Datasets:

masakhane

/

afriqa_wiki_en_fr_100

like 2

Follow

Masakhane NLP 88

system outperforms a commercial computational mathematical knowledge engine on a test set. MathQA methods need to combine natural and formula language. One possible approach is to perform supervised annotation via Entity Linking. The "ARQMath Task" at CLEF 2020 was launched to address the problem of linking newly posted questions from the platform Math Stack Exchange (MSE) to existing ones that were already answered by the community. The lab was motivated by the fact that Mansouri et al. discovered that 20% of the mathematical queries in general-purpose search engines are expressed as well-formed questions. It contained two separate sub

Question answering

-tasks. Task 1: "Answer retrieval" matching old post answers to newly posed questions and Task 2: "Formula retrieval" matching old post formulae to new questions. Starting with the domain of mathematics, which involves formula language, the goal is to later extend the task to other domains (e.g., STEM disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, etc.), which employ other types of special notation (e.g., chemical formulae). Progress. Question answering systems have been extended in recent years to encompass additional domains of knowledge For example, systems have been developed to automatically answer temporal and geospatial questions, questions of definition and terminology, biographical questions

Question answering

, multilingual questions, and questions about the content of audio, images, and video. Current question answering research topics include: In 2011, Watson, a question answering computer system developed by IBM, competed in two exhibition matches of "Jeopardy!" against Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, winning by a significant margin. Facebook Research has made their DrQA system available under an open source license. This system has been used for open domain question answering using Wikipedia as knowledge source. Question answering Question answering (QA) is a computer science discipline within the fields of information retrieval and natural language processing (NLP), which is concerned with

Question answering

Ruben Lagus Ruben Lagus Ernst Ruben Lagus (12 October 1896 – 15 July 1959), better known as Ruben Lagus, was a Finnish major general, a member of the Jäger Movement and the recipient of the first Mannerheim Cross. He participated in the Eastern Front of World War I as a volunteer of the 27th Royal Prussian Jäger Battalion, in the Finnish Civil War as battalion commander and as a supply officer in the Winter War. During the Continuation War, he commanded an armoured brigade, later division, which had a significant role in the influential Battle of Tali-Ihantala. Early life. Ernst Ruben Lagus

Ruben Lagus

was born on 12 October 1896 in Koski Hl, Grand Duchy of Finland to parents Aleksander Gabriel Lagus and Emma Matilda Bellman. He became involved in the Jäger Movement, where Finnish volunteers received military training in Germany, and followed his brother to Germany in 1915. While in Germany, the Finnish volunteers formed the 27th Royal Prussian Jäger Battalion, fighting for the Imperial German Army on the Eastern Front of World War I. During this time, Lagus saw combat in several battles in the regions of Misa, Gulf of Riga and Lielupe. Lagus returned to Finland on 25 February 1918, joining

Ruben Lagus

the Finnish Civil War on the side of the Whites. As a commander of a battalion and an adjutant of a regiment, he took part in the Battles of Tampere, Kuokkala and Ollila. Career in the Finnish Army. Following the end of the civil war, from 1918 to 1927 Lagus served as a company commander in various units. He was promoted captain in 1919 and major in 1924. In 1927 and 1928, he commanded the 3rd Bicycle Battalion, followed by postings as the commander of a Non-commissioned Officer School from 1928 to 1929 and as the commander of a

Ruben Lagus

company of officer cadets in the Finnish Cadet School from 1929 to 1933. In 1933, Lagus was made the commander of a supply battalion, later regiment, holding the posting until the start of the Finno-Soviet Winter War in late 1939. During the war, which ended in early 1940, he served as the supply chief for the Army of the Isthmus. Promoted to colonel in 1940, Lagus was given command of the Bicycle Brigade and then the Jäger Brigade during the Interim Peace. In the Continuation War, where Finland attacked the Soviet Union alongside Germany, Lagus initially led the 1st

Ruben Lagus

Jäger Brigade in the Finnish invasion of Ladoga Karelia. The unit was the first armored formation of meaningful size in the history of the Finnish Army. His forces were the first Finnish units to cross the pre-Winter War Finno-Soviet border, advancing eventually to Svir and Petrozavodsk as part of the Finnish invasion of East Karelia. During this initial offensive phase, Lagus was briefly given command of the 5th Division, but had to relinguish the posting to Ilmari Karhu who was preferred by the Finnish commander-in-chief Marshal Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim. He was promoted to major general

Ruben Lagus

in 1941 and, on 22 July 1941, received the first Mannerheim Cross ever granted. From 1942 to the end of the Continuation War in 1944, Lagus commanded the Finnish Armoured Division, to which the 1st Jäger Brigade was attached. Following the start of the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive in 1944, his division took part in the highly influential Battle of Tali-Ihantala which repulsed the Soviet strategic offensive, paving the way for a Finnish exit from the war. Following the Moscow Armistice which ended the war between Finland and Soviet Union, Lagus led a formation known as Group Lagus during

Ruben Lagus

the Lapland War in which the Finns expelled the remaining German forces from Finnish Lapland. From 1945 onwards, Lagus served as the commander of the 2nd Division, before resigning from service in 1947. Later years and legacy. Following his retirement, Lagus became the chief executive officer of Lohjan Sato Oy, a Finnish limited company which built social housing in the Lohja region. He also took up gardening as a hobby. Lagus died on 15 July 1959 in Lohja. Lagus was married twice. His first marriage, with Olga Johanna (Jane) Ramsay ran from 1921 to 1927, after which he married Kenny

Ruben Lagus

Christine Emilia Gadd in 1935. He had a total of six children across the two marriages. During his life, Lagus was given several military awards. The most notable of these is the Finnish Mannerheim Cross he received in 1941. His other notable awards include the Finnish Order of the Cross of Liberty and Order of the White Rose, the German Iron Cross (both 1st and 2nd class), and the Swedish Order of the Sword. Ruben Lagus Ernst Ruben Lagus (12 October 1896 – 15 July 1959), better known as Ruben Lagus, was a Finnish major general, a member of the Jäger

Ruben Lagus

Ordnance Survey National Grid Ordnance Survey National Grid The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system (also known as British National Grid (BNG)) is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, distinct from latitude and longitude. The Ordnance Survey (OS) devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys, whether published by the Ordnance Survey or by commercial map producers. Grid references are also commonly quoted in other publications and data sources, such as guide books and government planning documents. A number of different systems exist that can provide

Ordnance Survey National Grid

grid references for locations within the British Isles: this article describes the system created solely for Great Britain and its outlying islands (including the Isle of Man); the Irish grid reference system was a similar system created by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland and the Ordnance Survey of Northern Ireland for the island of Ireland. The Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (UTM) is used to provide grid references for worldwide locations, and this is the system commonly used for the Channel Islands and Ireland (since 2001). European-wide agencies also use UTM when mapping locations, or may use the Military

Ordnance Survey National Grid

Grid Reference System (MGRS), or variants of it. Grid letters. The first letter of the British National Grid is derived from a larger set of 25 squares of size 500 km by 500 km, labelled A to Z, omitting one letter (I) (refer diagram below), previously used as a military grid. Four of these largest squares contain significant land area within Great Britain: S, T, N and H. The O square contains a tiny area of North Yorkshire, Beast Cliff at , almost all of which lies below mean high tide. For the second letter, each 500 km square is subdivided

Ordnance Survey National Grid

into 25 squares of size 100 km by 100 km, each with a letter code from A to Z (again omitting I) starting with A in the north-west corner to Z in the south-east corner. These squares are outlined in light grey on the "100km squares" map, with those containing land lettered. The central (2° W) meridian is shown in red. Grid digits. Within each square, "eastings" and "northings" from the south west corner of the square are given numerically. For example, NH0325 means a 1 km square whose south-west corner is 3 km east

Ordnance Survey National Grid

and 25 km north from the south-west corner of square NH. A location can be indicated to varying resolutions numerically, usually from two digits in each coordinate (for a 1 km square) through to five (for a 1 m square); in each case the first half of the digits is for the first coordinate and the second half for the other. The most common usage is the "six figure grid reference", employing three digits in each coordinate to determine a 100 m square. For example, the grid reference of the 100 m square containing the summit of Ben Nevis

Ordnance Survey National Grid

is . (Grid references may be written with or without spaces; e.g., also NN166712.) NN has an easting of 200 km and northing of 700 km, so the OSGB36 National Grid location for Ben Nevis is at 216600, 771200. All-numeric grid references. Grid references may also be quoted as a pair of numbers: eastings then northings in metres, measured from the southwest corner of the SV square. Note that 14 digits may be required for locations in Orkney and further north. For example, the grid reference for Sullom Voe oil terminal in the Shetland Islands may be given as or

Ordnance Survey National Grid

. Another, distinct, form of all-numeric grid reference is an abbreviated alphanumeric reference where the letters are simply omitted, e.g. 166712 for the summit of Ben Nevis. Unlike the numeric references described above, this abbreviated grid reference is incomplete; it gives the location relative to an OS 100×100 km square, but does not specify which square. It is often used informally when the context identifies the OS 2-letter square. For example, within the context of a location known to be on OS Landranger sheet 41 (which extends from NN000500 in the south-west to NN400900 in the north-east

Ordnance Survey National Grid

) the abbreviated grid reference 166712 is equivalent to NN166712. If working with more than one Landranger sheet, this may also be given as 41/166712. Alternatively, sometimes numbers instead of the two-letter combinations are used for the 100×100 km squares. The numbering follows a grid index where the tens denote the progress from West to East and the units from South to North. In the north of Scotland, the numbering is modified: the 100 km square to the north of 39 is numbered N30; the square to the north of 49 is N40, etc. Compatibility with related systems. The grid

Ordnance Survey National Grid

is based on the "OSGB36" datum (Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936, based on the Airy 1830 ellipsoid), and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–1962. It replaced the previously used Cassini Grid which, up to the end of World War II, had been issued only to the military. The Airy ellipsoid is a regional best fit for Britain; more modern mapping tends to use the GRS80 ellipsoid used by the Global Positioning System (the Airy ellipsoid assumes the Earth to be about 1 km smaller in diameter than the GRS80 ellipsoid, and to be slightly less flattened). The British maps

Ordnance Survey National Grid

adopt a transverse Mercator projection with an origin (the "true" origin) at 49° N, 2° W (an offshore point in the English Channel which lies between the island of Jersey and the French port of St. Malo). Over the Airy ellipsoid a straight line grid, the National Grid, is placed with a new false origin to eliminate negative numbers, creating a 700 km by 1300 km grid. This false origin is located south-west of the Isles of Scilly. In order to minimize the overall scale error, a factor of 2499/2500 is applied. This creates two lines of

Ordnance Survey National Grid

longitude about 180 km east and west of the central meridian along which the local scale factor equals 1, i.e. map scale is correct. Inside these lines the local scale factor is less than 1, with a minimum of 0.04% too small at the central meridian. Outside these lines the local scale factor is greater than 1, and is about 0.04% too large near the east and west coasts. Grid north and true north are only aligned on the central meridian (400 km easting) of the grid which is 2° W (OSGB36) and approx. (WGS 84). OSGB 36 was

Ordnance Survey National Grid

also used by Admiralty nautical charts until 2000 after which WGS 84 has been used. A geodetic transformation between OSGB 36 and other terrestrial reference systems (like ITRF2000, ETRS89, or WGS 84) can become quite tedious if attempted manually. The most common transformation is called the Helmert datum transformation, which results in a typical 7 m error from true. The definitive transformation from ETRS89 that is published by the Ordnance Survey is called the National Grid Transformation OSTN15. This models the detailed distortions in the 1936–1962 retriangulation, and achieves backwards compatibility in grid coordinates to sub-metre accuracy. Datum shift

Ordnance Survey National Grid

between OSGB 36 and WGS 84. The difference between the coordinates on different datums varies from place to place. The longitude and latitude positions on OSGB 36 are the same as for WGS 84 at a point in the Atlantic Ocean well to the west of Great Britain. In Cornwall, the WGS 84 longitude "lines" are about 70 metres east of their OSGB 36 equivalents, this value rising gradually to about 120 m east on the east coast of East Anglia. The WGS 84 latitude "lines" are about 70 m south of the OSGB 36 lines in South Cornwall, the

Ordnance Survey National Grid

difference diminishing to zero in the Scottish Borders, and then increasing to about 50 m north on the north coast of Scotland. (If the "lines" are further "east", then the longitude "value" of any given point is further "west". Similarly, if the lines are further south, the values will give the point a more northerly latitude.) The smallest datum shift is on the west coast of Scotland and the greatest in Kent. Datum shift between OSGB 36 and ED 50. These two datums are not both in general use in any one place, but for a point in the English

Ordnance Survey National Grid

Channel halfway between Dover and Calais, the ED50 longitude lines are about 20 m east of the OSGB36 equivalents, and the ED50 latitude lines are about 150 m south of the OSGB36 ones. Ordnance Survey National Grid The Ordnance Survey National Grid reference system (also known as British National Grid (BNG)) is a system of geographic grid references used in Great Britain, distinct from latitude and longitude. The Ordnance Survey (OS) devised the national grid reference system, and it is heavily used in their survey data, and in maps based on those surveys, whether published by the Ordnance Survey or

Ordnance Survey National Grid

Free product Free product In mathematics, specifically group theory, the free product is an operation that takes two groups "G" and "H" and constructs a new The result contains both "G" and "H" as subgroups, is generated by the elements of these subgroups, and is the “universal” group having these properties, in the sense that any two homomorphisms from "G" and "H" into a group "K" factor uniquely through a homomorphism from to "K". Unless one of the groups "G" and "H" is trivial, the free product is always infinite. The construction of a free product is similar in spirit to the

Free product

construction of a free group (the universal group with a given set of generators). The free product is the coproduct in the category of groups. That is, the free product plays the same role in group theory that disjoint union plays in set theory, or that the direct sum plays in module theory. Even if the groups are commutative, their free product is not, unless one of the two groups is the trivial group. Therefore, the free product is not the coproduct in the category of abelian groups. The free product is important in algebraic topology because of van Kampen

Free product

's theorem, which states that the fundamental group of the union of two path-connected topological spaces whose intersection is also path-connected is always an amalgamated free product of the fundamental groups of the spaces. In particular, the fundamental group of the wedge sum of two spaces (i.e. the space obtained by joining two spaces together at a single point) is simply the free product of the fundamental groups of the spaces. Free products are also important in Bass–Serre theory, the study of groups acting by automorphisms on trees. Specifically, any group acting with finite vertex stabilizers on

Free product

a tree may be constructed from finite groups using amalgamated free products and HNN extensions. Using the action of the modular group on a certain tessellation of the hyperbolic plane, it follows from this theory that the modular group is isomorphic to the free product of cyclic groups of orders 4 and 6 amalgamated over a cyclic group of order 2. Construction. If "G" and "H" are groups, a word in "G" and "H" is a product of the form where each "s" is either an element of "G" or an element of "H". Such a word may be reduced

Free product

using the following operations: Every reduced word is an alternating product of elements of "G" and elements of "H", e.g. The free product "G" ∗ "H" is the group whose elements are the reduced words in "G" and "H", under the operation of concatenation followed by reduction. For example, if "G" is the infinite cyclic group formula_3, and "H" is the infinite cyclic group formula_4, then every element of "G" ∗ "H" is an alternating product of powers of "x" with powers of "y". In this case, "G" ∗ "H" is isomorphic to the free group generated by "x" and

Free product

y. Presentation. Suppose that is a presentation for "G" (where "S" is a set of generators and "R" is a set of relations), and suppose that is a presentation for "H". Then That is, "G" ∗ "H" is generated by the generators for "G" together with the generators for "H", with relations consisting of the relations from "G" together with the relations from "H" (assume here no notational clashes so that these are in fact disjoint unions). Examples. For example, suppose that "G" is a cyclic group of order 4, and "H" is a cyclic group of order 5 Then

Free product

G ∗ "H" is the infinite group Because there are no relations in a free group, the free product of free groups is always a free group. In particular, where "F" denotes the free group on "n" generators. Another example is the modular group formula_12. It is isomorphic to the free product of two cyclic groups Generalization: Free product with amalgamation. The more general construction of free product with amalgamation is correspondingly a special kind of pushout in the same category. Suppose formula_14 and formula_15 are given as before, along with monomorphisms (i.e. injective group homomorphisms): where formula_18 is some

Free product

arbitrary group. Start with the free product formula_19 and adjoin as relations for every formula_21 in formula_18. In other words, take the smallest normal subgroup formula_23 of formula_19 containing all elements on the left-hand side of the above equation, which are tacitly being considered in formula_19 by means of the inclusions of formula_14 and formula_15 in their free product. The free product with amalgamation of formula_14 and formula_15, with respect to formula_30 and formula_31, is the quotient group The amalgamation has forced an identification between formula_33 in formula_14 with formula_35 in formula_15, element by element. This is the construction

Free product

needed to compute the fundamental group of two connected spaces joined along a path-connected subspace, with formula_18 taking the role of the fundamental group of the subspace. See: Seifert–van Kampen theorem. Karrass and Solitar have given a description of the subgroups of a free product with amalgamation. For example, the homomorphisms from formula_14 and formula_15 to the quotient group formula_40 that are induced by formula_30 and formula_31 are both injective, as is the induced homomorphism from formula_18. Free products with amalgamation and a closely related notion of HNN extension are basic building blocks in Bass–Serre theory of

Free product

groups acting on trees. In other branches. One may similarly define free products of other algebraic structures than groups, including algebras over a field. Free products of algebras of random variables play the same role in defining "freeness" in the theory of free probability that Cartesian products play in defining statistical independence in classical probability theory. Free product In mathematics, specifically group theory, the free product is an operation that takes two groups "G" and "H" and constructs a new The result contains both "G" and "H" as subgroups, is generated by the elements of these subgroups, and is the

Free product

Cherwell District Cherwell District Cherwell ( ) is a local government district in northern Oxfordshire, England. The district takes its name from the River Cherwell, which drains south through the region to flow into the River Thames at Oxford. Towns in Cherwell include Banbury and Bicester. Kidlington is a contender for largest village in England. The district was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by a merger of the municipal borough of Banbury, Bicester urban district, Banbury Rural District and Ploughley Rural District. Geography. The Northern half of the Cherwell district consists mainly of soft rolling hills going down

Cherwell District

towards the River Cherwell, but the southern half of the district around Bicester is much flatter. Much of the district is soft rolling hills with the northwest of the district lying at the northern extremity of the Cotswolds. Transport. Much of the district is within easy reach of the M40, with junctions 9, 10 and 11 in the district. It also has good rail links with London, Birmingham, Oxford and the South. Politics. Elections to the council are held in three out of every four years, with one third of the 48 seats on the council being elected at each

Cherwell District

election. Since the 2000 election the Conservative party has had a majority on the council. This followed 2 years of no overall control, in turn preceded by 2 years of control by Labour. Following the 2021 election, the make-up of the council is as follows: Recycling in Cherwell. Cherwell district has one of the country's highest recycling rates at over 40% (2005). The district used to have a recycling rate of just 9%. This changed with the introduction of the blue box scheme for recycling paper, which has since grown to include plastic, cardboard and cans. Kidlington has

Cherwell District

its own freecycling group. Food safety enforcement. Cherwell District came top of a "Which?" study that ranked 395 local authorities in Britain on their record of enforcement of food safety regulations. Leisure Provision. Cherwell District provides a range of leisure and sporting facilities to local residents, catering to a range of sports through their leisure centres and open spaces. Cherwell District Cherwell ( ) is a local government district in northern Oxfordshire, England. The district takes its name from the River Cherwell, which drains south through the region to flow into the River Thames at Oxford. Towns in Cherwell include Banbury and

Cherwell District

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (; 7 September 1707 – 16 April 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopédiste. His works influenced the next two generations of naturalists, including two prominent French scientists Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Georges Cuvier. Buffon published thirty-six quarto volumes of his "Histoire Naturelle" during his lifetime, with additional volumes based on his notes and further research being published in the two decades following his death. Ernst Mayr wrote that "Truly, Buffon was the father of all thought in natural history in the second half of the 18th

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

century". Credited with being one of the first naturalists to recognize ecological succession, he was later forced by the theology committee at the University of Paris to recant his theories about geological history and animal evolution because they contradicted the Biblical narrative of Creation. Buffon held the position of "intendant" (director) at the Jardin du Roi, now called the Jardin des Plantes. Early life. Georges Louis Leclerc (later Comte de Buffon) was born at Montbard, in the Province of Burgundy to Benjamin Francois Leclerc, a minor local official in charge of the salt tax and Anne-Christine Marlin also from

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

a family of civil servants. Georges was named after his mother's uncle (his godfather) Georges Blaisot, the tax-farmer of the Duke of Savoy for all of Sicily. In 1714 Blaisot died childless, leaving a considerable fortune to his seven-year-old godson. Benjamin Leclerc then purchased an estate containing the nearby village of Buffon and moved the family to Dijon acquiring various offices there as well as a seat in the Dijon Parlement. Georges attended the Jesuit College of Godrans in Dijon from the age of ten onwards. From 1723 to 1726 he then studied law in Dijon

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

, the prerequisite for continuing the family tradition in civil service. In 1728 Georges left Dijon to study mathematics and medicine at the University of Angers in France. At Angers in 1730 he made the acquaintance of the young English Duke of Kingston, who was on his grand tour of Europe, and traveled with him on a large and expensive entourage for a year and a half through southern France and parts of Italy. There are persistent but completely undocumented rumors from this period about duels, abductions and secret trips to England. In 1732 after the death of his mother and

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

before the impending remarriage of his father, Georges left Kingston and returned to Dijon to secure his inheritance. Having added 'de Buffon' to his name while traveling with the Duke, he repurchased the village of Buffon, which his father had meanwhile sold off. With a fortune of about 80,000 livres Buffon set himself up in Paris to pursue science, at first primarily mathematics and mechanics, and the increase of his fortune. Career. In 1732 he moved to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Voltaire and other intellectuals. He lived in the Faubourg Saint-Germain, with Gilles-François Boulduc, first

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

apothecary of the King, professor of chemistry at the Royal Garden of Plants, member of the Academy of Sciences. He first made his mark in the field of mathematics and, in his ("On the game of fair-square"), introduced differential and integral calculus into probability theory; the problem of Buffon's needle in probability theory is named after him. In 1734 he was admitted to the French Academy of Sciences. During this period he corresponded with the Swiss mathematician Gabriel Cramer. His protector Maurepas had asked the Academy of Sciences to do research on wood for the construction of ships

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

in 1733. Soon afterward, Buffon began a long-term study, performing some of the most comprehensive tests to date on the mechanical properties of wood. Included were a series of tests to compare the properties of small specimens with those of large members. After carefully testing more than a thousand small specimens without knots or other defects, Buffon concluded that it was not possible to extrapolate to the properties of full-size timbers, and he began a series of tests on full-size structural members. In 1739 he was appointed head of the Parisian Jardin du Roi with the help

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

of Maurepas; he held this position to the end of his life. Buffon was instrumental in transforming the Jardin du Roi into a major research center and museum. He also enlarged it, arranging the purchase of adjoining plots of land and acquiring new botanical and zoological specimens from all over the world. Thanks to his talent as a writer, he was invited to join Paris's second great academy, the Académie française in 1753 and then in 1768 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. In his ("Discourse on Style"), pronounced before the Académie française, he said, "Writing well

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

consists of thinking, feeling and expressing well, of clarity of mind, soul and taste ... The style is the man himself" (""). Unfortunately for him, Buffon's reputation as a literary stylist also gave ammunition to his detractors: The mathematician Jean le Rond D'Alembert, for example, called him "the great phrase-monger". In 1752 Buffon married Marie-Françoise de Saint-Belin-Malain, the daughter of an impoverished noble family from Burgundy, who had been enrolled in the convent school run by his sister. Madame de Buffon's second child, a son born in 1764, survived childhood; she herself died in 1769. When

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

in 1772 Buffon became seriously ill and the promise that his son (then only 8) should succeed him as director of the Jardin became clearly impracticable and was withdrawn, the King raised Buffon's estates in Burgundy to the status of a county – and thus Buffon (and his son) became a count. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782. Buffon died in Paris in 1788. He was buried in a chapel adjacent to the church of Sainte-Urse Montbard; during the French Revolution, his tomb was broken into and the

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

lead that covered the coffin was ransacked to produce bullets. His heart was initially saved, as it was guarded by Suzanne Necker (wife of Jacques Necker), but was later lost. Today, only Buffon's cerebellum remains, as it is kept in the base of the statue by Pajou that Louis XVI had commissioned in his honor in 1776, located at the Museum of Natural History in Paris. Works. Buffon's "Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière" (1749–1788: in 36 volumes; an additional volume based on his notes appeared in 1789) was originally intended to cover all three "kingdoms" of nature but

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

the "Histoire naturelle" ended up being limited to the animal and mineral kingdoms, and the animals covered were only the birds and quadrupeds. "Written in a brilliant style, this work was read ... by every educated person in Europe". Those who assisted him in the production of this great work included Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, Philibert Guéneau de Montbeillard, and Gabriel-Léopold Bexon, along with numerous artists. Buffon's was translated into many different languages, making him one of the most widely read authors of the day, a rival to Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire. In the opening volumes of the "Histoire

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

naturelle" Buffon questioned the usefulness of mathematics, criticized Carl Linnaeus's taxonomical approach to natural history, outlined a history of the Earth with little relation to the Biblical account, and proposed a theory of reproduction that ran counter to the prevailing theory of pre-existence. The early volumes were condemned by the Faculty of Theology at the Sorbonne. Buffon published a retraction, but he continued publishing the offending volumes without any change. In the course of his examination of the animal world, Buffon noted that despite similar environments, different regions have distinct plants and animals, a concept later known as

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

Buffon's Law. This is considered to be the first principle of biogeography. He made the suggestion that species may have both "improved" and "degenerated" after dispersing from a center of creation. In volume 14 he argued that all the world's quadrupeds had developed from an original set of just thirty-eight quadrupeds. On this basis, he is sometimes considered a "transformist" and a precursor of Darwin. He also asserted that climate change may have facilitated the worldwide spread of species from their centers of origin. Still, interpreting his ideas on the subject is not simple, for he returned

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

to topics many times in the course of his work. Buffon considered the similarities between humans and apes, but ultimately rejected the possibility of a common descent. He debated with James Burnett, Lord Monboddo on the relationship of the primates to man, Monboddo insisting, against Buffon, on a close relationship. At one point, Buffon propounded a theory that nature in the New World was inferior to that of Eurasia. He argued that the Americas were lacking in large and powerful creatures, and that even the people were less virile than their European counterparts. He ascribed this inferiority to the marsh

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

odors and dense forests of the American continent. These remarks so incensed Thomas Jefferson that he dispatched twenty soldiers to the New Hampshire woods to find a bull moose for Buffon as proof of the "stature and majesty of American quadrupeds". In "Les époques de la nature" (1778) Buffon discussed the origins of the Solar System, speculating that the planets had been created by a comet's collision with the Sun. He also suggested that the Earth originated much earlier than 4004 BC, the date determined by Archbishop James Ussher. Basing his figures on the cooling rate of iron tested

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

at his Laboratory the at Montbard, he calculated that the age of the Earth was 75,000 years. Once again, his ideas were condemned by the Sorbonne, and once again he issued a retraction to avoid further problems. Racial studies. Buffon and Johann Blumenbach were believers in monogenism, the concept that all races have a single origin. They also believed in the "degeneration theory" of racial origins. They both said that Adam and Eve were Caucasian and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors, such as the sun and poor diet. They believed that the degeneration could be

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

reversed if proper environmental control was taken, and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race. Buffon and Blumenbach claimed that pigmentation arose because of the heat of the tropical sun. They suggested cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos. They thought the Chinese relatively fair-skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns and were protected from environmental factors. Buffon said that food and the mode of living could make races degenerate and distinguish them from the original Caucasian race. Believing in monogenism, Buffon thought that skin

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

color could change in a single lifetime, depending on the conditions of climate and diet. Buffon was an advocate of the Asia hypothesis; in his "Histoire Naturelle", he argued that humans' birthplace must be in a high temperate zone. As he believed good climate conditions would breed healthy humans, he hypothesized that the most logical place to look for the first humans' existence would be in Asia and around the Caspian Sea region. Relevance to modern biology. Charles Darwin wrote in his preliminary historical sketch added to the third edition of "On the Origin of Species": "Passing over ... Buffon, with

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

whose writings I am not familiar". Then, from the fourth edition onwards, he amended this to say that "the first author who in modern times has treated it [evolution] in a scientific spirit was Buffon. But as his opinions fluctuated greatly at different periods, and as he does not enter on the causes or means of the transformation of species, I need not here enter on details". Buffon's work on degeneration, however, was immensely influential on later scholars but was overshadowed by strong moral overtones. The paradox of Buffon is that, according to Ernst Mayr: Buffon wrote about the

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

concept of struggle for existence. He developed a system of heredity which was similar to Darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis. Commenting on Buffon's views, Darwin stated, "If Buffon had assumed that his organic molecules had been formed by each separate unit throughout the body, his view and mine would have been very closely similar." Works. Buffon, "Œuvres", ed. S. Schmitt and C. Crémière, Paris: Gallimard, 2007. Complete works Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (; 7 September 1707 – 16 April 1788) was a French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist, and encyclopédiste. His works influenced the next

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon

Stryker Corporation Stryker Corporation Stryker Corporation is an American multinational medical technologies corporation based in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Stryker's products include implants used in joint replacement and trauma surgeries; surgical equipment and surgical navigation systems; endoscopic and communications systems; patient handling and emergency medical equipment; neurosurgical, neurovascular and spinal devices; as well as other medical device products used in a variety of medical specialties. In the United States, most of Stryker's products are marketed directly to doctors, hospitals and other healthcare facilities. Internationally, Stryker products are sold in over 100 countries through company-owned sales subsidiaries and branches as well as

Stryker Corporation

third-party dealers and distributors. Business segments. Stryker segregates their reporting into three reportable business segments: Orthopedics, Medical and Surgical (MedSurg), and Neurotechnology and Spine. History. The Orthopedic Frame Company, the precursor of Stryker Corporation, was formed in 1941 by Dr. Homer Stryker, a Kalamazoo, Michigan, orthopedist and a 1925 graduate of the University of Michigan Medical School . Stryker developed the Turning Frame, a mobile hospital bed that allowed for repositioning of injured patients while providing necessary body immobility; the cast cutter, a cast cutting apparatus that removed cast material without damaging underlying tissues; and the walking heel, among others

Stryker Corporation

. In 1964, the company name was officially changed to Stryker Corporation. In 1979, Stryker made an initial public offering of stock and later acquired Osteonics Corporation, entering the replacement hip, knee, and other orthopedic implants market (Stryker). In 1999 annual sales reached $2.1 billion, and in 2000 Stryker was included in the S&P 500 and the Forbes Platinum 400 for the first time. In 2002 sales reached $3.0 billion and Stryker was listed in the Fortune 500 for the first time. In 2003, Stephen P. MacMillan joined Stryker as president and CEO. In 2005, annual sales reached $

Stryker Corporation

4.9 billion and John W. Brown transitioned to the single role of chairman of the board, a role he retired from in 2010, while MacMillan became president and CEO. By 2007, Stryker sold its Physiotherapy Associates division to private equity firm Water Street Healthcare Partners for $150 million. In February 2012, Mr. MacMillan resigned and Curt R. Hartman was named Interim Chief Executive Officer and vice president and chief financial officer. Mr. William U. Parfet was named non-executive chairman of the board. On October 1, 2012, Mr. Kevin A. Lobo was appointed as president and chief executive officer

Stryker Corporation

. At the end of 2012, Stryker had approximately 22,000 global employees and annual sales of $8.7 billion. 35% of those sales were outside the U.S. In a 2012 global market overview of top medical technology firms, Stryker was ranked number 10 with total portfolio sales in excess of $8.6 billion. Moreover, the firm maintains 35% worldwide reconstructive market share; 50% worldwide MedSurg market share; 15% worldwide Neurotechnology and Spine market share. The company was recognized by Hermann Simon as a role model for other small to medium-sized business in his book "Hidden Champions". Stryker recently hired former

Stryker Corporation

Johnson & Johnson executive Rob Fletcher as its new chief legal officer. John Brown. Brown served as president, CEO and finally chairman of the board across a 32-year career with Stryker. One report attributes Stryker's rise from a maker of hospital beds to a world-class medical technology company to Brown. , Brown's retained investment in Stryker placed him on the Forbes 400 list with a net worth of . Corporate governance. As of 2018, members of the board of directors of Stryker Corporation are: Recent acquisitions. 1998–2010. In 1998, Stryker purchased Howmedica, the orthopaedic division of Pfizer, for $

Stryker Corporation

1.65 billion. Howmedica became Stryker Orthopaedics. In August 2000, Stryker acquired, with stock, Guided Technologies, a developer and manufacturer of optical localizers purposed for use in healthcare and industrial. In August 2004, Stryker acquired, for $120 million, SpineCore, a company involved in the development of artificial spinal disks. About two years preceding this date, in June 2002, the firm acquired the Spinal Implant Business of Surgical Dynamics for $135 million. In March 2006, Stryker absorbed the Haifa, Israel-based Sightline Technologies into its operations. Sightline, a manufacturer of gastrointestinal endoscopy apparatuses, propelled Stryker into the flexible endoscopy market

Stryker Corporation

. In February of the same year, the firm acquired eTrauma.com, a privately held entity involved in the development of software for Picture archiving and communication system (PACS); the company was incorporated into Stryker Endoscopy Business. December 2005 marked the company's acquisition of PlasmaSol Corp. for $17.5 million. PlasmaSol produces technologies allowing sterilization of various MedSurg equipments. In 2009, Stryker acquired Ascent Healthcare Solutions the market leader in the reprocessing and remanufacturing of medical devices in the U.S. 2011–today. In January 2011, Stryker acquired the Neurovascular Division of Boston Scientific, which includes products used for the minimally invasive

Stryker Corporation

treatment of hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke. In June 2011, Stryker purchased Malvern, Pennsylvania-based Orthovita, a biomaterials company specializing in bone augmentation and substitution technologies. The Orthovita business now makes up the Stryker Orthobiologics division, which specializes in biomaterials for all Stryker divisions. In July 2011, Stryker completed the acquisition of privately held Memometal Technologies S.A.. France based Memometal develops, manufactures and markets products for extremity indications based on its proprietary methods for preparing and manufacturing a shape memory metal alloy. In August 2011, Stryker signed a definitive agreement to acquire privately held Concentric Medical, Inc. in an all-cash

Stryker Corporation

transaction for $135 million. Concentric's products include devices for the removal of thrombus in patients experiencing acute ischemic stroke along with a broad range of AIS access products. In November 2012, Stryker acquired the Tel Aviv, Israel-based Surpass Medical Ltd., a company developing a flow diversion stent technology to treat brain aneurysms using a mesh design and delivery system, for $135 million. In March 2013, Stryker acquired Trauson Holdings Company Limited. Trauson is a trauma manufacturer in China and a major competitor in the spine segment. In December 2013, Stryker acquired MAKO Surgical Corporation. MAKO is

Stryker Corporation

a company in South Florida that manufactures and markets surgical robotic arm assistance platforms, most notably the RIO (Robotic Arm Interactive Orthopedic System) as well as orthopedic implants used by orthopedic surgeons for use in partial knee and total hip arthroplasty. Stryker also acquired Patient Safety Technologies, Inc. The company offers Safety-Sponge System, an integrated counting and documentation system that prevents surgical sponges and towels from being unintentionally left in patients after surgical procedures. In March 2014, Stryker acquired Pivot Medical, Inc. Pivot is a privately held business selling innovative products for hip arthroscopy with operating facilities in Sunnyvale

Stryker Corporation

, CA. In April 2014 Stryker acquires Berchtold Holding AG (Berchtold), a provider of customer-centric healthcare equipment for over 90 years. Berchtold's product portfolio includes surgical tables, equipment booms, and surgical lighting systems geared towards maximizing efficiency and safety in operating rooms and ICUs. On July 1, 2014, Stryker Corp. announced that it had agreed to buy the assets of Small Bone Innovations Inc., a Morrisville, Pa.-based company that specializes in products that help surgeons treat and replace small bones and joints for $358 million. The company also acquired Patient Safety Technologies for $120 million. In September

Stryker Corporation

2015, Stryker acquired Turkish company Muka Metal A.S. which is manufacturing hospital beds and patient furniture in Kayseri. In February 2016, the company announced it would acquire Sage Products for $2.8 billion. Later in the same month the company announced the acquisition of Physio-Control from Bain Capital Outline of the Northern Mariana Islands Equity for $1.28 billion. In June 2017, Stryker acquired Arthrogenx, LLC, which developed the Cobra reusable suture passer for arthroscopic rotator cuff repair and Novadaq. In September, Stryker completed its acquisition of Novadaq Technologies for $700 million. In October, the company acquired Vexim

Stryker Corporation

for €183 million. In November 2017 the company announced it would acquire Entellus Medical Inc $662 million, bolstering Strykers ENT business. In 2018 Stryker acquired K2M Group Holdings, Inc., producer of complex spine and minimally invasive technology. In May the business acquired Hygia Health, Services SafeAir AG, HyperBranch Medical Technology, Inc., and Invuity, Inc. In February 2019 the company announced it would acquire Arrinex, Inc. manufacturer of cryoablation technology for the treatment of chronic rhinitis. In March Stryker acquired the Israeli-based OrthoSpace, Ltd for up to $220 million. In October, the business acquired Mobius Imaging

Stryker Corporation

, LLC and GYS Tech, LLC (DBA Cardan Robotics). In November of the same year the company announced it would acquire Wright Medical Group N.V. for around $4 billion ($5.4 billion including debt), expanding into upper-body implants. In January 2021, Stryker announced it would acquire joint replacement technology business, OrthoSensor, Inc. In May 2021, Stryker announced the acquisition of TMJ Concepts. In January 2022, the company announced it would acquire digital care business, Vocera Communications, for around $3 billion. Controversies & Lawsuits. On January 27, 2000, Stryker Corporation restated its operating results for the year ended December 31

Stryker Corporation

, 1998, to reduce acquisition-related charges by $30.9 million. Since early 2007, the company has received three warning letters from the Food & Drug Administration citing issues in compliancy. The first of these, a seven-page correspondence, named various issues at an Irish manufacturing facility, such as untimely fix of failures and procedural noncompliance in the testing of failed or otherwise problem-prone devices. The second, sent November 2007, cites issues at the firm's Mahwah, New Jersey, facility, including poor fixation of hip implant components, in some instances requiring mitigation by revision surgeries; exceeded microbial level violations in the

Stryker Corporation

cleaning and final packaging areas of the sterile implants; and failure to institute measures in prevention of recurrence of these and other problems. The final warning letter, sent April 2008, cites issues at the firm's Hopkinton, MA biotechnology facility. Again, issues relate to quality and noncompliance including falsification of documents relevant to the selling of products to hospitals which are to be sold under a limited, government-mandated basis. Stryker maintains that employees involved in the falsification of documents have since been terminated. In the fall of 2007, Stryker, along with the related companies Biomet, Zimmer Holdings, DePuy Orthopaedics

Stryker Corporation

and Smith & Nephew, were involved in civil litigation with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General. This litigation called for a net payout of $311 million as the governmental department maintains the aforementioned companies engaged in unlawful kickbacks to physicians who urged hospitals to purchase their respective products. Stryker, however, having cooperated early in the investigation, was not fined. As of February 2008, a dispute exists between Stryker Corp. and the U.S. Department of Justice concerning a subpoena linking the company to aforementioned misconduct in sale of products. Since governmental filing of the injunction

Stryker Corporation

, Stryker notes that it has produced in excess of 300,000 pages of documentation in compliance with the mandate. U.S. Government counters, however, that the documentation was not proper in scope and format. Law officials expect the investigation to continue for several months. Stryker recalled several models of medical vacuums sold under the "Neptune Waste Management System" brand in June and September 2012. The devices, some of which had not been cleared by the Food and Drug Administration, caused a fatal accident when the vacuum was mistakenly used to suction a passive drainage tube. Lawsuits. On 2012, FDA has issued a

Stryker Corporation

warning for the Stryker Rejuvenate hip replacement after it was discovered that the hip replacement was considered defective and can cause similar side effects to DePuy Hip Implants. As a results, on 2014, Stryker was fined 1 billion and 2.5 billion for their defective Rejuvenate and ABG II hip replacement that can cause excruciating pain. Response to 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Stryker refused to join the international community and withdraw from the Russian market. Research from Yale University updated on April 28, 2022 identifying how companies were reacting to Russia's invasion

Stryker Corporation

identified Stryker in the worst category of "Digging In", meaning Defying Demands for Exit: companies defying demands for exit/reduction of activities. Stryker Corporation Stryker Corporation is an American multinational medical technologies corporation based in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Stryker's products include implants used in joint replacement and trauma surgeries; surgical equipment and surgical navigation systems; endoscopic and communications systems; patient handling and emergency medical equipment; neurosurgical, neurovascular and spinal devices; as well as other medical device products used in a variety of medical specialties. In the United States, most of Stryker's products are marketed directly to doctors, hospitals and

Stryker Corporation

Nyköping County Nyköping County Nyköping County, or "Nyköpings län", was a county of the Swedish Empire from 1634 to 1683. It was one of three counties in the province of Södermanland, and in 1683 they were merged into Södermanland County. Nyköping County Nyköping County, or "Nyköpings län", was a county of the Swedish Empire from 1634 to 1683. It was one of three counties in the province of Södermanland, and in 1683 they were merged into Södermanland County.

Nyköping County

Communist Party of Argentina Communist Party of Argentina The Communist Party of Argentina (, also simply known as "PC") is a communist party in Argentina. The party now forms part of the Frente de Todos, the ruling coalition supporting President Alberto Fernández. It was founded on January 6, 1918, initially with the name International Socialist Party, after the break with the Socialist Party and in adherence to the Russian October Revolution and the Third International. From its origin, it maintained an almost automatic alignment with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, which generated friction with the rest of the national left, which accused the

Communist Party of Argentina

party of struggling more for the geopolitical interests of the Soviet Union than for the effective emergence of a communist revolution in Argentina. History. From the foundation to the emergence of Peronism. From its creation in 1918 it followed the political line of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, supporting in general its initiatives. Its alignment with the CPSU in the Stalinist period earned it numerous criticisms by other parties of the political left. Throughout the 1920s it had several splits, being recognized the one of the frontists (1923), the one of the chispistas (pre-Trotskyists) (1925) and the

Communist Party of Argentina

penelonistas (supporters of Bukharin) in 1928, returning many paintings during the 8th PCA Congress that year. The PCA organized the sending of combatants to the International Brigades and other resources to the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War. However, its leader Victorio Codovilla, maintained a leading role in the leadership of the Communist Party of Spain during this period, during the organization of the local NKVD, and in directing participation in the persecution, torture and murder of leaders and militant anarchists, of the POUM and of the International Brigades. According to the version of Alberto Nadra, a member

Communist Party of Argentina

of the Central Committee until 1989, the party was secretly structured as a political-military organization, and in that character led the first guerrilla movement of the 20th century, in the then National Territory of the Chaco, with specific agreements with the popular gaucho Mate Sewn. The communists would have marched to the mountain and had as objectives properties of La Forestal, Bunge Born, Dreyfuss and the great cotton patrons, making impressive actions. At the beginning of 1945, the Gendarmerie surrounded and detained the Party's main leaders, such as the journalist Salvador "Rómulo" Marini, Simón Duschatsky and Pedro Marini

Communist Party of Argentina

, among others, although, according to Nadra, the "Commander Leonor Cuaretta who initially managed to flee, he was later arrested and murdered on March 30, 1945.15 He also refers to another 200 actions against Nazi targets during the Second World War or the blowing up of 14 Minimax supermarkets on June 28, 1968, although other sources have attributed it to the Armed Forces Revolutionary During the Second World War, the party maintained an active participation in the international arena in favor of the Soviet Union, organizing aid collections and contributing its leaders to various international tasks. An example of this would

Communist Party of Argentina

be the murder of Leon Trotsky in Mexico in 1940, whose organization was in charge of Codovilla, who at this point enjoyed the confidence of the leadership of the CPSU. From Peronism to the 1976 dictatorship. As a result of the workers' mobilizations of October 17, 1945 against the dismissal and detention of Juan Domingo Perón, within the party there were questions to the political line of the same and to the leadership headed by Codovilla and in the National Conference of December of that year, Rodolfo Puiggrós openly expressed criticism and demanded to find practical agreements with Perón around

Communist Party of Argentina

the defense of the interests of the workers and the fight against imperialism. In the elections of 1946 the Communist Party was part of the Democratic Union, opposed to Peronism. Puiggrós was expelled in 1947 and founded the Communist Workers Movement together with some communist syndicalists supporters of the alliance with Peronism. The student of chemistry and communist militant Ernesto Mario Bravo was kidnapped at his home on June 17, 1951 and tortured by the police. His case was reported by the doctor who treated him, first in the Special Section and then in a fifth where he was transferred

Communist Party of Argentina

. The government, however, emphatically denied the facts: On June 17, 1955, the police of Rosario arrested, tortured and disappeared Juan Ingallinella, a doctor and party leader, who had participated in the publication of pamphlets in defense of the government days before, denouncing the masterminds of the bombing and strafing of the Plaza de Mayo, in which more than 350 people were killed and more than 700 wounded and mutilated. After the overthrow of Perón, the party criticized the loss of democratic liberties and the prohibition of the partisans who carried out the coup of 1955. Although Peronism was the main

Communist Party of Argentina

objective of the persecutions, the increase of the repression in the government Arambruru also led him to repress the members of the Communist Party. In 1956 the Ministry of the Interior, Eduardo Busso, denounced that the Union of Argentine Women and the Argentine League for Human Rights had links with the party. In April of the following year, the cancellation of legal status was announced and 360 militants were arrested and 56 local supporters closed. Adhered to the thesis of the XX Congress of the CPSU, which postulated the peaceful transition to socialism through the electoral route, among other points

Communist Party of Argentina

. In 1967 it underwent the biggest organized split in its history, which would lead to 4,000 members to separate, later forming the Revolutionary Communist Party, on January 6, 1968. During the 1970s, the policy of the guerrilla movements in Latin America did not follow. Before the crisis of the government of Isabel Perón and the imminence of a military coup, the PCA began to "promote a joint, unitary, of the political parties, of the Church and of the Armed Forces towards the establishment of a civic-military cabinet ", says that later it would turn into the claim of a" civic

Communist Party of Argentina

-military convergence ". The Central Committee of the PCA 27 28 did not condemn the coup d'état of 1976 and the consequent military dictatorship established at the beginning.26 29 30 31 32 A few days after the coup, an official publication of the PC affirmed with respect to the new president: "Regarding his more precise formulations (...) we affirm emphatically that they constitute the basis of a liberating program that we share (...). he affirms that no easy, miraculous or spectacular solutions will be given, be assured that nobody expects them ... General Videla does not ask for adhesion, but understanding, he has it

Communist Party of Argentina

.33 This position was based on a political characterization that presented the Videla-Viola duo as the wing of renewed democracy, in front of a Pinochet wing, a non-predominant sector within the Armed Forces, channeled through Emilio Massera and Luciano Menéndez" and coincided with the support that the government of the Soviet Union offered the military dictatorship.31 26 This characterization was not easily accepted by all its militancy, which, between internal discussions, was distributed among those who trusted the word of the leaders and those who preferred to act for your account or refusing to accept directions from the

Communist Party of Argentina

addresses.34 The PCA was not affected by laws 21,322, 21,323 and 21,325 that dissolved some parties and left groups; its activity was suspended and, according to the report of the IACHR, like nine other political parties, it was subjected to "flexible government behavior" and was received in interviews by the military government.35 Despite this, a large number of PCA militants were persecuted, tortured, murdered and disappeared during the dictatorship. Alberto Nadra affirms that the accusations made by the PC before the IACHR allowed for the first time this organism to assume the existence of "State terrorism" in Argentina, taking as

Communist Party of Argentina

pilot case that of the student Inés Ollero, as well as the detention of almost 1,600 militants, the kidnapping of more than 500 and the murder of 150, show the objective resistance to the dictatorship, regardless of the public position of the PC. In taking stock of this period on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the coup d'état, the PCA issued a statement in which it stated: "each force in its own way, it cost us all to understand the novelty of the dictatorship imposed by the Yankees and supported by a vast political and social space [...] We

Communist Party of Argentina

made mistakes in assessing the internal contradictions of the Armed Forces, overestimating them and considering taking advantage of them in the fight against fascism. the actions in progress and the level of hegemony that the most pro-imperialist sectors had reached from the start. [...] We are not, as we know and we do not hide, an infallible force neither in the sayings nor in the behaviors, but we are proud of belonging to a party that resisted the attacks of the dictatorship with dignity and that gave its contribution to the solidarity struggle from the first day, in the interior

Communist Party of Argentina

of the country and also in n the outside ". The PCA appeared as a plaintiff in two criminal cases against State terrorism exercised by the dictatorship. One of those causes is that of the Floreal case Edgardo Avellaneda, known as "el Negrito", born in Rosario on May 14, 1961. He was a militant of the Communist Youth Federation and was in charge of the propaganda tasks in his neighborhood. He lived with his mother Iris Etelvina Pereyra de Avellaneda and his father Floreal Avellaneda, delegate of the Tensa textile factory, both militants of the Communist Party. He was 15 years

Communist Party of Argentina

old when he was abducted from his home with his mother, he was illegally detained and tortured. His body was found on May 14, 1976 in the waters of the Río de la Plata. His body was found with serious signs of having suffered physical torture and having been the victim of impalement. Communist Party of Argentina The Communist Party of Argentina (, also simply known as "PC") is a communist party in Argentina. The party now forms part of the Frente de Todos, the ruling coalition supporting President Alberto Fernández. It was founded on January 6, 1918, initially with the

Communist Party of Argentina