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In September 1914 just as the First World War broke out the UK Parliament passed the Third Home Rule Act to establish self government for Ireland but was suspended for the duration of the war To ensure implementation of Home Rule after the war nationalist leaders and the IPP under Redmond supported with Ireland s participation in the British and Allied war effort under the Triple Entente against the expansion of Central Powers The core of the Irish Volunteers were against this decision but the majority left to form the National Volunteers who enlisted in Irish regiments of the New British Army the 10th and 16th Irish Divisions their Northern counterparts in the 36th Ulster Division Before the war ended Britain made two concerted efforts to implement Home Rule one in May 1916 and again with the Irish Convention during 1917 1918 but the Irish sides Nationalist Unionist were unable to agree to terms for the temporary or permanent exclusion of Ulster from its provisions

The period 1916 1921 was marked by political violence and upheaval ending in the partition of Ireland and independence for 26 of its 32 counties A failed militant attempt was made to gain separate independence for Ireland with the 1916 Easter Rising an insurrection in Dublin Though support for the insurgents was small the violence used in its suppression led to a swing in support of the rebels In addition the unprecedented threat of Irishmen being conscripted to the British Army in 1918 for service on the Western Front as a result of the German Spring Offensive accelerated this change See Conscription Crisis of 1918 In the December 1918 elections Sinn Fin the party of the rebels won three quarters of all seats in Ireland twenty seven MPs of which assembled in Dublin on 21 January 1919 to form a 32 county Irish Republic Parliament the first Dil ireann unilaterally declaring sovereignty over the entire island

Unwilling to negotiate any understanding with Britain short of complete independence the Irish Republican Army the army of the newly declared Irish Republic waged a guerilla war the Irish War of Independence from 1919 to 1921 In the course of the fighting and amid much acrimony the Fourth Government of Ireland Act 1920 implemented Home Rule while separating the island into what the British government s Act termed Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland In July 1921 the Irish and British governments agreed to a truce that halted the war In December 1921 representatives of both governments signed an Anglo Irish Treaty The Irish delegation was led by Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins This abolished the Irish Republic and created the Irish Free State a self governing Dominion of the Commonwealth of Nations in the manner of Canada and Australia Under the Treaty Northern Ireland could opt out of the Free State and stay within the United Kingdom it promptly did so In 1922 both parliaments ratified the Treaty formalising independence for the 26 county Irish Free State which renamed itself Ireland in 1937 and declared itself a republic in 1949 while the 6 county Northern Ireland gaining Home Rule for itself remained part of the United Kingdom For most of the next 75 years each territory was strongly aligned to either Catholic or Protestant ideologies although this was more marked in the six counties of Northern Ireland

The treaty to sever the Union divided the republican movement into antiTreaty who wanted to fight on until an Irish Republic was achieved and proTreaty supporters who accepted the Free State as a first step towards full independence and unity Between 1922 and 1923 both sides fought the bloody Irish Civil War The new Irish Free State government defeated the antiTreaty remnant of the Irish Republican Army imposing multiple executions This division among nationalists still colours Irish politics today specifically between the two leading Irish political parties Fianna Fil and Fine Gael

The new Irish Free State 1922 37 existed against the backdrop of the growth of dictatorships in mainland Europe and a major world economic downturn in 1929 In contrast with many contemporary European states it remained a democracy Testament to this came when the losing faction in the Irish civil war amon de Valera s Fianna Fil was able to take power peacefully by winning the 1932 general election Nevertheless until the mid1930s considerable parts of Irish society saw the Free State through the prism of the civil war as a repressive British imposed state It was only the peaceful change of government in 1932 that signalled the final acceptance of the Free State on their part In contrast to many other states in the period the Free State remained financially solvent as a result of low government expenditure despite the Economic War with Britain However unemployment and emigration were high The population declined to a low of 27 million recorded in the 1961 census

The Roman Catholic Church had a powerful influence over the Irish state for much of its history The clergy s influence meant that the Irish state had very conservative social policies forbidding for example divorce contraception abortion pornography as well as encouraging the censoring and banning of many books and films In addition the Church largely controlled the State s hospitals schools and remained the largest provider of many other social services

With the partition of Ireland in 1922 926 of the Free State s population were Catholic while 74 were Protestant By the 1960s the Protestant population had fallen by half Although emigration was high among all the population due to a lack of economic opportunity the rate of Protestant emigration was disproportionate in this period Many Protestants left the country in the early 1920s either because they felt unwelcome in a predominantly Catholic and nationalist state because they were afraid due to the burning of Protestant homes particularly of the old landed class by republicans during the civil war because they regarded themselves as British and did not wish to live in an independent Irish state or because of the economic disruption caused by the recent violence The Catholic Church had also issued a decree known as Ne Temere whereby the children of marriages between Catholics and Protestants had to be brought up as Catholics From 1945 the emigration rate of Protestants fell and they became less likely to emigrate than Catholics

In 1937 a new Constitution reestablished the state as Ireland or ire in Irish The state remained neutral throughout World War II see Irish neutrality which saved it from much of the horrors of the war although tens of thousands volunteered to serve in the British forces Ireland was also impacted by food rationing and coal shortages peat production became a priority during this time Though nominally neutral recent studies have suggested a far greater level of involvement by the South with the Allies than was realised with D Day s date set on the basis of secret weather information on Atlantic storms supplied by Ireland For more detail on 1939 45 see main article The Emergency

In 1949 the state was formally declared a republic and it left the British Commonwealth

In the 1960s Ireland underwent a major economic change under reforming Taoiseach prime minister Sen Lemass and Secretary of the Department of Finance TK Whitaker who produced a series of economic plans Free second level education was introduced by Donogh OMalley as Minister for Education in 1968 From the early 1960s Ireland sought admission to the European Economic Community but because 90 of exports were to the United Kingdom market it did not do so until the UK did in 1973

Global economic problems in the 1970s augmented by a set of misjudged economic policies followed by governments including that of Taoiseach Jack Lynch caused the Irish economy to stagnate The Troubles in Northern Ireland discouraged foreign investment Devaluation was enabled when the Irish Pound or Punt was established as a separate currency in 1979 breaking the link with the UK s sterling However economic reforms in the late 1980s helped by investment from the European Community led to the emergence of one of the world s highest economic growth rates with mass immigration particularly of people from Asia and Eastern Europe as a feature of the late 1990s This period came to be known as the Celtic Tiger and was focused on as a model for economic development in the former Eastern Bloc states which entered the European Union in the early 2000s decade Property values had risen by a factor of between four and ten between 1993 and 2006 in part fuelling the boom

Irish society adopted relatively liberal social policies during this period Divorce was legalised homosexuality decriminalised and abortion in limited cases was allowed by the Irish Supreme Court in the X Case legal judgement Major scandals in the Roman Catholic Church both sexual and financial coincided with a widespread decline in religious practice with weekly attendance at Roman Catholic Mass dropping by half in twenty years A series of tribunals set up from the 1990s have investigated alleged malpractices by politicians the Catholic clergy judges hospitals and the Garda police

Ireland s new found prosperity ended abruptly in 2008 when the banking system collapsed due to the Irish property bubble bursting Some 25 26 of GDP was needed to bail out failing Irish banks and force banking sector consolidation This was the largest banking bailout for any country in history in comparison only 7 8 of GDP was needed to bail out failing Finnish banks in its banking crisis in the 1990s This resulted in a major financial and political crisis as Ireland entered a recession Emigration rose to 1989 levels as the unemployment rate rose from 42 in 2007 to reach 146 as of February 2012

However since 2014 Ireland has seen strong economic growth dubbed as the Celtic Phoenix

The 1920 Government of Ireland Bill created the state of Northern Ireland which consisted of the six northeastern counties of Londonderry Tyrone Fermanagh Antrim Down and Armagh From 1921 to 1972 Northern Ireland was governed by a Unionist government based at Stormont in east Belfast Unionist leader and first Prime Minister James Craig declared that it would be a Protestant State for a Protestant People Craig s goal was to form and preserve Protestant authority in the new state which was above all an effort to secure a unionist majority In 1926 the majority of the population in the province were Presbyterian and Anglican therefore solidifying Craig s Protestant political power The Ulster Unionist Party thereafter formed every government until 1972 Discrimination against the minority nationalist community in jobs and housing and their total exclusion from political power due to the majoritarian electoral system led to the emergence of the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association in the late 1960s inspired by Martin Luther King s civil rights movement in the United States of America The military forces of the Northern Protestants and Northern Catholics IRA turned to brutal acts of violence to establish power As time went on it became clear that these two rival states would bring about a civil war After the Second World War keeping the cohesion within Stormont seemed impossible increased economic pressures solidified Catholic unity and British involvement ultimately led to Stormont s collapse As the civil rights movement of the United States gained worldwide acknowledgement Catholics rallied together to achieve a similar socio political recognition This resulted in the formation of various organisations such as the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association NICRA in 1967 and the Campaign for Social Justice CSJ in 1964 Nonviolent protest became an increasingly important factor in mobilising Catholic sympathies and opinion and thus more effective in generating support than actively violent groups such as the IRA However these nonviolent protests posed a problem to Northern Ireland s prime minister Terrance ONeil 1963 because it hampered his efforts to persuade Catholics in Northern Ireland that they too like their Protestant counterparts belong within the United Kingdom Despite ONeils reforming efforts there was growing discontent amongst both Catholics and Unionists In October 1968 a peaceful civil rights march in Derry turned violent as police brutally beat protesters The outbreak was televised by international media and as a result the march was highly publicised which further confirmed the socio political turmoil in Ireland A violent counterreaction from conservative unionists led to civil disorder notably the Battle of the Bogside and the Northern Ireland riots of August 1969 To restore order British troops were deployed to the streets of Northern Ireland at that time

The violent outbreaks in the late 1960s encouraged and helped strengthen military groups such as the IRA who posited themselves as the protectors of the working class Catholics who were vulnerable to police and civilian brutality During the late sixties and early seventies recruitment into the IRA organisation dramatically increased as street and civilian violence worsened The interjection from the British troops proved to be insufficient to quell the violence and thus solidified the IRA s growing military importance On 30 January 1972 the worst tensions came to a head with the events of Bloody Sunday Paratroops opened fire on civil rights protesters in Derry killing 13 unarmed civilians Bloody Friday Bloody Sunday and other violent acts in the early 1970s came to be known as the Troubles The Stormont parliament was prorogued in 1972 and abolished in 1973 Paramilitary private armies such as the Provisional Irish Republican Army resulted from a split within the IRA the Official IRA and Irish National Liberation Army fought against the Ulster Defence Regiment and the Ulster Volunteer Force Moreover the British army and the largely Protestant Royal Ulster Constabulary RUC also took part in the chaos that resulted in the deaths of over 3000 men women and children civilians and military Most of the violence took place in Northern Ireland but some also spread to England and across the Irish border

For the next 2712 years with the exception of five months in 1974 Northern Ireland was under direct rule with a Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in the British Cabinet responsible for the departments of the Northern Ireland government Direct Rule was designed to be a temporary solution until Northern Ireland was capable of governing itself again Principal acts were passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in the same way as for much of the rest of the UK but many smaller measures were dealt with by Order in Council with minimal parliamentary scrutiny Attempts were made to establish a power sharing executive representing both the nationalist and unionist communities by the Northern Ireland Constitution Act of 1973 and the Sunningdale Agreement in December 1973 Both acts however did little to create cohesion between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland The Constitution Act of 1973 formalised the UK government s affirmation of reunification of Ireland by consent only therefore ultimately delegating the authoritative power of the border question from Stormont to the people of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland Conversely the Sunningdale Agreement included a provision of a Council of Ireland which held the right to execute executive and harmonizing functions Most significantly the Sunningdale Agreement brought together political leaders from Northern Ireland the Republic of Ireland and the UK to deliberate for the first time since 1925 The Northern Ireland Constitutional Convention and Jim Prior s 1982 assembly were also temporarily implemented however all failed to either reach consensus or operate in the longer term

During the 1970s British policy concentrated on defeating the Provisional Irish Republican Army IRA by military means including the policy of Ulsterisation requiring the RUC and British Army reserve Ulster Defence Regiment to be at the forefront of combating the IRA Although IRA violence decreased it was obvious that no military victory was on hand in either the short or medium terms Even Catholics who generally rejected the IRA were unwilling to offer support to a state that seemed to remain mired in sectarian discrimination and the Unionists were not interested in Catholic participation in running the state in any case In the 1980s the IRA attempted to secure a decisive military victory based on massive arms shipments from Libya When this failed senior republican figures began to look to broaden the struggle from purely military means In time this began a move towards military cessation In 1986 the Irish and British governments signed the Anglo Irish Agreement signalling a formal partnership in seeking a political solution The Anglo Irish Agreement AIA recognised the Irish government s right to be consulted and heard as well as guaranteed equality of treatment and recognition of the Irish and British identities of the two communities The agreement also stated that the two governments must implement a crossborder cooperation Socially and economically Northern Ireland suffered the worst levels of unemployment in the UK and although high levels of public spending ensured a slow modernisation of public services and moves towards equality progress was slow in the 1970s and 1980s Only in the 1990s when progress toward peace became tangible did the economic situation brighten By then the demographics of Northern Ireland had undergone significant change and more than 40 of the population was Catholic

More recently the Belfast Agreement Good Friday Agreement of 10 April 1998 brought on 2 December 1999 a degree of power sharing to Northern Ireland giving both unionists and nationalists control of limited areas of government However both the power sharing Executive and the elected Assembly were suspended between January and May 2000 and from October 2002 until April 2007 following breakdowns in trust between the political parties involving outstanding issues including decommissioning of paramilitary weapons policing reform and the removal of British army bases In new elections in 2003 the moderate Ulster Unionist and nationalist Social Democrat and Labour parties lost their dominant positions to the more hard line Democratic Unionist and nationalist Sinn Fin parties On 28 July 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and on 25 September 2005 international weapons inspectors supervised the full disarmament of the PIRA Eventually devolution was restored in April 2007

Ireland s economy became more diverse and sophisticated than ever before by integrating itself into the global economy In 1973 Ireland acceded to the European Economic Community EEC precursor to the European Community EC and European Union EU at the same time as the UK By the beginning of the 1990s Ireland had transformed itself into a modern industrial economy and generated substantial national income that benefited the entire nation Although dependence on agriculture still remained high Ireland s industrial economy produced sophisticated goods that rivalled international competition Ireland s international economic boom of the 1990s led to its being called a Celtic Tiger

The Catholic Church which once exercised great power found its influence on socio political issues in Ireland much reduced Irish bishops were no longer able to advise and influence the public on how to exercise their political rights Modern Ireland s detachment of the Church from ordinary life can be explained by the increasing disinterest in Church doctrine by younger generations and the questionable morality of the Church s representatives A highly publicised case was that of Eamonn Casey the Bishop of Galway who resigned abruptly in 1992 after it was revealed that he had had an affair with an American woman and had fathered a child Further controversies and scandals arose concerning paedophile and child abusing priests As a result many in the Irish public began to question the credibility and effectiveness of the Catholic Church In 2011 Ireland closed its embassy at the Vatican an apparent result of this growing trend

The national flag of Ireland is a tricolour of green white and gold This flag which bears the colours green for Irish Catholics orange for Irish Protestants and white for the desired peace between them dates to the mid19th century The tricolour was first unfurled in public by Young Irelander Thomas Francis Meagher who using the symbolism of the flag explained his vision as follows The white in the centre signifies a lasting truce between the Orange and the Green and I trust that beneath its folds the hands of the Irish Protestant and the Irish Catholic may be clasped in generous and heroic brotherhood Fellow nationalist John Mitchel said of it I hope to see that flag one day waving as our national banner

After its use in the 1916 Rising it became widely accepted by nationalists as the national flag and was used officially by the Irish Republic 1919 21 and the Irish Free State 1922 37

In 1937 when the Constitution of Ireland was introduced the tricolour was formally confirmed as the national flag The national flag is the tricolour of green white and orange While the tricolour today is the official flag of Ireland it is not an official flag in Northern Ireland although it is sometimes used unofficially

The only official flag representing Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland however its use is controversial The Ulster Banner is sometimes used unofficially as a de facto regional flag for Northern Ireland

Since Partition there has been no universally accepted flag to represent the entire island As a provisional solution for certain sports fixtures the Flag of the Four Provinces enjoys a certain amount of general acceptance and popularity

Historically a number of flags have been used including

St Patrick s Saltire was formerly used to represent the island of Ireland by the all island Irish Rugby Football Union IRFU before adoption of the four provinces flag The Gaelic Athletic Association GAA uses the tricolour to represent the whole island

Ireland has a very large historiography contributed by scholars in Ireland North America and Britain There has been both a standard interpretation and since the late 1930s a good deal of revisionism One of the most important themes has always been Irish nationalism what Alfred Markey calls

Nationalism has led to numerous monographs and debates

A great deal of attention has focused on the Irish revolutionary period 1912 23 Starting in 2012 a series of conferences on Reflecting on a decade of War and Revolution in Ireland 1912 1923 Historians and Public History brought together hundreds of academics teachers and the general public

Ireland in some ways was the first acquisition of the British Empire Marshall says historians continue to debate whether Ireland should be considered part of the British Empire Recent work by historians pays special attention to continuing Imperial aspects of Irish history Atlantic Ocean history and the role of migration in forming the Irish diaspora across the Empire and North America

As historiography evolves new approaches have been applied to the Irish situation Studies of women and gender relationships more generally had been rare before 1990 they now are commonplace with over 3000 books and articles Postcolonialism is an approach in several academic disciplines that seeks to analyze explain and respond to the cultural legacies of colonialism and imperialism The emphasis is usually on the human consequences of controlling a country and establishing settlers for the economic exploitation of the native people and their land

Alternative fuels known as nonconventional and advanced fuels are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels other than conventional fuels like fossil fuels petroleum oil coal and natural gas as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors

Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel bioalcohol methanol ethanol butanol refuse derived fuel chemically stored electricity batteries and fuel cells hydrogen nonfossil methane nonfossil natural gas vegetable oil propane and other biomass sources

The main purpose of fuel is to store energy which should be in a stable form and can be easily transported to the place of use

Almost all fuels are chemical fuels The user employs this fuel to generate heat or perform mechanical work such as powering an engine It may also be used to generate electricity which is then used for heating lighting or other purpose

Biofuels are also considered a renewable source Although renewable energy is used mostly to generate electricity it is often assumed that some form of renewable energy or a percentage is used to create alternative fuels Research is ongoing into finding more suitable biofuel crops and improving the oil yields of these crops Using the current yields vast amounts of land and fresh water would be needed to produce enough oil to completely replace fossil fuel usage

Biomass in the energy production industry is living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production It has become popular among coal power stations which switch from coal to biomass in order to convert to renewable energy generation without wasting existing generating plant and infrastructure Biomass most often refers to plants or plant based materials that are not used for food or feed and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass 2 As an energy source biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel

Algae based biofuels have been promoted in the media as a potential panacea to crude oil based transportation problems Algae could yield more than 2000 gallons of fuel per acre per year of production Algae based fuels are being successfully tested by the US Navy Algae based plastics show potential to reduce waste and the cost per pound of algae plastic is expected to be cheaper than traditional plastic prices

Biodiesel is made from animal fats or vegetable oils renewable resources that come from plants such as jatropha soybean sunflowers corn olive peanut palm coconut safflower canola sesame cottonseed etc Once these fats or oils are filtered from their hydrocarbons and then combined with alcohol like methanol biodiesel is brought to life from this chemical reaction These raw materials can either be mixed with pure diesel to make various proportions or used alone Despite one s mixture preference biodiesel will release smaller number of pollutants carbon monoxide particulates and hydrocarbons than conventional diesel because biodiesel burns both cleanly and more efficiently Even with regular diesel s reduced quantity of sulfur from the ULSD ultralow sulfur diesel invention biodiesel exceeds those levels because it is sulfur free

Methanol and ethanol fuel are primary sources of energy they are convenient fuels for storing and transporting energy These alcohols can be used in internal combustion engines as alternative fuels Butanol has another advantage it is the only alcohol based motor fuel that can be transported readily by existing petroleum product pipeline networks instead of only by tanker trucks and railroad cars

Ammonia NH can be used as fuel Benefits of ammonia include no need for oil zero emissions low cost and distributed production reducing transport and related pollution

Carbon neutral fuel is synthetic fuel such as methane gasoline diesel fuel or jet fuel produced from renewable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater Such fuels are potentially carbon neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases To the extent that carbon neutral fuels displace fossil fuels or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation Such carbon neutral and negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas transported by pipeline truck or tanker ship or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer Tropsch process to make traditional transportation or heating fuels

Carbon neutral fuels have been proposed for distributed storage for renewable energy minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency and enabling transmission of wind water and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles Germany has built a 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant which they are scaling up to 10 megawatts Audi has constructed a carbon neutral liquefied natural gas LNG plant in Werlte Germany The plant is intended to produce transportation fuel to offset LNG used in their A3 Sportback g tron automobiles and can keep 2800 metric tons of CO out of the environment per year at its initial capacity Other commercial developments are taking place in Columbia South Carolina Camarillo California and Darlington England

The least expensive source of carbon for recycling into fuel is flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion where it can be extracted for about US 750 per ton Automobile exhaust gas capture has also been proposed to be economical but would require extensive design changes or retrofitting Since carbonic acid in seawater is in chemical equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide extraction of carbon from seawater has been studied Researchers have estimated that carbon extraction from seawater would cost about 50 per ton Carbon capture from ambient air is more costly at between 600 and 1000 per ton and is considered impractical for fuel synthesis or carbon sequestration

Nighttime wind power is considered the most economical form of electrical power with which to synthesize fuel because the load curve for electricity peaks sharply during the warmest hours of the day but wind tends to blow slightly more at night than during the day Therefore the price of nighttime wind power is often much less expensive than any alternative Off peak wind power prices in high wind penetration areas of the US averaged 164 cents per kilowatt hour in 2009 but only 071 cents kWh during the least expensive six hours of the day Typically wholesale electricity costs 2 to 5 cents kWh during the day Commercial fuel synthesis companies suggest they can produce fuel for less than petroleum fuels when oil costs more than 55 per barrel The US Navy estimates that shipboard production of jet fuel from nuclear power would cost about 6 per gallon While that was about twice the petroleum fuel cost in 2010 it is expected to be much less than the market price in less than five years if recent trends continue Moreover since the delivery of fuel to a carrier battle group costs about 8 per gallon shipboard production is already much less expensive However US civilian nuclear power is considerably more expensive than wind power The Navy s estimate that 100 megawatts can produce 41000 gallons of fuel per day indicates that terrestrial production from wind power would cost less than 1 per gallon

Hydrogen is an emissionless fuel The byproduct of hydrogen burning is water although some mono nitrogen oxides NOx are produced when hydrogen is burned with air

Another fuel is formic acid The fuel is used by converting it first to hydrogen and using that in a fuel cell Formic acid is much more easy to store than hydrogen

HCNG or H2CNG is a mixture of compressed natural gas and 4 9 percent hydrogen by energy

Liquid nitrogen is another type of emissionless and efficient fuel

The air engine is an emission free piston engine using compressed air as fuel Unlike hydrogen compressed air is about one tenth as expensive as fossil fuel making it an economically attractive alternative fuel

Propane is a cleaner burning high performance fuel derived from multiple sources It is known by many names including propane LPG liquified propane gas LPA liquid propane autogas Autogas and others Propane is a hydrocarbon fuel and is a member of the natural gas family

Propane as an automotive fuel shares many of the physical attributes of gasoline while reducing tailpipe emissions and well to wheel emissions overall Propane is the number one alternative fuel in the world and offers an abundance of supply liquid storage at low pressure an excellent safety record and large cost savings when compared to traditional fuels

Propane delivers an octane rating between 104 and 112 depending on the composition of the butane propane ratios of the mixture Propane autogas in a liquid injection format captures the phase change from liquid to gas state within the cylinder of the combustion engine producing an intercooler effect reducing the cylinder temperature and increasing air density The resultant effect allows more advance on the ignition cycle and a more efficient engine combustion

Propane lacks additives detergents or other chemical enhancements further reducing the exhaust output from the tailpipe The cleaner combustion also has fewer particulate emissions lower NO due to the complete combustion of the gas within the cylinder higher exhaust temperatures increasing the efficiency of the catalyst and deposits less acid and carbon inside the engine which extends the useful life of the lubricating oil

Propane autogas is generated at the well alongside other natural gas and oil products It is also a by product of the refining processes which further increase the supply of Propane to the market

Propane is stored and transported in a liquid state at roughly 5 bar 73 psi of pressure Fueling vehicles is similar to gasoline in speed of delivery with modern fueling equipment Propane filling stations only require a pump to transfer vehicle fuel and does not require expensive and slow compression systems when compared to compressed natural gas which is usually kept at over 3000 psi 210 bar

In a vehicle format propane autogas can be retrofitted to almost any engine and provide fuel cost savings and lowered emissions while being more efficient as an overall system due to the large preexisting propane fueling infrastructure that does not require compressors and the resultant waste of other alternative fuels in well to wheel lifecycles

Compressed natural gas CNG and liquified natural gas LNG are two cleaner combusting alternatives to conventional liquid automobile fuels

Compressed natural gas CNG vehicles can use both renewable CNG and nonrenewable CNG

Conventional CNG is produced from the many underground natural gas reserves are in widespread production worldwide today New technologies such as horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing to economically access unconventional gas resources appear to have increased the supply of natural gas in a fundamental way

Renewable natural gas or biogas is a methane based gas with similar properties to natural gas that can be used as transportation fuel Present sources of biogas are mainly landfills sewage and animal agri waste Based on the process type biogas can be divided into the following biogas produced by anaerobic digestion landfill gas collected from landfills treated to remove trace contaminants and synthetic natural gas SNG

Around the world this gas powers more than 5 million vehicles and just over 150000 of these are in the US American usage is growing at a dramatic rate

Because natural gas emits little pollutant when combusted cleaner air quality has been measured in urban localities switching to natural gas vehicles Tailpipe CO can be reduced by 15 25 compared to gasoline diesel The greatest reductions occur in medium and heavy duty light duty and refuse truck segments

CO reductions of up to 88 are possible by using biogas

Similarities to hydrogen Natural gas like hydrogen is another fuel that burns cleanly cleaner than both gasoline and diesel engines Also none of the smog forming contaminates are emitted Hydrogen and natural gas are both lighter than air and can be mixed together

Nuclear power is any nuclear technology designed to extract usable energy from atomic nuclei via controlled nuclear reactions The only controlled method now practical uses nuclear fission in a fissile fuel with a small fraction of the power coming from subsequent radioactive decay Use of the nuclear reaction nuclear fusion for controlled power generation is not yet practical but is an active area of research

Nuclear power is usually used by using a nuclear reactor to heat a working fluid such as water which is then used to create steam pressure which is converted into mechanical work for the purpose of generating electricity or propulsion in water Today more than 15 of the world s electricity comes from nuclear power and over 150 nuclear powered naval vessels have been built

In theory electricity from nuclear reactors could also be used for propulsion in space but this has yet to be demonstrated in a space flight Some smaller reactors such as the TOPAZ nuclear reactor are built to minimize moving parts and use methods that convert nuclear energy to electricity more directly making them useful for space missions but this electricity has historically been used for other purposes Power from nuclear fission has been used in a number of spacecraft all of them unmanned The Soviets up to 1988 orbited 33 nuclear reactors in RORSAT military radar satellites where electric power generated was used to power a radar unit that located ships on the Earth s oceans The US also orbited one experimental nuclear reactor in 1965 in the SNAP 10A mission No nuclear reactor has been sent into space since 1988

Thorium based nuclear power reactors have also become an area of active research in recent years It is being backed by many scientists and researchers and Professor James Hansen the former Director at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies has reportedly said After studying climate change for over four decades it s clear to me that the world is heading for a climate catastrophe unless we develop adequate energy sources to replace fossil fuels Safer cleaner and cheaper nuclear power can replace coal and is desperately needed as an essential part of the solution Thorium is 3 4 times more abundant within nature than uranium and its ore monazite is commonly found in sands along bodies of water Thorium has also gained interest because it could be easier to obtain than uranium While uranium mines are enclosed underground and thus very dangerous for the miners thorium is taken from open pits Monazite is present in countries such as Australia the United States and India in quantities large enough to power the earth for thousands of years As an alternative to uranium fuelled nuclear reactors thorium has been proven to add to proliferation produces radioactive waste for deep geological repositories like technetium 99 half life over 200000 years and has a longer fuel cycle

For a list of experimental and presently operating thorium fueled reactors see thorium fuel cycle List of thorium fueled reactors

In addition radioisotopes have been used as alternative fuels on both land and in space Their use on land is declining due to the danger of theft of isotope and environmental damage if the unit is opened The decay of radioisotopes generates both heat and electricity in many space probes particularly probes to outer planets where sunlight is weak and low temperatures is a problem Radiothermal generators RTGs which use such radioisotopes as fuels do not sustain a nuclear chain reaction but rather generate electricity from the decay of a radioisotope which has in turn been produced on Earth as a concentrated power source fuel using energy from an Earth based nuclear reactor

Came Here for Love is a song by English DJ and record producer Sigala and English singer songwriter Ella Eyre It was written by Klingande Bryn Christopher and Scott Wild with the song s production handled by Sigala Klingande and White N3rd It was released to digital retailers on 9 June 2017 through Ministry of Sound Recordings and B1 Recordings

In an interview with Official Charts Company Sigala said I m really really excited about it The last few releases feel like they ve been more collaborative Craig David Digital Farm Animals and the Hailee Steinfeld Kato song but this one feels more like my record if you know what I mean I m so happy it s coming out hopefully it ll be the first of many this year When asked about how the collaboration came together he said It was written with Bryn Christopher originally who sang Sweet Lovin He d pretty much written all the vocals and came to me with the idea for the song We developed it from there and thought about getting Ella on it we share the same manager She helped us finish the song The difficult thing with Bryn is he comes in with that crazy voice of his so it s about finding someone to match that Ella s one of the few people who can do that In an interview with The List he said We had planned to do a collaboration somewhere along the line but we were just waiting for the right time and the right song

When asked about the best bit of this song he said The hands in the air moment is probably the came here for love lyric It s not the drop but it s the building up to it moment It s got the pianos and Ella s amazing vocals It s the bit that puts a smile on my face anyway

Credits adapted from Tidal

shipments figures based on certification alone sales streaming figures based on certification alone

Theory of mind is the ability to attribute mental states beliefs intents desires emotions knowledge etc to oneself and to others and to understand that others have beliefs desires intentions and perspectives that are different from one s own Theory of mind is crucial for everyday social interactions and is used when analyzing judging and inferring others behaviors Deficits can occur in people with autism spectrum disorders schizophrenia attention deficit hyperactivity disorder cocaine addiction and brain damage suffered from alcohol s neurotoxicity Although philosophical approaches to this exist the theory of mind as such is distinct from the philosophy of mind

Theory of mind is a theory insofar as the mind is the only thing being directly observed The presumption that others have a mind is termed a theory of mind because each human can only intuit the existence of their own mind through introspection and no one has direct access to the mind of another It is typically assumed that others have minds analogous to one s own and this assumption is based on the reciprocal social interaction as observed in joint attention the functional use of language and the understanding of others emotions and actions Having theory of mind allows one to attribute thoughts desires and intentions to others to predict or explain their actions and to posit their intentions As originally defined it enables one to understand that mental states can be the cause of and thus be used to explain and predict the behavior of others Being able to attribute mental states to others and understanding them as causes of behavior implies in part that one must be able to conceive of the mind as a generator of representations If a person does not have a complete theory of mind it may be a sign of cognitive or developmental impairment

Theory of mind appears to be an innate potential ability in primates including humans that requires social and other experience over many years for its full development Different people may develop more or less effective theory of mind NeoPiagetian theories of cognitive development maintain that theory of mind is a byproduct of a broader hypercognitive ability of the human mind to register monitor and represent its own functioning

Empathy is a related concept meaning the recognition and understanding of the states of mind of others including their beliefs desires and particularly emotions This is often characterized as the ability to put oneself into another s shoes Recent neuro ethological studies of animal behaviour suggest that even rodents may exhibit ethical or empathetic abilities While empathy is known as emotional perspective taking theory of mind is defined as cognitive perspective taking

Research on theory of mind in humans and animals adults and children normally and atypically developing has grown rapidly in the 35 years since Premack and Guy Woodruff s paper Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind The emerging field of social neuroscience has also begun to address this debate by imaging the brains of humans while they perform tasks demanding the understanding of an intention belief or other mental state in others

An alternative account of theory of mind is given within operant psychology and provides significant empirical evidence for a functional account of both perspective taking and empathy The most developed operant approach is founded on research on derived relational responding and is subsumed within what is called relational frame theory According to this view empathy and perspective taking comprise a complex set of derived relational abilities based on learning to discriminate and respond verbally to ever more complex relations between self others place and time and through established relations

Contemporary discussions of Theory of Mind have their roots in philosophical debate most broadly from the time of Descartes Second Meditation which set the groundwork for considering the science of the mind Most prominent recently are two contrasting approaches in the philosophical literature to theory of mind theory theory and simulation theory The theory theorist imagines a veritable theory folk psychology used to reason about others minds The theory is developed automatically and innately though instantiated through social interactions It is also closely related to person perception and attribution theory from social psychology

The intuitive assumption that others are minded is an apparent tendency we all share We anthropomorphize nonhuman animals inanimate objects and even natural phenomena Daniel Dennett referred to this tendency as taking an intentional stance toward things we assume they have intentions to help predict future behavior However there is an important distinction between taking an intentional stance toward something and entering a shared world with it The intentional stance is a detached and functional theory we resort to during interpersonal interactions A shared world is directly perceived and its existence structures reality itself for the perceiver It is not just automatically applied to perception it in many ways constitutes perception

The philosophical roots of the relational frame theory RFT account of Theory of Mind arise from contextual psychology and refer to the study of organisms both human and nonhuman interacting in and with a historical and current situational context It is an approach based on contextualism a philosophy in which any event is interpreted as an ongoing act inseparable from its current and historical context and in which a radically functional approach to truth and meaning is adopted As a variant of contextualism RFT focuses on the construction of practical scientific knowledge This scientific form of contextual psychology is virtually synonymous with the philosophy of operant psychology

The study of which animals are capable of attributing knowledge and mental states to others as well as the development of this ability in human ontogeny and phylogeny has identified several behavioral precursors to theory of mind Understanding attention understanding of others intentions and imitative experience with other people are hallmarks of a theory of mind that may be observed early in the development of what later becomes a full fledged theory In studies with nonhuman animals and preverbal humans in particular researchers look to these behaviors preferentially in making inferences about mind

Simon Baron Cohen identified the infant s understanding of attention in others a social skill found by 7 to 9 months of age as a critical precursor to the development of theory of mind Understanding attention involves understanding that seeing can be directed selectively as attention that the looker assesses the seen object as of interest and that seeing can induce beliefs Attention can be directed and shared by the act of pointing a joint attention behavior that requires taking into account another person s mental state particularly whether the person notices an object or finds it of interest Baron Cohen speculates that the inclination to spontaneously reference an object in the world as of interest protodeclarative pointing and to likewise appreciate the directed attention and interests of another may be the underlying motive behind all human communication

Understanding of others intentions is another critical precursor to understanding other minds because intentionality or aboutness is a fundamental feature of mental states and events The intentional stance has been defined by Daniel Dennett as an understanding that others actions are goal directed and arise from particular beliefs or desires Both 2 and 3 year old children could discriminate when an experimenter intentionally vs accidentally marked a box with stickers as baited Even earlier in ontogeny Andrew N Meltzoff found that 18 month old infants could perform target manipulations that adult experimenters attempted and failed suggesting the infants could represent the object manipulating behavior of adults as involving goals and intentions While attribution of intention the box marking and knowledge false belief tasks is investigated in young humans and nonhuman animals to detect precursors to a theory of mind Gagliardi et al have pointed out that even adult humans do not always act in a way consistent with an attributional perspective In the experiment adult human subjects made choices about baited containers when guided by confederates who could not see and therefore not know which container was baited

Recent research in developmental psychology suggests that the infant s ability to imitate others lies at the origins of both theory of mind and other social cognitive achievements like perspective taking and empathy According to Meltzoff the infant s innate understanding that others are like me allows it to recognize the equivalence between the physical and mental states apparent in others and those felt by the self For example the infant uses his own experiences orienting his head eyes toward an object of interest to understand the movements of others who turn toward an object that is that they will generally attend to objects of interest or significance Some researchers in comparative disciplines have hesitated to put a too ponderous weight on imitation as a critical precursor to advanced human social cognitive skills like mentalizing and empathizing especially if true imitation is no longer employed by adults A test of imitation by Alexandra Horowitz found that adult subjects imitated an experimenter demonstrating a novel task far less closely than children did Horowitz points out that the precise psychological state underlying imitation is unclear and can not by itself be used to draw conclusions about the mental states of humans

While much research has been done on infants theory of mind develops continuously throughout childhood and into late adolescence as the synapses neuronal connections in the prefrontal cortex develop The prefrontal cortex is responsible for planning and decision making Children seem to develop theory of mind skills sequentially The first skill to develop is the ability to recognize that others have diverse desires Children are able to recognize that others have diverse beliefs soon after The next skill to develop is recognizing that others have access to different knowledge bases Finally children are able to understand that others may have false beliefs and that others are capable of hiding emotions While this sequence represents the general trend in skill acquisition it seems that more emphasis is placed on some skills in certain cultures leading to more valued skills to develop before those that are considered not as important For example in individualistic cultures such as the United States a greater emphasis is placed on the ability to recognize that others have different opinions and beliefs In a collectivistic culture such as China this skill may not be as important and therefore may not develop until later

There is evidence to believe that the development of theory of mind is closely intertwined with language development in humans One meta analysis showed a moderate to strong correlation r 043 between performance on theory of mind and language tasks One might argue that this relationship is due solely to the fact that both language and theory of mind seem to begin to develop substantially around the same time in children between ages 2 5 However many other abilities develop during this same time period as well and do not produce such high correlations with one another nor with theory of mind There must be something else going on to explain the relationship between theory of mind and language

Carol A Miller posed a few possible explanations for this relationship One idea was that the extent of verbal communication and conversation involving children in a family could explain theory of mind development The belief is that this type of language exposure could help introduce a child to the different mental states and perspectives of others This has been suggested empirically by findings indicating that participation in family discussion predict scores on theory of mind tasks as well as findings showing that deaf children who have hearing parents and may not be able to communicate with their parents much during early years of development tend to score lower on theory of mind tasks

Another explanation of the relationship between language and theory of mind development has to do with a child s understanding of mental state words such as think and believe Since a mental state is not something that one can observe from behavior children must learn the meanings of words denoting mental states from verbal explanations alone requiring knowledge of the syntactic rules semantic systems and pragmatics of a language Studies have shown that understanding of these mental state words predicts theory of mind in four year olds