inside Luxembourg, and Luxembourg francs were legal tender in Belgium. The equivalent name of the Belgian franc in Dutch, Belgium's other official language, was "Belgische Frank." Countries where the Franc is the official currency Swiss franc and Liechtenstein frank The Swiss franc (ISO code: CHF or 756), which appreciated significantly against the new European currency from April to September 2000, remains one of the world's strongest currencies, worth today around two-thirds of a euro. The Swiss franc is used in Switzerland and in Liechtenstein. Liechtenstein retains the ability to mint its own currency, the Liechtenstein frank, which it does from time to time for commemorative or emergency purposes. The name of the country "Swiss Confederation" is found on some of the coins in Latin (Confoederatio Helvetica), as Switzerland has four official languages, all of which are used on the notes. The denomination is abbreviated "Fr" on the coins which is the abbreviation in all four languages. Saar franc The Saar franc, linked at par to the French franc, was introduced in the Saar Protectorate in 1948. On January 1, 1957 the territory joined the Federal Republic of Germany, nevertheless in its new member state of Saarland the Saar franc continued to be the currency until July 6, 1959. The name of the Saar franc in German, the main official language in the Protectorate, was Franken. Coins displaying German inscriptions and the coat of arms of the Protectorate were circulated and used together with French francs. As banknotes only French Franc bills existed. See also Cape Verdean escudo Latin Monetary Union The Latverian Franc is the currency of the fictional country of Latveria. Special settlement currencies UIC franc gold franc Livre tournois (French pound) Roman currency New Hebrides franc External links Swiss Franc Tracker - CHF | Franc |@lemmatized franc:85 swiss:10 obverse:6 reverse:6 french:27 coin:16 belgian:9 luxembourg:11 monaco:3 monegasque:2 saar:7 name:5 several:1 currency:15 unit:2 notably:1 france:7 adopt:4 euro:7 law:1 de:1 facto:1 still:2 major:1 world:2 today:3 due:1 prominence:1 financial:1 institution:1 say:1 derive:1 latin:4 inscription:2 francorum:1 rex:1 king:2 frank:5 early:1 mean:1 free:1 country:8 use:9 include:2 switzerland:5 liechtenstein:5 francophone:1 africa:4 introduction:3 also:4 belgium:7 andorra:1 accept:1 legal:7 tender:6 within:1 empire:1 colony:2 algeria:2 cambodia:1 sometimes:1 italianised:1 hispanicised:1 franco:2 instance:1 luccan:1 one:4 typically:1 divide:1 centime:1 symbol:1 f:1 line:1 origins:1 originally:3 gold:6 g:3 mint:3 occasion:1 release:1 john:1 ii:1 good:1 hold:1 english:1 since:2 capture:1 battle:1 poitier:1 four:3 year:2 earlier:1 equivalent:4 livre:3 tournois:3 tours:1 pound:2 national:2 note:4 though:1 abolish:1 louis:2 xiii:1 favor:1 silver:2 écu:1 term:1 continue:4 common:1 parlance:1 many:2 former:1 morocco:1 west:2 others:1 independence:2 standard:2 denomination:2 value:2 lock:1 frf:1 cease:3 although:1 exchangeable:2 bank:1 cfa:4 cfp:2 fourteen:1 african:1 communauté:1 financière:2 africaine:1 equatorial:1 coopération:1 en:1 afrique:1 centrale:1 worth:7 new:6 january:5 therefore:1 separate:1 circulate:2 pacific:1 territory:2 formerly:1 comorian:3 comoros:1 establish:1 arrangement:1 government:1 similar:2 rate:2 change:1 peg:1 conquest:1 western:1 europe:1 revolutionary:1 napoleonic:1 lead:2 wide:1 circulation:1 follow:2 kingdom:2 netherlands:1 newly:1 unify:1 italy:2 lira:2 basis:2 create:1 monetary:4 union:5 join:2 greece:1 would:1 possess:1 drachma:1 fine:1 freely:1 make:1 fixed:1 situation:1 well:1 experience:1 depreciation:1 abrupt:1 collapse:1 confidence:1 international:1 transaction:1 belga:1 withdrawal:1 exist:3 end:1 survive:1 however:1 form:1 full:1 economic:1 like:1 luxemburgese:1 become:1 fix:1 eur:1 bef:1 luf:1 thus:1 old:1 lose:1 status:1 february:1 equal:1 inside:1 dutch:1 official:4 language:4 belgische:1 iso:1 code:1 chf:2 appreciate:1 significantly:1 european:1 april:1 september:1 remain:1 strongest:1 around:1 two:1 third:1 retain:1 ability:1 time:2 commemorative:1 emergency:1 purpose:1 confederation:1 find:1 confoederatio:1 helvetica:1 abbreviate:1 fr:1 abbreviation:1 link:2 par:1 introduce:1 protectorate:3 federal:1 republic:1 germany:1 nevertheless:1 member:1 state:1 saarland:1 july:1 german:2 main:1 franken:1 display:1 coat:1 arm:1 together:1 banknote:1 bill:1 see:1 cape:1 verdean:1 escudo:1 latverian:1 fictional:1 latveria:1 special:1 settlement:1 uic:1 roman:1 hebrides:1 external:1 tracker:1 |@bigram swiss_franc:8 coin_obverse:3 belgian_franc:8 luxembourg_franc:7 saar_franc:6 franc_franc:3 de_facto:1 switzerland_liechtenstein:2 belgium_luxembourg:2 andorra_monaco:1 legal_tender:6 morocco_algeria:1 cfp_franc:1 franc_cfa:1 communauté_financière:1 financière_africaine:1 cfa_franc:2 comorian_franc:3 currency_peg:1 peg_euro:1 luxembourg_luxembourg:1 coat_arm:1 franc_banknote:1 cape_verdean:1 external_link:1 |
196 | Luca_Pacioli | Painting of Luca Pacioli, attributed to Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495 (attribution controversial). Table is filled with geometrical tools: slate, chalk, compass, a dodecahedron model. A rhombicuboctahedron half-filled with water is suspended from the ceiling. Pacioli is demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. Fra Luca Bartolomeo de Pacioli (sometimes Paciolo) (1446/7–1517) was an Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar, collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, and seminal contributor to the field now known as accounting. He was also called Luca di Borgo after his birthplace, Borgo Santo Sepolcro, Tuscany. Life Luca Pacioli was born in 1446 or 1447 in Sansepolcro (Tuscany) where he received an abbaco education. [This was education in the vernacular (i.e. the local tongue) rather than Latin and focused on the knowledge required of merchants.] He moved to Venice around 1464 where he continued his own education while working as a tutor to the three sons of a merchant. It was during this period that he wrote his first book -- a treatise on arithmetic for the three boys he was tutoring. Between 1472 and 1475, he became a Franciscan friar. In 1475, he started teaching in Perugia and wrote a comprehensive abbaco textbook in the vernacular for his students during 1477 and 1478. It is thought that he then started teaching university mathematics (rather than abbaco) and he did so in a number of Italian universities, including Perugia, holding the first chair in mathematics in two of them. He also continued to work as a private abbaco tutor of mathematics and was, in fact, instructed to stop teaching at this level in Sansepolcro in 1491. In 1494, his first book to be printed, Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita, was published in Venice. In 1497, he accepted an invitation from Lodovico Sforza ("Il Moro") to work in Milan. There he met, collaborated with, lived with, and taught mathematics to Leonardo da Vinci. In 1499, Pacioli and Leonardo were forced to flee Milan when Louis XII of France seized the city and drove their patron out. Their paths appear to have finally separated around 1506. Pacioli died aged 70 in 1517, most likely in Sansepolcro where it is thought he had spent much of his final years. Mathematics The first printed illustration of a rhombicuboctahedron, by Leonardo da Vinci, published in De divina proportione. Woodcut from De divina proportione illustrating the golden ratio as applied to the human face. Pacioli published several works on mathematics, including: Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (Venice 1494), a textbook for use in the abbaco schools of Northern Italy. It was a synthesis of the mathematical knowledge of his time and contained the first printed work on algebra written in the vernacular (i.e. the spoken language of the day). It is also notable for including the first published description of the method of bookkeeping that Venetian merchants used during the Italian Renaissance, known as the double-entry accounting system. Although Pacioli codified rather than invented this system, he is widely regarded as the "Father of Accounting". The system he published included most of the accounting cycle as we know it today. He described the use of journals and ledgers, and warned that a person should not go to sleep at night until the debits equalled the credits. His ledger had accounts for assets (including receivables and inventories), liabilities, capital, income, and expenses — the account categories that are reported on an organization's balance sheet and income statement, respectively. He demonstrated year-end closing entries and proposed that a trial balance be used to prove a balanced ledger. Also, his treatise touches on a wide range of related topics from accounting ethics to cost accounting. De viribus quantitatis (Ms. Università degli Studi di Bologna, 1496–1508), a treatise on mathematics and magic. Written between 1496 and 1508 it contains the first reference to card tricks as well as guidance on how to juggle, eat fire and make coins dance. It is the first work to note that Da Vinci was left-handed. De viribus quantitatis is divided into three sections: mathematical problems, puzzles and tricks, and a collection of proverbs and verses. The book has been described as the "foundation of modern magic and numerical puzzles", but it was never published and sat in the archives of the University of Bologna, seen only by a small number of scholars since the Middle Ages. The book was rediscovered after David Singmaster, a mathematician, came across a reference to it in a 19th-century manuscript. An English translation was published for the first time in 2007. Geometry (1509), a Latin translation of Euclid's Elements. De divina proportione (written in Milan in 1496–98, published in Venice in 1509). Two versions of the original manuscript are extant, one in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the other in the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire in Geneva. The subject was mathematical and artistic proportion, especially the mathematics of the golden ratio and its application in architecture. Leonardo da Vinci drew the illustrations of the regular solids in De divina proportione while he lived with and took mathematics lessons from Pacioli. Leonardo's drawings are probably the first illustrations of skeletonic solids, which allowed an easy distinction between front and back. The work also discusses the use of perspective by painters such as Piero della Francesca, Melozzo da Forlì, and Marco Palmezzano. As a side note, the "M" logo used by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City is taken from De divina proportione. The Met Store (Metropolitan Museum of Art shopping catalog), "Renaissance 'M' Bookmark" The Museum claims this origin in its descriptions of many souvenir items decorated with this logo, which it calls the "Renaissance M". Translation of Piero della Francesca's work The majority of the second volume of Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita was a slightly rewritten version of one of Piero della Francesca's works. The third volume of Pacioli's De divina proportione was an Italian translation of Piero della Francesca's Latin writings On [the] Five Regular Solids. In neither case, did Pacioli include an attribution to Piero. He was severely criticized for this and accused of plagiarism by sixteenth-century art historian and biographer Giorgio Vasari. R. Emmett Taylor (1889–1956) said that Pacioli may have had nothing to do with the translated volume De divina proportione, and that it may just have been appended to his work. However, no such defence can be presented concerning the inclusion of Piero della Francesca's material in Pacioli's Summa. Chess Pacioli also wrote an unpublished treatise on chess, De ludo scacchorum (On the Game of Chess). Long thought to have been lost, a surviving manuscript was rediscovered in 2006, in the 22,000-volume library of Count Guglielmo Coronini. A facsimile edition of the book was published in Pacioli's home town of Sansepolcro in 2008. Based on Leonardo da Vinci's long association with the author and his having illustrated De divina proportione, some scholars speculate that Leonardo either drew the chess problems that appear in the manuscript or at least designed the chess pieces used in the problems. Times Online: Renaissance chess master and the Da Vinci decode mystery International Herald Tribune: Experts link Leonardo da Vinci to chess puzzles in long-lost Renaissance treatise Winnipeg Free Press: Chess Footnotes References Pacioli, Luca. De divina proportione (English: On the Divine Proportion), Luca Paganinem de Paganinus de Brescia (Antonio Capella) 1509, Venice Taylor, Emmet, R. No Royal Road: Luca Pacioli and his Times (1942) Luca Pacioli: The Father of Accounting Full Biography of Pacioli (St.Andrews) Lucas Pacioli - Catholic Encyclopedia article Libellus de quinque corporibus regularibus, corredato della versione volgare di Luca Pacioli [facsimile del Codice Vat. Urb. Lat. 632]; eds. Cecil Grayson,... Marisa Dalai Emiliani, Carlo Maccagni. Firenze, Giunti, 1995. 3 vol. (68 ff., XLIV-213, XXII-223 pp.). ISBN 88-09-01020-5 External links The Enigma of Luca Pacioli's Portrait Outline of Pacioli's Treatise - PARTICULARIS DE COMPUTIS ET SCRIPTURIS1 | Luca_Pacioli |@lemmatized painting:1 luca:10 pacioli:23 attribute:1 jacopo:1 de:21 barbari:1 attribution:2 controversial:1 table:1 fill:2 geometrical:1 tool:1 slate:1 chalk:1 compass:1 dodecahedron:1 model:1 rhombicuboctahedron:2 half:1 water:1 suspend:1 ceiling:1 demonstrate:2 theorem:1 euclid:2 fra:1 bartolomeo:1 sometimes:1 paciolo:1 italian:4 mathematician:2 franciscan:2 friar:2 collaborator:1 leonardo:9 da:9 vinci:8 seminal:1 contributor:1 field:1 know:3 accounting:4 also:6 call:2 di:3 borgo:2 birthplace:1 santo:1 sepolcro:1 tuscany:2 life:1 bear:1 sansepolcro:4 receive:1 abbaco:5 education:3 vernacular:3 e:2 local:1 tongue:1 rather:3 latin:3 focus:1 knowledge:2 require:1 merchant:3 move:1 venice:5 around:2 continue:2 work:10 tutor:3 three:3 son:1 period:1 write:6 first:10 book:5 treatise:6 arithmetic:1 boy:1 become:1 start:2 teach:3 perugia:2 comprehensive:1 textbook:2 student:1 think:3 university:3 mathematics:9 number:2 include:6 hold:1 chair:1 two:2 private:1 fact:1 instruct:1 stop:1 teaching:1 level:1 print:1 summa:4 arithmetica:3 geometria:3 proportioni:3 et:5 proportionalita:3 publish:9 accept:1 invitation:1 lodovico:1 sforza:1 il:1 moro:1 milan:4 meet:1 collaborate:1 live:2 force:1 flee:1 louis:1 xii:1 france:1 seize:1 city:2 drive:1 patron:1 path:1 appear:2 finally:1 separate:1 die:1 aged:1 likely:1 spend:1 much:1 final:1 year:2 printed:2 illustration:3 divina:9 proportione:9 woodcut:1 illustrate:2 golden:2 ratio:2 apply:1 human:1 face:1 several:1 use:7 school:1 northern:1 italy:1 synthesis:1 mathematical:3 time:4 contain:2 algebra:1 spoken:1 language:1 day:1 notable:1 description:2 method:1 bookkeeping:1 venetian:1 renaissance:5 double:1 entry:2 system:3 although:1 codify:1 invent:1 widely:1 regard:1 father:2 account:5 cycle:1 today:1 describe:2 journal:1 ledger:3 warn:1 person:1 go:1 sleep:1 night:1 debit:1 equal:1 credit:1 asset:1 receivables:1 inventory:1 liability:1 capital:1 income:2 expense:1 category:1 report:1 organization:1 balance:2 sheet:1 statement:1 respectively:1 end:1 closing:1 propose:1 trial:1 prove:1 balanced:1 touch:1 wide:1 range:1 related:1 topic:1 ethic:1 cost:1 viribus:2 quantitatis:2 università:1 degli:1 studi:1 bologna:2 magic:2 reference:3 card:1 trick:2 well:1 guidance:1 juggle:1 eat:1 fire:1 make:1 coin:1 dance:1 note:2 leave:1 hand:1 divide:1 section:1 problem:3 puzzle:3 collection:1 proverb:1 verse:1 foundation:1 modern:1 numerical:1 never:1 sit:1 archive:1 see:1 small:1 scholar:2 since:1 middle:1 age:1 rediscover:2 david:1 singmaster:1 come:1 across:1 century:2 manuscript:4 english:2 translation:4 geometry:1 element:1 version:2 original:1 extant:1 one:2 biblioteca:1 ambrosiana:1 bibliothèque:1 publique:1 universitaire:1 geneva:1 subject:1 artistic:1 proportion:2 especially:1 application:1 architecture:1 draw:2 regular:2 solid:3 take:2 lesson:1 drawing:1 probably:1 skeletonic:1 allow:1 easy:1 distinction:1 front:1 back:1 discuss:1 perspective:1 painter:1 piero:6 della:6 francesca:5 melozzo:1 forlì:1 marco:1 palmezzano:1 side:1 logo:2 metropolitan:2 museum:3 art:3 new:1 york:1 met:1 store:1 shopping:1 catalog:1 bookmark:1 claim:1 origin:1 many:1 souvenir:1 item:1 decorate:1 majority:1 second:1 volume:4 slightly:1 rewritten:1 third:1 writing:1 five:1 neither:1 case:1 severely:1 criticize:1 accuse:1 plagiarism:1 sixteenth:1 historian:1 biographer:1 giorgio:1 vasari:1 r:2 emmett:1 taylor:2 say:1 may:2 nothing:1 translated:1 append:1 however:1 defence:1 present:1 concern:1 inclusion:1 material:1 chess:8 unpublished:1 ludo:1 scacchorum:1 game:1 long:3 lose:2 survive:1 library:1 count:1 guglielmo:1 coronini:1 facsimile:2 edition:1 home:1 town:1 base:1 association:1 author:1 speculate:1 either:1 least:1 design:1 piece:1 online:1 master:1 decode:1 mystery:1 international:1 herald:1 tribune:1 expert:1 link:2 winnipeg:1 free:1 press:1 footnote:1 divine:1 paganinem:1 paganinus:1 brescia:1 antonio:1 capella:1 emmet:1 royal:1 road:1 full:1 biography:1 st:1 andrew:1 lucas:1 catholic:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 libellus:1 quinque:1 corporibus:1 regularibus:1 corredato:1 versione:1 volgare:1 del:1 codice:1 vat:1 urb:1 lat:1 ed:1 cecil:1 grayson:1 marisa:1 dalai:1 emiliani:1 carlo:1 maccagni:1 firenze:1 giunti:1 vol:1 ff:1 xliv:1 xxii:1 pp:1 isbn:1 external:1 enigma:1 portrait:1 outline:1 particularis:1 computis:1 |@bigram luca_pacioli:6 franciscan_friar:2 leonardo_da:6 da_vinci:8 il_moro:1 de_divina:9 divina_proportione:9 golden_ratio:2 studi_di:1 piero_della:5 della_francesca:5 giorgio_vasari:1 herald_tribune:1 external_link:1 |
197 | British_National_Party | The British National Party (BNP) is a far-right and whites-only political party in the United Kingdom. The party is not represented in the Parliament of the United Kingdom. In the 2005 UK general election, the BNP received 0.7% of the popular vote, giving it the eighth largest share of the vote, although it was fifth overall among English constituencies. In the 2007 Welsh Assembly Election, it came fifth in terms of votes for the regional lists with 4.3% of the vote, winning no seats. The BNP also finished fifth in the 2008 London mayoral election with 5.23% of the popular vote, as well as electing Mayoral candidate Richard Barnbrook to the London Assembly. According to its constitution, the BNP is "committed to stemming and reversing the tide of non-white immigration and to restoring, by legal changes, negotiation and consent the overwhelmingly white makeup of the British population that existed in Britain prior to 1948." The BNP also proposes "firm but voluntary incentives for immigrants and their descendants to return home." British National Party: Rebuilding British Democracy general election manifesto 2005 (online at BBC News) It advocates the repeal of all anti-discrimination legislation, and restricts party membership to "indigenous British ethnic groups deriving from the class of ‘Indigenous Caucasian’". The BNP also accepts white immigrants that are assimilated into one of those ethnicities. The BNP asserts that there are biological racial differences that determine the behaviour and character of individuals of different races, although it also claims that it does not regard whites as superior to other ethnic groups. "We do not accept the absurd superstition – propagated for different though sometimes overlapping reasons by capitalists, liberals, Marxists and theologians - of human equality. ...This must not be taken to mean or imply that we believe that any particular ethnic group or race is 'superior' or 'inferior'; we simply recognise that – as any biologist would be able to predict, and the new medical science of pharmacogenetics is now confirming – human populations which have undergone micro-evolutionary changes while being separated for many thousands of years have developed differences in many fields of endeavour, susceptibility to health problems, behavioural tendencies and such like." British National Party: Rebuilding British Democracy general election manifesto 2005, p. 17 (online at BBC News) The party claims that preference for one's own ethnicity is a part of human nature. Its publicity has often conflated Islam with Marxism. Historically, under John Tyndall's leadership, the BNP was overtly anti-Semitic; however, under the current leadership of Nick Griffin, the BNP has focused on criticism of Islam. The party has said that it does not consider the Jewish, Hindu or Sikh religions to have a significantly detrimental or threatening effect, although it does not accept practising Sikhs or Hindus as culturally or ethnically British. The party does however have members with Jewish ancestry. The BNP has been known to work with extremist Hindu and Sikh groups opposing Islam, Hindu and Sikh extremists in link with BNP The Observer, 23 December 2001. Retrieved 7 February 2008. and has actively tried to win Jewish votes. The BNP is rebuked and ostracised by mainstream politicians, and the party has been strongly criticised by Labour Prime Minister Gordon Brown, "Hope not hate: Vote for equality, freedom and hope - By Gordon Brown", Daily Mirror 29 April 2008 former Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair, Conservative Party leader David Cameron and former Liberal Democrats leader Sir Menzies Campbell. History The current use of the name British National Party is its fourth appearance in British politics. The original BNP emerged during World War II when a handful of former members of the British Union of Fascists took on the name. This group would later become known as the English National Association. A second British National Party also emerged in 1960 and went on to form a part of the National Front (NF). Around 1970, Eddy Morrison briefly attempted to organise a group of this name in Leeds but he quickly abandoned the idea to join the NF. Founding of the modern BNP The current BNP has its roots in the New National Front, founded in 1980 by John Tyndall, a former chairman of the National Front. In 1982, the New National Front and a faction of the then-disintegrating British Movement led by Ray Hill merged to form the new British National Party. Tyndall was elected leader and Hill became his deputy, with much of the early funding provided by Tyndall's father-in-law, Charles Parker. N. Copsey, Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 22 In 1983, in its first general election, the party sponsored 53 candidates; three more than was required to obtain a Party Election Broadcast on television. The broadcast was transmitted on 31 May and consisted of Tyndall, flanked by two Union Flags, speaking to a camera. Images of the Brixton riot were shown as Tyndall's speech was broadcast. One observer noted that the "emphasis was less heavily anti-black... than the National Front's". Martin Harrison in The British General Election of 1983, Macmillan 1983, p. 155 The giving of television time to the BNP was controversial, and was debated on Right to Reply on Channel 4. During the campaign, Tyndall stated that the only significant differences between the BNP and the National Front lay in the fact that his party would bar homosexuals from high office, and he said that he was hopeful that the two parties could reunite. "Tyndall's race policy", The Times, 4 June 1983, p. 5 The party's candidates won 14,621 votes in that election. The BNP's average vote was less than the National Front, and in the two constituencies where both parties stood candidates, the NF was clearly more popular. David Butler and Dennis Kavanagh, The British General Election of 1983, Macmillan 1983, p. 354 However, unbeknown to the BNP, Ray Hill was actually working for the group Searchlight, and observers have suggested that the party's relatively low profile in its early years may have been related to his sabotage. Barberis, McHugh and Tyldesley, op cit, p. 594 Richard Thurlow, Fascism in Britain, I.B. Tauris, 1998, p258 The increase in the deposit required of parliamentary candidates hindered the party during the 1987 general elections, when it had only two candidates. The first time that the BNP attracted widespread attention was the Dewsbury riot of Summer 1989. Alan Sykes, The Radical Right in Britain (British History in Perspective), Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p.131 Around a thousand people took part in a 'Rights for Whites' demonstration after some white parents in Dewsbury had been trying to withdraw their children from racially-mixed schools. 1990s After some financial troubles, the party's national headquarters were established at Welling in south-east London in 1989. In the early 1990s, the party saw a growth in popularity mainly in London and the urban south east, and especially in the borough of Tower Hamlets where perceived increasing immigration from Bangladesh in an area of housing pressure led to the campaign "Defend Rights for Whites" BNP:Under the skin (Panorama) http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/17/newsid_2520000/2520085.stm Retrieved 30/08/07 (a campaign directed by Eddy Butler). At two local council by-elections in 1990, the party came in third, and on 1 October 1992 the party won 20% of the vote in the Millwall ward. A second by-election in Millwall in September 1993 saw a renewed BNP campaign to take the seat. The party obtained its first councillor, Derek Beackon, by a majority of seven votes. London Research Centre, "By-election results to the London Borough Councils 1990-94", p. 68-69 Although Beackon was able to achieve little on the council before the full council elections (in which he lost his seat, after a successful anti-fascist campaign), the by-election win led to a great increase in publicity for the party. The party headquarters site became a venue for anti-fascist protesters who linked its presence to racial crimes in the surrounding area. See, e.g., letter to The Guardian 15 September 1992 from Richard Adams, John Austin, Diane Abbott and Len Duvall A near-riot ensued on 16 October 1993 when the police forced a 15,000 anti-BNP protest march to change its route away from outside the party building. 31 people were arrested and 19 police officers were injured. Rajeev Syal and Tim Rayment, "Rioters clash with police over neo-Nazi bookshop", Sunday Times, 17 October 1993 Anti-semitism and Holocaust denial The BNP, its former leaders and present leader, Nick Griffin, have promoted anti-semitism and Holocaust denial or revisionism in the past. In 1996, writing in his own publication, The Rune, Griffin stated that: I am well aware that orthodox opinion is that six million Jews were gassed and cremated or turned into soup and lampshades. I have reached the conclusion that the 'extermination' tale is a mixture of Allied wartime propaganda, extremely profitable lie, and latter witch-hysteria. Andrew Anthony "Flying the Flag", The Observer Magazine, 1 September 2002. Retrieved 19 September 2008. The following year, during a Cook Report documentary he stated: There is no doubt that hundreds, probably thousands of Jews were shot to death in Eastern Europe, because they were rightly or wrongly seen as communists or potential partisan supporters. That was awful. But this nonsense about gas chambers is exposed as a total lie. In 1988, The Sunday Times revealed that Holocaust News, a publication that claimed the holocaust was an "evil hoax", was being published by the BNP's then deputy leader, Richard Edmonds, on behalf of a BNP front organisation, the Centre for Historical Review, and distributed by members. John Tyndall, the party's leader, said he was not involved in the publication but that it had his full support. Jon Craig and Jo Revill, "Holocaust hate sheet alarms British Jews", Sunday Times, 6 March 1988 The 2002 Channel 4 documentary Young, Nazi and Proud featured hidden-camera footage of the then BNP youth leader Mark Collett stating his admiration for Adolf Hitler, and stating "I'd never say this on camera, the Jews have been thrown out of every country including England. It's not just persecution. There's no smoke without fire." It also featured footage of visitors to the party's annual 'Red White and Blue' festival, some of whom wore the legend "88" (code for HH, "Heil Hitler"). Collett resigned from the party after the documentary's filming, but rejoined shortly afterwards, with Nick Griffin's approval, on the condition that Collett changed his views on the subject. In 2006, the party's deputy chairman Scott McLean was shown on the TV documentary "Nazi Hate Rock" making Hitler salutes at a white-supremacist cross-burning ceremony where intensely racist songs were sung and jokes made about Auschwitz. The BNP claims that it has now cast off "the thinly veiled anti-Semitism" and states that the party has Jewish members, and one of its councillors, Pat Richardson (Epping Forest), is herself Jewish. Griffin leadership Nick Griffin Nick Griffin joined the BNP in 1995. In 1999, he replaced Tyndall as BNP leader after a contested leadership election. Once comfortably in position, Griffin began a programme of modernising the BNP's image, rephrasing the policy of the compulsory repatriation of non-whites and rewording it as a "firm encouragement" for voluntary repatriation. In the 2002 local elections, the BNP won 3 seats in Burnley and averaged 20% of the votes where it positioned councillors. The party was accused, however, of exploiting the high tensions in areas that had recently undergone racially-motivated riots. Increasing electoral success led to increased scrutiny from the press. In The Secret Agent, a BBC documentary broadcast on 15 July 2004, filmmaker Jason Gwynne went undercover and joined the BNP for six months. His secret filming recorded party leader Nick Griffin calling Islam a "wicked, vicious faith". In his speech, Griffin also stated that "For saying that, I tell you, I will get seven years if I said that outside", referring to the maximum sentence for the criminal offence of incitement to racial hatred. The day after the documentary was broadcast, Barclays Bank froze, then suspended, the BNP's bank accounts. Retrieved 7 February 2007 The BNP's response to the programme was that it had featured "the loudest and most hot-headed BNP activists [who] were deliberately plied with drink and subject to suggestive provocation". Griffin did not apologise for his own comments, stating that "it's still not illegal to criticise Islam". He and BNP member Mark Collett were subsequently tried and acquitted of incitement to racial hatred. In September 2007 The Daily Telegraph newspaper reported that Hitwise, the online competitive intelligence service, said that the "website run by the far right British National Party is the most visited website of any UK political party, with more hits than all other parties put together, a survey has found."<ref>BNP website is the most popular in politics Daily Telegraph, 17 September 2007. Retrieved 7 February 2008.</ref> 2000s The party has positioned itself against Islam, which Griffin has repeatedly called "wicked and vicious". Nick Griffin "A challenge to Iqbal Sacranie and the Muslim Council of Britain", 9 July 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2008. In the wake of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, the BNP released leaflets featuring images of the bombed Route 30 bus and the slogan "Maybe now it's time to start listening to the BNP." This move was criticised by the conservative Daily Mail as playing on people's high emotions and grief following a horrendous attack. Nick Griffin and Mark Collett leave Leeds Crown Court on 10 November 2006 after being found not guilty of charges of incitement to racial hatred at their retrial. On 21 July 2005, Griffin and BNP activist Mark Collett pleaded not guilty at Leeds Crown Court to four and eight charges, respectively, of incitement to racial hatred. The charges resulted from the BBC documentary The Secret Agent (see above). Preparing for a possible conviction, Griffin nominated West Midlands organiser Simon Darby as his temporary replacement if he were imprisoned. John Tyndall died three days before he was due to give evidence in court. Eventually, Griffin and Collett were each acquitted of half of the charges against them with no verdict delivered on the remaining charges. The Crown Prosecution Service announced that it would pursue a retrial on the remaining charges; Griffin and Collett were also cleared of these. They used the result of the trial to criticise the BBC. Following the trial, the possibility of tightening race hate laws has been discussed. Apparently connected to the BNP's opposition to mixed raced relationships, regional organiser Kenneth Francis, of Newham, East London, was expelled from the BNP in April 2002 after it was revealed that his girlfriend was an Ecuadorian asylum seeker. This Is London: BNP man out over Ecuador girlfriend 30.04.02, last retrieved 03.02.08 After the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, the BNP republished one of the cartoons of Muhammad on a leaflet, accompanied by a photo of Muslim demonstrators holding placards bearing murderous anti-British slogans and a "Which one do YOU find offensive?" caption. 2006 local elections Events in the run up to the 2006 local elections seemed to show an increase in support for the BNP, with research carried out by the Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust, showing that, in the parts of England where the BNP put most of its resources, one in four voters was considering voting BNP with the figure at one in five in parts of London. Labour minister Margaret Hodge claimed that 8 out of 10 voters from her constituency were thinking of voting for the BNP. When the BNP subsequently took 12 seats on Barking and Dagenham Council, local Labour activists shunned her approach as demonstrably generating hundreds of extra votes for the BNP. She still urges her progressive base to argue against ignoring the politics of the nationalist movement. The increase in support for the BNP was described by some as a protest vote due to voter alienation with the three mainstream parties (Labour, Conservatives, and the Liberal-Democrats). The increase in support for the BNP was notably demonstrated by a poll released by YouGov, a British polling firm, that indicated that the BNP vote had reached 7% in the wake of media attention, a more than tenfold increase over the previous general election. 59% of surveyed voters supported the halting of all further immigration, and average support for the BNP propositions cited in the poll among those who did not know they were associated with the BNP was 55%. Most of the statements put, however, coincided with views also put forward by other political parties. There were also certain BNP propositions which were strongly opposed by those polled, including non-white citizens being inherently "less British", and the party's policy of encouraging the "repatriation" of ethnic minorities. Support also fell among those who were told that the policies were those of the BNP. On 5 May 2006, the results of the elections were reported by the BBC and showed a marked increase for the BNP. Before the elections, the BNP was estimated to have held only about 20 local political seats, but the party presented about 350 candidates, of whom 33 were initially declared to be winners and a further 70 were placed second. This more than doubled the seats held by the BNP on district, borough and city councils, taking the total to 46 (out of around 21,000 such seats in the UK). It also gained a handful of seats on parish councils, giving it a total of around 53 all told. Also noteworthy is the fact that the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham became, according to many newspapers, the first council in the United Kingdom to have the BNP as the second-biggest party. The Guardian’s infiltration On 21 December 2006 the Guardian newspaper revealed that one of its journalists, Ian Cobain, had worked undercover in the BNP for seven months, and had become the party's central London organiser. "Exclusive: inside the secret and sinister world of the BNP", by Ian Cobain, The Guardian, 21 December 2006. "The Guardian journalist who became central London organiser for the BNP" by Ian Cobain, The Guardian, 21 December 2006. Amongst the accusations made by the paper was that the BNP used "techniques of secrecy and deception… in its attempt to conceal its activities and intentions from the public". It asserted that the BNP operated with a "network of false identities" and organised rendezvous points to allow members to be directed to "clandestine meetings" elsewhere. Members of the party were directed to avoid "any racist or anti-semitic language in public". Cobain also claimed that the membership in central London had expanded beyond the party's traditional range, now including "dozens of company directors, computing entrepreneurs, bankers and estate agents, and a handful of teachers". In the aftermath of The Guardian’s report, campaign group Unite Against Fascism called for the 'BNP ballerina' Simone Clarke to be dismissed from the English National Ballet, with UAF vice-chair Weyman Bennett claiming her views on immigration were "incompatible with a leading arts institution such as the English National Ballet" and that she had "used her position to support a party which fosters division". However, Clarke defended her personal political opinion, stating that "the BNP is the only party to take a stand [against immigration]". The BNP was investigated by the Electoral Commission on 12 April 2007 after The Guardian revealed that senior figures in the BNP had set up a front organisation in an attempt to raise money from sympathisers in the United States. BNP faces inquiry over US fundraising The Guardian, 12 April 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2007. 2007 local elections In the run-up to local elections in May 2007, the BNP predicted that it would again double its councillors, which would have taken the total to around 100. However, in the event it made only small gains and also suffered significant losses, so that the net increase was only one seat. From this peak of 47 councillors on local authorities, the number of BNP councillors fell slowly through the rest of 2007 due to resignations and expulsions, several of them associated with a failed leadership challenge in the summer. By the end of the year the number had sunk to around 42. 2007 split In December 2007, an internal dispute led to the resignation or expulsion of more than 60 of the party's local and national officials. Several of its leading officials, including Councillor Sadie Graham and Kenny Smith (Head of Administration), had pressed for some months for the expulsion of three other senior officials—John Walker (National Treasurer), Dave Hannam (Deputy Treasurer) and Mark Collett (Director of Publicity)—who they accused of having brought the BNP into disrepute (the BNP later accused Graham and Smith of being "far left" infiltrators ). In December, frustrated by the failure of disciplinary proceedings, Graham and Smith launched a blog called 'enoughisenoughnick' detailing their complaints against the trio. In response, Graham and Smith were swiftly dismissed from their positions by Nick Griffin. During the dispute which followed, members of BNP Security seized a computer from Graham's home; Griffin claimed that they were recovering party property, while Graham claimed that it was her own. A large number of BNP officials then resigned in support of Smith and Graham or were expelled. These included the head of the Young BNP, the head of BNP Security Training, the National Fundraiser Bev Scott, the head of the party's merchandising operation Excalibur, the editor of the party's website and 5 out of the 13 regional committees of the BNP. The leadership of the BNP asserted that the significance of the dispute was exaggerated and that it would quickly blow over. In late December 2007, the dissidents began to refer to themselves as the 'Real BNP'. They claimed that they would stay within the BNP and campaign for a change of leaders. In January 2008 the group launched a new website called 'Voice of Change — A New Dawn For the British National Party'. announcing that "Voice of Change is an umbrella group to assist candidates who wish to stand as independent nationalists in the local elections in May 2008 and in any local by-elections throughout the year." They aim to challenge Nick Griffin's leadership, calling him "tyrannical", "arrogant" and stating that he is surrounded by "yes men". They did not directly disclose any policy differences with Mr. Griffin. 2008 membership list leak On 18 November 2008, a membership list was leaked in breach of a court injunction. It contains details of more than 10,000 members, BNP membership list leaked online James Sturcke, Matthew Weaver and Ian Cobain, The Guardian Embarrassed BNP admits its members list has been published online, Nico Hines, The Times with the names, home addresses and sometimes telephone numbers and e-mail addresses of BNP members including senior party officials, people aged under 18 (as parts of family membership), teachers, doctors, serving and former members of the military, police and prison officers (since 2004, police officers have faced dismissal if found to be members of the BNP), civil servants and members of the clergy, as well as people asking for discretion, due to employment concerns. At least one of those named had already disavowed his membership. The BNP-backed trade union Solidarity has stated that anyone concerned that they will be victimised at work on account of appearing on the list will receive immediate protection upon joining. It has condemned those who are seeking to encourage such harassment and warned bosses that they will face immediate action if they act in breach of human rights and/or employment law. Solidarity Offer of Union protection Nick Griffin has claimed that any party member dismissed from employment will be able to receive substantial compensation, – -urgent-update-from-bnp-leader-nick-griffin 2008 November : The British National Party although this has not been the case in any previous court cases. The BNP advised those named on the list to deny their membership and said that they would confirm that in writing if required. Lee John Barnes, BNP Legal Director People affected by the disclosure include a Merseyside police constable, Steve Bettley, whose superiors suspended him pending an investigation. The Chief Constable said that BNP membership is "totally incompatible with the duties and values of Merseyside police." Bettley was dismissed four months later. Also named was DJ Rod Lucas. Lucas was dropped by talkSPORT, but defended his membership as being part of his research, saying that "I am an investigative radio journalist and am a member of over 20 political parties and pressure groups. ...It doesn't necessarily mean I agree with their views." A drama teacher at a prep shool whose name was found on the list was revealed to have been a presenter in BNP videos and to have lectured BNP activists in public speaking, and had been dismissed from a previous position as a result of her BNP membership. Following an investigation by Welsh police and the Information Commissioner's Office, two people in Nottinghamshire were arrested for breach of the Data Protection Act concerning the leak. 2009 European Elections In light of the Disclosure of expenses of British Members of Parliament and resultant voter apathy fallout, it was postured by the media and commentators that the BNP could do well in the polls, as voters sought an alternative party to register their protest. The BNP launched their advertising vehicle, which they called the "Truth Bus," around the themes of "British Jobs for British Workers" and quoting from BNP members as to why they had joined the party. In May 2009, The Sunday Mirror revealed that the photographs used were stock collection, with the models having posed for a general photo agency shoot in Portland, Oregon; another shot on the truck quoting a Doctor on the NHS is also an American stock photo; while the OAP's were the Italian parents of the British resident photographer. Distributed in leaflet form by the Royal Mail, Plaid Cymru MP Adam Price said: “These leaflets hideously misrepresent the views of the people photographed. I believe they have breached the guidelines set out for electoral communications and I call on the Royal Mail to stop distribution immediately.” The Archibishops of Canterbury and York have said it would be tragic if people abstained or voted BNP at the local and European elections on 4 June, their views are said to represent the views of all the Church's bishops. British Army Gurkhas & Lance Corporal Johnson Beharry VC The BNP is opposed to allowing veteran British Army Gurkhas the right of settlement in the United Kingdom. On 12 May 2009, in an radio broadcast on BBC's Five Live, the BNP's leader, Nick Griffin, told presenter Nicky Campbell that on the issue of allowing retired Gurkhas the right to settle in Britain: "We don't think the most overcrowded country in Europe, can realistically say, 'Look, you can all come and all your relatives.' Griffin went on to say, "When the Gurkhas signed up - frankly as mercenaries - they expected a pension which would allow them to live well in their own country." However, the party itself states that, if Britain were economically stronger and did not have so many illegal and unwanted immigrants, they would support Gurkhas on this issue. The party has praised the work Gurkhas do for the British army, and feels they are poorly treated while awaiting verdicts on whether they can stay. The BNP support the Gurkhas being given the right to stay There has been controversy concerning a statement to the Sun newspaper, by actress turned campaigner Joanna Lumley, condemning a leaflet which had allegedly been distributed by the BNP candidate, Adam Walker with a picture of a dead Gurkha soldier crossed out and attacking her campaign for settlement. Both Walker and the BNP have condemned this as a forgery and the BNP have published a statement they attribute to Joanna Lumley and the Gurkha Justice Campaign, retracting the criticism. The statement does not appear on the Gurkha Justice campaign website. On 17 May 2009, the Telegraph newspaper reported that the BNP's leader, Nick Griffin, had branded Lance Corporal Johnson Beharry VC, a black Grenada-born British Army recipient of the Victoria Cross an "immigrant" whose bravery was simply "routine". The Telegraph alleged that the BNP website called Lance Corporal Beharry VC's award of the Victoria Cross "positive discrimination by the PC-mad government". Lance Corporal Beharry VC was awarded his Victoria Cross in 2005 for action in Iraq, when he returned to his burning armoured personnel carrier three times, under sustained enemy fire, to lift out his wounded British Army comrades from the vehicle. The BNP has denied these allegations. Policies Since Griffin took over its leadership, the BNP has become less publicly extreme, promoting similar policies to the Euronationalist approach adopted by a number of far right European counterparts, such as the Austrian Freedom Party set up by Jörg Haider. The BNP proposes to reintroduce corporal punishment, and to make capital punishment available for paedophiles, terrorists and murderers. In addition to increasing military defence spending, the BNP plans to reintroduce compulsory national service. The BNP proposes that citizens should keep a rifle and ammunition in their homes. It proposes "to end the conflict in Ireland by welcoming Eire as well as Ulster as equal partners in a federation of the nations of the British Isles". "BNP Policies", BNP Website. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Central to the BNP's domestic policies are greater share ownership and the establishment of worker co-operatives. The party advocates the provision of extra resources for "especially gifted children" and the reversal of closures of special needs schools. It has proposed that repossessed homes should become council houses, to prevent these being sold off cheaply to undercut private sellers, and to provide housing for those who need it. The party supports animal welfare and environmental policies, supporting Greenpeace in its fight against Japanese whaling ships and the RSPCA's campaign against the docking of dogs' tails. Racial and immigration policies At its founding, the BNP was explicitly racist. In October 1990, the BNP was described by the European Parliament's committee on racism and xenophobia as an "openly Nazi party … whose leadership have serious criminal convictions". When asked in 1993 if the BNP was racist, its deputy leader Richard Edmonds said, "We are 100 per cent racist, yes". Founder John Tyndall proclaimed that "Mein Kampf is my bible". Expelled BNP founder plans court battle The Observer, 24 August 2003. Retrieved 5 February 2008. When Nick Griffin became chairman in 1999, the party began to change its stance with regard to racial issues. Griffin claims to have repudiated racism, instead espousing what he calls "ethno-nationalism". He claims that his core ideology is "concern for the well-being of the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish ethnic nations that compose the United Kingdom". The BNP publicly disavows any interest in white supremacy, which it defines as the "wish to rule over foreign peoples"; detractors consider this definition overly narrow. The BNP requires that all members must be members of the "Indigenous Caucasian" racial group. The party does not regard non-white people as being ethnically British, even if they have been born in the UK and are naturalised British citizens. Instead, Griffin has stated that "non-Europeans who stay", while protected by British law, "will be regarded as permanent guests". Nick Griffin "The BNP: Anti-asylum protest, racist sect or power-winning movement?". Retrieved 3 October 2008. The BNP is opposed to mixed-race relationships on the stated ground that racial differences must be preserved; it claims that when a white person produces a mixed-race child, "a white family line that stretches back into deep pre-history is destroyed." Nick Griffin stated: "… while the BNP is not racist, it must not become multi-racist either. Our fundamental determination to secure a future for white children is restated, and an area of uncertainty is addressed and a position which is both principled and politically realistic is firmly established. We don't hate anyone, especially the mixed race children who are the most tragic victims of enforced multi-racism, but that does not mean that we accept miscegenation as moral or normal. We do not and we never will". The party does however have a half-Turkish Cypriot, half-English councillor in Lawrence Rustem. Under the skin of the BNP BBC News "Nick Ryan the BNP and the Respect party" Guardian Unlimited, 10 December 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2008. In 2006, Sharif Abdel Gawad, a grandson of an Armenian refugee (also of partial Greek ancestry), was chosen as a council candidate in Bradford. Sharon Ebanks, the BNP's first councillor in Birmingham, has denied claims made by her stepmother, Glenys, that Sharon is mixed race; her black father, Radwell Ebanks, having been born in Jamaica. BNP councillor denies that her father is black The Express 19 June 2006; Tom Price BNP member Simone Clarke has a mixed-race daughter by a Cuban-Chinese dancer. The art-school liberal who now won't allow blacks in his party, The Independent on Sunday; 1 June 2008 The BNP supported Leeds University lecturer Dr. Frank Ellis, who was suspended from his post after stating that the Bell Curve theory "has demonstrated to me beyond any reasonable doubt there is a persistent gap in average black and white average intelligence". Joe Priestley, "The schizophrenic society", BNP Website, 3 April 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Ellis called the BNP "a bit too socialist" for his liking and described himself as "an unrepentant Powellite" who would support "humane" repatriation. Campus storm over 'racist' don The Observer, 5 March 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2008 In April 2006, Sky News confronted the party's national press officer, Phil Edwards (it has been claimed that this is a pseudonym for Stuart Russell ) with a tape of a telephone conversation the previous year. On the tape, Russell could be heard to say that "the black kids are going to grow up dysfunctional, low IQ, low achievers that drain our welfare benefits and the prison system and probably go and mug you." Youtube.com He responded: "If I thought I was going to be recorded ... I would not have used such intemperate language, but let’s be honest about it, the facts are there". Atticus: It only takes a hidden mic to reveal the real BNP The Sunday Times, 30 April 2006. Retrieved 5 February 2008. Anti-Islam focus The party states that "The BNP has moved on in recent years, casting off the leg-irons of conspiracy theories and the thinly veiled anti-semitism which has held this party back for two decades. The real enemies of the British people are home grown Anglo-Saxon Celtic liberal-leftists ... and the Crescent Horde – the endless wave of Islamics who are flocking to our shores to bring our island nations into the embrace of their barbaric desert religion". It has described this as the "islamification" of Great Britain. Consequently, the party has shifted allegiance in conflicts involving Israel. Its head of legal affairs, Lee Barnes, wrote on the party's website about the 2006 Lebanon War: "As a Nationalist I can say that I support Israel 100% in their dispute with Hezbollah. In fact, I hope they wipe Hezbollah off the Lebanese map and bomb them until they leave large greasy craters in the cities where their Islamic extremist cantons of terror once stood." Lee Barnes "Nationalism and Israel", BNP Website, 28 July 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Nick Griffin has made it clear that this shift in emphasis is designed to increase the party's appeal. On one occasion, he stated, "We should be positioning ourselves to take advantage for our own political ends of the growing wave of public hostility to Islam currently being whipped up by the mass media". Nick Griffin "By their fruits (or lack of them) shall you know them" BNP Website, 21 March 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2008. In a speech to local party activists in Burnley in March 2006, he said: Suggested policies to help police this "threat to all of us" include a Muslim no-fly policy, which would ban Muslims from flying in and out of the UK. BNP accused of exploiting cartoons row with Muslim leaflet The Guardian, 5 October 2006. Retrieved 7 February 2008. The BNP erected a plaque in Oldham, Greater Manchester in memory of Gavin Hopley, a 19-year-old white man who was mugged and kicked to death by Asian Muslims in the street in Glodwick, in February 2002. The plaque was later removed by the local council. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/bnp-memorial-to-murdered-teenager-removed-by-council-570495.html Anti-homosexuality The BNP has a policy of tolerance to homosexuality in private, but states that homosexuality "should not be promoted or encouraged". "Countering the smears", BNP Website, 3 December 2007. Retrieved 4 October 2008. According to Gay.com in 2006, the BNP supports the re-criminalisation of homosexuality. UKGay.com. Retrieved 7 June 2006. The BNP opposed the introduction of civil partnerships in the United Kingdom. "BNP applaud Western Isles Registrars" BNP Website. Retrieved 3 October 2008. BNP spokesman Phil Edwards said homosexuality "is unnatural" and "does not lead to procreation but does lead to moral turpitude and disease". Alongside its suggestion that homosexuality "undermines social/marital cohesion by adding confusion", the BNP would make it unlawful to promote homosexuality and "return it to the closet where it belongs". The BNP is particularly worried about the possibility of homosexuality being promoted in schools. 'Tony Wentworth "'Gay Rights' Lobby Target School Children", BNP Website. Retrieved 3 October 2008. In the run-up to the 2005 general election, it was reported that Richard Barnbrook, the BNP candidate for Barking, had produced and directed a homoerotic student art film in 1989. The story was picked up by the mainstream press after the 2006 local elections, when Barnbrook became a councillor and the BNP's London leader. BNP: Homosexuality could become compulsory Pinknews. Retrieved 9 June 2006. Although some portrayed this as gay pornography, Barnbrook and the BNP claimed that the film was artistic, and about "sexuality, not homosexuality". 'Gay porn' movie raises ripples on far right The Guardian, 11 May 2006. Retrieved 9 June 2006. Mark Collett, former chairman of the Young BNP, described homosexuals as "AIDS Monkeys", "bum bandits" and "faggots" and said the idea of homosexuality was a "sickening thought". RE:Brand Episode 2 "Naziboy" [Part 2 of 3] [1] Articles published in the Sunday Times and Daily Mail have alleged that Nick Griffin has been involved in homosexual relationships with other BNP members, although he vehemently denies it. Tom Robbins, "Gay Tiff Reveals Soft Side of Far Right", Sunday Times, 5 September 1999 Nick Griffin quoted in David Jones, "A Very Plausible Bigot", Daily Mail, 29 April 2006 Electoral performance National parliaments The BNP has contested seats in England, Wales and Scotland. Since 2002 the party has expressed interest in contesting elections in Northern Ireland and previously promised to stand candidates in the 2003 Assembly Election, South Belfast News 26/04/2002 2004 European Election and 2005 local council elections Outrage over BNP plans BBC News, 15 December 2003. Retrieved 7 February 2008. but in each case failed to put forward candidates. No BNP candidate has ever won a seat as a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. It has been noted that the UK's first-past-the-post system causes electoral difficulties for smaller parties such as the BNP whose support is not geographically concentrated in specific constituencies. This is considered the opposite to parties such as Plaid Cymru or KIHH, who receive a nationally lower proportion of the vote than they do parliamentary seats. In the 2005 General Election, the British National Party stood 119 candidates across England, Scotland and Wales. Between those candidates the BNP polled 192,850 votes, gaining an average of 4.2% across the several seats it stood in, and 0.7% nationwide — more than treble its percentage at the 2001 election. In those seats in which the BNP stood, it was the fourth largest party. "BNP Chairman's election analysis" (link to video), BNP Website, 7 May 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2008. However, it did not stand nationwide, meaning that its national share of the vote was substantially lower than that of other minor parties and exit poll predictions of 3%. In the 21st century, its electoral successes have generally come from winning former Labour voters and former Labour council seats. General election performance Year Number of Candidates Number of MPs Percentage of vote Total votes Change (percentage points) Average voters per candidate 1983 53 0 0.0 14,621 N/A 276 1987 2 0 0.0 553 0.0 277 1992 13 0 0.1 7,631 +0.1 587 1997 56 0 0.1 35,832 0.0 640 2001 33 0 0.2 47,129 +0.1 1428 2005 119 0 0.7 192,746 +0.5 1620 Local government In 2008, the BBC estimated the BNP had about 56 councillors. The party holds a London-wide seat on the London Assembly. As with other minority parties in the UK, the majority of the BNP's electoral success has come in local government elections. The BNP's first electoral success came in September 1993, when Derek Beackon was returned as councillor for Millwall (in London) on a low turnout. He lost his seat in further elections the next year. In the council elections of May 2002, three BNP candidates gained seats on Burnley council. This was interpreted in some quarters as an indicator of the mood of the British electorate (the BNP had fielded 68 candidates nationwide). In the council elections of May 2003, the BNP increased its Burnley total by five seats, thus briefly becoming the second-largest party and official opposition on that council, a position it narrowly lost soon afterwards after the resignation of a BNP councillor who had been disciplined by the party after unruly behaviour at the party's annual 'Red, White and Blue' festival. The BNP lost the subsequent by-election to the Liberal Democrats. During these 2003 elections, the BNP contested a record 221 seats nationwide (just under 4% of the total available). It won 11 council seats in all, though Nick Griffin was unsuccessful in his attempt to gain a place on Oldham Metropolitan Council. In some areas, such as Sunderland, it contested all wards and failed to get a seat; in others areas such as Essex, parts of the Black Country in the West Midlands and in Hertfordshire it gained council seats. Prior to the 2004 elections to the European Parliament, the BNP had stated that it believed it could win "between one and three seats" in the 2004 European Parliamentary elections. In fact, although its share of the vote increased to 4.9% (placing it as the sixth biggest party overall), it failed to win a single seat. The Party also hoped to pick up an increased share of the vote in the South West of England, where its strongly eurosceptic policies were believed to be most popular. However, in that region it gained only 3.0% of the vote. European Election: South West Result BBC News, 14 June 2004. Retrieved 7 February 2008. Given that parties with other lower total percentages of the vote, but a higher regional concentration of support, gained seats, VOTE 2004, BBC News, updated 15 August 2007. Retrieved 7 December 2008. its lack of a geographical stronghold can be seen as a disadvantage for the party. The party's biggest election success to date was a gain of 52% of the vote in the Goresbrook ward of Barking on 16 September 2004. However, the turnout was just 29%, and the councillor Daniel Kelley retired just 10 months later, claiming he had been an outcast within the council. A new election was held on 23 June 2005, in which this time the Labour candidate gained 51% of the vote, and the BNP came second with 32%. In the local elections on 4 May 2006, the BNP more than doubled its number of councillors, increasing the number from 20 to 52. The biggest gain was in Barking and Dagenham where the BNP won 11 of the 13 seats it contested. BNP laughing stock at council meeting, Barking and Dagenham Recorder, 18 May 2006. Retrieved 7 February 2008. A twelfth seat was awarded to the BNP, following a High Court petition. The BNP also won 3 seats in Epping Forest, 3 in Stoke-on-Trent, 3 in Sandwell, 2 seats in Burnley, 2 in Kirklees, and single seats in Bradford, Havering, Solihull, Redditch, Redbridge, Pendle and Leeds. It was initially declared to have won the Birmingham seat of Kingstanding but this was due to a counting error that was subsequently overturned in court. On 10 August 2006 the BNP gained its first parish councillor in Wales when Mike Howard of Rhewl Mostyn, Flintshire, previously an Independent, joined the BNP. Hence as of 10 August 2006, the party had 53 councillors in local government. In the 2007 Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly elections the BNP fielded candidates. In the Welsh elections the party fielded 20 candidates, four in each of the five regional lists with party chairman Nick Griffin standing in the South Wales West region. Immigration a key issue, says BNP, BBC News, 16 April 2007. Retrieved 22 April 2007. It came fifth behind the major parties in some areas. It did best in north east Wales, polling 9% in Wrexham and 7% in both Alyn and Deeside and in Clwyd South. However, it did not win any seats in the Welsh assembly. In the Scottish Parliament election the party fielded 32 candidates which entitled the BNP to public funding for its campaign and an election broadcast, prompting criticism from various groups. The BNP received about 1% of the vote and no seats. In the UK local elections which took place on the same day as the Scottish and Welsh elections, the BNP fielded a record 754 council candidates, more than double the number the previous year. It won increased support in Windsor and Maidenhead but did not increase its number of councillors in Sandwell from 4 and saw its seats in Burnley reduced from seven to four. It won both Hugglescote and Whitwick - the first seats to be won by the BNP in Leicestershire. Before the poll, the BNP's declared aim was to double its number of elected councillors to around a hundred. In the event, it increased its net representation by just one councillor. London Assembly and mayoral election, 2008 The Evening Standard Andrew Gilligan "Women more troubled by bag theft than rape, BNP candidate claims", Evening Standard, 1 April 2008. Retrieved on 2 April 2008. reported at the beginning of April 2008 that Nick Eriksen, second on the candidates list for the London Assembly election and the party's chief London organiser, is the author of a far-right blog 'Sir John Bull'. On his blog, Eriksen says rape is a "myth" and claims women are like gongs as "they need to be struck regularly". Eriksen was removed as a BNP candidate because of these comments, but his position as a party official remains unclear. "Sacked: The BNP candidate who said 'some women are like gongs — they need to be struck regularly'", Daily Mail, 2 April 2008. Andrew Gilligan "BNP candidate sacked over 'rape is a myth' blog", Evening Standard 2 April 2008. Retrieved on 2 April 2008. BNP candidate Richard Barnbrook gained a seat in the London Assembly in May 2008, after gaining 5.3% of the vote in the mayoral election. Nationally, the BNP won over one hundred seats throughout the United Kingdom in the May 2008 local elections, which is less than 1% of the total number of seats available. BNP gains from Labour disaffection See also: Elections in the United KingdomAlleged internal problems The internal democracy of the BNP has been criticised by members for giving too much power to the Chairman and for not being widely available for the membership to consult. In 2007 a leadership challenge to Griffin by Colin Auty and previously by Colin Jackson resulted in resignations and expulsions of their supporters and 67 senior activists including many councillors resigning the whip after Councillor Nina Brown claimed that BNP Security had misled her into giving them the key to the home of fellow BNP councillor Sadie Graham in order to ransack it, searching for evidence of her support for Auty's leadership bid. Smith's uncle Simon Smith was himself suspended for the racial content of his website, before leaving the BNP in 2007 after querying the accounts of the BNP. - 11k Smith said of Luke Smith, who was awaiting sentencing at the time, for assault.“He was a lovely, lovely lad who, like a lot of people, was just too sensitive to exist in what is effectively an extremely cruel world." In September 2007, Robin Evans, a BNP councillor in Blackburn, walked out of the party, then wrote a letter to his former colleagues denouncing it as a party of drug-dealers and football hooligans. Evans remains a councillor, describing himself as a "national socialist". Another, BNP councillor, Maureen Stowe, in Burnley left the party after being repelled by its racist nature. She told the Guardian. "I became a BNP councillor, like most people who voted for me, by believing their lies," she says. - 81k Terry Farr, a councillor in Epping, resigned to spend more time developing his business after a suspension for writing abusive letters to Trevor Phillips. In October 2007, James Lloyd, a BNP councillor, was disqualified from Sandwell Council for not attending a single meeting in a six month period. This was attributed to business difficulties following the closure of his pub. Structure The chairman of the BNP has final say in all policy matters. BNP Constitution Section 3 There are then fifteen further members of the 'party leadership', who have responsibility for various areas of its operations. These executive positions work alongside the Advisory Council, the party's senior policy body. This group meets at least three times a year. Its role is to "inspect the party's accounts, ensuring proper conduct of the party's finances, and to act as a forum for the party's leadership to discuss vital issues and carve out the party's agenda". BNP Organisational Structure. Retrieved 3 October 2008. The Trafalgar Club is the party's fundraising arm. The Tragalfar Club, BNP website; last accessed 7 February 2008 The party is organised on a regional basis, with 12 regions, based upon the European Parliament constituencies within the UK, each with an organiser. The party also organises four groups that deal with specific areas of activity i.e. Land and People (which deals with rural affairs), Pensioners' Awareness Group, the Friends of European Nationalism (a New Zealand-based organisation) and the Ethnic Liaison Committee, which co-ordinates work with non-whites. The BNP also has 16 specifically defined party officials, with the current holders of the major offices being as follows: Chairman - Nick Griffin Deputy Chairman/National Press Officer - Simon Darby Director of Administration - Kenny Smith National Treasurer - John Walker Editor of Identity - John Bean Editor of Voice of Freedom - Martin Wingfield Head of Publicity - Mark Collett Head of Young BNP - Danny Lake In addition Arthur Kemp is "head of the BNP’s education and training department" Article in Searchlight Magazine and "editor of the BNP’s website". Lancaster Unity article 12 September 2008 Legal issues Claims of repression of free speech The BNP claims that the mainstream media in the UK do not mention BNP policies, or make reference to statements made by the BNP, though this claim ignores its modest level of support at the national level. The BNP argues that NUJ guidelines on reporting racist organizations forbid journalists who are NUJ members from reporting uncritically on the party. The BNP has encountered difficulties finding a company prepared to print its monthly publication Voice of Freedom. The Party acquired a printing press in the run up to the 2005 general election, thereby removing its dependency on external printing houses. In September 2005, 60,000 copies of Voice of Freedom, which had been printed in Slovakia, were seized by British police at Dover. The police later admitted this was a mistake and released the impounded literature shortly thereafter. "Thousands of pounds wasted by New Labour just to deny BNP a voice", BNP Website, 12 September 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Party members sometimes conceal their affiliation, which can be deemed unacceptable by employers, unions and co-workers. Police officers are not allowed to be members of the BNP "or similar organisation[s] whose Constitution, aims, objectives or pronouncements may contradict the duty to promote equality". The prison service likewise prohibits membership of the BNP and similar organisations, because it considers them racist. A similar policy has been discussed in the Fire Brigades and Civil Service, but neither has implemented such a proscription. On 24 April 2007 an election broadcast (which was scheduled to air at 9:55PM) was pulled by BBC Radio Wales' lawyers, who believed that the broadcast was defamatory of the Chief Constable of North Wales Police, Richard Brunstrom. "BBC bans BNP election broadcast", BNP Website, 24 April 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2008. The broadcast was made available to download from the BNP's website. BNP Election broadcast, Wales, 2007. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Employment discrimination and other related controversies BNP members have had various difficulties in employment. In the case of ASLEF v. United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights overturned an employment appeal tribunal ruling that awarded a BNP train driver damages for expulsion. It found that the union the train driver belonged to was entitled to decide who could be a member, and that the UK was in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights in the way it had treated ASLEF. European Court of Human Rights: ASLEF v. United Kingdom: Final judgement, Strasbourg, 27 May 2007 Through publications such as British Nationalist, the BNP has encouraged supportive trade unionists to be open about BNP membership. However, the only other case sparking controversy has been that of Clive Potter, an activist for Solidarity – The Union for British Workers. Potter was expelled from the union, and when he he took his case to the courts, the courts upheld the expulsion and the grounds were based on previous exclusion rather than BNP membership. http://216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:j9ITehWultQJ:www.pforum.fire.gov.uk/document/147+potter+bnp+prison+service&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=3&gl=uk In another case, Robert Baggs claimed that he had been discriminated against because of "religion, or similar philosophical belief" after he was refused a job at a GP surgery. His main argument was that the employer was in violation of the Employment (Religious Discrimination) Regulations of 2003. The Employment Tribunal found that membership of the BNP was not a "similar" belief, and the case was rejected. Stuart Chamberlain of management consultants Gee Consult has advised that a similar case might be successful since the removal of the qualification "similar" from philosophical belief by an amendment in 2007. "Cases concerning claims made by British National Party’s (BNP) members that their fascist beliefs were similar to religious beliefs have previously been decided in favour of the employer or potential employer. Under the new law, a strong argument could be made to the contrary. However, this has yet to be tested and there is a clause in the regulations which provide that the beliefs of employees may be required to be in line with the "ethos" of the organisation. Mr. Arthur Redfearn was a bus driver whose BNP membership was unknown to his employer, Serco, until he was elected as a councillor. He was dismissed as the employers were concerned that he might endanger their contract with a local authority to transport vulnerable people of various ethnicities from a day centre. The decision by the Employment Tribunal summarises: "where an employee who is a member of a racist group (in this case the BNP political party) is dismissed because of the danger that his continuing employment might lead to violence in the workplace, the dismissal can properly be regarded as being for legitimate health and safety reasons and will not be unlawful race discrimination." Redfearn had been represented by the BNP legal officer, Lee Barnes, who had argued at the Employment Tribunal that Redfearn had been racially discriminated against over his BNP membership because the BNP is a whites-only organisation and was treated unfairly in comparison to racist organisations who were non-white. Cloisters Redfearn v SERCO Ltd, [2005] IRLR 744, 28 October 2005 In 2002, a BNP candidate and Regional Organiser, Kevin Scott, was dismissed from the B&Q hardware store in Gateshead. Management said this was not due to his party membership but due to "low morale" amongst other staff who did not want to work with him and due to the numbers of calls from customers expressing their disapproval. Scott settled out of court for an undisclosed sum, although the BNP had pledged to support any action. Organisations which ban BNP membership Police Membership of the BNP, C18 and the National Front in the police forces was specifically prohibited by David Blunkett, following an undercover TV exposure of racism in a police training centre. Stuart Jeffries, "Undercover cop", The Guardian, 21 October 2003 Despite this, Simon Darby has claimed that the BNP still has members who remain covert. Police authorities have taken this very seriously and Manchester Police Authority have viewed footage taken at BNP events in order to identify off-duty officers in attendance at a BNP St George's Day rally, wearing BNP badges and T-shirts, with the slogan "Love Britain or Fuck Off". A retired police officer, standing as a European Assembly candidate, Inspector Phazey, has said that he was a member in defiance of the prohibition and that other serving officers remained members. He denied that he was a racist or that the police were institutionally racist, saying; A Police Community Support Officer, Ellis Hammond, was found to be a BNP member after he was discovered stockpiling weapons at his home, including tasers. After a recent leak of alleged BNP membership lists to the Internet, a number of police forces are investigating officers whose names appeared on the list. Police scour BNP membership to find officers breaching ban - The Guardian In March 2009, Pc Steve Bettley, of Merseyside Police a policeman whose name was allegedly on the leaked list was dismissed, despite the Police misconduct panel reporting "the panel confirmed there was no evidence that Pc Bettley had ever displayed any racist views or discriminatory behaviour in the workplace.". Prison service A ban on BNP membership was imposed by Martin Narey, Director of the Prison Service in 2002. Narey told the BBC that he received hate mail and a death threat as a result. Other professions Bans on BNP membership in the probation service and the civil services have been under consideration. BBC News "Civil service BNP ban considered", 19 September 2004. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Alan Travis "BNP ban urged for probation officers", The Guardian, 1 February 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2008. A proposal to ban the BNP from Dorset Fire Brigade, proposed by the management and the Fire Brigades Union, was turned down by the Fire Authority. BBC News Fire bosses stand against BNP ban", 24 October 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2008. The chairman of the BNP-linked trade union "Solidarity", Adam Walker, was dismissed by his college for accessing BNP websites and posting comments. He has been summoned to a hearing of the General Teaching Council, which could result in him being banned from working as a teacher in England. BBC News "BNP teacher could be struck off", 20 September 2008. Retrieved 4 October 2008. His brother, Mark Walker, was suspended from another college for allegedly accessing adult pornography using school equipment, although no illegal material was found on his computers, and he was eventually sacked on the basis of his sickness record. His supporters told the press that he had been suspended for accessing the BNP website and had been victimised because of his political beliefs. A report by the NSPCC found that "a substantial amount of emails indicating a sexual relationship between himself and a 17-year-old former Sunnydale student have been recovered from Mr Walker’s school laptop and the school server." NSPCC worries over BNP teacher, Northern Echo, 2008-11-13, retrieved on 2009-01-22 The Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service has refused to act against a BNP council candidate, Ian Johnson, after he wrote in his election leaflets that he was a retained firefighter, despite Fire Brigades Union pressure to do so. Liam Birch, a sociology student standing as a BNP council candidate for Southway was dismissed as assistant warden at Plymouth University, when his BNP membership was known via an internet blog concerning the Holocaust, in which he declared "The Jews declared war on Germany, not the other way round". "Election fury over holocaust views", Western Morning News, 9 June 2006. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Simone Clarke was a principal ballerina at the English National Ballet and a deputy for the entertainer's union Equity. Clarke's membership of the BNP was unknown until exposed by an undercover Guardian journalist in 2006. Her performances were picketted by anti-fascists demanding her sacking. However the ENB refused to do so, as she had done nothing else to warrant this. She was supported by Equity. Elizabeth Sanderson "The BNP Ballerina", Mail on Sunday, 30 December 2006. Retrieved 4 October 2008. In February 2009 the General Synod of the Church of England voted to ban its clergy from joining the BNP. Association with violence Historically the BNP has been associated in the public mind with violent protest and clashes with anti-BNP organisations. Critics of the BNP assert that a significant minority of elected BNP politicians have criminal records and that the party is more tolerant of the criminal actions of some of its members than other parties would be. In the past, Nick Griffin has defended the threat of violence in furthering the party's aims. After the BNP won its first council seat in 1993, he wrote: "The electors of Millwall did not back a postmodernist rightist party, but what they perceived to be a strong, disciplined organisation with the ability to back up its slogan 'Defend Rights for Whites' with well-directed boots and fists. When the crunch comes, power is the product of force and will, not of rational debate." In 1997, believing he was addressing members of the French Front National, he said: It is more important to control the streets of a city than its council chambers." In January 1986, when Griffin was Deputy Chair of the NF, he advised his audience at an anti-IRA rally to use the "traditional British methods of the brick, the boot and the fist." Yorkshire Post, 17 February 1986 The BNP defends itself by arguing that over 20% of the working population has some criminal record or another and that a large proportion of MPs, councillors and activists in the other three main parties also have unsatisfactory past records. A BBC Panorama programme reported on a number of BNP members who have had criminal convictions, some racially motivated. The BBC's list is extensive. Some of the more notable convictions include: In 1998, Nick Griffin was convicted of violating section 19 of the Public Order Act 1986, relating to incitement to racial hatred. He received a nine-month prison sentence, suspended for two years, and was fined £2,300. Kevin Scott, the BNP's North East regional organiser, has two convictions for assault and using threatening words and behaviour. Joe Owens, now expelled but previously a BNP candidate in Merseyside and former bodyguard to Nick Griffin, Owens, J Action! Race War to Door Wars, 2007, Lulu.com ISBN 1430322594 has served eight months in prison for sending razor blades in the post to Jewish people and another term for carrying CS gas and knuckledusters. Tony Wentworth, former BNP student organiser, was convicted alongside Mr Owens for assaulting demonstrators at an anti-BNP event in 2003. Colin Smith, BNP South East London organiser has 17 convictions for burglary, theft, stealing cars, possession of drugs and assaulting a police officer. Tony Lecomber cases Tony Lecomber was jailed for possessing explosives in 1985, after a nail bomb exploded while he was carrying it to the offices of the Workers' Revolutionary Party; and again for three years in 1991, for assaulting a Jewish teacher who was removing a BNP sticker at a London Underground station. He was Propaganda Director of the BNP at the time of the latter conviction. "On the seamier side: the shadow of racist politics", The Economist, 7 December 1991 He was Nick Griffin's key deputy in the party from 1999 until January 2006.) Nick Griffin has written of the latter conviction is that "in reality he defended himself after being attacked by a far-left thug who was a close comrade of the IRA 'active service unit' that planted the Harrod's Bomb" and that "Tony Lecomber is no longer even a member of the British National Party". Martin Webster and Joe Owens have both asserted that Lecomber's departure from the party followed his failed attempt to recruit Owens to murder members of the political establishment. (See article on Tony Lecomber for details). Robert Cottage case In October 2006, Robert Cottage, a BNP candidate earlier in the year for election to represent Colne on Pendle Council, "was arrested under the Explosives Act on suspicion of possessing chemicals that may be capable of making an explosion." "Ex-BNP man held in 'bomb' swoop", Burnley Citizen, 2 October 2006. Retrieved on 13 February 2007. Cottage was also reported as having possessed the largest quantity of explosives of its type ever found in this country. "Chemicals Find: Two In Court", Pendle Today, 6 October 2006. Retrieved on 13 February 2007. Cottage's party membership was said to have lapsed at the time of the arrest. An associate of Cottage, David Bolus Jackson, whom he had met at a BNP meeting "Ex-BNP candidate 'spoke of shooting Tony Blair' ", The Times, 13 February 2007. Retrieved on 13 February 2007. was also arrested at this time. The case came before Manchester Crown Court on 12 February 2007 where it was claimed by the prosecution that Cottage had plans to assassinate Tony Blair and Liberal Democrat peer Lord Greaves. Cottage pleaded guilty to one count of the possession of explosives, but denied the count pertaining to conspiracy to cause an explosion. Jackson pleaded not guilty. "Ex-BNP activist 'wanted to shoot Tony Blair' ", The Guardian, 13 February 2007. Retrieved on 13 February 2007. In a statement read in court by the prosecution counsel, Cottage's wife said that he believed that "civil war" was imminent in the UK. "Ex-BNP man 'wanted to shoot PM' ", BBC News, 13 February 2007. Retrieved on 13 February 2007. The jury in the trial was unable to reach verdicts and the case was set for retrial in July 2007, when, once again, the jury failed to reach a verdict. The prosecution indicated that it would not seek a further retrial. "Second jury fails to agree on BNP 'bomb' pair", The Guardian, 13 July 2007. On 31 July 2007, Cottage was sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment for the charge he had admitted of possessing explosives. Opposition The BNP is condemned by many sections of the mainstream media, including right-wing newspapers, such as the Daily Mail. Representatives of the three major mainstream political parties all condemn the BNP, although the party has taken council seats from them all in various areas. High-ranking politicians from each of the mainstream parties have, at various times, called for their own supporters to vote for anyone but the BNP, and the leader of the Conversative Party David Cameron described them as 'Facists' Following pressure from Trevor Phillips, Chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality, the major parties stand candidates in seats that they are unlikely to win. This is designed to enhance the choice available to voters in the expectation that this will reduce the BNP vote. In the run up to the May 2006 local council elections, Labour minister Margaret Hodge claimed that 8 out of 10 voters from her constituency were thinking of voting for the BNP. When the BNP subsequently took 12 seats on Barking and Dagenham Council, local Labour activists shunned her approach as demonstrably generating hundreds of extra votes for the BNP. She still urges her progressive base to argue against ignoring the politics of the nationalist movement. Amongst the most visible and vocal opponents of the BNP and other far right-wing groups are Unite Against Fascism and Searchlight. Unite Against Fascism, which aims to unite the broadest possible spectrum to oppose the BNP and the far-right, includes the Anti-Nazi League (ANL), the National Assembly Against Racism (NAAR), and the Student Assembly Against Racism (SAAR). It also includes faith and community leaders and politicians from the Labour Party, the Conservative Party, RESPECT, the Liberal Democrats, the Green Party, the Socialist Workers Party and the United Kingdom Independence Party. Searchlight magazine has monitored the activities of the BNP and its members for many years, and has published many articles highly critical of them. Some opponents of fascism call for no positive coverage to be given to groups or individuals enunciating what they describe as "hate speech". Such a tactic states that the BNP and similar parties should be ignored by both rival politicians and the media. A more militant position is that of "No Platform", which seeks to deny perceived fascist hate speech any sort of platform. The policy is most commonly associated with university student unions and debating societies, but has also resulted in BNP candidates being banned from speaking at various hustings meetings around the country. Examples of the "no platform" policy being operated include: Complaints directed at the Leeds Student newspaper after it published a full-page article/interview with Nick Griffin. The Leeds Unite Against Fascism (LUAF) group accused the publication of breaching Leeds University Students' Union 'No Platform' policy, whereby extremist organisations are prohibited from expressing their views on campus. An invitation to Nick Griffin by the University of St Andrews Union Debating Society to participate in a debate on multiculturalism was condemned, then withdrawn after protests. Russell Jackson, "University's invitation to BNP leader withdrawn", The Scotsman, 5 February 2005 . Retrieved 29 January 2009. Examples of more direct action against the BNP include obstruction of BNP activists who set up stalls in shopping centres. For example, members of the Scottish Socialist Party in Edinburgh surrounded a BNP publicity stall, forcing it to close. "BNP stalled by Socialists", Edinburgh Evening News, 29 March 2005 . Retrieved 29 January 2009. Anti-Fascist Action is the group most associated with this sort of direct action, criticised by more liberal anti-fascists (for example in the Anti-Nazi League) as squadism. The BNP claims that such cases exemplify how political correctness is being used to silence it and suppress its right to freedom of speech. "Bully boys stamp on free speech" BNP Website, 4 February 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2008. The Anti-Nazi League-organised group, Love Music Hate Racism, held a concert in Trafalgar Square ahead of the 2006 local elections, aimed at getting people not to vote for the BNP, which claimed 50,000 people attended, according to the organiser, while the The Daily Telegraph put the number substantially lower at just 3,000. In May 2007 a presentation by Nick Griffin was organised by Danny Lake, Young BNP organiser and a politics student, to be held at the University of Bath. The University administration agreed to hosting the meeting on the grounds of freedom of speech, yet it was opposed by a sizable portion of the student and lecturer population. At a meeting of the Student Union a motion was passed to criticise the BNP and oppose the meeting, mainly due to the BNP's opposition to the Unions equal opportunities policy, the fact that the meeting was an invitation only event with no opposition debate and that it was to be held on the first day of the exam period. The University later withdrew permission for the event due to concerns over the large number of people opposing the meeting and possible disruption it could cause. Affiliated organisations Officially linked groups The Trafalgar Club is the BNP fundraising club, and the name the party uses to book hotels and conference facilities. The BNP Ethnic Liaison Committee is an organisation that people from ethnic minorities can join. The committee has joined with BNP members in staging demonstrations. Great White Records is a record label launched in January 2006 that is described by the BNP as "a patriotic label." It launched a campaign to introduce British folk music to schoolchildren. Most of the songs were sung by Doncaster folk musician Lee Haggan, and were written by Nick Griffin. Albion Life Insurance was set up in September 2006 as an insurance brokerage company on behalf of the BNP. Its stated aim is to "secure a robust financial situation for the BNP." The officers of Albion Life are all members of the BNP. The BNP obtains funding from the sale of books and heraldic or Norse jewellery. These are usually sold through its Excalibur brand. Excalibur: About us. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Political parties The BNP and the French Front National have co-operated on numerous occasions. Jean-Marie Le Pen visited the UK in 2004 to assist launching the BNP's European Parliament campaign and Nick Griffin repaid the favour by sending a delegation of BNP officials to the FN's annual 'First of May Joan of Arc parade' in Paris in 2006. The BNP has links with Germany's National Democratic Party (NPD). Griffin addressed an NPD rally in August 2002, headed by Udo Voigt, who Gerhard Schroeder accused of trying to remove immigrants from eastern Germany. According to Stop the BNP, NPD activists have attended BNP events in the UK. In the run-up to the 2004 European Parliament election campaign, Nick Griffin visited Sweden to give the National Democrat Party his endorsement. Members of the Swedish National Democrats were present at the BNP's Red White and Blue rally, which took place over the weekend of 20-21 August 2005. best RWB ever", BNP Website 22 August 2005. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Alleged front organisations Solidarity – The Union for British Workers Solidarity's president, Patrick Harrington, and the BNP both deny that Solidarity is a BNP front organization. "British workers get new voice" BNP Website, 26 January 2006. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Jeannie Trueman "Hack Attack on the Fighting Union - Solidarity" Third Way website. Retrieved 4 October 2008. Civil Liberty (UK) The Christian Council of Britain was set up by BNP members and supporters to organise Christians "in defence of traditional Christian values". Mainstream Christian groups have criticised the BNP for using Christianity to further its agenda. Giles Fraser: "God is the God of all" The Guardian 3 May, 2006 Jamie Doward: "BNP link to new campaign groups" The Observer 16 April, 2006 Relations with neo-Nazi, terrorist and paramilitary groups While Griffin was still a leading figure in the National Front, he was a close associate of Roberto Fiore, an Italian who, having fled to London, was convicted in absentia of belonging to the Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari, a terrorist group that was alleged to have carried out the Bologna massacre, which killed 85 people and injured 200 others in a railway station. Mail on Sunday, 1 July 1985 However, no connection to the bombing was ever proven, and the case is still open. The group Combat 18 (C18), was formed in 1992 (although not originally under this name), to act as stewards for BNP rallies, which were often attacked by groups such as Anti-Fascist Action. Dave Hann and Steve Tilzey, No Retreat: the Secret War between Britain's Anti-fascists and the Far Right (2003). ISBN 1-903854-22-9 C18's first publicly-acknowledged terror action was an incendiary attack on a Communist Party premises in March 1992. Larry O’Hara, "Combat 18 & MI5", in Lobster 30 (December 1995) The BNP did not repudiate the attack until nearly two years later, when John Tyndall did so in an Organisers Bulletin on 14 December 1993. In his bulletin, Tyndall acknowledged that C18 had set itself up as "the disciplinary enforcement apparatus of the BNP", and claimed that C18 had been infiltrated by state informers. Larry O'Hara, Turning Up the Heat: MI5 after the cold war (1994) In 2002, Adrian Marsden was elected as a councillor for the BNP, having previously had his house raided by the Special Branch in raids on Combat 18 supporters in 1999. When Tyndall was still chairman, the BNP's 1995 national rally was addressed by William Luther Pierce, the then-head of the US National Alliance. Pierce wrote the novel The Turner Diaries, allegedly an inspiration for Timothy McVeigh to carry out the Oklahoma City bombing which killed 168 people. The American Friends of the BNP, a party offshoot headed by Mark Cotterill, was still having extensive contacts with the National Alliance as recently as 2003; as documented at length by Nick Ryan in his book Homeland: Into A World of Hate. Redwatch, a website that publicises the names and addresses of left-wing and anti-fascist activists — and which has led to death threats, harassment and a knife attack — was set up by ex-BNP member Simon Sheppard in 2001. The BNP has warned its members not to use the website. David Copeland, who exploded nail bombs in the diverse communities of Brick Lane in the East End and Brixton and at the Admiral Duncan pub in the heart of London's homosexual community in Soho, was a former BNP member. Although the BNP distanced itself from Copeland, Griffin wrote in the aftermath of the bombing that homosexuals protesting against the murders were "flaunting their perversion in front of the world's journalists, [and] showed just why so many ordinary people find these creatures disgusting". Spearhead magazine, June 1999 The BNP has been accused of attempting to assimilate the Loyalist paramilitaries in Northern Ireland. Griffin has urged white nationalists to join the BNP and use the ballot box instead of violence if only for the sake of their judicial activism. Nick Griffin Confrontation 'politics' – in the past and staying there, BNP Website, January 2004. Retrieved 3 October 2008. Openly neo-Nazi groups such as the British Peoples Party, Blood and Honour, and the November 9th Society naturally oppose the BNP. Footnotes Bibliography Nigel Copsey: Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and its Quest for Legitimacy: Houndmills/New York: Palgrave Macmillan: 2004: ISBN 1403902143 Nigel Copsey and Andrew Renton (eds) British fascism, the Labour Movement and the State: Houndsmills: New York: Palgrave Macmillan: 2005: ISBN 1403939160 Andrew Sykes: The Radical Right in Britain: From Social Imperialism to the British National Party'': Houndsmills: New York: Palgrave Macmillan: 2005: ISBN 0333599241 External links BNP website BNP Manifesto 2005 on BBC.co.uk | British_National_Party |@lemmatized british:56 national:49 party:154 bnp:349 far:11 right:25 white:27 political:13 united:12 kingdom:10 represent:4 parliament:11 uk:21 general:15 election:72 receive:7 popular:5 vote:39 give:10 eighth:1 large:8 share:5 although:13 fifth:4 overall:2 among:3 english:7 constituency:6 welsh:7 assembly:12 come:10 term:2 regional:8 list:14 win:23 seat:44 also:28 finish:1 london:26 mayoral:4 well:9 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198 | Orgy_of_the_Dead | Orgy of the Dead is an unrated 1965 film directed by Stephen C. Apostolof under the alias A. C. Stephens and written by Ed Wood. It is something of a transition for Wood: it is a combination of horror and erotica, thus showing where Wood came from and where he was headed (pornography). Wood also wrote the novel of the same name. Plot summary The film's graveyard prologue is a recreation of the opening scene from Ed Wood's then-unreleased 1958 film Night of the Ghouls. Criswell reprises his role from the earlier film. The action begins when a young couple, Bob (William Bates) and Shirley (sexploitation starlet Pat Barrington, billed as Pat Barringer) survive a car crash only to find themselves tied to posts in a misty cemetery where they are forced to watch dead spirits dance for the Emperor of the Night played by Criswell (best known for Plan 9 From Outer Space). Ten striptease performances by topless dancers from beyond the grave outfitted in various motifs make up the bulk of this movie. The Wolf Man (wearing a very obvious mask) and The Mummy are also tossed in for a few comic relief bits. Barrington doubles as the blond Gold Girl (inspired by Shirley Eaton in Goldfinger) while her red-headed "Shirley" character watches her perform. Criswell's undead consort, the sexy Black Ghoul, was written for Maila Nurmi, a.k.a. Vampira, but was instead played by Fawn Silver, who wore a black bouffant wig. Wood served as writer, production manager, casting agent, and even held up cue cards on this low-budget film, although he did not direct. An in-depth article on the making of this film was published in Femme Fatales, 7:1 (June 1998). External links Orgy of the Dead at Internet Movie Database | Orgy_of_the_Dead |@lemmatized orgy:2 dead:3 unrated:1 film:6 direct:2 stephen:2 c:2 apostolof:1 alias:1 write:3 ed:2 wood:6 something:1 transition:1 combination:1 horror:1 erotica:1 thus:1 show:1 come:1 head:2 pornography:1 also:2 novel:1 name:1 plot:1 summary:1 graveyard:1 prologue:1 recreation:1 opening:1 scene:1 unreleased:1 night:2 ghoul:2 criswell:3 reprise:1 role:1 early:1 action:1 begin:1 young:1 couple:1 bob:1 william:1 bates:1 shirley:3 sexploitation:1 starlet:1 pat:2 barrington:2 bill:1 barringer:1 survive:1 car:1 crash:1 find:1 tie:1 post:1 misty:1 cemetery:1 force:1 watch:2 spirit:1 dance:1 emperor:1 play:2 best:1 know:1 plan:1 space:1 ten:1 striptease:1 performance:1 topless:1 dancer:1 beyond:1 grave:1 outfit:1 various:1 motif:1 make:1 bulk:1 movie:2 wolf:1 man:1 wear:2 obvious:1 mask:1 mummy:1 toss:1 comic:1 relief:1 bit:1 double:1 blond:1 gold:1 girl:1 inspire:1 eaton:1 goldfinger:1 red:1 character:1 perform:1 undead:1 consort:1 sexy:1 black:2 maila:1 nurmi:1 k:1 vampira:1 instead:1 fawn:1 silver:1 bouffant:1 wig:1 serve:1 writer:1 production:1 manager:1 cast:1 agent:1 even:1 hold:1 cue:1 card:1 low:1 budget:1 although:1 depth:1 article:1 making:1 publish:1 femme:1 fatales:1 june:1 external:1 link:1 internet:1 database:1 |@bigram night_ghoul:1 reprise_role:1 external_link:1 |
199 | Mindaugas | Mindaugas (, ca. 1200 – 12 September 1263) was the first known Grand Duke of Lithuania and the only King of Lithuania. Little is known of his origins, early life, or rise to power; he is mentioned in a 1219 treaty as an elder duke, and in 1236 as the leader of all the Lithuanians. The contemporary and modern sources discussing his ascent mention strategic marriages along with banishment or murder of his rivals. He extended his domain into regions southeast of Lithuania proper during the 1230s and 1240s. In 1250 or 1251, during the course of internal power struggles, he was baptised as a Roman Catholic; this action enabled him to establish an alliance with the Livonian Order, a long-standing antagonist of the Lithuanians. During the summer of 1253 he was crowned King of Lithuania, ruling between 300,000 and 400,000 subjects. While his ten-year reign was marked by various state-building accomplishments, his conflicts with relatives and other dukes continued, and western Lithuania strongly resisted the alliance's rule. His gains in the southeast were challenged by the Tatars. He broke with the Livonian Order in 1261, possibly renouncing Christianity, and was assassinated in 1263 by his nephew Treniota and another rival, Duke Daumantas. His three immediate successors were assassinated as well. The disorder was not resolved until Traidenis gained the title of Grand Duke ca. 1270. Although his reputation was unsettled during the following centuries and his descendants were not notable, he gained standing during the 19th and 20th centuries. Mindaugas was the only King of Lithuania; while most of the Lithuanian Grand Dukes from Jogaila onward also reigned as Kings of Poland, the titles remained separate. Now generally considered the founder of the Lithuanian state, he is also now credited with stopping the advance of the Tatars towards the Baltic Sea, establishing international recognition of Lithuania, and turning it towards Western civilization. In the 1990s the historian Edvardas Gudavičius published research supporting an exact coronation date – July 6, 1253. This day is now an official national holiday, Statehood Day. Origins, family, and name Because written sources covering the era are scarce, Mindaugas' origins and family tree have not been conclusively established. The Bychowiec Chronicles, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, have been discredited in this regard, since they assert an ancestry from the Palemonids, a noble family said to have originated within the Roman Empire. His year of birth, sometimes given as ca. 1200, is at other times left as a question mark. His father is mentioned in the Livonian Rhymed Chronicle as a powerful duke (ein kunic grôß), but is not named; later chronicles give his name as Ryngold. Dausprungas, mentioned in the text of a 1219 treaty, is presumed to have been his brother, and Dausprungas' sons Tautvilas and Gedvydas his nephews. He is thought to have had two sisters, one married to Vykintas and another to Daniel of Halych. Vykintas and his son Treniota played major roles in later power struggles. Mindaugas had at least two wives, Morta and Morta's sister, whose name is unknown, and possibly an earlier wife; her existence is presumed because two children – a son named Vaišvilkas and an unnamed daughter married to Svarn in 1255 – were already leading independent lives when Morta's children were still young. In addition to Vaišvilkas and his sister, two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, are mentioned in written sources. The latter two were assassinated along with Mindaugas. Information on his sons is limited and historians continue to discuss their number. He may have had two other sons whose names were later conflated by scribes into Ruklys and Rupeikis. In the 13th century Lithuania had little contact with foreign lands. Lithuanian names sounded obscure and unfamiliar to various chroniclers, who altered them to sound more like names in their native language. Mindaugas' name in historic texts was recorded in various distorted forms: Mindowe in Latin; Mindouwe, Myndow, Myndawe, and Mindaw in German; Mendog, Mondog, Mendoch, and Mindovg in Polish; and Mindovg, Mindog, and Mindowh in Russian, among others. Since Russian sources provide the most information about Mindaugas' life, they were judged the most reliable by linguists reconstructing his original Lithuanian name. The most popular Russian rendition was Mindovg, which can quite easily and naturally be reconstructed as Mindaugas or Mindaugis. In 1909 the Lithuanian linguist Kazimieras Būga published a research paper supporting the suffix -as, which has since been widely accepted. Mindaugas is an archaic disyllabic Lithuanian name, used before the Christianization of Lithuania, and consists of two components: min and daug. Its etymology may be traced to "daug menąs" (much wisdom) or "daugio minimas" (much fame). Rise to power Lithuania was ruled during the early 13th century by a number of dukes and princes presiding over various fiefdoms and tribes. They were loosely bonded by commonalities of religion and tradition, trade, kinship, joint military campaigns, and the presence of captured prisoners from neighboring areas. Western merchants and missionaries began seeking control of the area during the 12th century, establishing the city of Riga, Latvia in 1201. Their efforts in Lithuania were temporarily halted by defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236, but armed Christian orders continued to pose a threat. The country had also undergone incursions by the Mongol Empire. A treaty with Galicia-Volhynia, signed in 1219, is usually considered the first conclusive evidence that the Baltic tribes in the area were uniting in response to these threats. The treaty's signatories include twenty Lithuanian dukes and one dowager duchess; it specifies that five of these were elder and thus took precedence over the remaining sixteen. Mindaugas, despite his youth, as well as his brother Dausprungas are listed among the elder dukes, implying that they had inherited their titles. The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle describes him as the ruler of all Lithuania in 1236. His path to this title is not clear. Ruthenian chronicles mention that he murdered or expelled several other dukes, including his relatives. Historian S.C. Rowell has described his rise to power as taking place through "the familiar processes of marriage, murder and military conquest." During the 1230s and 1240s, Mindaugas strengthened and established his power in various Baltic and Slavic lands. Warfare in the region intensified; he battled German forces in Kurland, while the Tatars destroyed Kiev in 1240 and entered Poland in 1241, defeating two Polish armies and burning Kraków. The Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Saule temporarily stabilized the northern front, but the Christian orders continued to make gains along the Baltic coast, founding the cities of Gdansk (Danzig) and Klaipėda (Memel). Constrained in the north and west, Mindaugas moved to the east and southeast, conquering Nowogrodek, Grodno, Volkovysk, and the Principality of Polotsk. In about 1239 he appointed his son Vaišvilkas to govern these areas, then known as Black Ruthenia. In 1248, he sent his nephews Tautvilas and Edivydas, the sons of his brother Dausprungas, along with Vykintas, the Duke of Samogitia, to conquer Smolensk, but they were unsuccessful. His attempts to consolidate his rule in Lithuania met with mixed success; in 1249, an internal war erupted when he sought to seize his nephews' and Vykintas' lands. Path to coronation The Papal bull issued by Pope Innocent IV establishing Lithuania's placement under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, and discussing Mindaugas' baptism and coronation Šeiminyškėliai Hillfort, possibly the site of Voruta Castle, alleged capital of Mindaugas Tautvilas, Edivydas, and Vykintas formed a powerful coalition in opposition to Mindaugas, along with the Samogitians of western Lithuania, the Livonian Order, Daniel of Galicia (Tautvilas and Edivydas' brother-in-law), and Vasilko of Volhynia. The princes of Galicia and Volhynia managed to gain control over Black Ruthenia, disrupting Vaišvilkas' supremacy. Tautvilas strengthened his position by traveling to Riga and accepting baptism by the Archbishop. In 1250, the Order organized a major raid through the lands of Nalšia into the domains of Mindaugas in Lithuania proper, and a raid into those parts of Samogitia that still supported him. Attacked from the north and south and facing the possibility of unrest elsewhere, Mindaugas was placed in an extremely difficult position, but managed to use the conflicts between the Livonian Order and the Archbishop of Riga to further his own interests. He succeeded in bribing Order Master Andreas von Stierland, who was still angry at Vykintas for the defeat at the Battle of Saule in 1236, by sending him "many gifts". In 1250 or 1251, Mindaugas agreed to receive baptism and relinquish control over some lands in western Lithuania, in return for an acknowledgment by Pope Innocent IV as king. The Pope welcomed a Christian Lithuania as a bulwark against Mongol threats; in turn, Mindaugas sought papal intervention in the ongoing Lithuanian conflicts with the Christian orders. On July 17, 1251, the pope signed two crucial papal bulls. One ordered the Bishop of Chełm to crown Mindaugas as King of Lithuania, appoint a bishop for Lithuania, and build a cathedral. The other bull specified that the new bishop was to be directly subordinate to the Holy See, rather than to the Archbishop of Riga. This autonomy was a welcome development. The precise date of Mindaugas' baptism is not known. His wife, two sons, and members of his court were baptized; Pope Innocent wrote later that a multitude of Mindaugas' subjects also received Christianity. The process of coronation and the establishment of Christian institutions would take two years. Internal conflicts persisted; during the spring or summer of 1251, Tautvilas and his remaining allies attacked Mindaugas' warriors and the Livonian Order's crossbow-men in Voruta Castle. The attack failed, and Tautvilas' forces retreated to defend themselves in Tviremet Castle (presumed to be Tverai in Samogitia). Vykintas died in 1251 or 1252, and Tautvilas was forced to rejoin Daniel of Galicia. The Kingdom of Lithuania The act granting Selonia, marked with Mindaugas' seal (the only surviving contemporary depiction of Mindaugas) Mindaugas and his wife Morta were crowned during the summer of 1253. Bishop Henry Heidenreich of Kulm presided over the ecclesiastical ceremonies and Andreas Stirland conferred the crown. 6 July is now celebrated as Statehood Day (Lithuanian: Valstybės diena); it is an official holiday in modern Lithuania. Lietuvos Respublikos švenčių dienų įstatymas, Žin., 1990, Nr. 31-757, Seimas. Retrieved on 2006-09-17. The exact date of the coronation is not known; the scholarship of historian Edvardas Gudavičius, who promulgated this precise date, is sometimes challenged. The location of the coronation also remains unknown. Relative peace and stability prevailed for about eight years. Mindaugas used this opportunity to concentrate on the expansion to the east, and to establish and organize state institutions. He strengthened his influence in Black Ruthenia, in Polatsk, a major center of commerce in the Daugava River basin, and in Pinsk. He also negotiated a peace with Galicia-Volhynia, and married his daughter to Svarn, the son of Daniel of Galicia, who would later become Grand Duke of Lithuania. Lithuanian relationships with western Europe and the Holy See were reinforced. In 1255, Mindaugas received permission from Pope Alexander IV to crown his son as King of Lithuania. A noble court, an administrative system, and a diplomatic service were initiated. Silver long coins, an index of statehood, were issued. He sponsored the construction of a cathedral in Vilnius, possibly on the site of today's Vilnius Cathedral. The earliest religious texts in the Lithuanian language appeared at this time. Immediately after his coronation, Mindaugas transferred some lands to the Livonian Order – portions of Samogitia, Nadruva, Selonia, and Dainava — although his control over these western lands was tenuous. There has been much discussion among historians as to whether in later years (1255, 1257, and 1259) Mindaugas gave even more lands to the order. The deeds might have been falsified by the order; the case for this scenario is bolstered by the fact that some of the documents mention lands that were not actually under the control of Mindaugas. Mindaugas and his antagonist Daniel reached a reconciliation in 1255; the Black Ruthenian lands were transferred to Roman, Daniel's son. Afterwards Mindaugas's son Vaišvilkas received baptism as a member of the Orthodox faith, becoming a monk and later founding a convent and monastery. Tautvilas's antagonism was temporarily resolved when he recognized Mindaugas' superiority and received Polatsk as a fiefdom. A direct confrontation with the Tatars occurred in 1258 or 1259, when Berke Khan sent his general Burundai to challenge Lithuanian rule, ordering Daniel and other regional princes to participate. The Novgorod Chronicle describes the following action as a defeat, but it has also been seen as a net gain for Mindaugas. A single sentence in the Hypatian Chronicle mentions Mindaugas defending himself in Voruta against his nephews and Duke Vykintis; two other sources mention "his castle". The location of Voruta is not specified, and this has led to considerable speculation, along with archeological research, concerning the seat of his court. Fourteen different locations have been proposed, including Kernavė and Vilnius. The ongoing formal archeological digs at Kernavė began in 1979 after a portion of the site named "Mindaugas Throne hill-fort" collapsed. The town now hosts a major celebration on Statehood Day. Assassination The Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries The Livonian Order used their alliance with Mindaugas to gain control over Samogitian lands. In 1252 he approved the Order's construction of Klaipeda Castle. Their governance, however, was seen as oppressive. Local merchants could only conduct transactions via Order-approved intermediaries; inheritance laws were changed; and the choices among marriage partners and residencies were restricted. Several pitched battles ensued. In 1259 the Order lost the Battle of Skuodas, and in 1260 it lost the Battle of Durbe. The first defeat encouraged a rebellion by the Semigalians, and the defeat at Durbe spurred the Prussians into the Great Prussian Rebellion, which lasted for 14 years. Encouraged by these developments and by his nephew Treniota, Mindaugas broke peace with the Order. The gains he had expected from Christianization had proven to be minor. Mindaugas may have reverted to paganism afterwards. His motivation for conversion is often described by modern historians as merely strategic. The case for his apostasy rests largely on two near-contemporary sources: a 1324 assertion by Pope John XXII that Mindaugas had returned to error, and the Galician-Volhynian Chronicle. The chronicler writes that Mindaugas continued to practice paganism, making sacrifices to his god, burning corpses, and conducting pagan rites in public. Historians have pointed to the possibility of bias in this account, since Mindaugas had been at war with Volhynia. Pope Clement IV, on the other hand, wrote in 1268 of "Mindaugas of happy memory" (clare memorie Mindota), expressing regret at his murder. In any event, the Lithuanians were not prepared to accept Christianity, and Mindaugas' baptism had little impact on further developments. The majority of the population and the nobility remained pagan; his subjects were not required to convert. The cathedral he had built in Vilnius was superseded by a pagan temple, and all the diplomatic achievements made after his coronation were lost, although the practice of Christianity and intermarriage were well-tolerated. Regional conflicts with the Order escalated. Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod, Tautvilas, and Tautvilas's son Constantine agreed to form a coalition in opposition to Mindaugas, but their plans were unsuccessful. Treniota emerged as the leader of the Samogitian resistance; he led an army to Cēsis (now in Latvia), reaching the Estonian coast, and battled Masovia (now in Poland). His goal was to encourage all the conquered Baltic tribes to rise up against the Christian orders and unite under Lithuanian leadership. His personal influence grew while Mindaugas was concentrating on the conquest of Ruthenian lands, dispatching a large army to Bryansk. Treniota and Mindaugas began to pursue different priorities. The Rhymed Chronicle mentions Mindaugas's displeasure at the fact that Treniota did not create any alliances in Latvia or Estonia; he may have come to prefer diplomacy. In the midst of these events Mindaugas' wife Morta died, and he took her sister, Daumantas' wife, as his own. In retaliation, Daumantas and Treniota assassinated Mindaugas and two of his sons in 1263. He was buried along with his horses, in accordance with ancestral tradition. After Mindaugas' death, Lithuania lapsed into internal disorder. Three of his successors - Treniota, his son-in-law Svarn, and his son Vaišvilkas - were assassinated during the next seven years. Stability did not return until the reign of Traidenis, designated Grand Duke ca. 1270. Legacy Litas Commemorative coin dedicated to King Mindaugas, with the inscription Mindaugas Lithuania's King Mindaugas held a dubious position in Lithuanian historiography until the Lithuanian national revival of the 19th century. While pagan sympathizers held him in disregard for betraying his religion, Christians saw his support as lukewarm. He received only passing references from Grand Duke Gediminas and was not mentioned at all by Vytautas the Great. His known family relations end with his children; no historic records note any connections between his descendants and the Gediminids dynasty that ruled Lithuania and Poland until 1572. A 17th-century rector of Vilnius University held him responsible for the troubles then being experienced by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ("the seed of internal discord among the Lithuanians had been sown".) A 20th-century historian charged him with the "destruction of the organization of the Lithuanian state". The first academic study of his life by a Lithuanian scholar, Jonas Totoraitis (Die Litauer unter dem König Mindowe bis zum Jahre 1263) was not published until 1905. In the 1990s historian Edvardas Gudavičius published his findings pinpointing a coronation date, which became a national holiday. The 750th anniversary of his coronation was marked in 2003 by the dedication of the Mindaugas Bridge in Vilnius, numerous festivals and concerts, and visits from other heads of state. Mindaugas is the primary subject of the 1829 drama Mindowe, by Juliusz Słowacki, one of the Three Bards. He has been portrayed in several 20th-century literary works: the Latvian author Martinš Ziverts's tragedy Vara (Power, 1944), Justinas Marcinkevičius's drama-poem Mindaugas (1968), Romualdas Granauskas' Jaučio aukojimas (The Offering of the Bull, 1975), and Juozas Kralikauskas's Mindaugas (1995). See also History of Lithuania (1219–1295) List of rulers of Lithuania List of rulers of Belarus Early dukes of Lithuania References be-x-old:Міндоўг | Mindaugas |@lemmatized mindaugas:59 ca:4 september:1 first:4 know:5 grand:7 duke:17 lithuania:31 king:9 little:3 origin:3 early:5 life:4 rise:4 power:7 mention:11 treaty:4 elder:3 leader:2 lithuanian:23 contemporary:3 modern:3 source:6 discuss:3 ascent:1 strategic:2 marriage:3 along:7 banishment:1 murder:4 rival:2 extend:1 domain:2 region:2 southeast:3 proper:2 course:1 internal:5 struggle:2 baptise:1 roman:3 catholic:1 action:2 enable:1 establish:7 alliance:4 livonian:9 order:22 long:2 stand:2 antagonist:2 summer:3 crown:5 rule:6 subject:4 ten:1 year:7 reign:3 mark:4 various:5 state:5 building:1 accomplishment:1 conflict:5 relative:3 continue:5 western:7 strongly:1 resist:1 gain:8 challenge:3 tatar:4 break:2 possibly:4 renounce:1 christianity:4 assassinate:5 nephew:5 treniota:8 another:2 daumantas:3 three:3 immediate:1 successor:2 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