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Without halftoning the three primary process colors could be printed only as solid blocks of color and therefore could produce only seven colors the three primaries themselves plus three secondary colors produced by layering two of the primaries cyan and yellow produce green cyan and magenta produce blue yellow and magenta produce red these subtractive secondary colors correspond roughly to the additive primary colors plus layering all three of them resulting in black With halftoning a full continuous range of colors can be produced |
To improve print quality and reduce moir patterns the screen for each color is set at a different angle While the angles depend on how many colors are used and the preference of the press operator typical CMYK process printing uses any of the following screen angles |
The black generated by mixing commercially practical cyan magenta and yellow inks is unsatisfactory so four color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primaries Common reasons for using black ink include |
When a very dark area is desirable a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first then a full black layer is applied on top making a rich deep black this is called rich black A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black |
The amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable and the choice depends on the technology paper and ink in use Processes called under color removal under color addition and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix different CMYK recipes will be used depending on the printing task |
CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing in which specific colored inks are used to generate the colors appearing on paper Some printing presses are capable of printing with both four color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time High quality printed materials such as marketing brochures and books often include photographs requiring process color printing other graphic effects requiring spot colors such as metallic inks and finishes such as varnish which enhances the glossy appearance of the printed piece |
CMYK are the process printers which often have a relatively small color gamut Processes such as Pantone s proprietary six color CMYKOG Hexachrome considerably expand the gamut Light saturated colors often can not be created with CMYK and light colors in general may make visible the halftone pattern Using a CcMmYK process with the addition of light cyan and magenta inks to CMYK can solve these problems and such a process is used by many inkjet printers including desktop models |
Comparisons between RGB displays and CMYK prints can be difficult since the color reproduction technologies and properties are very different A computer monitor mixes shades of red green and blue light to create color pictures A CMYK printer instead uses light absorbing cyan magenta and yellow inks whose colors are mixed using dithering halftoning or some other optical technique |
Similar to monitors the inks used in printing produce a color gamut that is only a subset of the visible spectrum although both color modes have their own specific ranges As a result of this items which are displayed on a computer monitor may not completely match the look of items which are printed if opposite color modes are being combined in both mediums When designing items to be printed designers view the colors which they are choosing on an RGB color mode their computer screen and it is often difficult to visualize the way in which the color will turn out post printing because of this |
To reproduce color the CMYK color model codes for absorbing light rather than emitting it as is assumed by RGB The K component absorbs all wavelengths and is therefore achromatic The Cyan Magenta and Yellow components are used for color reproduction and they may be viewed as the inverse of RGB Cyan absorbs Red Magenta absorbs Green and Yellow absorbs Blue R G B |
Since RGB and CMYK spaces are both device dependent spaces there is no simple or general conversion formula that converts between them Conversions are generally done through color management systems using color profiles that describe the spaces being converted Nevertheless the conversions can not be exact particularly where these spaces have different gamuts |
The problem of computing a colorimetric estimate of the color that results from printing various combinations of ink has been addressed by many scientists A general method that has emerged for the case of halftone printing is to treat each tiny overlap of color dots as one of 8 combinations of CMY or of 16 combinations of CMYK colors which in this context are known as Neugebauer primaries The resultant color would be an area weighted colorimetric combination of these primary colors except that the Yule Nielsen effect dot gain of scattered light between and within the areas complicates the physics and the analysis empirical formulas for such analysis have been developed in terms of detailed dye combination absorption spectra and empirical parameters |
A reading of a bill is a debate on the bill held before the general body of a legislature as opposed to before a committee or an other group In the Westminster system there are usually several readings of a bill among the stages it passes through before becoming law as an Act of Parliament Some of these readings are usually formalities rather than substantive debates |
A first reading is when a bill is introduced to a legislature Typically in the United States the title of the bill is read and immediately assigned to a committee The bill is then considered by committee between the first and second readings In the United States Senate and most British influenced legislatures the committee consideration occurs between second and third readings In Israel the committee consideration occurs between first and second readings and for private member bills between preliminary and first readings |
In the Oireachtas of Ireland the First Stage of a bill is by either of two methods |
In New Zealand once a bill passes first reading it is normally referred to a Select Committee However a Government can have a bill skip the select committee stage by a simple majority vote in Parliament |
A bill can be defeated on first reading if a member introduces it and no one seconds it |
A second reading is the stage of the legislative process where a draft of a bill is read a second time In most Westminster systems a vote is taken on the general outlines of the bill before being sent to committee |
In the Oireachtas of Ireland it is referred to as Second Stage though the subheading second reading is used Dil standing orders and the motion at second stage is still that the Bill is to be read a second time A bill introduced in one house enters the other house at Second Stage except that the Seanad second stage is waived for Dil consolidation bills Once the bill passes second stage it is referred to a Select Committee of that house or taken in Committee Stage by the whole house |
In the United States Senate a bill is either referred to committee or placed on the Calendar of Business after second reading No vote is held on whether to read the bill a second time In US legislatures where consideration in committee precedes second reading the procedure varies as to how a bill reaches second reading In Illinois for example legislation is automatically read a second time after which amendments are in order |
In New Zealand once a bill passes a Second Reading it is then considered clause by clause by the whole Parliament If a majority of Parliament agree the bill can be considered part by part saving considerable time Because most bills must have majority support to pass a second reading it is now very rare for a bill to be considered clause by clause |
A third reading is the stage of a legislative process in which a bill is read with all amendments and given final approval by a legislative body In legislatures whose procedures are based on those of the Westminster system the third reading occurs after the bill has been amended by committee and considered for amendment at report stage |
In bicameral legislatures if the bill passes the third reading it is then sent to the other chamber of parliament to start the process again at first reading in that chamber Once the bill has passed third reading in both chambers it is sent on for promulgation such as Royal Assent in the Westminster system or signing by the president or governor in the US model In a unicameral legislature after passing third reading in the sole chamber the bill goes on directly for promulgation |
In the United States Senate after the third reading has been ordered a bill may be amended with a two thirds majority vote for adoption There is still a vote on final passage |
In the Oireachtas of Ireland the equivalent of the third reading is referred to as the Fifth Stage or Final Stage The motion is That the Bill do now pass except that the Seanad motion for a money bill is That the Bill be returned to the Dil When a bill passes one house it is sent to the other house and enters at Second Stage After both houses have passed the bill it is sent to the President of Ireland to be signed into law |
In the Aeroplane Over the Sea is the second and final studio album by the American indie rock band Neutral Milk Hotel It was released in the United States on February 10 1998 on Merge Records and May 1998 on Blue Rose Records in the United Kingdom |
Jeff Mangum moved from Athens Georgia to Denver Colorado to prepare the bulk of the album s material with producer Robert Schneider this time at Schneider s newly created Pet Sounds Studio at the home of Jim McIntyre |
In the years since its release In the Aeroplane Over the Sea has become regarded as one of the greatest albums of the 1990s and of all time The album was the sixth best selling vinyl album in 2008 NME named it the 98th greatest album of all time |
In the Aeroplane Over the Sea is widely considered to be written about Anne Frank due to lyrics seemingly referring to her such as lines referring to her birth and death dates Though the group has never officially stated that the album is indeed about Frank it is a popular theory among fans and Jeff Mangum has mentioned the influence her diary The Diary of a Young Girl has made on his craft and outright referred to Holland 1945 being about her while performing live |
The album s cover was a collaboration between Mangum and REM s staff designer Chris Bilheimer The general design reflects the taste of Jeff Mangum Bryan Poole said that Mangum was always into that old timey magic semicircus turn of the century penny arcade kind of imagery One particular piece Mangum showed to Bilheimer was an old European postcard with an image of people bathing at a resort which was then cropped and altered Bilheimer also designed a broadsheet style lyrics sheet for the album and inadvertently titled Holland 1945 in the process Mangum wanted to use either Holland or 1945 for the song s title and Bilheimer suggested he use both |
In a contemporary review of In the Aeroplane Over the Sea the College Music Journal called the album a true lo fi pop landmark and cited Holland 1945 as a highlight Pitchfork s M Christian McDermott referred to Neutral Milk Hotel as a one psych rock band making music that s just as catchy as it is frightening and said that the album does a credible job of blending Sgt Pepper with early 90 s lo fi Ben Ratliff was more mixed in his review for Rolling Stone writing Unfortunately Mangum went straight for the advanced course in aura and texture skipping basic training in form and selfediting He sings loudly straining the limits of an affectless voice For those not completely sold on its folk charm Aeroplane is thin blooded woolgathering stuff Spin s Erik Himmelsbach referred to the album as cut and paste pop songs that are darkly comic and wonderfully wide eyed while noting tracks such as The King of Carrot Flowers as a self indulgent three part musical suite |
Jason Ankeny of AllMusic wrote lo fi yet lush impenetrable yet wholly accessible In the Aeroplane Over the Sea is either the work of a genius or an utter crackpot with the truth probably falling somewhere in between Ankeny also praised Mangum s vocals as far more emotive than they were on On Avery Island while noting the vagueness of the album s lyrics concluding that while Mangum spins his words with the rapid fire intensity of a young Dylan the songs are far too cryptic and abstract to fully sink in In the Aeroplane Over the Sea is undoubtedly a major statement but just what it s saying is anyone s guess Robert Christgau of The Village Voice rated the album a neither and while he later wrote that the album convinced alt diehards that maturity can be just as weird as growing up he also called it a funereal jape that gets my goat |
Subsequent reviews from Pitchfork and Rolling Stone were much more positive the latter gave the album four and half of five stars in its 2004 The New Rolling Stone Album Guide Completely Revised and Updated 4th Edition with reviewer Roni Sarig writing Mangum had put together something resembling an actual band resulting in a far richer and more organic sound than On Avery Island What s more the songwriting had blossomed far beyond the bounds of Elephant 6 or indie rock as a whole with Mangum etching out timeless transcendentalist pop steeped in a century of American music from funeral marches to driving punk Sarig also commended the album for its passionate acoustic guitar strums irresistible melodies and lyrics that rarely feel obtuse even when they re nonsensical Pitchfork in a 2005 review written by Mark Richardson gave the album a perfect score Richardson praised the album s lyrical directness and kaleidoscopic musical style PopMatters named a reissue of the album one of the best of 2005 and wrote Aeroplane is a manifesto for a different way of making pop To hear Two Headed Boy in 2005 is to realize that Mangum s art is simply superb songwriting But most of the record adds an ingenious mixture of accordion brass organ fuzzed out guitars tape and other glorious miscellanea In 2014 Spin regarded the album as a classic and the band s psych folk opus |
Arcade Fire frontman Win Butler named Aeroplane as a chief reason that his band signed to Merge Jesse Lacey of Brand New called In the Aeroplane Over the Sea the greatest record ever written and has covered Holland 1945 Oh Comely and Two Headed Boy Part Two in concert In August 2010 The Swell Season covered Two Headed Boy for The AV Club s AV Undercover series Later in the same year American musical duo Dresden Dolls also covered Two Headed Boy for The AV Club s Holiday Undercover series In 2010 a group called Neutral Uke Hotel began touring playing ukulele covers of all the songs on the album Phish covered In the Aeroplane Over the Sea in a concert on 26 June 2010 at Merriweather Post Pavilion in Columbia Maryland |
As of 2013 sales in the United States have exceeded 393000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan |
All songs written by Jeff Mangum except where indicated Horn arrangements by Robert Schneider and Scott Spillane |
denotes an unranked list |
Prehistoric Ireland spans a period from the first known evidence of human presence dated to about 10000 years ago until the emergence of protohistoric Gaelic Ireland at the time of Christianization in the 5th century Christianity subsumed or replaced the earlier polytheism and other forms of Celtic paganism by the end of the 7th century |
The Norman invasion of the late 12th century marked the beginning of more than 900 years of direct English rule and later British involvement in Ireland In 1177 Prince John Lackland was made Lord of Ireland by his father Henry II of England at the Council of Oxford The Crown did not attempt to assert full control of the island until the rebellion of the Earl of Kildare threatened English hegemony Henry VIII proclaimed himself King of Ireland and also tried to introduce the English Reformation which failed in Ireland Attempts to either conquer or assimilate the Irish lordships into the Kingdom of Ireland provided the initial impetus for a series of Irish military campaigns between 1534 and 1603 This period was marked by a Crown policy of plantation involving the arrival of thousands of English and Scottish Protestant settlers and the consequent displacement of the preplantation Catholic landholders As the military and political defeat of Gaelic Ireland became more pronounced in the early seventeenth century sectarian conflict became a recurrent theme in Irish history |
The 1614 overthrow of the Catholic majority in the Irish Parliament was realised principally through the creation of numerous new boroughs which were dominated by the new settlers By the end of the seventeenth century recusants adherents to the older religion were now termed representing some 85 of Ireland s population were then banned from the Irish Parliament Protestant domination of Ireland was confirmed after two periods of war between Catholics and Protestants in 1641 52 and 1689 91 Political power thereafter rested entirely in the hands of a Protestant Ascendancy minority while Catholics and members of dissenting Protestant denominations suffered severe political and economic privations under the Penal Laws The Irish Parliament was abolished from 1 January 1801 in the wake of the republican United Irishmen Rebellion and Ireland became an integral part of a new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the provisions of the Acts of Union 1800 Although promised a repeal of the Test Act Catholics were not granted full rights until Catholic Emancipation was attained throughout the new UK in 1829 This was followed by the first Irish Reform Act 1832 a principal condition of which was the removal of the poorer Irish freeholders from the franchise |
The Irish Parliamentary Party strove from the 1880s to attain Home Rule through the parliamentary constitutional movement eventually winning the Home Rule Act 1914 although this Act was suspended at the outbreak of World War I The Easter Rising staged by republicans two years later brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics |
In 1922 after the Irish War of Independence and the Anglo Irish Treaty most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom to become the independent Irish Free State which after the 1937 constitution began to call itself Ireland The six northeastern counties known as Northern Ireland remained within the United Kingdom The Irish Civil War followed soon after the War of Independence The history of Northern Ireland has since been dominated by sporadic sectarian conflict between mainly Catholic Irish nationalists and mainly Protestant unionists This conflict erupted into the Troubles in the late 1960s until peace was achieved with the Belfast Agreement thirty years later |
What is known of preChristian Ireland comes from references in Roman writings Irish poetry and myth and archaeology While some possible Paleolithic tools have been found none of the finds are convincing of Paleolithic settlement in Ireland However a bear bone found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave County Clare in 1903 may push back dates for the earliest human settlement of Ireland to 10500 BC The bone shows clear signs of cut marks with stone tools and has been radiocarbon dated to 12500 years ago |
The earliest confirmed inhabitants of Ireland were Mesolithic hunter gatherers who arrived some time around 7900 BC While some authors take the view that a land bridge connecting Ireland to Great Britain still existed at that time more recent studies indicate that Ireland was separated from Britain by c 14000 BC when the climate was still cold and local ice caps persisted in parts of the country The people remained hunter gatherers until about 4000 BC It is argued this is when the first signs of agriculture started to show leading to the establishment of a Neolithic culture characterised by the appearance of pottery polished stone tools rectangular wooden houses megalithic tombs and domesticated sheep and cattle Some of these tombs as at Knowth and Dowth are huge stone monuments and many of them such as the Passage Tombs of Newgrange are astronomically aligned Four main types of Irish Megalithic Tombs have been identified dolmens court cairns passage tombs and wedge shaped gallery graves In Leinster and Munster individual adult males were buried in small stone structures called cists under earthen mounds and were accompanied by distinctive decorated pottery This culture apparently prospered and the island became more densely populated Near the end of the Neolithic new types of monuments developed such as circular embanked enclosures and timber stone and post and pit circles |
The Bronze Age which came to Ireland around 2000 BC saw the production of elaborate gold and bronze ornaments weapons and tools There was a movement away from the construction of communal megalithic tombs to the burial of the dead in small stone cists or simple pits which could be situated in cemeteries or in circular earth or stone built burial mounds known respectively as barrows and cairns As the period progressed inhumation burial gave way to cremation and by the Middle Bronze Age remains were often placed beneath large burial urns |
The Iron Age in Ireland began about 600 BC The period between the start of the Iron Age and the historic period 431 AD saw the gradual infiltration of small groups of Celtic speaking people into Ireland with items of the continental Celtic La Tene style being found in at least the northern part of the island by about 300 BC The result of a gradual blending of Celtic and indigenous cultures would result in the emergence of Gaelic culture by the fifth century It is also during the fifth century that the main overkingdoms of In Tuisceart Airgialla Ulaid Mide Laigin Mumhain Ciced Ol nEchmacht began to emerge see Kingdoms of ancient Ireland Within these kingdoms a rich culture flourished The society of these kingdoms was dominated by an upper class consisting of aristocratic warriors and learned people which possibly included Druids |
Linguists realised from the 17th century onwards that the language spoken by these people the Goidelic languages was a branch of the Celtic languages This is usually explained as a result of invasions by Celts from the continent However other research has postulated that the culture developed gradually and continuously and that the introduction of Celtic language and elements of Celtic culture may have been a result of cultural exchange with Celtic groups in southwest continental Europe from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age |
The hypothesis that the native Late Bronze Age inhabitants gradually absorbed Celtic influences has since been supported by some recent genetic research |
The Romans referred to Ireland as Hibernia Ptolemy in 100 AD recorded Ireland s geography and tribes Ireland was never a part of the Roman Empire but Roman influence was often projected well beyond its borders Tacitus writes that an exiled Irish prince was with Agricola in Roman Britain and would return to seize power in Ireland Juvenal tells us that Roman arms had been taken beyond the shores of Ireland In recent years some experts have hypothesized that Roman sponsored Gaelic forces or perhaps even Roman regulars mounted some kind of invasion around 100 AD but the exact relationship between Rome and the dynasties and peoples of Hibernia remains unclear |
Irish confederations the Scoti attacked and some settled in Britain during the Great Conspiracy of 367 In particular the Dl Riata settled in western Scotland and the Western Isles |
The middle centuries of the first millennium AD marked great changes in Ireland Politically what appears to have been a prehistoric emphasis on tribal affiliation had been replaced by the 8th century by patrilineal dynasties ruling the island s kingdoms Many formerly powerful kingdoms and peoples disappeared Irish pirates struck all over the coast of western Britain in the same way that the Vikings would later attack Ireland Some of these founded entirely new kingdoms in Pictland and to a lesser degree in parts of Cornwall Wales and Cumbria The Attacotti of south Leinster may even have served in the Roman military in the midto late 300s |
Perhaps it was some of the latter returning home as rich mercenaries merchants or slaves stolen from Britain or Gaul that first brought the Christian faith to Ireland Some early sources claim that there were missionaries active in southern Ireland long before St Patrick Whatever the route and there were probably many this new faith was to have the most profound effect on the Irish |
Tradition maintains that in AD 432 St Patrick arrived on the island and in the years that followed worked to convert the Irish to Christianity St Patrick s Confession in Latin written by him is the earliest Irish historical document It gives some information about the Saint On the other hand according to Prosper of Aquitaine a contemporary chronicler Palladius was sent to Ireland by the Pope in 431 as first Bishop to the Irish believing in Christ which demonstrates that there were already Christians living in Ireland Palladius seems to have worked purely as Bishop to Irish Christians in the Leinster and Meath kingdoms while Patrick who may have arrived as late as 461 worked first and foremost as a missionary to the pagan Irish in the more remote kingdoms in Ulster and Connacht |
Patrick is traditionally credited with preserving and codifying Irish laws and changing only those that conflicted with Christian practices He is credited with introducing the Roman alphabet which enabled Irish monks to preserve parts of the extensive oral literature The historicity of these claims remains the subject of debate and there is no direct evidence linking Patrick with any of these accomplishments The myth of Patrick as scholars refer to it was developed in the centuries after his death |
Irish scholars excelled in the study of Latin learning and Christian theology in the monasteries that flourished shortly thereafter Missionaries from Ireland to England and Continental Europe spread news of the flowering of learning and scholars from other nations came to Irish monasteries The excellence and isolation of these monasteries helped preserve Latin learning during the Early Middle Ages The period of Insular art mainly in the fields of illuminated manuscripts metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced such treasures as the Book of Kells the Ardagh Chalice and the many carved stone crosses that dot the island Insular style was to be a crucial ingredient in the formation of the Romanesque and Gothic styles throughout Western Europe Sites dating to this period include clochans ringforts and promontory forts |
Francis John Byrne describes the effect of the epidemics which occurred during this era |
The plagues of the 660s and the 680s had a traumatic effect on Irish society The golden age of the saints was over together with the generation of kings who could fire a saga writer s imagination The literary tradition looks back to the reign of the sons of Aed Slaine Diarmait and Blathmac who died in 665 as to the end of an era Antiquaries brehons genealogists and hagiographers felt the need to collect ancient traditions before they were totally forgotten Many were in fact swallowed by oblivion when we examine the writing of Tirechan we encounter obscure references to tribes which are quite unknown to the later genealogical tradition The laws describe a society that was obsolescent and the meaning and use of the word moccu dies out with archaic Old Irish at the beginning of the new century |
The first English involvement in Ireland took place in this period Tullylease Rath Melsigi and Maigh Eo na Saxain were founded by 670 for English students who wished to study or live in Ireland In summer 684 an English expeditionary force sent by Northumbrian King Ecgfrith raided Brega |
The first recorded Viking raid in Irish history occurred in 795 AD when Vikings from Norway looted the island Early Viking raids were generally fast paced and small in scale These early raids interrupted the golden age of Christian Irish culture and marked the beginning of two centuries of intermittent warfare with waves of Viking raiders plundering monasteries and towns throughout Ireland Most of those early raiders came from western Norway |
The Vikings were expert sailors who travelled in longships and by the early 840s had begun to establish settlements along the Irish coasts and to spend the winter months there The longships were technologically advanced allowing them to travel faster through the narrow rivers Vikings founded settlements in several places most famously in Dublin Most of the settlements were near the water allowing the Vikings to trade using their longships Written accounts from this time early to mid 840s show that the Vikings were moving further inland to attack often using rivers and then retreating to their coastal headquarters |
In 852 the Vikings landed in Dublin Bay and established a fortress Dublin became the centre for trade of many goods especially slaves Bringing back new ideas and motivations they began settling more permanently In the tenth century an earthen bank was constructed around the city with a second larger bank built outside that in the eleventh century On the interior of the town an extensive series of defenses have been excavated at Fishamble Street Dublin The site featured nine waterfronts including two possible flood banks and two positive defensive embankments during the Viking Age The early embankments were nondefensive being only one meter high and it is uncertain how much of the site they encircled After several generations a group of mixed Irish and Norse ethnic background arose the Gall Gaels Gall being the Old Irish word for foreign |
The second wave of Vikings made stations at winter bases called longphorts to serve as control centres to exert a more localized force on the island through raiding The third wave in 917 established towns as not only control centres but also as centres of trade to enter into Irish economy and greater Western Europe Returning to Dublin they set up a market town Over the next century a great period of economic growth would spread across the pastoral country The Vikings introduced the concept of international trade to the Irish as well as popularized a silver economy with local trade and the first minting of coins in 997 |
In 902 Mel Finnia mac Flannacain of Brega and Cerball mac Muirecin of Leinster joined forces against Dublin and The heathens were driven from Ireland ie from the fortress of th Cliath Dublin They were allowed by the Saxons to settle in Wirral England but would however later return to retake Dublin |
The Vikings never achieved total domination of Ireland often fighting for and against various Irish kings The Battle of Clontarf in 1014 began the decline of Viking power in Ireland but the towns which Vikings had founded continued to flourish and trade became an important part of the Irish economy |
By the 12th century Ireland was divided politically into a shifting hierarchy of petty kingdoms and overkingdoms Power was exercised by the heads of a few regional dynasties vying against each other for supremacy over the whole island One of these men King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster was forcibly exiled by the new High King Ruaidri mac Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair of the Western kingdom of Connacht Fleeing to Aquitaine Diarmait obtained permission from Henry II to recruit Norman knights to regain his kingdom The first Norman knight landed in Ireland in 1167 followed by the main forces of Normans Welsh and Flemings Several counties were restored to the control of Diarmait who named his son in law the Norman Richard de Clare known as Strongbow heir to his kingdom This troubled King Henry who feared the establishment of a rival Norman state in Ireland Accordingly he resolved to establish his authority |
With the authority of the papal bull Laudabiliter from Adrian IV Henry landed with a large fleet at Waterford in 1171 becoming the first King of England to set foot on Irish soil Henry awarded his Irish territories to his younger son John with the title Dominus Hiberniae Lord of Ireland When John unexpectedly succeeded his brother as King John of England the Lordship of Ireland fell directly under the English Crown |
The Normans initially controlled the entire east coast from Waterford to eastern Ulster and penetrated a considerable distance inland as well The counties were ruled by many smaller kings The first Lord of Ireland was King John who visited Ireland in 1185 and 1210 and helped consolidate the Norman controlled areas while ensuring that the many Irish kings swore fealty to him |
Throughout the thirteenth century the policy of the English Kings was to weaken the power of the Norman Lords in Ireland For example King John encouraged Hugh de Lacy to destabilise and then overthrow the Lord of Ulster before naming him as the first Earl of Ulster The Hiberno Norman community suffered from a series of invasions that ceased the spread of their settlement and power Politics and events in Gaelic Ireland served to draw the settlers deeper into the orbit of the Irish |
By 1261 the weakening of the Normans had become manifest when Fineen MacCarthy defeated a Norman army at the Battle of Callann The war continued between the different lords and earls for about 100 years causing much destruction especially around Dublin In this chaotic situation local Irish lords won back large amounts of land that their families had lost since the conquest and held them after the war was over |
The Black Death arrived in Ireland in 1348 Because most of the English and Norman inhabitants of Ireland lived in towns and villages the plague hit them far harder than it did the native Irish who lived in more dispersed rural settlements After it had passed Gaelic Irish language and customs came to dominate the country again The English controlled territory shrank to a fortified area around Dublin the Pale whose rulers had little real authority outside beyond the Pale |
By the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had almost disappeared England s attentions were diverted by the Wars of the Roses The Lordship of Ireland lay in the hands of the powerful Fitzgerald Earl of Kildare who dominated the country by means of military force and alliances with Irish lords and clans Around the country local Gaelic and Gaelicised lords expanded their powers at the expense of the English government in Dublin but the power of the Dublin government was seriously curtailed by the introduction of Poynings Law in 1494 According to this act the Irish Parliament was essentially put under the control of the Westminster Parliament |
From 1536 Henry VIII decided to conquer Ireland and bring it under crown control The Fitzgerald dynasty of Kildare who had become the effective rulers of Ireland in the 15th century had become unreliable allies of the Tudor monarchs They had invited Burgundian troops into Dublin to crown the Yorkist pretender Lambert Simnel as King of England in 1487 Again in 1536 Silken Thomas Fitzgerald went into open rebellion against the crown Having put down this rebellion Henry resolved to bring Ireland under English government control so the island would not become a base for future rebellions or foreign invasions of England In 1541 he upgraded Ireland from a lordship to a full Kingdom Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland at a meeting of the Irish Parliament that year This was the first meeting of the Irish Parliament to be attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Hiberno Norman aristocracy With the institutions of government in place the next step was to extend the control of the English Kingdom of Ireland over all of its claimed territory This took nearly a century with various English administrations either negotiating or fighting with the independent Irish and Old English lords The Spanish Armada in Ireland suffered heavy losses during an extraordinary season of storms in the autumn of 1588 Among the survivors was Captain Francisco de Cuellar who gave a remarkable account of his experiences on the run in Ireland |
The reconquest was completed during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I after several brutal conflicts See the Desmond Rebellions 1569 73 and 1579 83 and the Nine Years War 1594 1603 for details After this point the English authorities in Dublin established real control over Ireland for the first time bringing a centralised government to the entire island and successfully disarmed the native lordships However the English were not successful in converting the Catholic Irish to the Protestant religion and the brutal methods used by crown authority including resorting to martial law to bring the country under English control heightened resentment of English rule |
From the mid16th to the early 17th century crown governments carried out a policy of land confiscation and colonisation known as Plantations Scottish and English Protestant colonists were sent to the provinces of Munster Ulster and the counties of Laois and Offaly These Protestant settlers replaced the Irish Catholic landowners who were removed from their lands These settlers formed the ruling class of future British appointed administrations in Ireland Several Penal Laws aimed at Catholics Baptists and Presbyterians were introduced to encourage conversion to the established Anglican Church of Ireland |
The 17th century was perhaps the bloodiest in Ireland s history Two periods of war 1641 53 and 1689 91 caused huge loss of life The ultimate dispossession of most of the Irish Catholic landowning class was engineered and recusants were subordinated under the Penal Laws |
During the 17th century Ireland was convulsed by eleven years of warfare beginning with the Rebellion of 1641 when Irish Catholics rebelled against the domination of English and Protestant settlers The Catholic gentry briefly ruled the country as Confederate Ireland 1642 1649 against the background of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms until Oliver Cromwell reconquered Ireland in 1649 1653 on behalf of the English Commonwealth Cromwell s conquest was the most brutal phase of the war By its close up to more than a half of Ireland s prewar population was killed or exiled as slaves where many died due to harsh conditions As retribution for the rebellion of 1641 the better quality remaining lands owned by Irish Catholics were confiscated and given to British settlers Several hundred remaining native landowners were transplanted to Connacht |
Ireland became the main battleground after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Catholic James II left London and the English Parliament replaced him with William of Orange The wealthier Irish Catholics backed James to try to reverse the Penal Laws and land confiscations whereas Protestants supported William and Mary in this Glorious Revolution to preserve their property in the country James and William fought for the Kingdom of Ireland in the Williamite War most famously at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 where James s outnumbered forces were defeated |
From the 15th to the 18th century Irish English Scots and Welsh prisoners were transported for forced labor in the Caribbean to work off their term of punishment Even larger numbers came voluntarily as indentured servants In the 18th century they were sent to the American colonies and in the early 19th century to Australia The Irish were dehumanised by the English described as savages so making their displacement appear all the more justified In 1654 the British parliament gave Oliver Cromwell a free hand to banish Irish undesirables Cromwell rounded up Catholics throughout the Irish countryside and placed them on ships bound for the Caribbean mainly the island of Barbados By 1655 12000 political prisoners had been forcibly shipped to Barbados and into indentured servitude |
The majority of the people of Ireland were Catholic peasants they were very poor and largely inert politically during the eighteenth century as many of their leaders converted to Protestantism to avoid severe economic and political penalties Nevertheless there was a growing Catholic cultural awakening underway There were two Protestant groups The Presbyterians in Ulster in the North lived in much better economic conditions but had virtually no political power Power was held by a small group of Anglo Irish families who were loyal to the Anglican Church of Ireland They owned the great bulk of the farmland where the work was done by the Catholic peasants Many of these families lived in England and were absentee landlords whose loyalty was basically to England The Anglo Irish who lived in Ireland became increasingly identified as Irish nationalists and were resentful of the English control of their island Their spokesmen such as Jonathan Swift and Edmund Burke sought more local control |
Jacobite resistance in Ireland was finally ended after the Battle of Aughrim in July 1691 The Penal Laws that had been relaxed somewhat after the Restoration were reinforced more thoroughly after this war as the infant Anglo Irish Ascendency wanted to ensure that the Irish Roman Catholics would not be in a position to repeat their rebellions Power was held by the 5 who were Protestants belonging to the Church of Ireland They controlled all major sectors of the Irish economy the bulk of the farmland the legal system local government and held strong majorities in both houses of the Irish Parliament They strongly distrusted the Presbyterians in Ulster and were convinced that the Catholics should have minimal rights They did not have full political control because the government in London had superior authority and treated Ireland like a backward colony When the American colonies revolted in the 1770s the Ascendency wrested multiple concessions to strengthen its power They did not seek independence because they knew they were heavily outnumbered and ultimately depended upon the British Army to guarantee their security |
Subsequent Irish antagonism toward England was aggravated by the economic situation of Ireland in the 18th century Some absentee landlords managed their estates inefficiently and food tended to be produced for export rather than for domestic consumption Two very cold winters near the end of the Little Ice Age led directly to a famine between 1740 and 1741 which killed about 400000 people and caused over 150000 Irish to leave the island In addition Irish exports were reduced by the Navigation Acts from the 1660s which placed tariffs on Irish products entering England but exempted English goods from tariffs on entering Ireland Despite this most of the 18th century was relatively peaceful in comparison with the preceding two centuries and the population doubled to over four million |
By the 18th century the Anglo Irish ruling class had come to see Ireland not England as their native country A Parliamentary faction led by Henry Grattan agitated for a more favourable trading relationship with Great Britain and for greater legislative independence for the Irish Parliament However reform in Ireland stalled over the more radical proposals toward enfranchising Irish Catholics This was partially enabled in 1793 but Catholics could not yet become members of the Irish Parliament or become government officials Some were attracted to the more militant example of the French Revolution of 1789 |
Presbyterians and Dissenters too faced persecution on a lesser scale and in 1791 a group of dissident Protestant individuals all of whom but two were Presbyterians held the first meeting of what would become the Society of the United Irishmen Originally they sought to reform the Irish Parliament which was controlled by those belonging to the state church seek Catholic Emancipation and help remove religion from politics When their ideals seemed unattainable they became more determined to use force to overthrow British rule and found a nonsectarian republic Their activity culminated in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 which was bloodily suppressed |
Ireland was a separate kingdom ruled by King George III of Britain he set policy for Ireland through his appointment of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland or viceroy In practice the viceroys lived in England and the affairs in the island were largely controlled by an elite group of Irish Protestants known as undertakers The system changed in 1767 with the appointment of an English politician who became a very strong Viceroy George Townshend served 1767 72 and was in residence in The Castle in Dublin Townsend had the strong support of both the King and the British cabinet in London and all major decisions were basically made in London The Ascendancy complained and obtained a series of new laws in the 1780s that made the Irish Parliament effective and independent of the British Parliament although still under the supervision of the king and his Privy Council |
Largely in response to the 1798 rebellion Irish self government was ended altogether by the provisions of the Acts of Union 1800 which abolished the Irish Parliament of that era |
In 1800 following the Irish Rebellion of 1798 the Irish and the British parliaments enacted the Acts of Union The merger created a new political entity called United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with effect from 1 January 1801 Part of the agreement forming the basis of union was that the Test Act would be repealed to remove any remaining discrimination against Roman Catholics Presbyterians Baptists and other dissenter religions in the newly United Kingdom However King George III invoking the provisions of the Act of Settlement 1701 controversially and adamantly blocked attempts by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger Pitt resigned in protest but his successor Henry Addington and his new cabinet failed to legislate to repeal or change the Test Act |
In 1823 an enterprising Catholic lawyer Daniel OConnell known in Ireland as The Liberator began an ultimately successful Irish campaign to achieve emancipation and to be seated in the Parliament This culminated in OConnells successful election in the Clare by election which revived the parliamentary efforts at reform The Catholic Relief Act 1829 was eventually approved by the UK parliament under the leadership of the Dublin born Prime Minister the Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington This indefatigable Anglo Irish statesman a former Chief Secretary for Ireland and hero of the Napoleonic Wars successfully guided the legislation through both houses of Parliament By threatening to resign he persuaded King George IV to sign the bill into law in 1829 The continuing obligation of Roman Catholics to fund the established Church of Ireland however led to the sporadic skirmishes of the Tithe War of 1831 38 The Church was disestablished by the Gladstone government in 1867 The continuing enactment of parliamentary reform during the ensuing administrations further extended the initially limited franchise Daniel OConnell MP later led the Repeal Association in an unsuccessful campaign to undo the Act of Union 1800 |
The second of Ireland s Great Famines An Gorta Mr struck the country during 1845 49 with potato blight exacerbated by the political factors of the time leading to mass starvation and emigration See Great Irish Famine The impact of emigration in Ireland was severe the population dropped from over 8 million before the Famine to 44 million in 1911 Gaelic or Irish once the island s spoken language declined in use sharply in the nineteenth century as a result of the Famine and the creation of the National School education system as well as hostility to the language from leading Irish politicians of the time it was largely replaced by English |
Outside mainstream nationalism a series of violent rebellions by Irish republicans took place in 1803 under Robert Emmet in 1848 a rebellion by the Young Irelanders most prominent among them Thomas Francis Meagher and in 1867 another insurrection by the Irish Republican Brotherhood All failed but physical force nationalism remained an undercurrent in the nineteenth century |
A central issue throughout the 19th and early 20th century was land ownership A small group of about 10000 English families owned practically all the farmland Most were permanent residents of England and seldom presented the land They rented it out to Irish tenant farmers Falling behind in rent payments meant eviction and very bad feelings often violence The late 19th century witnessed major land reform spearheaded by the Land League under Michael Davitt demanding what became known as the 3 Fs Fair rent free sale fixity of tenure Parliament passed laws in 1870 1881 1903 and 1909 that enabled most tenant farmers to purchase their lands and lowered the rents of the others From 1870 and as a result of the Land War agitations and subsequent Plan of Campaign of the 1880s various British governments introduced a series of Irish Land Acts William OBrien played a leading role in the 1902 Land Conference to pave the way for the most advanced social legislation in Ireland since the Union the Wyndham Land Purchase Act of 1903 This Act set the conditions for the break up of large estates and gradually devolved to rural landholders and tenants ownership of the lands It effectively ended the era of the absentee landlord finally resolving the Irish Land Question |
In the 1870s the issue of Irish self government again became a major focus of debate under Charles Stewart Parnell founder of the Irish Parliamentary Party Prime Minister Gladstone made two unsuccessful attempts to pass Home Rule in 1886 and 1893 Parnell s leadership ended when he was implicated in a divorce scandal that gained international publicity in 1890 He had been secretly living for years with Katherine OShea the long separated wife of a fellow Irish MP Disaster came quickly Gladstone and the Liberal Party refused to cooperate with him his party split the Irish Catholic bishops led the successful effort to crush his minority faction at by elections Parnell fought for control to the end but his body was collapsing and he died in 1891 at age 45 |
After the introduction of the Local Government Ireland Act 1898 which broke the power of the landlord dominated Grand Juries passing for the first time democratic control of local affairs into the hands of the people through elected Local County Councils the debate over full Home Rule led to tensions between Irish nationalists and Irish unionists those who favoured maintenance of the Union Most of the island was predominantly nationalist Catholic and agrarian The northeast however was predominantly unionist Protestant and industrialised Unionists feared a loss of political power and economic wealth in a predominantly rural nationalist Catholic home rule state Nationalists believed they would remain economically and politically second class citizens without self government Out of this division two opposing sectarian movements evolved the Protestant Orange Order and the Catholic Ancient Order of Hibernians |
Home Rule became certain when in 1910 the Irish Parliamentary Party IPP under John Redmond held the balance of power in Commons and the third Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912 Unionist resistance was immediate with the formation of the Ulster Volunteers In turn the Irish Volunteers were established to oppose them and enforce the introduction of self government |