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Masakhane NLP 88

on a ringed space formula_261 is a sheaf formula_262 of formula_263-modules which has a local presentation, that is, every point in formula_193 has an open neighborhood formula_271 in which there is an exact sequence for some (possibly infinite) sets formula_273 and formula_274. Oka's coherent theorem. Oka's coherent theorem says that each sheaf that meets the following conditions is a coherent. From the above Serre(1955) theorem, formula_275 is a coherent sheaf, also, (i) is used to prove Cartan's theorems A and B. Ideal sheaf. If formula_276 is a closed subscheme of a locally Noetherian scheme formula_193, the

Function of several complex variables

sheaf formula_278 of all regular functions vanishing on formula_276 is coherent. Likewise, if formula_276 is a closed analytic subspace of a complex analytic space formula_193, the ideal sheaf formula_278 is coherent. Cousin problem. In the case of one variable complex functions, Mittag-Leffler's theorem was able to create a global meromorphic function from a given pole, and Weierstrass factorization theorem was able to create a global meromorphic function from a given zero. However, these theorems do not hold because the singularities of analytic function in several complex variables is not isolated points, this problem is called the Cousin problem

Function of several complex variables

and is formulated in sheaf cohomology terms. They were introduced in special cases by Pierre Cousin in 1895. It was Kiyoshi Oka who showed the conditions for solving first Cousin problem for the domain of holomorphy on the complex coordinate space, and also solving with additional topological assumptions, for the second Cousin problem, the Cousin problem is a problem related to the analytical properties of complex manifolds, but the condition for solving second Cousin problem is pure a topological property, and J.P., Serre called this the Oka principle. They are now posed, and solved, for arbitrary complex manifold "M", in

Function of several complex variables

terms of conditions on "M". "M", which satisfies these conditions, is one way to define a Stein manifold. The study of the cousin's problem made us realize that in the study of several complex variables, it is possible to study of global properties from the patching of local data, that is it has developed the theory of sheaf cohomology. (e.g.Cartan seminar.) First Cousin problem. Definition without sheaf cohomology words. Each difference formula_283 is a holomorphic function, where it is defined. It asks for a meromorphic function "f" on "M" such that formula_284 is "holomorphic" on "U"; in other

Function of several complex variables

words, that "f" shares the singular behaviour of the given local function. Definition using sheaf cohomology words. Let K be the sheaf of meromorphic functions and O the sheaf of holomorphic functions on "M". If the next map is surjective, Cousin first problem can be solved. By the long exact cohomology sequence, is exact, and so the first Cousin problem is always solvable provided that the first cohomology group "H"("M",O) vanishes. In particular, by Cartan's theorem B, the Cousin problem is always solvable if "M" is a Stein manifold. Second Cousin problem. Definition without Sheaf cohomology words. Each ratio

Function of several complex variables

formula_287 is a non-vanishing holomorphic function, where it is defined. It asks for a meromorphic function "f" on "M" such that formula_288 is holomorphic and non-vanishing. Definition using sheaf cohomology words. let formula_289 be the sheaf of holomorphic functions that vanish nowhere, and formula_290 the sheaf of meromorphic functions that are not identically zero. These are both then sheaves of abelian groups, and the quotient sheaf formula_291 is well-defined. If the next map formula_88 is surjective, then Second Cousin problem can be solved. The long exact sheaf cohomology sequence associated to the quotient is so the second

Function of several complex variables

Cousin problem is solvable in all cases provided that formula_295 The cohomology group formula_296 for the multiplicative structure on formula_289 can be compared with the cohomology group formula_298 with its additive structure by taking a logarithm. That is, there is an exact sequence of sheaves where the leftmost sheaf is the locally constant sheaf with fiber formula_300. The obstruction to defining a logarithm at the level of "H" is in formula_301, from the long exact cohomology sequence When "M" is a Stein manifold, the middle arrow is an isomorphism because formula_303 for formula_304 so that a necessary and sufficient condition

Function of several complex variables

in that case for the second Cousin problem to be always solvable is that formula_305 (This condition called Oka principle.) Manifolds and analytic varieties with several complex variables. Stein manifold (non-compact complex manifold). Since a non-compact (open) Riemann surface always has a non-constant single-valued holomorphic function, and satisfies the second axiom of countability, the open Riemann surface can be thought of complex manifold to have a holomorphic embedding into a one-dimensional complex plane formula_8. The Whitney embedding theorem tells us that every smooth "n"-dimensional manifold can be embedded as a smooth submanifold of formula_307, whereas

Function of several complex variables

it is "rare" for a complex manifold to have a holomorphic embedding into formula_2. Consider for example arbitrary compact connected complex manifold "X": every holomorphic function on it is constant by Liouville's theorem. That is, for several complex variables, arbitrary complex manifolds do not always have holomorphic functions that are not constants. So, consider the conditions under which a complex manifold has a holomorphic function that is not a constant. Now if we had a holomorphic embedding of "X" into formula_2, then the coordinate functions of formula_2 would restrict to nonconstant holomorphic functions on "X", contradicting compactness, except in

Function of several complex variables

the case that "X" is just a point. Complex manifolds that can be holomorphic embedded into formula_2 are called Stein manifolds. Also Stein manifolds satisfy the second axiom of countability. A Stein manifold is a complex submanifold of the vector space of "n" complex dimensions. They were introduced by and named after Karl Stein (1951). A Stein space is similar to a Stein manifold but is allowed to have singularities. Stein spaces are the analogues of affine varieties or affine schemes in algebraic geometry. If the univalent domain on formula_2 is connection to a manifold, can be regarded as a

Function of several complex variables

complex manifold and satisfies the separation condition described later, the condition for becoming a Stein manifold is to satisfy the holomorphic convexity. Therefore, the Stein manifold is the properties of the domain of definition of the (maximal) analytic continuation of an analytic function. Definition. Suppose "X" is a paracompact complex manifolds of complex dimension formula_168 and let formula_314 denote the ring of holomorphic functions on "X". We call "X" a Stein manifold if the following conditions hold: All non-compact (open) Riemann surfaces are Stein manifold. Let "X" be a connected, non-compact (open) Riemann surface. A deep theorem (1939

Function of several complex variables

) of Heinrich Behnke and Stein (1948) asserts that "X" is a Stein manifold. Another result, attributed to Hans Grauert and Helmut Röhrl (1956), states moreover that every holomorphic vector bundle on "X" is trivial. In particular, every line bundle is trivial, so formula_321. The exponential sheaf sequence leads to the following exact sequence: Now Cartan's theorem B shows that formula_323, therefore formula_324. This is related to the solution of the second (multiplicative) Cousin problem. Levi problems. Cartan extended Levi's problem to Stein manifolds. This was proved by Bremermann by embedding it in a sufficiently high dimensional formula_326, and

Function of several complex variables

reducing it to the result of Oka. Also, Grauert proved for arbitrary complex manifolds "M". And Narasimhan extended Levi's problem to Complex analytic space, a generalized in the singular case of complex manifolds. Levi's problem remains unresolved in the following cases; more generalized and also, This means that Behnke–Stein theorem, which holds for Stein manifolds, has not found a conditions to be established in Stein space. K-complete. Grauert introduced the concept of K-complete in the proof of Levi's problem. Let "X" is complex manifold, "X" is K-complete if, to each point formula_334, there

Function of several complex variables

exist finitely many holomorphic map formula_335 of "X" into formula_336, formula_337, such that formula_338 is an isolated point of the set formula_339. This concept also applies to complex analytic space. Properties and examples of Stein manifolds. These facts imply that a Stein manifold is a closed complex submanifold of complex space, whose complex structure is that of the ambient space (because the embedding is biholomorphic). Numerous further characterizations of such manifolds exist, in particular capturing the property of their having "many" holomorphic functions taking values in the complex numbers. See for example Cartan's theorems A and B, relating to

Function of several complex variables

sheaf cohomology. In the GAGA set of analogies, Stein manifolds correspond to affine varieties. Stein manifolds are in some sense dual to the elliptic manifolds in complex analysis which admit "many" holomorphic functions from the complex numbers into themselves. It is known that a Stein manifold is elliptic if and only if it is fibrant in the sense of so-called "holomorphic homotopy theory". Complex projective varieties (compact complex manifold). Meromorphic function in one-variable complex function were studied in the compact (closed) Riemann surface (theory of compact Riemann surface i.e. theory of algebraic curve on formula_352), because the compact

Function of several complex variables

Riemann surface had a non-constant single-valued meromorphic function (Riemann–Roch theorem), and also the compact Riemann surface had enough meromorphic functions (Riemann's existence theorem). The compact one-dimensional complex manifold was the Riemann sphere formula_353. However, for high-dimensional (several complex variables) compact complex manifolds, the existence of meromorphic functions and classification of meromorphic function cannot be easily indicated because the singularity is not an isolated point. In fact, Hopf found a class of compact complex manifolds without nonconstant meromorphic functions. Consider expanding the closed (compact) Riemann surface to a higher dimension ,that is, consider that

Function of several complex variables

compactification of formula_6, such as, consider that there is a embedding of compact complex submanifold "X" into the complex projective space formula_5 (especially complex projective algebraic varieties (algebraic manifolds)). i.e. gives the conditions when a complex manifold is projective (GAGA further says that is algebraic.) In high-dimensional (compact) complex manifolds, the phenomenon that the sheaf cohomology group vanishing occurs, then the existence condition of meromorphic function can be given by calculating the numerical value of the topological invariant, by using Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem proven by using an approach from sheaf cohomology or its generalization Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch

Function of several complex variables

theorem, and it is the Kodaira vanishing theorem and its generalization Nakano vanishing theorem etc. that gives the condition of when the sheaf cohomology group vanishing. Kodaira embedding theorem says that a complex Kähler manifold "M", with a Hodge metric, there is a complex-analytic embedding of "M" into complex projective space of enough high-dimension "N". Chow's theorem shows that the complex analytic subspace (subvariety) of a closed complex projective space to be an algebraic that is, so it is the common zero of some homogeneous polynomials, such a relation is known as Serre's GAGA principle. Then

Function of several complex variables

combined with Kodaira's result, Kähler manifold "M" embeds as an algebraic variety. This gives an example of a complex manifold with enough meromorphic functions. Similarities in Levi problems on the complex projective space formula_5, have been proved in some patterns, for example by Takeuchi. Broadly, the GAGA principle says that the geometry of projective complex analytic spaces (or manifolds) is equivalent to the geometry of projective complex varieties. The combination of analytic and algebraic methods for complex projective varieties lead to areas such as Hodge theory. Also, the deformation theory of compact complex manifolds has developed as Kodaira-Spencer

Function of several complex variables

theory. However, despite being a compact complex manifold, there are examples of that cannot be embedded in projective space and are not algebraic. Function of several complex variables The theory of functions of several complex variables is the branch of mathematics dealing with complex-valued functions. The name of the field dealing with the properties of function of several complex variables is called several complex variables (and analytic space (Complex analytic space) ), that has become a common name for that whole field of study and Mathematics Subject Classification has, as a top-level heading. A function formula_1 is -tuples

Function of several complex variables

The Sun Also Rises The Sun Also Rises The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel by American writer Ernest Hemingway, his first, that portrays American and British expatriates who travel from Paris to the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona to watch the running of the bulls and the bullfights. An early and enduring modernist novel, it received mixed reviews upon publication. However, Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is now "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work", and Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin calls it his most important novel. The novel was published in the United States in October 1926 by Scribner

The Sun Also Rises

's. A year later, Jonathan Cape published the novel in London under the title Fiesta. It remains in print. The novel is a "roman à clef": the characters are based on real people in Hemingway's circle, and the action is based on real events, particularly Hemingway's life in Paris in the 1920s and a trip to Spain in 1925 for the Pamplona festival and fishing in the Pyrenees. Hemingway presents his notion that the "Lost Generation"—considered to have been decadent, dissolute, and irretrievably damaged by World War I—was in fact resilient and strong. Hemingway investigates the themes

The Sun Also Rises

of love and death, the revivifying power of nature, and the concept of masculinity. His spare writing style, combined with his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and action, demonstrates his "Iceberg Theory" of writing. Background. In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris as a foreign correspondent for the "Toronto Star", and traveled to Smyrna to report on the Greco–Turkish War. He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction, believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that, according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers

The Sun Also Rises

, "what he made up was truer than what he remembered". With his wife Hadley Richardson, Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona in 1923, where he was following his recent passion for bullfighting. The couple returned to Pamplona in 1924—enjoying the trip immensely—this time accompanied by Chink Dorman-Smith, John Dos Passos, and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife. The two returned a third time in June 1925 and stayed at the hotel of his friend Juanito Quintana. That year, they brought with them a different group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan

The Sun Also Rises

boyhood friend Bill Smith, Stewart, recently divorced Duff, Lady Twysden, her lover Pat Guthrie, and Harold Loeb. Hemingway's memory spanning multiple trips might explain the inconsistent timeframe in the novel indicating both 1924 and 1925. In Pamplona, the group quickly disintegrated. Hemingway, attracted to Duff, was jealous of Loeb, who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her; by the end of the week the two men had a public fistfight. Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda, Cayetano Ordóñez, whose brilliance in the bullring affected the spectators. Ordóñez honored Hemingway's wife

The Sun Also Rises

by presenting her, from the bullring, with the ear of a bull he killed. Outside of Pamplona, the fishing trip to the Irati River (near Burguete in Navarre) was marred by polluted water. Hemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting, but then decided that the week's experiences had presented him with enough material for a novel. A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (21 July), he began writing what would eventually become "The Sun Also Rises". By 17 August, with 14 chapters written and a working title of "Fiesta" chosen, Hemingway returned to

The Sun Also Rises

Paris. He finished the draft on 21 September 1925, writing a foreword the following weekend and changing the title to "The Lost Generation". A few months later, in December 1925, Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns, Austria, where he began revising the manuscript extensively. Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January, and—against Hadley's advice—urged him to sign a contract with Scribner's. Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers, and on his return, during a stop in Paris, began an affair with Pauline. He returned to Schruns

The Sun Also Rises

to finish the revisions in March. In June, he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer. On their return to Paris, Richardson asked for a separation, and left for the south of France. In August, alone in Paris, Hemingway completed the proofs, dedicating the novel to his wife and son. After the publication of the book in October, Hadley asked for a divorce; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book's royalties. Publication history. Hemingway maneuvered Boni & Liveright into terminating their contract with him so that "The Sun Also Rises" could be published by Scribner's instead. In December 1925

The Sun Also Rises

he quickly wrote "The Torrents of Spring"—a satirical novella attacking Sherwood Anderson—and sent it to his publishers Boni & Liveright. His three-book contract with them included a termination clause should they reject a single submission. Unamused by the satire against one of their most saleable authors, Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it and terminated the contract. Within weeks Hemingway signed a contract with Scribner's, who agreed to publish "The Torrents of Spring" and all of his subsequent work. Scribner's published the novel on 22 October 1926. Its first edition consisted of 5090 copies, selling at $2.00 per

The Sun Also Rises

copy. Cleonike Damianakes illustrated the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a seated, robed woman, her head bent to her shoulder, eyes closed, one hand holding an apple, her shoulders and a thigh exposed. Editor Maxwell Perkins intended "Cleon's respectably sexy" design to attract "the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels". Two months later the book was in a second printing with 7000 copies sold. Subsequent printings were ordered; by 1928, after the publication of Hemingway's short story collection "Men Without Women", the novel was in its eighth printing. In 1927 the novel

The Sun Also Rises

was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape, titled "Fiesta", without the two epigraphs. Two decades later, in 1947, Scribner's released three of Hemingway's works as a boxed set, including "The Sun Also Rises", "A Farewell to Arms", and "For Whom the Bell Tolls". By 1983, "The Sun Also Rises" had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926, and was likely one of the most translated titles in the world. At that time Scribner's began to print cheaper mass-market paperbacks of the book, in addition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print

The Sun Also Rises

. In the 1990s, British editions were titled "Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises." In 2006 Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of Hemingway's novels, including "The Sun Also Rises". In May 2016 a new "Hemingway Library Edition" was published by Simon & Schuster, including early drafts, passages that were deleted from the final draft, and alternative titles for the book, which help to explain the author's journey to produce the final version of this acclaimed work. Plot summary. On the surface, the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnes—a man whose war wound has made

The Sun Also Rises

him unable to have sex—and the promiscuous divorcée Lady Brett Ashley. Jake is an expatriate American journalist living in Paris, while Brett is a twice-divorced Englishwoman with bobbed hair and numerous love affairs, and embodies the new sexual freedom of the 1920s. Brett's affair with Jake's college friend Robert Cohn causes Jake to be upset and break off his friendship with Robert; her seduction of the 19-year-old matador Romero causes Jake to lose his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona. Book One is set in the café society of young American expatriates in

The Sun Also Rises

Paris. In the opening scenes, Jake plays tennis with Robert, picks up a prostitute (Georgette), and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub. Later, Brett tells Jake she loves him, but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relationship. In Book Two, Jake is joined by Bill Gorton, recently arrived from New York, and Brett's fiancé Mike Campbell, who arrives from Scotland. Jake and Bill travel south and meet Robert at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills northeast of Pamplona. Instead of fishing, Robert stays in Pamplona to wait for the

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overdue Brett and Mike. Robert had an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels possessive of her despite her engagement to Mike. After Jake and Bill enjoy five days of fishing the streams near Burguete, they rejoin the group in Pamplona. All begin to drink heavily. Robert is resented by the others, who taunt him with antisemitic remarks. During the fiesta the characters drink, eat, watch the running of the bulls, attend bullfights, and bicker with each other. Jake introduces Brett to the 19-year-old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya; she is smitten with him

The Sun Also Rises

and seduces him. The jealous tension among the men builds—Jake, Mike, Robert, and Romero each want Brett. Robert, who had been a champion boxer in college, has a fistfight with Jake and Mike, and another with Romero, whom he beats up. Despite his injuries, Romero continues to perform brilliantly in the bullring. Book Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta. Sober again, they leave Pamplona; Bill returns to Paris, Mike stays in Bayonne, and Jake goes to San Sebastián on the northern coast of Spain. As Jake is about to return to Paris, he receives a

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telegram from Brett asking for help; she had gone to Madrid with Romero. He finds her there in a cheap hotel, without money, and without Romero. She announces she has decided to go back to Mike. The novel ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking of the things that might have been. Themes and analysis. Paris and the Lost Generation. The first book of "The Sun Also Rises" is set in mid-1920s Paris. Americans were drawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the favorable exchange rate, with as many as 200,000 English-speaking expatriates living there. The

The Sun Also Rises

Paris Tribune reported in 1925 that Paris had an American Hospital, an American Library, and an American Chamber of Commerce. Many American writers were disenchanted with the US, where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe. (For example, Hemingway was in Paris during the period when "Ulysses", written by his friend James Joyce, was banned and burned in New York.) The themes of "The Sun Also Rises" appear in its two epigraphs. The first is an allusion to the "Lost Generation", a term coined by Gertrude Stein referring to the post-war generation; the other epigraph is a long

The Sun Also Rises

quotation from Ecclesiastes: "One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh: but the earth abideth for ever. The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose." Hemingway told his editor Max Perkins that the book was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever." He thought the characters in "The Sun Also Rises" may have been "battered" but were not lost. Hemingway scholar Wagner-Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be about morality, which he emphasized by changing the working title from "Fiesta" to

The Sun Also Rises

The Sun Also Rises. Wagner-Martin argues that the book can be read either as a novel about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for integrity in an immoral world. Months before Hemingway left for Pamplona, the press was depicting the Parisian Latin Quarter, where he lived, as decadent and depraved. He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the influence of the Latin Quarter crowd; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic expatriates. The characters form a group, sharing similar

The Sun Also Rises

norms, and each greatly affected by the war. Hemingway captures the angst of the age and transcends the love story of Brett and Jake, although they are representative of the period: Brett is starved for reassurance and love and Jake is sexually maimed. His wound symbolizes the disability of the age, the disillusion, and the frustrations felt by an entire generation. Hemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living in Paris, but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite, seeing evidence of the author's midwestern American values in the novel. Hemingway admired hard work. He portrayed the

The Sun Also Rises

matadors and the prostitutes, who work for a living, in a positive manner, but Brett, who prostitutes herself, is emblematic of "the rotten crowd" living on inherited money. It is Jake, the working journalist, who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not. Hemingway shows, through Jake's actions, his disapproval of the people who did not pay up. Reynolds says that Hemingway shows the tragedy, not so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd, but of the decline in American values of the period. As such, the author created an American hero who

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is impotent and powerless. Jake becomes the moral center of the story. He never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd because he is a working man; to Jake a working man is genuine and authentic, and those who do not work for a living spend their lives posing. Women and love. The twice-divorced Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman (in the 1920s, divorces were common and easy to be had in Paris). James Nagel writes that, in Brett, Hemingway created one of the more fascinating women in 20th-century American literature. Sexually promiscuous, she is a denizen

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of Parisian nightlife and cafés. In Pamplona she sparks chaos: in her presence, the men drink too much and fight. She also seduces the young bullfighter Romero and becomes a Circe in the festival. Critics describe her variously as complicated, elusive, and enigmatic; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway "treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy." She is vulnerable, forgiving, independent—qualities that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book, who are either prostitutes or overbearing nags. Nagel considers the novel a tragedy. Jake and Brett have a relationship that becomes destructive because their love can

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not be consummated. Conflict over Brett destroys Jake's friendship with Robert Cohn, and her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake's hard-won reputation among the Spaniards. Meyers sees Brett as a woman who wants sex without love while Jake can only give her love without sex. Although Brett sleeps with many men, it is Jake she loves. Dana Fore writes that Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability, in a "non-traditional erotic relationship." Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch; Fiedler sees Brett as one

The Sun Also Rises

of the "outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women. Jake becomes bitter about their relationship, as when he says, "Send a girl off with a man ... Now go and bring her back. And sign the wire with love." Critics interpret the Jake–Brett relationship in various ways. Daiker suggests that Brett's behavior in Madrid—after Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summons—reflects her immorality. Scott Donaldson thinks Hemingway presents the Jake–Brett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew "that in having Brett for a friend 'he had been getting something for nothing' and that

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sooner or later he would have to pay the bill." Daiker notes that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebastián, where she rejoins her fiancé Mike. In a piece Hemingway cut, he has Jake thinking, "you learned a lot about a woman by not sleeping with her." By the end of the novel, although Jake loves Brett, he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to distance himself from her. Reynolds believes that Jake represents the "everyman," and that in the course of the narrative he loses his honor

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, faith, and hope. He sees the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses the most. The "corrida", the fiesta, and nature. In "The Sun Also Rises", Hemingway contrasts Paris with Pamplona, and the frenzy of the fiesta with the tranquillity of the Spanish countryside. Spain was Hemingway's favorite European country; he considered it a healthy place, and the only country "that hasn't been shot to pieces." He was profoundly affected by the spectacle of bullfighting, writing, It isn't just brutal like they always told us. It's a great tragedy—and the

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most beautiful thing I've ever seen and takes more guts and skill and guts again than anything possibly could. It's just like having a ringside seat at the war with nothing going to happen to you. He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfighting—called "afición"—and presented it as an authentic way of life, contrasted against the inauthenticity of the Parisian bohemians. To be accepted as an "aficionado" was rare for a non-Spaniard; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance by the "fellowship of "afición."" The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks

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the novel is centered on the "corrida" (the bullfighting), and how each character reacts to it. Brett seduces the young matador; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored; Jake understands fully because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and the authentic Spaniards; the hotel keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith; and Romero is the artist in the ring—he is both innocent and perfect, and the one who bravely faces death. The "corrida" is presented as an idealized drama in which the matador faces death, creating a moment of existentialism or "nada

The Sun Also Rises

(nothingness), broken when he vanquishes death by killing the bull. Hemingway presents matadors as heroic characters dancing in a bullring. He considered the bullring as war with precise rules, in contrast to the messiness of the real war that he, and by extension Jake, experienced. Critic Keneth Kinnamon notes that young Romero is the novel's only honorable character. Hemingway named Romero after Pedro Romero, an 18th-century bullfighter who killed thousands of bulls in the most difficult manner: having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood perfectly still. Reynolds says Romero, who symbolizes the classically pure The Sun Also Rises 7904716 matador, is the one idealized figure in the novel." Josephs says that when Hemingway changed Romero's name from Guerrita and imbued him with the characteristics of the historical Romero, he also changed the scene in which Romero kills a bull to one of "recibiendo" (receiving the bull) in homage to the historical namesake. Before the group arrives in Pamplona, Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati River. As Harold Bloom points out, the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections, "an oasis that exists outside linear time." On another level it reflects

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the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression—the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the wilderness, as seen in Cooper, Hawthorne, Melville, Twain, and Thoreau. Fiedler calls the theme "The Sacred Land"; he thinks the American West is evoked in "The Sun Also Rises" by the Pyrenees and given a symbolic nod with the name of the "Hotel Montana." In Hemingway's writing, nature is a place of refuge and rebirth, according to Stoltzfus, where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment the prey is killed. Nature

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is the place where men act without women: men fish, men hunt, men find redemption. In nature Jake and Bill do not need to discuss the war because their war experience, paradoxically, is ever-present. The nature scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta scenes. All of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout the novel. In his essay "Alcoholism in Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises"", Matts Djos says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as depression, anxiety and sexual inadequacy. He writes that Jake's self-pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic, as is

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Brett's out-of-control behavior. William Balassi thinks that Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett, notably in the Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch. Reynolds, however, believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United States. The atmosphere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness, but the degree of revelry among the Americans also reflects a reaction against Prohibition. Bill, visiting from the US, drinks in Paris and in Spain. Jake is rarely drunk in

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Paris where he works but on vacation in Pamplona, he drinks constantly. Reynolds says that Prohibition split attitudes about morality, and in the novel Hemingway made clear his dislike of Prohibition. Masculinity and gender. Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness. For example, in the bar scene in Paris, Jake is angry at some homosexual men. The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an inauthentic way of life, and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because, like them, Jake does not have sex with women. Jake's anger shows his self-hatred

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at his inauthenticity and lack of masculinity. His sense of masculine identity is lost—he is less than a man. Elliot wonders if Jake's wound perhaps signifies latent homosexuality, rather than only a loss of masculinity; the emphasis in the novel, however, is on Jake's interest in women. Hemingway's writing has been called homophobic because of the language his characters use. For example, in the fishing scenes, Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say, "I couldn't tell you that in New York. It'd mean I was a faggot." In contrast

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to Jake's troubled masculinity, Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self-assurance, bravery, competence, and uprightness. The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons, and they speculate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero's masculinity by bringing Brett to him and thus diminishing his ideal stature. Critics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in much of Hemingway's work. He was interested in cross-gender themes, as shown by his depictions of effeminate men and boyish women. In his fiction, a woman's hair is often symbolically important

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and used to denote gender. Brett, with her short hair, is androgynous and compared to a boy—yet the ambiguity lies in the fact that she is described as a "damned fine-looking woman." While Jake is attracted to this ambiguity, Romero is repulsed by it. In keeping with his strict moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett because, among other things, she will not grow her hair. Antisemitism. Hemingway has been called antisemitic, most notably because of the characterization of Robert Cohn in the book. The other characters often refer to Cohn as a Jew, and

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once as a 'kike'. Shunned by the other members of the group, Cohn is characterized as "different", unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta. Cohn is never really part of the group—separated by his difference or his Jewish faith. Barry Gross, comparing Jewish characters in literature of the period, commented that "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that Hemingway might have wanted to depict Cohn

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as a "shlemiel" (or fool), but she points out that Cohn lacks the characteristics of a traditional shlemiel. Cohn is based on Harold Loeb, a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affections of Duff, Lady Twysden (the real-life inspiration for Brett). Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925, Loeb should have declined Hemingway's invitation to join them in Pamplona. Before the trip he was Duff's lover and Hemingway's friend; during the fiasco of the fiesta, he lost Duff and Hemingway's friendship. Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character remembered chiefly as a

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rich Jew. Writing style. The novel is well known for its style, which is variously described as modern, hard-boiled, or understated. As a novice writer and journalist in Paris, Hemingway turned to Ezra Pound—who had a reputation as "an unofficial minister of culture who acted as mid-wife for new literary talent"—to mark and blue-ink his short stories. From Pound, Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style: he used understatement, pared away sentimentalism, and presented images and scenes without explanations of meaning, most notably at the book's conclusion, in which multiple future possibilities are left

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for Brett and Jake. The scholar Anders Hallengren writes that because Hemingway learned from Pound to "distrust adjectives," he created a style "in accordance with the esthetics and ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shutting the door on sentiment, on the subjective." F. Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to "let the book's action play itself out among its characters." Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner-Martin writes that, in taking Fitzgerald's advice, Hemingway produced a novel without a central narrator: "Hemingway's book was a step ahead; it was the modernist novel." When Fitzgerald

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advised Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence, which was 30 pages long, Hemingway wired the publishers telling them to cut the opening 30 pages altogether. The result was a novel without a focused starting point, which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received. Wagner-Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negative hero as defined by Edith Wharton, but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist. At that point his fiction consisted of extremely short stories, not one of which featured a hero. The hero

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changed during the writing of "The Sun Also Rises": first the matador was the hero, then Cohn was the hero, then Brett, and finally Hemingway realized "maybe there is not any hero at all. Maybe a story is better without any hero." Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the protagonist, Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel's hero. As a roman à clef, the novel based its characters on living people, causing scandal in the expatriate community. Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that "word-of-mouth of the book" helped sales. Parisian expatriates gleefully

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tried to match the fictional characters to real identities. Moreover, he writes that Hemingway used prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his characters. The early draft identified the characters by their living counterparts; Jake's character was called Hem, and Brett's was called Duff. Although the novel is written in a journalistic style, Frederic Svoboda writes that the striking thing about the work is "how quickly it moves away from a simple recounting of events." Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general. For example, Benson says

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that Hemingway drew out his experiences with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?" Hemingway believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely different thing occurs below the surface—an approach he called the iceberg theory, or the theory of omission. Balassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in "The Sun Also Rises" than in any of his other works, by editing extraneous material or

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purposely leaving gaps in the story. He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that show he wanted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein's advice to use "clear restrained writing." In the earliest draft, the novel begins in Pamplona, but Hemingway moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the Montparnasse life was necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain. He wrote of Paris extensively, intending "not to be limited by the literary theories of others, [but] to write in his own way, and possibly, to fail." He added metaphors for each character: Mike

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's money problems, Brett's association with the Circe myth, Robert's association with the segregated steer. It wasn't until the revision process that he pared down the story, taking out unnecessary explanations, minimizing descriptive passages, and stripping the dialogue, all of which created a "complex but tightly compressed story." Hemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing from the style sheet for "The Kansas City Star," where he worked as cub reporter. The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted from Hemingway's belief that to write authentically, each word

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had to be carefully chosen for its simplicity and authenticity and carry a great deal of weight. Aldridge writes that Hemingway's style "of a minimum of simple words that seemed to be squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent, creates the impression that those words—if only because there are so few of them—are sacramental." In Paris Hemingway had been experimenting with the prosody of the King James Bible, reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos. From the style of the biblical text, he learned to build his prose incrementally; the action in

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the novel builds sentence by sentence, scene by scene and chapter by chapter. The simplicity of his style is deceptive. Bloom writes that it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates Hemingway's prose. Drawing on the Bible, Walt Whitman and "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", Hemingway wrote in deliberate understatement and he heavily incorporated parataxis, which in some cases almost becomes cinematic. His skeletal sentences were crafted in response to Henry James's observation that World War I had "used up words," explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd, who writes that his style is similar to a "multi-focal" photographic

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reality. The syntax, which lacks subordinating conjunctions, creates static sentences. The photographic "snapshot" style creates a collage of images. Hemingway omits internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) in favor of short declarative sentences, which are meant to build, as events build, to create a sense of the whole. He also uses techniques analogous to cinema, such as cutting quickly from one scene to the next, or splicing one scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instructions from the author and create three-dimensional prose. Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting

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scenes are presented with a crispness and clarity that evoke the sense of a newsreel. Hemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River. In "Translating Modernism: Fitzgerald and Hemingway," Ronald Berman compares Hemingway's treatment of landscape with that of the post-Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne. During a 1949 interview, Hemingway told Lillian Ross that he learned from Cézanne how to "make a landscape." In comparing writing to painting he told her, "This is what we try to do in writing, this and this, and woods, and the rocks

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we have to climb over." The landscape is seen subjectively—the viewpoint of the observer is paramount. To Jake, landscape "meant a search for a solid form ... not existentially present in [his] life in Paris." Reception. Hemingway's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel, although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway was not philosophically a modernist. In the book, his characters epitomized the post-war expatriate generation for future generations. He had received good reviews for his volume of short stories, "In Our Time", of which Edmund Wilson wrote

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, "Hemingway's prose was of the first distinction." Wilson's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer. Good reviews came in from many major publications. Conrad Aiken wrote in the "New York Herald Tribune", "If there is a better dialogue to be written today I do not know where to find it"; and Bruce Barton wrote in "The Atlantic" that Hemingway "writes as if he had never read anybody's writing, as if he had fashioned the art of writing himself," and that the characters "are amazingly real and alive." Many reviewers, among them H.L. Mencken, praised

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Hemingway's style, use of understatement, and tight writing. Other critics, however, disliked the novel. "The Nation" critic believed Hemingway's hard-boiled style was better suited to the short stories published in "In Our Time" than his novel. Writing in the "New Masses", Hemingway's friend John Dos Passos asked: "What's the matter with American writing these days? ... The few unsad young men of this lost generation will have to look for another way of finding themselves than the one indicated here." Privately he wrote Hemingway an apology for the review. The reviewer for the "Chicago Daily Tribune

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wrote of the novel, "The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry." Some reviewers disliked the characters, among them the reviewer for "The Dial", who thought the characters were shallow and vapid; and "The Nation and Atheneum" deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant. The reviewer for "The Cincinnati Enquirer" wrote of the book that it "begins nowhere and ends in nothing." Hemingway's family hated it. His mother, Grace Hemingway, distressed that she could not face the criticism at her local book study class—where it was said

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that her son was "prostituting a great ability ... to the lowest uses"—expressed her displeasure in a letter to him: The critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pictures but the decent ones always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a strata of humanity ... It is a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year ... What is the matter? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility, honor and fineness in life? ... Surely you have other words in

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your vocabulary than "damn" and "bitch"—Every page fills me with a sick loathing. Still, the book sold well, and young women began to emulate Brett while male students at Ivy League universities wanted to become "Hemingway heroes." Scribner's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to "become a minor American phenomenon"—a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfeiffer attracted media attention. Reynolds believes "The Sun Also Rises" could have been written only circa 1925: it perfectly captured the period between World War I and the Great Depression, and immortalized a group of characters. In

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the years since its publication, the novel has been criticized for its antisemitism, as expressed in the characterization of Robert Cohn. Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained to Hemingway about his description of bulls, they allowed his use of Jewish epithets, which showed the degree to which antisemitism was accepted in the US after World War I. Cohn represented the Jewish establishment and contemporary readers would have understood this from his description. Hemingway clearly makes Cohn unlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is Jewish. Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be

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misogynistic and homophobic; by the 1990s his work, including "The Sun Also Rises", began to receive critical reconsideration by female scholars. Legacy and adaptations. Hemingway's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and after his suicide in 1961. During the 1970s, "The Sun Also Rises" appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era. Aldridge writes that "The Sun Also Rises" has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young. The characters live in the most beautiful city in the world, spend their days traveling, fishing, drinking, making love

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, and generally reveling in their youth. He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason, but that Hemingway was the most successful in capturing the time and the place in "The Sun Also Rises". Bloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time, writing that modern readers are uncomfortable with the antisemitic treatment of Cohn's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter. Moreover, Brett and Mike belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era. Bloom believes the novel is in the canon of American literature

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for its formal qualities: its prose and style. The novel made Hemingway famous, inspired young women across America to wear short hair and sweater sets like the heroine's—and to act like her too—and changed writing style in ways that could be seen in any American magazine published in the next twenty years. In many ways, the novel's stripped-down prose became a model for 20th-century American writing. Nagel writes that ""The Sun Also Rises" was a dramatic literary event and its effects have not diminished over the years." The success of "The Sun Also Rises" led

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to interest from Broadway and Hollywood. In 1927 two Broadway producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but made no immediate offers. Hemingway considered marketing the story directly to Hollywood, telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $30,000—money he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have. Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film adaptation solely on the strength of dialogue. Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon: he sold the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932, but only in 1956

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was the novel adapted to a film of the same name. Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay. Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol Flynn as Mike. The royalties went to Richardson. Hemingway wrote more books about bullfighting: "Death in the Afternoon" was published in 1932 and "The Dangerous Summer" was published posthumously in 1985. His depictions of Pamplona, beginning with "The Sun Also Rises," helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin. The Sun Also Rises The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel by

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Battle of the Golden Spurs Battle of the Golden Spurs The Battle of the Golden Spurs (; ) was a military confrontation between the royal army of France and rebellious forces of the County of Flanders on 11 July 1302 during the Franco-Flemish War (1297–1305). It took place near the town of Kortrijk (Courtrai) in modern-day Belgium and resulted in an unexpected victory for the Flemish. It is sometimes referred to as the Battle of Courtrai. On 18 May 1302, after two years of French military occupation and several years of unrest, many cities in Flanders revolted against French rule, and the local militia massacred

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many Frenchmen in the city of Bruges. King Philip IV of France immediately organized an expedition of 8,000 troops, including 2,500 men-at-arms, under Count Robert II of Artois to put down the rebellion. Meanwhile, 9,400 men from the civic militias of several Flemish cities were assembled to counter the expected French attack. When the two armies met outside the city of Kortrijk on 11 July, the cavalry charges of the mounted French men-at-arms proved unable to defeat the mail-armoured and well-trained Flemish militia infantry's pike formation. The result was a rout of the

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French nobles, who suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Flemish. The 500 pairs of spurs that were captured from the French horsemen gave the battle its popular name. The battle was a famous early example of an all-infantry army overcoming an army that depended on the shock attacks of heavy cavalry. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Battle of the Golden Spurs became an important cultural reference point for the Flemish Movement. In 1973, the date of the battle was chosen for the official holiday of the Flemish Community in Belgium. A 1985 film called "De

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leeuw van Vlaanderen (The Lion of Flanders)" shows the battle, and the politics that led up to it. Background. The origins of the Franco-Flemish War (1297–1305) can be traced back to the accession of Philip IV "the Fair" to the French throne in 1285. Philip hoped to reassert control over the County of Flanders, a semi-independent polity notionally part of the Kingdom of France, and possibly even to annex it into the crown lands of France. In the 1290s, Philip attempted to gain support from the Flemish aristocracy and succeeded in winning the allegiance of some local notables

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, including John of Avesnes (Count of Hainaut, Holland and Zeeland). He was opposed by a faction led by the Flemish knight Guy of Dampierre who attempted to form a marriage alliance with the English against Philip. In Flanders, however, many of the cities were split into factions known as the "Lilies" ("Leliaerts"), who were pro-French, and the "Claws" ("Clauwaerts"), led by Pieter de Coninck in Bruges, who advocated independence. In June 1297, the French invaded Flanders and gained some rapid successes. The English, under Edward I, withdrew to face a war with Scotland, and the Flemish and French signed

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a temporary armistice in 1297, the Truce of Sint-Baafs-Vijve, which halted the conflict. In January 1300, when the truce expired, the French invaded Flanders again, and by May, were in total control of the county. Guy of Dampierre was imprisoned and Philip himself toured Flanders making administrative changes. After Philip left Flanders, unrest broke out again in the Flemish city of Bruges directed against the French governor of Flanders, Jacques de Châtillon. On 18 May 1302, rebellious citizens who had fled Bruges returned to the city and murdered every Frenchman they could find, an act known as the

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Bruges Matins. With Guy of Dampierre still imprisoned, command of the rebellion was taken by John and Guy of Namur. Most of the towns of the County of Flanders agreed to join the Bruges rebellion except for the city of Ghent which refused to take part. Most of the Flemish nobility also took the French side, fearful of what had become an attempt to take power by the lower classes. Forces. In order to quell the revolt, Philip sent a powerful force led by Count Robert II of Artois to march on Bruges. Against the French, the Flemish under William

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of Jülich fielded a largely infantry force which was drawn mainly from Bruges, West Flanders, and the east of the county. The city of Ypres sent a contingent of five hundred men under Jan van Renesse, and despite their city's refusal to join the revolt, Jan Borluut arrived with seven hundred volunteers from Ghent. The Flemish were primarily town militia who were well equipped and trained. The militia fought primarily as infantry, were organized by guild, and were equipped with steel helmets, mail haubergeons, spears, pikes, bows, crossbows and the "goedendag". All Flemish troops at the battle had helmets

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, neck protection, iron or steel gloves and effective weapons, though not all could afford mail armor. The "goedendag" was a specifically Flemish weapon, made from a thick -long wooden shaft and topped with a steel spike. They were a well-organized force of 8,000–10,000 infantry, as well as four hundred noblemen, and the urban militias of the time prided themselves on their regular training and preparation. About 900 of the Flemish were crossbowmen. The Flemish militia formed a line formation against cavalry with "goedendags" and pikes pointed outward. Because of the high rate of defections among the Flemish nobility, there

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were few mounted knights on the Flemish side. The "Annals of Ghent" claimed that there were just ten cavalrymen in the Flemish force. The French, by contrast, fielded a royal army with a core of 2,500 noble cavalry, including knights and squires, arrayed into ten formations of 250 armored horsemen. During the deployment for the battle, they were arranged into three battles, of which the first two were to attack and the third to function as a rearguard and reserve. They were supported by about 5,500 infantry, a mix of crossbowmen, spearmen, and light infantry. The French had about 1,000

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crossbowmen, most of whom were from the Kingdom of France and perhaps a few hundred were recruited from northern Italy and Spain. Contemporary military theory valued each knight as equal to roughly ten footmen. The Battle. The combined Flemish forces met at Kortrijk on 26 June and laid siege to the castle, which housed a French garrison. As the siege was being laid, the Flemish leaders began preparing a nearby field for battle. The size of the French response was impressive, with 3,000 knights and 4,000–5,000 infantry being an accepted estimate. The Flemish failed to take the castle and the

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two forces clashed on 11 July in an open field near the city next to the Groeninge stream. The field near Kortrijk was crossed by numerous ditches and streams dug by the Flemish as Philip's army assembled. Some drained from the river Leie (or Lys), while others were concealed with dirt and tree branches, making it difficult for the French cavalry to charge the Flemish lines. The marshy ground also made the cavalry less effective. The French sent servants to place wood in the streams, but they were attacked before they completed their task. The Flemish placed themselves in

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a strong defensive position, in deeply stacked lines forming a square. The rear of the square was covered by a curve of the river Leie. The front presented a wedge to the French army and was placed behind larger rivulets. The 1,000 French crossbowmen attacked their 900 Flemish counterparts and succeeded in forcing them back. Eventually, the French crossbow bolts and arrows began to hit the main Flemish infantry formations' front ranks but inflicted little damage. The French commander Robert of Artois was worried the outnumbered French foot would be attacked from all sides by superior, heavily armed Flemish infantry

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on the other side of the brooks. Furthermore, the Flemish would then have their formations right on edge of the brooks and a successful French cavalry crossing would be extremely difficult. He therefore recalled his foot soldiers to clear the way for 2,300 heavy cavalry arranged into two attack formations. The French cavalry unfurled their banners and advanced on the command "Forward!". Some of the French footmen were trampled to death by the armoured cavalry, but most managed to get back around them or through the gaps in their lines. The cavalry advanced rapidly across the streams and ditches to

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give the Flemish no time to react. The brooks presented difficulties for the French horsemen and a few fell from their steeds. Despite initial confusion, the crossing was successful in the end. The French reorganized their formations on the other side to maximize their effectiveness in battle. Ready for combat, the French knights and men-at-arms charged at a quick trot and with their lances ready against the main Flemish line. The Flemish crossbowmen and archers fell back behind the pikemen. A great noise rose throughout the dramatic battle scene. The disciplined Flemish foot-soldiers kept their pikes ready

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on the ground and their "goedendags" raised to meet the French charge. The Flemish infantry wall did not flinch and a part of the French cavalry hesitated. The bulk of the French formations carried on their forward momentum and fell on the Flemish in an ear-splitting crash of horses against men. Unable at most points to break the Flemish line of pikemen, many French knights were knocked from their horses and killed with the "goedendag", the spike of which was designed to penetrate the spaces between armour segments. Those cavalry groups that succeeded in breaking through were set upon

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