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lean on them. Absent in bonobos. 3. sit and turn back Solicit grooming by approaching another, then turning back to potential groomer. See also Solicit grooming. Also in bonobos. See video. sit behind another Change position to groom back of companion. Also in bonobos. See video. S sit face to face Shift posture to sit... |
sideways Shift posture to sit beside another, to solicit grooming. See also solicit grooming. Also in bonobos. See video. sitting hunch See hunch and sit. slap Plooij SLA. Goodall: A hitting down gesture when the palmar surface of the hand is brought into contact with the objective. Done with one or both hands. Context... |
pattern. Cf. rap. slap buttress or tree trunk Strike tree with hand or alternate hands during charging display. Goodalls Drum. See also drum and slap wall. Included in Kanos Drum for bonobos. See video. slap ground Strike substrate with hand or alternate hands during pant-hooting, threatening, charging display, fightin... |
softly while showing play face. Absent in bonobos of Wamba. 5. See video. slap other Done during play, play invitation, charging display or fighting. Juvenile male, Xmas, slapped back of adult male while grooming him. Pikas Slap for bonobos. See video. S 172 smack lip slap self Nishida et al. Slap belly. Slap own belly... |
in self play. Absent in bonobos of Wamba. See videos. slap-stamp Goodall: Slapping with hands and stamping with feet together. Plooijs Slap stamp. Element of charging display. Absent in bonobos of Wamba. 5. See video. slap wall Slap wall of metal house with one or both hands or alternate hands, while standing bipedal o... |
vertical or diagonal pole or tree in an upright or crouched position. All four limbs are in contact with the pole or tree. Kanos Vertical slide. See video. S sloth position See hang in sloth position. sloth walk See walk in sloth position. smack lip Goodall Lip smack: Occurs during grooming. Mouth slightly opened and c... |
mostly done by juveniles. See video. sneer Goodall: The upper lip is retracted, sometimes on one side more than the other, to expose part of the upper teeth. In the wild the context is associated with fear of a human or a human associated situation. Only a few chimps sneer. Plooijs Sneer. At Mahale few individuals snee... |
arriving at place where strange chimpanzees were before. Males sniffed more frequently than females in sexual and social situations, while females did so more often during feeding and self-checking. Also reported from Ta. Bonobos sniffing predominantly by juveniles. See video. sniff finger Plooij SFI. Goodall: One fing... |
food being eaten. Occurs especially for food new to S 174 solicit copulation immature individual. From behavior pattern only, difficult to discriminate from peer when peerer does not sniff. 7. See video. sniff with tool Goodall Investigation probe: A stick or twig is used by a chimp for touching some object. See also p... |
ignore. 8. See video. social play See play socially. social scratch See scratch socially. soil-eating See eat termite soil. solicit companion When about to depart, adult encourages continued proximity from another resting nearby or about to leave in another direction by look back, look through thighs, touch, pull, shak... |
approach, follow, dance bipedal and crouch. Clip leaf, bend shrub, dance bipedal, etc. unique to Mahale. Goodalls Courtship includes display brachiation. In bonobos of Wamba, hunch bipedal, shake branch, rock, open thighs, and hunch and sit are courtship displays. See video. See also videos aggress in sexual frustratio... |
most important of four patterns of solicitation for grooming in bonobos of Wamba. See video. solicit grooming turn Signal requesting partner to take turn in social grooming: stop grooming and release partners body, stop grooming and scratch or groom self, stop grooming and present back or other body-part to partner. Bo... |
pull the hand of partner. 2. See videos. solicit play with object Invite play by holding plant part in mouth, hand, foot, or groin pocket. Customary at Gombe, Mahale, Kibale, Budongo, and Ta. Present at Bossou, Assirik, and Goualougo. Also, includes club ground, flail long object, throw, etc. See video. solicit play wi... |
at her, so that aggressor invites victim to G-G rub. See video. solicit riding Mother or allomother invites infant to ride on back or belly by extend hand, hoo, look back, raise arm with elbow bent, touch etc. S 17 spit juice Cf. depart together, put dorsal, put ventral and scoop infant. 3. See video. solicit support R... |
of play. Mature and immature chimpanzees do. At Mahale, 34 year old infants often do in solo play when large group travels long distance. See also headstand. Absent in bonobos of Wamba, but seems to occur in captivity. See video. somersault, backward Somersault backwards. Context of occurrence is similar to somersault,... |
Somersault sideways. Used as solicitation of play and during social play, but also done as solo play. 5. See video. spar At start of fight, both parties stand bipedally and flail one or both arms in hitting movements, with or without screaming. Also in play. Bonobo juveniles hit each other in play. spit juice Forcefull... |
palm or fingers of hand, foot, leg, or mouth. Sprinkle water onto playmate. See also play with water. Cf. stir water. 8. See video. See also video play with water. sponge See leaf-sponge. sponge push-pull See push and pull sponge. spring Infant rushes and jumps onto mothers buttocks to catch up with her rapid movement.... |
Squash ectoparasite on arm. Customary only at Ta. See squash ectoparasite on palm. Absent at Mahale. squash ectoparasite on palm Nakamura and Nishida Squash ectoparasite on palm. Customary only at Bossou. Cf. squash ectoparasite on arm. Absent at Mahale. squash leaf Whiten et al. Leaf-squash: Squash ectoparasite on lea... |
copulation. Goodalls Copulation scream. Bonobos emit similar call. See video. squeeze Compress contents of mouth by pushing chin upwards. Hand or arms pressed against chin to facilitate wadging. See also wadge. Also in bonobos. See video. staccato call Newborn emits call in response to mothers sudden movement, approach... |
Done also during social play, in solicitation of play and courtship. Cf. kick. Bonobos stamp while running, but not while sitting. Pikas Stomp for captive bonobos. 2. See video. S stamp bipedal Stamp sole on ground, buttress, tree trunk, wall of house, or another while upright. Component of charging display. Adolescent... |
and contusions. Also stamp softly on playmate repeatedly in social play. Also in bonobos. 2. See video. stamp quadrupedal 179 stamp quadrupedal Stamp quadrupedal on ground, rock, buttress, tree trunk, wall of house, another, or carcass of animal. Component of charging display, etc. Juveniles stamp on rock or lying adul... |
rocking movements. Kanos Stamping run and Pikas Stomp for bonobos. See video. stamp water Juvenile female, Jiddah, while sitting, repeatedly stamped on small pool of water, as part of water play in stream. Adolescent male, Cadmus, bent branches onto water and stamped repeatedly on them as solo play. 9. See video. stand... |
up While waiting for companion, or monitoring environment, stand still with heel up and toes on ground. Kanos Waiting posture for bonobos. See video. stand with head down, bottom up Nishida: Head down hips up: Postural pattern with tickling by mouth. The mother or caretaker stands on all fours, with elbows flexed, and ... |
in threat, predation, and monitoring. Cf. glance, look, peer, and watch. Kanos Stare for bonobos, who stare mutually during mating. See video. stare fixedly with head down and bottom up Infant female, Acadia, stood quadrupedal with head lowered onto palmer side of flexed lower right arm, resting on ground, while raisin... |
juvenile elicits play by stepping on reclining partner. Often response of younger partner to older partner who lies supine in playsoliciting posture. Goodalls Ride onto. 7. See video. S step over Step over another lying on ground, who shows no response to stepping individual. No obvious function. 7. See video. step up ... |
juveniles, adolescents and adults. See also play with water. See videos. See also video play with water. stomp See stamp. store Hold leaves in hand and start chewing only after collecting handful. Occurs when eating tough leaves of Ficus exasperata. Seen also at Gombe. 5. See video. strike down prey See knock with both... |
by adolescent male, Cadmus. Idiosyncratic? Stroking face of another with fingers and palm is rare and of unknown function. Cf. scratch socially, stroke type. 9. See video. struggle free When pinned down by stronger partner in play, or by group during gang attack, victim exerts maximum effort to get free by push, pull, ... |
reassurance Goodall Reassurance suckle: A brief suck when the infant has been frightened or hurt. Absent in bonobos. See video. suck self Suck own nipples. Female who has lost newborn rarely sucks her nipples. Matsumoto-Odas Self suckle. 8. See video. suck thumb Infant sucks own thumb, but rarely sucks other digits. Se... |
males. Cf. vacate. In bonobos, adult females supplant adult males, who supplant other adult males. See video. S support Intervene in fight and side with either of conflicting parties. Rare in bonobos. See video. support dominant Intervene in fight and side with dominant party. de Waals Winner support. Cf. support subor... |
Solo object play. 8. See video. swagger bipedal Goodall Bipedal swagger: In an upright or semi-upright posture the chimp sways, often rhythmically, from one foot to the other. The animal may remain in one spot to swagger or move forward during the swagger. The arms are normally held out from the body, the shoulders hun... |
chewing, usually in early morning, leaves of certain species of herbs and trees. Leaves of Aneilema spp., Aspilia mossambicensis, Commelina spp., Ficus exasperata, Lippia pulicata and Trema orientalis swallowed at Mahale. Known from Ta, Kibale, Bossou, Gombe, and other localities. Species of swallowed leaves differ fro... |
woody vegetation Component of charging display. While standing bipedal, vigorously shake tree trunk of short tree/large horizontal branch/woody vine/ fallen trunk of tree/rock, back and forth with both hands, sometimes destroying the dead tree as result. Type of threat display and used also as courtship. Probably same ... |
days. Maximal tumescence lasts 710 days, and in last two days of tumescence ovulation occurs. Plooijs Swelling. See also adolescent swelling and flabby bottom. swing Hang from woody vine by arms and swing back and forth. Social and locomotor play, solo play, threat, and charging display. If performer changes from one s... |
lacks swinging. Also, cf. sway and move. See video. swing and kick Hang from woody vine, swing, and forcefully kick buttress of tree, taking advantage of momentum of swinging movement. Sometimes, swing and kick other on back. Absent in bonobos of Wamba. See video. See also video play solo. swing forward and upward Hang... |
presumed consent. Modified from Goodalls Take. Tolerated scrounging equivalent to being shared. Cf. snatch, steal and share food. Plooijs Take away object. Also in bonobos. See videos. take dorsal See put dorsal. take finger in mouth Nishida, Goodall: Reach for the hand/foot of another and place part of hand/food or fi... |
teaching, if any, comprises only discouragement or negative reinforcement. Mother or allomother only rarely removes and discards leaf from mouth of infant, if leaf is not in diet of group. No systematic teaching. Teaching absent in bonobos of Wamba. 9. tear Remove leaf from branch or stalk with hand. Common method of h... |
female grinned, suggesting that she was just trifling with male, not intending to give up tail. Adolescents and juveniles throw branches at other adolescents or juveniles, apparently to tease them. Cf. trifle with and harass. 8. See video. teeth-bare See grin. teeth-clack See clack teeth. temper tantrum See throw tempe... |
tip head, flail arm, hit toward, throw at, shake branch, stamp, slap, charge, display, charging, hunch, stare fixedly, bark, cough bark, waa bark, wraa, compress lips and scream with grin-full-open. Kano lists for bonobos similar elements: stare, head-tip, wrist-shake, slap, branch-sway, arm-raise, threatening approach... |
animate object Aimed throwing at animal, conspecific, prey such as bushpig, or competitor such as baboon and human. Rarely throw stone or branch at conspecific as intimidation or play and rarely hit other. Habituated chimpanzees of Mahale and Ta throw branches at human for intimidation or play solicitation, but rarely ... |
males and females, and courtship pattern to estrous female by juvenile or older infant males. Older juvenile male once threw 1-m stick from distance of 8 m while pant-grunting to adult male. Bonobos throw branch forward at end of branch-dragging display. See video. throw dry leaves In dry season, males of Mahale run, p... |
Strychnos available. throw sand Adult male, Fanana, throws sand with hand while running bipedally. Within M groups range, sandy ground is rare. Element of charging display and play. 9. See video. throw splash Adult males of M group, Ntologi, Kalunde, Nsaba, Fanana, and Masudi, lift and throw heavy rocks into stream oft... |
and may leap up, fling arms above his/her head and then slap them onto the ground or beat the ground with his hands. He may hold himself to the ground on his face, hug a tree, or himself. He may rush off, tumbling over and over, still screaming. The screaming often results in glottal cramps Plooijs Throw temper tantrum... |
mother. See monitor mother. Bonobos show similar behavior. See videos. thrust Plooij THU. Goodalls Pelvic thrust: Rhythmic back and forth movements of the pelvis Occurs during copulation and in reassurance mounting Two adult males embrace ventro-ventrally and bipedally in reassurance or reconciliation, and one thrusts ... |
object. Infants or juveniles do as solo play and during play walk. 8. See video. thrust, misdirected Thrust not at rump, but on other body parts, such as leg, head, or shoulder, etc. Function is similar to usual thrust. 7. See video. thump See rap. tick Ectoparasites of chimpanzees of genus Ixodus, etc. tickle Plooij T... |
at Gombe. Present at Goulougo. Absent at Mahale. tickle with hand or foot See tickle. tickle with mouth See mouth. tilt head Incline head to one side while standing quadruped, to solicit play, or to look above. 8. See video. tip head Goodall Head tip: a threatening gesture. Head is jerked very slightly backwards, at th... |
aid or extension of manipulable organs such as limbs and mouth. See make tool and use tool. See Fig. 3. T Fig. 3 Tool: Tools used by K group to fish for Camponotus ants tool composite Two or more tool types used simultaneously and complementarily, to achieve single aim, e.g. hammer and anvil. Human examples are bow and... |
stick. Cf. tool composite. 3. See videos. tool use See use tool. touch van Hooff Touch. Plooji TOU. Nishida Touch. Goodall: A chimpanzee reaches out with a hand and touches another, with fingers, by laying the whole palmar surface of the hand on the others body Touch signals reassurance to subordinate from dominant, an... |
Adult bonobos much less often touch each other, mostly done by infants and juveniles. See video. touch fruit Touching hard-shelled fruit important source of information about ripeness. Sometimes, only touching suffices, but may be sniffed and bitten. Type of inspect fruit. Absent in bonobos of Wamba. Category 3. See vi... |
of newborn while grooming mothers back. 3. See video. T 192 transport bipedal touch with hand See touch. toy Object used for solo or social play. Object extracted or detached from environment used for play solicitation or as focal object during social play becomes tool. Comprises branch, fruit, leaf, flower, stone, san... |
video. trampoline See hang and stamp. transfer Migrate permanently from one unit group to another. Females normally transfer from natal group to another during adolescence- at age 11 at Mahale but 1213 at Ta. No sexually mature males transfer at Mahale, thus, chimpanzees are patrilocal. Also for Gombe, Ta, Ngogo and th... |
ant-nest etc. McGrews Play-start. See solicit play with object in mouth and ride. Bonobos also transport food similarly. 2. See video. transport bipedal When carrying much food or infant, walk on feet only. Bonobos carry sugar cane bipedally. See video. transport corpse of infant 193 transport corpse of infant Mother c... |
video transport in hand. transport in foot Carry grasped in foot object such as fruit, branch, stone, carcass, etc., usually in tree. Rare. 3. See video. transport in groin pocket Transport object clamped between thigh and abdomen. Goodalls Groin pocket. See also hold object in groin pocket. Kanos Groin pocket for bono... |
Juvenile transports leafy branch in mouth to solicit play and during play. Mother, Xtina, held infants nape or back in mouth and transported for several months. Adolescent male, Darwin, also did so few times. Recorded at Bossou. Bonobos carry objects in mouth. See videos. transport in neck pocket Goodall Neck pocket, P... |
carried newborn on head. Juvenile male, Michio, carried stone on nape in solo play. See also hold object on head. See video. See also video transport corpse of infant. transport on shoulder Carry large object such as carcass on shoulder. 3. See video. transport quadrupedal Transport object with hand, in mouth, neck poc... |
hand. Newborn or infant weekened by injury or illness typically carried this way, as gripping power of lower limbs is weak. Sometimes seen during ride dangling. Kanos Hand support for bonobos. 2. See video. transport with thigh support Goodall Thigh support: Method of supporting infant especially newborn, where the mot... |
et al. for bonobo locomotor patterns. See videos. travel alone after childbirth Days or weeks after parturition, mother with newborn spends time alone, apart from other group members, probably avoiding harassment. At Wamba, travel and play 195 bonobo mother often accompanied by one or two males directly after giving bi... |
process. Play face shown suggests that trifling sometimes fun. Cf. tease and abuse carcass. 3. See video. try play See solicit play. tug of war See pull object from opposing sides. tumble Lose balance and fall down slope. 3. See video. turn around Turn back to approaching individual. Goodalls Turn away: Mother may turn... |
up lip Evert upper lip over muzzle, exposing upper gums and teeth for grooming. Cf. flip lip. 8. See video. twist When flesh difficult to detach by pulling from carcass possessed by another, wrench bone so that piece of carcass is detached. Mentioned in Boesch, but not in Goodall. 3. See video. T U Ugalla Study area of... |
community. Multi-male, multi-female group with group size of up to 150, occupying territory 10200 km2 in area. Adult females outnumber adult males. Shows fission and fusion grouping pattern. Females emigrate from natal unit group at age of about 11 years. Inter-group relationships are antagonistic. Unit group also main... |
excretes urine in standing quadrupedal posture. Male does with adducted thighs, sometimes while walking. 3. See video. 197 198 use tool Fig. 37 Unit group: Procession of M group, more than 0 chimpanzees at one time urinate, sitting Urinate in sitting posture. 3. See video. U use tool Use detached object to change state... |
vacate Upon approach of more dominant individual, one of grooming party leaves partner and vacates position to dominant individual. Subordinate individual also may leave feeding patch when dominant approaches. Cf. supplant. 3. See video. ventral riding See ride ventral. ventro-dorsal copulation See copulate dorso-ventr... |
Ta and Mahale. Differs from transfer, which is permanent. 2. vocalize Call. Many calls are specific to contexts and express emotions. Includes bark, choke in tantrum, cough bark, grunt, hoo, hoot, huu, pant, pant-bark, pant-grunt, play-pant, scream, squeal in copulation, staccato call, waa bark, whimper, and wraa. Beha... |
crossing, and use stepping stones if available, when trees on both sides of river too far apart for overhead travel. If stepping stone unavailable, walk quadrupedal or bipedal in river, according to water depth. Cf. leap bipedal and leap quadrupedal. Bonobos wade similarly. 7. See video. wadge Chew and compress food be... |
leaf, etc. spat out. Chewed leaves from species not eaten solely, e.g. Saba comorensis, and even dry leaves are used. Fruits frequently wadged in this way at Mahale include Canthium crassum, Harungana madagascariensis, Parinari curatellifolia, Pseudospondias microcarpa, Psychotria peduncularis, W 201 202 walk in sloth ... |
young leaves of Brachystegia spiciformis chewed and sucked with wadge repeatedly taken out and returned to mouth. See video. wait for companion Goodall: An individual sets off, then looks back at a companion. If the latter is not following, the first stops to wait Ntologi, alpha male, often waited for adult males to fo... |
in arms, on muddy terrain, or to initiate charging display. Susman et al.s Bipedal walk in bonobos. See video. See also video stand bipedal. walk in sloth position Hang underneath branch using all hands and feet or combination of any three and locomote forwards. At Mahale part of solo W walk lame 203 play by immature c... |
et al.s Palmigrade quadrupedalism. See videos. walk stealthily See creep. walk tripedal Walk with object in hand or walk with hand on back of another. Cf. embrace half. See video. Wamba Study area of Pan paniscus in the Equatorial Province of DRC, also called Luo Scientific Reserve. Research organized by T. Kano from 1... |
it on rock, repeating process several times. Musa then nibbled skin. Category 89. See Fig. 38. W 204 whimper Fig. 38 Wash colobus skin: Adult male, Musa, washed colobus skin in stream. Four chimpanzees watched rare activity watch Goodall: Gaze intently at what another is doing. If the face of the watching individual is... |
mother and grooming or mating partner. See also interfere copulation. 5. See video. W whimper Goodall: A whole series of soft, low pitched sounds, rising and falling in pitch, which may lead to crying and screaming Whimper by male infant may elicit presentation by estrous female, so serving as courtship display. Estrou... |
it. 3. See video. See also video throw temper tantrum. whisk fly with arm Shake arm to keep flies from converging on self or object, especially when mother carries dead infant. Cf. catch with hand. See video. whisk fly with leafy twig Sugiyama Fly whisk: Use leafy twig to fan away flies. Habitual at Ta and Budongo, pre... |
at Gombe and Budongo, but absent at Mahale. Wiping dirt from others not seen at Mahale. Cf. rub muzzle. Seen three times in bonobos at Wamba. See video. wipe with still-attached object See rub muzzle. wraa Goodall: ---a long drawn out, pure sounding call, neither high or low pitched Given by chimpanzees when confronted... |
bipedal stance like Japanese sumo. Lasts less than 5 s before return to usual wrestle in sitting and reclining postures. 7. See video. wrestle with fingers van Hooff Handwrestle. Goodall: Gentle fondling, holding, squeezing, tickling of one hand of intended play partner. This is how a mature individual typically seeks ... |
Research done by T. Kano and colleagues from 1973 to 1977. yawn Goodall Yawning. Plooij YAW. Kano Yawn for the bonobos. See videos. Y 207 Discussion Our list contains 891 behavioral patterns of Mahale chimpanzees, 45 patterns that have been recorded at other sites but not at Mahale, 91 nouns concerning chimpanzees and ... |
sources for the behavioral patterns. This time videotapes that add up to more than 1,500 h since 1999 were played back and watched again and again. This procedure has brought a qualitatively, as well as quantitatively, higher level of data scrutiny than before. Second, the multi-authored article that was published simu... |
250 individuals or so for consideration, 180 pages for this encyclopedia would be remarkable. As we pointed out already, behavior as simple as social scratch is not only absent at some sites, but also the behavioral pattern of social scratch differs across sites where it exists. Chimpanzees are cultured animals whose b... |
of chimpanzees, Gombe and Mahale, both belonging to subspecies of P. t. schweinfurthii and T. Nishida et al., Chimpanzee Behavior in the Wild: An Audio-Visual Encyclopedia, DOI 10.1007/978-4-431-53895-0 10, Springer 2010 209 210 Discussion one population of bonobos at Wamba. In this paper, we tentatively allocated cate... |
has so far been confirmed for each behavioral pattern, we here use it as the principle means of summarizing our Table 1 Numbers of behavioral patterns in each category and its phylogenetic position Categories No. of patterns Subtotal Phylogenetic positions 1 12 2 13 23 3 15 25 35 45 5 1 2 3 17 27 37 57 7 18 28 38 78 8 ... |
Likely to be Mahale customs 77 Likely to be M group customs 92 Likely to be habits of a few M group chimpanzees 54 Likely to be idiosyncracies of M group chimpanzees 891 Discussion 211 results. Thus, we have obtained 2 3 behavior patterns likely shared by the common ancestors of Homo and Pan, 157 patterns likely to be ... |
Homo and Pan had such characteristics as drag branch, play aeroplane, female transfer, and many other patterns, but we are less sure that they engaged in patrol, ostracize, fish and many other patterns. Probably, more important, we found many candidates of cultural behavioral patterns, namely 120 patterns, in addition ... |
of new patterns. We hope that by viewing the video clips carefully as well as reading the glossary, researchers at other sites will discover much new material for discussing the behavioral diversity of chimpanzees living in the natural environment. Rich flesh will be put on the bones of Table 1 and full interpretation ... |
Charles Mlingwa, Erasmus Tarimo, Edeus Massawe, A.K. Seki, M. Mbaga and their staff for their friendship and encouragement; We thank Michio Nakamura, Gaku Ohashi, Tetsuya Sakamai, Crickette Sanz and Dave Morgan for allowing us to use their precious video clips; Tamotsu Asou, Richard Byrne, Satoshi Hirata, Michio Nakamu... |
Hayaki, John Mitani, Linda Marchant, Kazuhiko Hosaka, Akiko Matsumoto-Oda, Michio Nakamura, Noriko Itoh, Tetsuya Sakamaki and Nadia Corp. We are indebted to our field assistants, in particular, Ramadhani Nyundo, Rashidi Kitopeni, Rashidi Hawazi, Mtunda Hawazi, Mosi B. Kasagula, Hamisi B. Kasagula, Mosi Hamisi, Kabumbe ... |
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Oxford University Press, Oxford Boesch C, Head J, Robbins MM Complex tool sets for honey extraction among chimpanzees in Loango National Park, Gabon. J Hum Evol 5:5 05 9 Boesch C, Hohmann G, Marchant L Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Bogart SL, Pruetz JD Ecologica... |
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Gombe chimpanzees. Mol Ecol 10:12791300 Corbalis MC From hand to mouth: The origins of language. Princeton University Press, Princeton Corp N, Hayaki H, Matsusaka T, Fujita S, Hosaka K, Kutsukake N, Nakamura M, Nakamura M, Nishie H, Shimada M, Zamma K, Wallauer W, Nishida T Prevalence of muzzle-rubbing and hand-rubbing... |
I Love and hate. The natural history of behavior patterns. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York Enomoto T Bonobos. Maruzen, Tokyo Fawcett K, Muhumuza G Death of a wild chimpanzee community member: possible outcome of intense sexual competition? Am J Primatol 51:243247 Fay JM, Carroll RW Chimpanzee tool use for honey an... |
Fujimoto M, Shimada M Newly observed predation of wild birds by M group chimpanzees at Mahale, Tanzania. Pan Afr News 15:232 Furuichi T Social interactions and the life history of female Pan paniscus in Wamba, Zaire. Int J Primatol 10:173197 Furuichi T, Hashimoto C Ground beds of chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest, Ugan... |
man. Collins, London Goodall J Cultural elements in a chimpanzee community. In: Menzel EW Precultural primate behavior. S. Karger, Basel, pp 144184 Goodall J Infant killing and cannibalism in free-living chimpanzees. Folia Primatol 22:259282 Goodall J The chimpanzees of Gombe. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Go... |
and ER McCown, Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, pp.1353 Graham CE Menstrual cycle physiology of the great apes. In: Graham CE Reproductive biology of the great apes. Academic, New York, pp 28 303 Hamai M, Nishida T, Takasaki H, Turner LA New records of within-group infanticide and cannibalism in wild chimpanzees. Primate... |
and high promiscuity in chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. In: Newton-Fisher NE, Notman H, Paterson JD, Reynolds Primates of western Uganda. Springer, New York, pp 247257 Hashimoto C, Furuichi T, Tashiro Y Ant dipping and meat eating by wild chimpanzees in the Kalinzu Forest, Uganda. Primates 41:103108 Hashimot... |
males, in the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Folia Primatol 44:1481 0 Hernandez-Aguilar RA, Moore J, Pickering TR Savanna chimpanzees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104:1921019213 21 References Hewes GW Primate communication and the gestural origin of la... |
cushions to sit on wet ground by wild chimpanzees. Am J Primatol 44:215220 Hirata S, Yamakoshi G, Fujita S, Ohashi G, Matsuzawa T Capturing and toying with hyraxes by wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Am J Primatol 53:9397 Hockings KJ, Anderson JR, Matsuzawa T Flexible feeding on cultivated underground storage organs... |
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2 Hopkins WD, Morris RD Handedness in great apes: A review of findings. Int J Primatol 14:125 Hosaka K, Matsumoto-Oda A, Huffman MA, Kawanaka K Responses of chimpanzees to dead conspecifics. Primate Res 1:115 Hosaka K, Nishida T, Hamai M, Matsumoto-Oda A, Uehara S Predation of mammals by the chimpanzees of the Mahale M... |
Bossou, Guinea. Pan Afr News:34 Humle T, Matsuzawa T Ant-dipping among the chimpanzees of Bossou, Guinea, and some comparisons with other sites. Am J Primatol 58:133148 Hunt KD, Cant JG, Gebo DL, Rose MD, Walker SE, Youlatos D Standardized descriptions of primate locomotor, and postural modes. Primates 37:3 3387 Refere... |
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Park, CA, pp 5571 Itoh N, Nishida T Chimpanzee grouping patterns and food availability in Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Primates 48:879 Itoh N, Sakamaki T, Hamisi M, Kitopeni R, Bunengwa M, Matumla M, Athumani K, Mwami M, Bunengwa H A new record of invasion into the center of M group territory. Pan Afr News... |
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