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[ { "answer": "Think of it as balls and buckets. It takes energy to kick a ball into a bucket, and it takes energy to remove a ball from a bucket, but unless someone does something a ball outside a bucket will stay out, and if the ball is in it will stay in. Each bucket is a bit, and it's state (0 or 1) will be determined by whether or not it has a ball. You sculpt your stored data by plucking balls out of buckets.\n\nThe balls are electrons and the buckets are just a metaphor for some quantum behavior I've never understood, but the ball & bucket analogy helps me understand.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Voltage is just one of many ways to represent a 1 and a 0. Flash drives use another representation.\n\nYer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: How does flash memory work (on the microscopic level)? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: How does flash memory work? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: What happens inside of a USB flash drive that allows it to retain the new/altered data even when it's not plugged in? ](_URL_0_)\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "531686", "title": "Manchester Baby", "section": "Section::::Williams–Kilburn tube.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 690, "text": "For use in a binary digital computer, the tube had to be capable of storing either one of two states at each of its memory locations, corresponding to the binary digits (bits) 0 and 1. It exploited the positive or negative electric charge generated by displaying either a dash or a dot at any position on the CRT screen, a phenomenon known as secondary emission. A dash generated a positive charge, and a dot a negative charge, either of which could be picked up by a detector plate in front of the screen; a negative charge represented 0, and a positive charge 1. The charge dissipated in about 0.2 seconds, but it could be automatically refreshed from the data picked up by the detector.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7457214", "title": "Palm V", "section": "Section::::Issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 444, "text": "If the battery contacts at the back of the unit were short circuited, then all of the data stored at the device was erased, because the data was held in a kind of memory that required power for retaining the data. Enthusiasts were able to fix that issue by adding a diode to one of the battery contacts, so that during the charging of the device the diode was open, but during the short-circuit, the diode blocked the short circuiting current.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8641308", "title": "Disk buffer", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Write acceleration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 541, "text": "The disk's embedded microcontroller may signal the main computer that a disk write is complete immediately after receiving the write data, before the data is actually written to the platter. This early signal allows the main computer to continue working even though the data has not actually been written yet. This can be somewhat dangerous, because if power is lost before the data is permanently fixed in the magnetic media, the data will be lost from the disk buffer, and the file system on the disk may be left in an inconsistent state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "849843", "title": "Nano-RAM", "section": "Section::::Comparison with other non-volatile memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 564, "text": "After being written to, the insulator traps electrons on the FG, locking it into the 0 state. However, in order to change that bit, the insulator has to be \"overcharged\" to erase any charge already stored in it. This requires higher voltage, about 10 volts, much more than a battery can provide. Flash systems include a \"charge pump\" that slowly builds up power and releases it at higher voltage. This process is not only slow, but degrades the insulators. For this reason flash has a limited number of writes before the device will no longer operate effectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1045015", "title": "Storage tube", "section": "Section::::Operation.:Storage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 595, "text": "To write a value to memory, the address was amplified and sent to the Y deflection plates, such that the beam would be fixed to a horizontal line on the screen. A timer then set the X deflection plate to increasing voltages, causing the beam to be scanned across the selected line. The gun was set to a default energy close to , and the bits from the computer fed to the gun to modulate the voltage up and down such that 0's would be below and 1's above it. By the time the beam reached the other side of the line, a pattern of short dashes was drawn for each 1, while 0's were empty locations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2169754", "title": "Charge pump", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 585, "text": "BULLET::::- As of 2007, charge pumps are integrated into nearly all EEPROM and flash-memory integrated circuits. These devices require a high-voltage pulse to \"clean out\" any existing data in a particular memory cell before it can be written with a new value. Early EEPROM and flash-memory devices required two power supplies: +5 V (for reading) and +12 V (for erasing). , commercially available flash memory and EEPROM memory requires only one external power supply – generally 1.8 V or 3.3 V. A higher voltage, used to erase cells, is generated internally by an on-chip charge pump.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50595", "title": "Flash memory", "section": "Section::::Principles of operation.:NOR flash.:Programming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 347, "text": "A single-level NOR flash cell in its default state is logically equivalent to a binary \"1\" value, because current will flow through the channel under application of an appropriate voltage to the control gate, so that the bitline voltage is pulled down. A NOR flash cell can be programmed, or set to a binary \"0\" value, by the following procedure:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You might be able to.\n\nWouldn't recommend it.\n\nScrewing around with the mail service in pretty much any way is a federal offense. I'm wondering if it might be worth a charge of mail fraud; IANAL so it's not easy to be sure.\n\nMail fraud is *big* prison time, though, if that's what they'd charge you with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can. I have a friend who got caught, and was banned from the Postal Service for several years. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What would determine if they deliver to the addressee as postage due versus returning it to the sender?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically this is ~~mail fraud, at best they get the letter no one is the wiser. At worst, they open an investigation and you go to jail for [20 years](_URL_0_) because your friend ratted you out. There is a grey area where your friend is charged the postage, but i am pretty sure this puts them on a list if it happens more than once.~~ a [fine](_URL_1_).\n\nEdited- left original text added a new link.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The effort of setting up this scheme, so that the intended recipient of your letter will understand that the letter is actually intended for him or her, even though his or her address appears as a return address rather than as an actual address, outweighs the very minor saving of postage. Also bear in mind, it is very easy to send email for most purposes. When you are sending a letter through the mail, it is probably for some purpose that is important enough that you do not want to screw up. So why take chances?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can. A fellow I knew tried this once and it worked.\n\nOther than the fact that it's mail fraud, I can't see any reason.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I once accidentally put my address for the send to and the irs on the sent from. I had a demand for filing my tax return and hit the deadline. It ended up getting sent late because of it. \n\nI sent the first envelope with an \"oops I fucked up\" letter. I was working 70 hour weeks doing manual labor. I was just tired and made a mistake. I'm sure they got a good laugh about it in the office. They didn't charge any fees or anything. \n\nI think that they're real human beings in the irs, not some soulless entity. Just be honest and don't cheat on your taxes. \n\nAs far as your question, is a 27 cent stamp worth possible fraud charges? It seems like a really stupid idea", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They also don't like it when you attach the stamp to the letter with a piece of tape that covers the stamp.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Have done this \"for educational purposes\" and it worked.... However consider. If the return address is in New York and you drop it off at a post office in California...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the 80's a pen pal and I used to coat a stamp with a very thin layer of Elmer's Glue. After you get the letter you can soak the postmarked glue off the stamp and the stamp from the envelope too. Re-apply and re-glue and you're all set.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can do it, but I have heard of several things happening. They might send it back to the return address; forward it to the addressee, postage due; or it might get chucked into some USPS black hole. I have also heard stories of people being subject to criminal charges, or at least threatened with them. My experience has been that they treat it differently depending on how far it is being sent. YMMV.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Easy solution in germany: \n\nThey will deliver your letter to the given address but ask for the cost of the stamp (plus an additional fee). If the recipient refuses to accept the letter they will send it back to the sender and again ask for the fee(s).\n\nIf there is no sender noted down (or the sender denies any knowledge) they are allowed to open the letter and try to identify a sender / recipient.\n\nSeems so obvious?!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can. Friend of mine decided to see if it worked and I got a letter with return to sender in the mail, even though she sent it. She just reversed the addresses.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why should we buy postage stamps? We can make our own!\nI believe in swordfish.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Tried this once, and not surprisingly, they black-holed it. One look and they pretty much know that a letter in a mailbox in Paducah with no stamp and a return address in Idaho is bullshit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because mail carriers are not stupid. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When I was a kid, my friend wrote a letter to me. I read it, put my reply in the envelope and wrote \"not at this address, return to sender\". \n\nIt made it back to them. Thinking back, no clue why I didn't just ask my mom for a stamp. 7 year olds do odd things I guess. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2832732", "title": "Setback (land use)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 360, "text": "Mailboxes, on the other hand, often have a \"maximum\" setback instead of a minimum one. A postal administration or postmaster may mandate that if a mailbox on a street is too far from the curb for the letter carrier to insert mail, without having to get out of the vehicle, the mail may not be delivered to that address at all until the situation is corrected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "970099", "title": "Return address", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 283, "text": "The return address is not required on postal mail. However, lack of a return address prevents the postal service from being able to return the item if it proves undeliverable; such as from damage, postage due, or invalid destination. Such mail may otherwise become dead letter mail.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2442035", "title": "Variable envelope return path", "section": "Section::::Motivation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 378, "text": "Any long-lived mailing list is going to eventually contain addresses that can't be reached. Addresses that were once valid can become unusable because the person receiving the mail there has switched to a different provider. In another scenario, the address may still exist but be abandoned, with unread mail accumulating until there is not enough room left to accept any more.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16846186", "title": "William C. Conner", "section": "Section::::Federal judicial service.:Notable cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 593, "text": "In a May 1980 ruling, Conner decided that community organizations that placed fliers in personal mailboxes did not violate the law, holding that the organizations' First Amendment rights trumped a 1934 statute imposing a $300 fine for placing mailable material into a mailbox without postage. The organizations that challenged the ban claimed that the cost and delays of using the mail \"barred them from effective communication\", while the United States Postal Service contended that mailbox security would be lost and that mail carriers would have to waste time checking what's in mailboxes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16238003", "title": "Cream skimming", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 841, "text": "The United States Postal Service has a monopoly on the delivery of \"non-urgent\" first-class mail, where delivery is not time-sensitive. It also has the exclusive right to use customer-owned mail boxes for placing the customer's mail for delivery. This means that, even though mail boxes, such as those in the door of a house, or on the curb, or in the front lobby of the customer's building, are owned by the customer, and not owned by the Postal Service, by law only the Postal Service may use them to deliver mail. This law is in effect because it is believed that were the Postal Service to not have this monopoly, other competing mail carriers would take over the most lucrative parts of the business (e.g. local delivery of bills in dense urban areas), leaving the Postal Service with more expensive urban deliveries and rural service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4561436", "title": "Internal mail", "section": "Section::::Internal mail.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 283, "text": "This is the name for mail which is sent and received between employees and departments. Internal mail will often use a special envelope which can be reused. It is common for them to have many address boxes that are used in order. The most recent box is the current delivery address.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20378555", "title": "Packet boat", "section": "Section::::Mail steamer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 407, "text": "Occasionally, because of political instability when a post office could not provide normal services, incoming mail from a mail steamer would be delivered to a local delivery service, which would deliver the mail and charge the addressee an extra fee for the service. When this occurred, the local delivery service would place its own local service stamp or mark on the envelope when the extra fee was paid.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Mega is encrypted, so if I put a movie file up there that is illegal there is no way for someone to know other than to actually download the file and check. And of course if you lock the file so only you or a select few can access it there is no way to know what it is. On Mega’s end they can't actually see what the file is. This means Mega can't easily take down copyrighted material uploaded to its site, and as a result piracy can flourish on it. This is by design.\n\nMega also gives you 50gigs of free space with an account, allowing you to throw up more and larger files than on Medafire. \n\nThe Pirate Bay does not host files they only hand you magnet links to torrents. Instead of downloading the file from Pirate Bay you download it from everyone else on the internet who has that file and is actively seeding it. This means its almost impossible to shut a torrent down. \n\nMediafire is none of these things so if you throw up a movie file to them they can see what it is and remove it, and its more likely they will be requested to do so by the copyright holder. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I use TPB for a couple reasons. Number one is nostalgia. \nNumber two is respect. They've been around for 10(?) years or so, name another pirating platform team that has faced the level of pressure TPB has...Mega, maybe? These guys are serving prison time and still running TPB. They've made plenty money and could have gotten out years ago, but they continue to risk their freedom for us(and more money).\n\nTL;DR 1. Nostalgia 2. Much Respect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1923870", "title": "The Pirate Bay", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 359, "text": "The Pirate Bay (sometimes abbreviated to TPB) is an online index of digital content of entertainment media and software. Founded in 2003 by Swedish think tank Piratbyrån, The Pirate Bay allows visitors to search, download, and contribute magnet links and torrent files, which facilitate peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing among users of the BitTorrent protocol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "175990", "title": "Pirate radio", "section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 295, "text": "The films \"The Boat That Rocked\", \"Pump Up the Volume\", and \"On the Air Live with Captain Midnight\", as well as the TV series \"People Just Do Nothing\" are set in the world of pirate radio, while \"Born in Flames\" features pirate radio stations as being part of an underground political movement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19522726", "title": "The Pirate Bay raid", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 374, "text": "The Pirate Bay is considered part of an international anti-copyright movement. The documentary \"Steal This Film\" was produced and distributed (via BitTorrent) in the months following the raid. In the words of its speakers, it aimed to present the other side of the debate, until that time dominated by the media industry. The film was made available free, as donationware. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21444702", "title": "The Pirate Bay trial", "section": "Section::::The Pirate Bay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 473, "text": "The Pirate Bay is a Swedish website that indexes and tracks BitTorrent files. It bills itself as \"the galaxy's largest BitTorrent tracker\" and is ranked as the 73rd most popular website by Alexa Internet. The website is funded primarily with advertisements shown next to torrent listings. Initially established in November 2003 by the Swedish anti-copyright organization Piratbyrån (\"The Piracy Bureau\") it has been operating as a separate organization since October 2004.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31544134", "title": "Cybernorms group", "section": "Section::::Research.:Collaboration with Pirate Bay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 928, "text": "On April 18, 2011, the torrent site The Pirate Bay renamed itself to \"Research Bay,\" a display of their collaboration with the Cybernorms group. The Pirate Bay encouraged its users to take a sociological survey about file-sharing related issues. Private information was promised not to be released. The survey, powered by Questback queried participants about what media they were most likely to share, and what sources they use to download besides The Pirate Bay. Questions including asking about uploading practices to P2P networks and how much they use free streaming media services to watch TV, films, and listen to music. The survey's stated purpose was to understand online norms and values, which, the website goes on to say, is essential to developing relevant and effective laws and policies. Another purpose of the survey was to help researchers to better understand habits and norms within the file-sharing community.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3296224", "title": "Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth", "section": "Section::::Chapter synopsis.:Origins of specialization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 440, "text": "The \"Great Pirate\" concept is explained in depth, and the source of their power is that they are the \"only\" masters of \"global\" information in a time where people are focused locally. Specifically, the \"Great Pirates\" are aware that resources are not evenly distributed around the world, so that items which are abundant in one area are scarce in another. This gives rise to trade which the \"Great Pirates\" exploit for their own advantage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1923870", "title": "The Pirate Bay", "section": "Section::::Censorship and controversies.:Anti-copyright movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 457, "text": "The Pirate Bay has sparked controversies and discussion about legal aspects of file sharing, copyright, and civil liberties and has become a platform for political initiatives against established intellectual property laws and a central figure in an anti-copyright movement. The website faced several shutdowns and domain seizures which \"did little to take the site offline, as it simply switched to a series of new web addresses and continued to operate\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Depends on how you define \"civilized\" and \"nation\".\n6th edition of *Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English* defines \"civilized\" as: \"1. a civilized society is well organized and developed, and has fair laws and customs\". In historical use, from what I remember, a civilized state has the following characteristics:\n\n* Urban city centers\n\n* A form of symbolic writing\n\n* An organized government and a taxation system\n\nEgyptians had hieroglyphs as early as around 3 200 B.C, if I recall correctly. However, Egypt has not been existed continuously as it's own nation, the Persians conquered it around 525 B.C, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt (and pretty much everything else while at it, too) from the Persians, and the Hellenes were driven out after the war between Octavian, who would later be known as *Augustus Caesar*, and Marcus Antonius, or Mark Anthony, as his name has been anglicized, and finally, the Arabs conquered Egypt from the Eastern Roman Empire. \n\nAs far as I remember, the Kurds have never been independent, so I am not sure if they really count.\n\n Meanwhile, in the Far East, China has had, according to folklore and tradition, dynasties, and thus governments, and thus taxation, since 22nd century B.C. Written language in China may date back even to [7th millenium B.C] (_URL_0_), but the evidence can be disputed as an anomaly. China, while it has been conquered, has never had it's ethnicity, culture and government system changed much, as far as I know, so I would say that China is the oldest civilization which still exists. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16083", "title": "Society of Jesus", "section": "Section::::Statistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 330, "text": "The society is divided into 83 provinces along with six independent regions and ten dependent regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and the US. Their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42861329", "title": "Lake James (Indiana)", "section": "Section::::History.:First inhabitants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 499, "text": "The oldest known people with sustained civilizations in Indiana are the Woodland Indians. These mound builders lived in what would become Indiana from approximately 1,000 BC to 900 AD. These Native American tribes disappeared, and were replaced by other tribes during the 1700s. In future northeast Indiana, the new tribes were the Miami and Potawatomi Indians. The Lake James area was the hunting grounds of the Potawatomi Indians, who managed the land and wildlife with periodic controlled burns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51051179", "title": "List of current monarchies", "section": "Section::::Lines of succession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 354, "text": "BULLET::::- Japan, considered a constitutional monarchy under the Imperial House of Japan, has a claim to being the world's oldest extant continuous hereditary monarchy, with a traditional origin in 660 BC, commonly accepted archaeological and cultural evidence from the 3rd century and reliable historiographical evidence from at least the 6th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49677823", "title": "Cozumel Carnival", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 413, "text": "According to its Web site its history of over 140 years makes it one of the oldest in the country. It is, with the Carnival of Campeche, the only one that has preserved traditional expressions of historical value in the Yucatán Peninsula, and has become an event of heritage for the state of Quintana Roo. It is distinguished by its long history, its cultural aspects, its organization, and its family character.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17253689", "title": "List of the oldest buildings in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 294, "text": "This article attempts to list the oldest extant, freestanding buildings constructed in the United States and its territories. The list includes sites in current states and territories which were not part of the original Thirteen Colonies when the United States of America was founded in 1776. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1427184", "title": "Atlantis: The Antediluvian World", "section": "Section::::Author's stated intentions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 350, "text": "BULLET::::4. That it became, in the course of ages, a populous and mighty nation, from whose emigrants the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River, the Amazon River, the Pacific coast of South America, the Mediterranean, the west coast of Europe and Africa, the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Caspian were populated by civilized nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1996872", "title": "Greater India", "section": "Section::::Indianization.:Island kingdoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 294, "text": "BULLET::::- Kalingga: Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "St Andrews was unusual in that between 1552 and 1805 they used rabbits. There was a financial incentive for this, because rabbiting was a huge industry when every part of a rabbit had a use and there was always an increasing supply. This benefitted both the landlords who sold on the rabbits and the commoners who caught them - both received financial rewards - but the golf course would have held little revenue for commoners until tourism as an industry developed as we know it today.\n\nMass killing the rabbits was legalised in 1805, as the tourist golfer population and their interest in st andrews was rising. Golf itself was being standardised, and rabbits left too many of their own holes in the course to disturb matches. There was a 16 year struggle between the two sides until 1821 when the foundations for an established course were laid out. \n\nBecause the golf course is known to be over 500 years old, but rabbits were permitted in 1552, I would assume that rabbits were already being used and permission was granted as it was a difficult practice to curb (as is often the way) but it would otherwise have been livestock, probably sheep. Modern grass maintenance arrived in the mid-victorian era when the basic lawnmower was invented, in 1830, so I would again assumed livestock were used until later in the 18th century when St Andrews would have been able to purchase one.\n\nI was able to find [this internet history](_URL_0_) for quick reading, but the 'definitive history' recommended is St Andrews, The Evolution of the Old Course: The Impact on Golf of Time, Tradition and Technology by Scott MacPherson. Hope this was helpful.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1997418", "title": "Charleston Farmhouse", "section": "Section::::Charleston Trust.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 401, "text": "The Charleston Trust is a charity set up in 1980 to restore and maintain the home of the Bloomsbury Group artists for the benefit of the public. The unique collection at Charleston is illustrative of the art and lifestyle of the influential Bloomsbury Group and has been on show to the public since 1986. Charleston attracts visitors from the local community as well as the rest of the UK and abroad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26462339", "title": "Museum of the University of St Andrews", "section": "Section::::Themes and collections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1025, "text": "The four galleries aim to tell the story of the University of St Andrews from its foundation in 1410 until the present day. Each gallery takes a different theme. 'Scotland's First University' covers the foundation and early period of the University's history. 'Living and Learning' examines student life at St Andrews and looks at aspects such as dining, student societies and the iconic red gown. 'Seeing and Believing' investigates the big ideas that have emerged from students, staff and alumni in the areas of Science, Theology and the Arts and features figures such as astronomer James Gregory (mathematician), mathematician John Napier and theologian Samuel Rutherford. The fourth gallery is now used for temporary exhibitions and shows a range of changing displays. Recent exhibitions have included the history of medicine at the University and a display of artworks representing Britain during the Second World War, some from the University's own collection and some on loan from the Victora & Albert Museum, London.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "180092", "title": "Hammerwood Park", "section": "Section::::Hammerwood today.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1174, "text": "The house and gardens are open to visitors by guided tour in the summer and by appointment at other times. Guided tours focus upon the historical context of the house, the ancient mythological and religious origins of the Greek Revival, connections with Freemasonry, the Agricultural Revolution, the Picturesque movement, and issues of interpretation of the Borghese Vase and the Parthenon Frieze. A musical instrument collection including pianos, harpsichords, two pipe organs and a modified five-manual Makin electronic are used for an annual programme of concerts. The latter served at St Columb's Cathedral, Derry for 12 years (whilst its predecessor was being repaired after the Troubles), and is used in particular to promote the music of the French symphonic writers such as Vierne and Widor. Its expansion from three to five manuals, with more than 150 stops, makes it one of the largest such instruments in Europe with more than 25,000 possible stop combinations. The other keyboards are tuned to an unequal temperament, such as Well or Meantone, which composers of the Classical and Romantic era relied upon to choose the key in which to write their compositions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "181348", "title": "University of St Andrews", "section": "Section::::Academics.:Semesters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 765, "text": "The academic year at St Andrews is divided into two semesters, Martinmas and Candlemas, named after two of the four Scottish Term and Quarter Days. Martinmas, on 11 November, was originally the feast of Saint Martin of Tours, a 4th-century bishop and hermit. Candlemas originally fell on 2 February, the day of the feast of the Purification, or the Presentation of Christ. Martinmas semester runs from early September until mid-December, with examinations taking place just before the Christmas break. There follows an inter-semester period when Martinmas semester business is concluded and preparations are made for the new Candlemas semester, which starts in January and concludes with examinations at the end of May. Graduation is celebrated at the end of June.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2338682", "title": "The Algonquin Resort St. Andrews By-The-Sea", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 227, "text": "That summer, Van Horne also visited St. Andrews, staying in its resort hotel. Van Horne, a Montreal resident, purchased nearby Minister's Island and soon began construction of his \"Covenhoven\" estate, which still stands today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24928507", "title": "Christ Episcopal Church (Gardiner, Maine)", "section": "Section::::Description and history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 420, "text": "The Episcopal Church in Gardiner was organized in 1772 by Sylvester Gardiner, a major landowner for whom the city is named. This building, constructed in 1820, is its third sanctuary, the first having succumbed to fire in 1792, and the congregation having outgrown the second. It was designed by the Rev. Samuel Farmer Jarvis in what was then termed the \"Gothick\" style, which was then without precedent in New England.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17896900", "title": "Byre Theatre", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 699, "text": "The University of St Andrews announced in August 2014 that the theatre was to reopen under the management of the University, after striking a deal with owners Fife Council and Creative Scotland. Under the agreement, which takes the form of a 25-year lease, the Byre will be used as a theatre, educational resource, general arts venue and music centre. When the announcement was made, the University stressed that the \"rescue package will be delivered at no cost to council tax payers in Fife who hitherto had subsidised the ailing theatre\". Michael Downes, the University of St Andrews’ Director of Music, was appointed as Artistic Director in September 2014, and replaced by Liam Sinclair in 2016.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hi, quick moderator request for you: could you remove the following section?\n\n > In an alternate world where the USA went communist and Russia went free-market capitalist, would history have leaned more in Russia's favor or not? Would Russian culture ever have striven for free-market capitalism in the first place?\n\nThis subreddit does not permit [speculation on possible alternative pasts](_URL_0_). Rather, those questions would be more suited to one of the counterfactual subs like /r/HistoryWhatif.\n\nThanks!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In his book, *Predicting Politics*, political scientist Bruce Bueno de Mesquita simulates the Cold War as a battle over ideology between different countries. He allows the *salience* of foreign policy to vary randomly in each run of the simulation; military, economic, and demographic capabilities are set at the outset and then vary over time due to conflict or cooperation between states. Anyway, what his model finds is that most of the time, the USSR more or less gives in and moves to the US position on international ideology. Still, in at least a quarter of cases, the opposite happens (usually because the US cannot assemble a coalition that cares about ideology and it suffers costs from resisting a more-powerful Soviet bloc alone). I'm not entirely persuaded by the simulations, but the model has been reasonably accurate as a forecasting tool, so it's not unreasonable to suppose that if Europe and Japan went to the far left, the US would basically withdraw from intense competition with the Soviet Union, leaving it to set the international agenda. Political science is probably as close to counterfactual history as you'll get, since all cause-effect statements necessarily include counterfactuals (e.g. if A makes B more likely, then B must be less likely absent A). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sadly I have few sources on hand, I'll be writing from memory here, the only source I have on hand is \"*The Penguin History of Russia*\", a relic from when I studied the Russians back in Uni.\n\nAs with most historical conjecture, it depends. Russia would have needed some remarkable stroke of luck to overcome America, something like a Civil War in the states, some Diplomatic Coup or a successful one sided nuclear strike. Russia couldn't compete with America conventionally because of one extremely pertinent point.\n\nRussia's Navy wasn't good enough.\n\nI know it's really Mahanian of me, but Navies are the prinicpal way though which international power is asserted. Without a Navy Russian Power was limited to where their men could march, further limited by the supply trains needed to march/fight wherever they were projecting their power. The Americans could fight anywhere, almost any time.\n\nRussia posed a threat to Europe, but not America. Economically there was never any completion, diplomatically the Russians definitely made gains, but not enough to tip the global balance of power.\n\nSo, in short, the Russian economy and geography stymied any potential attempts to match American conventional power, only though unconventional means could the Russians hope to defeat America.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Related question: did many Western leaders see the west as having an advantage over the Communist world?\n\nLooking back, it's pretty easy to see how weak the Communist world was. Did anybody see it that way at the time?\n\n\n\nMy very uninformed understanding is that most leaders saw the two sides as equal, or the Communists were winning.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Depends when exactly you're talking about. Right after the war ended the European allies and Germany were smashed, and yet Russia's military-industrial situation was the best it had ever been. The atomic bomb however was a severe deterrent, so without having to worry about it the Russians could have led an offensive westwards. Unfortunately for them, over the long term the Soviet economy and military didn't age well, and according to sources like Viktor Suvorov, in his analysis of the internal workings of the red army, in the 1960s Soviet officers worried they couldn't beat the West German Bundeswehr, never mind a combined NATO force. In their view the second world war had been their zenith. \n\nThe USSR could also have gone on, like North Korea has, if not for the fact they chose to deStalinise and gradually thereafter loosen the authority and control the Communist party had on everything. Keep in mind the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 was because orthodox Communists feared that a free press was more dangerous to the Soviet model than starvation or war. In his book on the invasion (The Liberators) Suvorov makes the point, citing a conversation he had at the time, that since the red army was essential to the harvest, deploying the army abroad that late into the year risked starvation. So in that context it makes perfect sense that the progressive reforms Gorbachev launched were the same sort his predecessors had put down with tanks, and the orthodox Communists had been right that such would be fatal to the system. \n\nBottom line is that the Soviets were unlikely to have won, especially outright, especially given atomic weapons, but they certainly could still be alive today, prolonging the conflict for a very long time, if not for their internal politics unfolding as it did. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The better question is whether anyone actually \"won\" the Cold War, or if one actually existed to begin with.\n\nNote that while the Soviet Union has collapsed Russia still exists and still retains a fair number of warheads from the Cold War; and is even expanding the deployment of its delivery systems such as the recent completion of three new ballistic missile submarines. Russia moreover was never \"defeated\" in the same way as Nazi Germany or Imperial Japan - not a single foreign soldier was involved in its collapse; and it can be quite convincingly argued not a single diplomatic or economic move made by the West in fact contributed to the \"collapse\" - everything was decided by the people and leadership of the USSR itself.\n\nWhat has changed is Russia's direct control over Ukraine and other states within the USSR (which has now devolved to partial control), and their indirect control over Central Europe via the Warsaw Pact (which they themselves allowed to be relinquished anyway - Gorbachev could have sent in the tanks any time like the Soviets did in the 1950s. He didn't.). \n\nBut the Cold War wasn't supposed to be about fighting over Central Europe or Ukraine - it was supposedly an ideological conflict between \"capitalism\" and \"communism\". The latter in fact still exists - indeed it had always existed in the West in the form of \"socialist\" movements and still exists in China. Very few people want to admit this though because it will make all of the US chest-beating for the past 20 years about the Cold War \"victory\" seem rather hollow.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43497999", "title": "Second Cold War", "section": "Section::::Russian–Western tensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 681, "text": "In January 2017, a former US Government adviser Molly K. McKew said at \"Politico\" that the US would win a new cold war. \"The New Republic\" editor Jeet Heer dismissed the possibility as \"equally troubling[,] reckless threat inflation, wildly overstating the extent of Russian ambitions and power in support of a costly policy\", and too centred on Russia while \"ignoring the rise of powers like China and India\". Heer also criticized McKew for suggesting the possibility. Jeremy Shapiro, a senior fellow in the Brookings Institution, wrote in his blog post at \"RealClearPolitics\", referring to the US–Russia relations: \"A drift into a new Cold War has seemed the inevitable result\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43497999", "title": "Second Cold War", "section": "Section::::Russian–Western tensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 902, "text": "In August 2017, Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov denied claims that the US and Russia were having another cold war, despite ongoing tensions between the two countries and newer US sanctions against Russia. In March 2018, Russian President Vladimir Putin told journalist Megyn Kelly in an interview: \"My point of view is that the individuals that have said that a new Cold War has started are not analysts. They do propaganda\"- Michael Kofman, a senior research scientist at the CNA Corporation and a fellow at the Wilson Center's Kennan Institute said that the new cold war for Russia \"is about its survival as a power in the international order, and also about holding on to the remnants of the Russian empire\". Lyle Goldstein, a research professor at the US Naval War College claims that the situations in Georgia and Ukraine \"seemed to offer the requisite storyline for new Cold War\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38274", "title": "Enoch Powell", "section": "Section::::Ulster Unionist.:1983–1987.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 892, "text": "Powell further claimed that even if nuclear weapons had not existed, the Russians would still not have invaded Western Europe: \"What has prevented that from happening was ... the fact that the Soviet Union knew ... that such an action on its part would have led to a third world war—a long war, bitterly fought, a war which in the end the Soviet Union would have been likely to lose on the same basis and in the same way as the corresponding war was lost by Napoleon, by the Emperor Wilhelm and by Adolf Hitler. It was that fear, that caution, that understanding, that perception on the part of Russia and its leaders that was the real deterrent against Russia committing the utterly irrational and suicidal act of plunging into a third world war in which the Soviet Union would be likely to find itself confronting a combination of the greatest industrial and economic powers in the world\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15750186", "title": "Crisis in the Kremlin", "section": "Section::::Remake.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 359, "text": "The developer Kremlingames released a remake of this game under the same title (\"Crisis in the Kremlin\"). Unlike the original, the goal is not just to preserve the USSR and the Warsaw Pact, but to expand the communist bloc to other countries. In this game, it is possible to win the Cold War by weakening the United States until it no longer is a superpower.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "420956", "title": "Origins of the Cold War", "section": "Section::::Wartime alliance (1941–1945).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1054, "text": "Even before the war came to an end, it seemed highly likely that cooperation between the Western powers and the USSR would give way to intense rivalry or conflict. This was due primarily to the starkly contrasting economic ideologies of the two superpowers, now quite easily the strongest in the world. Whereas the USA was a liberal, two-party democracy with an advanced capitalist economy, based on free enterprise and profit-making, the USSR was a one-party Marxist–Leninist State with a state-controlled economy where private wealth was all but outlawed. Nevertheless, the origins of the Cold War should also be seen as a historical episode that demarcated the spheres of interests of the United States and the Soviet Union. Lewkowicz argues that \"the origins of the Cold War should not be seen from the perspective of a magnified spectrum of conflict. Instead, it should be regarded as a process by which the superpowers attempted to forge a normative framework capable of sustaining their geopolitical needs and interests in the postwar scenario.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43497999", "title": "Second Cold War", "section": "Section::::Russian–Western tensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 828, "text": "In February 2016, a National Research University academic and Harvard University visiting scholar Yuval Weber wrote on \"E-International Relations\" that \"the world is not entering Cold War II\", asserting that the current tensions and ideologies of both sides are not similar to those of the original Cold War, that situations in Europe and the Middle East do not destabilize other areas geographically, and that Russia \"is far more integrated with the outside world than the Soviet Union ever was\". In September 2016, when asked if he thought the world had entered a new cold war, Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey Lavrov, argued that current tensions were not comparable to the Cold War. He noted the lack of an ideological divide between the United States and Russia, saying that conflicts were no longer ideologically bipolar.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43497999", "title": "Second Cold War", "section": "Section::::Russian–Western tensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 567, "text": "While new tensions between Russia and the West have similarities with those during the Cold War, there are also major differences, such as modern Russia's increased economic ties with the outside world, which may potentially constrain Russia's actions, and provide it with new avenues for exerting influence, such as in Belarus and Central Asia, which have not seen the type of direct military action that Russia engaged in less cooperative former Soviet states like Ukraine and the Caucasus region. The term \"Cold War II\" has therefore been described as a misnomer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Why would you expect otherwise? The curve has to peter out somewhere.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's likely Mt. Everest is near to the largest size mountain earth will support. A larger mountain is more massive, which puts a strain on the material at its base. They deform the plates they sit upon, more mass will further the deformation. And depending on height and climate, can promote glacial development, which it has been theorized to cause vigorous erosion limiting total height. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It'll be impossible to find a complete list, but there are at least 127 mountains over 7000m. It gets even harder for the 6000m peaks, but depending on who you ask, there are over a thousand of them in Asia alone.\n\nSo 14 isn't a lot; it easily could have been zero. In fact, for most of Earth's history it probably *was* zero and the only time it's ever not zero is when there's \"recently\" been a continental collision. After all, those 14 are all in the same mountain range. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hawaii's volcanoes are taller ... if you count from the sea floor.\nThe crust can support it, at least in the center of a plate. Maybe if the mountains form at a region where the plates are smashing together, its weaker?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There's room for one big exception in this discussion, a controversial one, and that's Mauna Kea, which measures something like 10,000 meters from its base, 6000 meters beneath the sea.\n\nMauna Kea appears to be very close to the theoretical maximum height a mountain can reach. Go much bigger and the mountain's own structure cannot support its own mass. I think it actually *melts* at the base as a result of the absurd pressures, does it not?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11700597", "title": "Ultra-prominent peak", "section": "Section::::Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 218, "text": "Thirteen of the fourteen 8,000m summits are Ultras (the exception being Lhotse), and there are a further 64 Ultras over in height. There are 90 Ultras with a prominence of over , but only 22 with more than prominence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19717114", "title": "List of mountains of Switzerland", "section": "Section::::Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 674, "text": "The list contains 451 mountains with a prominence higher than 300 m, among which 24 are above 4000 m, 64 above 3500 m, 208 above 3000 m, 321 above 2500 m, 384 above 2000 m, 417 above 1500 m and 443 above 1000 m. The average and median heights are respectively 2812 and 2956 m. Eight summits (sometimes called ultra-prominent peaks) have a prominence exceeding 1500 m, they are found in seven cantons. The great majority of the summits are located in the Alps, the other being located in the Jura Mountains. On average, each summit is the culminating point of an area corresponding to 91.5 km, which is equivalent in term of density to approximately 1.09 summits per 100 km.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9824816", "title": "Thirteener", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 628, "text": "The importance of thirteeners is greatest in Colorado, which has the majority of such peaks in North America with over 600 of them. Despite the large number of peaks, over 20 peak baggers have reported climbing all of Colorado's thirteeners. Thirteeners are also significant in states whose highpoints fall between 13,000 and 13,999 feet. Regarding whether or not peaks in excess of 13,999 feet should be considered as \"thirteeners\", this article will count them as such for statistical purposes, but concentrate its focus on those peaks less than 14,000 feet since the higher peaks are already covered in the fourteeners list.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11683553", "title": "List of mountains in Peru", "section": "Section::::Sub-peaks with less than 300m re-ascent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 280, "text": "Other 6,000 m peaks which are often defined as individual peaks but which have less than 300 m of re-ascent or prominence, include:- Huandoy W 6,342 m (prominence between 200-250m), Sarapu 6,127 (prominence between 180-230m), Callangate North 6,000 m (less than 295m prominence).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "787923", "title": "Pirin", "section": "Section::::Geology, relief and peaks in Pirin.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 226, "text": "There are two peaks above 2,900 m, Vihren and Kutelo; seven above 2,800 m; 13 above 2,700 m; 32 above 2,600 m and 60 above 2,500 m. The highest granite peak is the Banderishki Chukar (2,732 m). Some of the highest peaks are: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23237", "title": "Geography of China", "section": "Section::::Physical geography.:Xinjiang-Mongolia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 898, "text": "Besides Mt. Everest and K2, the other 9 of the world's 17 tallest peaks on China's western borders are: Lhotse (8516 m, 4th highest), Makalu (8485 m, 5th), Cho Oyu (8188 m, 6th), Gyachung Kang (7952 m, 15th) of the Himalayas on the border with Nepal and Gasherbrum I (8080 m, 11th), Broad Peak (8051 m, 12th), Gasherbrum II (8035 m, 13th), Gasherbrum III (7946 m, 16th) and Gasherbrum IV (7932 m, 17th) of the Karakorum on the border with Pakistan. The tallest peak entirely within China is Shishapangma (8013 m, 14th) of the Tibetan Himalayas in Nyalam County of Tibet Autonomous Region. In all, 9 of the 14 mountain peaks in the world over 8,000 m are in or on the border of China. Another notable Himalayan peak in China is Namchabarwa (7782 m, 28th), near the great bend of the Yarlungtsanpo (upper Brahmaputra) River in eastern Tibet, and considered to be the eastern anchor of the Himalayas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80551", "title": "Inyo County, California", "section": "Section::::Natural history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 274, "text": "BULLET::::- Thirteen of California's fifteen peaks which exceed 14,000 feet (a Fourteener) in elevation; the isolated Mount Shasta in northern California, and White Mountain Peak in neighboring Mono County, are the only California 14ers not (at least partly) in Inyo County\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So you have this balloon hooked up to an air compressor. Youre watching this and you see its slowly getting bigger. We know its getting bigger because if we draw a bunch of dots on the balloon with sharpie, you notice all the dots are getting farther from eachother.\n\nThe big crunch says that this air compressor will turn off, or atleast slow down enough that air is escaping faster than entering. \n\nIf the air compressor is currently on, yes its possible that it will turn off, but without other knowledge it makes more sense that it will keep inflating.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Observation is the main thing. Scientists can see that the universe is expanding. While it is possible that the expansion is temporary and it will reverse itself, that would first require the expansion to slow down. We observe the opposite and the rate of expansion is increasing. Since the only force we know of which could cause the expansion or crunch is gravity, the evidence shows the gravitational pull of all the matter (both regular and dark) in the universe on itself just isn't strong enough to bring everything back together. The more the universe expands, the weaker the gravitational pull will get, so there's no known force that will cause a reversal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because it doesn't fit the the evidence.\n\nWe believe the universe is expanding, because the farther away distant galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from us.\n\nWe believe the expansion is accelerating, because certain types of supernovae are dimmer than we expect, indicating their light travels a greater distance than a non-accelerating universe would indicate.\n\nIf the universe is expanding, and that expansion is accelerating, that makes a Big Crunch more difficult.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1: the universe is expanding. We know this because there are a few stellar phenomena that look very much the same regardless of where it happens (They're refered to as standard candles). A type 1a supernova looks exactly like like a type 1a supernova is expected to look. Except when we look further and further out into the universe, those type 1a supernova and standard candles don't look right. In practice the wavelengths of light they emit look stretched out (redshifted). Some of that could be attributed to motion through spacetime (doppler effect stuff), but not all. Regardless of which direction we look far away stuff always is redshifted, everything at the same distance as it is redshifted by the same amount and as you look further and further away stuff is redshifted more and more. That means either everything else in the universe is moving away us and is moving away much faster the further away it is or it means the universe is expanding. The chances of the first result being true is basically nil, if there was no other factor we'd expect the direction of motion to be basically random, some stuff moving away, some stuff moving closer and everything moving at different velocities in general. So that leaves us with expansion. \n\nIf it was contracting we'd see the opposite, stuff would be blueshifted rather than redshifted. If you want to visualize that, think an ambulance with it's siren on tearing past you. If it's getting closer the noise of it's siren pitches up, getting higher and higher as it gets closer and closer. When it's going away from you the pitch drops and drops lower and lower the further it is. Blueshifting and redshifting behave pretty much exactly the same way, but it changes the frequency of the light rather than the frequence of the soundwaves. \n\n\n2: The geometry of the universe is very probably flat. For a \"big crunch\" to happen, it would require the universe to stop expanding and start to contract. If the universe is flat that process of slowing down will take an infinite amount of time and if the expansion can't slow down to zero it can't ever start to contract. \n\n3: Dark energy is a thing and it's accelerating the expansion of the universe. Exactly what and why that is we don't know, but the effects are clear enough: The more space you have the more dark energy you have. The more dark energy you have the more space can expand. The more space expands the more space you have. That's a positive feedback loop and there's no reason to think it will stop. \n\nSo even if the universe could slow down to zero expansion in a finite amount of time, the acceleration of the universe would also need to reach zero, and there's no reason to think that will happen either. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "206122", "title": "Big Crunch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 530, "text": "The Big Crunch is a theoretical scenario for the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the expansion of the universe eventually reverses and the universe recollapses, ultimately causing the cosmic scale factor to reach zero, an event potentially followed by a reformation of the universe starting with another Big Bang. The vast majority of evidence indicates that this theory is not correct. Instead, astronomical observations show that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, rather than being slowed down by gravity. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192904", "title": "Ultimate fate of the universe", "section": "Section::::Theories about the end of the universe.:Big Crunch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 736, "text": "The Big Crunch hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. Just as the Big Bang started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the average density of the universe will be enough to stop its expansion and begin contracting. The end result is unknown; a simple estimation would have all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless singularity back into how the universe started with the Big Bang, but at these scales unknown quantum effects need to be considered (see Quantum gravity). Recent evidence suggests that this scenario is not likely but it has not been ruled out as measurements are only available over a short period of time and could reverse in the future.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23448604", "title": "Crunch (book)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 541, "text": "Crunch: Why Do I Feel So Squeezed? (And Other Unsolved Economic Mysteries) () is a book written by Jared Bernstein, Chief Economist and Economic Policy Advisor to Vice President Joe Biden, and published in 2008. In it, Bernstein offers a layman's introduction to how the U.S. economic system works. Using economic inequality as the basis of his argument, Bernstein explains why Americans still feel squeezed during boom times, what he believes is wrong with the economy, and how he believes it could be improved for the greater common good.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19360175", "title": "Credit crunch", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Valuation of securities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 910, "text": "The crunch is generally caused by a reduction in the market prices of previously \"overinflated\" assets and refers to the financial crisis that results from the price collapse. This can result in widespread foreclosure or bankruptcy for those who came in late to the market, as the prices of previously inflated assets generally drop precipitously. In contrast, a liquidity crisis is triggered when an otherwise sound business finds itself temporarily incapable of accessing the bridge finance it needs to expand its business or smooth its cash flow payments. In this case, accessing additional credit lines and \"trading through\" the crisis can allow the business to navigate its way through the problem and ensure its continued solvency and viability. It is often difficult to know, in the midst of a crisis, whether distressed businesses are experiencing a crisis of solvency or a temporary liquidity crisis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55080302", "title": "Principles of Political Economy (Malthus)", "section": "Section::::Impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 484, "text": "Malthus' work did not spark many economic debates at the time of its publication. In fact, many denied Malthus' ideas on recessions. Say's Law remained the more commonly accepted theory at the time due to its popularity. Malthus' book does not attract much attention until the Great Depression occurs and it becomes evident that depressions are real. After this, economists such as John Maynard Keynes begin to look more deeply into Malthus' ideas and utilize them in their own work.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22315", "title": "Oligarchy", "section": "Section::::Putative oligarchies.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 227, "text": "French economist Thomas Piketty states in his 2013 book, \"Capital in the Twenty-First Century,\" that \"the risk of a drift towards oligarchy is real and gives little reason for optimism about where the United States is headed.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25587143", "title": "A Treatise on Money", "section": "Section::::Summary of the Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 243, "text": "In Keynes’ Treatise, he does not agree that booms and busts happen solely because of extrinsic random variables such as “sunspots”. Instead, he believes that economic events emerge when there are discrepancies between savings and investments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are basically three elements to this. \n\nFirst. While the the Southern Resource Area was oil rich by Japanese standards it was significantly less productive than other areas of the world at the time. In 1940 while the US produced 183 million tons of crude, the Dutch East Indies produced 8 million tons of crude. The rest of the region added a few million more tons. The US and other Allies also had access to the international market which added places like Venezuela (27Mt), Iran (10Mt), Mexico (7Mt), etc. Japan didn’t have access to any of that. So they were stuck using only the oil produced in the SRA and the tiny amounts produced in pre-war territories (mainly Japan and Taiwan/Formosa). Of the world’s 294 Mt oil output Japan had access to around 11 Mt.\n\nSecond. Japanese occupied territories never matched their pre-war output. One the the very last things the European powers did before the area was captured was to destroy refineries and wells. The Allies also focused on disrupting oil production, much like they did in Europe. So air raids were common. I can’t find mid-war production figures at the moment, but between 1940 and 1945 oil production in the Dutch East Indies dropped from 8 Mt of crude, to less than 1 Mt of crude. At no point did Japan ever get more than a fraction of the production the area had before the war. \n\nThird. Japan had a grossly inadequate fleet of tankers. In December 1942, the country as a whole had 58 tankers, with a total carry capacity of around 600,000 tons. During the war they converted a number of other ships into tankers including passenger ships, they captured foreign tankers, and anything else they could think of. In all around 200 Japanese ships served as tankers. But it was never adequate, especially by mid-to-late-war when the submariners began to focus on the tankers. Japan could never adequately get the little oil they had to where they needed it. By late war the IJN was refueling some ships with raw crude directly from the fields rather than trying to transport the fuel to refineries and then back out to the fleet. This resulted in the damage to a number of boilers, due to the high sulfur content of the Bornean crude.\n\nIn short Japan had access to 3% of the pre-war production, never actually achieved those pre-war figures, and couldn’t have transported if they had.\n\nContrast that to the US, who themselves had local oil shortages at times. The US produced 67% of the world’s crude (and had access to about 80% of the global supply). They managed to increase pre-war production numbers during the war, including opening brand new fields. They had a vastly larger tanker fleet to start the war, and built a ridiculous number during the war. Just counting only the workhorse T2-SE-A1 models, the US built 481 during the war. Which alone accounts for about 2.5x as many as all Japanese tankers that served at all during the war.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12807612", "title": "Tarakan", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 745, "text": "Japanese oil fields in Sakhalin and Formosa provided only about ten percent of the petroleum needed to sustain Japanese industry. Reserves of California crude oil at Japanese refineries would have been exhausted in less than two years at the rate of consumption when United States terminated exports to Japan on 26 July 1941. Japan initiated hostilities against the United States and the United Kingdom four months later in preparation for seizing alternative sources of petroleum in the East Indies. Japan declared war on the Netherlands East Indies on 10 January 1942; and Japanese troops landed on Tarakan the following day. Dutch forces had declared war on Japan a month earlier, and sabotaged the oil field and refinery prior to surrender.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7286092", "title": "Dutch East Indies campaign", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 952, "text": "Access to oil was one of the linchpins of the Japanese war effort, as Japan has no native source of oil; it could not even produce enough to meet even 10% of its needs, even with the extraction of oil shale in Manchuria using the Fushun process. Japan quickly lost 93 percent of its oil supply after President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an executive order on 26 July 1941 which froze all of Japan's U.S. assets and embargoed all oil exports to Japan. In addition, the Dutch government in exile, at the urging of the Allies and with the support of Queen Wilhelmina, broke its economic treaty with Japan and joined the embargo in August. Japan's military and economic reserves included only a year and a half's worth of oil. As a U.S. declaration of war against Japan was feared if the latter took the East Indies, the Japanese planned to eliminate the U.S. Pacific Fleet, allowing them to overtake the islands; this led to the attack on Pearl Harbor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60098", "title": "Attack on Pearl Harbor", "section": "Section::::Background to conflict.:Diplomatic background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 601, "text": "The U.S. finally ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following the seizure of French Indochina after the Fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. Because of this decision, Japan proceeded with plans to take the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that America was prepared to take opposing steps if \"neighboring countries\" were attacked. The Japanese were faced with a dichotomy—either withdraw from China and lose face, or seize new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich European colonies of Southeast Asia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54108025", "title": "History of Japanese foreign relations", "section": "Section::::World War II.:Imperial rule.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 535, "text": "The Japanese Army operated ruthless governments in most of the conquered areas, but paid more favorable attention to the Dutch East Indies. The main goal was to obtain oil, but Japan sponsored an Indonesian nationalist movement under Sukarno. Sukarno finally came to power in the late 1940s after several years of battling the Dutch. The Dutch destroyed their oil wells but the Japanese reopened them. However most of the tankers taking oil to Japan were sunk by American submarines, so Japan's oil shortage became increasingly acute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6131588", "title": "Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan", "section": "Section::::Revolution and Soviet Republic.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 265, "text": "During World War II (1939-1945) - control of oil supply from Baku and the Middle East played a large role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the Pacific war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "994887", "title": "Petroleum industry", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 990, "text": "During World War II (1939–1945) – control of oil supply from Baku and Middle East played a huge role in the events of the war and the ultimate victory of the allies. Cutting off the oil supply considerably weakened Japan in the latter part of the war. After World War II ended, the countries of the Middle East took the lead in oil production from the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the introduction of the Drillship, and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying upon oil tankers and pipelines. In 1949, first offshore oil drilling at Oil Rocks (Neft Dashlari) in the Caspian Sea off Azerbaijan eventually resulted in a city built on pylons. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil–producing nations OPEC and OAPEC played a major role in setting petroleum prices and policy. Oil spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental, and economic importance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2991012", "title": "Japan–United States relations", "section": "Section::::Historical background.:Pre–World War II period.:1937–1941.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 977, "text": "Through the 1930s, Japan's military needed imported oil for airplanes and warships. It was dependent at 90% on imports, 80% of it coming from the United States. Furthermore, the vast majority of this oil import was oriented towards the Navy and the military. America opposed Tokyo's expansionist policies in China and Indochina and, in 1940–41, decided to stop supplying the oil Japan was using for military expansion against American allies. On July 26, 1940 the U.S. government passed the Export Control Act, cutting oil, iron and steel exports to Japan. This containment policy was seen by Washington as a warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions. However, Tokyo saw it as a blockade to counter Japanese military and economic strength. Accordingly, by the time the United States enforced the Export Act, Japan had stockpiled around 54 million barrels of oil. Washington imposed a full oil embargo imposed on Japan in July 1941.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you had to organise 200 legs you'd be slow, too.[1]\n\nActually - some centipedes are very speedy, because that's the niche they've evolved to fit, but millipedes aren't predators (that I know of) and have no need for speed.\n\n[1] Actually, they're self-organising - each segment responds in a set way to the movement of the one before, so much of it is automatic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22780", "title": "Octopus", "section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Locomotion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 715, "text": "Octopuses mainly move about by relatively slow crawling, with some swimming in a head-first position. Jet propulsion, or backwards swimming, is their fastest means of locomotion, followed by swimming and crawling. When in no hurry, they usually crawl on either solid or soft surfaces. Several arms are extended forwards, some of the suckers adhere to the substrate and the animal hauls itself forwards with its powerful arm muscles, while other arms may push rather than pull. As progress is made, other arms move ahead to repeat these actions and the original suckers detach. During crawling, the heart rate nearly doubles, and the animal requires ten or fifteen minutes to recover from relatively minor exercise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100340", "title": "Millipede", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 512, "text": "Among myriapods, millipedes have traditionally been considered most closely related to the tiny pauropods, although some molecular studies challenge this relationship. Millipedes can be distinguished from the somewhat similar but only distantly related centipedes (class Chilopoda), which move rapidly, are venomous, carnivorous, and have only a single pair of legs on each body segment. The scientific study of millipedes is known as diplopodology, and a scientist who studies them is called a diplopodologist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1132756", "title": "Animal locomotion", "section": "Section::::Terrestrial.:Walking and running.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 1327, "text": "Centipedes and millipedes have many sets of legs that move in metachronal rhythm. Some echinoderms locomote using the many tube feet on the underside of their arms. Although the tube feet resemble suction cups in appearance, the gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and relaxation of the ampullae allow for release from the substrate. The tube feet latch on to surfaces and move in a wave, with one arm section attaching to the surface as another releases. Some multi-armed, fast-moving starfish such as the sunflower seastar (\"Pycnopodia helianthoides\") pull themselves along with some of their arms while letting others trail behind. Other starfish turn up the tips of their arms while moving, which exposes the sensory tube feet and eyespot to external stimuli. Most starfish cannot move quickly, a typical speed being that of the leather star (\"Dermasterias imbricata\"), which can manage just in a minute. Some burrowing species from the genera \"Astropecten\" and \"Luidia\" have points rather than suckers on their long tube feet and are capable of much more rapid motion, \"gliding\" across the ocean floor. The sand star (\"Luidia foliolata\") can travel at a speed of per minute. Sunflower starfish are quick, efficient hunters, moving at a speed of using 15,000 tube feet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100340", "title": "Millipede", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 834, "text": "Millipedes are a group of arthropods that are characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments; they are known scientifically as the class Diplopoda, the name being derived from this feature. Each double-legged segment is a result of two single segments fused together. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a ball. Although the name \"millipede\" derives from the Latin for \"thousand feet\", no known species has 1,000; the record of 750 legs belongs to \"Illacme plenipes\". There are approximately 12,000 named species classified into 16 orders and around 140 families, making Diplopoda the largest class of myriapods, an arthropod group which also includes centipedes and other multi-legged creatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19166409", "title": "Leg", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 326, "text": "BULLET::::- Arthropoda: 4, 6 (Insecta), 8, 12, or 14 legs. Some arthropods have more than a dozen legs; a few species possess over 100. Despite what their names might suggest, centipedes (\"hundred feet\") may have fewer than 20 or more than 300 legs, and millipedes (\"thousand feet\") have fewer than 1,000 legs, but up to 750.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50766500", "title": "List of myriapods of Sri Lanka", "section": "Section::::Millipede.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 492, "text": "Millipedes are arthropods in the class Diplopoda, which is characterised by having two pairs of jointed legs on most body segments. Most millipedes have very elongated cylindrical or flattened bodies with more than 20 segments, while pill millipedes are shorter and can roll into a ball. The average number of legs are about 500 or so, but rarely about 750. Approximately 12,000 species classified into sixteen orders and around 140 families, making Diplopoda the largest class of myriapods.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "584096", "title": "Myriapoda", "section": "Section::::Classification.:Centipedes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 276, "text": "Centipedes make up the class Chilopoda. They are fast, predatory and venomous, hunting mostly at night. There are around 3,300 species, ranging from the diminutive \"Nannarrup hoffmani\" (less than 12 mm or  in in length) to the giant \"Scolopendra gigantea\", which may exceed .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Luck.\n\nThe young man in question was unconscious for most of the trip, luckily for him, but he was certainly dicing with death. Stowing away in a wheel well isn't a surefire way to kill yourself, but this risk is certainly unacceptably high. There's just enough oxygen and heat -- and plenty of pressure -- up there to make survival possible, just not very likely.\n\nIt is usually fatal, though. A few years ago a man literally fell out of the sky onto a street in London. He'd stowed away in a wheel well in Angola and perished on the way; when the plane lowered its undercarriage on its approach to Heathrow, the body fell out and gave several Londoners a nasty shock.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1700890", "title": "Forrest Bird", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 664, "text": "The newest models of aircraft were capable of exceeding altitudes at which humans can breathe, even with 100% oxygen supplementation, introducing the risk of hypoxia. Bird discovered that an oxygen regulator in a crashed German bomber he was ferrying back to the U.S. for study seemed to contain a pressure breathing circuit. He took the oxygen regulator home, studied it, and made it more functional. It became the standard design for high-altitude oxygen regulators for most military aircraft until recent time. Bird studied medicine \" ... to understand the human body and its stress in flight\". This led to him developing efficient respirators and ventilators.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1488888", "title": "Cabin pressurization", "section": "Section::::Unplanned decompression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 256, "text": "For airliners that need to fly over terrain that does not allow reaching the safe altitude within a minimum of 30 minutes, pressurized oxygen bottles are mandatory since the chemical oxygen generators fitted to most planes cannot supply sufficient oxygen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4670584", "title": "Armstrong limit", "section": "Section::::Hypoxia below the Armstrong limit.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 849, "text": "Well below the Armstrong limit, humans typically require supplemental oxygen in order to avoid hypoxia. For most people, this is typically needed at altitudes above 4,500 m (15,000 ft). Commercial jetliners are required to maintain cabin pressurization at a cabin altitude of not greater than . U.S. regulations on general aviation aircraft (non-airline, non-government flights) require that the minimum required flight crew, but not the passengers, be on supplemental oxygen if the plane spends more than half an hour at a cabin altitude above . The minimum required flight crew must be on supplemental oxygen if the plane spends \"any\" time above a cabin altitude of , and even the passengers must be provided with supplemental oxygen above a cabin altitude of . Skydivers, who are at altitude only briefly before jumping, do not normally exceed .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1488888", "title": "Cabin pressurization", "section": "Section::::Unplanned decompression.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 782, "text": "Any failure of cabin pressurization above requires an emergency descent to or the closest to that while maintaining the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA), and the deployment of an oxygen mask for each seat. The oxygen systems have sufficient oxygen for all on board and give the pilots adequate time to descend to below . Without emergency oxygen, hypoxia may lead to loss of consciousness and a subsequent loss of control of the aircraft. Modern airliners include a pressurized pure oxygen tank in the cockpit, giving the pilots more time to bring the aircraft to a safe altitude. The time of useful consciousness varies according to altitude. As the pressure falls the cabin air temperature may also plummet to the ambient outside temperature with a danger of hypothermia or frostbite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61048", "title": "Decompression sickness", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Exposure to altitude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 310, "text": "Pure aviator oxygen which has moisture removed to prevent freezing of valves at altitude is readily available and routinely used in general aviation mountain flying and at high altitudes. Most small general aviation aircraft are not pressurized, therefore oxygen use is an FAA requirement at higher altitudes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61048", "title": "Decompression sickness", "section": "Section::::Prevention.:Exposure to altitude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 788, "text": "One of the most significant breakthroughs in the prevention of altitude DCS is oxygen pre-breathing. Breathing pure oxygen significantly reduces the nitrogen loads in body tissues by reducing the partial pressure of nitrogen in the lungs, which induces diffusion of nitrogen from the blood into the breathing gas, and this effect eventually lowers the concentration of nitrogen in the other tissues of the body. If continued for long enough, and without interruption, this provides effective protection upon exposure to low-barometric pressure environments. However, breathing pure oxygen during flight alone (ascent, en route, descent) does not decrease the risk of altitude DCS as the time required for ascent is generally not sufficient to significantly desaturate the slower tissues.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32502", "title": "Vacuum", "section": "Section::::Effects on humans and animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 88, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 88, "end_character": 697, "text": "Cold or oxygen-rich atmospheres can sustain life at pressures much lower than atmospheric, as long as the density of oxygen is similar to that of standard sea-level atmosphere. The colder air temperatures found at altitudes of up to 3 km generally compensate for the lower pressures there. Above this altitude, oxygen enrichment is necessary to prevent altitude sickness in humans that did not undergo prior acclimatization, and spacesuits are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. Most spacesuits use only 20 kPa (150 Torr) of pure oxygen. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but decompression sickness and gas embolisms can still occur if decompression rates are not managed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a holiday under state law in a handful of states, but it has never been a national holiday. The problem with making it a holiday or having voting on the weekend is that there will still always be people who have to work. If the law mandated that everybody had the day off, then emergency services like police and hospitals would stop and that would be terribly dangerous. Even if first responders and other essential safety personnel worked, it would be a pain for a lot of people for all restaurants, stores, gas stations, etc. to be closed. At the end of the day there's no good way to force a holiday for everyone - our society relies on having access to various services to run and people have to work for those services to operate.\n\nEarly voting exists for people who can't take off on election day. A lot of states also require that employers let employees take a couple hours off from work to go vote.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2364181", "title": "Constitution Day (United States)", "section": "Section::::History.:I am an American Day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 690, "text": "In 1939, William Randolph Hearst advocated, through his chain of daily newspapers, the creation of a holiday to celebrate citizenship. In 1940, Congress designated the third Sunday in May as \"I am an American Day.\" In 1944 \"I am an American Day\" was promoted through the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service. A 16-minute film, \"I Am an American\", was featured in American theaters as a short feature. In 1947 Hearst Newsreels featured the event on \"News of the Day\". By 1949, governors of all 48 states had issued Constitution Day proclamations. On February 29, 1952, Congress moved the \"I am an American Day\" observation to September 17 and renamed it \"\"Citizenship Day\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1823142", "title": "Democracy Day (United States)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 472, "text": "Conyers' proposed the holiday in Resolution (H.R.) 63 - Democracy Day Act of 2005. The bill called for the Tuesday after the first Monday in November of every even-numbered year, Election Day, to be a legal public holiday. The purpose of the holiday was to increase voter turnout by giving citizens more time to vote, as well as to allow for the opening of more polling places with more workers while raising awareness of the importance of voting and civic participation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25775809", "title": "Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant", "section": "Section::::First term 1869–1873.:Domestic affairs.:Holidays law.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 669, "text": "On June 28, 1870, Grant approved and signed legislation that made Christmas, or December 25, a legal public Holiday within Washington D.C. Historian Ron White said this was done by Grant because of his passion to unify the nation. During the early 19th Century in the United States, Christmas became more of a family-centered activity. Other Holidays, included in the law within Washington D.C., were New Year, Fourth of July, and Thanksgiving. The law affected 5,300 federal employees working in the District of Columbia, the nation's capital. The legislation was meant to adapt to similar laws in states surrounding Washington D.C. and \"in every State of the Union.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1403127", "title": "Flag Acts (United States)", "section": "Section::::Flag Act of 1777.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 255, "text": "The Flag Act of 1777 () was passed by the Second Continental Congress on June 14, 1777, in response to a petition made by an American Indian nation on June 3 for \"an American Flag.\" As a result, June 14 is now celebrated as Flag Day in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2364181", "title": "Constitution Day (United States)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 653, "text": "The law establishing the present holiday was created in 2004 with the passage of an amendment by Senator Robert Byrd to the Omnibus spending bill of 2004. Before this law was enacted, the holiday was known as \"Citizenship Day\". In addition to renaming the holiday \"Constitution Day and Citizenship Day,\" the act mandates that all publicly funded educational institutions, and all federal agencies, provide educational programming on the history of the American Constitution on that day. In May 2005, the United States Department of Education announced the enactment of this law and that it would apply to any school receiving federal funds of any kind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220304", "title": "Federal holidays in the United States", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 371, "text": "The history of federal holidays in the United States dates back to June 28, 1870, when Congress created federal holidays \"to correspond with similar laws of States around the District ... and ... in every State of the Union.\" Although at first applicable only to federal employees in the District of Columbia, Congress extended coverage in 1885 to all federal employees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33431583", "title": "American Family Day", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 451, "text": "Arizona resident, John Makkai, is credited with pushing the holiday through the Arizona legislation. American Family Day began as a 1-year proclamation, signed by then Governor Raúl Héctor Castro, declaring August 7, 1977 American Family Day. The following year, American Family Day was signed into law as an official Arizona holiday by Governor Bruce Babbitt. The holiday also caught on in several other states, including North Carolina and Georgia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The formula for blood pressure is:\n\n Heart rate • Stroke volume • Systemic vascular resistance\n\n* Heart rate = how many times the heart beats in 1 minute.\n\n* Stroke volume = how much blood is ejected from the heart each time it beats.\n\n* Systemic vascular resistance = the resistance to blood flow caused by the blood flowing through the vessels.\n\nThe systemic vascular resistance is composed of many factors, including the total length of the vascular system, the radius of the vessels, the flow rate of the blood through them, and yes, the viscosity of the blood. Check out the [Hagen–Poiseuille equation](_URL_0_) for more info on that.\n\n**tl;dr - The viscosity of the blood is only one small component of the total contribution to blood pressure.**", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "512559", "title": "Hemorheology", "section": "Section::::Blood viscosity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 499, "text": "Blood viscosity is a measure of the resistance of blood to flow. It can also be described as the thickness and stickiness of blood. This biophysical property makes it a critical determinant of friction against the vessel walls, the rate of venous return, the work required for the heart to pump blood, and how much oxygen is transported to tissues and organs. These functions of the cardiovascular system are directly related to vascular resistance, preload, afterload, and perfusion, respectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36790", "title": "Artery", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 784, "text": "Arteries have a blood pressure higher than other parts of the circulatory system. The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle. It is highest when the heart contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, such as the radial pulse. Arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on overall blood pressure. They are the primary \"adjustable nozzles\" in the blood system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The combination of heart output (cardiac output) and systemic vascular resistance, which refers to the collective resistance of all of the body's arterioles, are the principal determinants of arterial blood pressure at any given moment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36790", "title": "Artery", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 727, "text": "Systemic arterial pressures are generated by the forceful contractions of the heart's left ventricle. High blood pressure is a factor in causing arterial damage. Healthy resting arterial pressures are relatively low, mean systemic pressures typically being under above surrounding atmospheric pressure (about at sea level). To withstand and adapt to the pressures within, arteries are surrounded by varying thicknesses of smooth muscle which have extensive elastic and inelastic connective tissues. The pulse pressure, being the difference between systolic and diastolic pressure, is determined primarily by the amount of blood ejected by each heart beat, stroke volume, versus the volume and elasticity of the major arteries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56558", "title": "Blood pressure", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Hemodynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 2268, "text": "A simple view of the hemodynamics of systemic arterial pressure is based around mean arterial pressure (MAP) and pulse pressure. Most influences on blood pressure can be understood in terms of their effect on cardiac output and systemic vascular resistance. Cardiac output is the product of stroke volume and heart rate, and stroke volume is influenced by blood volume. In the short-term, the greater the blood volume, the higher the cardiac output. This may explain in part the relationship between dietary salt intake and increased blood pressure, where increased salt intake may increase blood volume potentially resulting in higher arterial pressure. However, this varies with the individual and is highly dependent on autonomic nervous system response and the renin–angiotensin system. In the longer-term the relationship between volume and blood pressure is more complex. In simple terms systemic vascular resistance is mainly determined by the caliber of small arteries and arterioles. The resistance attributable to a blood vessel depends on its radius as described by the Hagen-Poiseuille's equation (resistance∝1/radius). Hence, the smaller the radius, the very much higher the resistance. Other physical factors that affect resistance include: vessel length (the longer the vessel, the higher the resistance), blood viscosity (the higher the viscosity, the higher the resistance) and the number of vessels, particularly the smaller numerous, arterioles and capillaries. The presence of an arterial stenosis increases resistance to flow, however this increase in resistance rarely increases systemic blood pressure because its contribution to total systemic resistance is small, although it may profoundly decrease downstream flow. Substances called vasoconstrictors reduce the caliber of blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure. Vasodilators (such as nitroglycerin) increase the caliber of blood vessels, thereby decreasing arterial pressure. In the longer term a process termed remodeling also contributes to changing the caliber of small blood vessels and influencing resistance and reactivity to vasoactive agents. Reductions in capillary density, termed capillary rarefaction, may also contribute to increased resistance in some circumstances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "275216", "title": "Hemodynamics", "section": "Section::::Blood vessels.:Wall tension.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 225, "text": "Regardless of site, blood pressure is related to the wall tension of the vessel according to the Young–Laplace equation (assuming that the thickness of the vessel wall is very small as compared to the diameter of the lumen):\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "479444", "title": "Arteriole", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Blood pressure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 439, "text": "Blood pressure in the arteries supplying the body is a result of the work needed to pump the cardiac output (the flow of blood pumped by the heart) through the \"vascular resistance\", usually termed total peripheral resistance by physicians and researchers. An increase in the media to lumenal diameter ratio has been observed in hypertensive arterioles (arteriolosclerosis) as the vascular wall thickens and/or lumenal diameter decreases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "275216", "title": "Hemodynamics", "section": "Section::::Blood vessels.:Vascular resistance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 495, "text": "If the blood viscosity increases (gets thicker), the result is an increase in arterial pressure. Certain medical conditions can change the viscosity of the blood. For instance, anemia (low red blood cell concentration), reduces viscosity, whereas increased red blood cell concentration increases viscosity. It had been thought that aspirin and related \"blood thinner\" drugs decreased the viscosity of blood, but instead studies found that they act by reducing the tendency of the blood to clot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is no such thing as a \"typical mentally handicapped person\". Every individual is different and the brain is an extremely complex organ and development or injury affects every individual in different ways. A \"mental handicap\" may manifest completely different in two people depending on nature and/or nurture. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "990505", "title": "Mental health", "section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Children and young adults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 964, "text": "Mental health and stability is a very important factor in a person’s everyday life. Social skills, behavioral skills, and someone’s way of thinking are just some of the things that the human brain develops at an early age. Learning how to interact with others and how to focus on certain subjects are essential lessons to learn. This spans from the time we can talk all the way to when we are so old that we can barely walk. However, there are some people out there who have difficulty with these kind of skills and behaving like an average person. This is most likely the cause of having a mental illness. A mental illness is a wide range of conditions that affect a person’s mood, thinking, and behavior. About 26% of people in the United States, ages 18 and older, have been diagnosed with some kind of mental disorder. However, not much is said about children with mental illnesses even though there are many that will develop one, even as early as age three.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "990505", "title": "Mental health", "section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Children and young adults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1133, "text": "Mental illness affects not only the person themselves, but the people around them. Friends and family also play an important role in the child’s mental health stability and treatment. If the child is young, parents are the ones who evaluate their child and decide whether or not they need some form of help. Friends are a support system for the child and family as a whole. Living with a mental disorder is never easy, so it’s always important to have people around to make the days a little easier. However, there are negative factors that come with the social aspect of mental illness as well. Parents are sometimes held responsible for their child’s own illness. People also say that the parents raised their children in a certain way or they acquired their behavior from them. Family and friends are sometimes so ashamed of the idea of being close to someone with a disorder that the child feels isolated and thinks that they have to hide their illness from others. When in reality, hiding it from people prevents the child from getting the right amount of social interaction and treatment in order to thrive in today’s society.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "990505", "title": "Mental health", "section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Children and young adults.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 602, "text": "Psychiatrist Thomas Szasz compared that 50 years ago children were either categorized as good or bad, and today \"all children are good, but some are mentally healthy and others are mentally ill\". The social control and forced identity creation is the cause of many mental health problems among today's children. A behaviour or misbehaviour might not be an illness but exercise of their free will and today's immediacy in drug administration for every problem along with the legal over-guarding and regard of a child's status as a dependent shakes their personal self and invades their internal growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "51606", "title": "Causes of mental disorders", "section": "Section::::Life experience and environmental factors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 58, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 58, "end_character": 454, "text": "Mind mentions childhood abuse, trauma, violence or neglect, social isolation, loneliness or discrimination, the death of someone close, stress, homelessness or poor housing, social disadvantage, poverty or debt, unemployment, caring for a family member or friend, significant trauma as an adult, such as military combat, and being involved in a serious accident or being the victim of a violent crime as possibly triggering an episode of mental illness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12623574", "title": "Psychological mindedness", "section": "Section::::In groups, environments and society.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1454, "text": "In the UK a lot of work has been done to extend the concept of psychological mindedness beyond the individual. This work recognises that the health and success of families, schools, hospitals, businesses, communities and indeed society as a whole depends in a large part on the psychological mindedness of the system or environment created by that institution. This is more than the sum of the individual parts. For example, an individual nurse on a psychiatric ward may be psychologically minded and motivated to connect with a service user who may also have some psychological mindedness. However, the chances of two such individuals having a psychologically minded encounter can easily be sabotaged by a \"psychologically blind\" or \"alexithymic\" care system that allows the nurse no time, no headspace, no structure and no back up to function in this way. It is well known that nurses on chaotic psychiatric wards have to shut off emotionally just to survive personally in the face of the overwhelming demands placed upon them. Once this happens the experience for the service user will obviously become one of \"not being listened to\". This real emotional neglect coupled with transference factors is what leads to so many incidents on our psychiatric wards. Service users who feel rejected are bound to escalate their behaviour in order to be heard and in order to \"hit back\" at those who are in effect just repeating the failures of past caregivers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19464350", "title": "Mentalism (discrimination)", "section": "Section::::Social division.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 857, "text": "According to Coni Kalinowski (a psychiatrist at the University of Nevada and Director of Mojave Community Services) and Pat Risser (a mental health consultant and self-described former recipient of mental health services), mentalism at one extreme can lead to a categorical dividing of people into an empowered group assumed to be normal, healthy, reliable, and capable, and a powerless group assumed to be sick, disabled, crazy, unpredictable, and violent. This divide can justify inconsiderate treatment of the latter group and expectations of poorer standards of living for them, for which they may be expected to express gratitude. Further discrimination may involve labeling some as \"high functioning\" and some as \"low-functioning\"; while this may enable the targeting of resources, in both categories human behaviors are recast in pathological terms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12623574", "title": "Psychological mindedness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 448, "text": "Psychological mindedness refers to a person's capacity for self-examination, self-reflection, introspection and personal insight. It includes an ability to recognize meanings that underlie overt words and actions, to appreciate emotional nuance and complexity, to recognize the links between past and present, and insight into one's own and others' motives and intentions. Psychologically minded people have above average insight into mental life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It wasn't split during the cold war. It was split 4 ways after the Germans surrendered in WWII, into the Russian, American, English, and French zones. The idea behind splitting Berlin was that the allied powers defeated Germany, and thus each should be responsible for a section of the German capital. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Berlin wasnt split during the cold war. Berlin was split immediately after WW2 as the allies divided the city between themselves. The wall, and tensions, came later.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33170", "title": "West Berlin", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 816, "text": "At first, this arrangement was intended to be of a temporary administrative nature, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany and Berlin broke down. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations. In 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food and other goods through the Berlin Airlift. In May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14581", "title": "Ich bin ein Berliner", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 752, "text": "Germany's capital, Berlin, was deep within the area controlled after World War II by the Soviet Union. Initially governed in four sectors controlled by the four Allied powers (United States, United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union), tensions of the Cold War escalated until the Soviet forces implemented the Berlin Blockade, which the Western allies relieved with the dramatic airlift. Afterward, the sectors controlled by the NATO Allies became an effective exclave of West Germany, completely surrounded by East Germany. From 1952, the border between East and West was closed everywhere but in Berlin. Hundreds of thousands of East Germans defected to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain that threatened East Germany with economic collapse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61103", "title": "German reunification", "section": "Section::::Precursors to reunification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 754, "text": "In 1945, the Third Reich ended in defeat and Germany was divided into four occupation zones, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. The capital city of Berlin was similarly divided into four sectors. Between 1947 and 1949, the three zones of the western allies were merged, forming the Federal Republic of Germany and West Berlin, aligned with capitalist Europe (which later developed into the European Community). The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic with its capital in East Berlin, part of the communist Soviet Bloc. The FRG was a member of the western military alliance, NATO and the GDR was a member of the Warsaw Pact. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9483", "title": "East Berlin", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 845, "text": "With the London Protocol of 1944 signed on September 12, 1944, the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union decided to divide Germany into three occupation zones and to establish a special area of Berlin, which was occupied by the three Allied Forces together. In May 1945, the Soviet Union installed a city government for the whole city that was called \"Magistrate of Greater Berlin\", which existed until 1947. After the war, the Allied Forces initially administered the city together within the Allied Kommandatura, which served as the governing body of the city. However, in 1948 the Soviet representative left the Kommandatura and the common administration broke apart during the following months. In the Soviet sector, a separate city government was established, which continued to call itself \"Magistrate of Greater Berlin\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4738979", "title": "Names of Germany", "section": "Section::::Etymological history.:Germany divided 1945–1990.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 219, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 219, "end_character": 610, "text": "After the defeat in World War II, Germany was occupied by the troops of Britain, France, the United States and Soviet Union. Berlin was a case of its own, as it was situated on the territory of the Soviet zone but divided into four sectors. The western sectors were later called West Berlin, the other one East Berlin. The communists tended to consider the Soviet sector of Berlin as a part of GDR; West Berlin was, according to them, an independent political unit. In the GDR \"Westberlin\" was the preferred spelling in order to de-emphasize the relationship to \"Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR\" (the GDR capital).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242099", "title": "History of Berlin", "section": "Section::::West and East Germany (1945–1990).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 582, "text": "Berlin's unique situation as a city half-controlled by Western forces in the middle of the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany made it a natural focal point in the Cold War after 1947. Though the city was initially governed by a Four Power Allied Control Council with a leadership that rotated monthly, the Soviets withdrew from the council as East-West relations deteriorated and began governing their sector independently. The council continued to govern West Berlin, with the same rotating leadership policy, though now only involving France, Great Britain, and the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "681890", "title": "Judgment in Berlin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 886, "text": "From the end of World War II in Europe in May 1945 until the reunification of Germany in October 1990, Berlin was divided into four sectors: the American Sector, the French Sector, the British Sector, and the Soviet Sector, each named after the occupying power. The Soviet sector, informally called East Berlin, was considered by East Germany, then a member of the Warsaw Pact, to be part of its territory and in fact its capital, and the American, French, and British Sectors, collectively called West Berlin, were in some respects governed as if they were a part of West Germany, a member of NATO. Seldom did the American government exercise power directly in the American sector, except as it affected American military forces stationed in Berlin. In particular, the judgeship of the United States Court for Berlin was vacant except during the trial over which Judge Stern presided.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Ok so fat is called a Triglyceride or TAG and it is called that because it is made of three fatty acid chains. This structure is very stable and is unsoluable and is stored in docks called adipose tissue. When the body runs out of glucose and glycogen as fuel it starts burning fatty acids. A number of things need to happen first though.\n\nTo begin with the fatty acids need to be mobilised. This is done through a process called Lipolysis. The three acids are seperated and then transported to the cell that requires the fuel. In this case a muscle cell. Now what the cell needs to do is convert the fatty acid into energy or basically ATP. Through a complicated metabolic pathway they form a molecule called Acteyl Co-A. This molecule enters the energy producing cycle called the citric acid cycle. It is now the same as glucose and goes through the same steps such as the electron transport chain and stuff.\n\nLet me know if you need more detail. Key thing is fat is stored in a stable unsoluable form in adipose tissue. When the body is starving hormones such as insulin activate the degradation of the TAGs into 3 separate chains which then enter the blood and get transported to the starving cell. The cell then uses that fuel.\n\nI think that answers your question.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11042", "title": "Fat", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 267, "text": "Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and fats serve both structural and metabolic functions. They are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans) and are the most energy dense, thus the most efficient form of energy storage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3757348", "title": "GLUT4", "section": "Section::::Tissue distribution.:Adipose tissue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 261, "text": "Adipose tissue, commonly known as fat, is a depository for energy in order to conserve metabolic homeostasis. As the body takes in energy in the form of glucose, some is expended, and the rest is stored as glycogen primarily in the liver, muscle cells, or fat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93827", "title": "Human nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 726, "text": "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21525", "title": "Nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Macronutrients.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 816, "text": "The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built) and energy. Some of the structural material can be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called \"Calories\" and written with a capital \"C\" to distinguish them from little 'c' calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11831909", "title": "Body shape", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Weight.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 215, "text": "The fats and carbohydrates in food constitute the majority of energy used by the body. They are measured cumulatively in the USA and many other places in calories and in kilojoules in some other parts of the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5988464", "title": "Lipid metabolism", "section": "Section::::Lipid biosynthesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 245, "text": "In addition to dietary fats, storage lipids stored in the adipose tissues are one of the main sources of energy for living organisms. Triacylglycerols, lipid membrane and cholesterol can be synthesized by the organisms through various pathways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "491955", "title": "Energy bar", "section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 243, "text": "Energy in food comes from three sources: fat, protein, and carbohydrates. A typical energy bar weighs between 45 and 80 g and is likely to supply about 200–300 Cal (840–1,300 kJ), 3–9 g of fat, 7–15 g of protein, and 20–40 g of carbohydrates.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Particle masses can be measured in a few ways. Typically, subatomic particle masses are determined by the relationship between their energy and their momentum. If a particle is not moving, its total energy is E=mc\\^2. If it is moving, then E\\^2=(mc\\^2)\\^2+(pc)\\^2, where p is the momentum and c is the speed of light. One way to measure the mass, say, of a proton, is to put it in a mass spectrometer. Accelerating it in a known electric field gives it an amount of kinetic energy proportional to its charge. Causing the proton to move in a circular path in a uniform, well-calibrated magnetic field allows the momentum to be measured quite precisely. \n ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is usually some kind of trick being used to measure all of these things. Some properties are very hard to measure and some are very easy so that's were you take advantage of physical laws that makes the easy to measure properties like electric charge and magnetic field depend on the harder to measure property like mass. \n\nThey recently measured the mass of the atom for the 2018 proposed redefinition of SI base units which will define the Avogadro constant as a precise number so they needed the most precise measurements ever done, because will be the number we use for calculating the number of atoms in a mole for possibly hundreds of years. \n\nAnyway, what they did was quite simple. After growing a large 5kg crystal of silicone-28 they cut the crystal into two 1kg spheres. If you make a perfect sphere you can just measure distance (easy) to find the mass of the sphere (hard) by calculating the volume of it. \n\nDiameter measurements on the spheres are repeatable to within 0.3 nm, and the uncertainty in the mass is 3 µg. For a 1kg object an uncertainty of 3 µg is around 10^-9 which is in the range of what we deem acceptable for our fundamental constants, I believe the speed of light had a 10^-10 uncertainty before it got defined as an exact number. The number for Avogadro constant they got was 6.02214078(18)×10^23 carbon-12 atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. \n\nAll the other possible ways to measure the mass of the atom are explained here: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21144218", "title": "Electron rest mass", "section": "Section::::Determination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 229, "text": "Since the electron mass determines a number of observed effects in atomic physics, there are potentially many ways to determine its mass from an experiment, if the values of other physical constants are already considered known.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19048", "title": "Mass", "section": "Section::::Atomic mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 1011, "text": "Typically, the mass of objects is measured in relation to that of the kilogram, which is defined as the mass of the \"international prototype kilogram\" (IPK), a platinum alloy cylinder stored in an environmentally-monitored safe secured in a vault at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in France. However, the IPK is not convenient for measuring the masses of atoms and particles of similar scale, as it contains trillions of trillions of atoms, and has most certainly lost or gained a little mass over time despite the best efforts to prevent this. It is much easier to precisely compare an atom's mass to that of another atom, thus scientists developed the atomic mass unit (or Dalton). By definition, 1 u is exactly one twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, and by extension a carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12 u. This definition, however, might be changed by the proposed redefinition of SI base units, which will leave the Dalton very close to one, but no longer exactly equal to it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46190717", "title": "Discovery of the neutron", "section": "Section::::The nature of the neutron.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 490, "text": "The difficulty of making the measurement is illustrated by the wide-ranging values for the mass of the neutron obtained from 1932-1934. The accepted value today is . In Chadwick's 1932 paper reporting on the discovery, he estimated the mass of the neutron to be between and . By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a high value of , while Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California measured the small value using their new cyclotron.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9269065", "title": "Precision tests of QED", "section": "Section::::Measurements of the fine-structure constant using different systems.:Low-energy measurements.:Neutron Compton wavelength.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 374, "text": "This method of measuring \"α\" is very similar in principle to the atom-recoil method. In this case, the accurately known mass ratio of the electron to the neutron is used. The neutron mass is measured with high precision through a very precise measurement of its Compton wavelength. This is then combined with the value of the Rydberg constant to extract \"α\". The result is,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13087180", "title": "Mass (mass spectrometry)", "section": "Section::::Accurate mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 281, "text": "The accurate mass (more appropriately, the measured accurate mass) is an experimentally determined mass that allows the elemental composition to be determined. For molecules with mass below 200 u, 5 ppm accuracy is often sufficient to uniquely determine the elemental composition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "174316", "title": "James Chadwick", "section": "Section::::Researcher.:Cambridge.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 563, "text": "An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process. Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked. They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1.05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation. Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1.0084 or 1.0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron. (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is .) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9269065", "title": "Precision tests of QED", "section": "Section::::Measurements of the fine-structure constant using different systems.:Low-energy measurements.:Atom-recoil measurements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 274, "text": "To get the mass of the electron, this method actually measures the mass of an Rb atom by measuring the recoil speed of the atom after it emits a photon of known wavelength in an atomic transition. Combining this with the ratio of electron to Rb atom, the result for \"α\" is,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There isn't a sort of flicked switch between free and oppressive. As countries go, Cuba isn't *that bad.* \n\nIt's also poor, yes, but arguably because of US-imposed trade embargoes.\n\nAll the money it spends on medical aid is also a very good PR move - it sends hundreds of doctors to developing countries. It also has free healthcare and a lower child mortality rate than the US, despite spending a fraction of the amount of money per person on healthcare, which is why pro-healthcare reform people like to bring it up as a contrast to the US's current system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Probably because the poverty and oppression is a direct result of US actions (economic blockades, etc.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Your question is loaded (comes with a clear bias), and so it has been removed. Try rephrasing objectively or else post in /r/changemyview.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1105954", "title": "United States embargo against Cuba", "section": "Section::::Proponents of the Embargo.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 1032, "text": "Furthermore, Cuba has little to offer the United States economically. From the United States viewpoint, Cuba's one party semi-dictatorial form of government is especially undesirable due to characteristics such as its crackdowns on religious freedom, repression of the press, and repression of almost all criticism of the government. These policies are allegedly designed to ensure one party, dictatorial rule for as long as possible. Many in the United States profoundly disagree with Cuba's historical policies of severely limiting private property ownership and property rights in order to attain a more communistic society. The danger that Cuba will try to export its repressive and backward form of government, especially into the United States, is a national security threat due to Cuba's close proximity to the United States. This is not an unfounded threat as Cuba has launched several military campaigns, by itself and with other usually hostile nations, designed to export its undesirable form of government in the past. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35989057", "title": "Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industria Cinematográficos", "section": "Section::::History of the ICAIC.:The \"Special Period\" (1990-1995).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 491, "text": "The collapse of the Soviet Union put Cuba into a crisis because Cuba relied on the latter to remain a viable economy. People in Cuba suffered from daily shortages such as electricity blackouts, severe gasoline rationing, huge cuts in public transportation, and bicycles from China. Filmmakers, artists and intellectuals suffered the same consequence as everyone else. ICAIC only completed three features in 1990. At 1991, due to the economic crisis, it also led people to escape the island.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1130106", "title": "Cuban dissident movement", "section": "Section::::Cuban exiles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 266, "text": "More than one million Cubans of all social classes have left the island to the United States, and to Spain, The UK, Canada, Mexico and other countries. Because leaving required exit permit and a substantial amount of money, most Cubans could never leave Cuban soil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3943457", "title": "Cuba emergency response system", "section": "Section::::Cuba's emergency system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 339, "text": "Cuba is the largest and most populated island in the Caribbean yet consistently experiences the lowest death tolls during hurricane season. According to United Nations, it's not because Cubans are lucky but because they're prepared. According to Oxfam, from 1996 to 2002, only 16 people were killed by the six hurricanes that struck Cuba.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5592", "title": "Foreign relations of Cuba", "section": "Section::::History.:The Cold War.:Post–Cold War relations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 460, "text": "Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the \"Washington consensus\", the American-led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. The Cuban government have condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24109151", "title": "Maleconazo", "section": "Section::::Events.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 275, "text": "Cuba had fallen into an economic crisis because of the recent collapse of the Soviet Union and old American embargo. Many citizens began to try to leave the country. Some had even begun to steal boats to flee. The clash began as police began securing boats to prevent theft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50548214", "title": "María Payá Acevedo", "section": "Section::::Activism.:2014.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 621, "text": "In a December 2014 article, “Only Cubans Can Save Cuba,” she noted that America's change in its Cuban policy occurred only a week after 100 Cuban democracy protesters had been arrested and treated violently. “The US president has now rewarded the Cuban regime for having released a prisoner,” she wrote. “The Barack Obama administration has decided to normalize relations with a government that isn’t normal, because it is not legitimate. The Cuban people never chose it, and it violates our most fundamental human rights. In the ongoing dialogue between the elites of Washington and Havana, where are the Cuban people?”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "First, the existence of a magnetic monopole would imply the necessity of electric charge quantization -- the phenomenon that all electric charges are integer multiples of some fundamental charge, a property which is observed but for which we do not have a confirmed explanation.\n\nSecondly, many unified theories imply the existence of monopoles. So if you found a monopole, you could ask, if this is a unified theory monopole, what would it tell you about the unified theory? The mass of the monopole would allow us to determine the energy scale at which unification occurs. Also, in unified theories, the monopoles have a radius determined by the unification scale.\n\nOne last thing: The density of monopoles in the universe is related to the expansion rate of the universe and when that expansion occurred. Inflation -- a period of rapid expansion -- appears to be needed in the context of grand unification, because otherwise there'd be a much higher density of monopoles and we should have seen some already.\n\nBTW, you might be interested to read about Cabrera's experiment that [appeared to detect a magnetic monopole](_URL_0_) in 1982, although since that signal never occurred again, it seems doubtful that one event was real.\n\nEdit: I should add that the connection between the existence of magnetic monopoles and quantization of electric charge was [realized by Dirac](_URL_1_) in 1931. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Side question: what could you do with a monopole? Assuming you could make them in large quantities. How would interact with matter, or other monopoles?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Side questions. Shouldn't there be north monopoles and south monopoles? Would they be antiparticles of each other? Is there an asymmetry that would unbalance monopole production like matter, so there would be one type of primordial monopole left?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to some of the points made here, it would also necessitate a change in our understanding of Maxwell's Equations. [Here's](_URL_0_) a brief outline of what that would entail.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Is there any truth to the idea that magnetic fields are always generated by the angular movement of charged particles? Or is that just a metaphor or an old picture that's been entirely replaced by more sophisticated theory? Because if it's a valid model, it would imply that magnetic fields would always have 2 poles, right?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What would the discovery look like? Supposing a monopole were found, where would it show up, and what would be the evidence for it?\n\nAnother particle at the LHC? An odd signal at a neutrino detector? Something in a solar observatory?\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Haven't seen this mentioned, but there are examples of [magnetic monopoles in spin ice](_URL_0_), although these aren't strictly monopoles in the way you're talking. \n\nA spin ice is a frustrated magnetic material, due to its pyrochlore structure. Oxygen atoms form tetrahedra around rare earth atoms like Holmium, Dysprosium, etc. \n\nThese tetrahedra have spins that's like to orient either pointing into the tetrahedra or out, the ground state configuration being 2 spins pointing in, 2 spins pointing out.\n\nThere is another configuration that is possible for the spin sites, either 1 pointing in and 3 out, or the other way round. Let one of those be treated as a North and the other a south (I.e. A tetrahedron with 3in1out is a North Pole, and one with 1in3out is a south Pole.\n\nNow since spin ices are crystals, we have a very large periodic repetition of these tetrahedra, all connected to each other. It is clear to see if you flip a spin somewhere, you can go from the ground state 2in2out to either a North or a South Pole, but you necessarily create the other pair of the pole on the tetrahedra touching the edge whose spin you flipped.\n\nSince there are many of these tetrahedra, and you can keep flipping spins, you could, in theory, isolate a North or south Pole, and move it's pair far away from it, by flipping more spins. If there is a 3in1out tetrahedron somewhere in the lattice, there must he a 1in3out tetrahedron somewhere else, but not necessarily near it. \n\nThe theory is then if you move the poles sufficiently far apart, you can perform experiments on the isolated \"monopoles\".\n\nIt is very important to mention almost everyone I've spoken to who works with spin ices, will all refer to them as \"monopoles\" with air quotes, and then quickly mention some disclaimer about how these aren't monopoles in the way most people think, and div (B) = 0 holds. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In condensed matter physics, magnetic monopole quasiparticles can exist in spin ice materials when spin flip Excitations fractionalize into a monopole/ antimonopole pair. These quasiparticles are confined to centres of the centres of tetrahedra in the pyrochlore lattice of the material though, so aren't quite the same as free monopoles. However it appears they do follow a coulomb interaction. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36563", "title": "Magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Important uses and examples of magnetic field.:Magnetic monopole (hypothetical).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 196, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 196, "end_character": 351, "text": "Modern interest in this concept stems from particle theories, notably Grand Unified Theories and superstring theories, that predict either the existence, or the possibility, of magnetic monopoles. These theories and others have inspired extensive efforts to search for monopoles. Despite these efforts, no magnetic monopole has been observed to date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5951576", "title": "History of electromagnetic theory", "section": "Section::::21st century.:Open problems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 163, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 163, "end_character": 439, "text": "The magnetic monopole in the \"quantum\" theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931. The detection of magnetic monopoles is an open problem in experimental physics. In some theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in particle accelerators, and also too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3241799", "title": "Erick Weinberg", "section": "Section::::Notable works.:Lee–Weinberg–Yi metric.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 420, "text": "The existence of magnetic monopoles has long been an interesting and profound possibility. Such solitons could potentially explain the quantization of electric charge, as pointed out by Dirac; they can arise as the classical solutions in gauge theories, as pointed out by Polyakov and 't Hooft; and the inability to detect them is one of the motivations of proposing a period of inflation before the hot Big-Bang phase.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24742", "title": "Paul Dirac", "section": "Section::::Career.:Magnetic monopoles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 376, "text": "In 1931, Dirac proposed that the existence of a single magnetic monopole in the universe would suffice to explain the quantisation of electrical charge. In 1975, 1982, and 2009 intriguing results suggested the possible detection of magnetic monopoles, but there is, to date, no direct evidence for their existence (see also Magnetic monopole#Searches for magnetic monopoles).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19716", "title": "Magnetism", "section": "Section::::Magnetic dipoles.:Magnetic monopoles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 620, "text": "Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge—that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5842217", "title": "Monopole, Astrophysics and Cosmic Ray Observatory", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 360, "text": "The magnetic monopole is a theorized particle that has not yet been observed. It is a possible solution to Maxwell's equations. One researcher claimed to have observed a monopole with a light-bulb-sized detector. The fact that a detector the size of multiple football pitches (MACRO) has not yet duplicated this feat leads most to disregard the earlier claim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36563", "title": "Magnetic field", "section": "Section::::Important uses and examples of magnetic field.:Magnetic monopole (hypothetical).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 195, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 195, "end_character": 422, "text": "A \"magnetic monopole\" is a hypothetical particle (or class of particles) that has, as its name suggests, only one magnetic pole (either a north pole or a south pole). In other words, it would possess a \"magnetic charge\" analogous to an electric charge. Magnetic field lines would start or end on magnetic monopoles, so if they exist, they would give exceptions to the rule that magnetic field lines neither start nor end.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So I wrote a post on why horse archers were so effective a couple of days ago:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs for Roman tactics against them, let's first look at Crassus' campaign. He was a rich man but a horrible commander, and actually was given a good route for his campaign. The King of Armenia offered him safe passage and extra cavalry for his campaign, but Crassus rejected this and instead marched through the desert. One of the most important things to remember when facing an army of horse archers is to avoid terrain that is conducive to their strategies, like the desert, and instead to travel through lands that are bad for cavalry maneuvers, like the Highlands the Armenian king offered passage through. So Crassus chooses the bad option, is led through the desert by Parthian spies without the necessary cavalry support, and ends up getting everyone killed.\n\nOne thing to remember about the Romans is that they adapt, and when they suck at something, they hire someone else to do it for them. During Trajan's campaign 150 years later, he brings along a significant portion of auxiliary cavalry. His units stick to highlands and in his case sail along the Euphrates to avoid fighting horse archers in their natural environment. He uses a tactic much like Richard Lionheart's, where you use a natural barrier to protect your rear, line up infantry in front of significant missle fire, and keep your cavalry in reserve to do measured charges to keep chase off the enemy. Even though he is significantly better prepared, they stop at the Iranian plateau as that would have been a dire defeat for the Romans even with Mauretanian horse auxilliaries.\n\nAs for the Mongols, they did have problems with castles up until their conquest of China and subsequent absorption of Chinese siege engineers. To say they were stopped by sieges in the west is wrong though. They had the capacity to besiege and take castles, but by the time they reach Hungary they are stretched very thin. They do win multiple battles, but have to withdraw because of the election of a new Great Khan. So why didn't they go back and overrun Europe? As I said before, they were stretched thin and horse archer armies work when they can fight on their terms. The Hungarian plain was the end of the steppes. After the Carpathian Mountains, Europe is heavily forested and has swamps and hill country and mountain ranges. It's just not conducive to the Mongol way of war, and unlike China, is not close enough to make the resources needed worth it.\n\nSource: Erik Hildinger \"Warriors of the Steppe\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3167547", "title": "Battle of Singara (344)", "section": "Section::::Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 480, "text": "The Romans retired their frontier troops and the Persian forces susequently crossed the Tigris river. Shapur's tactic was to tire the Roman forces with a long march in the hot hours of the day before engaging them with his archers and cataphracts, thus, when the two armies came face-to-face, the Persian cavalry feigned flight and the overconfident Romans then pursued them for more than 18 kilometers, reaching Singara while the Sasanians had cut off their communication lines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11014528", "title": "Byzantine–Sasanian wars", "section": "Section::::Strategy and tactics.:Persians.:Sasanian tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 221, "text": "The Sassanid Persians employed cavalry archers and heavy cataphracts to counter the heavy Roman infantry. In battle, these archers had varying degrees of effect. Soon the Romans began to adopt similar methods of warfare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27923858", "title": "Georgia in the Roman era", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 240, "text": "But Emperor Heraclius's offensive in 628 AD brought victory over the Persians and ensured Roman predominance in western and eastern Georgia until the invasion and conquest of the Caucasus by the Arabs in the second half of the 7th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "231125", "title": "Cataphract", "section": "Section::::Hellenistic and Roman adoption.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 478, "text": "The Romans came to know cataphracts during their frequent wars in the Hellenistic East. Cataphracts had varying levels of success against Roman military tactics more so at the Battle of Carrhae and less so at the battle of Lucullus with Tigranes the Great near Tigranocerta in 69 BC. In 38 BC, the Roman general Publius Ventidius Bassus, by making extensive use of slingers, whose long-range weapons proved very effective, defeated the uphill-storming Parthian armored cavalry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30855309", "title": "Roman infantry tactics", "section": "Section::::Infantry effectiveness.:Roman infantry versus cavalry.:Successful tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 196, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 196, "end_character": 720, "text": "Mixed results against major cavalry enemies. Rome's overall record against the Parthians was favourable, although the Parthian horsemen offered stiff resistance, as it was against the horsemen of Hannibal, and some Gallic opponents. Subsequent Roman leaders like Antony invaded Parthian territory but had to withdraw after severe losses. Others like Severus and Trajan saw great success in their invasions of Mesopotamia, defeating Parthian armies through combined arms tactics.. Thus, the battles of Ventidius and Julian show that the Roman infantry, when properly handled and maneuvered, and when working in conjunction with other supporting arms like slingers, could certainly meet the challenge of enemy cavalryman.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25485654", "title": "Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628", "section": "Section::::Composition of the armies and strategy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 78, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 78, "end_character": 695, "text": "According to Emperor Maurice's \"Strategikon\", a manual of war, the Persians made heavy use of archers that were the most \"rapid, although not powerful archery\" of all warlike nations, and they avoided weather that hampered their bows. It claims that they deployed so that their formation was equal in strength in the center and the flanks. They also apparently neutralized the charge of Roman lancers by using rough terrain since the latter preferred to avoid hand-to-hand combat. Thus, the \"Strategikon\" advised fighting on level terrain with rapid charges to avoid the Persian arrows. They were seen as skilled in laying siege and liked to \"achieve their results by planning and generalship\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3459560", "title": "Roman–Persian Wars", "section": "Section::::Strategies and military tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 861, "text": "On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans. The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in siege warfare and had developed a range of siege machines. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the hit-and-run tactics that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery, and also chemical weapons, such as in Dura-Europos (256) and Petra (550-551). Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft, military engineering, and organization, as well as ability to build defensive works.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There's always room for discussion, but perhaps this previous topic found through the search function will answer your inquiry.\n\n* [Battlefield 1 Trailer Accuracy](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30864551", "title": "Battle of Gatae", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 388, "text": "There is no serious historical evidence giving an exact place or time to the battle, nor any troop positions, numerical statistics, casualties, or much of anything of that nature. It is not even fully understood if the battle was in of itself a major engagement or merely a small battle or even a large skirmish. Dio Cassius gives a minor mention of the battle, but it is a mere mention.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50072", "title": "Battle of Barnet", "section": "Section::::Legacy.:Battlefield.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 519, "text": "English Heritage, a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites, roughly locates the battlefield in an area 800 to 1600 metres (0.5 to 1.0 mile) north of the town of Barnet. Over the centuries, much of the terrain has changed, and records of the town's boundaries and geography are not detailed enough for English Heritage or historians to conclude the exact location of the battle. Geographical features corresponding to contemporary descriptions allow approximations of where the fighting took place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6391385", "title": "Cemetery Hill (game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 500, "text": "\"\"Cemetery Hill\" is a simulation, on an operational level, of the battle between the Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Virginia at the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The game covers the period from 1 July to 4 July 1863, when these two armies fought the bloodiest battle in American history to that point. The game system is an adaptation of the popular \"Napoleon at Waterloo\" system. Various special and optional rules allow the Players to recreate a picture of an historical event.\" \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32132212", "title": "Battle of Moira", "section": "Section::::Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 321, "text": "The scale of the battle was, however, confirmed in the 19th century when the railway line in Moira was being constructed. Thousands of bodies of men and horses were excavated. When one considers that the survivors probably numbered quite considerably more, then the reputation of the scale of the battle becomes obvious.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50236", "title": "Battle of Towton", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 393, "text": "It is described as \"probably the largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil\", and according to historical sources, probably the longest. According to chroniclers, more than 50,000 Yorkist and Lancastrian soldiers fought for hours amidst a snowstorm on that day, which was Palm Sunday. A newsletter circulated a week after the battle reported that 28,000 died on the battlefield.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4778746", "title": "Battle of Banquan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 248, "text": "Not much is known about this battle since it, along with other events of the era, are clouded by mythology. Thus, the historical accuracy of accounts of this battle is disputed. Chinese historiographical tradition places it in the 26th century BC.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9633002", "title": "Battlefield (American TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 403, "text": "Battlefield is an American documentary series that debuted in 1994 on PBS that explores the most important battles fought primarily during the Second World War and the Vietnam War. The series employs a novel approach in which history is described by detailed accounts of major battles together with background and contextual information. The sixth and final series of the program was broadcast in 2002.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm assuming that there was no known cure at the time and it was a humane way to prevent a horrible death.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. you're gonna die, and pretty soon, and it's incredibly painful.\n2. you are likely to go nutso as the disease progresses and then bite someone, scratch someone or exchange fluids with them someone - you're contagious.\n\nIn days of yore we took slightly more drastic approaches to dealing with this sort of thing....", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you developed rabies before the vaccine it was a pretty much guaranteed death. And not only would the death be painful, but you would be very confused beforehand and could very easily get angry and hurt someone else, further spreading the disease. It's essentially the same reason people ask others to shoot them in zombie movies if they get bitten.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There is no known cure for rabies and it is a horrible, horrible death. Being shot is a mercy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Before the vaccine was developed, rabies was essentially 100% fatal. Even with modern medicine allowing us to put people in induced comas and load them with fancy drugs, (the [Milwaukee protocol](_URL_0_)) the survival rate is still dismal (out of 36 people treated with the Milwaukee Protocol, only 5 have survived.) \n\nSo back before the vaccine and the Milwaukee protocol, if you were infected, you *were* going to die, and it was going to be **excruciating**. Much better to end it yourself before things got bad.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a great documentary on rabies that answers your question. It's about the one person who has ever survived symptomatic rabies: _URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because you lose self control and might infect others. The death itself is terrible. Imagine drowning yourself slowly.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Before the vaccine was developed Rabies was virtually 100% fatal.\n\nWorse than that it was a largely slow, painful, and dangerous way to go. You act irrationally and may do things that stand to endanger others.\n\nSimilar to many zombie movies; instead of going through all the torment, people infected \"opted out\" or were \"opted out\" by others.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "54329819", "title": "Cat bite", "section": "Section::::Infections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 288, "text": "BULLET::::- Rabies, a fatal neurologic disease in animals and people, is caused by a virus. Animals and people are most commonly infected through bites from rabid animals. Infected cats may have a variety of signs, but most often have sudden behavioral changes and progressive paralysis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50688850", "title": "List of incurable diseases", "section": "Section::::R.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 1040, "text": "BULLET::::- Rabies – Rabies is a viral disease that causes inflammation of the brain in humans and other mammals. Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure, followed by one or more of the following symptoms: violent movements, uncontrolled excitement, fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion, and loss of consciousness. Once symptoms appear, the result is nearly always death. The time period between contracting the disease and the start of symptoms is usually one to three months; however, the time is dependent on the distance the virus must travel along nerves to reach the central nervous system. In people who have been exposed to rabies, the rabies vaccine and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin are effective in preventing the disease if the person receives the treatment before the start of rabies symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord, producing transverse myelitis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "249779", "title": "Camberley", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 298, "text": "In 1969 there was an outbreak of rabies when a dog, just released from a sixth month quarantine after returning from Germany, attacked two people on Camberley Common. The scare resulted in restriction orders for dogs and large-scale shoots to carry out the destruction of foxes and other wildlife.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53984662", "title": "Rabies in Haiti", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 939, "text": "Rabies is a viral disease that exists in Haiti and throughout the world. It often causes fatal inflammation of the brain in humans and other mammals, such as dogs and mongooses in Haiti. The term \"rabies\" is derived from a Latin word that means \"to rage\"; rabid animals sometimes appear to be angry. Early symptoms can include fever and tingling at the site of exposure, followed by one or more of the following symptoms: violent movements, uncontrolled excitement, fear of water, an inability to move parts of the body, confusion, and loss of consciousness. Once symptoms appear, death is nearly always the outcome. The time period between contracting the disease and showing symptoms is usually one to three months; however, this time period can vary from less than a week to more than a year. The time between contraction and the onset of symptoms is dependent on the distance the virus must travel to reach the central nervous system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18600991", "title": "Raccoon", "section": "Section::::Health.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 551, "text": "Unlike rabies and at least a dozen other pathogens carried by raccoons, distemper, an epizootic virus, does not affect humans. This disease is the most frequent natural cause of death in the North American raccoon population and affects individuals of all age groups. For example, 94 of 145 raccoons died during an outbreak in Clifton, Ohio, in 1968. It may occur along with a following inflammation of the brain (encephalitis), causing the animal to display rabies-like symptoms. In Germany, the first eight cases of distemper were reported in 2007.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19707361", "title": "Rabies in animals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 673, "text": "Rabies is a viral zoonotic neuroinvasive disease which causes inflammation in the brain and is usually fatal. Rabies, caused by the rabies virus, primarily infects mammals. In the laboratory it has been found that birds can be infected, as well as cell cultures from birds, reptiles and insects. Animals with rabies suffer deterioration of the brain and tend to behave bizarrely and often aggressively, increasing the chances that they will bite another animal or a person and transmit the disease. Most cases of humans contracting the disease from infected animals are in developing nations. In 2010, an estimated 26,000 people died from rabies, down from 54,000 in 1990.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21013931", "title": "Rabies transmission", "section": "Section::::Animals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 747, "text": "Any mammal may become infected with the rabies virus and develop symptoms, but dogs are by far the main source of human rabies deaths — responsible for up to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans. Infected monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, wolves, bats, and cats are also known to transmit rabies to humans. Rabies may also spread through exposure to infected domestic farm animals, groundhogs, weasels, bears and other wild carnivores. Small rodents such as squirrels, hamsters, guinea pigs, gerbils, chipmunks, rats, and mice and lagomorphs like rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans. Vampire bats can transmit rabies to humans in the 'new world' tropics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'll only speak for one aspect of the Vandals in that, while certainly proving to be just as if not more destructive than the Huns and Alaric's visigoths--in terms of the sack of Rome they actually proved to be far less Vandal-like. \n\nLike when Attilla and the Huns were at Rome's doorstep, Pope Leo I once again rode out to meet the would-be invaders and attempt to turn them away from the city. However, Leo's position with the Vandals was far weaker. They were far closer to Rome than Attila was, and Leo didn't have the benefit this time of an army at his back. Unlike the Huns though, the Vandals were christian. \n\nWhat this is leading to is that when the Vandals did sack Rome, they made an agreement with Leo. They would take what they want--but they wouldn't harm the citizens. They stuck to their word. The Visigoths certainly didn't do that much. \n\nThough, the Visigoths had a far better reason than the Vandals for wishing to sack Rome in the first place. Alaric wanted to establish a homeland for his people--and attempted multiple times to seek some sort of settlement Honorius. Honorius was too stupid or stubborn to accept Alaric's peace offers.\n\nThings are not very black and white in history. While I can't speak of to how the act of vandalism became overtly associated with the Vandals, I can at least say that their sacking of Rome proved to be far less brutal than the other barbarian invasions of the Western Empire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11523787", "title": "Vandalic War", "section": "Section::::Background.:Opposing forces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 302, "text": "The Vandals were also weakened by the hostility of their Roman subjects, the continued existence among the Vandals of a faction loyal to Hilderic, and by the ambivalent position of the Moorish tribes, who watched the oncoming conflict from the sidelines, ready to join the victor and seize the spoils.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46516", "title": "Vandals", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 432, "text": "The modern term \"vandalism\" stems from the Vandals' reputation as the barbarian people who sacked and looted Rome in AD 455. The Vandals were probably not any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but writers who idealized Rome often blamed them for its destruction. For example, English Restoration poet John Dryden wrote, \"Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, / Did all the matchless Monuments deface\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46516", "title": "Vandals", "section": "Section::::History.:Introduction into the Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1273, "text": "By the end of the 2nd century, the Vandals were divided in two main tribal groups, the Silingi and the Hasdingi, with the Silingi being associated with Silesia and the Hasdingi living in the Sudetes. Around the mid 2nd century AD, there was a significant migration by Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin (Rugii, Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, Burgundians, and others) towards the south-east, creating turmoil along the entire Roman frontier. The 6th century Byzantine historian Procopius noted that the Goths, Gepidae and Vandals were physically and culturally identical, suggesting a common origin. These migrations culminated in the Marcomannic Wars, which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period. During the Marcomannic Wars (166–180) the Hasdingi (or Astingi), led by the kings Raus and Rapt (or Rhaus and Raptus) moved south, entering Dacia as allies of Rome. However they eventually caused problems in Dacia and moved further south, towards the lower Danube area. Together with the Hasdingi were the Lacringi, who were possibly also Vandals. In about 271 AD the Roman Emperor Aurelian was obliged to protect the middle course of the Danube against them. They made peace and stayed on the eastern bank of the Danube.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46516", "title": "Vandals", "section": "Section::::History.:Kingdom in North Africa.:Consolidation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 310, "text": "Although the Vandals had fended off attacks from the Romans and established hegemony over the islands of the western Mediterranean, they were less successful in their conflict with the Berbers. Situated south of the Vandal kingdom, the Berbers inflicted two major defeats on the Vandals in the period 496–530.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46516", "title": "Vandals", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1002, "text": "The traditional view has been that the Vandals migrated from southern Scandinavia to the area between the lower Oder and Vistula rivers during the 2nd century BC and settled in Silesia from around 120 BC. They are associated with the Przeworsk culture and were possibly the same people as the Lugii. Expanding into Dacia during the Marcomannic Wars and to Pannonia during the Crisis of the Third Century, the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle from Constantine the Great. Around 400, raids by the Huns forced many Germanic tribes to migrate into the territory of the Roman Empire, and fearing that they might be targeted next the Vandals were pushed westwards, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406. In 409 the Vandals crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula, where their main groups, the Hasdingi and the Silingi, settled in Gallaecia (northwest Iberia) and Baetica (south-central Iberia) respectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32676", "title": "Vandalism", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1016, "text": "The Vandals, an ancient Germanic people, are associated with senseless destruction as a result of their sack of Rome under King Genseric in 455. During the Enlightenment, Rome was idealized, while the Goths and Vandals were blamed for its destruction. The Vandals may not have been any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but they did inspire British poet John Dryden to write, \"Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, Did all the matchless Monuments deface\" (1694). However, the Vandals did intentionally damage statues, which may be why their name is associated with the vandalism of art. The term \"Vandalisme\" was coined in 1794 by Henri Grégoire, bishop of Blois, to describe the destruction of artwork following the French Revolution. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularising the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46516", "title": "Vandals", "section": "Section::::History.:Introduction into the Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 641, "text": "In 400 or 401, Hunnic raids forced many Germanic tribes such as the Goths to migrate Westward. Worried that they might be targeted next by the Huns, the Vandals under king Godigisel, along with their allies (the Iranian Alans and Germanic Suebians), moved westwards into Roman territory. Some of the Silingi joined them later. Vandals raided the Roman province of Raetia in the winter of 401/402. From this, historian Peter Heather concludes that at this time the Vandals were located in the region around the Middle and Upper Danube. It is possible that the Vandals were part of the Gothic king Radagaisus' invasion of Italy in 405–406 AD.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The square root symbol is just an object that we made up to keep track of certain quantities. The equation x^(2)-A=0 has two solutions in the real numbers for A > 0. Luckily we know that if x=b is a solution (so b is a number so that b^2=A), then x=-b is *also* a solution. This says two things: 1) We just need to know *one* solution in order to keep track of *both* of them and 2) One of the solutions will be positive. We then *invent* the symbol \"sqrt(A)\" to be the *positive* solution to x^(2)-A=0. This means that the solutions to x^(2)-A=0 are sqrt(A) and -sqrt(a). sqrt(A) is a single value, it can't be both positive and negative.\n\nsqrt(A) symbol invented to represent a single number that can be used as a bookkeeping device in order to keep track of *both* solutions to x^(2)-A=0. We can't have, for instance, sqrt(4)=+-2, because equality is *transitive*. We'd have sqrt(4)=-2 and sqrt(4)=2, which then says -2=2. What we can say is that the solutions to x^(2)-4=0 are x=2 and x=-2. \n\nAn interesting thing is that the equation x^(2)+1=0 has two solutions, but neither of them is positive or negative. In fact, we *can't* tell the two solutions to this equation apart! What we do is then just say that \"i\" is *one* of these solutions. Which one? Doesn't matter. But we can use it to keep track of both solutions, as the other is -i.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > I am talking about sqrt (36)=+/-6\n\nsqrt(36) = 6 only. sqrt(x) is always positive for x > 0. You are correct the sqrt(x) function can only have one value.\n\n > Can someone give me an example why it is important, I mean why would we be taught that the sqrt (36) is +6 and -6?\n\nI suspect you're misunderstanding the way the sqrt function gets used when solving equations. The equation x^(2) = 36 has two solutions, x = 6 and x = -6. For convenience this gets written x = +/-6, or x = +/- sqrt(36). The sqrt(36) part is still only 6. But x can be sqrt(36) or -sqrt(36).\n\nIt's NOT that sqrt(36) = +/- 6. It's that the equation x^(2) = 36 has the solutions x = +/- 6.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's just a convention. \n\n6 and -6 are both square roots of 36, but a convention has been established where sqrt(36) denotes the positive square root. This just reduces ambiguity in mathematical statements. \n\nSaying that sqrt(36)= 6 and sqrt(36)=-6 doesn't really make any sense. How could it be both? Rather, both are square roots of 36, and we denote them by sqrt(36) and -sqrt(36) respectively.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In physics the negative option often has meaning. For example, when solving a projectile motion problem and determining the final velocity of the object, sometimes the final velocity is positive (up) and sometimes negative (down). Solving the equation gives you two answers and you have to use context to determine which is appropriate. \nEx: What is the velocity of a ball thrown up at 5m/s when it comes back to your hand? \nVf^2 =vi^2 +2ad\nSince the starting and ending position are the same d is 0, so Vf^2 =vi^2 \nAnd Vf=+/-vi.\nYou need to use context to see that in this case the negative value is the only one that makes sense. Vf=-5m/s", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "659942", "title": "Square (algebra)", "section": "Section::::In real numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 338, "text": "No square root can be taken of a negative number within the system of real numbers, because squares of all real numbers are non-negative. The lack of real square roots for the negative numbers can be used to expand the real number system to the complex numbers, by postulating the imaginary unit , which is one of the square roots of −1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29208", "title": "Square root", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 284, "text": "Square roots of negative numbers can be discussed within the framework of complex numbers. More generally, square roots can be considered in any context in which a notion of \"squaring\" of some mathematical objects is defined (including algebras of matrices, endomorphism rings, etc.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "235029", "title": "Nth root", "section": "Section::::Definition and notation.:Square roots.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 296, "text": "Since the square of every real number is a positive real number, negative numbers do not have real square roots. However, for every negative real number there are two imaginary square roots. For example, the square roots of −25 are 5\"i\" and −5\"i\", where \"i\" represents a number whose square is .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5203398", "title": "Crossed ladders problem", "section": "Section::::Solution.:Second method.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 223, "text": "As the solutions to the equation involve square roots, negative roots are equally valid. They can be interpreted as both ladders and walls being below ground level and with them in opposing sense, they can be interchanged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29208", "title": "Square root", "section": "Section::::Square roots of negative and complex numbers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 829, "text": "The square of any positive or negative number is positive, and the square of 0 is 0. Therefore, no negative number can have a real square root. However, it is possible to work with a more inclusive set of numbers, called the complex numbers, that does contain solutions to the square root of a negative number. This is done by introducing a new number, denoted by \"i\" (sometimes \"j\", especially in the context of electricity where \"\"i\"\" traditionally represents electric current) and called the imaginary unit, which is \"defined\" such that . Using this notation, we can think of \"i\" as the square root of −1, but notice that we also have and so −\"i\" is also a square root of −1. By convention, the principal square root of −1 is \"i\", or more generally, if \"x\" is any nonnegative number, then the principal square root of −\"x\" is\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14738000", "title": "Extraneous and missing solutions", "section": "Section::::Other operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 362, "text": "We are not taking the square root of any negative values here, since both \"x\" and 4 are necessarily positive. But we have lost the solution \"x\" = −2. The reason is that \"x\" is actually not in general the \"positive\" square root of \"x\". If \"x\" is negative, the positive square root of \"x\" is \"-x\". If the step is taken correctly, it leads instead to the equation:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43759333", "title": "Iterative impedance", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 252, "text": "The square root term in these expressions cause them to have two solutions. However, only solutions with a positive real part are physically meaningful since passive circuits cannot exhibit negative resistance. This will normally be the positive root.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I get hunting, and have fired weapons myself (including a 20-gauge when I was a teenager, as well as a South African \"R5\" 5.56mm assault rifle on a range). So I don't \"hate\" guns, nor am I \"scared\" of them, but I still have major issues with the whole concept, philosophically.\n\nStep back a bit and look at the big picture, forgetting specifics for a minute. A gun is a machine for killing people and other animals. It's not the only way of killing, of course, but it makes killing incredibly *easy*. Just point it at someone and squeeze the trigger. \n\nWith great power comes great responsibility, then, and I frankly don't want that kind of responsibility. Some bad guys have guns, so I should have guns too? That's a circular argument, and it's how arms races start. The bad guys know I have guns, so they get more and/or bigger guns, so should I follow suit? If someone breaks in on me in the suburbs at 4AM, and I started firing my little Glock (or whatever), I doubt that the intruders would be in any danger. \n\nWhere does it end? What kind of society would it be if guns were both the problem and the solution? I don't have kids, but if I did, would they be able to go outside and play, away from parental gaze, have fun, and come back safely? My idea of a world safe for everyone is not one that requires guns at all. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very few people believe in the extreme statement that \"no one should own guns.\" Most reasonable gun control advocates just want to make it harder to acquire new guns. They argue for things like background checks before purchase, mandatory 3-7 day waiting periods between purchase and receipt of guns. \n\nIdeally, these measures would slow down the flow of illegal firearms into unsavory hands, both here in the US and abroad, while still allowing law abiding individuals like you or me to purchase firearms for our own defense.\n\nFor what it's worth, I've never met a single person that actually supported taking firearms away from their legal owners. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7862242", "title": "Gun violence", "section": "Section::::Types.:Domestic violence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 423, "text": "In studies of nonfatal gun use, it was found that guns can contribute to coercive control, which can then escalate into chronic and more severe violence. Guns can have a negative impact on victims even without being discharged. Threats of gun use or showing a weapon can create damaging and long-lasting fear and emotional stress in victims because they are aware of the danger of having an abuser who has access to a gun.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13019196", "title": "Delta L problem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 287, "text": "Firearms users that have to rely on their weapon under adverse conditions, such as big five and other dangerous game hunters, obviously have to check the correct functioning of the firearm and ammunition they intend to use before exposing themselves to potentially dangerous situations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48711453", "title": "2015 San Bernardino attack", "section": "Section::::Reactions.:Political reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 149, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 149, "end_character": 359, "text": "Being tough on terrorism, particularly the sorts of homegrown terrorism that we've seen now in Orlando and San Bernardino, means making it harder for people who want to kill Americans to get their hands on assault weapons that are capable of killing dozens of innocents as quickly as possible. That's something I'll continue to talk about in the weeks ahead.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "679033", "title": "Psychic cost", "section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 437, "text": "David Hemenway of Harvard School of Public Health claims that when some people in a community own guns, it \"imposes psychic costs on most other members of the community\". He claims that \"eighty-five percent of non-gun-owners report they would feel less safe if more people in their community acquired guns; only 8% would feel more safe\". This is purportedly because non gun-owners would worry about guns being used in the neighbourhood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59628", "title": "School shooting", "section": "Section::::School countermeasures.:Preventive measures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 798, "text": "Because of the increase in guns in the United States, many schools and local communities are taking it into their own hands by providing young students with early gun safety courses to make them aware of the dangers these objects actually are, also to prevent school shootings.According to Katherine A. Fowler, PhD, at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. An average 1,297 children die (two children per 100,000) and 5,790 are treated for injuries caused by guns each year, the study reported. Six percent of these deaths were accidental, 38% were suicides, 53% were homicides and the remaining 3% were from legal intervention or undetermined reasons. Guns injured children at a rate of 8 per 100,000 children, but this rate is likely considerably higher because of unreported injuries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2654666", "title": "Gun culture in the United States", "section": "Section::::Foreign perspective.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 398, "text": "The US attitude to guns generally perplexes those in other developed countries, who cannot understand the unusual permissiveness of American gun laws, and why the American public does not push for harsher gun control measures in the face of mass shootings. Critics contrast the US reaction to terrorism given how few deaths it causes, with their high death rates from non-terror related gun crime.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1339615", "title": "Stopping power", "section": "Section::::Dynamics of bullets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 272, "text": "The stopping power of firearms when used against humans is a more complex subject, in part because many persons voluntarily cease hostile actions when shot; they either flee, surrender, or fall immediately. This is sometimes referred to as \"psychological incapacitation\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > I was wondering if two people standing next to one another see distinct photons\n\nAny time you and another person see the same thing, you are actually seeing distinct photons. When you see something, it means photons from that object have been absorbed by your retina; the same photon can't be absorbed by the retinas of two different people.\n\n > how does something so far away \"cover\" the entire side of the Earth (facing the source) with photons? \n\nIt does by emitting a *huge* number of photons. In some sense, that's the definition of something which is visible.\n\n > I realize the light is red-shifted and the wave is stretched out as it travels away from the source\n\nThe light from stars we see is not necessarily red shifted. While on a large scale, the universe is expanding, that's not reflected in the motion of nearby objects. For things in the galaxy, the light can be red-shifted or blue-shifted depending on the local velocities of the stars relative to us.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As /u/fishify said, \"seeing\" something means your eye absorbed the photon, so you and your friend must be seeing distinct photons. How many of them will each of you see given your Sun-like star 1000 ly away? Here's a back of the envelope calculation. \n\nThe luminosity of the sun is 3.85x10^33 erg/s. The flux through an area is just given by an inverse square distance law (i.e., the area of a shell into which the flux passes gets larger as d^2). \n\nSo F = L/(4 pi d^2). But what is the photon flux? We have to know the energy of each photon. It should be handled with an integral and the star's true spectral energy distribution, but let's just say the average photon has a wavelength of 500 nm ~ 6e14 Hz. The photon's energy is h nu = 4e-12 erg. F/(h nu) gives the number of photons per area per second. Plugging in the relevant numbers, we find the flux from a Sun-like star 1000 ly away is ~100 photons/cm^2 every second.\n\nThe atmosphere will reflect and absorb ~half of those before they ever reach the surface, but the human eye is a couple square centimeters, so let's call it even. Your eye will receive **~100 photons every second** from this distant star.\n\nNote that the biggest assumption I made was that all photons have wavelength ~500 nm. Luckily, the Sun puts out most of its energy in the visible, so it's probably not a terrible assumption. And this is astronomy, where pi is 3 and 3 can be 5 or 2 depending on the situation, so good enough.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1231733", "title": "Airglow", "section": "Section::::Calculation of the effects of airglow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 337, "text": "If we assume a 10 m diameter ideal ground-based telescope and an unresolved star: every second, over a patch the size of the seeing-enlarged image of the star, 35 photons arrive from the star and 3500 from air-glow. So, over an hour, roughly arrive from the air-glow, and approximately arrive from the source; so the S/N ratio is about:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29459180", "title": "Stellar collision", "section": "Section::::Stellar collisions and the Solar System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 390, "text": "Our star will likely not be directly affected by such an event, but the Earth may be easily affected by a nearby collision. Astronomers say that if a stellar collision happens within 100 light years of the Earth, the resulting gamma-ray burst could possibly destroy all life on Earth. This is still very unlikely though because there are no stellar clusters this close to the Solar System.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1190936", "title": "Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory", "section": "Section::::Notable detections.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 513, "text": "BULLET::::- March 19, 2008: \"Swift\" detected GRB 080319B, a burst of gamma rays amongst the brightest celestial objects ever witnessed. At 7.5 billion light-years, \"Swift\" established a new record for the farthest object (briefly) visible to the naked eye. It was also said to be 2.5 million times intrinsically brighter than the previous brightest accepted supernova (SN 2005ap). \"Swift\" observed a record four GRBs that day, which also coincided with the death of noted science-fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58535063", "title": "3XMM J004232.1+411314", "section": "Section::::Identification of the source.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 418, "text": "The Swift BAT all-sky survey detected hard X-rays (in the energy range 14-195 keV) in the direction of M31 and found that this emission was centered in a region 6 arcseconds away from the galaxy center. Using a subsequent NuSTAR observation, it was found that a single source was responsible for this emission, and optical HST images ruled out the presence of stars more massive than 3 solar masses in that direction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55587621", "title": "2018 in science", "section": "Section::::Events.:April.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 229, "text": "BULLET::::- Astronomers report the detection of the most distant individual star (actually, a blue supergiant), named Icarus (formally, MACS J1149 Lensed Star 1), at 9 billion light-years (light-travel distance) away from Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5825136", "title": "List of most luminous stars", "section": "Section::::Data.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 387, "text": "In terms of gamma rays, a magnetar (type of neutron star) called SGR 1806-20, had an extreme burst reach Earth on 27 December 2004. It was the brightest event known to have impacted this planet from an origin outside the Solar System; if these gamma rays were visible, with an absolute magnitude of approx. −29, it would be brighter than the Sun \"(as measured by the Swift spacecraft)\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11965603", "title": "Stellar rotation", "section": "Section::::Measurement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 734, "text": "Unless a star is being observed from the direction of its pole, sections of the surface have some amount of movement toward or away from the observer. The component of movement that is in the direction of the observer is called the radial velocity. For the portion of the surface with a radial velocity component toward the observer, the radiation is shifted to a higher frequency because of Doppler shift. Likewise the region that has a component moving away from the observer is shifted to a lower frequency. When the absorption lines of a star are observed, this shift at each end of the spectrum causes the line to broaden. However, this broadening must be carefully separated from other effects that can increase the line width.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It used to be common for women to have babies at 13 or so. We have since gained a better understanding of the emotional development of children and realize they are nowhere near fully developed at 12 or 13.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I’d say that modern medicine and how we have better nutrition nowadays has also affected this. Thoughts?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Evolution and natural selection. There may have been subsets of women that didn’t hit menarche until they were 16/18/20 but back when you only lived to 25 or 30 that would have been a serious disadvantage. Women with the genes to hit it earlier would have been selected over time because they would have had more children and earlier. Fast forward to today, and most women can have kids earlier. There will always be mutations that cause some women to hit menarche later, and now that modern medicine exists they have a much much better chance of having healthy fertile offspring that survive and stuff, but since we come from the branch of the tree where women had kids early, most women will be able to have them early.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I see a lot of people mentioning evolution. Valid to some point. But a huge influence are \nendocrine disruptors like BPA. A few decades ago it wasn't common for girls as young as 9 to get their period. The chances of surviving a birth as a 9 year old are also pretty low.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The trend of the average age of menarche going down almost every year since at least the early 19th century has multiple factors mostly devided into genetical and environmental factors.\n\nFrom an evolutionary stand point it seems to be advantageous to reach menarche and later fertility at an early age especially in respect to pre-modern societies and still today it seems to increase the possibility to produce offspring.\n\nYet we can see that the average age of menarche going down possibly leads to girls becomming fertile at an age ([US: \\~11 in the 1990's](_URL_1_)) that seems to be to you young to produce and sustain healthy offspring.\n\nLooking at environmental factors we can see a correlation (2+ things happening at the same time) between the age of menarche going down and an increase in living standards. Because we know that a higher amount of fat in the body mass of girls triggers puberty/menarche we can conclude that to some extent the availability of food became a majore factor in driving the average age of menarche down.\n\nWithin the last 200-300 years things like the introduction of corn, potatoes and bird poo fertilizer world wide that lead to the industrial revolution, the development of synthetic fertilizer by Fritz Haber, the development of new strains of plants like wheat that can grow in regions where they formlery could not, etc. all possibly lead to this.\n\nLooking at more recent developments like the development and introductions of chemicals into our lives might have also impacted the average age of menarche. For example some chemicals might change hormone (chemicals that control your body) levels in our body like BPA and could also lead to an earlier puberty/menarche.\n\nDr. Sandra Steingraber mentions the following in her paper she did for the brestcancerfund:\n\n > \\- low birth weight & premature birth \n > \n > \\- obesity and weight gain \n > \n > \\- formula feeding (feeding infants milk powder) \n > \n > \\- physical inactivity \n > \n > \\- psychosocial stressors \n > \n > \\- television and media consumption \n > \n > \\- environmental exposures\n\nThese correlations do not mean that this is the definitive reason why the average age of menarche went down but it is likely that those factors contributed to it.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEdit:\n\nMore detailed:\n\n > [During the last 50 years, however, additionalforces seem to have been at work. The evidence suggests that children’s hormonal systems are being altered by various stimuli and that early puberty is the coincidental, non-adaptive outcome. The intricate and innately reactive HPG and HPA axes are highly vulnerable to disruption, and this disruption can take many shapes. Obesity is one manifestation of endocrine disruption and may lead to hyperinsulinism,leptin resistance and enhanced aromatase activity. Preterm birth and intrauterine growth restriction—especially when followed by rapidweight gain—is a second kind of endocrinedisruptor that raises the risk for early pubarche.](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We're the only mammals that go through puberty. Reasonable to assume that there is a genetic advantage to it.\n\nModern medicine aside, women about 25 years old are more likely to have a healthy baby than other age groups. That's almost 10 years of her looking fertile but being not yet fully fertile.\n\nOne theory is that she is in practice mode. She looks like a woman and starts to take on more household duties, including childcare. Courtship can take years and the guy is more likely to be interested if she looks like a woman rather than a child. By the time she is fully fertile, she will have spent many thousands of hours doing what mothers do.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not being emotionally ready isn't purely down to age, that's a society thing too. In the UK for example (or in my experience at least), kids are allowed to just be kids and generally are up until at least 13-14. In some cultures though, by this point they may have been teaching/grooming them into adulthood and talking about having their own kids for years.\n\nDoesn't explain the physical side though, I really don't know about that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "651370", "title": "Precocious puberty", "section": "Section::::Causes.:Central.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 225, "text": "Precocious puberty can make a child fertile when very young, with the youngest mother on record being Lina Medina, who gave birth at the age of 5 years, 7 months and 17 days, in one report and at 6 years 5 months in another.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35016910", "title": "DeltaWomen", "section": "Section::::Projects.:DeltaWomen Against Teenage Pregnancy In Nigeria.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 208, "text": "These young girls, some as young as 12, are being force into sexual relationships which results to them being pregnant and becoming mothers at an early age when they should be looked after by their parents. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7133791", "title": "Brown greater galago", "section": "Section::::Reproduction morphology and behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 479, "text": "Females typically give birth to 2 young, sometimes 1 or 3. The gestation period is on average 133 days. The female typically reaches sexual maturity by 2 years of age. Because of competition between males based upon size males usually reach reproductive age later than females. After birth, the mother leaves the young to forage and returns nourishing the young with nutrient rich milk. The juveniles typically remain with their mother until they reach close to sexual maturity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2539563", "title": "Sociology of the family", "section": "Section::::Sociology of motherhood.:Motherhood statistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 673, "text": "In the United States, 82.5 million women are mothers of all ages, while the national average age of first child births is 25.1 years. In 2008, 10% of births were to teenage girls, and 14% were to women ages 35 and older. In the United States, a study found that the average woman spends 5 years working and building a career before having children, and mothers working non-salary jobs began having children at age 27, compared to mothers with salary positions, who became pregnant at age 31. The study shows that the difference in age of child birth is related to education, since the longer a woman has been in school, the older she will be when she enters the workforce.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313530", "title": "Sperm whale", "section": "Section::::Life cycle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 444, "text": "Females become fertile at around 9 years of age. The oldest pregnant female ever recorded was 41 years old. Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf. Sexually mature females give birth once every 4 to 20 years (pregnancy rates were higher during the whaling era). Birth is a social event, as the mother and calf need others to protect them from predators. The other adults may jostle and bite the newborn in its first hours.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83859", "title": "Adolescence", "section": "Section::::Biological development.:Reproduction-related changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 507, "text": "In females, changes in the primary sex characteristics involve growth of the uterus, vagina, and other aspects of the reproductive system. Menarche, the beginning of menstruation, is a relatively late development which follows a long series of hormonal changes. Generally, a girl is not fully fertile until several years after menarche, as regular ovulation follows menarche by about two years. Unlike males, therefore, females usually appear physically mature before they are capable of becoming pregnant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4296838", "title": "Spotted-winged fruit bat", "section": "Section::::Behaviour and biology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 314, "text": "Females give birth to a single young up to twice a year, typically between June and January. The young are born blind, and weighing around , after a gestation of 135 days. They are weaned by 40–80 days, and are able to fly by the time they have reached in weight. Females are sexually mature at ten months of age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Oo! A question that I can help answer in part!\n\nFor what it’s worth, I’m not a historian, but I do have a degree in history. I’m currently a law student in Australia, which has a similar Solicitor/Barrister split profession. I can’t speak to how the American profession developed, but I can talk about how the English/Welsh (and by extension, Australian) profession developed separately.\n\nFirst off, currently in England and Wales, solicitors are actually entitled to appear before many Lower Courts, and it’s really only in the superior courts that barristers become truly necessary. However, the profession is still very split in certain jurisdictions in Australia.\n\nThe development of the split profession is largely something of a historical accident.^1 The distant ancestor to the modern barrister, the ‘Serjeants-at-law’, were an import of the Norman Conquest of the 11^th Century. As an aside, this is also why so many older English precedent is peppered with French. From at least 1216, English courts were beginning to limit the rights of audience to ’regular’ advocates’.\n\n**The Initial Split**\n\nUnder King Edward I, the two separate branches were beginning to emerge. A pleading system was established, whereby specially trained serjeants would conduct legal arguments, while an Ordinance of the King placed legal representatives under judicial control, ending the clergy as lawyers in the Court.^2\n\n**Solicitors**\n\nOriginally, Courts would require litigants to show up, plead their case, and receive judgement.^3 However, over time, courts relaxed these rules, and allowed litigants to appoint agents to appear and speak on their behalf. Obviously, lawyers did not appear out of nowhere as a profession, and these agents were not initially professionals.^4 The right to an ‘attorney’ was declared by Parliament in the 15^th Century. \n\nAs the number of cases and the amount of litigation increased in the 16^th Century, the number of terrible, unscrupulous and immoral solicitors increased at the same time. Therefore, in 1605, Parliament enacted the first of what we now would consider to be the solicitor’s standards and practices, requiring written statements for fees, and requiring written accounting for disbursements made on the client’s behalf.^5\n\n**Barristers**\n\nIn England and Wales, barristers operate out of Inns of Court: The Honourable Society of Lincoln’s Inn, the Honourable Society of Gray’s Inn, the Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, and the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple. These trace their origins to the late 13^th Century, where legal professionals would live, learn, work and socialise together. These societies were the ancestors to the ‘Bar’.\n\nBeneath the serjeants were the ‘apprentices-at-law’ and ‘utter barristers’,^6 who were recognised in 1532 as men ‘learned in the law’, and in 1590 required a ‘call to the bar of an Inn of Court’ as the minimum qualification for rights of audience before a higher common-law court. In 1596, the QC or KC (also known as a ‘silk’) rank of barrister was established, and by the 19th Century, no more serjeants were appointed. Barristers and ‘silks’ now comprised the entirety of the Bar.\n\n**The Formalised Split**\n\nHowever, from the 16^th Century onwards, the Privy Council, the Judiciary, and the Inns of Court themselves began excluding attorneys and solicitors from membership of the higher prestige inns.^7 Because of the way the judiciary works, only those who are ‘called to the bar’ are entitled to appear before the Court to argue cases. By excluding solicitors from membership of the Inns of Court, it essentially made it impossible for them to be called to the Bar, and so restricted the right of appearance to those barristers who were members of the Inns of Court.\n\n**Conclusion**\n\nIt’s really this exclusion of solicitors and attorneys (who have since been combined) that solidified the split profession. Although we can see that the profession had been split to some extent from 1216 onwards, it wasn't made explicitly formalised until the Inns began excluding solicitors, preventing them from being called to the Bar, and removing their rights to appear before a higher Common-Law Court.\n\n**Sources**\n\nA note on sources: These are written from the perspective of American jurists and scholars. As such, there may be implicit bias in regards to the split profession. I was unable to find a British source when I ran an academic search, but I'm sure they are out there.\n\n1. Judith L. Maute, \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: Preliminary Reflections on the History of the Split English Legal Profession and the Fusion Debate (1000-1900 A.D.)\" [2003] 71, 4 *Fordham Law Review* 1357, 1358 ('Alice's Adventures in Wonderland').\n\n2. Ibid 1360, citing Robert Megarry, Inns Ancient and Modern 10 (Selden Soc'y 1972). See also Harry Cohen, \"The Divided Legal Profession in England and Wales - Can Barristers and Solicitors Ever Be Fused?\" (1987) 12 *The Journal of the Legal Profession* 7, 12 ('The Divided Legal Profession').\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, above n 1, at 1360, citing Edmund B.V. Christian, A Short History of Solicitors 3, 9 (1896) \n\n5. Ibid, 1361.\n\n6. Ibid, 1366 citing Robert Megarry, Inns Ancient and Modern 10 (Selden Soc'y 1972).\n\n7. Ibid. See also \"The Divided Legal Profession\" at 12, citing H. Kirk, Portrait of a Profession 18 (1976).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "89777", "title": "Solicitor", "section": "Section::::England and Wales.:Distinction between barristers and solicitors, post-1990 changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1085, "text": "In England and Wales, the strict separation between the duties of solicitor and barrister was partially broken down, with the Courts and Legal Services Act 1990 removing the monopoly of barristers to act as advocates and granting solicitors rights of audience in specified circumstances. Solicitors came frequently to appear in the lower courts and, subject to passing a test and thereby obtaining higher rights of audience, increasingly in the higher courts such as the High Court of Justice of England and Wales and the Court of Appeal. While the independent bar continued to exist in a largely unchanged state, a few firms of solicitors employed their own barristers and solicitor advocates to do some of their court work. The rules preventing barristers from being directly instructed were revised to allow direct instruction by certain organizations such as trade unions, accountants, and similar groups. Additionally, barristers who have completed the Bar Council's \"Public Access\" course can take instructions directly from members of the public under the Public Access Scheme.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21900706", "title": "Attorney at law", "section": "Section::::Previous usage in Ireland and Britain.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 518, "text": "The term was previously used in England and Wales and Ireland for lawyers who practised in the common law courts. They were officers of the courts and were under judicial supervision. Attorneys did not generally actually appear as advocates in the higher courts, a role reserved (as it still usually is) for barristers. Solicitors, those lawyers who practised in the courts of equity, were considered to be more respectable than attorneys and by the mid-19th century many attorneys were calling themselves solicitors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17541", "title": "Lawyer", "section": "Section::::Responsibilities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 441, "text": "Notably, England, the mother of the common law jurisdictions, emerged from the Middle Ages with similar complexity in its legal professions, but then evolved by the 19th century to a single division between barristers and solicitors. An equivalent division developed between advocates and procurators in some civil law countries; these two types did not always monopolize the practice of law, in that they coexisted with civil law notaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "89777", "title": "Solicitor", "section": "Section::::Ireland.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 524, "text": "Irish independence in 1921 was marked more by continuity with the British legal system than with change. The legal profession remained divided between barristers (or \"abhcóidí\" in Irish) and solicitors (or \"aturnaetha\" in Irish). There was some blurring of the distinction between their roles over the years. Notably, under Section 17 of the Courts Act 1971, solicitors were granted a right of audience in all courts, although in practice relatively few solicitors act as advocates for their clients in the Superior Courts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2994115", "title": "Barristers in England and Wales", "section": "Section::::Origin of the profession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 626, "text": "Historically, practising at the bar (or in court) was a more socially prestigious profession than working as a solicitor. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the bar was one of the limited number of professions considered suitable for upper class men; politics, the Army and Navy, the established clergy, and the civil and diplomatic services being the others. Many leading eighteenth and nineteenth-century politicians were barristers; few were solicitors. In the 20th century, solicitors closed the gap greatly, especially in terms of earnings, and by the early 21st century the social gap was far less important than formerly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2318533", "title": "Law Society of Scotland", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 563, "text": "As the legal profession expanded in line with the volume of legislation introduced in the twentieth century, it became clear that a representative body for all solicitors was needed along with reform of the informal system of lawyers voluntarily providing legal services to those who could not afford representation, which had existed since 1424. The Legal Aid and Solicitors (Scotland) Act 1949 established the Law Society of Scotland as the governing body for solicitors at the same time as it laid the foundation of the modern legal aid and assistance scheme.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4848", "title": "Barrister", "section": "Section::::Differences between barristers and other lawyers.:Differences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 808, "text": "In many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the higher courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished, and solicitor advocates can generally appear for clients at trial. Increasingly, firms of solicitors are keeping even the most advanced advisory and litigation work in-house for economic and client relationship reasons. Similarly, the prohibition on barristers taking instructions directly from the public has also been widely abolished. But, in practice, direct instruction is still a rarity in most jurisdictions, partly because barristers with narrow specializations, or who are only really trained for advocacy, are not prepared to provide general advice to members of the public.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If this is a question you're interested in, you should read up on [Brithenig](_URL_0_), a constructed language based on the idea that a latin romance language eventually displaced the local languages of Britain. Some of the various discussion boards related to the language have debated your question long and hard.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We can't know for sure, but it was probably somewhat similar to English in India: it was a language of administration and law, a literary language, and a common language, particularly in the towns. Unfortunately we just don't have enough writing from Britain to know for certain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21389619", "title": "British Latin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 318, "text": "With the end of Roman rule, Latin was displaced as a spoken language by Old English in most of what became England during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of the fifth and sixth centuries. It survived in the remaining Celtic regions of western Britain until about 700, when it was replaced by the local Brittonic languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21389619", "title": "British Latin", "section": "Section::::Extinction as a vernacular.:Lowland zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 610, "text": "The demise of Vulgar Latin in the face of Anglo-Saxon settlement is very different from the fate of the language in other areas of Western Europe which were subject to Germanic migration, like France, Italy and Spain, where Latin and the Romance languages continued. The likely reason is that in Britain there was a greater collapse in Roman institutions and infrastructure, leading to a much greater reduction in the status and prestige of the indigenous Romanised culture; and so the indigenous people were more likely to abandon their languages, in favour of the higher-status language of the Anglo-Saxons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21389619", "title": "British Latin", "section": "Section::::Extinction as a vernacular.:Highland zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 780, "text": "Although Latin continued to be spoken by many of the British elite in western Britain, by about 700, it had died out. The incoming Latin-speakers from the lowland zone seem to have rapidly assimilated with the existing population, and adopted Brittonic. The continued viability of British Latin may have been negatively affected by the loss to Old English of the areas where it had been strongest: the Anglo-Saxon conquest of the lowland zone may have indirectly ensured that Vulgar Latin would not survive in the highland zone either. The assimilation to Brittonic appears to be the exact opposite to the situation in France, where the collapse of towns and the migration of large numbers of Latin-speakers into the countryside apparently caused the final extinction of Gaulish.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21389619", "title": "British Latin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 591, "text": "British Latin or British Vulgar Latin was the Vulgar Latin spoken in Great Britain in the Roman and sub-Roman periods. While Britain formed part of the Roman Empire, Latin became the principal language of the elite, especially in the more Romanized south and east of the island. However, it never substantially replaced the Brittonic language of the indigenous Britons, especially in the less Romanized north and west. In recent years, scholars have debated the extent to which British Latin was distinguishable from its continental counterparts, which developed into the Romance languages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39995742", "title": "Languages of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Geographical distribution.:Western provinces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 545, "text": "Gaulish survived in Gaul into the late 6th century, and played a decisive role in the formation of Gallo-Romance languages. Latin did not become as deeply entrenched in the province of Britannia, and may have dwindled rapidly after the Roman withdrawal around 410 AD, although pockets of Latin-speaking Britons survived in western Britain until about 700 AD. The evidence of Latin loanwords into Brittonic suggests that the Latin of Roman Britain was academic, in contrast to the everyday conversational Latin (\"Vulgar\" Latin) on the continent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21389619", "title": "British Latin", "section": "Section::::Extinction as a vernacular.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 581, "text": "It is not known when Vulgar Latin ceased to be spoken in Britain, but it is likely that it continued to be widely spoken in various parts of Britain into the 5th century. In the lowland zone, Vulgar Latin was replaced by Old English during the course of the 5th and the 6th centuries, but in the highland zone, it gave way to Brittonic languages such as Primitive Welsh and Cornish. However, scholars have had a variety of views as to when exactly it died out as a vernacular. The question has been described as \"one of the most vexing problems of the languages of early Britain.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22368461", "title": "Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain", "section": "Section::::Linguistic evidence.:The evidence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 1489, "text": "All linguistic evidence from Roman Britain suggests that most inhabitants spoke British Celtic and/or British Latin. However, by the eighth century, when extensive evidence for the post-Roman language situation is next available, it is clear that the dominant language in what is now eastern and southern England was Old English, whose West Germanic predecessors were spoken in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany. Old English then continued spreading westwards and northwards in the ensuing centuries. This development is strikingly different from, for example, post-Roman Gaul, Iberia, or North Africa, where Germanic-speaking invaders gradually switched to local languages. Old English shows little obvious influence from Celtic or spoken Latin: there are for example vanishingly few English words of Brittonic origin. Moreover, except in Cornwall, the vast majority of place-names in England are easily etymologised as Old English (or Old Norse, due to later Viking influence), demonstrating the dominance of English across post-Roman England. Intensive research in recent decades on Celtic toponymy has shown that more names in England and southern Scotland have Brittonic, or occasionally Latin, etymologies than was once thought, but even so, it is clear that Brittonic and Latin place-names in the eastern half of England are extremely rare, and although they are noticeably more common in the western half, they are still a tiny minority─2% in Cheshire, for example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "David McCullough's *Truman* is very good.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Public Opinion by Walter Lippmann may be right up you alley.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can only give limited advice about *The Rise and Fall of Communism* as I just skimmed through a few pages of the book in a local Barnes and Noble but it seems to be a well-written book; however, I would also suggest you look at another book about communism that came out not too long ago called *The Red Flag: A History of Communism*, which seems to be a much more entertaining yet still enlightening book (this observation, too, is made from reading just a few pages at B & N). *Nixonland* is a good read but nothing incredibly memorable.\n\nHere's a small list of selections from a variety of topic areas so hopefully one of these will suit your interests:\n\nEdmund Morris's biographies of Teddy Roosevelt are excellent. If you want to continue with TR, check out Douglas Brinkley's *The Wilderness Warrior*, which details TR's campaign for environmentalism. Brinkley is by far the best writer of history I have come across in a long time, so if that book doesn't interest you I urge to look at his other books. No matter what the subject, his books are incredibly engaging.\n\n*Private Empire* by Steve Coll: This book is written by the Pulitzer Prize winning author of *Ghost Wars* and gives a detailed, objective history of ExxonMobil. Very well written and very informative about the strength of ExxonMobil's lobbying power both within the US and throughout the world.\n\n*One Minute to Midnight* by Michael Dobbs. Covers Cuban Missile Crisis and the book's argument is that no one really had control over what was going on. The world could have slipped into nuclear war even though no one wanted that simply because many factors were at play that could not be accounted for or stopped. Great read.\n\n*Guests of the Ayatollah* by Mark Bowden. He's the author of *Black Hawk Down* and writed in a very readable, journalistic style similar to Steve Coll. This book is about the Iranian Hostage Crisis of 1979 an goes through the 444-day ordeal through the vantage points of the hostages, hostage-takers, and major political figures. Well-researched and maybe the most entertaining read on this list.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the Talons of the Eagle", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Why Nations Go to War by Stoessinger.\nThis book gives a broad history of international relations, starting in WWI and going through the Iraq war. Its a good intro, as it provides a broad base of international political theory, and if you find a particular event you are interested, you could find something more specific", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Obligatory question: What languages do you read/speak?\n\nIf German is among them, get anything you can from Jochen Bleicken on the Roman Republic. *The* authoritative work on its law and structure.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A Political History? If you're of a philosophical bent and interested in the history of ideas consider reading *The Origins of Political Order* by Francis Fukuyama. I suspect this book is going to be fairly influential in academic circles for a long time so wether you agree with it or not you should read it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "With Latin America, I may be beating a dead horse on this one but I would suggest reading Motorcycle Diaries by Che Guevara. It provides a great deal of context about the political and economic issues about Latin America through the eyes of Che himself before he became the controversial revolutionary figure that continue to provide divided opinion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I would suggest [Diplomacy](_URL_0_), by Henry Kissinger. Say what you will about the man's politics, but the man knows the art of diplomacy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist* by Nick Salvatore is pretty interesting and a bit off the beaten path. Debs was one of the most well known socialist's of the early 20th century (ran for president 5 times) and was heavily involved with the IWW.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "16060654", "title": "The Century (book)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 678, "text": "The Century is a book about politics, philosophy and literature by Alain Badiou, first published in French by Éditions du Seuil in 2005; the English translation by Alberto Toscano was published by Polity Press in 2007. The thirteen chapters of the book are presented as lessons derived from a seminar Badiou gave at the College International de Philosophie between 1998-2001. Badiou's analysis of the 20th century is drawn from his unique encounter with 20th century poetry and theater, literary theory, totalitarianism, and the search for meaningful narratives that are neither logical nor dialectical. He warns against \"animal humanism\" and advocates \"formalized inhumanism\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14983817", "title": "James Wright (historian)", "section": "Section::::Key Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 369, "text": "The early books he authored or edited are: \"The Galena Lead District: Federal Policy and Practices, 1824-1847\" (1966); \"The West of the American People\" (1970); The \"Politics of Populism: Dissent in Colorado\" (1974); \"The Great Plains Experience: Readings in the History of a Region\" (1978); and \"The Progressive Yankees: Republican Reformers in New Hampshire\" (1987).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9867280", "title": "Modern Times: A History of the World from the 1920s to the 1980s", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 464, "text": "Modern Times: A History of the World from the 1920s to the 1980s is a book by British journalist and writer Paul Johnson, who gives an outline of world history during the 20th century from a conservative perspective. It was cited in \"National Review\" as one of the top ten books that changed America and is described as a book that has \"influenced intellectual thinking on a profound level\". It was first published in 1983 and has since been reissued and updated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "445690", "title": "Elmer Eric Schattschneider", "section": "Section::::Publications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 350, "text": "Schattschneider's books include \"Politics, Pressures and the Tariff\" (1935), \"Party Government\" (1942), \"The Struggle for Party Government\", (1948), \"Equilibrium and Change in American Politics\" (1958), \"The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America\" (1960), and \"Two Hundred Million Americans in Search of a Government\" (1969).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "514693", "title": "Richard Hofstadter", "section": "Section::::Assessment as a \"consensus historian\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 793, "text": "In 1948 he published \"The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It\", incisive interpretive studies of 12 major American political leaders from the 18th-20th centuries. Besides critical success, the book sold nearly a million copies at university campuses, where it was used as a history textbook; critics found it \"skeptical, fresh, revisionary, occasionally ironical, without being harsh or merely destructive.\" Each chapter title illustrated a paradox: Thomas Jefferson is \"The Aristocrat as Democrat\"; John C. Calhoun is the \"Marx of the Master Class\"; and Franklin Roosevelt is \"The Patrician as Opportunist.\" Hofstadter's writing style was so powerful and engrossing that professors kept assigning the book long after its main points had been revised or rejected by scholars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15824", "title": "John Updike", "section": "Section::::Themes.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 96, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 96, "end_character": 288, "text": "Updike's novels about America almost always contain references to political events of the time. In this sense, they are artifacts of their historical eras, showing how national leaders shape and define their times. The lives of ordinary citizens take place against this wider background.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38802735", "title": "A People's History of the United States", "section": "Section::::Other editions and related works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 322, "text": "A version of the book titled \"The Twentieth Century\" contains only chapters 12–25 (\"The Empire and the People\" to \"The 2000 Election and the 'War on Terrorism). Although it was originally meant to be an expansion of the original book, recent editions of \"A People's History\" now contain all of the later chapters from it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think you’re looking at it the wrong way. The caveat of chromosomal abnormalities or disorders is that more often then not they affect more than just intellectual ability or mental states, they often affect the CNS and CV system and issues with those bodily functions causes the shorter life expectancy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Defects typically worsen things and do not improve them.\n\nSome defects have more negative effects than others. That is a matter of statistics.\n\nIn very rare cases, anomalies turn out to be no \"defects\" but improvements, but the statistical probability for this is very low.\n\nSo bottom line: If you introduce a random change in the genetic code of something as complex as a human, the likelihood of worsening sth. is much greater than the likelihood of improving something.\n\nThink of it as computer code: If you change a random line of code randomly (mutation), most likely the program's performance will degrade and will crash earlier than without this change.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A human normally has two pairs of every chromosome. Half of these are inherited from the mother and half of them from the father, and as a result each one can have slightly different versions of each gene. When one of your cells need to make a protein, it takes a copy of every version you have for that gene and uses them to make proteins. This is normally a good thing, because it protects you from negative mutations - even if one of your copies gets damaged and doesn't make functional proteins, you still have a spare copy that works correctly. But as a side effect of that system, the rate of protein production is based on the number of genes in your genome that code for that protein. \n\nNormally, that doesn't matter because you have exactly two pairs of everything. But if you are missing a chromosome, you will have only one copy of every gene on that chromosome and you will only make half as many of whatever proteins those genes code for. If you have an extra chromosome, you'll have three copies of those genes and make 50% extra of every protein. If you're missing part of chromosome, you'll half 50% less of whatever that the missing part of the chromosome codes for. If you had four of a chromosome, you'd get double the proteins coded for. And so on and so forth.\n\nTo understand why this is bad, imagine that you're using a recipe to bake a batch of cookies. If somebody takes your recipe and edits it to include 50% extra baking soda, you'll probably still end up with cookies, but they won't turn out as well and might fall apart or taste wrong. If that person edited the recipe to cut the cooking time in half, the cookies will be soft and floppy and might give you food poisoning. And that's just one change - imagine if they made multiple changes like that, all throughout the recipe. In this analogy, genes are steps listed in the recipe, proteins are the steps that you follow and the cells in your body are the cookies.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "196206", "title": "Longevity", "section": "Section::::Major factors.:Genetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 534, "text": "Twin studies have estimated that approximately 20-30% the variation in human lifespan can be related to genetics, with the rest due to individual behaviors and environmental factors which can be modified. Although over 200 gene variants have been associated with longevity according to a US-Belgian-UK research database of human genetic variants, these explain only a small fraction of the heritability. A 2012 study found that even modest amounts of leisure time physical exercise can extend life expectancy by as much as 4.5 years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "246891", "title": "Y chromosome", "section": "Section::::Human Y chromosome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 756, "text": "Some cells, especially in older men and smokers, lack a Y chromosome. It has been found that men with a higher percentage of hematopoietic stem cells in blood lacking the Y chromosome (and perhaps a higher percentage of other cells lacking it) have a higher risk of certain cancers and have a shorter life expectancy. Men with \"loss of Y\" (which was defined as no Y in at least 18% of their hematopoietic cells) have been found to die 5.5 years earlier on average than others. This has been interpreted as a sign that the Y chromosome plays a role going beyond sex determination and reproduction (although the loss of Y may be an effect rather than a cause). Male smokers have between 1.5 and 2 times the risk of non-respiratory cancers as female smokers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "196206", "title": "Longevity", "section": "Section::::Future.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 683, "text": "Jennifer Couzin-Frankel examined how much mortality from various causes would have to drop in order to boost life expectancy and concluded that most of the past increases in life expectancy occurred because of improved survival rates for young people. She states that it seems unlikely that life expectancy at birth will ever exceed 85 years. Michio Kaku argues that genetic engineering, nanotechnology and future breakthroughs will accelerate the rate of life expectancy increase indefinitely. Already genetic engineering has allowed the life expectancy of certain primates to be doubled, and for human skin cells in labs to divide and live indefinitely without becoming cancerous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60671548", "title": "C7orf26", "section": "Section::::Gene.:Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 575, "text": "Chromosome 7 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in the human body, and spans about 159 million base pairs and represents about 5-5.5% of the total DNA in cells. Changes to the structure of chromosome 7 can result in a number of genetic abnormalities, including Williams Syndrome which causes structural and cosmetic changes to the human body, ultimately resulting in a shorter lifespan. There are hundreds of known open reading frames (ORF) along the domain of chromosome 7, however there is not much known about the 26th reading frame, which is of considerable interest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "105219", "title": "Cancer", "section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 725, "text": "Predicting short- or long-term survival depends on many factors. The most important are the cancer type and the patient's age and overall health. Those who are frail with other health problems have lower survival rates than otherwise healthy people. Centenarians are unlikely to survive for five years even if treatment is successful. People who report a higher quality of life tend to survive longer. People with lower quality of life may be affected by depression and other complications and/or disease progression that both impairs quality and quantity of life. Additionally, patients with worse prognoses may be depressed or report poorer quality of life because they perceive that their condition is likely to be fatal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38057969", "title": "Progeroid syndromes", "section": "Section::::Defects in DNA repair.:RecQ-associated PS.:Werner syndrome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 245, "text": "Cells of affected individuals have reduced lifespan in culture, more chromosome breaks and translocations and extensive deletions. These DNA damages, chromosome aberrations and mutations may in turn cause more RecQ-independent aging phenotypes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5260824", "title": "Distal trisomy 10q", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 606, "text": "Humans, like all sexually reproducing species, have somatic cells that are in diploid [2N] state, meaning that N represent the number of chromosomes, and 2 the number of their copies. In humans, there are 23 chromosomes, but there are two sets of them, one from mother and one from father, totaling in 46, that are arranged according to their size, function and genes they carry. Each cell is supposed to have two of each, but sometimes due to mutations or malfunctions during cell division, mistakes are made that cause serious health problems. One such error is the cause of Distal trisomy 10q disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Both, depending on your reference frame and the magnitude of the acceleration.\n\nHowever, if the car is travelling at a constant velocity, the fly remains in the same place with respect to the car.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A fly's motion is based on the objects it is in contact with, as well as the gravitational pull of the Earth. A fly would be hovering because the force exerted upwards by the air on the fly's wings is balanced out by the gravitational pull of the earth. Now, if the car were to accelerate, it would bring all of the air with it. Some of the air would be compressed towards the back of the car, which would cause the fly to go backwards a bit, but regardless, the fly should be able to hover there.\n\nYou can test this with a helium-filled balloon. Be aware of the tension force from the string (you cannot tie it down).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The fly will hit the rear window. Recently, the International Space Station had to do what is called a re-boost to compensate for the slight amount of drag that the atomic oxygen in the near vacuum of space exerts on the station itself. The conditions are very similar to brutalfox's question. Watch for yourself what happens.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nWhy they do a re-boost:\n\n_URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Both, depending on your reference frame and the magnitude of the acceleration.\n\nHowever, if the car is travelling at a constant velocity, the fly remains in the same place with respect to the car.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A fly's motion is based on the objects it is in contact with, as well as the gravitational pull of the Earth. A fly would be hovering because the force exerted upwards by the air on the fly's wings is balanced out by the gravitational pull of the earth. Now, if the car were to accelerate, it would bring all of the air with it. Some of the air would be compressed towards the back of the car, which would cause the fly to go backwards a bit, but regardless, the fly should be able to hover there.\n\nYou can test this with a helium-filled balloon. Be aware of the tension force from the string (you cannot tie it down).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The fly will hit the rear window. Recently, the International Space Station had to do what is called a re-boost to compensate for the slight amount of drag that the atomic oxygen in the near vacuum of space exerts on the station itself. The conditions are very similar to brutalfox's question. Watch for yourself what happens.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nWhy they do a re-boost:\n\n_URL_0_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46080", "title": "Halteres", "section": "Section::::Dynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 1060, "text": "Each side of the body must be synchronized and the two sides are also coupled. That is, the left and right wings and thus the left and right halteres always beat at the same frequency. However, the amplitude of the wingbeat does not always have to be the same on the left and right side. This is what allows the flies to turn and is accomplished using a gearbox, much like what you would find in an automobile. This gearbox can change the maximum amplitude of the wing movement and determine its speed of motion. The wings of flies even have a clutch structure at their base. The clutch moves between grooves in the gearbox, to engage and disengage the wing muscles and also modulate the wingbeat amplitude. When the amplitude of the left wing is less than the right, the fly will make a left turn. Even though haltere movement is controlled by separate muscles than the wings, because the wings are mechanically coupled with the halteres, changes in wingbeat frequency extend to the haltere-beat frequency as well, but haltere beat amplitude does not change.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33676217", "title": "Sensory-motor coupling", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Gaze stabilization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 427, "text": "During flight, it is important for a fly to maintain a level gaze; however, it is possible for a fly to rotate. The rotation is detected visually as a rotation of the environment termed optical flow. The input of the optical flow is then converted into a motor command to the fly's neck muscles so that the fly will maintain a level gaze. This reflex is diminished in a stationary fly compared to when it is flying or walking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13911199", "title": "Friction motor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 450, "text": "As the flywheel, unlike the spring of a pullback motor, is continuously rotating and not held, the motor may be \"pumped up\" by pushing the car repeatedly forward. The cars also typically work in forward and reverse. Some used a \"zip cord\" pulled from the vehicle body to accelerate the flywheel directly. Another system was the \"Turbo Tower of Power\" (TTP) in which air expelled from a hand-operated pump pushed turbine blades on the flywheel's rim.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24325138", "title": "Flywheel energy storage", "section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Effects of angular momentum in vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 567, "text": "When used in vehicles, flywheels also act as gyroscopes, since their angular momentum is typically of a similar order of magnitude as the forces acting on the moving vehicle. This property may be detrimental to the vehicle's handling characteristics while turning or driving on rough ground; driving onto the side of a sloped embankment may cause wheels to partially lift off the ground as the flywheel opposes sideways tilting forces. On the other hand, this property could be utilized to keep the car balanced so as to keep it from rolling over during sharp turns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12232525", "title": "Megaloprepus caerulatus", "section": "Section::::Adult.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 538, "text": "When flying the four wings are spread quite far apart, fore and hind wing of the same side far apart, body horizontal. Flight slow enough so that the movements of each separate wing can be seen—insect consequently moves slowly but can dodge. Mr. Barnes compared the movements of the wings to that of a windmill, but the revolving movements are lacking; I should say the effect produced by the wings is more like that of a jumping-jack with moveable arms and legs pulled by one string, rather slowly, but, of course, at regular intervals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "221400", "title": "Flight dynamics (fixed-wing aircraft)", "section": "Section::::Dynamic stability and control.:Lateral modes.:Spiral mode.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 190, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 190, "end_character": 221, "text": "Simply holding the stick still, when starting with the wings near level, an aircraft will usually have a tendency to gradually veer off to one side of the straight flightpath. This is the (slightly unstable) spiral mode.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11049946", "title": "Radio-controlled aerobatics", "section": "Section::::Intermediate RC maneuvers.:Slow roll.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 408, "text": "When the left wing is down, right rudder is needed to hold level flight. Rolling slowly left will require moving the rudder slowly to the right, then back to center as the wings become level in inverted flight (where of course some elevator is needed), and then to the left as the roll continues and puts the right wing down, and finally back to center and the aircraft returns to straight and level flight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No. Heat may continue to diffuse through the object, which may cause it to appear to be increasing in heat for a short while (e.g. if you're measuring temperature at a different spot from where it's being heated) but the max temperature wouldn't rise without a heat source.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11470059", "title": "History of energy", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 452, "text": "The concept of energy emerged from the idea of \"vis viva\" (living force), which Leibniz defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total \"vis viva\" was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz claimed that heat consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter — a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19593167", "title": "Heat", "section": "Section::::Heat transfer.:Microscopic view.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 105, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 105, "end_character": 291, "text": "In the kinetic theory, heat is explained in terms of the microscopic motions and interactions of constituent particles, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules. The immediate meaning of the kinetic energy of the constituent particles is not as heat. It is as a component of internal energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "914498", "title": "John James Waterston", "section": "Section::::Kinetic theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 611, "text": "He had been motivated to think of a \"wave theory of heat\" by analogy with the wave theory of light and some experiments by James Forbes and Macedonio Melloni on radiant heat. His statement that \"... in mixed media the mean square molecular velocity is inversely proportional to the specific weight of the molecules\" has been seen as the first statement of the equipartition theorem for translational motion. Waterston grasped that, while the kinetic energy of an individual molecule with velocity \"v\" is ½\"mv\"², heat energy is proportional to temperature, \"T\". That insight led him to derive the ideal gas law:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26962", "title": "Special relativity", "section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Equivalence of mass and energy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 154, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 154, "end_character": 1241, "text": "The energy and momentum are properties of matter and radiation, and it is impossible to deduce that they form a four-vector just from the two basic postulates of special relativity by themselves, because these don't talk about matter or radiation, they only talk about space and time. The derivation therefore requires some additional physical reasoning. In his 1905 paper, Einstein used the additional principles that Newtonian mechanics should hold for slow velocities, so that there is one energy scalar and one three-vector momentum at slow velocities, and that the conservation law for energy and momentum is exactly true in relativity. Furthermore, he assumed that the energy of light is transformed by the same Doppler-shift factor as its frequency, which he had previously shown to be true based on Maxwell's equations. The first of Einstein's papers on this subject was \"Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?\" in 1905. Although Einstein's argument in this paper is nearly universally accepted by physicists as correct, even self-evident, many authors over the years have suggested that it is wrong. Other authors suggest that the argument was merely inconclusive because it relied on some implicit assumptions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37376713", "title": "Heat transfer physics", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 635, "text": "Heat transfer physics describes the kinetics of energy storage, transport, and energy transformation by principal energy carriers: phonons (lattice vibration waves), electrons, fluid particles, and photons. Heat is energy stored in temperature-dependent motion of particles including electrons, atomic nuclei, individual atoms, and molecules. Heat is transferred to and from matter by the principal energy carriers. The state of energy stored within matter, or transported by the carriers, is described by a combination of classical and quantum statistical mechanics. The energy is also transformed (converted) among various carriers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19593167", "title": "Heat", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1341, "text": "In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The mechanisms include conduction, through direct contact of immobile bodies, or through a wall or barrier that is impermeable to matter; or radiation between separated bodies; or isochoric mechanical work done by the surroundings on the system of interest; or Joule heating by an electric current driven through the system of interest by an external system; or a combination of these. When there is a suitable path between two systems with different temperatures, heat transfer occurs necessarily, immediately, and spontaneously from the hotter to the colder system. Thermal conduction occurs by the stochastic (random) motion of microscopic particles (such as atoms or molecules). In contrast, thermodynamic work is defined by mechanisms that act macroscopically and directly on the system's whole-body state variables; for example, change of the system's volume through a piston's motion with externally measurable force; or change of the system's internal electric polarization through an externally measurable change in electric field. The definition of heat transfer does not require that the process be in any sense smooth. For example, a bolt of lightning may transfer heat to a body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2281782", "title": "History of thermodynamics", "section": "Section::::History.:Kinetic theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 506, "text": "Further progress in kinetic theory started only in the middle of the 19th century, with the works of Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig Boltzmann. In his 1857 work \"On the nature of the motion called heat\", Clausius for the first time clearly states that heat is the average kinetic energy of molecules. This interested Maxwell, who in 1859 derived the momentum distribution later named after him. Boltzmann subsequently generalized his distribution for the case of gases in external fields.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think it might have to do with our hunter gatherer ancestors. We have a need for knowledge of everything near us, so we can be aware of predators, food, and other things either beneficial or detrimental to our survival. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. I think the proper answer is: \"Does it?\" Does it really for everyone or even a majority? I doubt it does, we're just seeing the especially blatant offenders on youtube falling on their noses...\n\n2. Furthermore, there's another effect at place: Things you are curious about are very specific things just in front of you, stuff to see, touch, something to go to, something to actually *do*. While all the reasons why it might not be a good idea are, at least at that very moment, abstract concepts of what *might* happen. People usually refer better to things they can vividly imagine than some abstract ideas they might have about a possible future.\n\n3. I think that people often massively misjduge how dangerous something can be due to lack of knowledge. Assume I show you a shining, nice, perfecly glittering disk in front of you. Why not touch it? It is interesting, it is not loud, what could be the issue? You have no way of telling it is actually a mass of 500 kg of pure tungsten with razorsharp blades that spins with 5000 rounds per minute and will take anything right off that comes close.\n\nDue to 2. and 3., many people often think they are more in control than they are, that something is more safe that it actually is. Just watch any rallye video on youtube and I bet you'll find some moron standing way too close to 1000+ kg cars barrelling past beyond any speed that could be considered safe... but I bet any of them will tell you \"It is safe, I know cars!\" [Fallacy: You knowing how to fix breaks is not preventing that car from flipping over in just the wrong moment] or \"It is safe, I have done this before\" [Fallacy: Just because you were lucky in the past has no bearing on this situation] or \"It is safe, I just make photos\" [Fallacy: Whatever the people think is a reason... actually isn't causally related at all].\n\nOf the countless people who refrain from most \"stupid ideas\" because \"it is not worth it\" you never, ever hear. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "Section::::Role of neurological aspects and structures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 695, "text": "Although the phenomenon of curiosity is widely regarded, its root causes are relatively unknown beyond theory. However, recent studies have provided some insight into the neurological mechanisms that make up what is known as the reward pathway which may impact characteristics associated with curiosity, such as learning, memory, and motivation. Due to the complex nature of curiosity, research that focuses on specific neural processes with these characteristics can help create a better understanding the phenomenon of curiosity as a whole. The following are characteristics of curiosity and their links to neural aspects that can be thought of as essential in creating exploratory behaviors:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 322, "text": "The term \"curiosity\" can also be used to denote the behavior or emotion of being curious, in regard to the desire to gain knowledge or information. Curiosity as a behavior and emotion is attributed over millennia as the driving force behind not only human development, but developments in science, language, and industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 259, "text": "These traditional ideas of curiosity have recently expanded to look at the difference between \"curiosity as the innate exploratory behavior\" that is present in all animals and \"curiosity as the desire for knowledge\" that is specifically attributed to humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 407, "text": "Curiosity (from Latin \"cūriōsitās\", from \"cūriōsus\" \"careful, diligent, curious\", akin to \"cura\" \"care\") is a quality related to inquisitive thinking such as exploration, investigation, and learning, evident by observation in humans and other animals. Curiosity is heavily associated with all aspects of human development, in which derives the process of learning and desire to acquire knowledge and skill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60475502", "title": "Optimal stimulation level", "section": "Section::::Customer Behavior.:Exploration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 533, "text": "Curiosity can categorize as particular interest stimulated behavior and diverse curiosity encouraged the practice. The first mentioned of two displays an in-depth analysis for a single incentive because this stimulation evokes curiousness of consumer; in this situation, exploration is a reaction for a specific stimulus motivated by collative properties. However, the diverse curiosity, which can be initiated by an assortment of sources, refers to the response for boredom, meaning that it does not react to a particular stimulus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "Section::::Theories.:Curiosity-drive theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1272, "text": "Subsets of curiosity-drive theory differ on whether curiosity is a primary or secondary drive and if this curiosity-drive is originated due to one's need to make sense of and regulate their environment or if it is caused by an external stimulus. Causes can range from basic needs that need to be satisfied (e.g. hunger, thirst) to needs in fear induced situations. Each of these subset theories state that whether the need is primary or secondary curiosity is developed from experiences that create a sensation of uncertainty or perceived unpleasantness. Curiosity then acts as a means in which to dispel this uncertainty. By exhibiting curious and exploratory behavior, one is able to gain knowledge of the unfamiliar and thus reduce the state of uncertainty or unpleasantness. This theory, however, does not address the idea that curiosity can often be displayed even in the absence of new or unfamiliar situations. This type of exploratory behavior is common in many species. Take the example of a human toddler who, if bored in his current situation devoid of arousing stimuli, will walk about until something interesting is found. The observation of curiosity even in the absence of novel stimuli pinpoints one of the major shortcomings in the curiosity-drive model.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1077353", "title": "Curiosity", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 431, "text": "Curiosity can be seen as an innate quality of many different species. It is common to human beings at all ages from infancy through adulthood, and is easy to observe in many other animal species; these include apes, cats, and rodents. Early definitions cite curiosity as a motivated desire for information. This motivational desire has been said to stem from a passion or an appetite for knowledge, information, and understanding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They use a technique called \"ion-mobility spectrometry\". What happens is they ionize the specimen swabs and then travel through a tube with an electric field and a buffer gas that opposes the motion. The speed at which it will pass through the tube indicates what the material is made of, and it is calibrated to trigger on explosives residue.\n\nHopefully if someone has a bomb they would have to handle it, and the very faint residue of that handling would be detected by the device.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52322527", "title": "FoldiMate", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 397, "text": "The user clips the piece of clothing on two hooks and the item is pulled into the machine. Then a series of rollers and arms moves in all directions to straighten and fold it. The machine can fold shirts, tops, trousers and dresses, but not small pieces of clothing like underwear or large items like sheets. The folded items are returned in a stack through a window at the bottom of the machine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41191060", "title": "Wash rack", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 604, "text": "The main purpose of a wash rack is to clean equipment while protecting the environment from contaminates commonly found on construction, maintenance and military vehicles or equipment. To comply with U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) regulations, which are intended to prevent soil-borne insects or other potentially harmful organisms from entering the United States, U.S. military vehicles and equipment must be thoroughly washed before being shipped home. As such, wash racks are commonly used by the US military to ensure vehicles are clean and safe before they are brought back into the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "172111", "title": "Washing machine", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern washers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 377, "text": "Some manufacturers have taken steps to reduce vibration emanating from their washers, by means of reducing or controlling motor speeds, using hydraulic suspensions instead of spring suspensions, and having freely moving steel balls contained inside a ring mounted on both the front and back sides of the drum in order to counter the weight of the clothes and reduce vibration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29705538", "title": "Tesla Factory", "section": "Section::::Tesla Model S manufacturing process.:Body construction.:Tandem press lines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 732, "text": "A robot then transfers the aluminium blanks into the tandem press lines where the sheets are stamped into the various panels of the cars. The Schuler SMG hydraulic stamping press line is the largest in North America and the 6th largest in the world. The presses use up to 11,000 ton-force to form the body panels; the upper section applies 1400 tonnes of downward force and the lower section 130 tonnes. The blank aluminium sheet is stretched over the lower draw die and openings are cut with robots transferring the panels between processes. The workers then inspect each panel to ensure correct pressing. The parts are then stacked in frames and stored. The machines press one part every 6 seconds and create 5,000 parts per day.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34580464", "title": "Wheel washing system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 334, "text": "A wheel washing system is a device for cleaning the tires of trucks when they are leaving a site, to control and eliminate the pollution of public roads. The installation can be made in or above the ground for either temporary or permanent applications. There are two types of wheel washing systems: roller and drive-through systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40051773", "title": "UBiome", "section": "Section::::Products and services.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 576, "text": "Customers purchase kits to sample one or more parts of their body, including the gut, genitals, mouth, nose, or skin. After swabbing, a participant takes a survey which is used to make correlations with microbiome data. The participant sends the kit to the company in the mail and receives data in a few weeks; he or she can compare their data with that of uBiome’s data set. In 2015 uBiome received Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) certification from the State of California. In 2016, uBiome received accreditation from the College of American Pathologists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3073029", "title": "Agitator (device)", "section": "Section::::Washing machine agitator.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 226, "text": "In a top load washing machine the agitator projects from the bottom of the wash basket and creates the wash action by rotating back and forth, rolling garments from the top of the load, down to the bottom, then back up again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Entropy increases over time. It's a fundamental law of thermodynamics.\n\nHowever, the universe in it's current state isn't infinite, it had a start at the Big Bang. At the Big Bang, the universe had an incredibly low entropy. Why this is isn't entirely known, and there's a lot of speculation on the topic. We currently exist in a time frame where the low entropy is playing out. In a VERY long time (Like 10^10^36 years) the universe will reach it's maximum state of entropy, and no trace will be left of what transpired over the lifetime of the universe. \n\nPresumably this will carry on for an infinite amount of time, assuming time has any meaning in a maximum entropy environment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The accepted age for the universe is just over 13 billion years. So the universe hasn't had time to reach maximum entropy.\n\nBut if you want to consider where this universe came from...\n\n1. The universe just appeared from nothing. Don't know how that could happen, why it happened. Certainly doesn't answer or explain anything.\n\n2. The universe was created by a process that creates universes. But this implies that the process exists in an environment that is not at maximum entropy - so the process can't have been around eternally and must have had a beginning - infinite regression. Still not a useful answer.\n\n3. Our understanding of entropy is wrong and there are circumstances where systems don't tend to maximum entropy. (systems at maximum entropy can cycle through a series of states and maybe a partial view of part of this sequence could be mistaken for an increasing entropy system). Still - big hole in our knowledge here. (Entropy can be temporarily reversed in part of a system (pumping water up-hill) but only at the expense of increased entropy for the system as a whole).\n\n4. Something else.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "362722", "title": "Heat death of the universe", "section": "Section::::Controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 1386, "text": "Max Planck wrote that the phrase \"entropy of the universe\" has no meaning because it admits of no accurate definition. More recently, Grandy writes: \"It is rather presumptuous to speak of the entropy of a universe about which we still understand so little, and we wonder how one might define thermodynamic entropy for a universe and its major constituents that have never been in equilibrium in their entire existence.\" According to Tisza: \"If an isolated system is not in equilibrium, we cannot associate an entropy with it.\" Buchdahl writes of \"the entirely unjustifiable assumption that the universe can be treated as a closed thermodynamic system\". According to Gallavotti: \"... there is no universally accepted notion of entropy for systems out of equilibrium, even when in a stationary state.\" Discussing the question of entropy for non-equilibrium states in general, Lieb and Yngvason express their opinion as follows: \"Despite the fact that most physicists believe in such a nonequilibrium entropy, it has so far proved impossible to define it in a clearly satisfactory way.\" In Landsberg's opinion: \"The \"third\" misconception is that thermodynamics, and in particular, the concept of entropy, can without further enquiry be applied to the whole universe. ... These questions have a certain fascination, but the answers are speculations, and lie beyond the scope of this book.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.:Cosmology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 168, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 168, "end_character": 363, "text": "Since a finite universe is an isolated system, the second law of thermodynamics states that its total entropy is continually increasing. It has been speculated, since the 19th century, that the universe is fated to a heat death in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy so that no more work can be extracted from any source.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "151013", "title": "T-symmetry", "section": "Section::::Macroscopic phenomena: the second law of thermodynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 634, "text": "One position is to say that the constant increase of entropy we observe happens \"only\" because of the initial state of our universe. Other possible states of the universe (for example, a universe at heat death equilibrium) would actually result in no increase of entropy. In this view, the apparent T-asymmetry of our universe is a problem in cosmology: why did the universe start with a low entropy? This view, if it remains viable in the light of future cosmological observation, would connect this problem to one of the big open questions beyond the reach of today's physics — the question of \"initial conditions\" of the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25210319", "title": "Arieh Ben-Naim", "section": "Section::::Contributions to statistical mechanics in terms of information theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 702, "text": "Second, the application of the concept of entropy to the entire universe is unwarranted. This association has its origin in Clausius' statement that the entropy of the World always increases. Clausius, who is credited for the formulation of the second law, did not and could not understand the molecular interpretation of entropy. Unfortunately, the application of the concept of entropy to the entire universe features in many textbooks and in popular science books. This erroneous application is discussed in great detail in Ben-Naim's recent books: \"The Briefest History of Time\", \"Entropy, the Truth the whole Truth and nothing but the Truth\", and in \"Information, Entropy, Life and the Universe\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9891", "title": "Entropy", "section": "Section::::Interdisciplinary applications of entropy.:Cosmology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 169, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 169, "end_character": 739, "text": "If the universe can be considered to have generally increasing entropy, then – as Roger Penrose has pointed out – gravity plays an important role in the increase because gravity causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into black holes. The entropy of a black hole is proportional to the surface area of the black hole's event horizon. Jacob Bekenstein and Stephen Hawking have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes, if they are totally effective matter and energy traps. However, the escape of energy from black holes might be possible due to quantum activity (see Hawking radiation).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "362722", "title": "Heat death of the universe", "section": "Section::::Controversies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 860, "text": "A recent analysis of entropy states, \"The entropy of a general gravitational field is still not known\", and, \"gravitational entropy is difficult to quantify\". The analysis considers several possible assumptions that would be needed for estimates and suggests that the observable universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the analysis concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor. Lee Smolin goes further: \"It has long been known that gravity is important for keeping the universe out of thermal equilibrium. Gravitationally bound systems have negative specific heat—that is, the velocities of their components increase when energy is removed. ... Such a system does not evolve toward a homogeneous equilibrium state. Instead it becomes increasingly structured and heterogeneous as it fragments into subsystems.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7728392", "title": "Entropy (order and disorder)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 850, "text": "Thus, if entropy is associated with disorder and if the entropy of the universe is headed towards maximal entropy, then many are often puzzled as to the nature of the \"ordering\" process and operation of evolution in relation to Clausius' most famous version of the second law, which states that the universe is headed towards maximal “disorder”. In the recent 2003 book \"SYNC – the Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order\" by Steven Strogatz, for example, we find “Scientists have often been baffled by the existence of spontaneous order in the universe. The laws of thermodynamics seem to dictate the opposite, that nature should inexorably degenerate toward a state of greater disorder, greater entropy. Yet all around us we see magnificent structures—galaxies, cells, ecosystems, human beings—that have all somehow managed to assemble themselves.” \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It depends who it's for. Alot of the time it's a show of dominant behavior or even submissive depending on the person. This can lead to people being uncomfortable. \n\n\nOther times for fewer people it's the start of a soul gaze, which is something most tend to avoid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Cuz you consider it an intimate activity and don't feel doing it to strangers. Would you like holding hands with strangers?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We are animals. There are certain animals that instinctively respond to a stare as a THREAT. \"This PREDATOR is LOOKING AT ME\" sort of thing. Humans have, for the most part, a modicum of ability to override instinctive behavior and do JUST THE OPPOSITE. I like looking into my lover's eyes and being extremely intimate at certain points in time. Both partners usually do. It can be an intense connection.\n\nThat being said, a PET will also STARE at you when they WANT SOMETHING. I guess that could be considered part of a predatorial response. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "29419455", "title": "Glaring", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 332, "text": "Visually, a glaring person tends to have their eyes fixed and heavily focused on a subject. This can sometimes be considered synonymous to staring but, in most of the cases, staring is caused due to curiosity and lasts only for a short duration, whereas glaring is caused due to contempt and lasts for a relatively longer duration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "242760", "title": "Facial expression", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 383, "text": "The eyes are often viewed as important features of facial expressions. Aspects such as blinking rate can possibly be used to indicate whether a person is nervous or whether he or she is lying. Also, eye contact is considered an important aspect of interpersonal communication. However, there are cultural differences regarding the social propriety of maintaining eye contact or not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "988729", "title": "Diplopia", "section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Voluntary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 453, "text": "Some people are able to consciously uncouple their eyes, either by overfocusing closely (i.e. going cross-eyed) or unfocusing. Also, while looking at one object behind another object, the foremost object's image is doubled (for example, placing one's finger in front of one's face while reading text on a computer monitor). In this sense, double vision is neither dangerous nor harmful, and may even be enjoyable. It makes viewing stereograms possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "566664", "title": "Nonverbal communication", "section": "Section::::Eye contact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 508, "text": "Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Some studies have demonstrated that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows. Disinterest is highly noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested, however, the pupils will dilate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1007108", "title": "Eye contact", "section": "Section::::Social meanings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 263, "text": "Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, search other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. In some contexts, the meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3223840", "title": "Oculesics", "section": "Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Communicating Emotions.:Lists of Emotions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 302, "text": "BULLET::::- Staring - Staring is more than just eye contact, it usually involves eyes wider than normal. A lack of blinking may indicate more interest, but it also may indicate a stronger feeling than a person may intend to portray. Prolonged eye contact can be aggressive, affectionate, or deceptive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3006497", "title": "Social rejection", "section": "Section::::In the laboratory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 426, "text": "A recent experiment at the University of California at Berkeley found that individuals with a combination of low self-esteem and low attentional control are more likely to exhibit eye-blink startle responses while viewing rejection themed images. These findings indicate that people who feel bad about themselves are especially vulnerable to rejection, but that people can also control and regulate their emotional reactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can’t explain, but I fully agree, about the yard signs especially. \nThe ones they put along roads and such (not the ones that ppl put on their own private property). \nPost election, if the signs are still up. For say > 30 days, they should get a fine per sign. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You can't stop people from mailing you stuff or leaving it at your house but most towns have regulations around those signs that they leave on people's lawns. My town has these regulations:\n\n\\- Need to get an owner's consent to put a sign on their lawn.\n\n\\- Person needs to track where they put them. Candidates are responsible for them all.\n\n\\- After an election the Candidate is responsible for removing all the signs they put around town, within a certain amount of time\n\nOtherwise they are subject to fines. Check your local regs. Maybe they exist but no one's enforcing them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "661540", "title": "Lawn sign", "section": "Section::::Importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 589, "text": "In addition, it gives the requester a placebo effect of doing something substantive, while not actually volunteering to help their candidate. Critics charge that \"lawn signs don't vote\" and dismiss their importance. Theft of lawn signs is treated like any other instance of petty theft, however, signs on the rights of way in many states are considered litter and can be picked up by anyone as a public service. On several occasions, citizens who removed lawn signs on the pretext of cleaning up the clutter and eliminating driver distraction were arrested, sparking a public controversy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11445429", "title": "Election litter", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 568, "text": "Election litter is a term used by some national and subnational governments to describe the unlawful erection of political advertising on private residences or property owned by the local government. Often, election signs may only be displayed \"on private property with permission\" for a certain time within the election, and may not exceed a certain size. When placed on public property or public rights of way without permission, or if left on private property for too long, they are often in violation of littering laws, and/or laws intended to prevent flyposting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25902530", "title": "Presidential elections in Singapore", "section": "Section::::Election procedure.:Eve of polling day and polling day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 112, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 112, "end_character": 901, "text": "Badges, favours, flags, rosettes, symbols, sets of colours, advertisements, handbills, placards, posters and replica voting papers may not be carried, worn, used or displayed by any person or on any vehicle as political propaganda, although candidates may wear replicas of the symbols allotted to them for election purposes. In addition, holding election meetings and canvassing are not permitted on the day before polling day or on polling day itself. Canvassing involves trying to persuade a person to vote or not to vote in a particular way; or visiting a voter for an election-related purpose at home or at his or her workplace. It is an offence to exercise undue influence on any person at or near a polling station: for example, trying to find out the identity of any person entering a polling station; recording voters' particulars; and waiting outside or loitering within of polling stations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2962623", "title": "General elections in Singapore", "section": "Section::::Election procedure.:Eve of polling day and polling day.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 908, "text": "Badges, favours, flags, rosettes, symbols, sets of colours, advertisements, handbills, placards, posters and replica voting papers may not be carried, worn, used or displayed by any person or on any vehicle as political propaganda, although candidates may wear replicas of the symbols allotted to them for election purposes. In addition, holding election meetings and canvassing are not permitted on the day before polling day and polling day itself. Canvassing involves trying to persuade a person to vote or not to vote in a particular way, or visiting a voter for an election-related purpose at home or at his or her workplace. It is also an offence to exercise undue influence on any person at or near a polling station, for instance, by trying to find out the identity of any person entering a polling station, recording voters' particulars, and waiting outside or loitering within of polling stations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11445429", "title": "Election litter", "section": "Section::::Banning election litter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 227, "text": "Election litter usually is defined as placing campaign signs on public, government-owned property, or on privately owned property (including residences) without the owner's permission. It is usually banned by local government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "661540", "title": "Lawn sign", "section": "Section::::Importance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 761, "text": "Political scientist Mel Kahn states that lawn signs help build name recognition for candidates. Supposedly, each sign represents 6-10 votes for the candidate. However, veteran political organizers hate the task of handing out yard signs, because they believe that time spent on procuring and distributing yard signs could be better used on other voter registration and get out the vote operations. One randomized field trial found yard signs simply reminding people to vote were able to significantly increase overall voter turnout. A 2016 study found that lawn signs raise vote shares by slightly more than 1 percentage point and are “on par with other low-tech campaign tactics such as direct mail that generate … effects that tend to be small in magnitude.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "653025", "title": "Sticker", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 349, "text": "They are frequently distributed as part of promotional, and political campaigns; for example, in many voting districts in the U.S., stickers indicating an individual has voted are given to each voter as they leave the polling place, largely as a reminder to others to vote. Observers may clap hands, honk a horn or otherwise applaud a good sticker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "For objects in a circular orbit, the force of gravity is always perpendicular to the direction of motion. That means that gravity does not pull the object to go faster in its current direction, but instead only changes the direction without affecting the speed of the object.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18603506", "title": "Weightlessness", "section": "Section::::Weightless and reduced weight environments.:Weightlessness in a spacecraft.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 769, "text": "In typical free-fall, the acceleration of gravity acts along the direction of an object's velocity, linearly increasing its speed as it falls toward the Earth, or slowing it down if it is moving away from the Earth. In the case of an orbiting spacecraft, which has a velocity vector largely \"perpendicular\" to the force of gravity, gravitational acceleration does not produce a net change in the object's speed, but instead acts centripetally, to constantly \"turn\" the spacecraft's velocity as it moves around the Earth. Because the acceleration vector turns along with the velocity vector, they remain perpendicular to each other. Without this change in the direction of its velocity vector, the spacecraft would move in a straight line, leaving the Earth altogether.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1813514", "title": "Free-fall time", "section": "Section::::Derivation.:Infall to a point source of gravity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 645, "text": "If the free-falling body completed a full orbit, it would begin at distance formula_2 from the point source mass formula_3, fall inward until it reached that point source, then turn around and journey back to its original position. In real systems, the point source mass isn't truly a point source and the infalling body eventually collides with some surface. Thus, it only completes half the orbit. But since the infalling part of the orbit is symmetric to the hypothetical outgoing portion of the orbit, we can simply divide the period of the full orbit by two to attain the free-fall time (the time along the infalling portion of the orbit).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18603506", "title": "Weightlessness", "section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Weightlessness and proper acceleration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 684, "text": "A body in free fall (which by definition entails no aerodynamic forces) near the surface of the earth has an acceleration approximately equal to 9.8 m s with respect to a coordinate frame tied to the earth. If the body is in a freely falling lift and subject to no pushes or pulls from the lift or its contents, the acceleration with respect to the lift would be zero. If on the other hand, the body is subject to forces exerted by other bodies within the lift, it will have an acceleration with respect to the freely falling lift. This acceleration which is not due to gravity is called \"proper acceleration\". On this approach, weightlessness holds when proper acceleration is zero.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "857235", "title": "Equivalence principle", "section": "Section::::Development of gravitational theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1119, "text": "That is, being on the surface of the Earth is equivalent to being inside a spaceship (far from any sources of gravity) that is being accelerated by its engines. The direction or vector of acceleration equivalence on the surface of the earth is \"up\" or directly opposite the center of the planet while the vector of acceleration in a spaceship is directly opposite from the mass ejected by its thrusters. From this principle, Einstein deduced that free-fall is inertial motion. Objects in free-fall do not experience being accelerated downward (e.g. toward the earth or other massive body) but rather weightlessness and no acceleration. In an inertial frame of reference bodies (and photons, or light) obey Newton's first law, moving at constant velocity in straight lines. Analogously, in a curved spacetime the world line of an inertial particle or pulse of light is \"as straight as possible\" (in space \"and\" time). Such a world line is called a geodesic and from the point of view of the inertial frame is a straight line. This is why an accelerometer in free-fall doesn't register any acceleration; there isn't any.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "80825", "title": "Free fall", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 270, "text": "Technically, an object is in free fall even when moving upwards or instantaneously at rest at the top of its motion. If gravity is the only influence acting, then the acceleration is always downward and has the same magnitude for all bodies, commonly denoted formula_1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1208420", "title": "Three-body problem", "section": "Section::::Solutions.:Special-case solutions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 333, "text": "In 2018, Li and Liao reported 234 solutions to the unequal-mass \"free-fall\" three body problem. The free fall formulation of the three body problem starts with all three bodies at rest. Because of this, the masses in a free-fall configuration do not orbit in a closed \"loop\", but travel forwards and backwards along an open \"track\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22498", "title": "Orbit", "section": "Section::::Planetary orbits.:Understanding orbits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 306, "text": "BULLET::::- As the object is pulled toward the massive body, it falls toward that body. However, if it has enough tangential velocity it will not fall into the body but will instead continue to follow the curved trajectory caused by that body indefinitely. The object is then said to be orbiting the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > It seems to imply that to a distant observer, the field due to a charge at the event horizon of a black hole would have to be spherically symmetric around the center of the black hole (at least, assuming a spherical black hole). \n\nOk, when people say a black hole is only described by its mass, charge and angular momentum, there's an important caveat that this only applies if you wait a bit for things to stabilize. For example, consider this [animation of two merging black holes](_URL_0_). Immediately after they merge, the merged black hole is still wobbling and the gravitational field produced by this is dynamic, so it goes beyond just mass, charge and angular momentum. But the wobbling black hole is emitting gravitational waves, and in doing so stabilizes into a static state after some time.\n\nSame thing if you dump electric charge into the black hole. From your point of view, you observe the charge being scrambled at the event horizon and the associated dynamic EM field. Over time, the charge will get evenly distributed over the event horizon and radiate away EM waves until everything stabilizes and you get a static electric field.\n\nThe important thing is that everything happens at the level of the event horizon from your point of view. You never get any information of what's going inside. For example, the wobbling black hole can be seen as an elastic beach ball without concern for what's inside the ball. Similarly, when you dump charge in the hole, you see the charge flowing through the beach ball's surface.\n\nBut if you wait long enough, the black hole will look like a nice sphere described only by mass, charge and angular momentum, after it has finished scrambling what you tossed inside.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "701509", "title": "Charged black hole", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 339, "text": "A charged black hole is a black hole that possesses electric charge. Since the electromagnetic repulsion in compressing an electrically charged mass is dramatically greater than the gravitational attraction (by about 40 orders of magnitude), it is not expected that black holes with a significant electric charge will be formed in nature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "142534", "title": "Electron hole", "section": "Section::::Solid-state physics.:Simplified analogy: Empty seat in an auditorium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 506, "text": "Instead of analyzing the movement of an empty state in the valence band as the movement of many separate electrons, a single equivalent imaginary particle called a \"hole\" is considered. In an applied electric field, the electrons move in one direction, corresponding to the hole moving in the other. If a hole associates itself with a neutral atom, that atom loses an electron and becomes positive. Therefore, the hole is taken to have positive charge of +e, precisely the opposite of the electron charge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2975616", "title": "Penrose process", "section": "Section::::Details of the ergosphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 385, "text": "If particle A enters the ergosphere of a Kerr black hole, then splits into particles B and C, then the consequence (given the assumptions that conservation of energy still holds and one of the particles is allowed to have negative energy) will be that particle B can exit the ergosphere with more energy than particle A while particle C goes into the black hole, i.e. and say , then .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "248182", "title": "Space charge", "section": "Section::::Space-charge-limited current.:In semiconductors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 458, "text": "In semiconductors and insulating materials, an electric field causes charged particles, electrons, to reach a specific drift velocity that is parallel to the direction of the field. This is different from the behavior of the free charged particles in a vacuum, in which a field accelerates the particle. The proportionality factor between the magnitudes of the drift velocity, formula_7, and the electric field, formula_8, is called the mobility, formula_9:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "173724", "title": "Hawking radiation", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 696, "text": "An alternative view of the process is that vacuum fluctuations cause a particle–antiparticle pair to appear close to the event horizon of a black hole. One of the pair falls into the black hole while the other escapes. In order to preserve total energy, the particle that fell into the black hole must have had a negative energy (with respect to an observer far away from the black hole). This causes the black hole to lose mass, and, to an outside observer, it would appear that the black hole has just emitted a particle. In another model, the process is a quantum tunnelling effect, whereby particle–antiparticle pairs will form from the vacuum, and one will tunnel outside the event horizon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2975616", "title": "Penrose process", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 520, "text": "The maximum amount of energy gain possible for a single particle via this process is 20.7%. The process obeys the laws of black hole mechanics. A consequence of these laws is that if the process is performed repeatedly, the black hole can eventually lose all of its angular momentum, becoming non-rotating, i.e. a Schwarzschild black hole. In this case the theoretical maximum energy that can be extracted from a black hole is 29% of its original mass. Larger efficiencies are possible for charged rotating black holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1987207", "title": "Black hole electron", "section": "Section::::Details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 584, "text": "So, the above purely classical calculation cannot be trusted. Furthermore, even classically, electric charge and angular momentum affect the properties of a black hole. To take them into account, while still ignoring quantum effects, one should use the Kerr–Newman metric. If we do, we find the angular momentum and charge of the electron are too large for a black hole of the electron's mass: a Kerr-Newman object with such a large angular momentum and charge would instead be 'super-extremal', displaying a naked singularity, meaning a singularity not shielded by an event horizon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Assuming no strong cold or warm air advection is taking place, it's normally the coldest just before sunrise. You can clearly see the diurnal temperature trends in [this hourly weather graph for Phoenix, Arizona](_URL_0_).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "191061", "title": "Dawn", "section": "Section::::Effects of latitude.:Polar regions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 382, "text": "Daytime becomes longer as the summer solstice approaches, while nighttime gets longer as the winter solstice approaches. This can have a potential impact on the times and durations of dawn and dusk. This effect is more pronounced closer to the poles, where the Sun rises at the vernal equinox and sets at the autumn equinox, with a long period of twilight, lasting for a few weeks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "191061", "title": "Dawn", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 424, "text": "Dawn, from an Old English verb \"dagian\": \"to become day\", is the time that marks the beginning of twilight before sunrise. It is recognized by the appearance of indirect sunlight being scattered in the atmosphere, when the centre of the Sun's disc reaches 18° below the horizon. This dawn twilight period will last until sunrise (when the Sun's upper limb breaks the horizon), as the diffused light becomes direct sunlight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "206119", "title": "Night", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 536, "text": "The opposite of night is day (or \"daytime\", to distinguish it from \"day\" referring to a 24-hour period). The start and end points of time for a night vary, based on factors such as season and latitude. Twilight is the period of night after sunset or before sunrise when the Sun still illuminates the sky when it is below the horizon. At any given time, one side of Earth is bathed in sunlight (the daytime) while the other side is in the shadow caused by Earth blocking the sunlight. The central part of the shadow is called the umbra.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24397942", "title": "The Arctic Home in the Vedas", "section": "Section::::Summary of Tilak’s polar theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 367, "text": "BULLET::::- The long dawn of two months is a special and important characteristic of the North Pole. As we descend southward, the splendor and the duration of the dawn will be witnessed on a less and less magnificent scale. But the dawn occurring at the end of the long night of two, three or more months will still be unusually long, often of several days duration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16749103", "title": "Scania", "section": "Section::::Climate and seasons.:Summer.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 649, "text": "Unlike the other seasons, summer is not warmer in Scania compared to many other Swedish provinces. As in winter, the weather usually changes between periods that either are sunny and fairly hot (up to 30 degrees, even higher away from the coastlines), and periods of unstable cloudy and cooler weather. The time between sunset and sunrise during June and earliest July is less than 7 hours, and both the dawn and the dusk are rather long as well. However, there are still a few hours of real night. Further north in Sweden there is no real night, as dusk turns into dawn. (In northernmost Sweden, the sun does not set at all for around two months.)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "178591", "title": "Tromsø", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Light and darkness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 747, "text": "The sun remains below the horizon during the polar night from about 26 November to 15 January, but owing to the mountains, the sun is not visible from 21 November to 21 January. The return of the sun is an occasion for celebration. However, because of the twilight, there is some daylight for a couple of hours even around midwinter, often with bluish light, allowing for normal day/night cycles during the winter. The nights shorten quickly. By 21 February the sun is above the horizon from 7:45 am to 4:10 pm, and by 1 April it is above the horizon from 5:50 am to 7:50 pm (daylight saving time). However, if one were to include astronomical twilight as \"not night\", then Tromsø only has 13 hours and 32 minutes of night on the winter solstice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57706485", "title": "Tromsø (city)", "section": "Section::::Climate.:Light and darkness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 658, "text": "The sun remains below the horizon during the polar night from about 26 November to 15 January, but owing to the mountains, the sun is not visible from 21 November to 21 January. The return of the sun is an occasion for celebration. However, because of the twilight, there is some daylight for a couple of hours even around midwinter, often with bluish light. The nights shorten quickly. By 21 February the sun is above the horizon from 7:45 am to 4:10 pm, and by 1 April it is above the horizon from 5:50 am to 7:50 pm (daylight saving time). If we include astronomical twilight as \"not night\", then Tromso only has 14 hours of night on the winter solstice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I suppose you're here talking about computers and not the dance.\n\n**ELI5 answer :** Java is a programming language which allows to create programs.\n\n\n**Long answer :** Unlike other programming languages like C++, the code is interpreted by another program (called the JVM, Java Virtual Machine) which renders the result. Most programming languages doesn't work like this ; they compile code into binary data which can be directly used by the computer. Java is also a *object-oriented* programming language, but defining the *object-oriented* notion would require another ELI5.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "42922", "title": "Comparison of Java and C++", "section": "Section::::Design aims.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 486, "text": "Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented programming language that is designed to minimize implementation dependencies. It relies on a Java virtual machine to be secure and highly portable. It is bundled with an extensive library designed to provide a full abstraction of the underlying platform. Java is a statically typed object-oriented language that uses a syntax similar to (but incompatible with) C++. It includes a documentation system called Javadoc.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15881", "title": "Java (programming language)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 765, "text": "Java is a general-purpose programming language that is class-based, object-oriented (although not a pure object-oriented language, as it contains primitive types), and designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers \"write once, run anywhere\" (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation. Java applications are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is similar to C and C++, but it has fewer low-level facilities than either of them. , Java was one of the most popular programming languages in use according to GitHub, \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57143357", "title": "Glossary of computer science", "section": "Section::::J.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 177, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 177, "end_character": 394, "text": "BULLET::::- Java – is a general-purpose programming language that is class-based, object-oriented(although not a \"pure\" OO language), and designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers \"write once, run anywhere\" (WORA), meaning that compiled Java code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need for recompilation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37915741", "title": "Google Chrome Experiments", "section": "Section::::Major technologies used.:JavaScript.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 403, "text": "JavaScript is a scripting language that is mainly used for creating for implementing dynamic website pages and enhanced user interfaces for web browsers. Highly influenced by programming languages such as C, Java, Self, and Scheme, JavaScript supports object oriented, functional, and imperative programming styles. Even though its name has \"Java\" in it, it is an entirely different language from Java.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4718446", "title": "Java (software platform)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 723, "text": "Java is a set of computer software and specifications developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems, which was later acquired by the Oracle Corporation, that provides a system for developing application software and deploying it in a cross-platform computing environment. Java is used in a wide variety of computing platforms from embedded devices and mobile phones to enterprise servers and supercomputers. Java applets, which are less common than standalone Java applications, were commonly run in secure, sandboxed environments to provide many features of native applications through being embedded in HTML pages. It's still possible to run Java in web browsers after most of them having dropped support for Java's VM.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "625728", "title": "JavaOS", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 313, "text": "JavaOS is an operating system with a Java virtual machine as a fundamental component, originally developed by Sun Microsystems. Unlike Windows, Mac OS, Unix, or Unix-like systems which are primarily written in the C programming language, JavaOS is primarily written in Java. It is now considered a legacy system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9845", "title": "JavaScript", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 253, "text": "JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a high-level, interpreted programming language that conforms to the ECMAScript specification. JavaScript has curly-bracket syntax, dynamic typing, prototype-based object-orientation, and first-class functions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Interesting, I always thought about it from the other point of view. If you consider a man to be the best human and a role model to pattern your life on, wouldn't it follow that it should be a very common name? Muslims are supposed to love the prophet Muhammad more than their parents and we know that naming children after people you love is pretty common. With that logic, I think the question should be, why aren't Jesus and Moses more common names?*\n\n*Among Christians and Jews, respectively, of course. They're both relatively common names in the Muslim world (with the Arabic pronunciation, of course).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Jesús\" is very common in Spanish-speaking countries; the English variant \"Joshuah\" is reasonably well known. Here are a few related threads on the popularity of the names \"Muhammad\" and/or \"Jesus\":\n\n* [Why do Muslims consider it alright to name their children after Mohammad, but Christians in most western countries don't name their children after Jesus?](_URL_1_)\n\n* [Why is 'Jesus' not a common name for English language people, but very common for Spanish?](_URL_3_)\n\n* [Was Jesus ever a popular name for boys among English-speaking countries (like how Jesús is for Spanish speaking countries)? If so, when did it stop being common and why?](_URL_4_)\n\n* [Has \"Jesus\" ever been a popular name in the Western world outside of Spanish speaking countries? Why is Jesús popular in Spain but not popular in other Christian influenced cultures?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Is there a historic reason why Latin American Christians are willing to name their children Jesus, whereas European Christians are not?](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24778784", "title": "Natan'el al-Fayyumi", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 265, "text": "There were Jews, such as Natan'el, who accepted this model of religious pluralism, leading them to view Muhammad as a legitimate prophet, albeit not Jewish, sent to preach to the Arabs, just as the Hebrew prophets had been sent to deliver their messages to Israel.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7544888", "title": "Muhammad (name)", "section": "Section::::Statistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 309, "text": "According to the sixth edition of \"The Columbia Encyclopedia\" (2000), \"Muhammad\" is probably the most common given name [in the world], including variations. It is estimated that more than 150 million men and boys in the world bear the name \"Muhammad\" due to its relationship to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37568013", "title": "Names and titles of Muhammad", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 326, "text": "The names and titles of Muhammad, names and attributes of Muhammad, Names of Muhammad (Arabic: أَسْمَاءُ ٱلْنَّبِيّ \"’Asmā’u ’n-Nabiyy\") are the names of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and used by Muslims, where 88 of them are commonly renown, but also countless names which are found mainly in the Quran and hadith literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8386524", "title": "Muhammad's views on Jews", "section": "Section::::Muhammad and the Jewish tribes of Medina.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1016, "text": "As Muhammad taught of new \"Islamic prophets\" (such as Lot, and Jesus) and that his message was identical to those of Abraham and Moses, the Jews were furthermore in the position to make some Muslims doubt about his prophethood. Judaism does not list Lot, nor Jesus as Prophets in Judaism, and the Talmud (Sanhedrin 11a) states that Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, all of whom lived at the end of the 70-year Babylonian exile, and nowadays only the \"Bath Kol\" (בת קול, lit. \"daughter of a voice\", \"voice of God\") exists. The Jews, according to Watt, could argue that \"some passages in the Qur'an contradicted their ancient scriptures\". Watt also states that many of the Jews had close links with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, \"the potential prince of Medina\" who \"is said that but for the arrival of Muhammad, had not become\" the chief arbitrator of the community. The Jews may have hoped for greater influence if Ubayy had become a ruler. Watt writes that the Islamic response to these criticisms was:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "429985", "title": "Imamate in Shia doctrine", "section": "Section::::Sects.:Twelver view.:Why only (specific) members of Muhammad's family?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 669, "text": "Moreover, once the prophethood of Muhammad is testified they would obey him, no one would hesitate to follow his offspring and this would not be hard for anyone. While to follow the offspring of the corrupted families is difficult. And that is maybe why the basic characteristic of Muhammad and other prophets was their nobility. For none of them, it is said, were originated from a disgraced family. It is believed that all Muhammad's ancestors up to Adam were true Muslims. Jesus was also from a pious family, as it is mentioned in Quran that after his birth, people said to Mary: \"O sister of Aaron, your father was not a man of evil, nor was your mother unchaste.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "164101", "title": "Arabic name", "section": "Section::::Name structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 400, "text": "Indeed such is the popularity of the name \"Muhammad\" throughout parts of Africa, Arabia, the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast Asia, it is often represented by the abbreviation \"Md.\", \"Mohd.\", \"Muhd.\", or just \"M.\". In India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, due to its almost ubiquitous use as a first name, a person will often be referred to by their second name:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24805", "title": "Prophet", "section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.:Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 282, "text": "The Quran identifies a number of men as \"Prophets of Islam\" ( \"nabī\"; pl. \"anbiyāʾ\"). Muslims believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God to guide humanity. Besides Muhammad, this includes prophets such as Abraham (\"Ibrāhīm\"), Moses (\"Mūsā\") and Jesus (\"ʿĪsā\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Here's a taste of how accurate orbital calculations are: in 1676 Romer proposed that there was a finite speed of light when he noticed that Io, a moon of Jupiter, was some times 8 minutes ahead of \"schedule\" (predicted location) and sometimes 8 minutes behind. 8 minutes. 350 years ago. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "86631", "title": "MISTRAM", "section": "Section::::Minuteman Inertial Guidance System testing.:Accuracy evaluation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 633, "text": "One of the major problems in trajectory and orbital estimation is to obtain a realistic estimate of the accuracy of the trajectory and other important parameters. In the orbital case, some of the parameters which may not be solved for are geopotential constants, survey, etc. These factors will affect the total uncertainty in the orbit and, of course, ephemeris predictions. A statistical technique was developed that performs a variance-covariance propagation to obtain accuracy estimates based on random and unmodeled errors. An example of the unmodeled error propagation in the MISTRAM system was given for the Geos B satellite.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "72576", "title": "Axial precession", "section": "Section::::Values.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 1072, "text": "Theoretical models may calculate the constants (coefficients) corresponding to the higher powers of \"T\", but since it is impossible for a (finite) polynomial to match a periodic function over all numbers, the difference in all such approximations will grow without bound as \"T\" increases. However, greater accuracy can be obtained over a limited time span by fitting a high enough order polynomial to observation data, rather than a necessarily imperfect dynamic numerical model. So for present flight trajectory calculations of artificial satellites and spacecraft, the polynomial method gives better accuracy. In that respect, the International Astronomical Union chose the best-developed available theory. For up to a few centuries in the past and the future, all formulas do not diverge very much. For up to a few thousand years in the past and the future, most agree to some accuracy. For eras farther out, discrepancies become too large – the exact rate and period of precession may not be computed using these polynomials even for a single whole precession period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23859945", "title": "N-body problem", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 611, "text": "Knowing three orbital positions of a planet's orbit – positions obtained by Sir Isaac Newton from astronomer John Flamsteed – Newton was able to produce an equation by straightforward analytical geometry, to predict a planet's motion; i.e., to give its orbital properties: position, orbital diameter, period and orbital velocity. Having done so, he and others soon discovered over the course of a few years, those equations of motion did not predict some orbits very well or even correctly. Newton realized it was because gravitational interactive forces amongst all the planets was affecting all their orbits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33759349", "title": "Uncertainty parameter", "section": "Section::::Orbital uncertainty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 420, "text": "Orbital uncertainty is related to several parameters used in the orbit determination process including the number of observations (measurements), the time spanned by those observations (observation arc), the quality of the observations (e.g. radar vs. optical), and the geometry of the observations. Of these parameters, the time spanned by the observations generally has the greatest effect on the orbital uncertainty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45279246", "title": "420356 Praamzius", "section": "Section::::Orbit and classification.:Proximity to orbital resonance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1003, "text": "The apparent resonance even depends on what source data and calculation methods are employed - the best fit for the given orbital \"periods\" within a 25,000 year cycle time, 44:75, is still imperfect and exhibits a final error of more than 1.5 Earth years for the final conjunction (approx 0.5%, or 2 degrees of arc). If we instead use the two bodies' respective \"semi-major axes\", i.e. their mean orbital \"radii\" as the basis for calculation, and purely Keplerian 2-body equations (ignoring interference by all other bodies), the decimal ratio returns 1.699943. This is actually close enough to 1.7 that a 10:17 resonance can be considered a credible possibility, not only with \"U\" = 2, but even in the looser reaches of a notional \"U=-1\" band, 4.4× more accurate than the usual \"U\" = 0 gold standard and about 85× more than band 2. However, appearing to be dead centre is no guarantee of accuracy when the uncertainty IS actually that great, so either of the other explanations could still be correct.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "422481", "title": "Mass–energy equivalence", "section": "Section::::Background.:Low speed expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 367, "text": "The higher-order terms are extra corrections to Newtonian mechanics, and become important at higher speeds. The Newtonian equation is only a low-speed approximation, but an extraordinarily good one. All of the calculations used in putting astronauts on the moon, for example, could have been done using Newton's equations without any of the higher-order corrections.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52713", "title": "Binary star", "section": "Section::::Classifications.:Methods of observation.:Spectroscopic binaries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 409, "text": "It is impossible to determine individually the semi-major axis \"a\" and the inclination of the orbit plane \"i\". However, the product of the semi-major axis and the sine of the inclination (i.e. \"a\" sin \"i\") may be determined directly in linear units (e.g. kilometres). If either \"a\" or \"i\" can be determined by other means, as in the case of eclipsing binaries, a complete solution for the orbit can be found.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Plants only produce pollen from their flowers (or cones, etc.). So if your friend would like some plants inside her house she just needs to make sure they don't flower (i.e. cut the flower buds off). Some plants flower more often or easily than others. Cacti rarely flower, in my experience.\n\nFerns produce no flowers but they reproduce using spores. As long as your friend is not also allergic to fern spores, that could be an option.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No, only a subset of plants [disperse pollen by air](_URL_0_). Other plants that are pollinated by insects have pollen that's too heavy and sticky to get carried in the air.\n\nI'm pretty sure it's impossible to have an allergic reaction to *all* plants. Has she gotten a proper allergy test? Usually pollen allergies are caused by a few specific plants that are grown in your area and release lots of pollen.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "8515344", "title": "Filipendula rubra", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Pollination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 394, "text": "\"Filipendula rubra\" is known for its air-borne pollen, however pollination is only effective (can create a seed) when pollen is transferred to a different plant, due to the fact that \"F. rubra\" is self-incompatible. The vast majority of pollen will be derived from inflorescences within the same clone and thus incompatible. Pollination is aided by insects such as sweat bees spreading pollen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2390680", "title": "Entomophily", "section": "Section::::Coevolution.:The plant's needs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 723, "text": "Wind and water pollination require the production of vast quantities of pollen because of the chancy nature of its deposition. If they are not to be reliant on the wind or water (for aquatic species), plants need pollinators to move their pollen grains from one plant to another. They particularly need pollinators to consistently choose flowers of the same species, so they have evolved different lures to encourage specific pollinators to maintain fidelity to the same species. The attractions offered are mainly nectar, pollen, fragrances and oils. The ideal pollinating insect is hairy (so that pollen adheres to it), and spends time exploring the flower so that it comes into contact with the reproductive structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1443432", "title": "Buzz pollination", "section": "Section::::Evolutionary origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 1702, "text": "Although pollination results from the bees visiting these flowers, this is not the primary reason they visit plants with poricidal anthers. Pollen contains a substantial amount of protein compared to nectar, the sugary liquid the majority of plants produce as a reward for their animal pollinators. Bees eat pollen as well as make a paste with it to feed their larvae. The pollen paste is then sealed into the nest to create a reserve for the young bees. Bees rely on this resource for food; therefore they are also dependent on flowers that produce substantial amounts of accessible pollen, including flowers with poricidal anthers. Bees from \"Bombus\" and \"Xylocopa\" are thought to pollinate these flowers because their adaptive behavior allows them easily extract pollen that is less available to other insects. Since bees have a source of plentiful pollen that they do not have to compete with other insects for, they are more likely to visit these flowers. This then allows the flowers to more successful reproductively because the plants maximize their pollen dispersal with each bee visit, and less pollen is lost. The relationship between buzz pollinated plants and bees benefits both groups and could be why poricidal anthers have been successful evolutionarily. Pollinator and flower relationships have been observed in \"Orphium frutescens\", a small shrub that has poricidal anthers. Bees visited these plants outside of the University of Cape Town and continued to visit the plants even when all of the pollen had been extracted. Although the bees did not know the \"O. frutescens\" would benefit from these multiple visits as the plants continue to produce pollen during the flowering season.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22719", "title": "Orchidaceae", "section": "Section::::Description.:Flowers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 231, "text": "Pollen is released as single grains, like in most other plants, in the Apostasioideae, Cypripedioideae, and Vanilloideae. In the other subfamilies, which comprise the great majority of orchids, the anther (3) carries two pollinia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6614349", "title": "Plant reproduction", "section": "Section::::History of sexual reproduction of plants.:Flowering plants.:Pollination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 624, "text": "In plants that use insects or other animals to move pollen from one flower to the next, plants have developed greatly modified flower parts to attract pollinators and to facilitate the movement of pollen from one flower to the insect and from the insect back to the next flower. Flowers of wind pollinated plants tend to lack petals and or sepals; typically large amounts of pollen are produced and pollination often occurs early in the growing season before leaves can interfere with the dispersal of the pollen. Many trees and all grasses and sedges are wind pollinated, as such they have no need for large fancy flowers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6161213", "title": "Pollination syndrome", "section": "Section::::Abiotic.:Water pollination (hydrophily).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 474, "text": "Water-pollinated plants are aquatic and pollen is released into the water. Water currents therefore act as a pollen vector in a similar way to wind currents. Their flowers tend to be small and inconspicuous with lots of pollen grains and large, feathery stigmas to catch the pollen. However, this is relatively uncommon (only 2% of pollination is hydrophily) and most aquatic plants are insect-pollinated, with flowers that emerge into the air. \"Vallisneria\" is an example.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "300755", "title": "Polemonium reptans", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 360, "text": "The flowers produce both pollen and nectar. Long- and short-tongued bees visit the plants for both nectar and pollen, syrphid flies and fire beetles (\"Pedilus lugubris\") feed on pollen, and butterflies and moths drink nectar. Out of these insects, large bees are the most effective at cross-pollination, since they most often touch the pollen-covered anthers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "These sites do one of two things.\n\nThey operate in a jurisdiction where it would be difficult to shut them down.\n\nIf they are ever actually shut down, they simply create a new site and port everything over.\n\nIt's usually a game of whack-a-mole. With law enforcement trying to shut them down but the sites simply coming back up with a new domain name.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Many of these sites operate out of jurisdictions where it's difficult to shut down the site. They aren't hosted in US datacenters for example.\n\nThey also obfuscate their ownership. Shutting down a site and holding the people involved responsible are two different things. The copyright holders prefer the later to send a message.\n\nThey are also prolific and easy to spinup/move. If a particular site gets shutdown, 3 will pop up to take it's place within hours, and the authorities are well aware of this fact.\n\nTaking down a major player like the PirateBay seemed like a big win for the authorities but the site was back online within hours under new ownership and in a new location. Then the process of taking them down had to start all over again.\n\nLegal proceedings are expensive and take time, so the copyright holders can't afford to take every single one of these sites to court. Part of the problem is that it isn't profitable to do so, many of these sites have no real assets and are run as a hobby, so you ~~can~~ can't squeeze a multi-million dollar settlement out of them to cover your costs.\n\nSome of the big media companies are finally waking up to the idea that a lot of people don't pirate because it's free, they did it out of convenience. A lot of early piracy was driven by peoples realization that you could download a show and not have to tune in \"same Bat time same Bat channel\" anymore, or have to wait 2 months for that episode you wanted to show to appear in syndication. The way you defeat piracy is to provide a similar and reasonably priced service. People are perfectly willing to pay for a reasonably priced legal content on a streaming service.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So what's the point in hosting these?\n\nWho makes (any) money?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27108790", "title": "TV Everywhere", "section": "Section::::Reception.:Password sharing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 897, "text": "There have been instances of users deliberately sharing their TV Everywhere login credentials, or having them sold without their owner's knowledge on the black market, in order to allow others to view programs without subscribing to the channel. Charter Communications CEO Tom Rutledge, and ESPN's executive vice president for affiliate sales and marketing Justin Connolly, have considered this practice equivalent to piracy. In December 2017, it was reported that television providers and program distributors have begun to implement measures in order to discourage this practice, including reducing the length of login session, reducing the number of concurrent streams allowed on a single account, and monitoring unusual usage patterns such as large numbers of concurrent streams on a single account—especially those originating from outside of the customer's region, or during major programs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1813588", "title": "Digital distribution", "section": "Section::::Challenges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 534, "text": "A general issue is the large number of incompatible data formats in which content is delivered, possibly restricting the devices that may be used, or making data conversion necessary. Streaming services can have several drawbacks: requiring a constant Internet connection to use content; the restriction of some content to never be stored locally; the restriction of content from being transferred to physical media; and the enabling of greater censorship at the discretion of owners of content, infrastructure, and consumer devices.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29426527", "title": "Autoroll", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 746, "text": "Because subscription TV providers tend not to discuss the methods by which they encrypt and decrypt their signals, mention of \"autoroll\" software and \"autorolling\" on a website usually indicates that the website's owners are engaged in illegal TV piracy. Normally such sites claim they are not legally bound to reveal customers' identities; often enough too, such sites will claim their activities are completely legal. Yet according to both U.S. and Canadian laws neither claim is true. In fact, the U.S.'s Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 compels equipment and coding providers to turn over their customers' records to subscription-service providers if the former is found to have engaged in or aided in stealing the latter's services.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12831000", "title": "Internet censorship in Thailand", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 252, "text": "Although the great majority of censored sites were pornographic, the list also includes anonymous proxy servers which circumvent web-blocking and provide access to Internet gambling sites. Pornography and gambling are specifically illegal in Thailand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58801187", "title": "Organised crime in Indonesia", "section": "Section::::Cybercrime.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 451, "text": "Illegal streaming sites contribute heavily to cyber crime in Indonesia. There was a major decrease in illegal sites in the music industry in 2017, after two-thirds of related sites were taken down towards the end of the year. These sites often create new websites meant to share content. Some experts suggest that taking down these sites will eventually close many of these operations down, claiming that there will be less viewers and lower revenue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7169138", "title": "18 Doughty Street", "section": "Section::::Birth and Early Beginnings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 480, "text": "The station used live video streaming technology in a Windows format to webcast from 19:00 until midnight from Monday to Friday, with all programmes being made available to stream again shortly after the programme had aired. Due to the technology of the time, viewers could not download archived videos to their computer or portable device directly from the site, although a video podcast service of all archive videos was offered shortly before the station ceased broadcasting. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1038024", "title": "Pirate decryption", "section": "Section::::Political issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 202, "text": "Pirate or grey-market reception also provides viewers a means to bypass local blackout restrictions on sporting events and to access hard-core pornography where some content is not otherwise available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Not quite your question, but [this older link](_URL_0_) might nevertheless be of interest for you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22713", "title": "Opium", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1012, "text": "The Mediterranean region contains the earliest archeological evidence of human use; the oldest known seeds date back to more than 5000 BCE in the Neolithic age with purposes such as food, anaesthetics, and ritual. Evidence from ancient Greece indicates that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, and as a combination with hemlock for suicide. The Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Minoan, Greek, Roman, Persian and Arab Empires all made widespread use of opium, which was the most potent form of pain relief then available, allowing ancient surgeons to perform prolonged surgical procedures. Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28755089", "title": "History of general anesthesia", "section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Opium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 380, "text": "Prior to the introduction of opium to ancient India and China, these civilizations pioneered the use of cannabis incense and aconitum. c. 400 BC, the Sushruta Samhita (a text from the Indian subcontinent on ayurvedic medicine and surgery) advocates the use of wine with incense of cannabis for anesthesia. By the 8th century AD, Arab traders had brought opium to India and China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52568811", "title": "Cannabis in China", "section": "Section::::Taoism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 482, "text": "Beginning around the 4th century, Taoist texts mentioned using cannabis in censers. Needham cited the (ca. 570 AD) Taoist encyclopedia \"Wushang Biyao\" 無上秘要 (\"Supreme Secret Essentials\") that cannabis was added into ritual incense-burners, and suggested the ancient Taoists experimented systematically with \"hallucinogenic smokes\". The \"Yuanshi shangzhen zhongxian ji\" 元始上真眾仙記 (\"Records of the Assemblies of the Perfected Immortals\"), which is attributed to Ge Hong (283-343), says:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2331004", "title": "Cannabis and religion", "section": "Section::::Taoism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 482, "text": "Beginning around the 4th century, Taoist texts mentioned using cannabis in censers. Needham cited the (ca. 570 AD) Taoist encyclopedia \"Wushang Biyao\" 無上秘要 (\"Supreme Secret Essentials\") that cannabis was added into ritual incense-burners, and suggested the ancient Taoists experimented systematically with \"hallucinogenic smokes\". The \"Yuanshi shangzhen zhongxian ji\" 元始上真眾仙記 (\"Records of the Assemblies of the Perfected Immortals\"), which is attributed to Ge Hong (283-343), says:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28755089", "title": "History of general anesthesia", "section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Opium.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1630, "text": "The Sumerians are said to have cultivated and harvested the opium poppy (\"Papaver somniferum\") in lower Mesopotamia as early as 3400 BC, though this has been disputed. The most ancient testimony concerning the opium poppy found to date was inscribed in cuneiform script on a small white clay tablet at the end of the third millennium BC. This tablet was discovered in 1954 during excavations at Nippur, and is currently kept at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Deciphered by Samuel Noah Kramer and Martin Leve, it is considered to be the most ancient pharmacopoeia in existence. Some Sumerian tablets of this era have an ideogram inscribed upon them, \"hul gil\", which translates to \"plant of joy\", believed by some authors to refer to opium. The term \"gil\" is still used for opium in certain parts of the world. The Sumerian goddess Nidaba is often depicted with poppies growing out of her shoulders. About 2225 BC, the Sumerian territory became a part of the Babylonian empire. Knowledge and use of the opium poppy and its euphoric effects thus passed to the Babylonians, who expanded their empire eastwards to Persia and westwards to Egypt, thereby extending its range to these civilizations. British archaeologist and cuneiformist Reginald Campbell Thompson writes that opium was known to the Assyrians in the 7th century BC. The term \"Arat Pa Pa\" occurs in the \"Assyrian Herbal\", a collection of inscribed Assyrian tablets dated to c. 650 BC. According to Thompson, this term is the Assyrian name for the juice of the poppy and it may be the etymological origin of the Latin \"\"papaver\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41272705", "title": "History of medical cannabis", "section": "Section::::Ancient India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1113, "text": "Cannabis was a major component in religious practices in ancient India as well as in medicinal practices. For many centuries, most parts of life in ancient India incorporated cannabis of some form. Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included insomnia, headaches, a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, and pain: cannabis was frequently used to relieve the pain of childbirth. One Indian philosopher expressed his views on the nature and uses of bhang (a form of cannabis), which combined religious thought with medical practices. \"A guardian lives in the bhang leaf. …To see in a dream the leaves, plant, or water of bhang is lucky. …A longing for bhang foretells happiness. It cures dysentry and sunstroke, clears phlegm, quickens digestion, sharpens appetite, makes the tongue of the lisper plain, freshens the intellect and gives alertness to the body and gaiety to the mind. Such are the useful and needful ends for which in His goodness the Almighty made bhang.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24542769", "title": "Herb", "section": "Section::::Medicinal herbs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 444, "text": "Certain herbs contain psychoactive properties that have been used for both religious and recreational purposes by humans since the early Holocene era, notably the leaves and extracts of the cannabis and coca plants. The leaves of the coca plant have been chewed by people in northern Peruvian societies for over 8,000 years, while the use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance dates back to the first century CE in China and northern Africa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Would the vacuum be strong enough to tear single molecules out of the container walls, or wouldn't it even be possible to create a container strong enough, or wouldn't anything cool happen at all?\n\nThis prevents you from ever actually reaching perfect vacuum. Not from \"tearing apart\" the walls of the vacuum chamber per se, but from *virtual leaks*.\n\nThese are a number of processes that lead to residual gases being present in the chamber even if there is no direct pathway from the outside in (a \"real leak\"). For example, any moisture that has been deposited on the walls of the chamber will outgas. And any air which is trapped inside of little cracks or screw holes, which will take a long time to be fully removed by the pumps. And even *permeation*, where things like helium gas literally diffuse through the walls of the chamber.\n\nAll of these kinds of processes mean that there will be some small amount of residual gas inside the chamber no matter how hard you pump. You can never reach a perfect vacuum in a laboratory.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/robusetceleritas did a great job of explaining why we can't achieve a perfect vacuum. I'll add that the strength of the container really isn't much of an issue. If you were to create a perfect vacuum in a chamber, the pressure difference on the chamber walls is only one atmosphere. We can get to very low pressures, less than a billionth of an atmosphere, so the pressure difference that a vacuum chamber has to maintain is almost one atmosphere anyway. Gases are often stored at pressures much higher than atmospheric pressure, and anything over 2 atmospheres is a greater pressure difference than you could ever achieve with a vacuum. Atmospheric pressure is about 101 kPa or 15 psi which is no problem for just about any metal, the real problem is leak management.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "32500", "title": "Vacuum pump", "section": "Section::::Types.:Positive displacement pump.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 700, "text": "A partial vacuum may be generated by increasing the volume of a container. To continue evacuating a chamber indefinitely without requiring infinite growth, a compartment of the vacuum can be repeatedly closed off, exhausted, and expanded again. This is the principle behind a positive displacement pump, for example the manual water pump. Inside the pump, a mechanism expands a small sealed cavity to reduce its pressure below that of the atmosphere. Because of the pressure differential, some fluid from the chamber (or the well, in our example) is pushed into the pump's small cavity. The pump's cavity is then sealed from the chamber, opened to the atmosphere, and squeezed back to a minute size.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7367038", "title": "Vacuum packing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 472, "text": "Vacuum packing reduces atmospheric oxygen, limiting the growth of aerobic bacteria or fungi, and preventing the evaporation of volatile components. It is also commonly used to store dry foods over a long period of time, such as cereals, nuts, cured meats, cheese, smoked fish, coffee, and potato chips (crisps). On a more short term basis, vacuum packing can also be used to store fresh foods, such as vegetables, meats, and liquids, because it inhibits bacterial growth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29854333", "title": "Vacuum dry box", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 393, "text": "A Vacuum Dry Box is a piece of safety equipment which can provide an inert, or controlled atmosphere for handling sensitive materials. These devices can commonly be found in the fume hoods of chemistry labs, in facilities handling deadly pathogens, in NASA Moon Rock Handling facilities and in Industrial applications. Inert atmosphere glove boxes are also used for painting and sandblasting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "726015", "title": "Dry box", "section": "Section::::Types.:Desiccant boxes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 611, "text": "A simple dry box can consist of nothing more than a sealed, airtight box containing a desiccant, such as silica gel or anhydrous calcium chloride. These can be easily built at relatively low cost. However, the humidity level in such boxes cannot be controlled or regulated, owing to the difficulty of gauging the quantity of desiccant required to achieve a certain humidity level. Repeated opening of such boxes, allowing humid ambient air to enter, can saturate the desiccant, and some desiccants can have corrosive or other harmful effects on the contents of the box if they collect enough water to dissolve.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47488", "title": "Barometer", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 706, "text": "Many have said that a vacuum does not exist, others that it does exist in spite of the repugnance of nature and with difficulty; I know of no one who has said that it exists without difficulty and without a resistance from nature. I argued thus: If there can be found a manifest cause from which the resistance can be derived which is felt if we try to make a vacuum, it seems to me foolish to try to attribute to vacuum those operations which follow evidently from some other cause; and so by making some very easy calculations, I found that the cause assigned by me (that is, the weight of the atmosphere) ought by itself alone to offer a greater resistance than it does when we try to produce a vacuum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "634858", "title": "Vacuum chamber", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 644, "text": "A vacuum chamber is a rigid enclosure from which air and other gases are removed by a vacuum pump. This results in a low-pressure environment within the chamber, commonly referred to as a vacuum. A vacuum environment allows researchers to conduct physical experiments or to test mechanical devices which must operate in outer space (for example) or for processes such as vacuum drying or vacuum coating. Chambers are typically made of metals which may or may not shield applied external magnetic fields depending on wall thickness, frequency, resistivity, and permeability of the material used. Only some materials are suitable for vacuum use.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10834", "title": "Food preservation", "section": "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Vacuum packing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 411, "text": "Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum environment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to reduce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawback to vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vacuum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods, such as cheese, of its flavor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "My understanding of how this thing got started (I'm trying to find a citation) is that the number 13 comes up repeatedly in Maya numerology because it's considered a lucky number. The ritual calendar, as you pointed out, uses 13 cycles of 20 days. Using this, the novelist Gary Jennings wrote [a fictional novel](_URL_1_) on an apocalypse based on the B'ak'tun switch. My guess is that some new age nutjob read this work of fiction and decided it was a real prophecy. People then started writing \"non fiction\" books making the same argument.\n\nAside from the fact that the idea has its origins in a work of fiction, and the Maya made no such prophecy, we also place way too much emphasis on the Long Count. I think this is because, of the Mesoamerican calendars, the Long Count is closest to our calendar in that it moves in linear progression from past to present. The other Mesoamerican calendars all move in cycles. This is really a cultural bias on our part. We assume that because it's closer to our calendar that it's 'more advanced' and thus more important than the others. The truth is that the Long Count was only used by the Maya and the Epi-Olmec cultures, and even then it was only used to keep track of dynastic records. The other calendars (like the solar and ritual calendars) had way more relevance to the daily lives of ancient Mesoamericans. And since those are cyclical not linear, they don't ever end. They just keep going.\n\nEDIT: [Here's](_URL_0_) a really detailed breakdown of the whole thing from a reputable source, for those of you that want to learn more.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since this is 6 hours ago, i'll give it a try even though i'm not an expert.\n\nOne of the main indications would be that the Mayas wrote the creation date not 0.0.0.0.0, but 13.0.0.0.0. (But numerically it worked as 0.0.0.0.0.) Also, the 13 is an important number, even though i can't say anything about it's specific relevance. But it's also used in the [Tzolk'in-Calendar](_URL_0_), which would be the ritual calendar.\n\nAll that in mind, to what i recall it is correct that in some writings, 20 baktuns are used, as far as i understand, and even counts where the baktuns would be counted upward without end. Sources simply vary on this and this probably implies different systems. Just like the Maya-mythology used common elements but the details varied from city-state to city-state, for instance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21538638", "title": "2012 phenomenon", "section": "Section::::Mesoamerican Long Count calendar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 407, "text": "Unlike the 260-day \"tzolkʼin\" still used today among the Maya, the Long Count was linear rather than cyclical, and kept time roughly in units of 20: 20 days made a \"uinal\", 18 uinals (360 days) made a \"tun\", 20 tuns made a \"kʼatun\", and 20 kʼatuns (144,000 days or roughly 394 years) made up a \"bʼakʼtun\". Thus, the Maya date of 8.3.2.10.15 represents 8 bʼakʼtuns, 3 kʼatuns, 2 tuns, 10 uinals and 15 days.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32673959", "title": "Carl Johan Calleman", "section": "Section::::Beliefs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 242, "text": "Within the logic of the Mayan Long Count, he says, an auspicious end would have to be on a day which is 13 Ahau in the tzolkin count. Since 21 December 2012 falls on 4 Ahau this is an unlikely end date. The 28 October 2011 is a 13 Ahau date.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2008150", "title": "Baktun", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 632, "text": "Archaeologist J. Eric S. Thompson stated that it is erroneous to say that a Long Count date of, for example, 9.15.10.0.0 is in the “9th baktun”, analogous to describing the year 209 AD as in the “2nd century AD”. Even so, the practice is so well established among Maya epigraphers and other students of the Maya, that to change it would cause more harm than its perpetuation. The current practice of referring to the current baktun as ”baktun 13” or “thirteenth baktun” may stand, even though it is properly the fourteenth baktun. Alternatively, the first baktun could instead be referred to as the zeroeth to avoid this ambiguity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47604834", "title": "Far future in religion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 616, "text": "Mayan religion often cites incredibly long time periods. Stela 1 at Coba marks the date of creation as in the Mesoamerican Long Count. According to Linda Schele, these 13s represent \"the starting point of a huge odometer of time\", with each acting as a zero and resetting to 1 as the numbers increase. Thus this inscription anticipates the current universe lasting at least 20×13×360 days, or roughly 2.687×10 years; a time span equal to 2 quintillion times the age of the universe as determined by cosmologists. Others have suggested, however, that this date marks creation as having occurred after that time span.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9530099", "title": "Mesoamerican Long Count calendar", "section": "Section::::Earliest Long Counts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 491, "text": "More recently, with the discovery in Guatemala of the San Bartolo (Maya site) stone block text (c. 300 BCE), it has been argued that this text celebrates an upcoming time period ending celebration. This time period may have been projected to end sometime between 7.3.0.0.0 and 7.5.0.0.0 — 295 and 256 BCE, respectively. Besides this being the earliest Maya hieroglyphic text so far uncovered, it would arguably be the earliest glyphic evidence to date of Long Count notation in Mesoamerica.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35943", "title": "4th millennium BC", "section": "Section::::Calendars and chronology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 263, "text": "BULLET::::- 3114 BC – One version of the Mayan calendar, known as the Mesoamerican Long Count, uses the epoch of 11 or 13 August 3114 BC. The Maya Long Count calendar was first used approximately 236 BC (see Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar#Earliest_Long_Counts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "241681", "title": "Terence McKenna", "section": "Section::::Notes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 165, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 165, "end_character": 1084, "text": "BULLET::::- Most Mayanist scholars, such as Mark Van Stone and Anthony Aveni, adhere to the \"GMT (Goodman-Martinez-Thompson) correlation\" with the Long Count, which places the start date at 11 August 3114 BC and the end date of b'ak'tun 13 at December 21, 2012. This date was also the overwhelming preference of those who believed in 2012 eschatology, arguably, Van Stone suggests, because it was a solstice, and was thus astrologically significant. Some Mayanist scholars, such as Michael D. Coe, Linda Schele and Marc Zender, adhere to the \"Lounsbury/GMT+2\" correlation, which sets the start date at August 13 and the end date at December 23. Which of these is the precise correlation has yet to be conclusively settled. Coe's initial date was \"24 December 2011.\" He revised it to \"11 January AD 2013\" in the 1980 2nd edition of his book, not settling on December 23, 2012 until the 1984 3rd edition. The correlation of b'ak'tun 13 as December 21, 2012 first appeared in Table B.2 of Robert J. Sharer's 1983 revision of the 4th edition of Sylvanus Morley's book \"The Ancient Maya\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The authorities who should be planning for this are fixed in \"LaLaLa-can't-hear-you\" mode at present, and will probably remain so until their cities are flooded monthly.\n\nKnowing how engineers work, it will probably be large pumps and high sea walls, which are then largely ignored and eventually fail for lack of maintainence, New Orleans style.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21890764", "title": "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions", "section": "Section::::Scientific Findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 560, "text": "Initial press briefings focused on the increases to the estimates for potential sea level rise expected as a result of global warming, with the session led by Stefan Rahmstorf. Eric Rignot, Professor of Earth system science at the University of California, Irvine, said \"As a result of the acceleration of outlet glaciers over large regions, the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica are already contributing more and faster to sea level rise than anticipated. If this trend continues, we are likely to witness sea level rise one metre or more by year 2100.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35895879", "title": "Effects of global warming on oceans", "section": "Section::::Sea level.:Coasts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 541, "text": "Global warming also has an enormous impact with respect to melting glaciers and ice sheets. Higher global temperatures melt glaciers such as the one in Greenland, which flow into the oceans, adding to the amount of seawater. A large rise (on the order of several feet) in global sea levels poses many threats. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “such a rise would inundate coastal wetlands and lowlands, erode beaches, increase the risk of flooding, and increase the salinity of estuaries, aquifers, and wetlands.”\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37516041", "title": "Circumpolar deep water", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 451, "text": "In recent decades, hundreds of glaciers draining the Antarctic Peninsula (63° to 70°S) have undergone systematic and progressive change. These changes are widely attributed to rapid increases in regional surface air temperature, but it is now clear that this cannot be the sole driver. A strong correspondence has been discovered between mid-depth ocean temperatures and glacier-front changes along the approximately 1000-kilometer western coastline.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21171721", "title": "Sea level rise", "section": "Section::::Projections.:Long-term sea level rise.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 948, "text": "Melting of the Greenland ice sheet could contribute an additional over many thousands of years. A 2013 study estimated that there is a commitment to sea level rise for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years. More recent research, especially into Antarctica, indicates that this is probably a conservative estimate and true long-term sea level rise might be higher. Warming beyond the 2 °C (3.6 °F) target potentially lead to rates of sea-level rise dominated by ice loss from Antarctica. Continued carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel sources could cause additional tens of metres of sea level rise, over the next millennia, and the available fossil fuel on Earth is even enough to ultimately melt the entire Antarctic ice sheet, causing about of sea level rise. After 500 years, sea level rise from thermal expansion alone may have reached only half of its eventual level, which models suggest may lie within ranges of .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18578729", "title": "Duncan Wingham", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 545, "text": "In the 1990s, Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet. His conclusion then, and from later research, is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century. However, he has also stated that \"it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated... Other sources of rise must be underestimated. In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion [on the oceans] is larger than we thought\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37063005", "title": "Effects of global warming on human health", "section": "Section::::Extreme weather events.:Glacial melting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 134, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 134, "end_character": 746, "text": "Not only are glaciers causing a rise in sea level, they are causing an increase in El Niño Southern Oscillation (ESNO) and global temperature itself. Glacier loss adds to global heat rise through a decrease in what is called ice-albedo feedback. As more ice melts, there is less solar reflectivity and less heat is reflected away from the Earth, causing more heat to be absorbed, and retained in the atmosphere and soil In addition to the El Niño events, glacial melt is contributing to the rapid turnover of sea surface temperatures and ocean salt content by diluting the ocean water and slowing the Atlantic conveyor belt's usually swift dive because of a top layer of buoyant, cold, fresh water that slows the flow of warm water to the north.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43238710", "title": "Antarctic sea ice", "section": "Section::::Recent trends and climate change.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 960, "text": "The IPCC AR5 report concluded that \"it is \"very likely\"\" that annual mean Antarctic sea ice extent increased 1.2 to 1.8% per decade, which is 0.13 to 0.20 million km per decade, during the period 1979 to 2012. IPCC AR5 also concluded that due to the lack of data it is not possible to determine the trend in total volume or mass of the sea ice. The increase in sea ice area probably has a number of causes. These are tied to changes in the southern hemispheric westerly winds, which are a combination of natural variability and forced change from greenhouse gases and the ozone hole. Another possible driver is ice-shelves melting, which increases freshwater input to the ocean; this increases the stratification of the ocean surface layer and so reduces the ability of warm subsurface water to reach the surface. A 2015 study found this effect in climate models run to simulate future climate change, resulting in an increase of sea ice in the winter months.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Its noise off the generator or alternator.\n\nCords like that aren't shielded like other people have said. Its basically RF interference coming from that because its often not shielded.\n\nIts usually not something noticed, and the stereo itself has filtering to block it. But when you plug something unshielded into it (your aux cord) you're creating an unfiltered path to the stereo, so you hear it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1648875", "title": "Wilkinson power divider", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 229, "text": "No loss occurs when the signals at ports 2 and 3 are in phase and have equal magnitude. In case of noise input to ports 2 and 3, the noise level at port 1 does not increase, half of the noise power is dissipated in the resistor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17388115", "title": "Floating ground", "section": "Section::::Safety.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 483, "text": "Floating grounds can cause problems with audio equipment using RCA connectors (also called phono connectors). With these common connectors, the signal pin connects before the ground, and 2 pieces of equipment can have a greater difference between their grounds than it takes to saturate the audio input. As a result, plugging or unplugging while powered up can result in very loud noises in speakers. If the ground voltage difference is small, it tends to only cause hum and clicks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4335254", "title": "Loudspeaker enclosure", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 585, "text": "The forward- and rearward-generated sounds of a speaker driver appear out of phase from each other because they are generated through opposite motion of the diaphragm and because they travel different paths before converging at the listener's position. A speaker driver mounted on a finite baffle will display a physical phenomenon known as interference which can result in a perceivable frequency-dependent sound attenuation. This phenomenon is particularly noticeable at low frequencies where the wavelengths are large enough that interference will affect the entire listening area.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3785450", "title": "Getrag F23 transmission", "section": "Section::::Mechanical Faults.:Rattling / Grinding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 334, "text": "BULLET::::- Noise 1: This is a very distinct noise that is usually much louder than the second noise that can be associated with this transmission. If the vehicle is not making any noise when trying to verify the condition, it can be induced by making several tight left hand circles with the vehicle at normal operating temperature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23699646", "title": "High tension leads", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 309, "text": "To reduce radio frequency interference (RFI) produced by the spark being radiated by the wires, which may cause malfunction of sensitive electronic systems in modern vehicles or interfere with the car radio, various means in the spark plug and associated lead have been used over time to reduce the nuisance:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34684421", "title": "Back-up beeper", "section": "Section::::Regulations in the United States of America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 281, "text": "Back-up beepers or an observer are required by OSHA for earthmoving vehicles with an obstructed view to the rear and no one on the ground to help guide the driver. Alarms are typically loud because manufacturers do not know the ambient noise level where the machines will be used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45465422", "title": "DBAG Class 481", "section": "Section::::Technical details.:Vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 279, "text": "Due to their characteristic howling start-up noise, which is typical for three-phase AC motors with pulsed voltage control, these vehicles are occasionally also called \"circular saws\", \"hoe buoys\" or \"flying alarms\". The loud start-up and brake noise has led to many complaints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It means that Obama put his hat in the ring and took a stance. That being said he cannot compel the FCC to follow what he wants. Basically after using Net Neutrality as part of his platform in 2008, and then staying on the fence about it for a while, he's finally given an opinion. This *could* sway the FCC to fall in line, but that remains to be seen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25325879", "title": "Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration", "section": "Section::::Views before election.:Network neutrality and government use of information technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 181, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 181, "end_character": 463, "text": "Obama reaffirmed his commitment to net neutrality at a meeting with Google employees in November 2007, at which he said, \"once providers start to privilege some applications or web sites over others, then the smaller voices get squeezed out, and we all lose.\" At the same event, Obama pledged to appoint a Chief Technology Officer to oversee the U.S. government's management of IT resources and promote wider access to government information and decision making.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25325879", "title": "Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration", "section": "Section::::Views before election.:Network neutrality and government use of information technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 180, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 180, "end_character": 484, "text": "In a June 2006 podcast, Obama expressed support for telecommunications legislation to protect network neutrality on the Internet, saying: \"It is because the Internet is a neutral platform that I can put out this podcast and transmit it over the Internet without having to go through any corporate media middleman. I can say what I want without censorship or without having to pay a special charge. But the big telephone and cable companies want to change the Internet as we know it.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25325879", "title": "Economic policy of the Barack Obama administration", "section": "Section::::Views before election.:Network neutrality and government use of information technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 182, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 182, "end_character": 537, "text": "In a February 2014 official blog post titled \"We The People Response: Reaffirming the White House's Commitment to Net Neutrality\", the Obama administration, via Chief Technology Officer Todd Park, once again reaffirmed its commitment to net neutrality by stating, \"Preserving an open Internet is vital not to just to the free flow of information, but also to promoting innovation and economic productivity.TheTrump administration has repealed net neutrality https://money.cnn.com/2017/12/14/technology/fcc-net-neutrality-vote/index.html\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46821647", "title": "Internet science", "section": "Section::::Research.:Net neutrality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 404, "text": "In 2014, President Obama announced a new plan to preserve \"net neutrality\" and to prevent Internet service providers from blocking or slowing websites or creating different tiers of speed. He said-, \"No service should be stuck in a ‘slow lane’ because it does not pay a fee,\" he wrote in a statement. \"That kind of gatekeeping would undermine the level playing field essential to the Internet’s growth.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31450851", "title": "FCC Open Internet Order 2010", "section": "Section::::Support and opposition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 265, "text": "President Obama voiced his support for the measure as well, \"calling the FCC's decision a victory for consumers, free speech, and \"American innovation.\" President Obama will also be fulfilling a campaign promise to institute some form of Net Neutrality regulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "350567", "title": "Mitch McConnell", "section": "Section::::U.S. Senate (1985–present).:Net neutrality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 145, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 145, "end_character": 769, "text": "In December 2010, after the Republicans gained control of the House in the 2010 midterm elections, McConnell delivered a Senate floor speech rebuking the intention of the Federal Communications Commission to instate net neutrality in its monthly commission meeting, saying the Obama administration was moving forward \"with what could be a first step in controlling how Americans use the Internet by establishing federal regulations on its use\" after having already nationalized healthcare, the auto industry, companies that could be insured, and loans for students and banks and called for the Internet to be left alone as it was \"an invaluable resource.\" McConnell pledged that the incoming 112th United States Congress would push back against additional regulations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55865407", "title": "Net Neutrality (Last Week Tonight)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 687, "text": "During these two segments, comedian John Oliver discusses the respective threats to net neutrality at the time of each segment. The first episode was about how, under the administration of President Barack Obama, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was considering two options for net neutrality in early 2014. The FCC proposed permitting fast and slow broadband lanes, which would compromise net neutrality, but was also considering reclassifying broadband as a telecommunication service, which would preserve net neutrality. After a surge of comments supporting net neutrality that were inspired by Oliver's episode, the FCC voted to reclassify broadband as a utility in 2015.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There were several reasons regarding the fleets themselves: Zheng He's fleets were expensive, the Ming were involved in wars against the Mongols and Vietnamese, the government bureaucracy was quite suspicious of how eunuchs dominated the venture, and the emperors were no longer as interested in the prestige of the voyages. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "361865", "title": "Hongxi Emperor", "section": "Section::::Life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1304, "text": "Already in May 1421, during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, an order was issued for the suspension of Zheng He's maritime expeditions, apparently on account of their cost (although the order apparently did not affect the 6th voyage of Zheng He, staged around that time). Zhu Gaochi, as soon as he was enthroned as the Hongxi Emperor in September 1424, cancelled Zheng He's maritime expeditions permanently, arguably burned down the fleet or left the ships to decompose, and abolished frontier trade of tea for horses as well as missions for gold and pearls to Yunnan and Vietnam. He restored disgraced Confucian officials, such as the Yongle Emperor's minister of revenue Xia Yuanji (imprisoned since 1421), and reorganized the administration to give high ranks to his close advisors. Hanlin academicians became grand secretaries, and they dismantled his father's unpopular militaristic policies to restore civil government. The Hongxi Emperor improved finances by canceling requisitions for lumber, gold, and silver. Taxes were remitted so that vagrant farmers could return home, especially in the overburdened Yangtze River Delta. The Hongxi Emperor appointed a commission to investigate taxes. He overruled his secretaries by ordering that grain should be sent immediately to relieve disaster areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15040458", "title": "History of the Ming dynasty", "section": "Section::::Isolation to globalization.:Illegal trade, piracy, and war with Japan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 515, "text": "In 1479, the vice president of the Ministry of War burned the court records documenting Zheng He's voyages; it was one of many events signalling China's shift to an inward foreign policy. Shipbuilding laws were implemented that restricted vessels to a small size; the concurrent decline of the Ming navy allowed the growth of piracy along China's coasts. Japanese pirates—or wokou—began staging raids on Chinese ships and coastal communities, although much of the acts of piracy were carried out by native Chinese.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41755792", "title": "Jiajing wokou raids", "section": "Section::::Historical background.:Coastal defence and politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1463, "text": "The blunder of the Ming navy during the 1523 Ningbo Incident highlighted the decline of Chinese naval capabilities since the cessation of the famed treasure voyages in 1433. The early Ming had a system of coastal patrols and island bases for the defence of the Chinese coast, but these were withdrawn as the Ming foreign policy turned from proactive to passive during the reign of the Zhengtong Emperor (r. 1435-49). The official reason for the withdrawal was that these forward bases in the sea were a heavy burden on the civilians who had to supply them, and that the Ming army could focus on defence after the invaders had landed. Since then, warships were no longer used to patrol the coast and remained anchored in ports, where they rotted away from neglect. As an extreme example, the Dengzhou naval garrison in Shandong had a fleet of 100 warships in its heyday, but by the beginning of the 16th century, only 3 ships remained after years of retrenchment and disrepair. By the start of the wokou crisis in the 1540s, there were only 68 government warships on the coast of Fujian, while funds allotted for ship construction were apparently embezzled. Furthermore, naval garrisons along the coast were unwilling to build and accommodate for new ships since each ship needed people and resources for its maintenance. Ships confiscated from the pirates and redistributed to the naval garrisons ended up being stolen, exchanged, or even deliberately destroyed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "390589", "title": "Zhengde Emperor", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 373, "text": "By the accounts of some historians, although bred to be a successful ruler, the Zhengde Emperor thoroughly neglected his duties, beginning a dangerous trend that would plague future Ming emperors. The abandonment of official duties to pursue personal gratification would slowly lead to the rise of powerful eunuchs that would dominate and eventually ruin the Ming dynasty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1193402", "title": "Foreign relations of imperial China", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1355, "text": "Following the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and the formation of the Ming dynasty by the Hongwu Emperor, Imperial Chinese power was projected abroad with the 15th-century Chinese treasure fleet of Admiral Zheng He. As representatives of the Yongle Emperor, Zheng's fleet sailed throughout Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean and to East Africa exacting tribute, granting lavish gifts to vassal states, and even invaded Sri Lanka. However, the fleet was later dismantled and the Ming emperors thereafter fostered \"Haijin\" isolationist policies that limited international trade and foreign contacts to a handful of seaports and other locations. These policies saw a gradual reversal after the arrival of European explorers such as Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrello and, although a war was initially fought against the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese were granted a colonial settlement at Macau in the 16th century. Catholic Jesuit missions in China were also introduced, with Matteo Ricci being the first European allowed to enter the Forbidden City of the Ming emperors in Beijing. During the subsequent Manchu-led Qing dynasty Jesuits from Europe such as Giuseppe Castiglione gained favor at court, but the Chinese Rites controversy of the 17th and 18th centuries brought the Qing emperors into a distant diplomatic row with the papacy in Rome. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "634503", "title": "Jianwen Emperor", "section": "Section::::Fall from power.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 530, "text": "Some parts of the historical text \"History of Ming\", the authoritative history of the Ming dynasty, mentioned that one of the reasons behind why the Yongle Emperor sponsored the admiral Zheng He's treasure voyages in the early 15th century was that the emperor wanted Zheng He to help him search for the Jianwen Emperor, who was believed to have survived and fled to Southeast Asia. Other records relate that decades later, the Jianwen Emperor returned to the imperial palace and lived the rest of his life in obscure retirement.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43449", "title": "Ming dynasty", "section": "Section::::History.:Decline and fall of the Ming dynasty.:Rebellion, invasion, collapse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 1014, "text": "Despite the loss of Beijing and the death of the emperor, the Ming were not yet totally destroyed. Nanjing, Fujian, Guangdong, Shanxi, and Yunnan were all strongholds of Ming resistance. However, there were several pretenders for the Ming throne, and their forces were divided. These scattered Ming remnants in southern China after 1644 were collectively designated by 19th-century historians as the Southern Ming. Each bastion of resistance was individually defeated by the Qing until 1662, when the last southern Ming Emperor died, the Yongli Emperor, Zhu Youlang. The last Ming Princes to hold out were the Prince of Ningjing Zhu Shugui and the son of Zhu Yihai, the Prince of Lu Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓) who stayed with Koxinga's Ming loyalists in the Kingdom of Tungning (in Taiwan) until 1683. Zhu Shugui proclaimed that he acted in the name of the deceased Yongli Emperor. The Qing eventually sent the seventeen Ming princes still living in Taiwan back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I don't know of too many scientists that have personal microscopes at home. That being said, the ones that my students used when I was TA'ing were $3000 each and I consider those pretty basic. My lab's microscope was in the $40,000 range, and the confocal I used cost $325,000. For under $200 it will be a cheap \"toy\" microscope. Not too sure how great the resolution will be on it. It really depends on what you want to use it for. Cells and tissue for $200? No way. But if you want to look at bugs and leaves up close, $200 would work.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Like Rodentia said, I don't know anyone that has an at-home scope (except for one friend who collects old broken ones and uses them as decoration). \n\nMy lab's TIRF scope cost almost a million dollars with all the bells and whistles. \n\nFor less than $200, I'd look on ebay and try to find something used. For that cheap, you're probably only gonna get a monocular scope. Also, the objectives will probably be scratched, but that isn't too bad. For that small amount of money, don't try to get super-high objectives. They'll probably suck. Get a 40x or something.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You could get a chinese webcam microscope similar to [this one](_URL_0_). Ebay has plenty of different models too, but Adafruit probably did enough research to find a good one to resell at their store.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26197005", "title": "Krüss Optronic", "section": "Section::::Krüss Optronic products.:Microscopes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 256, "text": "Microscopes traditionally are the core product of A. Krüss Optronic. The company offers a great variety of stereoscopic and monocular instruments, dedicated to medical, biological, and technical applications, as well as photographic and video accessories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "117534", "title": "Optical microscope", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 546, "text": "The optical microscope, often referred to as the light microscope, is a type of microscope that commonly uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small objects. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were possibly invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be very simple, although many complex designs aim to improve resolution and sample contrast. Often used in the classroom and at home unlike the electron microscope which is used for closer viewing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19568", "title": "Microscope", "section": "Section::::Types.:Optical.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 977, "text": "The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the optical microscope. This is an optical instrument containing one or more lenses producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have refractive glass (occasionally plastic or quartz), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1250x with a theoretical resolution limit of around 0.250 micrometres or 250 nanometres. This limits practical magnification to ~1500x. Specialized techniques (e.g., scanning confocal microscopy, Vertico SMI) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is diffraction limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the near-field scanning optical microscope.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "117534", "title": "Optical microscope", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 603, "text": "There are two basic types of optical microscopes: simple microscopes and compound microscopes. A simple microscope is one which uses a single lens for magnification, such as a magnifying glass. A compound microscope uses several lenses to enhance the magnification of an object. The vast majority of modern research microscopes are compound microscopes while some cheaper commercial digital microscopes are simple single lens microscopes. Compound microscopes can be further divided into a variety of other types of microscopes which differ in their optical configurations, cost, and intended purposes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24626063", "title": "Knife-edge scanning microscope", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 242, "text": "The Knife-Edge Scanning Microscope (KESM) was invented and patented in the late 1990s by Bruce McCormick at Texas A&M University. The microscope is intended to produce high-resolution data sets in order to reconstruct 3D cellular structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22483", "title": "Optics", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Human eye.:Optical instruments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 123, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 123, "end_character": 845, "text": "Microscopes were first developed with just two lenses: an objective lens and an eyepiece. The objective lens is essentially a magnifying glass and was designed with a very small focal length while the eyepiece generally has a longer focal length. This has the effect of producing magnified images of close objects. Generally, an additional source of illumination is used since magnified images are dimmer due to the conservation of energy and the spreading of light rays over a larger surface area. Modern microscopes, known as \"compound microscopes\" have many lenses in them (typically four) to optimize the functionality and enhance image stability. A slightly different variety of microscope, the comparison microscope, looks at side-by-side images to produce a stereoscopic binocular view that appears three dimensional when used by humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2322835", "title": "Metallography", "section": "Section::::Analysis techniques.:Design, resolution, and image contrast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 767, "text": "Light microscopes are designed for placement of the specimen's polished surface on the specimen stage either upright or inverted. Each type has advantages and disadvantages. Most LOM work is done at magnifications between 50 and 1000X. However, with a good microscope, it is possible to perform examination at higher magnifications, e.g., 2000X, and even higher, as long as diffraction fringes are not present to distort the image. However, the resolution limit of the LOM will not be better than about 0.2 to 0.3 micrometers. Special methods are used at magnifications below 50X, which can be very helpful when examining the microstructure of cast specimens where greater spatial coverage in the field of view may be required to observe features such as dendrites. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can reply to the bank question, but not the stagecoach one.\n\nTL:DR: The bank, unless the robbery caused the bank to fail, in which case both.\n\nHere's how banking works: banks take deposits from people and lend out the cash to other people. The deposits are liabilities of the bank - that is, they owe that money to the depositors. The bank has assets, which are the loans it makes and the (much smaller) amount of cash it keeps on hand. One way to understand this is to think of a gold merchant.\n\nThe gold merchant needs a secure place to store the bullion, so he builds a vault. Seeing this, other people with gold pay him a small fee to store their gold as well. Over time, the merchant notices that the gold at the back of his vault just sits there undisturbed, as people take out and deposit gold, they subtract from and add to the gold near the front. Hey, gold is gold, nobody wants \"their gold\". Once the gold merchant realizes this, he starts letting people borrow gold. For a fee, of course. As long as everyone doesn't demand all of their gold back at the same time, that works fine. The merchant only needs to keep enough actual gold on hand to satisfy the withdrawals. That's called \"fractional reserve banking\" and it is what we have today, as well as what they had in the old west.\n\nSo now along comes a robber and takes the cash on hand. It belongs to the bank, but they still need some cash to satisfy the demands for withdrawals by its depositors. But the amount kept in cash is much smaller than the amount of loans owed to the bank. So, as long as the entire town doesn't panic and demand cash, the bank can replace the cash owed to its depositors from the repayments of the loans it has made.\n\nIf, however, everybody wants their deposits back *right now*, that's called a \"run on the bank\". You don't need to be robbed to have a run on your bank - it happened during the Great Depression, too, which is one reason banks were more tightly regulated afterwards. If the run is serious, then the bank will be closed because the bank doesn't have enough cash to pay all the depositors back. In which case, depositors lose money as well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27591285", "title": "Cedar Hill, Texas", "section": "Section::::History.:Cedar Hill Bank Robbery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 353, "text": "On October 8, 1932, the then First State Bank of Cedar Hill was robbed by Raymond Hamilton, a sidekick of bank robbers Bonnie and Clyde. After taking the money, he locked the employees in the vault and made his getaway. When Hamilton got wind of reports that some of the cash had been hidden during the first robbery, he returned to rob the bank again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "577235", "title": "James–Younger Gang", "section": "Section::::History.:Early years: 1866 to 1870.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 708, "text": "On February 13, 1866, a group of gunmen carried out one of the first daylight, peacetime, armed bank robberies in U.S. history when they held up the Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri. The outlaws stole some $60,000 in cash and bonds and killed a bystander on the street outside the bank. State authorities suspected Archie Clement of leading the raid, and promptly issued a reward for his capture. In later years, the list of suspects grew to include Jesse and Frank James, Cole Younger, John Jarrett, Oliver Shepard, Bud and Donny Pence, Frank Greg, Bill and James Wilkerson, Joab Perry, Ben Cooper, Red Mankus, and Allen Parmer (who later married Susan James, Frank and Jesse's sister).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "885280", "title": "Pearl Hart", "section": "Section::::Life of crime.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 754, "text": "The robbery occurred on May 30, 1899, at a watering point near Cane Springs Canyon, about 30 miles southeast of Globe. Hart had cut her hair short and dressed in men's clothing. Hart was armed with a .38 revolver while Boot had a Colt .45. One of the last stagecoach routes still operating in the territory, the run had not been robbed in several years and thus the coach did not have a shotgun messenger. The pair stopped the coach and Boot held a gun on the robbery victims while Hart took $431.20 () and two firearms from the passengers. After returning $1 to each passenger, she then took the driver's revolver. After the robbers had galloped away on their horses, the driver unhitched one of the horses and headed back to town to alert the sheriff.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "216340", "title": "Bank robbery", "section": "Section::::History.:First known use of a getaway car.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 373, "text": "The August 29, 1909 edition of \"The Rich Hill Tribune\" contained a front-page news story entitled \"Bank Robbers in Motor Car\" and according to which two robbers used a gun to rob the Valley bank of Santa Clara of $7,000. They then used a hired automobile to escape and were chased by police and a posse of citizens also in automobiles, eventually leading to their capture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36839643", "title": "Baxter's Curve Train Robbery", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 381, "text": "Old West historians have often written Ben Kilpatrick off as being entirely unable to commit a robbery without the help of Butch Cassidy or Kid Curry, but after his release from prison, a man named Ole Hobek and he executed a series of \"spectacular\" bank and train robberies within a short time. The robberies did not yield much gain, though, which necessitated further robberies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10428444", "title": "Clay County Savings Association Building", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 419, "text": "The Clay County Savings Association in Liberty, Missouri, was robbed on February 13, 1866, making it one of the earliest documented daylight bank robberies. The robbers escaped with at least $60,000 () and killed a bystander outside. The robbery is believed to have been conducted by a group of former Confederate guerrillas, possibly led by Jesse James or Archie Clement, which became known as the James–Younger Gang.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15433455", "title": "Boatmen's Bancshares", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 483, "text": "Compounding the bank's problems was the April 5, 1854, robbery in which the bank's secretary Joseph Thornton was implicated because the vault had been opened at night with a bank key. Testifying against him was Joseph Charless, president of the Bank of Missouri, who had received for deposit water and mud-soaked notes from Thornton. Thornton was acquitted but was to shoot and kill Charless on the street afterwards. Thornton was nearly lynched, and later hanged following a trial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't answer with specific reference to the Roman Empire although I suspect that much of my answer is transferrable from Medieval skills to Roman skills.\n\nFirstly I'd like to challenge the assumption that \"*knowledge and tools for dog training were much less than we have today*\". A good dog trainer needs no tools other than an understanding of the animal, there's no reason to suppose that people of medieval times understood their animals any less than modern non-technological societies do today - and they do so very well indeed. Veterinary understanding has certainly improved but this arguably has little to do with the skills required for animal training.\n\nThe types of dog used in Medieval hunts are very similar to types that we'd recognise today with the exception of modern \"gun dogs\", a type that has come into usage for the firearm hunting that largely replaced hawking.\n\nMedieval hunts would use Greyhounds, a fast, short-burst game tracker that was safe in domestic settings. Alants were also used, they were a larger, stockier greyhounds for chasing larger game like bear but were unpredictable and considered too dangerous to roam free around homes. Mastiffs were used as hunt dogs and quite often as guard dogs, this large and impressive breed was used on the same large game as the Alant and also as a guard/watch dog. Mastiffs were used as war-dogs, although their usage wasn't common in Medieval battles due to their negative effect on horses, you'd be more likely to see a mastiff used by small armed patrols as a first line of defence/offence.\n\nRunning-hounds were used as game-chasers, the breeds were largely similar to the foxhounds of today.\n\nHow well trained were they? From the ubiquitous use of the different types as an integral part of hunts in Medieval England and Europe it seems highly reasonable to presume that they fulfilled their task very well and therefore that they were trained very well, particularly breeds that were required to silently find scent for the hunting party.\n\nIn short: there are a lot of reasons to think that Medieval animal training was as good as it is today - if the use of dogs spoiled the hunt then their use would have ceased rather than perpetuating for hundreds of years.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n*^(Sources:)*\n\n*^(Royal Forests - Hunting and Other Forest Use in Medieval England; Hooke, D; 2011)*\n\n*^(Hunting Law and Ritual in Medieval English Literature; Marvin W; 2006)*\n\n*^(Hunting for the Anglo-Normans; Zooarachaeological Evidence for Medieval Identity; Sykes, N; 2005)*\n\n*^(Special mention, well worth looking up as a contemporary reference:)*\n\n*^(Livre de Chasse (Book of Hunting); Gaston Febus, Count of Foix; c.1388)*", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4368682", "title": "Dogs in warfare", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 223, "text": "Dogs in warfare have a long history starting in ancient times. From war dogs trained in combat to their use as scouts, sentries and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3050444", "title": "Attack dog", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 876, "text": "Early in recorded history there are records of dogs being trained for the purpose of attacking a target. One of the most well-recorded ancient uses was in a battle between the Athenians and Corinthians, in which dogs were used to keep watch over a fortress and despite being unsuccessful in opposing an enemy attack, were able to alert the sleeping soldiers to the attack. Ancient Romans first adopted the use of dogs as a weapon after hordes of dogs delayed their victory in the Battle of Vercellae. The Romans not only trained them to attack, but also bred their attack dogs for ferocity. The effect of this was documented by Roman naturalist and writer Pliny the Elder, who wrote that the animals would not back down, even when confronted by swords. The Roman attack dogs were given metal armour covered in razor-sharp spikes, designed to force the enemy out of formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3063610", "title": "Molossus (dog)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 365, "text": "Dogs were used by the Epirotan tribes in war, and were undoubtedly used much earlier in history. The Roman Empire, starting with Marcus Aurelius, also used dogs in combat. The Romans trained the Molossian dog (or \"canis molossus\") specifically for battle, often coating them in protective spiked metal collars and mail armor, arranging them into attack formations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2220793", "title": "Military animal", "section": "Section::::Use.:As weapons.:As fighters or mounts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 771, "text": "BULLET::::- Dogs were used by the ancient Greeks for war purposes, and they were undoubtedly used much earlier in history. The Roman Empire, starting with Marcus Aurelius, also used dogs in combat. The Romans trained the Molossian dog (or Canis Molossus) specifically for battle, often coating them in protective spiked metal collars and mail armor, and arranging them into attack formations. During their conquest of Latin America, Spanish conquistadors used Alaunts to kill warriors in the Caribbean, Mexico and Peru. Mastiffs, as well as Great Danes, were used in England during the Middle Ages, where their large size was used to scare horses to throw off their riders or to pounce on knights on horseback, disabling them until their master delivered the final blow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15315408", "title": "Beckov Castle", "section": "Section::::Legend of Becko, the jester.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 396, "text": "The second element - dogs. Dogs were mainly used for hunting since this was the main sport and entertainment of the noble men. It trained people to fight in battles. Boys and girls alike were trained in this way. Dogs were bred at the courts just for hunting. They were very valuable and were imported to medieval Hungary from abroad. These animals were an integrated part of castle social life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4368682", "title": "Dogs in warfare", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 557, "text": "War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Baganda, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and the Romans. The Molossus dog of the Molossia region of Epirus was the strongest known to the Romans, and was specifically trained for battle. Among the Greeks and Romans, dogs served most often as sentries or patrols, though they were sometimes taken into battle. The earliest use of war dogs in a battle recorded in classical sources was by Alyattes of Lydia against the Cimmerians around 600 BC. The Lydian dogs killed some invaders and routed others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4368682", "title": "Dogs in warfare", "section": "Section::::Roles.:Fighting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 546, "text": "In ancient times, dogs, often large mastiff- or molosser-type breeds, would be strapped with armor or spiked collars and sent into battle to attack the enemy. This strategy was used by various civilizations, such as the Romans and the Greeks. While not as common as in previous centuries, modern militaries continue to employ dogs in an attack role. SOCOM forces of the US military still use dogs in raids for apprehending fleeing enemies or prisoners, or for searching areas too difficult or dangerous for human soldiers (such as crawl spaces).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Bolt action rifles are lighter and simpler than semi-automatic rifles in the same caliber, and bolt action is an inherently more precise action type than semi-automatic.\n\nSnipers don't need to put out a high rate of fire, so semi-auto has no benefit to them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I could be wrong on this, but the bolt action rifle would minimize extraneous movement that might alter the trajectory of the bullet. Remember that even small fractions of a degree might be the difference between a hit and a miss, so it's important to keep everything as still as possible. In a semi-automatic mechanism, the movement of the gun as it works to reload a bullet may very well knock your shot off far enough that it would cause a problem. Nothing moves in a bolt action mechanism until you're reloading.\n\nEdit: the bullet has a trajectory, not the gun. Edited for the proper noun. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Making a weapon accurate and make it fire rapidly are two competing goals. If you don't have to care about making it fire rapidly, you can make it more accurate. \n\nIt's really that simple. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A semi-automatic weapon, upon being fired, has the bolt come back, discharges the shell casing, and a new round is inserted into the action. This motion, which occurs extremely rapidly and uses the force of the fired round causes vibrations in the gun that lead to muzzle climb and loss of accuracy.\n\nA round does not leave the gun instantaneously, as the barrel length increases the time to exit increases meaning the slightest muzzle deviation can throw off your shot.\n\nA bolt action does not have any moving parts in the action like a semi-automatic, while the round is traveling in the barrel. This means all the force is exerted on the round, but also there are no other vibrations from auxiliary parts.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "More moving parts means more opportunities for something to get gummed up or broken. A bolt action would likely hold up to the punishment of being dragged through rugged terrain. The Barrett .50 cal is semi-automatic but it is so big and heavy that it probably won't be taken on those kinds of oporations.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Semi-auto sniper rifles in US service:\n\n* Various DMRs based on the M14 (M39/M21/Mk14/M25)\n* The M110\n* The SR-25\n* The Barret M82\n\nSo, they're not exactly unheard of in US service. \n\nHell, Carlos Hathcock shot a Vietcong guerrilla at a range of 2500 yards using a M2 machine gun with a telescopic sight mounted on it. That was a record that stood for over 30 years and **he wasn't even using a specially made sniper rifle**. This alone should debunk the idea that there's any kind of inherent limitation to semi-auto rifles that makes them not suitable for long range work.\n\nAs far as why bolt actions haven't been completely replaced by semi-autos in the sniper role:\n\n1. **They work okay.** The disadvantages in volume of fire aren't really that big a deal on a rifle that's set up for long range shooting. Armys tend to be fairly conservative when it comes to small arms, so \"if it ain't broke don't fix it.\"\n\n2. **There are a lot more \"off the self\" bolt actions set up to fire really big rounds**. Rounds like .300 winchester magnum and .338 Lapua were developed from big game hunting cartridges. AFAIK there weren't any semi-auto big game rifles, but there were tons and tons of bolt actions that could be readily adapted into sniper rifles. Why reinvent the wheel?\n\n3. **Cost.** Getting equivalent accuracy from a semi-auto design costs more money. Despite its reputation the military is weirdly tight fisted about spending money on small arms.\n\nI realize I'm kind of swimming against the tide here, but there are the facts as I see them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Anything which affects the recoil of the barrel as the bullet passes down it will reduce the accuracy of the weapon. An auto mechanism is a lot of small movements that causes the rifle to wobble slightly, so they are not part of the mechanism. Also really good sniper rifles like the Barrett, have a 'free floating barrel'. Which means it is only attached to the rifle at the base, not along the barrel itself. This allows it to remain as level as possible as the bullet passes down it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also, semi automatic rifles eject the empty shell casing at a high rate of speed. This ruins the snipers cover our concealment.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Another reason they use bolt action is so they can be sure that the shell casing can be taken out and taken with them. They try not to leave any evidence of them being there.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bolt actions have fewer parts moving during fire which contributes to accuracy. Even small movements get really big when you get really far out so this does provide an advantage. On top of this the rate of fire isn't as big of a concern for a sniper. If they decide to shoot twice they want to be able to get the next one out asap but you can't pump rounds downrange from sniper distance like you can with a carbine at short-mid distance. If it's not necessary to shoot more than once many snipers are taught not to shoot more than once; observe, shoot, move, observe, maybe shoot again. Of course that goes out the window if they're covering for advancing troops or things like that. \n\nThe gap has been narrowing though and is evident with all the semi-auto sniper rifles and battle rifles set up for long range and capable of sniping (often the same platforms). It's not that semi-autos aren't good enough and can't preform as sniper rifles because they do, see M14 platform snipers, AR-10 (I don't know that this is in widespread military use but it exceeds standard), the dragunov (although IMO it's not quite accurate enough it is in use), etc. It's that it's easier to get a bolt-action up to standards. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My follow up question is why are straight pull bolt actions so uncommon, we've been making bolt action rifles for over a hundred years, surely it's not that hard? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not a sniper, but I'm in a scout sniper platoon in the military. First of all most \"sniper rifles\" are not bolt action. Bolt actions are definitely only used as \"sniper\" rifles, however. The US army fields 3 primary weapons for its scout sniper platoons, right now, for long range precision fire. The m110, m107, and the m24. Two of those are semiautomatic. The m107 is 50 caliber, and is used primarily for targets like vehicles. It can also be used for long range fire but it is not the most accurate. The m110 comes standard with a suppressor mounted, and it is excellent for any mid range firefight. It is also a decent precision fire weapon under 700 meters. A lot of snipers shots are not going to be at super long range unless the terrain makes those kind of shots necessary. In heavily vegetated areas 300 meters is actually a pretty ideal range to engage a target. Bolt action rifles are utilized when absolute precision is key. A bolt action weapon is a lot more accurate at range, and is the preferable weapon for what you are thinking of as a \"snipers\" job. You can absolutely use a semi automatic as a \"sniper\" rifle, and we often do in the military. It just depends on what you have, and what you need for each situation. A sniper rifle is more of a designation meaning it can be used to deliver long range precision fire. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not all \"sniper rifles\" are bolt action. I won't even get into the whole \"there are only rifles, and snipers, not sniper rifles\" thing. If we are comparing bolt action to gas operated, it is absolutely true that a given round will have lower muzzle velocity coming out of the gas operated rifle with the same barrel length. This is because a small amount of the gas pressure is siphoned off to operate the action. This happens before the bullet leaves the muzzle. This is why a sniper would choose a bolt action rifle over a gas operated rifle. Even a tiny amount of extra muzzle velocity can make a difference. Currently, snipers use bolt action and semi automatic rifles. The choice comes down to preference, the specific mission at hand, and availability. Chris Kyle (American Sniper) used both bolt action and semi automatic rifles during his war time service.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Late to the party, and this'll get buried, but I was a USMC sniper deployed to Afghanistan and Iraq between 2007-2010. \n\nMost sniper rifles are bolt-action for two reasons. \n\n1: They're more accurate. Fewer moving parts, fewer things to pull the barrel in any direction. When you're dealing with a target at 300 to 1k+ yards away, even the slightest tick on the barrel will cause you to miss by feet, not inches. \n\n2: Fewer moving parts. More moving parts, more chance for a jam or some other malfunction. When any firearm is gas-powered (using gas from the 'explosion' of firing a round to kick the slide back, eject the spent cartridge, and load a fresh round) as most semi-auto firearms are, it has a great many moving parts. A bit of gunk in the mechanism, wear and tear, or even humidity can cause the weapon to jam and potentially get someone killed. \n\n\nHope I helped!\n\nEdit: Fewer, not less. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sniper here. And yes as a few people mentioned bolt action is the standard because it is a single round at a time that doesn't \"spook\" your aim. \n\nMy instructor in the USMC told me when shooting long range the ignition should sneak up on you. \n\nThey would often say squeeze the trigger so lightly that you're surprised when it goes off. This was so you wouldn't move at all after you were dialed in. \n\nMultiple shots would defeat the purpose and you wouldnt have a clue how to adjust if you missed. \n\nTLDR multiple rounds will move your weapon and make it impossible to adjust if you missed. \nLong range shooting is about dialing in and not moving until after the bullet Is released. \n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm an FFL and Class 3 dealer with contracts for my local police department. The reason why they're mostly bolt-action is because they have a bunch of them in stock and they're cheaper. There are semi-automatic precision shooting rifles in stock already that the military uses, but they are much more expensive.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Besides what many have already pointed out about the accuracy and cost of bolt action vs semi-auto, it also comes down to the sniper's job. \n\nBreaking it down Barney style, they sneak around and inflict accurate fire from long(er) distances compared to more conventional forces. This means that volume of fire isn't as important since, after firing a shot, a) the firing position is compromised and you need to relocate, b) firing more than once would give the enemy a greater idea of where the sniper is hiding, and c) the sniper is probably outnumbered (see b). \n\nIn most situations, unless the sniper's position is somewhat in control of friendly forces, the sniper cannot afford to fire more than once in the same position.\n\nAs far as semi-automatic sniper rifles, there are quite a few semi-automatic sniper rifles in the military's arsenal. For example, the [M82A1](_URL_0_) and the [SR-25](_URL_1_). \n\nI hope this adds something to the conversation.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/MysteriousGuardian17 mostly has the correct answer, however, there is a bit more to it. \n\nWith long range weapons, the absolute central importance is knowing how the projectile is going to leave the weapon. Unless you're using [self-guided projectiles](_URL_3_), your chief concern is making the margin of error as small as possible. The projectile leaving the barrel even a millimeter off center can mean meters off target at long ranges. \n\nSo, the *bolt action* is one configuration as opposed to other methods of operation such as, striker fired, gas operated, short/long blowback, and others. [Please take a look at the video on this page, it has a depiction of how striker fired pistols work](_URL_4_). This depiction is really important because it shows something really important, each method of operating a gun system has positives and negatives. The purpose of your gun will determine which is best. \n\nFor a pistol that you want to conceal, striker fired is *in my opinion* best because there is no hammer or other protrusion to get stuck on clothing. But, as you can see in the video, the barrel must move to accept the next round (among other reasons) it is very difficult to have the barrel return *PRECISELY* to the exact same configuration each time for maximum precision. Therefore, striker fired pistols (or any pistol or revolver for that matter) are going to be significantly less accurate than other methods for distances beyond 10 yards. \n\nSo, with bolt action, there are two main benefits: \n\n1) The barrel and assembly are \"free floating.\" \n2) There are almost no moving parts. \n\n[Watch this video of how an M16 works](_URL_0_) - it is fascinating. The M16/AR15 weapon platform is absolutely the greatest semi-auto weapon there is (vastly [superior to the AK47](_URL_2_) ) and in the function video of the M16, you can see the gas system, the trigger group, and the bolt cam action - those three moving parts (well, the gas operation isn't a moving part, but it is something moving) are going to cause problems. \n\nTake an extreme case of a weapon that fires from open bolt. Almost no rifles fire from open bolt because it is a dumb idea: When you pull the trigger, the bolt then moves forward, chambers a round, goes into battery, THEN fires... Wherever you were aiming when you pulled the trigger is no longer where your muzzle is pointing. \n\n**By the way, if you want to skip ahead to the answer, it is here:** \n\nTo a vastly less degree than an open bolt rifle, a semi-automatic weapon has a few moving parts that a bolt action doesn't. The trigger alone in a semi-auto weapon has to go through a few hoops before the firing pin is actually struck, [look at this animation of a bolt action rifle.](_URL_1_) There is almost no movement of anything between the time the trigger is pulled and the time the firing pin strikes the primer. With fewer moving parts comes a smother and shorter trigger pull and less movement of your muzzle, remember, even a millimeter of movement in your muzzle can cause meters of error at the target. \n\nFinally the free floating barrel permits higher tolerances for the machined parts in the barrel and bolt. So the bolt brings a round into battery almost identically each time. With weapons that are designed for higher rates and volumes of fire at closer ranges, the tolerances aren't as important (the AK 47). \n\n**TL;DR:** The bolt action has fewer moving parts and functions with greater precision. When you're trying to hit a half meter target at a mile away, you need to have the cartridge sitting just the same each time, a very small and soft trigger pull, very few moving parts, and no warping between the barrel and the stock. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The semi-automatic uses some of the energy from each shot to chamber the next round while the bolt action puts all the energy into propelling the bullet. This means with all else equal the bolt action projectile will have slightly more kinetic energy which can make a difference at long ranges.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Scout sniper here. Regarding prevalence of bolt action rifles: fewer moving parts, tighter chamber tolerances, and recoil management.\n\nFewer moving parts = fewer malfunctions (extremely reliable)\n\nTighter chamber tolerances = less energy wasted from gas release (among many others)\n\nRecoil tends to be more predictable and easier to manage because the bolt is not automatically cycling through the order of operation after a trigger pull.\n\nFree floating match grade barrels, custom stocks, custom optics calibrated specifically to the rifle, etc. are other perks.\n\nYes, I have employed the M110 Semi Automatic Sniper System extensively, so please don't tell me about the greatness of semiautomatic sniper rifles. I prefer bolt action rifles for the sniper role, but the semiautos are excellent in most situations (and often more appropriate ie urban).\n\n\nEdit: the \"less energy wasted from gas release\" portion results in increased muzzle velocity, due to more gas expanding within the barrel itself and pushing the bullet out with more energy. Most semi auto rifles are gas operated, indicative of gas not exclusively being used to propel the projectile but to cycle the bolt.\n\nOne last thing: this is not always true, but many bolt action rifles have a longer barrel length than their semi auto counterparts. Longer barrel length allows more gas to stay behind the projectile longer and yields higher muzzle velocities than shorter barrels. This is why suppressed rifles have higher muzzle velocity than unsuppressed.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because in real life gas ejection systems for semi automatic guns jam, and unless you physical pull back the slide of the ejection mechanism you can't see if the round is seated properly. \n\n\nSometimes it's an obvious jam... Maybe the shell gets caught in the slide, or the magazine is old/a little off and the spring tension didn't push up hard enough and you have a half seated round. \n\n\nJams happen more in extreme weather, too cold or hot.... Rounds will stick and not seat. \n\n\nAnd a semi automatic has more failure points to create inaccuracies. This is because the firing sequence is 8 steps, which all but 1 (pulling trigger to send the hammer) is performed by Springs and blow back gas. \n\n(Feeding, \nChambering,\nLocking, \nFiring, \nUnlocking, \nExtracting, \nEjecting, \nCocking) \n\n\nThis means the gun will be VERY sensitive to the ammunition in order to properly run 7 steps. \n\n\nIf you watch match shooters, they'll often manually drop in rounds directly through the ejector. Why chance it if you only get ONE bullet. \n\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So just to clarify there are plenty of semi auto sniper systems on the market. The us military uses the m110 SASS. Modern technology there is not a whole lot different between bolt guns and semi autos. Tolerances are right enough for what most snipers do, which is minute of person. One big catch is as a sniper, concealment is the difference between life and death. A bolt system the shooter can control when the empty case is removed and can even do it slowly shielding the case from view. In a semi auto the case is automatically ejected and a single glint from that can cost them their lives.\n\nNow that said bolt guns will always have a very slight advantage because a lot of times you want velocity. All semis use some form of the energy to run the bolt back this reducing the velocity of the projectile.\n\nBolt rifles also have a lot of moving parts so getting the same consistency is hard. Something often said for long range shooters is if you are consistently wrong you will still be accurate. IE as long as you do everything the same you will put the bullet in nearly the same spot. A semi the bolt grabs the round and throws it forward causing inconsistent pressure every time. In perspective accurate shooters load ammo to to overall lengths of .01 inches of each other. The bolt catching the round and slamming it in can cause a slight setback and when we're talking .01 inches it's not a lot of variance. This accuracy is not for snipers, this is for target shooters though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "SUPER late, but there are so many completely wrong answers, even from actual ex-military. There's only a few *partially right* answers out of the dozens I scrolled down through. The best I saw was only at +5, from /u/macguyvers_dad, though a lot is left off. (I can't remark on reliability, but just the physics)\n\nI'm surprised no one but that one person has mentioned that you get a higher muzzle velocity with bolt action as you aren't wasting exhaust gases to move back the bolt and chamber a new round. \nA few had partially right answers, noting the tighter tolerances you get, but not the desirable effect that gives of higher muzzle velocity. \nHigher muzzle velocity means the bullet reaches the target faster, drops less, and you have to lead less. This is what people might mean by more accurate, but where really incomplete in their description of how and why.\n\nThat's one of the biggest reasons.\n\nA .50cal has so much energy that it's not a big deal, and that's why most semi-auto sniper rifles in use today are .50cal, whereas a less powerful round sacrifices too much in the way of ballistics to be semi auto.\n\n**So the simple answer is:** muzzle velocity. A faster bullet makes it easier to hit your target from far away. Bullets aren't like lasers. An M16 (assault rifle) has a muzzle velocity of 853 m/s.\nWhen trying to hit something 2km away, there is quite a bit of time before the bullet reaches the target even at around 1000m/s that you get from most sniper rifles. 1000m/s is just the speed at which it leaves the barrel and it slows down. Muzzle velocity is very important, and a bolt action rifle will use the most of that catridges charge to propel the bullet forward.\n\nThe .50cal semi auto rifles are also only around 853m/s muzzle velocity, but because the round are so heavy they hold that velocity for a long time.\n\nedit: I gave the impressions of it ONLY being about the mechanism that affects muzzle velocity, when that's not true. Sniper rifles also tend to use higher power ammunition and longer barrels to match. I replaced it with a comparison using the same ammo.\n\n---\n\nPeople are saying less moving parts making them more accurate, but that's not really true because the bullet leaves the barrel before the bolt finishes kicking back in a semi automatic.\n\nPeople saying how the motion of chambering the new round disrupts the first one leaving the barrel are just wrong and don't get how fast this is all going on. The slowest part is getting the next round into the chamber, which **does** happen in almost every gun *after* the recoil reaches the shooter's shoulder, but this has no effect in a sniper rifle and is just what causes the second shot to be off in fully automatic weapons. With a semi auto sniper, you have plenty of time to resettle before pulling the trigger again. \n\nThis is all really simple and intuitive when you know how guns work. I'm surprised no one gave the answer earlier that I can see.\n\nIf you find a video of a super slow motion sniper shot, you'll see the gun doesn't move until after the bullet leaves the barrel which completely busts what most of the answers said.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to what other comments state regarding accuracy, a bolt action rifle will have higher muzzle energy (note: holding constant the ammunition and length of the barrel) than a semi-automatic weapon. In a semiautomatic small arms weapon, some of the energy from the cartridge is diverted to operate the reloading action. In a bolt action, ALL of that energy is behind the bullet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basically they like to control the speed and instance the brass is ejected from the chamber to avoid being detected, on top of that most designated marksman rifles like the [SPR](_URL_0_) just don't have the same accuracy as any bolt action sniper rifle like the [M24](_URL_2_).\n\nSource: Was Designated Marksman in Infantry squad and used [M14 EBR](_URL_1_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The simplest explanation I can give (others here also hit it on the head) is that a semi auto action has a moving mass inside. Any tiny movement at the muzzle is exponentialy larger at the target (think of a cone or an accute angle, the rife sitting at the vertex). The movement of the action, a breath or an uneven trigger pull can throw off the shot by a millimeter at the muzzle and feet at the target. In a semi auto rifle, after the shot breaks you have the recoil from the shot and then (slightly later) a smaller backward and foreward recoil from the action cycling.\n\nA bolt-gun has two moving parts, the trigger and the firing pin. With a steady hand and an ideal shot the rifle would move once with the shot. There is just less going on to compensate for. It would be like drawing with a standard pen vs. a pen with a swinging weight on the end.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A lot of the reason people think this is because that's the way they are portrayed in video games. Because they need a tradeoff in video games, sacrifice accuracy for firing speed.\n\nIn the real world there is nowhere near as much difference.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Energy from a fired round is used to to re-set semi auto weapons via blow back. With bolt action 100% is used to power the round to the target. The main reason however is that bolt action weapons are built to finer tolerances where as semi auto's have a lot less tolerance to insure they don't jam.\n\n_URL_0_ Here is an auto weapon firing a single round in slow mo and as you can see there is a lot of movement including the barrel which will degrade accuracy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well, for one, it is extremely difficult to hit a target at long range in quick succession, so using a semi-automatic rifle would have no tangible benefit in that regard. With most long distance shots, you have only one chance; you have to take into account elements, sight your rifle without any practice shots, and may have a very limited field of view. If something is wrong with your shot, your target will likely move, or be moving, making your next shot exceptionally harder, if not outright impossible. Doing all of the above is a lengthy process, and not something you can do after a high-powered rifle shot, so having another bullet ready to go in a fraction of a second is useless, because *you're* not ready. Precision shooting is slow; careful breathing, a slow, smooth trigger pull.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Another reason snipers prefer bolt actions over semi-autos is for stealth reasons, in regards to cleaning up a firing position or hide. \n\nIt's easier to collect brass out of a bolt rifle than a semi-auto one since you can eject the spent casings into your hand and put the brass directly in a dump pouch versus going all around a five foot area picking brass up off the ground. It's important for those long range recon missions to leave no trace of their position after they're done using it", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The action on a semi-auto (even though it's slight) does degrade accuracy. At 400-500+ yards, just one minute of angle off target is a 4\"-5\" error and in sniping, that's huge. \n\nAnother reason for snipers using bolt actions is sound. There are five factors that cause sound when shooting. The discharge of the round, crack of the bullet breaking the sound barrier, action of the rifle, the brass hitting the ground and the projectile striking the target. \n\nWith a bolt action, you eliminate the action sound and the brass striking the ground. A sniper may use a suppressor which would help with the discharge sound. However, it's not like you see in the movies. Even with a suppressed bolt rifle, there is still a lot of sound once that trigger is pulled. If you ever shot a 22 LR, a suppressed sniper rifle still has that many db's or more. Sound=Bad for a sniper.\n\nThey are not shooting subsonic ammunition for long distance so the crack of that bullet breaking the sound barrier is unavoidable. \n\nThere are other factors but accuracy and stealth are key. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same reason many car drivers prefer manual over automatic - more control over many variables.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Doing so would mean spending propulsion force to move the reloading mechanism. \n\nSniper riffles are useful for high precission and long distance hits, so sacrificing automatic reloading for extra firing distance sounds like a good design choice", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "because semi automatic snipers take 3 hits to kill, and bolt action take 2. or 1 if youre on a hardcore server.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is totally going to be lost in the literal shit ton of bad information going around right now.\n\nThe simple answer is that it's what the sniper community demands. The self-image of a sniper is working in 2 man teams, taking out a target, and quietly slipping away. So per-shot accuracy is prioritized at all costs.\n\nModern sniping started with the military shooting teams. Carlos Hathcock was a USMC shooter. The rifle he used in Vietnam was the same as the rifle he used to win the Wimbledon trophy. The Army sniper up until the 90's was the M21, which was a national match M14 with a scope on it.\n\nIraq and Afghanistan changed sniping in two different ways; at least for the Army.\n\n It showed that the concept of 2 men going out alone armed with bolt actions was a dated concept as far as urban warfare is concerned. When your firing position had to be in a city that is occupied by unfriendly civilians, it is almost impossible to stay concealed for long. The battles we were getting involved in required that teams be able to stand and fight to a greater degree, so team size typically got increased to 5 or 6 guys to increase their firepower.\n\nThe other thing that Iraq showed is that a bolt action rifle is not the best tool for the job. The added precision of a bolt action cannot make up for the lack of firepower that a semi-automatic can provide.\n\nAfghanistan on the other hand showed the other extreme. Mountain top to mountain top shots across basically devoid terrain. The top 3 longest record sniper shots have been in Afghanistan. One from an Australian team, one from a Brit, and another from a Canadian. In Afghanistan, the 7.62 NATO M24 proved lacking the range required for many of these engagements.\n\nAs a result of experiences in Iraq and Afghanistan , the Army adopted a 2 rifle solution. A semi-auto general purpose sniper rifle in the M110, and a 300 Winchester Magnum M2010 that pushes their effective range out by about 400 yards. The effects are two-fold; a M110 equipped spotter can comfortably handle targets out to 800 yards, and what used to be considered a difficult long range shot with the M24 is more routine with the more powerful M2010.\n\nThe bolt action still has a niche to fill in large caliber magnums for the militaries of the world. They are proven to be accurate and reliable, which is important for extended long range engagements. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "SDM checking in:\n\nYou guys covered a lot.\n\nI Can at least contribute the idea that a/the semi automatic platform of increasingly higher caliber has scaling recoil due to the amount of moving parts and action. \n\nOften times the larger the caliber, the larger the round, the parts needed to cycle the round also go up in both size and complexity. Where-as a bolt action system is largely a universal concept and scales easily enough to almost any system and almost any round. \n\nSemi Automatic designated marksman rifles almost always cap out in size with the 7.62x51 and 7.62x54 rounds for conventional usage, as beyond that the machining required gets bigger, heavier and starts to defeat the purpose as a designated mobile platform for small unit anti personnel use. \n\nThe semi automatic capability allows for rapid fire to enable suppression and a larger combat capability rather than one shot, precision systems. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The bolt action was always considered to be the best choice because when the bolt closes exactly that same way every time and when it is closed the entire receiver assembly is locked up and more rigid than a semi auto.\n\nAlso when it comes to ammunition a lot of serious long range shooters load their own ammo, when seating the bullet they seat it \"long\" so when it is chambered the bolt pushes the bullet into the rifling in the barrel, so every round fired starts from exactly the same place, this can't be done with a semi auto.\n\nAs semi autos have evolved they are getting closer to the accuracy of a bolt action, but the best semi auto still won't beat a bolt gun on paper.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Purists will give you a variety of reasons, the primary of which is \"variability\". A semi-auto's cycle involves bolt release outside of the user's control, uncontrolled ejection of the casing that can give away position, variable gas utilization for driving the bolt, slapping the next round into the chamber in a rather uncontrolled manner, continued barrel vibration between shots, heat variability of the chamber and barrel and a host of other factors that simply aren't present in manual bolt system. There's also the issue of specialty loads, which can only really be used with consistent results at the technical limits of the weapon in a manual bolt-action rifle.\n\nHere's the reality: semi-auto condone undisciplined sniping. A good sniper will use a single position, ideally, for a single shot, but more realistically, for a couple. Then they will move to another position if their cover is good. semi-autos tend to force position choice into a single defensible position possibly with a good exit route. At that point, you're not a sniper, but a rifleman. A semi-auto rifle can turn a sniping into an ambush, which are two completely separate things.\n\nA disciplined semi-auto sniper will tell you that a bolt-action rifle is inappropriate on the modern battlefield and, as long as the sniper is cognizant of his weapon's limitations and weaknesses, disciplined semi-auto sniping is just as effective as the bolt-action variety. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am just guessing but doesn't the energy needed to cycle the rifle take away from the energy that goes into sending the bullet downrange?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am way late and there are a bunch of good answers but one thing they seem to be misrepresenting to the uninitiated. \n\nWhen we are talking about accuracy we mean something more like consistency. Your accuracy with long range rifles is basically dependent on your ability to perform consistently and your knowledge of how your rifle performs in similar conditions.\n\n \"Snipers\" will keep a book or a history filled with shots from their rifle fired in all kinds of conditions (temp, humidity, wind), at all kinds of ranges and even at different angles of elevation. Bolt action rifles lend themselves to consistency much better by design. \n\n\nFirst with bolt action you don't have to use some of the gas to cycle the weapon. This means you get better muzzle velocity which causes the bullet to drop less, make it to target faster giving the wind less time to act on it and means you need to lead a target less. As a general rule, the slower a bullet is moving, the less consistent its point of impact is. (this can change based on twist rates in your barrel and other factors but in normal circumstance is true) \n\nSecond, because the rifle doesn't need to cycle on its own or quickly, every fucking thing in it can be built to much much tighter tolerances. At the distances we are talking anything can throw that bullet off target, specs of sand or dirt, a particularly cold pocket of air etc. The chamber can be built to seat and seal extremely consistently, there is a lot less chance of getting crap in it because you control the cycle and it isn't kicking up a ton of dust by expelling hot air while it's doing it. The tolerances make so much of a difference that a lot of really good marksmanship schools will teach that when you're shooting a really nice bolt action to just put it firmly in your shoulder pocket and only use a couple fingers touching the gun to pull the trigger. However, when shooting a semi they will tell you to crank that mother fucker into your shoulder like it's your job trying to tighten the tolerances and man handle that grip to torque it down even more. \n\nAnother nice thing about them is they are cheaper to manufacture so you have more money left over to use better materials in the stock or\nbarrel. There are also a lot more customization options for bolt actions since they are a much simpler design. Bedding blocks, better chassis, etc. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bolt actions tend to be more accurate than semi-automatic rifles.\n\nThey also tend to get a bit tighter seal, so their muzzle velocity can tend to be a bit higher.\n\nBolt action is preferred over lever action because a lever is more difficult to operate from a prone (laying down) position, or in a trench.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not just late, I'm extremely late, but I haven't seen anyone mention a very big reason.. In the British military, we use the L115a3 (L96) which as most of you probably know, is bolt action. \nWe have to remember that one of the best features of a long distance marksman is being hidden, and undetected from the enemy. Now if we use a semi automatic rifle, all of the effort hiding and concealing your position could be ruined by a highly polished bit of brass being ejected a meter or two out of the rifle, that goes against all 7 S's of concealment. \nNow that we have a bolt action, we can manually remove the round from the weapon, slowly and hidden. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This topic has already been pretty well beaten into the dirt by the top comments, espeically that there's many semi-auto and even full auto \"sniper rifles\" out there.\n\nBut a couple other reasons I've heard over the years for why bolt-actions are still popular in that role would be:\n\nBolt action allows you to eject the spent casing at a moment of your choosing, whereas any type of auto will eject it automatically. I guess this is sometimes preferable if you don't want brass flying around, potentially giving away your position.\n\nAlso that bolt actions are simpler, and therefore easier to assemble and disassemble, which may be handy if you're crawling through a mile of mud to get to a shooting position. \n\nI have no idea how true either of these really are, just some other things I've heard.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not sure how relevant this is, but for a long time it was cheaper to produce accurate bolt action rifles than it is to make semi automatic rifles. this is probally a large part of why scoped rifles were originally bolt action. \n\nA few points to consider\nSeveral early semi automatic rifles ejected cases upwards. This made for poor usage while scoped as cases can strike the scope, however this was fixed by side mounted scopes for some guns. \n\nEjecting the brass is not always a great idea. It does alow for a quick follow up shot, but it also means you have to find the brass before you move, provided you are worried about someone finding said brass. Brass is also quite reflective and in sunshine it could stand out. \n\nBolt action is a very accurate breech mechanism.\n\nBolt actions are not slow weapons to fire when you have been trained with them. when you take into account the amount of time you will spend lining up a shot, Firing the shot, Re aiming for follow up, and firing again, the bolt action is only just behind the semi automatic in speed, as unlike call of duty you can quite easily pull a bolt without coming away from the scope. \n\nAs someone else mentioned there are many brilliant semi automatic sniper rifles. I think a lot of it comes down to the snipers personal preference and availability. \n\nIF you spent your whole child hood shooting cans with a bolt action .22 then a bolt action might come more naturally to you. If you learnt to shoot with semi automatics then that might be the style you prefer. \n\nIf you are a sniper from Afghanistan then chances are your weapon of choice will likely be the Dragunov for its availability in that part of the world, but if you are a sniper from Australia who learnt to shoot with a .303, chances are you will prefer a bolt action. \n\nThe military from most countries likely has several \"Sniper\" rifles available for different missions. As a marksman part of a squad one of the M14's DMR cousins is probably a better option than a long range bolt action rifle as its more adaptable to changing situations. If your job is to watch a crossroads for a week, then chances are you will be looking for something accurate and easy to move if you are spotted. If your job is to cover a convoy from 1000 metres where you will need to disable pursuing vehicles, then you are probably going to want a heavy duty bolt rifle that fires a round as big as your fist. \n\nSo basically it comes down to personal preference, Availability, and the target. Horses for courses. Your not going to send a guy with a .22 to shoot at tanks, and your not going to send a guy with a .50 to jog through buildings as part of a squad. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A large part of it is the tolerance difference between a bolt action, a semi-auto and the ammunition they use. By their nature, semi-auto rifles need looser tolerances compared to bolt actions because they have more moving parts that need to move a certain way for correction function. By comparison, a bolt action is a much simpler movement and it is operated by hand which allows for reliable function with much closer tolerances.\n\nNow part 2 of this is the ammunition. When you fire a round, the case expands outwards to meet the walls of the chamber of the rifle. This means in semi autos, ammo needs to be sized smaller than the chamber to ensure reliable function. In a bolt actions, rounds can be used that are perfectly sized to the chamber because they can be manually placed into the chamber and the action locked on the round. Precision and competitive long range shooters very frequently use brass from rounds they have fired in their rifle and reload them without resizing the body of the brass. Only the neck is resized and trimmed to specific sizes. The idea is to produce ammo tailored to the rifle firing it. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The ELI5, \"simple\" answer is that **bolt action rifles are simpler, lighter and more robust**. Because long range shooting is about *accuracy* (not volume of fire) the main advantage of automatic loading (increased firepower) is unnecessary at distance and the added mechanical complications only become a potential liability. \n\nThere are certainly semi-autos capable of phenomenal accuracy @ 1000m+ but those guns are more *expensive* and *heavier* than a comparably accurate bolt gun. That's it really. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are a ton of semi, and even fully automatic rifles that can be used for longer ranged combat. Bolt actions just have advantages that other guns don't have for snipers.\n\nOne of them being, in a bolt action you can manually remove spent ammunition.. This means you don't have to worry about flying brass giving away your cover. Believe it or not that is an actual problem snipers have, especially when enemy snipers are looking for them.\n\nSecondly bolt action weapons are usually (emphasis on usually) a lot less likely to jam due to sand, mud, water, etc and prolonged periods of being in dirty conditions. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Ah I do enjoy the occasional front page gun thread. Nothing like hearing from call of duty commandos for a day or two. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Top comments have it mostly right, but I think it needs some clarification. As with most things in the military, it is part form/function and part psychology.\n\nThere are plenty of sniper rifles that are not bolt action. In fact many militaries use rifles that do not fall into the traditional bolt action type.\n\nOther posts are somewhat correct in that high accuracy rifles tend to try to avoid changes which may effect the ability to put the bullet in the same place. This is the core idea behind accuracy. \n\nAll weapons have certain tolerances that give the weapon the ability to load the cartridge and fire the round. This includes how the the cartridge is loaded, how the weapon detonates the round, and how the round travels down the barrel. Very small tolerances can cause the rifle to be prone to jamming or fouling, which is naturally not a desirable characteristic for a battle rifle. It isn't as much as an issue for dedicated sniper weapons that receive lots of love from the owner. This is not to say it isn't an issue, as snipers still need the weapon to function reliability, but tend to favor higher tolerances which minimize small deviations in how the weapon fires due to the tolerances within the weapon.\n\nAutomatic weapons tend to have have larger tolerances to allow the weapon to cycle properly, but this is not always the case. Some highly accurate special made sniper weapons have high tolerances and little to no deviation in the cycling of the weapon.\n\nBecause bolt action weapons rely on the operator to accomplish cycling the round, there is some reduction of the movable portions of the rifle, which some believe decreases the variables when firing. This is dubious however, and there are plenty of examples of how this can be done just as well by the weapon and minimize movement of the operator allowing easier follow up shots, more on this later.\n\nThis is not to say however that weapons with wide tolerances cannot be very accurate. Periodically even a rifle with wide tolerances will come off the assembly line highly accurate, but even disassembly for cleaning can alter this.\n\nThere is a belief in the sniper community, especially in America that you need a one shot kill sort of mentality and weapon. As such especially for newer shooters it is emphasized that they make every shot count. This is partially due to the expense of the ammunition and partly an inherited cultural trait within the community. It ends up being a bit of a construction of the community which weapons are called sniper weapons and which are called scout weapons, which may be just as accurate but automatic.\n\nSo there you go, it ends up being less important how the weapon operates and how we have learned to view non automatic weapons.\n\nTLDR: There are many sniper weapons that are not bolt action, it comes down to preference within specific parts of the community that have shaped our impression of what constitutes a sniper weapon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I am very late to this party!!! I am a prior member of special operations. A few of the top answers are hitting close and getting things accurately however missing a big point. \n\nBolt action rifles were preferred by my group because they were rarely in a position where there job was cover fire. When we would go on an OP where combat was guaranteed to happen everyone carried semi-auto/burst weapons. 1 person usually carried a fully automatic depending once again on the OP. \n\nSnipers in the field are rarely there to kill. I've been on numerous missions where we approach over X-Time get into position watch for X-Time and then leave over X-Time. We crawl we take cat litter to piss in and put feces in bags. The whole purpose of us to be there without \"ever being there\". If we fire a shot in those scenarios you can guarantee we take our shell casings with us when we go. With a semi-auto you lose track of casings because WHO THE FUCK CARES YOU'RE BEING SHOT AT!!! Have you ever field called brass? It fucking sucks imagine having to do that in hostile territory..... It's not happening. \n\nA Snipers job now a day isn't go an assassinate targets, It's go sit and fucking watch and report. They are the eyes in the field. So for the short answer is control. We need to control everything when we aren't supposed to be somewhere. If you are actually called to take the shot you take that fucking brass with you. Another note in that situation where you take the shot is brass shines. If it ejects without control it's going to hit the sun and cause a flash. Most the time people aren't looking in the weeds for a sniper but after a dude falls around you without notice EVERYONE is fucking looking for any indicator. \n\nThrow away because I don't broadcast this to people on a regular basis and don't need it tied to me.\n\n*Sorry I dont know how to edit\n\nTLDR - To control your environment not just your shot", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sniper here- \rSemi-autos are great weapons, but when extreme accuracy is needed they have one specific flaw. They require gas to move the bolt, extract the previous cartridge and chamber the next round. These gases can vary from shot to shot- minimal change, but enough to notice. Bolt actions are more consistent because all gas is exerted forward, and not recycled for the function of the weapon. The shooter manually does the extraction and chambering. This leads to greater recoil felt by the shooter, and also greater accuracy. There are other factors such as volume of fire, but a well trained sniper can have comparable volumes. Sniping is about calculating, and minimizing variables. Gas/chamber pressure included. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Late, so not going to write too much.\n\nI was ranked 4th sharpshooter in my country, many years ago. used almost exclusively [this rifle.](_URL_0_). It looks plain, but it is considered one of the, if not THE best competition rifles in the world. Accuracy of sharpshooting (paper targets) is on a different scale of sniping (shooting people). In a competition, your bullseye is 0.22\" (same size as the bullet), is at 50 M, and you need to put 60 bullets in it, within an hour (there are variations, but this is the standard). for every bullet dead-on you get 10 points, for every MM outside the bullseye, remove a point. my personal best was 597. Enough background.\n\n1. Simple construction, less moving parts, meaning a bolt with a tolerance of 0.001 cm or less. No gas leakage, no slight movement of the round within the chamber.\n\n2. No recoil. All the gas is used for pushing the bullet out the barrel, and no piston traveling back, causing a barrel jump.\n\n3. Barrel needs time to cool down anyway. Hot barrel means a slight change in how the bullet comes out. Also, there is this thing called whipping; after you shoot, the barrel whips, and needs time to straighten again (think a garden-hose, when you suddenly open the faucet, will whip).\n\n4. No need. You don't need to shoot fast, you need to shoot straight. This is better done with a bolt, although there are some rifles using clips and bolts, no need to change what works so well.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "sniper rifles require maybe one shot in 10-15 minutes, depending on the situation, making it semi automatic doesnt add more than it removes", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My mostly uneducated thoughts on this are;\n < 1000 yards a semi automatic is preferable. Within 600 a follow up shot is quite possible, the SA will be faster. Rounds designed for this range have well established SA platforms to build from. Bolt actions are incredibly simple, and much easier to develop for niche cartridges. Under about 400 the motion of working the bolt could give away your position. After the first shot people will be searching for flashes of movement. \nOver 1000 yards the advantages of a bolt gun start to out weigh the disadvantages. Slightly more consistent head spacing of the chambered round starts to become a factor. Speed of follow up shots is slow no matter what. The military doesn't need 3 million 2000 yard rifles so there's little incentive to invest the time and money in developing a SA platform when custom bolt rifles can be designed much more quickly. SA's need to prove their reliability over years, bolt guns just plain work. Rounds that are effective at these ranges need to be re barreled frequently, which is a lot simpler with no gas tube. True free floated barrels are significant at these ranges. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Semi Auto Sniper rifles are terrible compared to Bolt Action, when trying to quick scope. If you try to quick scope with a semi auto sniper, you will look like a noob, so all the Faze members use Bolt Actions ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A bolt action is simpler to manufacture, as well as if made semi automatic there's the need of a gas chamber which is unnecessary added mechanical mechanism and weight. The point of a marksman rifle is to be of a larger caliber, accuracy and mobility. Having a gas chamber means that for a larger caliber the firearm size has to be overall increased.\nBolt Action rifles are well known for their pin-point accuracy, simplicity of cleaning and maintaining, a simple firing mechanism and easy to carry ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Easy answer.\n\nBolt action rifles can be machined to tighter tolerances than semi-auto ones can. Tighter tolerances ensure that the round is chambered exactly the same with little variance. In addition, less moving parts equates to a less complex mechanism. Thus, higher reliability. \n\nThis is important for consistency. Which is why serious reloaders are all OCD types who weigh out brass, powder, tips and primers as a sorting process. Trimming and seating are measured down to the .01 and sometimes the .001 range. \n\nMany tight tolerance semi-autos can do .5 MOA. Whereas a match level or custom made bolt-gun can do .25MOA or better. \n\nFor those who don't shoot, that's a difference between a half inch grouping at 100 yards vs a quarter inch group. Scaled out to longer ranges, it equates to a base five inch spread at 1000 yds vs a 2.5 inch spread. \n\nSource: I'm one of those OCD reloader types who shoots bolt guns when accuracy is a must. \n\nThe decision to go with a bolt-gun vs a semi-auto is a tradeoff between accuracy and capacity. While a semi-auto isn't as accurate as a bolt gun, you can put more rounds down-range in less time with decent enough accuracy. ( Decent meaning ~1 MOA ) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "because when you quickscope someone, the sound of loading up the next round is much more satisfying", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Saw some mistakes here.\n\nMy guess is weight, the action of a gun is rated by how much force it can take from a bullet in firing. Bolt action probably can handle more force per weight than semi. The standard assault rifle fires significantlyrics smaller rounds than a hunting/sniping rifle.\n\nYou can't see if you hit targets anyway because the recoil, that's why you need a spotter who can see the vapor trail of the projectile to tell you to adjust course..\n\nI was told by an ex Ranger sniper the rifle is pretty cheap, but the glass scope on top cost 5x the rifle. Don't think it cost.\n\nThe 50 cal sniper semi auto has it's place, but it's heavy as fuk for a lot of purposes. Weight matters when you have lots to carry and want to be stealthy. Google the die difference. There larger and faster round is more accurate, but you don't need to shoot 2000 yard targets all the time.\n\nHuge rifles are impossible to shoot standing, and harder kneeling than smaller ones. That makes smaller ones are more accurate and therefor deadly if you don't have a stationary position with time to set up. I went hunting with a 7mm Mauser while my buddies had magnum rifles. There rifles weighed twice mine, and we're very awkward to carry around. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi there! Army vet. here. \n\nIn short... Most are not bolt action rifles anymore. The Barrett M98B, Barrett M95, M21, M110, US Army SDM Rifles, Navy MK12, M25, and USMC DMR sniper rifle are all Semi-automatic.\n\nThere is no real advantage to a bolt action rifle over a semi-automatic if both are machined with the same tolerances in the chamber and barrel. The bolt and the recoil system have little to no impact on weapon accuracy which is why most if not all sniper rifles in the US military are now semi-auto. \n \n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I believe a lot of what people are saying about less moving parts means less chance to screw up your shot. It's also true about keeping costs down when manufacturing - more of a \"They don't need it, so why make it\" type of thing.\n\nBut also keep in mind this. The biggest reason Sniper Rifles are bolt action are because they are ***simple***. \n\nSnipers tend to be isolated and remote. They aren't with a bunch of other guys who have spare parts. Bolt action rifles are simple, reliable, and easy to maintain. What good is a gun if it breaks on you, especially if you're supposed to be covering guys a couple hundred yards out? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A bolt action does not need gas to push the bolt back so that gas/energy can be used on the bullet. Plus bolt action is way cooler.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of the key issues missing here is the projectile deformation from semi-auto actions. If you ever manually eject the 2nd unfired round(after firing the first), you'll notice the HPBT is somewhat deformed/damaged. This is personal first hand experience with an older variance SR25 that I used. If you're engaging at 100-500yrds, it doesn't make that much difference but past that, the flight path of the bullet is severely affected. Also, semi guns tend to be heavier so that's another trade off. \n\nMy personal opinion, if it's a target rich/semi urban environment and I'm reasonably near supply/wheels, I'll hump a semi. Reason being, I'm engaging multiple targets quickly and it's in closer proximity. AFG type, I'm using the bolt gun as the shots are much farther out and the 1/8 - 1/4moa accuracy will mean the difference btw hit or miss. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The most obvious reason is that a bolt-action rifle has fewer parts that move during firing, so it throws the shooters aim off less. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The way semi-automatic guns work is that part of the force of the explosion goes backwards, to force the action open and chamber the next round. With a bolt-action, all the force of the blast goes forward into propelling the bullet, making it fly faster and straighter.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Accuracy is a function of repeatability. The whole object in obtaining \"accuracy\" is to make this shot the same as the last, and the next shot the same as this shot.\n\nThere are a shit ton of shot to shot variables with a rifle, and the projectile. A bolt action rifle just eliminates variables that you would otherwise have to compensate for, or try to compensate for.\n\nSemi autos have some mechanism for auto loading the cartridge. It could be blowback, recoil, or gas operated, or manual (Gatling gun). Every one of these processes introduce different variables. More variables=less accuracy. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because semi autos typically use a gas system to cycle another round into the chamber. The gas system is fixed to the barrel and causes movement of the barrel between shots, thereby causing inconsistency and inaccuracy in groupings (multiple shots at the same place). It isn't that a sniper wants a bolt action; it's more that they want a free floating barrel. This means that the barrel attaches only to the receiver (bit where all the bullet/bolt stuff happens). Free floating barrels are almost exclusively bolt action. This allows the barrel to return to as close to the same point after each shot with far greater consistency, allowing a sniper/marksman to put all his rounds to the same spot as often as possible.\n\nI'll note that some snipers do use semi auto rifles for a number of reasons (availability of ammo, the need to engage multiple targets rapidly, attachment options, etc). Actually iirc Carlos Hathcock made a long range kill of 2286m with a Browning M2 machine gun, which is fully automatic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "452905", "title": "Sniper rifle", "section": "Section::::Distinguishing characteristics.:Action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1007, "text": "The choice between bolt-action and semi-automatic, usually recoil operated or gas operated , is usually determined by specific requirements of the sniper's role in a particular organization, with each design having advantages and disadvantages. For a given cartridge, a bolt-action rifle is cheaper to build and maintain, more reliable, and lighter, due to fewer moving parts in the mechanism. In addition, the absence of uncontrolled automatic cartridge case ejection helps avoid revealing the shooter's position. Semi-automatic weapons can serve both as battle rifle and sniper rifle, and allow for a greater rate (and hence volume) of fire. As such rifles may be modified service rifles, an additional benefit can be commonality of operation with the issued infantry rifle. A bolt action is most commonly used in both military and police roles due to its higher accuracy and ease of maintenance. Anti-materiel applications such as mine clearing and special forces operations tend to use semi-automatics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25456", "title": "Rifle", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 497, "text": "Historically, rifles only fired a single projectile with each squeeze of the trigger. Modern rifles are commonly classified as single shot, bolt action, semi-automatic, or automatic. Single shot, bolt action, and semi-automatic rifles are limited by their designs to fire a single shot for each trigger pull. Only automatic rifles are capable of firing more than one round per trigger squeeze; however, some automatic rifles are limited to fixed bursts of two, three, or more rounds per squeeze. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83239", "title": "Uzi", "section": "Section::::Design.:Operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 459, "text": "The trigger mechanism is a conventional firearm trigger, but functions only to control the release mechanism for either the bolt (submachine gun) or firing pin holding mechanism (semi-auto) since the Uzi does not incorporate an internal cocking or hammer mechanism. While the open-bolt system is mechanically simpler than a closed-bolt design (e.g. Heckler & Koch MP5), it creates a noticeable delay between when the trigger is pulled and when the gun fires.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11966", "title": "Firearm", "section": "Section::::Types of firearms.:Configuration.:Long guns.:Rifles and shotguns.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 262, "text": "In military use, bolt-action rifles with high-power scopes are common as sniper rifles, however by the Korean War the traditional bolt-action and semi-automatic rifles used by infantrymen had been supplemented by select-fire designs known as \"automatic rifles\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "621313", "title": "Lever action", "section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1447, "text": "While lever-action rifles have always been popular with hunters and sporting shooters, they have never been widely accepted by the military. One significant reason for this is that it is harder to fire from the prone position with a lever-action rifle than it is with a straight-pull or rotating-bolt bolt-action rifle. Another reason is ammunition. While lever-action rifles generally possess a greater rate of fire than bolt-action rifles, lever-action firearms are also generally fed from a tubular magazine, similar to the one used on the first bolt action rifle which limits the type of ammunition that can be used in them. Pointed centerfire \"spitzer\" bullets, for example, can cause explosions in a tubular magazine, as the point of each cartridge's projectile rests on the primer of the next cartridge in the magazine. Some modern cartridges, such as the elastomer-tipped Hornady LEVERevolution ammunition overcome this problem. The tubular magazine may also have a negative impact on the harmonics of the barrel, which limits the theoretical accuracy of the rifle. A tubular magazine under the barrel also pushes the center of gravity forward, which alters the balance of the rifle in ways that are undesirable for shooting off hand from a standing position to some shooters. There are, however, some lever-action rifles—such as the Winchester Model 1895, which saw service with the Russian Army in World War I—that use a box magazine.br\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30857927", "title": "Safety (firearms)", "section": "Section::::Firearms.:Rifles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 267, "text": "Some bolt action rifle safeties have three positions: \"fire\" which allows the gun to fire, \"safe\" which does not allow the gun to fire or the action to open, and an intermediate third position which cannot fire but allows the action to be opened to unload the rifle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "375767", "title": "Semi-automatic firearm", "section": "Section::::Auto-loading.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 686, "text": "An open-bolt mechanism is a common characteristic of fully automatic firearms. With this system, pulling the trigger releases the bolt from a cocked, rearward position, pushing a cartridge from the magazine into the chamber, firing the gun. The bolt retracts to the rearward position, ready to strip the next cartridge from the magazine. The open-bolt system is often used in submachine guns and other weapons with a high rate of fire. It is rarely used in semi-automatic-only firearms, which can fire only one shot with each pull of the trigger. The closed-bolt system is generally more accurate, as the centre of gravity changes relatively little at the moment the trigger is pulled.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Well, Confession is having your sins absolved, that is, return to a state of grace and avoid a path leading to damnation. A reconciliation, if you will. But there is still a need to make up for the consequences of sin, most notably the offense the penitent has caused to God. Now ordinarily this is achieved after the death of the penitent in Purgatory. But this can also be done by doing pious works or actions, which are indulgenced, and commute this reparation, in whole or in part. That is an indulgence.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "700676", "title": "Confessionalization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 800, "text": "In Protestant Reformation history, confessionalization is the parallel processes of \"confession-building\" taking place in Europe between the Peace of Augsburg (1555) and the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). During this time prior to the Thirty Years' War, there was a nominal peace between the Protestant and Catholic confessions as both competed to establish their faith more firmly with the population of their respective area. This confession-building occurred through \"social-disciplining,\" as there was a stricter enforcement by the churches of their particular rules for all aspects of life in both Protestant and Catholic areas. This had the consequence of creating distinctive confessional identities that influenced church dogma, faith formation, liturgy, and the development of universities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "700676", "title": "Confessionalization", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 481, "text": "Confessionalization was supported by monarchs and rulers in general, because after the Reformation had brought control over their territories' churches into their hands, they could exercise more power over their subjects by enforcing strict religious obedience. The main tool for the enforcement of these rules were \"police-regulations\". These were behavior-codes for religious, social and economic life to which the common citizen had to oblige under threat of severe punishment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5589718", "title": "Sacrament of Penance", "section": "Section::::History.:Individual confessions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 944, "text": "During the Counter-Reformation of the 16th century, confession became less of a public declaration of loyalty to the Church and more of a private affair. Since the Council of Trent, compulsory annual confession was required only of those conscious of mortal sin. The confession has since taken place in the privacy of a confessional. It was a change in emphasis from reconciliation with the Church to reconciliation directly with God; and from emphasis on social sins of hostility to private sins, called the \"secret sins of the heart\". Especially in the West, the penitent may choose to confess in a specially constructed confessional, with an opaque grille separating the priest from the penitent, whose anonymity is thus preserved and physical contact is prevented. The provision of a fixed grille is required by the Code of Canon Law. The penitent may also confess face to face, and this is the tradition in some Eastern Catholic Churches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "574164", "title": "Schmalkaldic War", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 284, "text": "In the course of the Lutheran Reformation numerous Imperial States had adopted the new confession, against the opposition of the ruling Catholic House of Habsburg, who recognised these conversions as a quest for increasing autonomy to the detriment of the central Imperial authority.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "636645", "title": "Diet of Augsburg", "section": "Section::::Augsburg Confession.:Creation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1054, "text": "There has been a long dispute regarding the Augsburg Confession and what type of confession it truly is. One suggestion is that it is a political and theological confession, which established the Protestant church. A second view is that it is a catholic confession that dispensed with minor teachings such as penance. During the 16th century the tensions and relationship that existed between the Emperor, the Pope, the German Princes and the Protestants were quite complex. The confessions of the early centuries of the church were evoked by the Protestant Reformation and of the tensions that existed in the Church. The confession represented Protestant beliefs during the time of intense political and religious pressures. The Confession did discuss the basis and role of the papal authority in the Church “but it was decided not to incorporate a statement of the Lutheran position on the papacy in the confession in order to avoid upsetting Charles V and running the risk that he might simply refuse to negotiate with the Lutheran part at the Diet”.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52389328", "title": "List of excommunicable offences from the Council of Trent", "section": "Section::::Sacraments.:Penance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 102, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 102, "end_character": 563, "text": "In confession (also known as the sacrament of Penance or reconciliation), a person confesses their sins to a priest or bishop and receives God's forgiveness through absolution by the priest or bishop. This sacrament was criticised by many Protestants during the Reformation and abolished in many of the new Protestant denominations on the basis that a priest or bishop did not have power from God to forgive (or refuse to forgive) people's sins. To answer this challenge, the church enacted the following canons to punish Catholics who subscribed to these ideas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18974659", "title": "English Reformation", "section": "Section::::Early reform movements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 853, "text": "The Reformation was a clash of two opposed schemes of salvation. The Catholic Church taught that the contrite person could cooperate with God towards their salvation by performing good works. Medieval Catholic worship was centred on the Mass, the church's offering of the sacrifice of Christ's body and blood. The Mass was also an offering of prayer by which the living could help souls in purgatory. Protestants taught that fallen humanity was helpless and under condemnation until given the grace of God through faith. They believed the Catholic emphasis on purgatory was an obstacle to true faith in God and the identification of the Mass with Christ's sacrifice a blasphemous perversion of the Eucharist. In place of the Mass, Protestant worship was centred on the Bible–to them the only road to faith in Christ–either read or presented in sermons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We actually are not quite sure what fully causes the feeling of being tired or lethargic. One simple explanation that has the most proof appears to be that a chemical called adenosine builds up in our brain throughout many of our daily activities. Adenosine is the byproduct of many metabolic functions (such as ATP being broken down for energy at a cellular level) in the body, and when enough of it builds up in our brain, we get tired. Similarly, when we drink things that are caffeinated, it blocks adenosine from binding to receptors in our brain and keeps us awake. This is a very simple explanation, you could find further reading here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not an anaswer, but just a question to clarify your question. Is there a particular time of day you feel tired and lethargic, e.g. after eating lunch, or a high-sugar snack, then not moving for a long period of time?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7554116", "title": "Clouding of consciousness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 317, "text": "Clouding of consciousness, also known as brain fog or mental fog, is a term used in medicine denoting an abnormality in the regulation of the overall level of consciousness that is mild and less severe than a delirium. The sufferer experiences a subjective sensation of mental clouding described as feeling \"foggy\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3318239", "title": "Glossary of psychiatry", "section": "Section::::C.:Clouding of consciousness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 93, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 93, "end_character": 675, "text": "Clouding of consciousness, also known as \"brain fog\" or \"mental fog\", is a global impairment in higher central nervous functioning. All aspects of cognitive functioning are affected. On mental status examination it is manifest by disorientation in time, place and person, memory difficulties caused by failure to register and recall, aphasia, and agnosia. Impaired perception functioning leads to illusions and hallucinations often in the visual sensory modality. This then causes agitation and distress and secondary delusions. The term 'confusion state' is sometimes used to mean clouding of consciousness, but should be avoided if at all possible because it is ambiguous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57720057", "title": "Models of Consciousness", "section": "Section::::Clouding of consciousness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 437, "text": "Clouding of consciousness, also known as brain fog or mental fog, is a term used in medicine denoting an abnormality in the regulation of the overall level of consciousness that is mild and less severe than a delirium. It is part of an overall model where there's regulation of the \"overall level\" of the consciousness of the brain and aspects responsible for \"arousal\" or \"wakefulness\" and awareness of oneself and of the environment. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7554116", "title": "Clouding of consciousness", "section": "Section::::Psychopathology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1261, "text": "The sufferer experiences a subjective sensation of mental clouding described in the patient's own words as feeling \"foggy\". One sufferer described it as \"I thought it became like misty, in some way... the outlines were sort of fuzzy\". Others may describe a \"spaced out\" feeling. Sufferers compare their overall experience to that of a dream because as in a dream consciousness, attention, orientation to time and place, perceptions, and awareness are disturbed. Barbara Schildkrout, MD, a board-certified psychiatrist and clinical instructor in psychiatry at the Harvard Medical School described her subjective experience of clouding of consciousness, or what she also called \"mental fog\", after taking a single dose of the antihistamine chlorpheniramine for her cottonwood allergy while on a cross-country road trip. She described feeling \"out of it\" and being in a \"dreamy state\". She described a sense of not trusting her own judgment and a dulled awareness, not knowing how long time went by. Clouding of consciousness is not the same thing as \"depersonalization\" even though sufferers of both compare their experience to that of a dream. Psychometric tests produce little evidence of a relationship between clouding of consciousness and depersonalization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "652949", "title": "Sopor (sleep)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 423, "text": "Sopor is a condition of abnormally deep sleep or a stupor from which it is difficult to rouse. It involves a profound depression of consciousness, which is manifested by drowsiness, while maintaining coordinated defensive reactions to stimuli such as pain, harsh sound, and bright light, and preserving vital functions. Sopor may be caused by a drug; such drugs are deemed soporific. A stupor is more severe than a sopor. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7554116", "title": "Clouding of consciousness", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 657, "text": "The term \"clouding of consciousness\" has always denoted the main pathogenetic feature of delirium since physician Georg Greiner pioneered the term (\"\") in 1817. The \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM) has historically used the term in its definition of delirium. However, the DSM-III-R and the DSM-IV replaced \"clouding of consciousness\" with \"disturbance of consciousness\" to make it easier to operationalize, but it is still fundamentally the same thing. Clouding of consciousness may be less severe than delirium on a spectrum of abnormal consciousness. Clouding of consciousness may be synonymous with \"subsyndromal delirium\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12391913", "title": "Dual diagnosis", "section": "Section::::Theories of dual diagnosis.:Alleviation of dysphoria theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 483, "text": "The alleviation of dysphoria theory suggests that people with severe mental illness commonly have a negative self-image, which makes them vulnerable to using psychoactive substances to alleviate these feelings. Despite the existence of a wide range of dysphoric feelings (anxiety, depression, boredom, and loneliness), the literature on self-reported reasons for use seems to lend support for the experience of these feelings being the primary motivator for drug and alcohol misuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Most songs nowadays are composed using layers on a track. So all it really takes is removing the layer. It's trickier with older songs that didn't use this production method.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One of my best friends runs a company that sells music to adverts and TV shows and the like. Most bands have an instrumental version of all songs they've recorded, so they can licence them to ads etc. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Little late to the party but I figured I'd add my two cents and hope you see it. \n\nI'm an audio engineer in a studio in Pittsburgh, and before that I worked in a large studio in Chicago called CRC. CRC is one of the biggest independent studios in the country and we did both music and post-production (video games, movies, tv shows, etc.) \n\nWhat other people are saying about layers is correct. You have multiple tracks in a single session/song. When the final mix is done, all those tracks are combined into a two channel mix and very often a summed mono mix so that normal stereos can play the track. \n\nWhile I was at CRC, it was very common for us to finish the final mix, and then do multiple variant mixes that we would then give to the artist. For example, we would print the final mix, then we would turn the vocals up a pinch and print a VOX Up mix, then turn them down and do a VOX Down mix, then mute all the instruments and do an acapella mix and then mute all the vocals and do an instrumental mix. We would give all these mixes to the artist or label and then when someone wanted to use the instrumental track for something like a movie trailer, the artist already had an instrumental mix that they could send right away. \n\nOnce a mix is printed it's damn near impossible to remove just the vocals and not affect anything else. I say damn near because there could possibly be a program out there that could do it, but I don't know of any and I'm not sure how it would be possible. Like you mentioned previously, if you isolate the frequencies of the vocals you're also going to isolate and remove any instrument that falls in that frequency range. \n\nHope this helps! ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36189845", "title": "SingingCoach", "section": "Section::::Pitch recognition technology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 498, "text": "\"SingingCoach\" utilizes a pitch recognition technology that was developed by Carlo Franzblau and engineered by his team of programmers. Its technology uses a white tracking line on screen to record and display the pitch of one’s voice in reference to the \"in tune\" bars of the song. This allows the user to understand whether or not they are singing in tune, and to adjust their voice accordingly. A score is given after completion of a song based on the percentage of time the singer was in tune.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8456905", "title": "Vocal coach", "section": "Section::::Methods of instruction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 607, "text": "BULLET::::- Recording studio coaching that takes place in a recording studio with a microphone and multitrack recording equipment, which is operated by an audio engineer. Singing for recordings requires different singing techniques than singing at live shows. To give one example, when a singer is performing at a small coffeehouse gig without a microphone, she does not need to worry about \"plosive\" consonants (such as the letter \"p\"); however, when singing in front of a microphone, words with the letter \"p\" can be overemphasized by the microphone, due to the nature of the way we produce these sounds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15417462", "title": "The Singing Machine Company", "section": "Section::::Products.:Karaoke Machines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 329, "text": "In the fall of 2015 The Singing Machine introduced its new digital line of products, no CD-G required allowing users to create playlists on the company's branded site and chose their favorite songs, download them to a USB, giving them the freedom of mixing and matching genres, singers, and enjoying the songs they want to sing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "668442", "title": "Lip sync", "section": "Section::::In music.:Protests by artists.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 500, "text": "In some cases, when producers force singers to lip-synch on live TV broadcasts, the vocalists deliberately make it clear that they are not singing live. When Public Image Limited singer John Lydon performed on Dick Clark’s \"American Bandstand\" TV show, the \"...punk pioneer refused to mime during an appearance... and instead he sat on the floor of the [TV] studio, threw himself into the assembled audience, and stuck his nose into the camera while recordings over his own voice played\" on the air.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32965913", "title": "Child Is Father of the Man", "section": "Section::::Recording.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 727, "text": "Several sections of the song were recorded, but aside from a group piano demo, only one variation of the chorus's backing track was overdubbed with vocals sung in elaborate musical rounds. According to \"The Smile Sessions\" compiler Mark Linett, \"When he's not singing, you can hear faint background vocal parts that no longer exist on the multitrack. They must have been in his headphones, and were picked up by the vocal mic. It could be that Brian decided he didn't need them, or that he was going to re-record them, but never did. You hear this sort of stuff throughout the tapes.\" The song was worked on between October and December 1966. After one more revisit in April 1967, the track was abandoned forever by the group.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12166462", "title": "The Raven (song)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 351, "text": "It was one of the first rock songs to use a vocoder, developed by EMS, to distort vocals. It is also one of the few songs by the band featuring the vocals of Alan Parsons, who sings the first verse through the EMI vocoder. Actor Leonard Whiting performs the lead vocals for the remainder of the song, with Eric Woolfson and a choir as backing vocals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49635906", "title": "Sing My Song (season 1)", "section": "Section::::The Recordings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 414, "text": "The blind audition stage in Sing My Song is called \"The Recordings\". In front of each producer, there is a lyric screen and a red control bar. If a producer pushes the bar, it means he/she is recording the song and want the song in his/her original album. The lyrics screen will then move down, allowing the producer to see the contestant on stage. This part bears resemblance to the blind auditions in The Voice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are a couple of narratives that attempt to explain this. The traditional narrative proposed by later Muslim scholars is that when the Abbasid dynasty usurped power from the Umayyads in 750 CE, this represented a shift in power from Arabs to the numerically and culturally much stronger Persians. From this, we have two dovetailing explanations of the interest in science: 1) they wished to recover the former glory of the Persian Empire, and 2) in order to gain political legitimacy, they essentially drew together all the various scholarly traditions from their polyglot empire, had everything translated into Arabic and established schools of translation and development, where works of classical Greek, Babylonian, Egyptian and Persian science and philosophy were built upon by succeeding generations of scholars. A proper ruler is one who has a court of scholars, became the principle, so when the caliphate began to fragment, the petty kings all drew to themselves their own scholars in order to seem more kingly. Scholarship itself was something of a meritocracy (for men): even a village lad, if sufficiently able, could be essentially passed up a food chain of scholars and eventually find a position at a court. These trends reinforced each other, plus scholarship had a lot of practical value and applications. The quest for knowledge was supported by some cherry-picked quotations from the Qur'an and Hadith in order to make it appear that a proper *Muslim* ruler had an obligation to support scholarship. This period is held to have ended (again, this is a traditional narrative) around the year 1100 as the notion that a proper Muslim eschewed the natural world in favor of prayer and meditation began to take hold. \n\nBut there are some real problems with this traditional narrative. For one thing, the idea that scientific development came to a halt is provably false: it continued, albeit at not quite such an increasing pace, well into the 16th century CE and only then really began to stagnate. For another (and forgive me, I'm on holiday and don't have sources with me, but the scholar whose work I'm badly summarizing here is George Saliba), the way in which the \"translation movement\" sprang into print in full bloom is unpersuasive: for the initial generation of works in Arabic to have been so sophisticated implies at least another generation of unseen scholars beforehand, and therefore the explanation that the early Abbasids were the driving force is problematic. There's some real driving force(s) for scholarship for its own sake during Umayyad times, one(s) we don't know much about because we don't know nearly as much about the Umayyads as we'd like.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15624326", "title": "History of globalization", "section": "Section::::Archaic globalization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 457, "text": "The Islamic Golden Age was also an important early stage of globalization, when Jewish and Muslim traders and explorers established a sustained economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and technology. Globally significant crops such as sugar and cotton became widely cultivated across the Muslim world in this period, while the necessity of learning Arabic and completing the Hajj created a cosmopolitan culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9550030", "title": "History of algebra", "section": "Section::::Medieval Middle East.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 94, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 94, "end_character": 933, "text": "The first century of the Islamic Arab Empire saw almost no scientific or mathematical achievements since the Arabs, with their newly conquered empire, had not yet gained any intellectual drive and research in other parts of the world had faded. In the second half of the 8th century, Islam had a cultural awakening, and research in mathematics and the sciences increased. The Muslim Abbasid caliph al-Mamun (809–833) is said to have had a dream where Aristotle appeared to him, and as a consequence al-Mamun ordered that Arabic translation be made of as many Greek works as possible, including Ptolemy's \"Almagest\" and Euclid's \"Elements\". Greek works would be given to the Muslims by the Byzantine Empire in exchange for treaties, as the two empires held an uneasy peace. Many of these Greek works were translated by Thabit ibn Qurra (826–901), who translated books written by Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius, Ptolemy, and Eutocius.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16166835", "title": "Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe", "section": "Section::::Sciences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 222, "text": "During the Islamic Golden Age, certain advances were made in scientific fields, notably in mathematics and astronomy (algebra, spherical trigonometry), and in chemistry, etc. which were later also transmitted to the West.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59719553", "title": "Tawam (region)", "section": "Section::::History and prehistory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 677, "text": "Around the Islamic Golden Age in the Middle Ages, the region, with its capital at 'Tawam', was an important sphere of influence for Arabs. Ceramics and other materials found here were believed to have been imported from Mesopotamia, India and China. At this time, Sohar, located to the east of this region, was of such prominence as a trading port on the coast of the Gulf of Oman that it was considered to be the \"Dubai or Singapore of its day\". A mosque, considered to be the oldest in the country, was found in the vicinity of the Sheikh Khalifa Mosque in Al-Ain by Dr Walid Al Tikriti, besides a \"falaj\", a group of houses, and a village dating to the 9th or 10th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11953", "title": "History of geometry", "section": "Section::::Islamic Golden Age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 92, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 92, "end_character": 255, "text": "By the beginning of the 9th century, the \"Islamic Golden Age\" flourished, the establishment of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad marking a separate tradition of science in the medieval Islamic world, building not only Hellenistic but also on Indian sources.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22054462", "title": "List of Arabic encyclopedias", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 457, "text": "Following the conquests of much of the Arab world by the Ottoman Empire, the Arabic encyclopedias started to dwindle, along with scientific research, the \"golden age\" of the Arab world was over. After the 1950s and the liberation of the Arab states from colonial powers, new encyclopedias started to be published, like the Marefa, and with the Internet and an Arab League proposal of creating an online encyclopedia in Arabic, it started to flourish again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39386883", "title": "Tourism in the Arab world", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 597, "text": "The areas within the Arab World witnessed the first forms of civilization, specifically in Ancient Egypt, the Levant and Mesopotamia. Throughout history, numerous civilizations, both local and foreign, settled in and ruled the Arab World each of them leaving its trace of monuments and landmarks. This made the regions within the Arab World a mosaic of remnants from most of the civilizations of the Old World. In some countries, you can find Ancient Roman temples next to an Umayyad palace, or a Crusader castle in a Mamluk Old Town, or even an Eastern Orthodox Church next to an Ottoman mosque.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Andrew Johnson (president after Lincoln) was born in N. Carolina and grew up in Tennessee. \n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "John Hennington, the Postmaster General of the CSA was able to make it back as a Congressman and eventually Senator from Texas, but a quick wiki search shows that most of the Confederate cabinet went into private work.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "General James Longstreet joined the Republican Party after the war and was appointed as the head of Louisiana's Reconstruction-era militia. \n\nHe was despised by many fellow Southerners, despite heroic service in the Confederate cause, especially after the 1874 Battle of Liberty Place - Longstreet, commanding black troops, ordered them to open fire on a mob of white Southerners who were attempting to remove the state's elected government by force. \n\nLongstreet served as a federal railroad commissioner and an ambassador in his later years. He was hounded until his death by Southern critics who (ironically from a certain point of view) thought he was a traitor, and who tried to rewrite history to dismiss his sterling military record.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Joseph Wheeler (_URL_0_) was a Confederate general who was later given a command in the 1898 Spanish-American war; between the wars he served as a congressman representing Alabama. Allegedly, in the heat of battle in Cuba, he was heard to shout \"Let's go boys! We've got the damn Yankees on the run!\" momentarily confusing his wars. Further, I remember learning in American History class that the Spanish-American war was an important event in the re-integration of the American armed forces following the Civil War as old enemies fought side-by-side.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6711884", "title": "Francis Strother Lyon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 260, "text": "Francis Strother Lyon (February 25, 1800 – December 31, 1882) was a prominent Alabama attorney and politician. He served two terms in the Confederate States Congress during the American Civil War after being an antebellum member of the United States Congress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20429806", "title": "Thomas Alexander Harris", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 488, "text": "Thomas Alexander Harris (1826 - April 9, 1895) was a United States Army officer at the end of the Mexican–American War and a Missouri State Guard (Confederate) brigadier general during the early months of the American Civil War (Civil War). He then became a prominent Confederate politician, serving in the First Confederate Congress from 1861 to 1864. Among other occupations, he was a Missouri State Representative before the Civil War and a Kentucky State Representative in 1885–1886.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "872411", "title": "William S. Harney", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 680, "text": "William Selby Harney (August 22, 1800 – May 9, 1889) was a Tennessee-born cavalry officer in the U.S. Army, who became known (and controversial) during the Indian Wars and the Mexican–American War. One of four general officers in the U.S. Army at the beginning of the Civil War, he was removed from overseeing the Department of the West due to his Confederate sympathies early in the war (although he did keep Missouri from joining the Confederacy). Under President Andrew Johnson, he served with on the Indian Peace Commission, negotiating several treaties, before spending his retirement partly in St. Louis and partly trading reminiscences with Jefferson Davis in Mississippi.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6945571", "title": "John Allen Wilcox", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 242, "text": "John Allen Wilcox (April 18, 1819 – February 7, 1864) was a politician from Mississippi and Texas who served in the United States House of Representatives in the early 1850s and then in the Confederate Congress during the American Civil War.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19049326", "title": "Henry Gray (politician)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 297, "text": "Henry Gray, Jr. (January 19, 1816 – December 11, 1892) was an American lawyer and politician who served in the state legislatures of Mississippi and then Louisiana. During the American Civil War, he was a general in the Confederate Army and subsequently served in the Confederate States Congress.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5438620", "title": "Alvan Cullem Gillem", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 385, "text": "Alvan Cullem Gillem (July 29, 1830 – December 2, 1875) was a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Although Southern-born, he remained loyal to the Federal government and fought in several battles in the Western Theater before commanding occupation troops in Mississippi and Arkansas during Reconstruction. He later played a prominent role in the Modoc War in 1873.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19329899", "title": "James Deering Fessenden", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 585, "text": "James Deering Fessenden (September 28, 1833 – November 18, 1882) was a lawyer, politician, and soldier from the state of Maine who served as a general in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Primarily a staff officer and operations planner until the latter stages of the war, he commanded an infantry brigade in the Western Theater in 1864 and 1865. In 1862, he organized in South Carolina what became one of the first black regiments in the Federal army. He was a member of the powerful Fessenden family, which was prominent in national politics during the mid-19th century.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No. It says that two identical fermions (like electrons) can't occupy the same energy state. For example, two spin-up electrons can't both be in the 1s orbital (the closest to the nucleus). However, in two adjacent atoms, the electrons in the 1s orbital will both have the same energy, but still not be degenerate because it's a different atom.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think you are correct. The Pauli exclusion principle isn't even really about energies, it's about quantum states. Two electrons may not occupy the same quantum state, but this isn't the same thing as not having the same energy.\n\nI don't know what Cox actually said, but perhaps he was making some big simplifications to cram things into popular science. You could certainly make vague statements about energy and the universe using the Pauli exclusion principle, which might sound something like what you recall. For instance, we could certainly say that no two electrons *in the universe* can have the same quantum state, but this sounds more impressive than it really is because most of them are in different places which automatically makes their states different.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What the Pauli exclusion principle really says is this: the wavefunction describing all of the electrons in the universe must be completely anti-symmetric under exchange of any two electrons in the universe. Luckily, most electrons are pretty non-relativistic and therefore pretty well localized in space. The as iorgfeflkd suggested (but was not sufficiently explicit), you can *effectively* treat systems one at a time because the electrons are well localized.\n\nHowever, it's still true that (according to QFT) the entire wavefunction everywhere in the universe is affected when you twiddle an electron here (but still in a causal fashion).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No. It says that two identical fermions (like electrons) can't occupy the same energy state. For example, two spin-up electrons can't both be in the 1s orbital (the closest to the nucleus). However, in two adjacent atoms, the electrons in the 1s orbital will both have the same energy, but still not be degenerate because it's a different atom.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think you are correct. The Pauli exclusion principle isn't even really about energies, it's about quantum states. Two electrons may not occupy the same quantum state, but this isn't the same thing as not having the same energy.\n\nI don't know what Cox actually said, but perhaps he was making some big simplifications to cram things into popular science. You could certainly make vague statements about energy and the universe using the Pauli exclusion principle, which might sound something like what you recall. For instance, we could certainly say that no two electrons *in the universe* can have the same quantum state, but this sounds more impressive than it really is because most of them are in different places which automatically makes their states different.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What the Pauli exclusion principle really says is this: the wavefunction describing all of the electrons in the universe must be completely anti-symmetric under exchange of any two electrons in the universe. Luckily, most electrons are pretty non-relativistic and therefore pretty well localized in space. The as iorgfeflkd suggested (but was not sufficiently explicit), you can *effectively* treat systems one at a time because the electrons are well localized.\n\nHowever, it's still true that (according to QFT) the entire wavefunction everywhere in the universe is affected when you twiddle an electron here (but still in a causal fashion).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24669", "title": "Pauli exclusion principle", "section": "Section::::Consequences.:Atoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 612, "text": "The Pauli exclusion principle helps explain a wide variety of physical phenomena. One particularly important consequence of the principle is the elaborate electron shell structure of atoms and the way atoms share electrons, explaining the variety of chemical elements and their chemical combinations. An electrically neutral atom contains bound electrons equal in number to the protons in the nucleus. Electrons, being fermions, cannot occupy the same quantum state as other electrons, so electrons have to \"stack\" within an atom, i.e. have different spins while at the same electron orbital as described below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2796131", "title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics", "section": "Section::::Quantum entanglement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 136, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 136, "end_character": 824, "text": "The Pauli exclusion principle says that two electrons in one system cannot be in the same state. Nature leaves open the possibility, however, that two electrons can have both states \"superimposed\" over each of them. Recall that the wave functions that emerge simultaneously from the double slits arrive at the detection screen in a state of superposition. Nothing is certain until the superimposed waveforms \"collapse\". At that instant an electron shows up somewhere in accordance with the probability that is the square of the absolute value of the sum of the complex-valued amplitudes of the two superimposed waveforms. The situation there is already very abstract. A concrete way of thinking about entangled photons, photons in which two contrary states are superimposed on each of them in the same event, is as follows:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1085343", "title": "Semi-empirical mass formula", "section": "Section::::Terms.:Asymmetry term.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 621, "text": "The theoretical justification for this term is more complex. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two identical fermions can occupy exactly the same quantum state in an atom. At a given energy level, there are only finitely many quantum states available for particles. What this means in the nucleus is that as more particles are \"added\", these particles must occupy higher energy levels, increasing the total energy of the nucleus (and decreasing the binding energy). Note that this effect is not based on any of the fundamental forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, etc.), only the Pauli exclusion principle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1564226", "title": "Aufbau principle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 446, "text": "Electron behavior is elaborated by other principles of atomic physics, such as Hund's rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. Hund's rule asserts that if multiple orbitals of the same energy are available, electrons will occupy different orbitals singly before any are occupied doubly. If double occupation does occur, the Pauli exclusion principle requires that electrons which occupy the same orbital must have different spins (+1/2 and −1/2).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9476", "title": "Electron", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Quantum properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 507, "text": "In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "312308", "title": "Dirac sea", "section": "Section::::Origins.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 659, "text": "Dirac's solution to this was to turn to the Pauli exclusion principle. Electrons are fermions, and obey the exclusion principle, which means that no two electrons can share a single energy state within an atom. Dirac hypothesized that what we think of as the \"vacuum\" is actually the state in which \"all\" the negative-energy states are filled, and none of the positive-energy states. Therefore, if we want to introduce a single electron we would have to put it in a positive-energy state, as all the negative-energy states are occupied. Furthermore, even if the electron loses energy by emitting photons it would be forbidden from dropping below zero energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61580", "title": "Electrical resistivity and conductivity", "section": "Section::::Causes of conductivity.:Band theory simplified.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 868, "text": "The material's electrons seek to minimize the total energy in the material by settling into low energy states; however, the Pauli exclusion principle means that only one can exist in each such state. So the electrons \"fill up\" the band structure starting from the bottom. The characteristic energy level up to which the electrons have filled is called the Fermi level. The position of the Fermi level with respect to the band structure is very important for electrical conduction: Only electrons in energy levels near or above the Fermi level are free to move within the broader material structure, since the electrons can easily jump among the partially occupied states in that region. In contrast, the low energy states are completely filled with a fixed limit on the number of electrons at all times, and the high energy states are empty of electrons at all times.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't give you a run down of all the groups but I can give a general description of the Mafia.\n\nPicture Sicily as a schoolyard playground. Everyone's playing and having a good time, but some kids start bulling other kids. When the teacher is told, they don't do anything and mostly just look the other way. A few kids get together a decided that it's up to them to stop the bullies and make sure that others don't show up. These kids start the Mafia to get ride of the bullies that the teachers won't touch and make sure that more don't show up later. As time goes on the Mafia needs to gather some money because a bully beats up some of the Mafia members. They turn to the other kids they have been protecting and tell them since they are the ones protecting them, that they need to pay for the band-aids. This turns into regular collections for the next time a bully shows up. When some kids complain that there haven't been any bullies for a long time, and refuse to pay for band-aids that aren't being bought(since there are no need for the band -aids the Mafia has been buying soda's for it's members instead). That makes the Mafia angry and they go and bully these kids into paying for the protection. That creates the protection rackets that were the base of the Mafia, eventually they add other criminal enterprises most which began as services like smuggling restricted items. As time went on the Mafia grows in size and eventually inspires other groups to do the same or have Mafia members start their own Mafia.\n\nHope that helps", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > all they got from Paulie was protection from other guys looking to rip them off. And that's what it's all about. That's what the FBI could never understand. That what Paulie and the organization [i.e. the Mafia] does is offer protection for people who can't go to the cops. That's it. That's all it is. They're like the police department for wiseguys.\n\n- GoodFellas.\n\nthis applies to pretty much any form of Mafia (Russian, Italian, Mexican, etc.) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can't give you a run down of all the groups but I can give a general description of the Mafia.\n\nPicture Sicily as a schoolyard playground. Everyone's playing and having a good time, but some kids start bulling other kids. When the teacher is told, they don't do anything and mostly just look the other way. A few kids get together a decided that it's up to them to stop the bullies and make sure that others don't show up. These kids start the Mafia to get ride of the bullies that the teachers won't touch and make sure that more don't show up later. As time goes on the Mafia needs to gather some money because a bully beats up some of the Mafia members. They turn to the other kids they have been protecting and tell them since they are the ones protecting them, that they need to pay for the band-aids. This turns into regular collections for the next time a bully shows up. When some kids complain that there haven't been any bullies for a long time, and refuse to pay for band-aids that aren't being bought(since there are no need for the band -aids the Mafia has been buying soda's for it's members instead). That makes the Mafia angry and they go and bully these kids into paying for the protection. That creates the protection rackets that were the base of the Mafia, eventually they add other criminal enterprises most which began as services like smuggling restricted items. As time went on the Mafia grows in size and eventually inspires other groups to do the same or have Mafia members start their own Mafia.\n\nHope that helps", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > all they got from Paulie was protection from other guys looking to rip them off. And that's what it's all about. That's what the FBI could never understand. That what Paulie and the organization [i.e. the Mafia] does is offer protection for people who can't go to the cops. That's it. That's all it is. They're like the police department for wiseguys.\n\n- GoodFellas.\n\nthis applies to pretty much any form of Mafia (Russian, Italian, Mexican, etc.) ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "44945", "title": "Camorra", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 489, "text": "The Camorra (; ) is an Italian Mafia-type crime syndicate, or secret society, which arose in the region of Campania and its capital Naples. It is one of the oldest and largest criminal organizations in Italy, dating back to the 17th century. Unlike the pyramidal structure of the Sicilian Mafia, the Camorra's organizational structure is more horizontal than vertical. Consequently, individual Camorra clans act independently of each other, and are more prone to feuding among themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3265547", "title": "Stidda", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 319, "text": "The Stidda (; ) is a name for Mafia-type criminal organizations centered in the central-southern part of Sicily in Italy. Members are known as \"stiddari\" or \"stiddaroli\". It is most active in the rural parts of southern Sicily and is partially a rival to Cosa Nostra. Some members have a star tattooed on their bodies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "893141", "title": "Sicilian Mafia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 819, "text": "The Sicilian Mafia, also known as simply the Mafia and frequently referred to by its own members as Cosa Nostra (, ; \"our thing\"), is a Mafia-terrorist-type organized crime syndicate originating in Sicily, Italy. It is a loose association of criminal groups that share a common organisational structure and code of conduct. The basic group is known as a \"family\", \"clan\", or \"cosca\". Each family claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighbourhood (\"borgata\") of a larger city, in which it operates its rackets. Its members call themselves \"men of honour\", although the public often refers to them as \"mafiosi\". The Mafia's core activities are protection racketeering, the arbitration of disputes between criminals, and the organizing and oversight of illegal agreements and transactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "293273", "title": "Syndicate", "section": "Section::::Crime syndicates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 512, "text": "Crime syndicates are formed to coordinate, promote, and engage in organized crime, running common illegal businesses on a large, national, or international scale. The subunit of the syndicate is a crime family or clan, organized by blood relationships, as seen in the Italian Mafia and the Italian American Mafia crime families (the Five Families dominating New York City crime, namely, the Gambino crime family, Genovese crime family, Lucchese crime family, Bonanno crime family, and the Colombo crime family).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25190722", "title": "Montenegrin mafia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 394, "text": "The Montenegrin mafia (Crnogorska mafija) refers to the various criminal organizations based in Montenegro or composed of Montenegrins. There are 700 documented organized criminals operating within Montenegro; outside of the country Montenegrin gangs are active throughout Europe-notably Serbia and Slovenia. The gangs tend to specialize in cigarette smuggling, narcotics and arms trafficking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31981725", "title": "Crime in Montenegro", "section": "Section::::Crime by type.:Organised crime.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 405, "text": "The Montenegrin Mafia or Montenegrin Cartel are terms used for the various criminal organizations based in Montenegro or composed of Montenegrins. There are 700 documented organized criminals operating within Montenegro; outside of the country Montenegrin gangs are active throughout Europe-notably Serbia and Slovenia. The gangs tend to specialize in cigarette smuggling, narcotics and arms trafficking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44945", "title": "Camorra", "section": "Section::::Efforts to fight the Camorra.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 540, "text": "Unlike the Sicilian Mafia, which has a clear hierarchy and a division of interests, the Camorra's activities are much less centralized. This makes the organization much more difficult to combat through crude repression. In Campania, where unemployment is high and opportunities are limited, the Camorra has become an integral part of the fabric of society. It offers a sense of community and provides the youth with jobs. Members are guided in the pursuit of criminal activities, including cigarette smuggling, drug trafficking, and theft.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Generally, modern homes have pipes that are small and water is often in demand.\n\nThis leads to water that is moved often and never really gets a chance to sit still in one place for too long. The pipes which are made of usually copper of plastic are in themselves terrible environments for many pathogens. The fact that tap water itself is quite clean leads to no real source of contamination.\n\nDrinking tap water is safe and if your houses plumbing is up to spec, you should be just fine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Generally, modern homes have pipes that are small and water is often in demand.\n\nThis leads to water that is moved often and never really gets a chance to sit still in one place for too long. The pipes which are made of usually copper of plastic are in themselves terrible environments for many pathogens. The fact that tap water itself is quite clean leads to no real source of contamination.\n\nDrinking tap water is safe and if your houses plumbing is up to spec, you should be just fine.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21567707", "title": "Lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water", "section": "Section::::2004: \"Washington Post\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 331, "text": "The article quoted Erik Olson, an analyst for the Natural Resources Defense Council, as saying \"This is a really big deal... If schools go over 20 parts per billion, they immediately take the water out of production.\" WASA recommended that residents let the tap run for 30 seconds to one minute before using it to reduce the risk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "239918", "title": "Tap water", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 506, "text": "Tap water remains susceptible to biological or chemical contamination. In the event of contamination deemed dangerous to public health, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of biological contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of chemical contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2180262", "title": "Attawapiskat First Nation", "section": "Section::::Infrastructure crisis.:Water and infrastructure crisis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 144, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 144, "end_character": 324, "text": "In March 2012 there was a Health Canada advisory warning residents to \"minimize their exposure to household tap water\". This means bottled water for most residents. Boiling water does not make it safe to drink because it does not remove the THMs. Exposure to tap water has to be limited and filters only help in some cases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "239918", "title": "Tap water", "section": "Section::::Water flow reduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 221, "text": "Water flow through a tap can be reduced by inexpensive small plastic flow reducers. These restrict flow between 15 and 50%, aiding water conservation and reducing the burden on both water supply and treatment facilities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2554507", "title": "Scalding", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 268, "text": "It is recommended for the temperature of tap water not to exceed 38 — 45 °C to avoid discomfort and scalding. The technical implementation is complicated by the necessity to keep warm water at a temperature of 55 – 60 °C to inhibit the growth of legionella bacteria. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7623241", "title": "Sustainable Development Strategy in Canada", "section": "Section::::Water usage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 338, "text": "Using water wisely will extend the life of our existing water supplies and their delivery systems, ultimately lowering water costs and the environmental burden of water usage. As a best practice, Health Canada recommends that water used for drinking and cooking be taken from the cold-water tap after the water has been 'run' until cold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "402923", "title": "Bottled water", "section": "Section::::Concerns.:Perceptions about bottled water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 516, "text": "Many low-income families avoid drinking tap water because they fear it may cause sickness. Bottled, filtered, and tap water are all for the most part safe in the United States. The Environmental Protection Agency regulations for tap water are \"actually stricter than the Food and Drug Administration regulations for bottled water.\" A study of drinking water in Cincinnati, Ohio, discovered that bacterial counts in bottled water were often higher than those in tap water and fluoride concentration was inconsistent.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "*“Glass, as well as some plastics, has a net negative charge on its surface, so a wrap that has an opposite charge is going to cling quite well to these surfaces,”* [SOURCE](_URL_0_)\n\nAnother site has a more chemical approach:\n\n*\"I found that most kitchen plastic wrap is made of low density polyethylene, also known as LDPE. This plastic makes a good barrier to water and air, but it does not stick to itself. To make it cling, they add another chemical, such as polyisobutylene or poly[ethylene-vinylacetate]. These chemicals do not mix totally with the LDPE. Instead, they act like the adhesive on tape, only not as sticky, and it only sticks to certain things.\"* [SOURCE\n](_URL_1_)\n\nHope this helps.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "*“Glass, as well as some plastics, has a net negative charge on its surface, so a wrap that has an opposite charge is going to cling quite well to these surfaces,”* [SOURCE](_URL_0_)\n\nAnother site has a more chemical approach:\n\n*\"I found that most kitchen plastic wrap is made of low density polyethylene, also known as LDPE. This plastic makes a good barrier to water and air, but it does not stick to itself. To make it cling, they add another chemical, such as polyisobutylene or poly[ethylene-vinylacetate]. These chemicals do not mix totally with the LDPE. Instead, they act like the adhesive on tape, only not as sticky, and it only sticks to certain things.\"* [SOURCE\n](_URL_1_)\n\nHope this helps.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1435033", "title": "Seal (East Asia)", "section": "Section::::Seal paste.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 678, "text": "When the seal is pressed onto the printing surface, the procedure differs according to plant or silk based paste. For silk based paste, the user applies pressure, often with a specially made soft, flat surface beneath the paper. For plant based paste, the user simply applies light pressure. As lifting the seal vertically away from its imprint may rip or damage paper, the seal is usually lifted off one side at a time, as if bent off from the page. After this, the image may be blotted with a piece of paper to make it dry faster, although this may smudge it. Usually there needs to be a pile of soft felt or paper under the paper to be imprinted for a clear seal impression.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14549276", "title": "Vertical form fill sealing machine", "section": "Section::::Specifications.:Single Web Machine Systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 459, "text": "For a vertical form-fill-seal the film approaches the back of a long hollow conical tube, which is called the forming tube. When the center of the plastic is near the tube, the outer edges of the film form flaps that wrap around the conical forming tube. The film is pulled downward around the outside of the tube and a vertical heat-sealing bar clamps onto the edges of the film to create the \"fin Seal\", bonding the film by melting the seam edges together.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38136", "title": "Seal (emblem)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 424, "text": "The seal-making device is also referred to as the seal \"matrix\" or \"die\"; the imprint it creates as the seal impression (or, more rarely, the \"sealing\"). If the impression is made purely as a relief resulting from the greater pressure on the paper where the high parts of the matrix touch, the seal is known as a \"dry seal\"; in other cases ink or another liquid or liquefied medium is used, in another color than the paper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1990583", "title": "Wrap advertising", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 512, "text": "Advancements in plastics have led to new types of vinyl designed specifically for wrap advertising, including vinyl sheets that feature bubble-preventing air channels. Microscopic glass beads are used to prevent an adhesive from functioning until the user is ready (the beads allow the material to be repeatedly lifted and reapplied during the wrapping process, without compromising the longevity of the wrap). The vinyl is heated with a heat gun or torch for the purpose of molding the material around objects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41351219", "title": "Surgical sealant film", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 434, "text": "The sealant film is synthetic and incorporates absorbable polymers, including poly(lactide-co-glycolide). The polymeric components impart structural and adhesive properties with the sealing effect achieved by incorporation of a bioadhesive polymer. This forms a covalent bond to primary amines present on the tissue surfaces. In turn this results in the film rapidly becoming effective in providing a form of secondary wound closure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42177674", "title": "Pressure-sensitive tape", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 336, "text": "The tape consists of a pressure-sensitive adhesive coated onto a backing material such as paper, plastic film, cloth, or metal foil. Some have a removable release liner which protects the adhesive until the liner is removed. Some have layers of adhesives, primers, release agents, filaments, printing, etc. made for specific functions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28024283", "title": "Extended core stretch wrapper", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 485, "text": "Extended core stretch wrappers are rolls of stretch film which have their internal core extended beyond their film roll creating a handle by which film can be wrapped. \"Extended core\" wrapping is the lowest initial investment stretch wrapping system as no machinery is purchased. This system provides little control over stretch and is hard on workers' hands. Because of this, many stretch wrap users opt for low cost hand wrappers such as \"hand savers\" or \"mechanical brake\" systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm a med student.\n\nActually There isn't any specific direction. If i assume complete rest is a \"deep sleep\" . It's gonna be a REM or Non-REM sleep stages which could be any random direction and our eyes are continously moving fast (In REM) and slow (non-REM)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends how you define complete rest.\n\nIn case of sleep I would call complete rest the REM-sleep. And REM stands for \"rapid eye movement\". So basically in no direction since your eyes are moving fast under closed eyelids. When not in REM-sleep your eyes will most likely centric or being slightly downwards.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1894873", "title": "Eye movement", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Saccades.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 526, "text": "The eyes are never completely at rest. They make fast random jittering movements even when we are fixated on one point. The reason for this random movement is related to the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells. It appears that a constant visual stimulus can make the photoreceptors or the ganglion cells become unresponsive; on the other hand a changing stimulus will not. Therefore, the random eye movement constantly changes the stimuli that fall on the photoreceptors and the ganglion cells, making the image more clear.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "203610", "title": "Tapetum lucidum", "section": "Section::::Classification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 229, "text": "When a tapetum lucidum is present, its location on the eyeball varies with the placement of the eyeball in the head, such that in all cases the \"tapetum lucidum\" enhances night vision in the center of the animal's field of view.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1070221", "title": "Human eye", "section": "Section::::Vision.:Optokinetic reflex.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 304, "text": "For example, when looking out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a moving train for a short moment (by stabilizing it on the retina), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At this point, the eye is moved back to the point where it first saw the train (through a saccade).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "340429", "title": "Rheum", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 273, "text": "When the individual is awake, blinking of the eyelid causes rheum to be washed away with tears via the nasolacrimal duct. The absence of this action during sleep, however, results in a small amount of dry rheum accumulating in corners of the eye, most notably in children.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1492605", "title": "Pretectal area", "section": "Section::::Function.:Accommodation reflex.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 404, "text": "Part of the pretectum, particularly the NOT and NPP, are implicated in the accommodation reflex by which the eye maintains focus. Proprioceptive information from the retina reaches the pretectum via the occulomotor nerve and the trigeminal nerve. From that point the mechanism by which the eye maintains focus through muscular contractions of the retina is similar to that of the pupillary light reflex.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33050722", "title": "Head of a Woman (Leonardo)", "section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 450, "text": "\"The eyes do not focus on any outward object, and they give the impression that they will remain where they are: they see through the filter of an inner state, rather than receive immediate impressions from the outside world. It is the attitude of being suspended in a state of mind beyond specific thoughtunaware, even, of its own body...here an inner life is suggested by a new order of pictorial effects, without recourse to action or narrative.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27920631", "title": "Visual capture", "section": "Section::::Defining criteria.:Brain regions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 293, "text": "The retina at the back of the eye is what perceives stimuli, allowing them to travel through the occipital tract to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) within the thalamus. The data is then transmitted to the occipital lobe where the orientation and other recognizable factors are processed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A reply to /u/ManicMarine \n\nUgggggghhhhh ... this is such a good question and such a complex topic at the same time ...... ! :D\n\nFirst we must set the scene properly in terms of how the \"military fiscal state\" was [evolving in that era](_URL_0_). He had set up a \"state within state\" system whereby he controlled not only the army and its logistics, but also the collection of \"revenue\" through taxation and other means, to supply his army. In this sense, he was a highly innovative commander. He had come at just the right time, too, as the Imperials needed help in 1625 as Tilly's Catholic League forces were overstretched and Spain's army of Spinola was tied up in the Low Countries, and there were rumors of new movements by Bethlen Gabor from Transylvania. So Ferdinand made Wallenstein \"chief of all our troops already serving, whether in HRE or Netherlands,\" and to \"create a field army, whether from existing units or new regiments, to be 24,000 men in all.\" Now, Ferdinand did not nearly have money to pay for all this, so as the campaign progressed, Wallenstein was rewarded with confiscated estates from HRE princes. At this point, Wallenstein largely followed strategic direction from Ferdinand as he campaigned northwards against Denmark and into the Baltics. As time progressed, his army ballooned in size to around 150,000 troops as it had to not only challenge its opponents, it also had to occupy territories it had conquered. He argued that it was the only way to keep Saxony and Bavaria's princes loyal, not to mention rebellious peasants at various towns and villages. Thus, in order to maintain his army Wallenstein started to impose a fixed taxation system, paid every week, called the \"contribution system\". At the same time he started to sell commission even to criminals and foreigners in order to raise revenue. This led to colonels and captains profiteering and abusing the populace. \n\nThe three aspects above (confiscating estates and giving them to Wallenstein, taxation, selling of officership) started to be an issue with HRE Electors. In 1627, while they met to discuss the Edict of Restitution, they complained bitterly. As there was still war, Ferdinand ignored them. However, by 1630 the complaints could not be ignored anymore. Both the Electors and the Pope complained that Wallenstein's very presence was the only thing in the way of peace. \n\nWhen Ferdinand finally dismissed Wallenstein, it was said that Wallenstein \"seems to have been almost relieved\" as he knew his army was unwieldy and beyond maintenance. He retired to his estates in Bohemia and his erstwhile chief financier Hans de Witte, who had staked his family's fortune on this army, committed suicide. Unsurprisingly, troops of the army became restless and there was mutiny and violence. \n\nOf course, things went badly for Ferdinand as Sweden entered the war, and Tilly was killed in battle. So by 1632, Wallenstein was back as commander of the Imperial forces, and needed only three months to raise a major army. It is said that he took command only reluctantly, past his prime at age 49. Successes immediately followed in Bohemia, Silesia, and Saxony. He made one tactical mistake in Lutzen, but survived albeit with significant losses. Just as before, it was a major issue where to quarter the army. By this point it was preferred to place them in enemy territory such that friendly territory isn't subjected to taxation and violence. In winter 1633-34, Wallenstein insisted to quarter his troops on Habsburg lands in Bohemia for security reasons; following Lutzen, it was really unclear what had happened to the opposing armies and not much was known about their locations. So in a way, he was justified in seeking friendly territory for quartering his troops. This, after a fairly slow campaigning season that appeared to achieve little for Ferdinand. His other excuse was that he had tried to exploit political disagreement between Sweden and Saxony, arranging a cease fire and opening a negotiation. These may have seemed excessive, but not outside the powers which were vested in him at the time. However, at the same time, the campaign of Spain's Cardinal-Infante had just started, except that it was kept under separate command instead of placed under Wallenstein. The sum of all this was the bruising of Wallenstein's relationship with the courtiers in Vienna. Wallenstein had criticized the Edict of Restitution and the HRE's continuing support of Spanish campaigns up the Rhineland to the Low Countries; and he was said to claim he alone would negotiate peace with the Protestants, at least the Lutherans. Now he had his army in Bohemia, his personal duchy, and the sum of all this was the perception of threat. \n\nWhat became remarkable was his extraction of oath of *personal* loyalty from his Colonels. This brought the relationship truly sour, the Ferdinand declared him rebel. But even further than that, the winter spent in Bohemia was also a time of trouble for his officers. There was a so-called \"Prague blood tribunal\" in which dozens of officers were executed for cowardice. So to his officers, he appeared to be looking for a scapegoat for the seemingly fruitless campaigns of 1633. His co-commander Piccolomini had personally requested clemency for an officer, yet this was declined. Even worse, to states of the Catholic League, Wallenstein was seen as an opportunist as he both sold officerships to raise money, and yet offered larger salaries and benefits to poach officers from allied armies of the League. As both his relationships with the emperor soured and so did his relationship with theoretical allies, and so did the loyalty of his men; this offered the perfect opportunity that led to his murder. \n\nSo back to the question: was he a traitor? Circumstances changed around him, both due to him and due to the emperor, the elector princes, and Spanish interest in the Spanish Road and the Low Countries. I think he was caught in the struggle of early-modern europe, and he ended up with an army that nobody could tolerate. In the end it was clear he was likely to have been disloyal, but up to the summer 1633 he was loyal to the emperor. \n\nA further question could be asked, was far, how wide, and how long had he sustained what seemed to be limitless ambition, which some say was to become king or emperor himself. This is an enduring myth of Wallenstein, helped with the fact that he rose very, very highly. But some modern historians have compared his trajectory with those of his peer and Mortimer -- author of several critical books on the 30YW -- agree with others that the choices he made was not out of the ordinary. Mortimer further contended that Wallenstein was a very smart man in his responding to changing circumstances, and indeed the 30YW was a very interesting time. Even going back to his first proposal to raise an army, it should be kept in mind that he was Prince of Friedland, thus he had every reason to back the emperor in defending Bohemian lands. More strongly, some authors have contended that his failure was partly due to his lack of ambition. That if he had done more to control the politics of the court, then he will have been able to leverage the emperor's patronage. \n\nTL;DR Complicated subject, you can judge for yourself. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52619941", "title": "Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch", "section": "Section::::Military career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 2449, "text": "On 17 February, Scherffenberg was arrested in Vienna. On 18 February, a second patent was released accusing Wallenstein of conspiracy and condemning him to death, its publication was delayed so as not to split the army in two. Wallenstein's letters refuting the accusations against him remained unanswered, after realizing that the emperor was positioning troops in such a manner as to surround him he decided to flee to the Swedes, departing from his headquarters on 22 February. On 24 February, Wallenstein reached Eger where he was assassinated by a group of Scottish and Irish officers who were previously hired by Piccolomini. Schaffgotsch was arrested on the same day, later being transferred to the fortress of Glatz where he was held for eight weeks. On 1 March, the commander of the Troppau garrison (an officer under Schaffgotsch's command) declared his allegiance to Wallenstein, unaware of what had previously happened. An investigation into the incident proved that Schaffgotsch was not implicated the uprising. In the second half of April, he was sent to Vienna upon his request, where he continued to be interrogated. In July, he was again taken to Pilsen, on 20 June he was relocated to Budweis due to the risk posed by Johan Banér's invasion of Bohemia. On 18 February 1635, a military tribunal responsible for Schaffgotsch's case convened in Regensburg, with the proceedings opening in the middle of March. On 31 March 1635, Schaffgotsch was convicted of conspiracy to overthrow the emperor and sentenced to death. Schaffgotsch pleaded not guilty citing the fact that Wallenstein was not officially relieved of his command and as such he was obliged to follow his orders. On 4 July, presiding judge Heinrich von Schlick ordered the use of torture which failed to produce a confession of guilt. A day later, the emperor confirmed the death sentence which was implemented on the morning of 24 July 1635. Schaffgotsch's execution was part of larger purge that included the execution of the Troppau garrison commander and the demotion and the temporary imprisonment of seven generals including , all of the convicted were signatories of the Pilsner Reverse. Schaffgotsch's estates at Trachenberg-Prausnitz and the Riesengebirge were confiscated in April 1634. On 31 August 1641, the former were granted to Melchior von Hatzfeldt while the latter were gradually returned to Hans Ulrich's sons following their conversion to Catholicism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53024783", "title": "Adam Erdmann Trčka von Lípa", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Trčka and the fall of Wallenstein.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 3003, "text": "Wallenstein was increasingly criticized for his passivity in face of a Swedish incursion into Bavaria and the collapse of Lorraine under French pressure. His dislike of courtly life and the influence exerted by the church upon the emperor created an axis of undercover opposition that launched a smear campaign against him. On 11 January 1634, Gundakar, Prince of Liechtenstein sent Ferdinand II an official request, recommending Wallenstein's liquidation. A day later, Wallenstein summoned his colonels to sign the First Pilsner Reverse, a declaration of personal loyalty, 49 of them signed immediately while Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch and Scherffenberg gathered signatures in Silesia and Upper Austria respectively. Numerous commanders signed the Reverse so as not to arouse suspicion, while at the same time a party centered around Ottavio Piccolomini began circulating an anonymous tract that summarized the army's grudges against Wallenstein. On 17 February, Scherffenberg was arrested in Vienna. On 18 February, a second patent was released accusing Wallenstein of conspiracy and condemning him to death, its publication was delayed so as not to split the army in two. Wallenstein's letters refuting the accusations against him remained unanswered. After realizing that the emperor was positioning troops in such a manner as to surround him he decided to flee to the Swedes. Wallenstein, Trčka and other loyal officers departed from their headquarters on 22 February along with 1,300 men. Irish colonel Walter Butler, the leader of a group of Irish and Scottish officers hired by Piccolomini to assassinate Wallenstein, was ordered by the unsuspecting general to follow them with his 900 dragoons. On 24 February, Wallenstein reached Eger, where most of the trusted troops camped outside of the town as it was already garrisoned by Butler's dragoons and other anti-Wallenstein elements. The following day Christian von Ilow held a series of meetings with the would be assassins trying to persuade them to remain loyal to their commander. They made the decision to go on with Piccolomini's plan, fearing that they would be branded as rebels should they fail to do so. At 6.00 p.m., Wallenstein's inner circle consisting of Ilow, Trčka, Vilém Kinský and Captain Niemann were invited by the conspirators to the city's castle for a formal dinner. During the course of the dinner a servant nodded indicating that the conspirators were ready. Six dragoons burst into the dining hall shouting, \"Who is a good Imperialist?\", Butler, John Gordon and Walter Leslie rose from the table yelling \"Long live Ferdinand!\". Kinský was killed immediately, others met a similar fate. Wallenstein was killed in his residence at 10:00 p.m. An imperial decree equated the participants in the Eger Bloodbath with executioners. The purge continued with the execution of Schaffgotsch; a number of generals were imprisoned and lost their commands, while the possessions of the accused were confiscated and redistributed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52808680", "title": "Christian von Ilow", "section": "Section::::Military career.:Ilow and the fall of Wallenstein.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 3331, "text": "Wallenstein was increasingly criticized for his passivity in face of a Swedish incursion into Bavaria and the collapse of Lorraine under French pressure. His dislike of courtly life and the influence exerted by the church upon the emperor created an axis of undercover opposition that launched a smear campaign against him. On 11 January 1634, Gundakar, Prince of Liechtenstein sent Ferdinand II an official request, recommending Wallenstein's liquidation. A day later, Wallenstein summoned his colonels to sign the First Pilsner Reverse, a declaration of personal loyalty, 49 of them signed immediately while Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch and Scherffenberg gathered signatures in Silesia and Upper Austria respectively. Numerous commanders signed the Reverse so as not to arouse suspicion, while at the same time a party centered around Ottavio Piccolomini began circulating an anonymous tract that summarized the army's grudges against Wallenstein. On 17 February, Scherffenberg was arrested in Vienna. On 18 February, a second patent was released accusing Wallenstein of conspiracy and condemning him to death, its publication was delayed so as not to split the army in two. Wallenstein's letters refuting the accusations against him remained unanswered, after realizing that the emperor was positioning troops in such a manner as to surround him he decided to flee to the Swedes. Wallenstein, Ilow and other loyal officers departed from their headquarters on 22 February along with 1,300 men. Irish colonel Walter Butler, the leader of a group of Irish and Scottish officers hired by Piccolomini to assassinate Wallenstein, was ordered by the unsuspecting general to follow them with his 900 dragoons. On 24 February, Wallenstein reached Eger, most of the trusted troops camped outside of the town as it was already garrisoned Butler's dragoons and other anti-Wallenstein elements.. The following day Ilow held a series of meetings with the would be assassins trying to persuade them to remain loyal to their commander. They made the decision to go on with Piccolomini's plan, fearing that they would be branded as rebels should they fail to do so. At 6.00 p.m., Wallenstein's inner circle consisting of Ilow, Adam Erdmann Trčka von Lípa, Vilém Kinský and Captain Niemann were invited by the conspirators to the city's castle for a formal dinner. During the course of the dinner a servant nodded indicating that the conspirators were ready. Six dragoons burst into the dining hall shouting \"Who is a good Imperialist?\", Butler, John Gordon and Walter Leslie rose from the table yelling \"Long live Ferdinand!\". Kinský was killed immediately, although he made a desperate attempt to fight back. Ilow grabbed his sword and charged at Gordon; before being able to strike he was knocked to the ground by the dragoons and killed, others met a similar fate. Wallenstein was killed in his residence at 10.00 p.m. An imperial decree equated the participants of the perpetrators of the Eger Bloodbath with executioners. The purge continued with the execution of Schaffgotsch; a number of generals were imprisoned and lost their commands, while the possessions of the accused were confiscated and redistributed. Ilow's daughter, who was born a few days before her father's death, secured the family a small portion of its former estates. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "55463374", "title": "Eger Bloodbath", "section": "Section::::Massacre.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 1384, "text": "Wallenstein was increasingly criticized for his passivity in face of a Swedish incursion into Bavaria and the collapse of Lorraine under French pressure. His dislike of courtly life and the influence exerted by the church upon the emperor created an axis of undercover opposition that launched a smear campaign against him. On 11 January 1634, Gundakar, Prince of Liechtenstein sent Ferdinand II an official request, recommending Wallenstein's liquidation. A day later, Wallenstein summoned his colonels to sign the First Pilsner Reverse, a declaration of personal loyalty, 49 of them signed immediately while Hans Ulrich von Schaffgotsch and Scherffenberg gathered signatures in Silesia and Upper Austria respectively. Numerous commanders signed the Reverse so as not to arouse suspicion, while at the same time a party centered around Ottavio Piccolomini began circulating an anonymous tract that summarized the army's grudges against Wallenstein. On 17 February, Scherffenberg was arrested in Vienna. On 18 February, a second patent was released accusing Wallenstein of conspiracy and condemning him to death, its publication was delayed so as not to split the army in two. Wallenstein's letters refuting the accusations against him remained unanswered, after realizing that the emperor was positioning troops in such a manner as to surround him he decided to flee to the Swedes. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21843542", "title": "Wallenstein (trilogy of plays)", "section": "Section::::Content summary.:Wallenstein's Death.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 540, "text": "In the last part of the Wallenstein trilogy the conflict anticipated in the second play erupts and leads to a tragic conclusion. Having learned that the negotiators he has sent to bargain with the Swedes have been intercepted by imperial troops, Wallenstein supposes that the emperor now has damning evidence of his treason. After some hesitation and intense pressure exerted by Illo, Terzky and especially the latter's spouse, Countess Terzky, Wallenstein decides to burn his bridges: he will enter into official alliance with the Swedes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10574904", "title": "Battle of Wolgast", "section": "Section::::Battle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 489, "text": "Wallenstein attacked on 22 August (O.S.) / 2 September (N.S.). He wiped out the Danish flank, killing 1,000 of Christian IV's troops and capturing another 600. Thereafter, he was able to retake the town, where 500 Danish troops were now isolated from the main army and had no choice but to surrender. Thereby, Wolgast with its residence of the Pomeranian dukes was badly burned and looted. Only nightfall allowed for Christian IV and some of his troops to retreat and board their vessels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "247386", "title": "Albrecht von Wallenstein", "section": "Section::::Thirty Years' War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 398, "text": "Over the course of the war Wallenstein's ambitions and the abuses of his forces had earned him a host of enemies, both Catholic and Protestant, princes and non-princes alike. Ferdinand suspected Wallenstein of planning a coup to take control of the Holy Roman Empire. The Emperor's advisors advocated dismissing him, and in September 1630 envoys were sent to Wallenstein to announce his dismissal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Look at a bunch of adverts for cars that are the price you can afford. Keep the price on the cheap side. You are only learning about cars at this stage. Pick out a few that you like. It doesn't matter why you like them for now. Make a note of the milage and age of the cars and what condition they are in, e.g. is the paint work faded or rusty, how \"good\" does it look. \n \nArmed with this information go to a car dealership and ask to look at cars of the type you liked from the adverts or look in the paper/Internet for cars for sale of that type. \n \nIf you find a car of the type you like that is cheaper than your research and has the same milage and looks to be in the same or better condition you may have found your new ride. \n \nThings to watch out for \n \n* Cars with low milage yet the pedals are worn from use\n* Cars with low milage yet the seat belt looks old/worn\n* Cars with signs of repainting. Different colour inside doors, under bonnet, overspray on exaust pipe, etc\n* Cars missing trim, logos, make/model on boot. Boot was replaced after a crash.\n* Cars with missing documentation\n \nIf you can afford it try to do a check online or otherwise on the car to make sure no outstanding finance is owed by the previous owner. If you buy a car form a guy who owes money on it it might be repossesed even though you paid full price for it. \n \nIn general buy an old, cheap but hopefully sound car and use it to learn about cars and driving. Your next purchase will be much more informed. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Shop around and use _URL_0_ to look up reviews on the cars you are looking at.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Are we talking about a new car? Visit each reputed maker's website: Honda, Toyota, Nissan, Ford, Hyundai etc. All of them have prices and specs displayed. \n\nMake a spreadsheet listing each vehicles price, pros and cons.\n\nOnce you've narrowed it down to a handful of cars, visit _URL_1_, _URL_0_, _URL_2_ and _URL_3_ and make note of what the average market value of the car is (this is what people are paying for a new car in your area). This does not include taxes and other fees (comes to about $1500-$2000 for a new compact sedan below $20,000). \n\nGo drive each car and get a good feel for it. Take your time and don't let them rush you through it. \n\nNow find out the invoice price of each car (this is what the dealership paid the maker for the car). You should ideally pay as close to the invoice price as possible. \n\nSome dealerships/manufacturers will offer you incentives if you finance through them. Call and ask. Talk to a few banks and see what kind of interest rate you can get. A co-signer with outstanding credit will knock down your interest rate substantially.\n\nFind all the dealerships for your choice of cars and get quotes over email. Now visit them in person when you are ready to buy and offer to pay invoice price. Do not budge. Let the salesman tire out from walking to his manager's office. If they appear hostile or disrespectful, walk away. Google if your state has a maximum documentation fees and don't pay a penny over that. You should pay the tax, doc fee, tag and title fee over the car's price. Refuse to pay any prep-fee or extras like paint guards or tinted windows. You can always get these later.\n\nIf you buy during off-season and have great negotiating skills you could probably get away paying less than invoice price. Keep an eye out for when 2013 models are announced because it means the 2012 models will be that much cheaper in months to come.\n\nAlso take a look at certified pre-owned vehicles. Sometimes you will catch a good deal. Don't bother with cars that have been driven over 15000 miles a year.\n\nDon't trade in your current car. Sell it yourself on Craigslist. Get an inspection report from a certified mechanic. Makes the process easier.\n\nThe bottom line is: Don't rush the process. Remember that you always have the upper hand. Be firm without being disrespectful. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I personally wouldn't buy a car from dealer. If you do and arnt comfortable with confrontation then have a friend be there to help negotiate the deal. The ONE thing I would recommend is always walk away after the test drive for an hour or two (have lunch etc) and think about it. The car will be there if you decide you like it. Also go to a bank and secure prior financing. This can help bargin a deal. You don't and shouldnt give them anything to look at your credit before you decide for sure you are going to buy the car. For two reasons. One multiple credit look ups lower your cradit score, and two if you have poor credit it allows them to leverage that against the price. \nHope this helps.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "60101154", "title": "CarWoo", "section": "Section::::Operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 344, "text": "Carwoo was an anonymous automobile marketplace that enabled its users to purchase cars without providing personal information to dealers until after an offer was made and accepted. Once a buyer accepted an offer, their information was transferred to the dealer. Rather than buyers bidding up the price, salespeople bid the selling price lower.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2562877", "title": "Car dealership", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 408, "text": "A car dealership or vehicle local distribution is a business that sells new or used cars at the retail level, based on a dealership contract with an automaker or its sales subsidiary. It employs automobile salespeople to sell their automotive vehicles. It may also provide maintenance services for cars, and employ automotive technicians to stock and sell spare automobile parts and process warranty claims.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22863595", "title": "Autotrader.com", "section": "Section::::Products and Website.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 523, "text": "Those looking to sell a car to a dealer can ask for offers from their local area. After taking their car to the dealer to verify its condition, the owner may then sell the car to the dealer for the offered price, either as cash or trade-in value. For sellers who list a car for sale directly to a private buyer, the site offers options with various levels of service including a level where the firm's representatives handle many of the details, including writing the ad, taking photos, and pre-screening potential buyers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15458161", "title": "Automobile salesperson", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 281, "text": "The automobile salesperson is one of many sales professions. The automobile salesman is a retail salesperson, who sells new and/or used cars. Unlike traditional retail sales, car sales are sometimes negotiable. Salesmen are employed by new car dealerships or used car dealerships.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60101154", "title": "CarWoo", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 317, "text": "CarWoo was an online new car shopping pricing and information website that allowed consumers to buy cars by negotiating with car dealers in a semi-anonymous online reverse auction. CarWoo, whose logo also appears as CarWoo!, was a competitor to TrueCar, which was a similar but negotiation-free car buying platform. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54022850", "title": "Kesko Senukai", "section": "Section::::Marketing.:Drive-in stores.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 217, "text": "Kesko Senukai offers for its \"Statybu duona\" customers a possibility to shop without leaving a car. Customers are able to drive into these stores, select and pay for goods without leaving their car (drive-in stores).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23111480", "title": "Car ownership", "section": "Section::::Forms of ownership.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 292, "text": "A car is typically a major purchase and so there are a variety of financial schemes to facilitate the purchase. These include hire purchase, company cars, trade-in and leasing. Other forms of provision which centralise the ownership as a service include rental, car sharing and vehicle hire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Business as usual in what way? Because Europe really didn't just keep trucking along. The 30 Years War more or less reworked the political landscape of Europe and the way diplomacy was run. You mention the Swedes invading Poland and I think that's a great example of how things changed. At the outset of the war, one of the biggest worries of the Hapsburgs was the army of Denmark (which turned out to be a paper tiger). The Swedish army wasn't even considered. When the Swedes intervened their army was discovered to be potent and capable, but it was \"thin.\" Sweden's army was maintained by conscription in a very thinly populated land. That Sweden was able to invade Poland after the Thirty Years War is related to its relatively untouched landscape and the fact that everyone around Sweden had been knocked down a peg. After the war, who around Sweden was going to be able to stop them, when you consider that they had an experienced army and were probably the most densely populated single polity in their region?\n\nOther things changed around the era, too, which reflects the general upheaval at the end of the Thirty Years War. The Roundheads in the United Kingdom finally put the finishing touches on King Charles' Cavaliers, leading to years of Cromwell's leadership and the execution of Charles I. The Fronde began in France, which crippled the French kingdom for five years and eventually led to Louis XIV refining absolutism to his nobility's detriment. Spain was financially exhausted and had no choice but to let Portugal go when it revolted. The individual German princelings and kings were allowed to conduct their own foreign policy (which would fatally fracture the Holy Roman Empire as a united entity).\n\nIt's tempting to describe the German heartland as a desert, but in some ways that's what it was. The power centers in Europe moved towards France, Vienna, and-- a little late-- London. Europe didn't just keep going: it was dramatically transformed. What you're really seeing is that previously \"second-rate\" powers taking advantage of the situation to try to transform themselves into first-rate powers.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3559313", "title": "Lauterbourg", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 430, "text": "In the Wars of Religion of the 17th c, 1648, ber Oct The Peace of Westphalia, of the European settlements of 164ood the nature of t8, brought an end to the thirty years between Spain and the Dutch and the German portion of the Thirty Years War. Peace plans were formed in the towns of Munster and Osnabruck, 1648. The certain treaty signed on October 24,he 1648, understood the nature of the Holy Roman emperor France and Sweden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "373210", "title": "Second Northern War", "section": "Section::::Prelude.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 545, "text": "In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia had ended the Thirty Years' War, during which the Swedish Empire emerged as a major European power. In the Torstenson War, a theater of the Thirty Years' War, Sweden had defeated the former Baltic great power Denmark. Sweden had been at peace with Russia since the Treaty of Stolbovo had ended the Ingrian War in 1617. Sweden had remained in a state of war with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth since the Polish–Swedish War (1626–29), which was concluded by the repeatedly renewed truce (Altmark, Stuhmsdorf).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28150475", "title": "History of the Ruhr", "section": "Section::::Early Modern Period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 119, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 119, "end_character": 375, "text": "BULLET::::- 1648 – The Treaty of Westphalia is agreed. This treaty formally ends both the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War. Nevertheless, the imperial city of Dortmund, a signee of the treaty, was occupied for a further two years by Swedish and Imperial troops until it handed over large sums of money. Dutch troops also remained for some time on the Lower Rhine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25444258", "title": "Swedish Wars on Bremen", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 257, "text": "When in 1648 the Peace of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years' War, the parties agreed that the prince-bishoprics of Bremen and Verden were to become dominions of Sweden. The peace treaty had been prepared at a congress throughout the final years of the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18553", "title": "Louis XIV of France", "section": "Section::::Minority and the \"Fronde\".:Accession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 847, "text": "In 1648, Anne and Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War. Its terms ensured Dutch independence from Spain, awarded some autonomy to the various German princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sweden seats on the Imperial Diet and territories to control the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser rivers. France, however, profited most from the settlement. Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg lands and claims in Alsace to France and acknowledged her \"de facto\" sovereignty over the Three Bishoprics of Metz, Verdun, and Toul. Moreover, eager to emancipate themselves from Habsburg domination, petty German states sought French protection. This anticipated the formation of the 1658 League of the Rhine, leading to the further diminution of Imperial power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19039284", "title": "Dutch Revolt", "section": "Section::::Final stages (1621–1648).:Peace.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 1789, "text": "On 30 January 1648, the war ended with the Treaty of Münster between Spain and the Netherlands. In Münster on 15 May 1648, the parties exchanged ratified copies of the treaty. This treaty was part of the European-scale Peace of Westphalia that also ended the Thirty Years' War. In the treaty, the power balance in Western Europe was readjusted to the actual geopolitical reality. This meant that \"de jure\" the Dutch Republic was recognized as an independent state, and that the long-existing separation of the Netherlands (and also the Old Swiss Confederacy) from the Holy Roman Empire was finally recognized. The Republic retained control over the territories that were conquered in the later stages of the war. The now officially recognized republic still consisted of the seven provinces that in 1579 concluded the Union of Utrecht: Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen. Each province was governed by its sovereign States, such as the States of Holland and West Friesland and States of Friesland, assisted by a stadtholder and by an executive council, variously called \"Gecommitteerde Raden\" or \"Gedeputeerde Staten\" (Delegated States). Each stadtholder was appointed by the States of the province and also subordinate to the States-General. However, the princes of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William I of Orange, became \"de facto\" hereditary stadtholders in Holland and Zeeland. In practice they usually became stadtholder of the other provinces as well (except for Friesland, where the cadet branch of Nassau-Dietz provided the stadtholders). A constant power struggle, which already had shown its precursor during the Twelve Years' Truce, emerged between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders, and the Dutch States Party supporters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23850", "title": "Peace of Westphalia", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 409, "text": "The treaties did not entirely end conflicts arising out of the Thirty Years' War. Fighting continued between France and Spain until the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. The Dutch-Portuguese War had begun during the Iberian Union between Spain and Portugal, as part of the Eighty Years' War, and went on until 1663. Nevertheless, the Peace of Westphalia did settle many outstanding European issues of the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "People with low incomes also have the fewest options in what products they can buy. That makes them a captive consumer base and means that companies can charge them more than more affluent people with more choice in products and services.\n\nPoor people are also much less likely to have received a good financial education and are thus easier to deceive with bad deals and fraudulent practices.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "36309655", "title": "Inclusive business model", "section": "Section::::Constraints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 372, "text": "Although opportunities are great, many businesses are not taking advantage of them because market conditions surrounding the poor can make doing business difficult, risky and expensive. Where poverty prevails, the foundations for functional markets are often lacking, excluding the poor from meaningful participation and deterring companies from doing business with them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43545389", "title": "Secular stagnation", "section": "Section::::Post-2009.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 309, "text": "A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5660960", "title": "Economic stagnation", "section": "Section::::Stagnation in the United States.:Post-2008 period.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 309, "text": "A third is that there is a \"persistent and disturbing reluctance of businesses to invest and consumers to spend\", perhaps in part because so much of the recent gains have gone to the people at the top, and they tend to save more of their money than people—ordinary working people who can't afford to do that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1402499", "title": "National Labor Federation", "section": "Section::::Operational patterns.:Mutual benefit associations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 330, "text": "Critics and supporters of the organizations agree that some of the food, clothing and other goods collected for the poor is consumed by the cadre. Critics and some former members have claimed that the entities are highly inefficient—that the cadre consume much of the cash, food and clothing they purport to collect for the poor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "450670", "title": "Price–performance ratio", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Consumer and medical products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 303, "text": "In theory, this means that the rich people have earlier access to highly inefficient technologies, medical treatments, and therapies (that are prototypical in nature) while the poor get access to these same products when they become more efficient and easier to manufacture several years down the road.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58241517", "title": "Social entrepreneurship in South Asia", "section": "Section::::Demographics.:Target populations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 765, "text": "Social entrepreneurs in South Asia often address needs of those at the bottom of the pyramid. Poor people often aren't able to meet their basic needs, like education and health, because for three reasons: access, quality, and affordability. When targeting the poor, affordability is critical often because the poorest people have extremely low levels of capital. 469 million people in India currently earn less than $1.25 a day while 850 million people earn less than $2 a day. While they don't have high purchasing power individually, collectively they represent an aggregated purchasing power of $1 trillion. Research has even been done to show poor people can mobilize capital to purchase goods only if they are made at a price point that is affordable to them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "276495", "title": "Small business", "section": "Section::::Challenges.:Social responsibility.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 1067, "text": "Small businesses can encounter several problems related to engaging in corporate social responsibility, due to characteristics inherent in their size. Owners of small businesses often participate heavily in the day-to-day operations of their companies. This results in a lack of time for the owner to coordinate socially responsible efforts, such as supporting local charities or not-for-profit activities. Additionally, a small business owner's expertise often falls outside the realm of socially responsible practices, which contributing to a lack of participation. Small businesses also face a form of peer pressure from larger forces in their respective industries, making it difficult to oppose and work against industry expectations. Furthermore, small businesses undergo stress from shareholder expectations. Because small businesses have more personal relationships with their patrons and local shareholders, they must also be prepared to withstand closer scrutiny if they want to share in the benefits of committing to socially responsible practices or not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They didn't used to be. Toothpaste and dental care took off though and eventually white teeth became preferable - it equals health and indicates that you take good care of your body and self.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because teeth yellow with age, and so yellow teeth suggests being less youthful. And teeth yellow when not cleaned thoroughly, suggesting worse dental care and dental health.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14878724", "title": "Oral hygiene", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 212, "text": "Sometimes white or straight teeth are associated with oral hygiene, but a hygienic mouth may have stained teeth and/or crooked teeth. For appearance reasons, people may seek out teeth whitening and orthodontics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314628", "title": "Tooth enamel", "section": "Section::::Dental procedures.:Tooth whitening.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 409, "text": "The discoloration of teeth over time can result from exposure to substances such as tobacco, coffee, and tea. The staining occurs in the interprismatic region internally on the enamel, which causes the tooth to appear darker or more yellow overall. In a perfect state, enamel is colorless, but it does reflect underlying tooth structure with its stains since light reflection properties of the tooth are low.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48358017", "title": "Hard tissue", "section": "Section::::Enamel.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 443, "text": "The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish (bluish) white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. The enamel on primary teeth has a more opaque crystalline form and thus appears whiter than on permanent teeth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "314628", "title": "Tooth enamel", "section": "Section::::Features.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 509, "text": "The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish (bluish) white. At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel, the color sometimes has a slightly blue or translucent off-white tone, easily observable on the upper incisors. Since enamel is semitranslucent, the color of dentin and any material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth. The enamel on primary teeth has a more opaque crystalline form and thus appears whiter than on permanent teeth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3674414", "title": "Dentinogenesis imperfecta", "section": "Section::::Treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 315, "text": "Dental whitening (bleaching) is contraindicated although it has been reported to lighten the color of DI teeth with some success; however, because the discoloration is caused primarily by the underlying yellow-brown dentin, this alone is unlikely to produce normal appearance in cases of significant discoloration.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1145905", "title": "Tooth whitening", "section": "Section::::Natural Tooth Shade.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 776, "text": "The combination of intrinsic colour and the presence of extrinsic stains on the tooth surface influence the colour and thus the overall appearance of teeth. The scattering of light and absorption within enamel and dentine determine the intrinsic colour of teeth and because enamel is relatively translucent, the dentinal properties can play a major role in determining the overall tooth colour. On the other hand, extrinsic stain and colour is the result of coloured regions that have formed within the acquired pellicle on the enamel surface and can be influenced by lifestyle behaviours or habits. For example, dietary intake of tannin-rich foods, poor toothbrushing technique, tobacco products and exposure to iron salts and chlorhexidine can affect the colour of a tooth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48315083", "title": "Tooth discoloration", "section": "Section::::Management.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 422, "text": "Discoloration of the front teeth is one of the most common reasons people seek dental care. However, many people with teeth of normal shade ask for them to be whitened. Management of tooth discoloration depends on the cause. Most discoloration is harmless and may or may not be of cosmetic concern to the individual. In other cases it may indicate underlying pathology such as pulp necrosis or rarely a systemic disorder.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "every molecule is not at that temperature at the same time. It is a gradient from the energy source to the furthest point. \n\nWhen you put a simmering pot on the stove. The heat is transferred from the fire to the pot body which conducts heat really well.the water immediately touching the walls of the pot will get the heat first and then it diffuses inwards. \n\nSo if the temperature at the body of the pot is say 250, the. The water immediately in contact with it will get to 230 creating small bubbles wherever the water touch the pot and these will take the energy and leave the pot, so the water in the center is cooler than 212 and thus it won’t boil. \n\nNow crank up the heat and the pot body temp rises to let’s say 400-500. Now the heat is transferred so much faster and the whole body of water is above 212 and rustling to form gas bubbles and escape, this is when you get a roaring boil", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When adding heat, the edges and base of the container heat up first due to being in more direct contact with the flame and this the water closer to the edges heats up and boils first followed by the rest of the water in the container heating up and boiling", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The other answers aren't entirely correct, especially in the usual case where the simmering pot of liquid is well-mixed. The real answer is that the edges of the pot provide [nucleation sites](_URL_0_).\n\nFirst of all, remember that changing phase requires a change in energy (enthalpy of vaporization) significantly larger than the amount needed to raise the temperature while the substance remains in the same phase (specific heat capacity). Because of this, even if the liquid is heated somewhat unevenly, the molecules that reach boiling temperature first will tend to transfer additional energy they receive to the rest of the liquid via conduction or move away from the heat source via convection, rather than boiling immediately. In other words, for a household stovetop (as opposed to some kind of powerful industrial burner), the entire pot of water is likely to be at a nearly-uniform 100C before the first molecules boil.\n\nSecond, an individual molecule can't gain enthalpy of vaporization gradually -- it has to gain it all at once, in a stochastic sort of way (in other words, hand-wavey quantum mechanics that I don't understand and thus can't explain). Moreover, because of surface tension, the bubble of gas formed by a group of adjacent boiling molecules tends to collapse back to liquid, and does so with a probability inversely proportional to the size of the bubble.\n\nThird, that surface tension/tendency to collapse is related to the shape of the bubble: one suspended in the middle of the liquid is being squeezed from all sides due to cohesion, whereas one against a dissimilar-material surface is only being squeezed from the sides other than that surface. Therefore, the activation energy necessary to create a bubble of critical radius adjacent to a surface (heterogeneous nucleation) is lower than the energy necessary to create one in the middle of the liquid (homogeneous nucleation), so the former happens a lot more often than the latter and the pot boils along the edges.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "21485435", "title": "Milk watcher", "section": "Section::::How it works.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 741, "text": "Normally, boiling water does not boil over. When fats, starches, and some other substances are present in boiling water, for example by adding milk or pasta, boiling over can occur. A film forms on the surface of the boiling liquid; for example, cream can boil over as milk fat separates from the milk. The increased viscosity of the liquid causes the steam bubbles to form foam trapped under the film, pushing the film up and over the lip of the pot, boiling over. A milk watcher disrupts this process by collecting small bubbles of steam into one large bubble and releasing it in a manner which may puncture the surface film. The device also rattles when boiling occurs, alerting the cook who may then lower the heat setting of the stove.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "180886", "title": "Simmering", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 367, "text": "Simmering is a food preparation technique in which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept just below the boiling point of water (which is 100 °C or 212 °F at average sea level air pressure), but higher than poaching temperature (higher than 71–82 °C or 160-180°F). To keep a pot simmering, one brings it to a boil and then reduces the heat to maintain the temperature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "Section::::Uses.:In cooking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 203, "text": "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58017", "title": "Microwave oven", "section": "Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 627, "text": "Water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "Section::::Types.:Nucleate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 434, "text": "An irregular surface of the boiling vessel (i.e., increased surface roughness) or additives to the fluid (i.e., surfactants and/or nanoparticles) facilitate nucleate boiling over a broader temperature range, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic, lends itself to superheating. Under these conditions, a heated liquid may show boiling delay and the temperature may go somewhat above the boiling point without boiling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13609", "title": "Hydrogen bond", "section": "Section::::Hydrogen bonds in small molecules.:Water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 481, "text": "Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form, relative to its low molecular mass. Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52636", "title": "Boiling", "section": "Section::::Uses.:In cooking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 591, "text": "Some science suggests adding a water-soluble substance, such as salt or sugar also increases the boiling point. This is called boiling-point elevation. At palatable concentrations of salt, the effect is very small, and the boiling point elevation is difficult to notice and this is why experiments to prove this are considered inconclusive. However, while making thick sugar syrup, such as for Gulab Jamun, one will notice boiling point elevation. Due to variations in composition and pressure, the boiling point of water is almost never exactly 100 °C, but rather close enough for cooking.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\nYour front brain simulates consequences and chooses the best action to take. When you're emotional, this usually means stopping you from doing something like punting your co workers. Sometimes one or multiple emotions become really strong and it takes lots of effort to stop you from acting on them. Effort makes your brain tired, and either it becomes worse at modulating behavior OR the emotions become too strong for the front brain to hold back. Then you have an emotional outburst where the front brain is kinda offline. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "68672", "title": "Anger", "section": "Section::::Physiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 751, "text": "Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories however occurs when its information is relayed from the thalamus to the neocortex. Based on some statistical analysis, some scholars have suggested that the tendency for anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and environmental factors however requires further research and actual measurement of specific genes and environments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4829036", "title": "Problem of mental causation", "section": "Section::::Commonsensical Solutions.:The Advent of Crying.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 569, "text": "How Emotions are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain by Lisa Feldman Barrett for a rigorous discussion. One’s crying is not planned, unless one is an actor, then we are able to tap into the mechanism that causes tears to flow. Otherwise it just happens outside of out awareness of causing it by thinking. The brain has patterns of neurons that once activated generate physiologic responses that happens up to 10 seconds before we are aware. (Koch, Christof. 2012. “How Physics and Neuroscience Dictate Your “Free” Will”. Scientific American: April 12.) and many others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26848013", "title": "Amygdala hijack", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 316, "text": "Goleman states that emotions \"make us pay attention right now—this is urgent—and gives us an immediate action plan without having to think twice. The emotional component evolved very early: Do I eat it, or does it eat me?\" The emotional response \"can take over the rest of the brain in a millisecond if threatened.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "806023", "title": "Sympathy", "section": "Section::::Neuroscience perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 1099, "text": "Social and emotional stimuli, particularly those related to the well-being of another person, are being more directly studied with advent of technology that can track brain activity (such as Electroencephalograms and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging). Amygdala and insula activation occur when a person experiences emotions, such as fear and disgust respectively. Primary motor regions are also activated during sympathy. This could be caused by humans' reaction to emotional faces, reflecting the expressions on their own faces, which seems to help people better understand the other person's emotion. In addition, researchers have also suggested that the neural mechanisms that are activated when personally experiencing emotions are also activated when viewing another person experiencing the same emotions (mirror neurons). Pain seems to specifically activate a region known as the cingulate cortex, in addition to activation that is mentioned earlier. The temporal parietal junction, orbitofrontal cortex, and ventral striatum are also thought to play a role in the production of emotion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "788091", "title": "Psychological trauma", "section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 481, "text": "Triggers and cues act as reminders of the trauma and can cause anxiety and other associated emotions. Often the person can be completely unaware of what these triggers are. In many cases this may lead a person suffering from traumatic disorders to engage in disruptive behaviors or self-destructive coping mechanisms, often without being fully aware of the nature or causes of their own actions. Panic attacks are an example of a psychosomatic response to such emotional triggers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54301172", "title": "Well-being contributing factors", "section": "Section::::Biological factors.:Neuroscience's findings.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 716, "text": "By identifying neural correlates for emotions, scientists may be able to use methods like brain scans to tell us more about the different ways of being \"happy\". Richard Davidson has conducted research to determine which parts of the brain are involved in positive emotions. He found that the left prefrontal cortex is more activated when we are happy and is also associated with greater ability to recover from negative emotions as well as enhanced ability to suppress negative emotions. Davidson found that people can train themselves to increase activation in this area of their brains. It is thought that our brain can change throughout our lives as a result of our experiences; this is known as neuroplasticity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1098140", "title": "Spindle neuron", "section": "Section::::ACC spindle neurons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 726, "text": "In humans, intense emotion activates the anterior cingulate cortex, as it relays neural signals transmitted from the amygdala (a primary processing center for emotions) to the frontal cortex, perhaps by functioning as a sort of lens to focus the complex texture of neural signal interference patterns. The ACC is also active during demanding tasks requiring judgment and discrimination, and when errors are detected by an individual. During difficult tasks, or when experiencing intense love, anger, or lust, activation of the ACC increases. In brain imaging studies, the ACC has specifically been found to be active when mothers hear infants cry, underscoring its role in affording a heightened degree of social sensitivity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In essence, indifference.\n\nThe general sentiment was that France had abandoned New-France in favor of the French West Indies, that were much more profitable than the rather onerous North American colony. This is also a sentiment that can be found in the lesser rates of volunteerism in WWI, although at that point, it's a lot more complicated.\n\nConcerning the overture made by the American congress to french Canadian, it was more in the hope of making sure they wouldn't attack, as the French-Indian raids were still very much in the minds of the revolutionaries. To simplify, the Americans were scared of the french colonists descending by the Champlain River to greatly undermine their effort.\n\nThe other reason is basically because the British, seeing shit was about to hit the fan passed the Quebec Act which softened, if not completely reversed, a lot of the anti-catholic/ anti-french policies the British had put in place after the Conquest, making it considerably less interesting to rebel against the authorities that basically almost restored the way of life before the Conquest.\n\nEDIT :\n\nAfter going back a little bit in some reading, the American Congress did send letters to French Canadians as early as 1774, The letter title is : Lettre adressée aux Habitans de la province de Quebec, Ci-devant le Canada\".\nIt's in French, so you can definitely know it was addressed to the french speaking elite. That very same elite that benefited the most from the Quebec Act...\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1146288", "title": "Loyalist (American Revolution)", "section": "Section::::Loyalism and military operations.:Loyalism in Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 743, "text": "Although some Canadians took up arms in support of the rebellion, the majority remained loyal to the King. French Canadians had been satisfied by the British government's Quebec Act of 1774, which offered religious and linguistic toleration; in general, they did not sympathize with a rebellion that they saw as being led by Protestants from New England, who were their commercial rivals and hereditary enemies. Most of the English-speaking settlers had arrived following the British conquest of Canada in 1759–1760, and were unlikely to support separation from Britain. The older British colonies, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia (including what is now New Brunswick) also remained loyal and contributed military forces in support of the Crown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5199", "title": "Canada–United States relations", "section": "Section::::History.:American Revolutionary War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 1103, "text": "At the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion and they were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When Canada was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga, and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity. After the war Canada became a refuge for about 75,000 Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S., or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21396237", "title": "Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 537, "text": "In 1837 and 1838 Canadians rebelled against the oligarchic rule of the British colonial administration, first in Lower Canada, then in Upper Canada (or the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario respectively). Political reforms followed the rebellions as Canada was of vital strategic interest to the British Empire. Simply put, the British did not want to lose the rest of North America, especially given the inconclusive results of the War of 1812, and they acquiesced to what gradually evolved into full legal national sovereignty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "475488", "title": "51st state", "section": "Section::::Use internationally.:North America.:Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 441, "text": "The United States again invaded Canada during the War of 1812, but this effort was made more difficult due to the large number of Loyalist Americans that had fled to what is now Ontario and still resisted joining the republic. The Hunter Patriots in the 1830s and the Fenian raids after the American Civil War were private attacks on Canada from the U.S. Several U.S. politicians in the 19th century also spoke in favour of annexing Canada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "285327", "title": "Yonge Street", "section": "Section::::History.:Establishment of the route.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 689, "text": "With the outbreak of hostilities between France and Great Britain in 1793, part of the War of the First Coalition, the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (now Ontario), John Graves Simcoe, was concerned about the possibility of the United States entering British North America in support of their French allies. In particular, the location of Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake), the first and former capital of Upper Canada, was in danger of being attacked by the Americans from the nearby border. Additionally, US forces could easily sever British access to the upper lakes at Lake St. Clair or the Detroit River, cutting the colony off from the important trading post at Michilimackinac.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25641272", "title": "France–Americas relations", "section": "Section::::Consolidation and conflict (18th century).:American war of independence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 462, "text": "France soon became again involved in North America, this time by supporting the American revolutionary war of independence. A Franco-American alliance was formed in 1778 between Louis XVI's France and the United States, during the American Revolutionary War. France successfully contributed in expelling the British from the nascent United States. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 3 September 1783, recognizing American independence and the end of hostilities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26143273", "title": "Invasion of Hanover (1757)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 374, "text": "Following the outbreak of the first fighting between Britain and France in North America in 1754, the French leadership saw that the limited population, troops and resources available in French Canada meant it would ultimately fall to the British if the war was prolonged, and decided to try and gain an equivalent in Europe to exchange for Canada at the negotiating table.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The primary book for the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II is in French (Arnaud's *Nabuchodonosor II, roi de Babylone*). DJ Wiseman's *Nebuchadrezzar and Babylon* is useful, as is Ronald Sack's *Images of Nebuchadnezzar: The Emergence of a Legend*. \n\nVanderhooft's *The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets* and Cogan's *The Raging Torrent: Historical Inscriptions from Assyria and Babylonia Relating to Ancient Israel* are worth a look if you're interested in the interactions between the Neo-Babylonian empire and Judah. \n\nThe Babylonian chronicles are our main source of knowledge, which have been edited in Grayson's *Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles*. The three volumes of *The Context of Scripture* and *The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation* edited by Mark Chavalas also contain useful translations. There is an [ORACC project](_URL_0_) editing Neo-Babylonian texts, but unfortunately they haven't gotten around to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II yet.\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "40453592", "title": "Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 505, "text": "It is one of two identified Chronicles referring to Nebuchadnezzar, and does not cover the whole of his reign. The ABC5 is a continuation of Babylonian Chronicle ABC4 (The Late Years of Nabopolassar), where Nebuchadnezzar is mentioned as the Crown Prince. Since the ABC 5 only provides a record through Nebuchadnezzar's eleventh year, the subsequent destruction and exile recorded in the bible to have taken place 10 years later are not covered in the chronicles or elsewhere in the archeological record.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6599", "title": "Chaldea", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 332, "text": "By 572, Nebuchadnezzar was in full control of Babylonia, Chaldea, Aramea (Syria), Phonecia, Israel, Judah, Philistia, Samarra, Jordan, northern Arabia, and parts of Asia Minor. Nebuchadnezzar died of illness in 562 BCE after a one-year co-reign with his son, Amel-Marduk, who was deposed in 560 BCE after a reign of only two years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40453592", "title": "Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 464, "text": "The Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle, also known as (Jerusalem Chronicle), is one of the series of Babylonian Chronicles, and contains a description of the first eleven years of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II. The tablet details Nebuchadnezzar's military campaigns in the west and has been interpreted to refer to both the Battle of Carchemish and the Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC). The tablet is numbered ABC5 in Grayson's standard text and BM 21946 in the British Museum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46883", "title": "Babylonia", "section": "Section::::History.:Early Iron Age – Native Rule, Second Dynasty of Isin, 1155–1026 BC.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 1058, "text": "Nebuchadnezzar I (1124–1103 BC) was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. He fought and defeated the Elamites and drove them from Babylonian territory, invading Elam itself, sacking the Elamite capital Susa, and recovering the sacred statue of Marduk that had been carried off from Babylon during the fall of the Kassites. Shortly afterwards, the king of Elam was assassinated and his kingdom disintegrated into civil war. However, Nebuchadnezzar failed to extend Babylonian territory further, being defeated a number of times by Ashur-resh-ishi I (1133–1115 BC), king of the Middle Assyrian Empire, for control of formerly Hittite-controlled territories in Aram and Anatolia. The Hittite Empire of the northern and western Levant and eastern Anatolia had been largely annexed by the Middle Assyrian Empire, and its heartland finally overrun by invading Phrygians from the Balkans. In the later years of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar I devoted himself to peaceful building projects and securing Babylonia's borders against the Assyrians, Elamites and Arameans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2555769", "title": "Nebuchadnezzar I", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 351, "text": "Nebuchadnezzar I (), in Arabic (نبوخذ نصر) r. c. 1125–1104 BC, was the fourth king of the Second Dynasty of Isin and Fourth Dynasty of Babylon. He ruled for 22 years according to the \"Babylonian King List C\", and was the most prominent monarch of this dynasty. He is best known for his victory over Elam and the recovery of the cultic idol of Marduk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3778735", "title": "Nabonidus Chronicle", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 650, "text": "The Nabonidus Chronicle is an ancient Babylonian text, part of a larger series of Babylonian Chronicles inscribed in cuneiform script on clay tablets. It deals primarily with the reign of Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, covers the conquest of Babylon by the Persian king Cyrus the Great, and ends with the start of the reign of Cyrus's son Cambyses, spanning a period from 556 BC to some time after 539 BC. It provides a rare contemporary account of Cyrus's rise to power and is the main source of information on this period; Amélie Kuhrt describes it as \"the most reliable and sober [ancient] account of the fall of Babylon.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44230", "title": "Gelimer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 415, "text": "Gelimer (original form possibly Geilamir, 480–553), King of the Vandals and Alans (530–534), was the last Germanic ruler of the North African Kingdom of the Vandals. He became ruler on 15 June 530 after deposing his first cousin twice removed, Hilderic, who had angered the Vandal nobility by converting to Chalcedonian Christianity, as most of the Vandals at this time were fiercely devoted to Arian Christianity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'm sure you know the three most important words in real estate: Location, location, and location. Nice areas have proximity to some desireable feature--be it parks, the waterfront, downtown, public transit, nice views, historical areas, nice looking bridges, any or all of these things. These desirable features drive up property values, which has the effect of inviting in the rich people and their amenities and pricing out the riff raff. Meanwhile, not nice features such as abandoned factories, power plants, highways, ugly bridges don't do anything good for property values. They stagnate or drop, and these parts of town become the \"bad part of town.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "110784", "title": "Twin Falls, Idaho", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 1032, "text": "The original townsite follows a unique design. It is laid out on northeast-to-southwest and northwest-to-southeast roads. It is purported that the reason this was done was to allow sun to come into every room in the home at some point during the day. The northwest-to-southeast roads were numbered and called avenues, while the northeast-to-southwest roads were numbered and called streets. Only two central streets, the northwest-to-southeast Main Avenue and the northeast-to-southwest Shoshone Street, were named. This system created situations where one side of a street may have an entirely different address than the other, and where the corner of \"3rd and 3rd,\" for example, was in more than one location. In 2003 the numbered northeast-to-southwest streets were renamed to alleviate decades of confusion. Later city roads, such as Blue Lakes Boulevard, Addison Avenue, and Washington Street, are laid out in standard north–south and east–west orientations. Addison Avenue honors Addison T. Smith a ten-term congressman from \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "100729", "title": "Regina, Saskatchewan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 483, "text": "Residential neighbourhoods include precincts beyond the historic city centre are historically or socially noteworthy neighbourhoods – namely Lakeview and The Crescents, both of which lie directly south of downtown. Immediately to the north of the central business district is the old warehouse district, increasingly the focus of shopping, nightclubs and residential development; as in other western cities of North America, the periphery contains shopping malls and big box stores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5373002", "title": "Geography of St. Louis", "section": "Section::::Cityscape.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 635, "text": "The city is divided into 79 neighborhoods. The divisions have no legal standing, although some neighborhood associations administer grants or hold veto power over historic-district development. Nevertheless, the social and political influence of neighborhood identity is profound. Some hold avenues of massive stone edifices built as palaces for heads of state visiting the 1904 World's Fair. Others offer tidy working-class bungalows, loft districts, or areas hard-hit by social problems and unemployment. Many of them have retained - quite consciously and deliberately - a camaraderie that is missing from many American towns today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "104883", "title": "Demopolis, Alabama", "section": "Section::::History.:American settlement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 564, "text": "One major flaw in the town plan was that there was no clearly defined business district, resulting in commercial and residential buildings mixed together all over town. This eventually resulted in numerous blighted areas. Some stores did open around the town square, however, and warehouses started to appear adjacent to the town's three major river landings, Upper Landing, above the modern Demopolis Yacht Basin and Marina, Webb's Landing at the western terminus of Washington Street, and Lower Landing to the west of Riverside Cemetery and the Whitfield Canal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2614388", "title": "Tal Afar", "section": "Section::::Geography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 632, "text": "Each neighborhood is able to maintain its identity due to the tribal nature of the city. Several dozen extended families living in close proximity will typically identify with one local sheikh who takes it upon himself to serve as steward of the neighborhood’s citizens and liaison to the local government. The layout of the town consists of densely packed buildings, often constructed so closely to each other that they share common load-bearing walls and supports. The city streets further physically define each neighborhood by separating it from other groups of buildings, since they cut through the town in irregular patterns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1734870", "title": "Homberg (Efze)", "section": "Section::::Town planning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1089, "text": "The middle and end point of each of the street connections in the town is the marketplace, over which rises the town church, St. Marien, once surrounded by the town's cemetery. A regular plan is not to be seen in the town. However, in one way the town has something in common with many other towns founded in the Middle Ages that is only noticeable at second glance: when laying out the town's streets, the mediaeval town planner deliberately made them crooked and deliberately staggered intersections of streets and alleyways. In particular, building crooked streets was a way of giving them some aesthetic appeal, as with the \"Untergasse\". Crookedness limits the streetscape optically, and at the end of the street is a T-junction, with a view of houses opposite. In the \"Untergasse\", this was the town's former brewhouse, standing on the corner of the \"Untergasse\" (\"Lower Lane\") and the \"Entengasse\" (\"Duck Lane\"). The \"Untergasse's\" original alignment was lost as a result of town renovations. It can now only be discerned by looking at houses' positions or by looking over the town.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2144092", "title": "Dinas, Zamboanga del Sur", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 252, "text": "Hence, the early settlers who migrated from the province of Cotabato found their new haven as not unlucky or \"Di Nas\" because the mouths of all rivers emptying into the coastlines are facing East which according to their belief is a sign of good luck.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Keep in mind that unless the earth also stop revolving around the sun (not possible), or the earth keeps rotating at a very slight rate similar to the moon (to have the same side facing the sun everytime) , the dark and bright side would change every six months. Basically a day would last for the entire year. I suppose you would have regular conditions with arctic-like time spans for seasons. And you would have to factor the resulting climatic disturbances in.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Planets that \"have stopped rotating\" are known as being tidally locked. Earth's moon is tidally locked to the Earth, and so only one side faces us at all times. If a planet is close enough to its parent star it will become tidally locked. Observation of exoplanets determined to be tidally locked indicated extreme winds between day and night sides. \n\nHD 189733 b is a roughly Jupiter sized exoplanet which exhibits this phenomenon. A temperature range of 973 ± 33 K to 1,212 ± 11 K was discovered, indicating that the absorbed energy from the parent star is distributed fairly evenly through the planet's atmosphere. Assuming the planet is tidally locked, this suggests that powerful easterly winds moving at more than 9,600 kilometers per hour are responsible for redistributing the heat.\n\nIf something similar were to happen on Earth, we would all die very quickly. All crops and plants would quickly succumb to temperature variations of hundred of degrees Kelvin, the winds would rip out the largest trees. The entire ecosystem would most likely be destroyed. Significant quantities of water would boil into the atmosphere. If the heated atmosphere from the day side were incapable of keeping the night side warmed, theoretically the boiled off oceans could be transported to the night side where the water would be deposited and frozen.\n\nedit: We wouldn't *all* die, the crew of the ISS would be quite comfortable until their return to Earth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Would there be a sweet spot on the edges where the cold and hot meet? And how big would that sweet spot be? Could people live there?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Given the assumption that this would be catastrophic to life on Earth (as per some of the top comments), maybe an alternative question would be, \"how would Earth be different today if it had started out tidally locked?\" ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Googling revealed this reference: [Simulations of the Atmospheres of Synchronously Rotating Terrestrial Planets Orbiting M Dwarfs: Conditions for Atmospheric Collapse and the Implications for Habitability] (_URL_0_) (warning PDF download)\n\n\nTheir modeling seems to suggest that for a Earth-like planet the day-side temperatures would reach 330 K (or 135 F), while the dark-side would be just below 270 K (25 F, just below freezing) - at a slightly higher pressure. This being due to the atmophere being a good conductor of heat from the day side to the night.\n\nHowever I'm not an expert on this sort of thing and would like to hear from someone with more relevant experience.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Something just occured to me...\n\nOnce Humanity got it's act together we could potentially put large orbital mirrors up to deflect some of the sunlight to the nightside. It would still screw up cicadian rythms but it would keep the planet habitable.\n\nIt's a Megastructure sure but if the whole race (or what was left of it) got behind it I think we have the technology to do it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Just another question, sorry if I'm stealing your question. But if the earth were to stop would there be severe damages caused by the sudden stop? I think the earth is spinning at something like 1xx, xxx km/h or something like that so wouldnt the force cause buildings and ect. to fall or whatever? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[If the Earth stood still...](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I disagree with the current top poster that claims we'd all die off. If this happened gradually over a period of 100 years or so, I think we could react and survive.\n\nMassive sturdy greenhouses could be built to protect plants from excessive winds and regulate temperature.\n\nWhere would the energy for this come from? Well alternative technologies would become MORE feasible due to the strong temperature differential. There would be strong winds at the border between light and dark which could be captured via a global network of wind turbines.\n\nI could also envision massive hydro-turbines using the temperature differential to generate energy from heating/cooling bodies of water using the ambient temperature.\n\nWe'd have to drastically change how we lived for sure, but we could survive it and possibly get a significant increase in the usable energy.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If the earth became locked, would we be able to build enough rockets to get it turning again?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "All these posts and questions about buildings crashing and water tsunami waves are silly, even assuming instant deceleration.\nOne must make very precise constraints on what is \"Earth\". Aren't the buildings part of earth? the atmosphere? the ocean? the crust? the mantle? the core? Us? \nI would say all of it. Why assume some mass would stop rotating and some mass would not? it's SILLY. That wouldn't be ask science, it would be ask Hollywood (Michael Bay)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26944827", "title": "Aftermath (2010 TV series)", "section": "Section::::Episodes.:When the Earth Stops Spinning.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 457, "text": "Eventually, the Earth stops spinning altogether. The scorching light of day lasts for six months, while the remaining six months of the year are ice-bound darkness of night. The planetary landscape now consists of one ocean approximately 10 miles deep in the north, one in the south and a girdle of land around the equator. Most of the new continent is uninhabitable due to thin air, but the former ocean floor has a sufficient air pressure for human life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "878461", "title": "Earth's orbit", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 293, "text": "From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "449744", "title": "Storm surge", "section": "Section::::Mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 355, "text": "The Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis effect, which bends currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. When this bend brings the currents into more perpendicular contact with the shore, it can amplify the surge, and when it bends the current away from the shore it has the effect of lessening the surge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19525319", "title": "Absolute Zero (film)", "section": "Section::::Scientific inaccuracies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 785, "text": "The basic premise of the film, that the movement of the Earth's magnetic north and south poles to the middle latitude would cause a massive climatic shift, is only partially true. Although such an event (if it were possible) would result in dramatic effects on global weather patterns, it would not reverse the Earth's climate zones as shown in the film, since climate is governed not just by the Earth's magnetic field, but mainly by altitude and proximity to the poles via the tilt of the Earth's axis, which affords lower latitudes more direct sun rays. Furthermore, the movement of the poles, not the magnetic poles, would move both arctic and temperate regions, but would not necessarily trigger an ice age. It would not cause an ice age localized to Miami, as the film suggests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22126", "title": "Northern Hemisphere", "section": "Section::::Geography and climate.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 336, "text": "In the Northern Hemisphere, objects moving across or above the surface of the Earth tend to turn to the right because of the coriolis effect. As a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres. These are best seen in ocean circulation patterns in the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52459", "title": "Counter-Earth", "section": "Section::::Greek Pythagorean universe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 541, "text": "In Philolaus' system, Earth did not rotate and its inhabited surface faced away from the Central Fire—possibly because it (the Earth) was flat. The revolution of the Earth around the Central Fire was not yearly but daily, while the Moon's revolution was monthly, and the sun's yearly. It was the Earth's speedy travel past the slower moving Sun that resulted in the appearance on Earth of the Sun rising and setting. Further from the Central Fire, the Planets' movement was slower still, and the outermost \"sky\" (i.e. stars) probably fixed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10210444", "title": "Stratigraphic cycles", "section": "Section::::Divisions.:Second-order cycles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 326, "text": "Another theory, is that earth's true polar wander occurs over a long period of time. The tectonic plates of the earth would move relatively faster due to imbalance of continents near the poles. This was true during the Cambrian Period, but the same event also happened approximately 66 million years ago but not as severely. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I have insufficient knowledge of Chinese history and the armies of Antiquity to answer the question from those specific angles, but where it concerns the recruitment and mobilization of the common man in Europe in the Middle Ages, the physical condition was definitely of little concern.\n\nI've written about the [approximate of the levy system in parts of the Low Countries](_URL_0_), the *heervaart*, before (which in a lot of aspects is comparable to the levy in other European domains, exceptions notwithstanding), but suffice it to say in this context that the military power of commoners from rural areas (farmers and/or peasants depending on the social-economic status) was lackluster, especially in comparison to the mobilized citizenry who not only often had a degree of military training as well as organization through the guilds, but also were financially in a better position to obtain armament, if at all necessary, as cities were in the habit of arming their own citizenry in times of external threats. Whether these citizens were also physically in a better state as some of their rural counterparts is difficult to conclude with certainty, but is doubtful. On some of the commoners mobilized by the *heervaart* in the County of Holland:\n\n > *die cuyper van Voorschoten, een out, arm man ende manc aen beide ziden; een jonc knechtkin, hiet Jan ende is licht 14 jaer out ende daertoe arm of Gerrit Cleve, een arm man van Zoeterwoude ende is ghescoert*/*ghestoert* \n > \n > the cooper from Voorschoten, an old and poor man and with a limp on both sides; a young stableboy named Jan, barely fourteen years of age and therefore poor, or Gerrit Cleve, a poor man from Zoeterwoude, badly injured/mentally insane.\n\n^(The last word depends on the quote. The former is used in Jansen & Hoppenbrouwers the latter in De Graaf.)\n\nThe extent to which the population mobilized in the rural parts of these lands were considered undependable at best is evident once we see that the counts and their deputies were often quite content with the commoners refusing mobilization, as that resulted in taxation (if they opted out before mobilization, with permission to do so) or fining (if they refused during mobilization) by the bailiffs, with the proceedings then used to hire proper *soldeniers*, mercenaries if you will.^(2)\n\n1. Jansen & Hoppenbrouwers (1977) p. 14, De Graaf (2004) p. 40,\n2. Jansen & Hoppenbrouwers (1977) p. 14, from receipts of 1362-1363 in the Dutch Court of Audit", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37562556", "title": "Army of the Mughal Empire", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 245, "text": "The army had no regimental structure and the soldiers were not directly recruited by the emperor. Instead, individuals, such as nobles or local leaders, would recruit their own troops, referred to as a \"mansab\", and contribute them to the army.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3610935", "title": "Byzantine Greeks", "section": "Section::::Society.:Soldiers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 855, "text": "Until the 11th century, the majority of the conscripts were from rural areas, while the conscription of craftsmen and merchants is still an open question. From then on, professional recruiting replaced conscription, and the increasing use of mercenaries in the army was ruinous for the treasury. From the 10th century onwards, there were laws connecting land ownership and military service. While the state never allotted land for obligatory service, soldiers could and did use their pay to buy landed estates, and taxes would be decreased or waived in some cases. What the state did allocate to soldiers, however, from the 12th century onwards, were the tax revenues from some estates called \"pronoiai\" (). As in antiquity, the basic food of the soldier remained the dried biscuit bread, though its name had changed from \"boukelaton\" () to \"paximadion\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58718861", "title": "Military history of the Northern and Southern dynasties", "section": "Section::::Organization.:South.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 565, "text": "During the Liu Song dynasty, voluntary recruits began to supplant the defunct military caste system. Many of these soldiers were former members of the previous system who had been freed, and had chosen to re-enlist for better terms, or because they could find no better employment. In practice, many of the military communities which had sprung up during the era of hereditary troops stayed together, and provided the basis for recruitment for the next dynasty. By the Liang and Chen dynasties, voluntary recruits had become the dominant component of the military.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23938306", "title": "Military of the Ming dynasty", "section": "Section::::Guard battalion system.:Mercenaries and Hired Soldiers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 431, "text": "Hired soldiers helped bolster the ranks of the army by allowing armies to have more members, aside from the active members of the military households. Hired soldiers came from multiple sources; some hired soldiers came from inactive members of military households, the ones that were not registered as the serving soldier of the family, as well as other members of the empire that did not have an obligation to serve in the army. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1376", "title": "Army", "section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Rome.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 623, "text": "The Romans were also noted for making use of auxiliary troops, non-Romans who served with the legions and filled roles that the traditional Roman military could not fill effectively, such as light skirmish troops and heavy cavalry. After their service in the army they were made citizens of Rome and then their children were citizens also. They were also given land and money to settle in Rome. In the Late Roman Empire, these auxiliary troops, along with foreign mercenaries, became the core of the Roman Army; moreover, by the time of the Late Roman Empire tribes such as the Visigoths were paid to serve as mercenaries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3579278", "title": "Military establishment of the Roman kingdom", "section": "Section::::Conscription.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 468, "text": "When it was time to draft additional soldiers into the military, they would look to their citizens for assistance in the defense of Rome. In the writings of Polybius it was in the natural order of a Roman citizen to fight in the military. However, the military was divided by class and wealth. The poorer citizens made up most of the light infantry (\"velites\") of the legion. The higher class \"equites\" were drafted into the cavalry because they could afford a horse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7813222", "title": "Military of ancient Egypt", "section": "Section::::The Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 372, "text": "During the Old Kingdom there was no professional army in Egypt; the governor of each nome (administrative division) had to raise his own volunteer army. Then, all the armies would come together under the Pharaoh to battle. Because military service was not considered prestigious, the army was mostly made up of lower-class men, who could not afford to train in other jobs\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a great thing until someone whistle blows you. Then they're a snitch. \n\nThe government is equating it with giving classified data to the enemy like treason, espionage and the like. Really it's bullshit but that's their reason. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "it *is* a good thing, in general. unfortunately, in the case of snowden, it harms the interests of the most powerful government in the world, so they make it a bad thing", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Why is Snowden in trouble for whistleblowing?\n\nBecause he broke the law ... \n\nThat you oppose programs he leaked to The Guardian doesn't make leaking that classified information legal. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "50621542", "title": "John Crane (government official)", "section": "Section::::Career.:Whistleblower program official becomes whistleblower.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 290, "text": "Edward Snowden went to the press with revelations about the NSA due to the experience of previous whistleblowers, such as Thomas Andrews Drake, William Binney, J. Kirk Wiebe, Ed Loomis, and Diane Roark, who initially reported their concerns within the system and faced intense retaliation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3628138", "title": "Russ Tice", "section": "Section::::Whistleblower.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 296, "text": "On the heels of the first Edward Snowden NSA disclosures in 2013, Tice was asked during an interview on \"All In with Chris Hayes\", \"What was your experience in trying to blow the whistle from inside the NSA? And does it make you understand why Snowden might have done what he did?\" Tice replied,\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33821", "title": "Whistleblower", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Psychological impact.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 3706, "text": "There is limited research on the psychological impacts of whistle blowing. However, poor experiences of whistleblowing can cause a prolonged and prominent assault upon staff well being. As workers attempt to address concerns, they are often met with a wall of silence and hostility by management. Some whistleblowers speak of overwhelming and persistent distress, drug and alcohol problems, paranoid behaviour at work, acute anxiety, nightmares, flashbacks and intrusive thoughts. Depression is often reported by whistleblowers, and suicidal thoughts may occur in up to about 10%. General deterioration in health and self care has been described. The range of symptomatology shares many of the features of posttraumatic stress disorder, though there is debate about whether the trauma experienced by whistleblowers meets diagnostic thresholds. Increased stress related physical illness has also been described in whistleblowers. The stresses involved in whistleblowing can be huge. As such, workers remain afraid to blow the whistle, in fear that they will not be believed or they have lost faith in believing that anything will happen if they do speak out. This fear may indeed be justified, because an individual who feels threatened by whistleblowing, may plan the career destruction of the ‘complainant’ by reporting fictitious errors or rumours. This technique, labelled as ‘gaslighting’ is a common, unconventional approach used by organizations to manage employees who cause difficulty by raising concerns. In extreme cases, this technique involves the organization or manager proposing that the complainant's mental health is unstable. Organizations also often attempt to ostracise and isolate whistleblowers by undermining their concerns by suggesting that these are groundless, carrying out inadequate investigations or by ignoring them altogether. Whistleblowers may also be disciplined, suspended and reported to professional bodies upon manufactured pretexts. Where whistleblowers persist in raising their concerns, they increasingly risk detriments such as dismissal. Following dismissal, whistleblowers may struggle to find further employment due to damaged reputations, poor references and blacklisting. The social impact of whistleblowing through loss of livelihood (and sometimes pension), and family strain may also impact on whistleblowers’ psychological well being. Whistleblowers may also experience immense stress as a result of litigation regarding detriments such as unfair dismissal, which they often face with imperfect support or no support at all from unions. Whistleblowers who continue to pursue their concerns may also face long battles with official bodies such as regulators and government departments. Such bodies may reproduce the \"institutional silence\" by employers, adding to whistleblowers’ stress and difficulties. In all, some whistleblowers suffer great injustice, that may never be acknowledged or rectified. Such extreme experiences of threat and loss inevitably cause severe distress and sometimes mental illness, sometimes lasting for years afterwards. This mistreatment also deters others from coming forward with concerns. Thus, poor practices remain hidden behind a wall of silence, and prevent any organization from experiencing the improvements that may be afforded by intelligent failure. Some whistleblowers who part ranks with their organizations have had their mental stability questioned, such as Adrian Schoolcraft, the NYPD veteran who alleged falsified crime statistics in his department and was forcibly committed to a mental institution. Conversely, the emotional strain of a whistleblower investigation is devastating to the accused's family.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10170608", "title": "James Clapper", "section": "Section::::Director of National Intelligence, 2010–2017.:Alleged perjury to Congress on NSA surveillance, 2013.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 360, "text": "When Edward Snowden was asked during a January 26, 2014, television interview in Moscow on what the decisive moment was or what caused him to whistle-blow, he replied: \"Sort of the breaking point was seeing the director of national intelligence, James Clapper, directly lie under oath to Congress. ... Seeing that really meant for me there was no going back.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33120574", "title": "Metropolitan Police role in the news media phone hacking scandal", "section": "Section::::Criticisms and responses.:Discouraging whistleblowers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 192, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 192, "end_character": 396, "text": "This action was immediately and widely condemned as an attempt to discourage whistleblowers and intimidate the media. \"The Guardian\" reported it had received papers demanding that reporters \"hand over anything that could lead the police to identify who blew the whistle on the Dowler story and others.\" \"The Guardian\" also reported the reaction of the Dowler family according to their solicitor:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "41904208", "title": "Commentary on Edward Snowden's disclosure", "section": "Section::::Executive branch.:Former executive branch officials.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 1013, "text": "Speaking at the University of Connecticut on April 23, 2014, former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton insinuated that she found Snowden's motives suspicious. \"When he emerged and when he absconded with all that material, I was puzzled because we have all these protections for whistle-blowers. If he were concerned and wanted to be part of the American debate, he could have been,\" she said. \"But it struck me as—I just have to be honest with you—as sort of odd that he would flee to China, because Hong Kong is controlled by China, and that he would then go to Russia—two countries with which we have very difficult cyberrelationships, to put it mildly.\" Clinton added, \"I think turning over a lot of that material—intentionally or unintentionally—drained, gave all kinds of information, not only to big countries, but to networks and terrorist groups and the like. So I have a hard time thinking that somebody who is a champion of privacy and liberty has taken refuge in Russia, under Putin's authority.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31556444", "title": "Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2011", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 418, "text": "Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2014 is an Act in the Parliament of India which provides a mechanism to investigate alleged corruption and misuse of power by public servants and also protect anyone who exposes alleged wrongdoing in government bodies, projects and offices. The wrongdoing might take the form of fraud, corruption or mismanagement. The Act will also ensure punishment for false or frivolous complaints.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is usually worked on as \"hex,\" or [uranium hexafluoride](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is usually worked on as \"hex,\" or [uranium hexafluoride](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1032998", "title": "Gas centrifuge", "section": "Section::::Gas centrifugation process.:Practical application of centrifugation.:Separating uranium-235 from uranium-238.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 619, "text": "The separation of uranium requires the material in a gaseous form; uranium hexafluoride (UF) is used for uranium enrichment. Upon entering the centrifuge cylinder, the UF gas is rotated at a high speed. The rotation creates a strong centrifugal force that draws more of the heavier gas molecules (containing the U-238) toward the wall of the cylinder, while the lighter gas molecules (containing the U-235) tend to collect closer to the center. The stream that is slightly enriched in U-235 is withdrawn and fed into the next higher stage, while the slightly depleted stream is recycled back into the next lower stage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1033084", "title": "Gaseous diffusion", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 448, "text": "Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce enriched uranium by forcing gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF) through semipermeable membranes. This produces a slight separation between the molecules containing uranium-235 (U) and uranium-238 (U). By use of a large cascade of many stages, high separations can be achieved. It was the first process to be developed that was capable of producing enriched uranium in industrially useful quantities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "245682", "title": "Willard Libby", "section": "Section::::Manhattan Project.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 629, "text": "Over the next three years, Libby worked on the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment. An atomic bomb required fissile material, and the fissile uranium-235 made up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. The SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant uranium-238. Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a barrier faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight. But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive uranium hexafluoride, and a suitable barrier was hard to find.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "719984", "title": "Yellowcake", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Further processing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 727, "text": "Purified uranium can also be enriched into the isotope U-235. In this process, the uranium oxides are combined with fluorine to form uranium hexafluoride gas (UF). Next, the gas undergoes isotope separation through the process of gaseous diffusion, or in a gas centrifuge. This can produce low-enriched uranium containing up to 20% U-235 that is suitable for use in most large civilian electric-power reactors. With further processing, one obtains highly enriched uranium, containing 20% or more U-235, that is suitable for use in compact nuclear reactors—usually used to power naval warships and submarines. Further processing can yield weapons-grade uranium with U-235 levels usually above 90%, suitable for nuclear weapons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37555", "title": "Enriched uranium", "section": "Section::::Enrichment methods.:Diffusion techniques.:Gaseous diffusion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 686, "text": "Gaseous diffusion is a technology used to produce enriched uranium by forcing gaseous uranium hexafluoride (\"hex\") through semi-permeable membranes. This produces a slight separation between the molecules containing U and U. Throughout the Cold War, gaseous diffusion played a major role as a uranium enrichment technique, and as of 2008 accounted for about 33% of enriched uranium production, but in 2011 was deemed an obsolete technology that is steadily being replaced by the later generations of technology as the diffusion plants reach their ends-of-life. In 2013, the Paducah facility in the US ceased operating, it was the last commercial U gaseous diffusion plant in the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "106284", "title": "Centrifuge", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Isotope separation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 541, "text": "Gas centrifuges are used in uranium enrichment. The heavier isotope of uranium (uranium-238) in the uranium hexafluoride gas tends to concentrate at the walls of the centrifuge as it spins, while the desired uranium-235 isotope is extracted and concentrated with a scoop selectively placed inside the centrifuge. It takes many thousands of centrifugations to enrich uranium enough for use in a nuclear reactor (around 3.5% enrichment), and many thousands more to enrich it to weapons-grade (above 90% enrichment) for use in nuclear weapons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2046416", "title": "Nuclear fuel", "section": "Section::::Oxide fuel.:UOX.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 487, "text": "Uranium dioxide is a black semiconducting solid. It can be made by reacting uranyl nitrate with a base (ammonia) to form a solid (ammonium uranate). It is heated (calcined) to form UO that can then be converted by heating in an argon / hydrogen mixture (700 °C) to form UO. The UO is then mixed with an organic binder and pressed into pellets, these pellets are then fired at a much higher temperature (in H/Ar) to sinter the solid. The aim is to form a dense solid which has few pores.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There is no absolute reference frame, but the closest there is is the [cosmic microwave background](_URL_0_) reference frame. That is, roughly speaking, how fast we would be moving if we never accelerated since the Big Bang. The sun is currently moving 370 km/s from that reference frame. Earth is moving 30 km/s compared to that, and someone on the equator is moving 0.47 km/s compared to that. But since they're not necessarily in the same direction, you can't just add them up. The 30 km/s ends up increasing the average speed by only a little more than 1 km/s, which gets lost in rounding. The 0.47 km/s does even less.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23815693", "title": "December 1959", "section": "Section::::December 15, 1959 (Tuesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 222, "text": "BULLET::::- Major Joseph W. Rogers became the first person to travel faster than 1,500 miles per hour, and almost reached 2,500 kilometers per hour, breaking the world speed record at , in an F-106 Delta Dart jet fighter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "899424", "title": "List of spaceflight records", "section": "Section::::Speed and altitude records.:Fastest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 334, "text": "The Apollo 10 crew (Thomas Stafford, John W. Young and Eugene Cernan) achieved the highest speed relative to Earth ever attained by humans: 39,897 kilometers per hour (11.082 kilometers per second or 24,791 miles per hour, approximately 32 times the speed of sound and 0.00037% of the speed of light). The record was set 26 May 1969.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1005868", "title": "Tachymeter (watch)", "section": "Section::::Measuring speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 248, "text": "As a sample calculation, if it takes 35 seconds to travel one mile, then the average speed is 103 miles/hour. On the watch, 35 seconds gives scale value 103. Similarly, if one kilometre takes 35 seconds then the average speed would be 103 km/hour.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28748", "title": "Speed", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Instantaneous speed.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 526, "text": "Speed at some instant, or assumed constant during a very short period of time, is called \"instantaneous speed\". By looking at a speedometer, one can read the instantaneous speed of a car at any instant. A car travelling at 50 km/h generally goes for less than one hour at a constant speed, but if it did go at that speed for a full hour, it would travel 50 km. If the vehicle continued at that speed for half an hour, it would cover half that distance (25 km). If it continued for only one minute, it would cover about 833 m.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39690539", "title": "October 1964", "section": "Section::::October 15, 1964 (Thursday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 1008, "text": "BULLET::::- Craig Breedlove's jet-powered car \"Spirit of America\", set a new world record for fastest speed on land, as he became the first person to drive an automobile at more than 500 miles per hour. Racing on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, he averaged 526.26 miles per hour (almost 847 kph); the previous mark of 468.72 mph had been set only two days earlier. On his way back down the 10-mile Bonneville track, however, Breedlove deployed the parachute that was supposed to stop his car after it completed one mile, and, in his words, \"It ripped to shreds, I was going so fast.\" He coasted for two more miles and tried the second parachute, and it ripped as well. He then pushed on the disc brakes and left skid marks of long until they burned out, and was still at 350 miles an hour as he reached the end of the track; he continued three more miles, striking two telephone poles, skidded sideways into a dike, went airborne for 30 feet and landed in 18-foot deep waters— and walked away, uninjured.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1637618", "title": "10 MPH", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 526, "text": "10 MPH is a documentary film directed by Hunter Weeks and starring Josh Caldwell with his Segway HT, the two-wheeled electronic scooter. This film, which takes its name from the Segway's average speed, documents Caldwell's 100-day, coast to coast journey across the United States riding the \"Human Transporter\". The trip started in Seattle, Washington on August 8, 2004 and ended in Boston, Massachusetts on November 18, 2004. \"10 MPH\" has had a favorable reaction at screenings and film festivals and has won several awards.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9970740", "title": "November 1965", "section": "Section::::November 15, 1965 (Monday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 90, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 90, "end_character": 235, "text": "BULLET::::- American auto racer Craig Breedlove became the first person to drive an automobile faster than 600 miles per hour, setting a new land speed record of in his \"Spirit of America\" vehicle at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In terms of early examples of written humour (as it's very difficult to find stand-up comedians without written record), one of the earliest examples is the satirical script of the [Instruction of Dua-Khety](_URL_0_), an Ancient Egyptian work written in the 2nd millenium BCE (Between 2000 and 1700 BCE). It describes manual labourers during the time, while also exaggerating their features to grotesque proportions (stone-workers with crocodile claws, etc.). \n\nHope this helps!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The plays of Aristophanes were very similar to, say, *The Daily Show* in that they often poked fun at current political and social issues, and often very specifically mocked certain people. A friend of mine had a paper published about that, I think, if you're interested I can dig up the citation for you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "363911", "title": "The Comedians (1971 TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 825, "text": "The Comedians was a British television show of the 1970s (later reprised in the mid-1980s and early 1990s) produced by Johnnie Hamp of Granada Television. The show gave a stage to nightclub and working men's club comedians of the era, including Russ Abbot, Lennie Bennett, Stan Boardman, Jim Bowen, Jimmy Bright, Duggie Brown, Mike Burton, Jimmy Jones, Dave Butler, Brian Carroll, Frank Carson, Mike Coyne, Jimmy Cricket, Colin Crompton, Pauline Daniels, Charlie Daze, Vince Earl, Steve Faye, Eddie Flanagan, Stu Francis, Ken Goodwin, Jackie Hamilton, Jerry Harris, George King, Bobby Knutt, Bernard Manning, Mike McCabe, Paul Melba, Mick Miller, Hal Nolan, Tom O'Connor, Tom Pepper, Bryn Phillips, Mike Reid, George Roper, Harry Scott, Sammy Thomas, Johnny Wager, Roy Walker, Charlie Williams, Lee Wilson and Lenny Windsor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6431", "title": "Charles Farrar Browne", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 266, "text": "Charles Farrar Browne (April 26, 1834 – March 6, 1867) was an American humor writer, better known under his \"nom de plume\", Artemus Ward. He is considered to be America's first stand-up comedian. His birth name was Brown but he added the \"e\" after he became famous.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "179375", "title": "Comedian", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 450, "text": "One of the most popular forms of modern-day comedy is stand-up comedy. Stand-up comedy is a comic monologue performed by one or more people standing on a stage. Bob Hope was the most popular stand-up comedian of the 20th century, and also starred in numerous comedy films over a five-decade span. Other noted stand-up comedians include Billy Connolly, George Carlin, Richard Pryor, Jerry Seinfeld, Dylan Moran, Lee Evans, Patton Oswalt and Jo Brand.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "176848", "title": "Totò", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 685, "text": "Antonio Griffo Focas Flavio Angelo Ducas Comneno Porfirogenito Gagliardi De Curtis di Bisanzio (15 February 1898 – 15 April 1967), best known by his stage name Totò () or simply as Antonio De Curtis, and nicknamed \"il Principe della risata\" (\"the Prince of laughter\"), is commonly referred to as the most popular Italian comedian of all time. He was a film and stage actor as well as a writer, singer and songwriter. He is best known for his funny and sometimes cynical character as a comedian in theatre and then in many successful films shot from the 1940s to the 1960s, all regularly still on TV, but he also worked with many iconic Italian film directors in dramatic/poetic roles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12920270", "title": "The Comedian (Playhouse 90)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 203, "text": "The Comedian is a 1957 live television drama written by Rod Serling from a novella by Ernest Lehman, directed by John Frankenheimer, and starring Mickey Rooney, Edmond O'Brien, Mel Tormé and Kim Hunter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103067", "title": "Stand-up comedy", "section": "Section::::History of the Americas.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 944, "text": "Stand-up comedy in the United States got its start from the stump-speech monologues of minstrel shows in the early 19th century. It also has roots in various traditions of popular entertainment of the late 19th century, including vaudeville, English music hall, burlesque or early variety shows, humorist monologues by personalities such as Mark Twain, and circus clown antics. With the turn of the century and ubiquitousness of urban and industrial living, the structure, pacing and timing, and material of American humor began to change. Comedians of this era often depended on fast-paced joke delivery, slapstick, outrageous or lewd innuendo, and donned an ethnic persona—African, Scottish, German, Jewish—and built a routine based on popular stereotypes. Jokes were generally broad and material was widely shared, or in some cases, stolen. Industrialized American audiences sought entertainment as a way to escape and confront city living.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "89602", "title": "British comedy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 657, "text": "In early 19th century England, pantomime acquired its present form which includes slapstick comedy and featured the first mainstream clown Joseph Grimaldi, while comedy routines also featured heavily in British music hall theatre which became popular in the 1850s. British comedians who honed their skills at pantomime and music hall sketches include Charlie Chaplin, Stan Laurel, George Formby and Dan Leno. The influential English music hall comedian and theatre impresario Fred Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue in the 1890s, and Chaplin and Laurel were among the young comedians who worked for him as part of \"Fred Karno's Army\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think they already invented it: [coma](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think they already invented it: [coma](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18597893", "title": "Sleep deprivation", "section": "Section::::Longest periods without sleep.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 470, "text": "Randy Gardner holds the scientifically documented record for the longest period of time a human being has intentionally gone without sleep not using stimulants of any kind. Gardner stayed awake for 264 hours (11 days), breaking the previous record of 260 hours held by Tom Rounds of Honolulu. LCDR John J. Ross of the U.S. Navy Medical Neuropsychiatric Research Unit later published an account of this event, which became well-known among sleep-deprivation researchers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29087992", "title": "Irregular sleep–wake rhythm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 290, "text": "The total time asleep per 24 hours is normal for the person's age. The disorder is serious—an invisible disability. It can create social, familial, and work problems, making it hard for a person to maintain relationships and responsibilities, and may make a person home-bound and isolated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "620330", "title": "Biphasic and polyphasic sleep", "section": "Section::::Interrupted sleep.:Historical norm.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 537, "text": "In his 1992 study \"In short photoperiods, human sleep is biphasic\", Thomas Wehr had eight healthy men confined to a room for fourteen hours of darkness daily for a month. At first the participants slept for about eleven hours, presumably making up for their sleep debt. After this the subjects began to sleep much as people in pre-industrial times were claimed to have done. They would sleep for about four hours, wake up for two to three hours, then go back to bed for another four hours. They also took about two hours to fall asleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50798", "title": "Insomnia", "section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 167, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 167, "end_character": 472, "text": "A survey of 1.1 million residents in the United States found that those that reported sleeping about 7 hours per night had the lowest rates of mortality, whereas those that slept for fewer than 6 hours or more than 8 hours had higher mortality rates. Getting 8.5 or more hours of sleep per night was associated with a 15% higher mortality rate. Severe insomnia – sleeping less than 3.5 hours in women and 4.5 hours in men – is associated with a 15% increase in mortality.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47216393", "title": "Sleep hollow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 409, "text": "Sleep hollow is a possible medical disease in humans causing them to sleep for days or weeks at a time. This disease has only been reported in a remote village of Kalachi in Kazakhstan. It was first reported in March, 2013 and to date it has claimed 152 lives. The disease is probably non-communicable. The disease disappeared for some time but has re-emerged in mid 2015. The disease affects all age groups.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "231014", "title": "Delayed sleep phase disorder", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 723, "text": "Affected people often report that while they do not get to sleep until the early morning, they do fall asleep around the same time every day. Unless they have another sleep disorder such as sleep apnea in addition to DSPD, patients can sleep well and have a normal need for sleep. However, they find it very difficult to wake up in time for a typical school or work day. If they are allowed to follow their own schedules, e.g. sleeping from 4:00 am to 1:00 pm, their sleep is improved and they may not experience excessive daytime sleepiness. Attempting to force oneself onto daytime society's schedule with DSPD has been compared to constantly living with jet lag; DSPD has, in fact, been referred to as \"social jet lag\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16413778", "title": "Ageing", "section": "Section::::Prevention and delay.:Lifestyle.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 902, "text": "The amount of sleep has an impact on mortality. People who live the longest report sleeping for six to seven hours each night. Lack of sleep (<5 hours) more than doubles the risk of death from cardiovascular disease, but too much sleep (9 hours) is associated with a doubling of the risk of death, though not primarily from cardiovascular disease. Sleeping more than 7 to 8 hours per day has been consistently associated with increased mortality, though the cause is probably other factors such as depression and socioeconomic status, which would correlate statistically. Sleep monitoring of hunter-gatherer tribes from Africa and from South America has shown similar sleep patterns across continents: their average sleeping duration is 6.4 hours (with a summer/winter difference of 1 hour), afternoon naps (siestas) are uncommon, and insomnia is very rare (tenfold less than in industrial societies).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Apologies to the moderators, as I'm reasonably certain that I am breaking the 20 year rule here. Depends on how you count it. The *acts* described took place in the mid-90's up until 2003. The trial was in 2006-08, with the appeal continuing to 2010 and post-conviction proceedings well into 2012.\n\n***\n\nCharles Taylor was the President of Liberia from 1997-2003. Before that he ran a rebel group that fought for decades in Liberia. But he's not really the star of the story here. In 1977, while attending college at Bentley University in Boston, he fathered a son, colloquially known as \"Chuckie Taylor.\" Born as Charles McArthur Emmanuel, and changed his name legally to Roy Belfast, Jr. I mention this because he is an American citizen by birth.\n\nIn 2008, he was convicted of the crime of \"torture\" under United States laws (18 USC § 2340A) among other crimes, and sentenced to 97 years in prison. The substance of his conviction was running the Anti-Terrorist Unit or ATU of the Liberian state security apparatus, which ran several prison and forced labor camps, as well as, to put it lightly, death camps in which people were tortured, questioned, and publicly executed.\n\nMy sources come from the publicly available documents and pleadings, which can be found at *United States v. Belfast*, 06-cr-20758 (S.D. Fla. 2006). There is also the publicly available appeals court decision here: [*United States v. Belfast*, 611 F.3d 783 (11th Cir. 2010)](_URL_0_), which begins with the rather memorable recitation of facts: \"The facts of this case are riddled with extraordinary cruelty and evil.\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20790039", "title": "Kanao Inouye", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 279, "text": "He was one of arguably only two Canadians in history to have faced prosecution for war crimes (the second being Omar Khadr, who in 2010 pleaded guilty to what the Guantanamo military commission termed war crimes committed in Afghanistan, though that conviction is under appeal).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31955697", "title": "Palawan massacre", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 845, "text": "After the war, survivors Glenn McDole and Doug Bogue helped the US War Crimes Branch identify former guards and officers detained in Sugamo Prison, and interrogated in Tokyo's Dai-Ichi Building. Of the 33 charged with war crimes, 16 were put on trial, and 6 were acquitted. Those found guilty on 8 November 1948, included Lt. Gen. Seiichi Terada, sentenced to a life term, Master Sergeant Taichi Deguchi, sentenced to be hanged but later commuted to a 30-year sentence by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Superior Private Tomisaburo Sawa, sentence to 5 years, head cook Manichi Nishitani, sentenced to 5 years, Lt. Gen. Kizo Mikama, sentenced to 12 years, Lt. Col. Mamoru Fushimi, sentenced to 10 years, while the remaining four were sentenced to 2–5 years. However, in 1958, all were freed under a general amnesty for all Japanese war crimes prisoners.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23487074", "title": "Louis H. Carpenter", "section": "Section::::Military service.:Indian Wars and frontier service.:Satank, Satanta and Big Tree.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 373, "text": "These three Native American leaders were the first to be tried, for raids (Warren Wagon Train Raid) and murder, in a United States civil court instead of a military court. This would deny them any vestige of rights as prisoners of war by being tried as any common criminal in the Court of the Thirteenth Judicial District of Texas in Jacksboro, Texas near Fort Richardson.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14535024", "title": "Fort Lawton riot", "section": "Section::::Defense.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 477, "text": "After weeks of investigation, Jaworski decided to charge 43 soldiers with rioting; all the suspects were African American and charged with a crime with a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. Three of the men – Luther Larkin (1921–1948), Arthur Hurks (1921–1991) and William Jones (1924–1992) – were also charged with first-degree murder. They faced a possible death sentence. This was the largest number of defendants in a single United States Army trial during World War II.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34698558", "title": "Allan Ryan (attorney)", "section": "Section::::Director of the OSI.:Early Cases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 746, "text": "By the middle of 1984, forty cases had been filed by OSI against alleged war criminals then living in America. Through following years, OSI successfully prosecuted over 130 other cases involving persons complicit in Nazi war crimes but later living quietly in America. Three such cases seeking expulsion reached the Supreme Court. Most cases involved camp guards who had beaten or executed prisoners or had led them to places of execution. Juozas Kungys, for example, was prosecuted because OSI determined he had \"rounded up and transported thousands of Jews to an execution site, distributed firearms and ammunition to an execution squad, forced the victims into a mass grave, shot some of them, and exhorted the execution squad to do the same.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31653", "title": "First Amendment to the United States Constitution", "section": "Section::::Freedom of speech and of the press.:Speech critical of the government.:World War I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 731, "text": "During the patriotic fervor of World War I and the First Red Scare, the Espionage Act of 1917 imposed a maximum sentence of twenty years for anyone who caused or attempted to cause \"insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty in the military or naval forces of the United States\". Specifically, the Espionage Act of 1917 states that if anyone allows any enemies to enter or fly over the United States and obtain information from a place connected with the national defense, they will be punished. Hundreds of prosecutions followed. In 1919, the Supreme Court heard four appeals resulting from these cases: \"Schenck v. United States\", \"Debs v. United States\", \"Frohwerk v. United States\", and \"Abrams v. United States\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2059330", "title": "Baumholder", "section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 709, "text": "Later that day, German law enforcement took into custody two US Army soldiers and were seeking a third for questioning. Investigators eventually questioned as many as 20 persons, both American and German nationals, for information about the crime spree. Private First Class Zachary Watson and Specialist Samuel Bell were arrested by German authorities in connection to the crimes which totalled more than €1.5 million in damage. The soldiers were handed over to US officials. Watson was sentenced to 15 years in prison at court-martial. In a separate court-martial proceeding, Bell was sentenced to seven years in prison, dishonourable discharge, demotion to private and forfeiture of all pay and allowances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The other country would be turned into a glass parking lot. That's the US's official stance on having WMDs used against them. \n\nNo doubt all channels would have a breaking message to seek shelter but it could possibly be too late. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Emergency Alert System (EAS) would be activated over radio & TV informing people to seek shelter.\n\nDepending on the launch, it may even be destroyed as soon as it went up. The US invests heavily in Ballistic Missile Defense, using a network of satellites, land- and [sea- based radar](_URL_1_) and [AEGIS-equipped ships](_URL_0_). The best time to take out a nuke is on the way up, before the missile's independent warheads split off, so you're only shooting at the one target. More than likely, that country would have at least one warhead screaming down on it very shortly.\n\nIf they don't get it, they'll have a pretty good idea of where it will be headed because they'll be tracking the shit out of it. Even then, they don't have until it reaches the ground because airbursts cause greater damage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Try reading this book called \"Command and Control\". It really goes in depth about America's nuclear history. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We would shoot it down and then America the living shit of that country. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is all you need to know. Skip to 5:45 \n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Iron Man would fly in and divert the missile into an intergalactic portal.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Submarine-launched missiles take seven minutes to reach their target, with no indication of who the originating country is (if any, and not a rogue sub). You'd be lucky to have enough time from an alarm to run down into the basement.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I don't know, but as a Brit I'm safe, because [this is our programme](_URL_0_). The *ultimate* deterrent...", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Follow up question... \nIf a missile was launched, what would be the #1 target in the US? \n( if more missiles were launched, what would be #2-5 targets?). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The more interesting question is what would happen if some fringe group got control of a nuclear weapon and launches it on the US?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Since the United States is so vast and the potential yield in other countries nuclear weapons would be relatively low, I would say such a move would be ill advised. Even the most powerful bomb ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba, could not deliver a strike powerful enough to deter an American retaliation. Simultaneously with a mass deployment of counter attack personnel, there will either be a retaliation with a low yield tactical nuclear weapons to avoid fallout and collateral damage in neighbouring countries or a blockade followed by a massive invasion assuming it is any of the current nuclear capable countries. \n\nThere will be widespread condemnation from the United Nations and ally countries. A blatant nuclear attack would undoubtedly provoke a powerful emotion known as fear, leading to mass panic. Depending on emergency services and leadership capabilities, chaos can likely be contained within weeks, maybe months. Unless you have the worst propaganda department in the entire world, the armed forces would likely receive a surge of applicants both due to Americans' fierce patriotism (see: days following 9/11) and current economic conditions.\n\nThen comes the ass kicking. It can come in many ways but most probably a tactical strike against the offending countries' military capabilities using a combination of low yield nukes and precision conventional munitions would precede a very careful invasion to replace the leadership and literally take over the country. A rogue nuclear nation can not be tolerated by the international community and there would likely be support for the \"rehabilitation\" of extreme supporters of the offending government. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That country would very shortly cease to exist. We would liberate them. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "World War Mother Fucking 3! TEAM AMERICA BITCHES", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "People would die", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Like.. Would the US override all radio & tv stations and let people know?\n > Would they issue a mandatory evacuation? \n\nFirst off, let's dispense with all of these. The answer is no. In the event of a nuclear missile launch, there would be 30 minutes or less of warning. MUCH less if it was fired from a submarine sitting off the coast. There is barely enough time to alert the President in matters like this, alerting the public simply isn't part of the plan.\n\n > Would they even know where it's gonna land?\n\nYes. Missiles follow a ballistic path.\n\nAs to the overall question, note that all the other answers are mere speculation. As far as I know, the current US nuke response plan is not public knowledge. \n\nI *CAN* tell you what would have happened if the Russians had launched even a single nuke at the US from about 1961 to about 2003, because I am familiar with a charming little document called the Single Integrated Operational Plan, or SIOP. That was essentially the Pentagon's official war response plan to be enacted upon verification of a Soviet nuke launch, even of a single missile. Upon verification, the President was to be alerted at once, and he had to make the decision whether to hit back or not. The time allotted for that decision might be as little as two minutes (and he might have to make it after having just been rousted from bed at 2 in the morning). You might have heard Presidents making speeches about \"limited response\" and stuff like that, but the SIOP was the only plan the Pentagon had. \n\nIf the President elects to strike back, he gets the current nuclear authorization codes from a briefcase called The Football, which is kept nearby by a military officer at all times. He combines that with his Presidential authorization code, which he is supposed to keep on his person at all times (it was revealed the Bill Clinton actually misplaced his, and was too embarrassed to tell the Pentagon).\n\nAfter that, the plan is simple: launch pretty much every nuke we have at the Russians and a few affiliated locations. By the time Jimmy Carter came into office (the last President I have a hard figure for), the plan called for launching *TEN THOUSAND* nukes, all in the space of a few hours. Obviously, this was before anybody started taking the concept of nuclear winter seriously. But such a strike would have pretty much doomed all mankind on the planet Earth.\n\nAnd if you're not yet scared enough, let me just add that the order to launch a single Russian nuke was *actually issued* once. It was during the most tense part of the Cuban Missile Crisis, and an American warship detected a Russian sub in the area (which was in international waters). The commander of the ship didn't care much for that, so he ordered practice depth charges to be dumped on the sub to force it to surface.\n\nUnder the water, the captain of the Russian sub B-59 had been submerged for several days, and thus had not been in contact with Moscow (this was in the days before ELF underwater communications). He had no idea if war had already broken out or not, so he made the only logical decision a sub commander could make: sink the fucker who's shooting at us. He ordered a nuclear-tipped torpedo fired.\n\nWell, fortunately for the future of the human race, Russian protocol required the three top officers to agree on any use of nuclear arms. The captain and the political officer were all for it, but Vasili Arkhipov, the first officer, argued that it would be MUCH saner to surface and find out what the fuck was happening. The captain and political officer made all the usual Russian threats (bullets, gulags, end of career), but Arkhipov held firm, and the captain eventually surfaced the boat. Thus, the world did *not* end that day.\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7564", "title": "Foreign policy of the United States", "section": "Section::::Military.:Missile defense.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 120, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 120, "end_character": 303, "text": "If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with only a tiny surviving arsenal, if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29218658", "title": "February 1962", "section": "Section::::February 28, 1962 (Wednesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 167, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 167, "end_character": 502, "text": "BULLET::::- A group of 15 American Jupiter missiles, with nuclear warheads, became operational at the Izmir U.S. Air Force Base at Çiğli, within range to strike the Soviet Union 1,000 miles away. The presence of American nuclear missiles in a nation bordering the U.S.S.R. would become an issue during the Cuban Missile Crisis, when Soviet nuclear missiles were brought to Cuba, within striking distance of the United States. The missiles were withdrawn from both Turkey and Cuba following the crisis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24502415", "title": "Command missile", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 342, "text": "The United States operated a command missile system known as the Emergency Rocket Communications System (ERCS). In the event of a nuclear first strike against the continental United States, centrally located LGM-30 Minuteman missiles would be launched, each of which carried a payload that would electronically trigger a nuclear retaliation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34634378", "title": "National Response Scenario Number One", "section": "Section::::Counter-response.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 376, "text": "After a nuclear strike the US would adopt a kind of hostage mentality. The assumption would be that there would be more than one device. A rogue nation or terrorist group could make demands and if the US did not comply they would begin detonating nuclear devices in other cities. The US Government would not know for certain if such devices existed or where they are located.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52833393", "title": "Prompt launch", "section": "Section::::Prompt-launch vs delayed launch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 518, "text": "Keeping weapons systems at a prompt-launch status allows a nation-state to launch on warning, thereby increasing the likelihood it could successfully retaliate against an attack, or initiate a nuclear first strike without alerting an enemy. Even for states that have proscribed launch on warning or first strike, prompt launch may help guarantee that nuclear-armed missiles which themselves have survived a first strike could actually be fired in a timely manner before being destroyed in follow-on, \"mop-up\" attacks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31930917", "title": "July 1962", "section": "Section::::July 25, 1962 (Wednesday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 125, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 125, "end_character": 335, "text": "BULLET::::- The U.S. had another failure in its Operation Dominic series of nuclear tests, when a Thor missile exploded on the launch pad at Johnston Island. Although the 100 kiloton warhead was destroyed without a nuclear blast, the area was contaminated with plutonium, ending plans to routinely launch nuclear powered space probes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22241701", "title": "2009 North Korean missile tests", "section": "Section::::Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 487, "text": "The latest round of missile launches were timed for the United States' Independence Day as a show of military might and came on the heels of UNSC Resolution 1874. Sanctions and penalties were declared in the wake of the May 25 underground test of a nuclear explosive device by Pyongyang, and what the DPRK insist was an attempt to peacefully place a satellite in orbit but what the United States, Japan and South Korea see as cover for the development of a long-range ballistic missile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Even numbers (I-10, I-90, etc.) run east-west, with the number increasing from South to North. Odd numbers (I-5, I-95, etc.) run north-south, with the number increasing from West to East. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Primary routes have two digits. Odd numbered highways run north and south, with lower numbers in the west and higher numbers in the east. Even numbered routes go east-west, with the lower numbers in the south and higher numbers in the north.\n\nThree digit routes starting with an even number are loops within or around a city. Three digit routes with an odd number are spurs into a city. For such three digit routes, the last two digits indicate the primary route they are based on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition, three-digit US interstate routes are usually auxiliary routes (with the last two digits referring to the parent), such as a bypass around or through the city, or a short branch.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Also related... the US Highway System's numbering is the same way but numbers ascend east to west, and north to south as to not have them confused with the interstate numbers. Hence why in California, for instance, they have US-101 and I-5, and in Idaho, where I live, they have US-2 and I-90. Needless to say, it works well except towards the middle of the US.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Adding to the previous responses ... The Interstate numbers get higher the farther north you go. That is why Interstate 10 runs along the southern border. Interstate 94 runs near the northern border. I-90 is to the south of it, I-80 to the south of it, and so on.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "76180", "title": "List of Interstate Highways", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 870, "text": "There are 70 primary Interstate Highways in the Interstate Highway System, a network of controlled-access freeways in the United States. They are assigned one- or two-digit route numbers, whereas their associated \"auxiliary\" Interstate Highways receive three-digit route numbers. Typically, odd-numbered Interstates run south-north, with lower numbers in the west and higher numbers in the east; even-numbered Interstates run west-east, with lower numbers in the south and higher numbers in the north. Highways whose route numbers are divisible by \"5\" usually represent major coast-to-coast or border-to-border routes (ex. I-10 travels from Santa Monica, California, to Jacksonville, Florida, traveling from the Pacific to Atlantic oceans). Additionally, auxiliary highways have their numbering system where a different number prefixes the number of its parent highway.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43950", "title": "Interstate Highway System", "section": "Section::::Numbering system.:Primary (one- and two-digit) Interstates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 388, "text": "The numbering scheme for the Interstate Highway System was developed in 1957 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). The association's present numbering policy dates back to August 10, 1973. Within the continental United States, primary Interstates—also called main line Interstates or two-digit Interstates—are assigned numbers less than 100.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1111355", "title": "Route number", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 1331, "text": "The Interstate Highway System, indicated by a red and blue shield with white numbers, is a system of entirely freeways (unlike the U.S. Highway System, which is mostly undivided surface roads). The Interstate System is also based on a grid, with east–west routes bearing even numbers and north–south routes bearing odd numbers. In order to prevent confusion with the earlier U.S. Highway System, however, the Interstates are numbered in the opposite direction, such that the lowest routes numbers are in the south and west, and the highest numbers in the north and east. Major routes end in either a \"0\" or a \"5\"; for example Interstate 10 spans the country from Jacksonville, Florida, to Santa Monica, California, while Interstate 35 goes from the Mexican border to the Great Lakes. Like with U.S. Highways, subsidiary routes are numbered by adding a hundreds digit to the parent route. Because of the large number of these routes, three-digit numbers may be repeated within the system, but unique to each state. Additionally, the parity of the hundreds digit tells the nature of the spur route: odd hundreds digits like Interstate 393 only connect to the system at one end (forming \"spurs\"), while an even hundreds digit like Interstate 440 indicates that the highway connects to another Interstate at both ends (forming loops).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43951", "title": "United States Numbered Highway System", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 461, "text": "The United States Numbered Highway System (often called U.S. Routes or U.S. Highways) is an integrated network of roads and highways numbered within a nationwide grid in the contiguous United States. As the designation and numbering of these highways were coordinated among the states, they are sometimes called Federal Highways, but the roadways were built and have always been maintained by state or local governments since their initial designation in 1926.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1111355", "title": "Route number", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1055, "text": "The U.S. Highway System, indicated by a white shield with black numbers, is based on a numbering grid, with odd routes running generally north–south and even routes running east–west. Primary routes have a one- or two-digit number, and are supplemented by spur routes that add a hundreds digit to their parent route. Routes increase from east-to-west and north-to-south, such that U.S. Route 1 follows the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, while U.S. Route 101 does the same at the Pacific Ocean Coast. Likewise U.S. Route 2 runs near the Canadian border, while U.S. Route 98 follows the Gulf Coast. Major cross-country routes end in either a \"1\" or a \"0\". For example, U.S. Route 20 is a route that runs over from Boston, Massachusetts, to Newport, Oregon, while U.S. Route 41 spans the country from Miami, Florida, to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Routes like U.S. Route 141 and U.S. Route 441 branch off U.S. Route 41. The now defunct U.S. Route 66, known as the \"Mother Road\", was a cultural touchstone that inspired literature, songs, and other media.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43950", "title": "Interstate Highway System", "section": "Section::::Numbering system.:Primary (one- and two-digit) Interstates.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 1598, "text": "While numerous exceptions do exist, there is a general scheme for numbering Interstates. Primary Interstates are assigned one- or two-digit numbers, while shorter routes (such as spurs, loops, and short connecting roads) are assigned three-digit numbers where the last two digits match the parent route (thus, I-294 is a loop that connects at both ends to I-94, while I-787 is a short spur route attached to I-87). In the numbering scheme for the primary routes, east–west highways are assigned even numbers and north–south highways are assigned odd numbers. Odd route numbers increase from west to east, and even-numbered routes increase from south to north (to avoid confusion with the U.S. Highways, which increase from east to west and north to south). This numbering system usually holds true even if the local direction of the route does not match the compass directions. Numbers divisible by five are intended to be major arteries among the primary routes, carrying traffic long distances. Primary north–south Interstates increase in number from I-5 between Canada and Mexico along the West Coast to I‑95 between Canada and Miami, Florida along the East Coast. Major west–east arterial Interstates increase in number from I-10 between Santa Monica, California, and Jacksonville, Florida, to I-90 between Seattle, Washington, and Boston, Massachusetts, with two exceptions. There are no I-50 and I-60, as routes with those numbers would likely pass through states that currently have U.S. Highways with the same numbers, which is generally disallowed under highway administration guidelines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1521342", "title": "Interstate 3", "section": "Section::::Route description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 362, "text": "The proposed numbering of the highway does not fit within the usual conventions of the existing Interstate Highway grid, where primary north-south highways are assigned odd numbers, and such odd route numbers increase from west to east. Under the normal Interstate Highway grid, I-3 should instead be located on the West Coast between the Pacific Ocean and I-5.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Because they believe converting people will get them into heaven. Really, it is just a pyramid scheme.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In JW's teaching, the heaven is only for the chosen 144.000. The rest of the follower still stays on the earth which is reformed to be like the garden eden. And the reason they still do door to door marketing of their faith is not because they want to go to heaven, instead, they actually believe wholeheartedly that their teaching is the Truth, the good news so they call, and they're willing to go to extent as far as disowning their children to adhere to their believes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23753384", "title": "Religious views on organ donation", "section": "Section::::Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 670, "text": "Despite this position by Islamic religious leaders, Muslims are oftentimes uncertain about whether or not Islamic tradition considers organ donation to be forbidden. This uncertainty stems from ambiguity caused by conflicting opinions among some Islamic leaders regarding this issue. Moreover, a lack of support along with a generally negative attitude toward organ donation and transplantation has been reflected in surveys of diverse Islamic populations. This overall negativity towards organ donation has resulted in low rates of participation in organ donation by practicing Muslims even in cases where donation would be considered permissible by religious leaders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16148460", "title": "Freedom of religion in Russia", "section": "Section::::Status of religious freedom.:Restrictions on religious freedom.:Registration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 866, "text": "Many non-traditional denominations frequently complained that they were unable to obtain venues for worship. Because they are small and often newly established, they often lacked the necessary resources to buy or rent facilities on the open market and must rely on government assistance. Because they are nontraditional, they frequently met opposition from the traditional communities and often were unable to find government officials who were willing to assist them in renting state-owned property. There were multiple reports of religious organizations who were not allowed to renew leases on public and private buildings. Increased competition for space in a growing economy and increasing real estate prices led many owners (public and private) to lease property to higher-paying clients, and in some cases, religious groups were refused outright at any price.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43846", "title": "Organ donation", "section": "Section::::Religious viewpoints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 130, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 130, "end_character": 1254, "text": "All major religions accept organ donation in at least some form on either utilitarian grounds (\"i.e.\", because of its life-saving capabilities) or deontological grounds (\"e.g.\", the right of an individual believer to make his or her own decision). Most religions, among them the Roman Catholic Church, support organ donation on the grounds that it constitutes an act of charity and provides a means of saving a life. One religious group, The Jesus Christians, became known as \"The Kidney Cult\" because more than half its members had donated their kidneys altruistically. Jesus Christians claim altruistic kidney donation is a great way to \"Do unto others what they would want you to do unto them.\" Some religions impose certain restrictions on the types of organs that may be donated and/or on the means by which organs may be harvested and/or transplanted. For example, Jehovah's Witnesses require that organs be drained of any blood due to their interpretation of the Hebrew Bible/Christian Old Testament as prohibiting blood transfusion, and Muslims require that the donor have provided written consent in advance. A few groups disfavor organ transplantation or donation; notably, these include Shinto and those who follow the customs of the Gypsies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5955", "title": "Church of England", "section": "Section::::History.:21st century.:Dwindling congregations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 636, "text": "However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still \"encounter God\" without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit at least one of its churches every year and 1 million students are educated at Church of England schools (which number 4,700).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23144481", "title": "El Rey Jesús", "section": "Section::::Ministries.:Building development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 527, "text": "The church attendance eventually grew to the point that six worship services plus a youth service were not enough to accommodate the people or meet their needs. With a sanctuary capacity of 7,000, over 8,000 active members attempted to fill the church each week. While everybody was welcomed, the church was required to comply with legal Fire Marshall codes. Unfortunately, hundreds of people each week were turned away, due to lack of parking or seating space in the sanctuary and overflow rooms provided with televised feed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "188955", "title": "Headquarters of the United Nations", "section": "Section::::History.:Construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 1111, "text": "A prayer space for people of all religions was announced on April 18, 1949. Until then, the UN had avoided the subject of a prayer room, because it had been difficult, if not impossible, to create a prayer room that could accommodate the various religions. Two days after this announcement, workers erected the first steel beam for the Secretariat Building, to little official fanfare. The consortium working on the Secretariat Building announced that 13,000 tons of steel would eventually be used in the building, and that the steelwork would consist of a strong wind bracing system because the structure was so narrow. The flag of the United Nations was raised above the first beam as a demonstration for the many spectators who witnessed the first beam's erection. The Secretariat Building was to be completed no later than January 1, 1951, and if the consortium of Fuller, Turner, Slattery, and Walsh exceeded that deadline, they had to pay a minimum penalty of $2,500 per day to the UN. To reduce construction costs, the complex's planners downsized the Secretariat Building from 42 stories to 39 stories.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30701025", "title": "Heaven in Christianity", "section": "Section::::Jehovah's Witnesses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 276, "text": "Jehovah's Witnesses believe that heaven is the dwelling place of Jehovah and his spirit creatures. They believe that only 144,000 chosen faithful followers (\"The Anointed\") will be resurrected to heaven to rule with Christ over the majority of mankind who will live on Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The authorship of the *La Historia Verdadera* is something that has been debated a bit more than the author of this article lets on, although I don't know of any other scholar off the top of my head that has made the assertion that Cortes himself wrote the piece. Historians have pointed to the fact that there is very little record of Bernal Diaz having participated in the Conquest beyond the text - which is unusual give the centrality he often grants himself in events. Large portions of the text have also been clearly borrowed from Gomara's version of Cortes' campaign.\n\nThere are, however, a number of factors which made a dismissal of the work's authenticity difficult. While the work is often fantastical, this was not out of the ordinary for medieval works - particularly pieces like this which were intended to be petitions to the Spanish Crown for financial support. Bernal Diaz, if he was the author, was writing during a period when the Conquest was coming under heavy scrutiny in Spain. Given is advanced age, financial troubles, and this large political context many Historians do not find the incongruities of the work wholly surprising. \n\nI cannot comment on the accuracy of Durverger's work given that I have not read it but I will say that many elements of *La Historia Verdadera* would not serve Cortes' interests very well. The author was often very critical of Cortes' leadership and intents as well as the overall Conquest. Many of Cortes' fabrications are best exposed by contrasting his *Cartas de Relación* with *La Historia Verdadera*. I personally do not believe Cortes to be the author but I would not say that such an idea is an impossibility.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5134369", "title": "Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 453, "text": "The author of the document is unknown, and is referred to as a Companion of Hernán Cortés (or simply \"The Anonymous Conqueror\" or \"Gentleman of Cortés\"). The account, firstly published in Italian in 1556 by Giovan Battista Ramuso as part of his work \"Delle Navigationi et Viaggi\", has been translated to English in Patricia de Fuente's 1993 University of Oklahoma Press publication, \"The Conquistadors: First-person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5865939", "title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire", "section": "Section::::Sources for the conquest of Central Mexico.:Aztec omens for the conquest.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 82, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 82, "end_character": 931, "text": "In the sources recorded by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún and Dominican Diego Durán in the mid to late sixteenth century, there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest. These two accounts are full-blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Most first-hand accounts about the conquest of the Aztec Empire were written by Spaniards: Hernán Cortés' letters to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and the first-person narrative of Bernal Díaz del Castillo, \"The True History of the Conquest of New Spain\". The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used, because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525. Later accounts were written in the native tongue of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico, Nahuatl.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26059726", "title": "Francisco de Aguilar (conquistador)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 659, "text": "Late in his long life, in his early 80s, his fellow Dominicans urged him to write an account of the Aztec conquest drawing from his experiences. This account, known as \"Relación breve de la conquista de la Nueva España\" (\"Brief Record [Account] of the Conquest of New Spain\"), went unpublished in his lifetime, however a manuscript copy of it was preserved at the royal library of El Escorial outside of Madrid, Spain. It was first published in 1900 by the Mexican historian and archivist, Francisco del Paso y Troncoso. A modern English translation of Aguilar's chronicle is published in \"The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico,\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19230475", "title": "Quetzalcoatl", "section": "Section::::Belief in Cortés as Quetzalcoatl.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 706, "text": "Since the sixteenth century, it has been widely held that the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II initially believed the landing of Hernán Cortés in 1519 to be Quetzalcoatl's return. This view has been questioned by ethno-historians who argue that the Quetzalcoatl-Cortés connection is not found in any document that was created independently of post-Conquest Spanish influence, and that there is little proof of a pre-Hispanic belief in Quetzalcoatl's return. Most documents expounding this theory are of entirely Spanish origin, such as Cortés's letters to Charles V of Spain, in which Cortés goes to great pains to present the naive gullibility of the Aztecs in general as a great aid in his conquest of Mexico.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14013", "title": "Hernán Cortés", "section": "Section::::Cortés and the \"Spiritual Conquest\" of Mexico.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 473, "text": "In Fray Bernardino de Sahagún's 1585 revision of the conquest narrative first codified as Book XII of the Florentine Codex, there are laudatory references to Cortés that do not appear in the earlier text from the indigenous perspective. Whereas Book XII of the Florentine Codex concludes with an account of Spaniards' search for gold, in Sahagún's 1585 revised account, he ends with praise of Cortés for requesting the Franciscans be sent to Mexico to convert the Indians.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5865939", "title": "Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire", "section": "Section::::Sources for the conquest of Central Mexico.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 1319, "text": "The first Spanish account of the conquest was written by lead conqueror Hernán Cortés, who sent a series of letters to the Spanish monarch Charles V, giving a contemporary account of the conquest from his point of view, in which he justified his actions. These were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Much later, Spanish conqueror Bernal Díaz del Castillo, a well-seasoned participant in the conquest of Central Mexico, wrote what he called \"The True History of the Conquest of New Spain\", countering the account by Cortés's official biographer, Francisco López de Gómara. Bernal Díaz's account had begun as a \"benemérito\" petition for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full history of his earlier expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme and the conquest of the Aztec. A number of lower rank Spanish conquerors wrote \"benemérito\" petitions to the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services in the conquest, including Juan Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, García del Pilar, and Fray Francisco de Aguilar. Cortés's right-hand man, Pedro de Alvarado did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, and died as a man of action in the Mixtón War in 1542. Two letters to Cortés about Alvarado's campaigns in Guatemala are published in \"The Conquistadors\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42689557", "title": "The Discovery of America", "section": "Section::::Content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 556, "text": "In the second volume the reader is introduced to the \"conquistador\" Hernán Cortés (Ferdinand Kortes) and his exploration and conquest of Mexico. The explorations of the Central American mainland are followed by encounters with Native tribes, some of which become Cortés’ allies in his later conquest of the Aztec empire. After the death of the Aztec emperor Montezuma and the takeover of the empire's capital Tenochtitlan, the narrative gives a summary of the following subjugation of the rest of Mexico and of Cortés’ troubles with people envious of him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Same reason no one interfered with US invasion of Dominican Republic. It was our sphere of influence. Just like Eastern Europe was USSR's. No one was willing to risk global war. During the Cold War it was the countries more distant (Vietnam, Angola, etc) that were really up for grabs and fought over. The Truman Doctrine basically stated this. We wouldn't try to rollback Communism in Eastern Europe, but we would fight to prevent it in the 3rd World. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "26779", "title": "Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::History.:Era of Stagnation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 401, "text": "In 1968, the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia to halt the Prague Spring reforms. In the aftermath, Brezhnev justified the invasion along with the earlier invasions of Eastern European states by introducing the Brezhnev Doctrine, which claimed the right of the Soviet Union to violate the sovereignty of any country that attempted to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17448034", "title": "Czech Republic–Russia relations", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 760, "text": "After World War II, when Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took over the control of the country through a Soviet-backed 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état, Czechoslovakia became part of the Eastern Bloc through Warsaw Pact with Soviet Union and eastern and central European socialist countries. On August 21, 1968 following the Prague Spring pro-democracy reforms of the Czech government, the Soviet-led invasion re-established the Communist regime by force. 108 Czechs and Slovaks died and approximately 500 were wounded as a direct result of the invasion. The invasion stopped the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia from making democratic and liberal reforms, and politicians loyal to Moscow gained control again. This damaged relations between the two countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "620359", "title": "Jan Palach", "section": "Section::::Death.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1519, "text": "In August 1968, the Soviet Union invaded Czechoslovakia to crush the liberalising reforms of Alexander Dubček's government during what was known as the Prague Spring. Prague-born Palach decided to sacrifice himself in protest of the invasion and set himself on fire, in Wenceslas Square, on 16 January 1969. According to a letter he sent to several public figures, an entire clandestine resistance organization had been established with the purpose of practicing self-immolation until their demands were met; however, it seems that such a group never existed. The demands declared in the letter were the abolition of censorship and a halt to the distribution of \"Zprávy\", the official newspaper of the Soviet occupying forces. In addition, the letter called for the Czech and the Slovak peoples to go on a general strike in support of these demands. An earlier draft of the letter that Palach wrote also called for the resignation of a number of pro-Soviet politicians, but that demand did not make it into the final version, which included the remark that \"our demands are not extreme, on the contrary\". Palach died from his burns several days after his act, at the hospital. On his deathbed, he was visited by a female acquaintance from his college and by a student leader, to whom he had addressed one of the copies of his letter. It was reported that he had pleaded for others not to do what he had done but instead to continue the struggle by other means, although it has been doubted whether he really said that.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26830", "title": "Slovakia", "section": "Section::::History.:Soviet influence and Communist party rule (1948–1989).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 735, "text": "The country was invaded by the Warsaw Pact forces (People’s Republic of Bulgaria, People’s Republic of Hungary, People’s Republic of Poland, Socialist Republic of Romania, and Soviet Union, with the exception of Socialist Republic of Romania and People's Socialist Republic of Albania) in 1968, ending a period of liberalisation under the leadership of Alexander Dubček. 137 Czechoslovakian civilians were killed and 500 seriously wounded during the occupation. In 1969 Czechoslovakia became a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. Czechoslovakia became a puppet state of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was never part of the Soviet Union and remained independent to a degree.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9773347", "title": "Russian military deception", "section": "Section::::In practice.:Czechoslovakia, 1968.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1168, "text": "The Soviet Union made substantial use of deception while preparing for their military intervention of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The historian Mark Lloyd called the effect on the Prague Spring \"devastating\". When the Kremlin had failed to reverse the Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubcek's liberal reforms with threats, it decided to use force, masked by deception. The measures taken included transferring fuel and ammunition out of Czechoslovakia on a supposed logistics exercise; and confining most of their soldiers to barracks across the northern Warsaw Pact area. The Czechoslovak authorities thus did not suspect anything when two Aeroflot airliners made unscheduled landings at night, full of \"fit young men\". The men cleared customs and travelled to the Soviet Embassy in the centre of Prague. There they picked up weapons and returned to the airport, taking over the main buildings. They at once allowed further aircraft to land uniformed Spetsnaz and airborne troops, who took over key buildings across Prague before dawn. Reinforcements were then brought in by road, in complete radio silence, leaving NATO Electronic Warfare units \"confused and frustrated\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15224410", "title": "Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia", "section": "Section::::Invasion and intervention.:Failure to prepare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 838, "text": "The Dubček regime took no steps to forestall a potential invasion, despite ominous troop movements by the Warsaw Pact. The Czechoslovak leadership believed that the Soviet Union and its allies would not invade, having believed that the summit at Čierna nad Tisou had smoothed out the differences between the two sides. They also believed that any invasion would be too costly, both because of domestic support for the reforms and because the international political outcry would be too significant, especially with the World Communist Conference coming up in November of that year. Czechoslovakia could have raised the costs of such an invasion by drumming up international support or making military preparations such as blocking roads and ramping up security of their airports, but they decided not to, paving the way for the invasion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "423956", "title": "Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia", "section": "Section::::Influence of the Soviet Union.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 617, "text": "The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 was a pivotal event in Czechoslovakia's political development. The August intervention by forces from the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Poland, Bulgaria, and Hungary marked the beginning of the end of the Prague Spring and the reformist policies introduced by the Alexander Dubček regime. It also set the stage for the reemergence in Czechoslovakia of a pro-Soviet regime and a politically orthodox environment under the leadership of Gustáv Husák and Miloš Jakeš, which lasted until 1989, even during perestroika in the Soviet Union.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Glucose monitors have been around for over 35 years. They were just bigger and slower.\n\nBefore then it was controlled through highly restrictive diets and insulin and oral medicines and everyone kinda hoped for the best. Bloodwork was limited to labs and hospitals.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Based on some of my reading on the subject, before meters Type 1's used to \"taste\" their urine to see if it was sweet.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Prior to glucometers, you would start with a dosing schedule of insulin and by trial and error you would eventually figure out your optimal dose. You basically had to go by the presence/absence of symptoms(light-headed, fatigued, etc.) or rely on lab results to determine a good dosing schedule for you. Forget about sliding scales and PRN insulin.\n\nEDIT: other poster reminded me that you can *smell* sweetness (sugar concentration) in urine. That is a sign that blood glucose is high and insulin is required, this info could be used to modify a dosing schedule or indicate a one-time dose is needed. I hope they didn't taste it as well... ew", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Urine test strips were around longer. The main limitation was they'd only detect grossly high glucose levels, around 180mg/dl and above. This could keep you alive, but not prevent long term damage, (generally around 150 or so and above) so complications were a lot more common prior to blood glucose monitoring.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Diabetes has been documented to about 1500 BCE in Egypt, India, & China. Oftentimes, either tasting the urine for sweetness, or observing ants becoming attracted to the urine, were good indicators of having the disorder. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2966520", "title": "Diabetes management", "section": "Section::::Blood sugar level.:Hypo and hyperglycemia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 359, "text": "A history of blood sugar level results is especially useful for the diabetic to present to their doctor or physician in the monitoring and control of the disease. Failure to maintain a strict regimen of testing can accelerate symptoms of the condition, and it is therefore imperative that any diabetic patient strictly monitor their glucose levels regularly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60635", "title": "Glucose tolerance test", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 447, "text": "The test was based on the previous work in 1913 by A. T. B. Jacobson in determining that carbohydrate ingestion results in blood glucose fluctuations, and the premise (named the Staub-Traugott Phenomenon after its first observers H. Staub in 1921 and K. Traugott in 1922) that a normal patient fed glucose will rapidly return to normal levels of blood glucose after an initial spike, and will see improved reaction to subsequent glucose feedings.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58892744", "title": "Glucose-elevating agent", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 785, "text": "Glucose-elevating agents are medications used to treat hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) by raising blood glucose. In diabetics, hypoglycemia can occur as a result of too much insulin or antidiabetic medication, insufficient food intake, or sudden increase in physical activity or exercise. The most common glucose-elevating agents used to treat diabetic hypoglycemia are glucose (in the form of tablets or liquid) and glucagon injections when severe hypoglycemia occurs. Diazoxide, which is used to counter hypoglycemia in disease states such insulinoma (a tumor producing insulin) or congenital hyperinsulinism, increases blood glucose and decreases insulin secretion and glucagon accelerates breakdown of glycogen in the liver (glycogenolysis) to release glucose into the bloodstream.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16975640", "title": "Postprandial glucose test", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 240, "text": "A postprandial glucose test is a blood glucose test that determines the amount of a type of sugar, called glucose, in the blood after a meal. Glucose is mainly made from carbohydrate foods. It is the main source of energy used by the body.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1627125", "title": "Glucose meter", "section": "Section::::Future.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 438, "text": "The market introduction of noninvasive blood glucose measurement by spectroscopic measurement methods, in the field of near-infrared (NIR), by extracorporal measuring devices, has not been successful because the devices measure tissue sugar in body tissues and not the blood sugar in blood fluid. To determine blood glucose, the measuring beam of infrared light, for example, has to penetrate the tissue for measurement of blood glucose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "157164", "title": "William Hyde Wollaston", "section": "Section::::Work.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 821, "text": "Wollaston's attempt to demonstrate the presence of glucose in the blood serum of diabetics was unsuccessful due to the limited means of detection available to him. His 1811 paper \"On the non-existence of sugar in the blood of persons labouring under diabetes mellitus\" concluded that sugar must travel via lymphatic channels from the stomach directly to the kidneys, without entering the bloodstream. Wollaston supported this theory by referring to the thesis of a young medical student at Edinburgh, Charles Darwin (1758–1778), \"Experiments establishing a criterion between mucaginous and purulent matter. And an account of the retrograde motions of the absorbent vessels of animal bodies in some diseases.\" This Charles Darwin was the eldest son of Erasmus Darwin and not his more famous nephew, Charles Robert Darwin.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43932267", "title": "Staub-Traugott Phenomenon", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 478, "text": "A. T. B. Jacobson determined in 1913 that carbohydrate ingestion results in blood glucose fluctuations. Hamman and Hirschman first reported improvement of carbohydrate tolerance following repeated glucose administration in 1919. H. Staub in 1921 and K. Traugott in 1922 subsequently confirmed the improved reaction in healthy subjects and the phenomenon was named for them. As this effect does not occur in diabetic subjects, it became the basis for the Glucose Tolerance Test.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I believe it does so in response to cellular damage caused by UV light—hence why tanning beds cause you to get darker. If the cell notices an increase in UV damage, it creates more melanin. \n\nNot a very scientific answer as I don’t know the exact mechanism, but I hope that helps a little!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "38041", "title": "Human skin color", "section": "Section::::Melanin and genes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 498, "text": "Both the amount and type of melanin produced is controlled by a number of genes that operate under incomplete dominance. One copy of each of the various genes is inherited from each parent. Each gene can come in several alleles, resulting in the great variety of human skin tones. Melanin controls the amount of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun that penetrates the skin by absorption. While UV radiation can assist in the production of vitamin D, excessive exposure to UV can damage health.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "731893", "title": "Grey", "section": "Section::::In the sciences, nature, and technology.:The greying of hair.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1248, "text": "Melanin itself is the product of a specialized cell, the melanocyte, which is found in each hair follicle, from which the hair grows. As hair grows, the melanocyte injects melanin into the hair cells, which contain the protein keratin and which makes up our hair, skin, and nails. As long as the melanocytes continue injecting melanin into the hair cells, the hair retains its original color. At a certain age, however, which varies from person to person, the amount of melanin injected is reduced and eventually stops. The hair, without pigment, turns grey and eventually white. The reason for this decline of production of melanocytes is uncertain. In the February 2005 issue of \"Science\", a team of Harvard scientists suggested that the cause was the failure of the melanocyte stem cells to maintain the production of the essential pigments, due to age or genetic factors, after a certain period of time. For some people, the breakdown comes in their twenties; for others, many years later. According to the site of the magazine \"Scientific American\", \"Generally speaking, among Caucasians 50 percent are 50 percent grey by age 50.\" Adult male gorillas also develop silver hair but only on their backs, see Physical characteristics of gorillas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "541488", "title": "Sun tanning", "section": "Section::::Tanning process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 970, "text": "In the second process, triggered primarily by UVB, there is an increase in production of melanin (melanogenesis), which is the body's reaction to direct DNA photodamage (formation of pyrimidine dimers) from UV radiation. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning, and typically becomes visible two or three days after exposure. The tan that is created by increased melanogenesis typically lasts for a few weeks or months, much longer than the tan that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin, and is also actually protective against UV skin damage and sunburn, rather than simply cosmetic. Typically, it can provide a modest Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to 3 times the UV exposure as pale skin. However, in order to cause true melanogenesis-tanning by means of UV exposure, some direct DNA photodamage must first be produced, and this requires UVB exposure (as present in natural sunlight, or sunlamps that produce UVB). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5262978", "title": "Bosco Chocolate Syrup", "section": "Section::::Genetic Mutations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 750, "text": "The genes for making melanin turn on or off over the course a person's lifetime. If this happens in the cells at the bottom of the hair follicles, a change color is likely. Many different factors can turn hair pigment genes on and off. These factors are not even completely understood by scientists. The amounts of mutagens found in Bosco by the Livermore study, reckoned in parts per billion, have been so small that they could be detected only by extremely sensitive techniques. When purified, however, they proved very potent in bacterial tests, and the study on human subjects was discontinued, except for one family who never got the letter because their mail is delivered into a wicker basket on their porch, and the mail sometimes blows away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38041", "title": "Human skin color", "section": "Section::::Exposure to sun.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 704, "text": "There are two different mechanisms involved. Firstly, the UVA-radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin, also known as IPD (immediate pigment darkening). Secondly, there is an increase in production of melanin known as melanogenesis. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning and first becomes visible about 72 hours after exposure. The tan that is created by an increased melanogenesis lasts much longer than the one that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin. Tanning involves not just the increased melanin production in response to UV radiation but the thickening of the top layer of the epidermis, the stratum corneum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4397369", "title": "Skin whitening", "section": "Section::::Mechanisms of action.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 1036, "text": "Melanin is the main substance responsible for the color of the skin. Melanin in synthesized in melanosomes which are organelles produced in melanocytes, cells dedicated to this function that are present in the skin, hair follicles, and other structures of the body. The synthesis of melanin, also called \"melanogenesis\" and \"melanization\", involves a chain of enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions and non-enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The main precursor to melanin is -tyrosine. The first step of melanogenesis is the conversion of -tyrosine to -DOPA; this is the first and rate-limiting step and is catalyzed by the enzyme tyrosinase (TYR). Other enzymes involved in the synthesis include tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TRP1) and tyrosinase-related protein 2 (TRP2), also known as \"dopachrome tautomerase\" (DCT). -tyrosine is taken by the melanocytes from the intercellular medium, then transported to the melanosomes. -tyrosine is also synthesized within the melanocytes from -phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50513", "title": "Melanin", "section": "Section::::Humans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 412, "text": "In humans, melanin is the primary determinant of skin color. It is also found in hair, the pigmented tissue underlying the iris of the eye, and the stria vascularis of the inner ear. In the brain, tissues with melanin include the medulla and pigment-bearing neurons within areas of the brainstem, such as the locus coeruleus and the substantia nigra. It also occurs in the zona reticularis of the adrenal gland.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Medieval authors tended to divide history into six ages, which were mapped to the first six days of Creation in Genesis (and sometimes to the different stages of human life). Although variants existed, the most common schema came out of Augustine who situated the first age as from Adam to the Flood, the second from Noah to Abraham, the third from Abraham to David, the fourth from David to the Babylonian Captivity, the fifth from there to Christ, and the sixth age which began with the Incarnation and would continue until the end of time when Christ's return would inaugurate the seventh and eternal day. Thus, medieval thinkers, were they to speak of living in a historical period, would likely say that they were living in the sixth age of history. \n\nThere were other historical periodizations floating around as well, most famously Joachim of Fiore's division of history into three ages, of the Father from Creation to Christ, of the Son from Christ until 1260, and of the Spirit which was sort of eschatological culmination of history prior to the final judgment. As you might imagine, this view was popular in the years leading up to and immediately after 1260, but fell out of favor after Joachim was condemned alongside heretical groups who followed his teachings, and it became obvious that his prophecies weren't accurate. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "61622", "title": "List of architectural styles", "section": "Section::::Chronology of styles.:Early Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 206, "text": "The European Early Middle Ages are generally taken to run from the end of the Roman Empire, around 400 AD, to around 1000 AD. During this period, Christianity made a significant impact on European culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13212", "title": "History of Europe", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 1092, "text": "The history of Europe covers the peoples inhabiting Europe from prehistory to the present. During the Neolithic era and the time of the Indo-European migrations Europe saw human inflows from east and southeast and subsequent important cultural and material exchange. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The Cold War dominated European geo-politics from 1947 to 1989.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "286475", "title": "Antiquity", "section": "Section::::Historical objects or periods.:Eras.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 208, "text": "Any period before the European Middle Ages (which dates from around 476 with the collapse of Rome to 1492 with the discovery of the new world), but still within Western civilization-based history, including:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "435268", "title": "History of the world", "section": "Section::::Post-classical history.:Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 637, "text": "The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of northern and western Europe. Many modern European states owe their origins to events unfolding in the Middle Ages; present European political boundaries are, in many regards, the result of military and dynastic events during this tumultuous period. The Middle Ages lasted until the beginning of the Early modern period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3001244", "title": "Military history of Germany", "section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Hussite wars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 213, "text": "Historiography tends to believe that the Middle Ages end in 1453 with the emergence of the printing press in Mainz; thus, beginning the early modern age of Germany, and more broadly the early modern European age.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "532476", "title": "Early Middle Ages", "section": "Section::::Europe in 1000 CE.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 333, "text": "In the culture of Europe, several features surfaced soon after 1000 that mark the end of the Early Middle Ages: the rise of the medieval communes, the reawakening of city life, and the appearance of the burgher class, the founding of the first universities, the rediscovery of Roman law, and the beginnings of vernacular literature.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20810", "title": "Merchant", "section": "Section::::History.:Merchants in the modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 492, "text": "The \"modern era\" is generally understood to refer to period that coincides with the rise of consumer culture in seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe. As standards of living improved in the 17th century, consumers from a broad range of social backgrounds began to purchase goods that were in excess of basic necessities. An emergent middle class or bourgeosie stimulated demand for luxury goods and the act of shopping came to be seen as a pleasurable pass-time or form of entertainment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "You may be confusing external, bulk, translational motion with internal, microscopic, random motion. They are independent. In a vacuum, an object's temperature will remain the same no matter how fast it is moving linearly through space. It must according to Relativity. Depending on what reference frame you choose, the object is moving a different speed. If speed were related to temperature, the object would have different temperatures as measured in different reference frames, which makes no sense.\n\nBut, bulk linear motion can be converted to internal random motion if the object collides with other objects. For instance, an object traveling through air collides with the air. In the process, some of its forward motion is converted to internal random motion and the object heat up. The faster an object travels and the denser the material it travels through, the harder it collides with the material and the more its loses kinetic energy to heat. As an extreme example, throwing an egg against a brick wall converts all of its kinetic energy into heat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1579998", "title": "Temperature control", "section": "Section::::Energy balance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1277, "text": "An object's or space's temperature increases when heat energy moves into it, increasing the average kinetic energy of its atoms, e.g., of things and air in a room. Heat energy leaving an object or space lowers its temperature. Heat flows from one place to another (always from a higher temperature to a lower one) by one or more of three processes: conduction, convection and radiation. In conduction, energy is passed from one atom to another by direct contact. In convection, heat energy moves by conduction into some movable fluid (such as air or water) and the fluid moves from one place to another, carrying the heat with it. At some point the heat energy in the fluid is usually transferred to some other object by means conduction again. The movement of the fluid can be driven by negative-buoyancy, as when cooler (and therefore denser) air drops and thus upwardly displaces warmer (less-dense) air (natural convection), or by fans or pumps (forced convection). In radiation, the heated atoms make electromagnetic emissions absorbed by remote other atoms, whether nearby or at astronomical distance. For example, the Sun radiates heat as both invisible and visible electromagnetic energy. What we know as \"light\" is but a narrow region of the electromagnetic spectrum.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "301928", "title": "Lumped element model", "section": "Section::::Thermal systems.:Method.:Newton's law of cooling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 384, "text": "An object at a different temperature from its surroundings will ultimately come to a common temperature with its surroundings. A relatively hot object cools as it warms its surroundings; a cool object is warmed by its surroundings. When considering how quickly (or slowly) something cools, we speak of its \"rate\" of cooling - how many degrees' change in temperature per unit of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533423", "title": "Solar water heating", "section": "Section::::Components.:Collector.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 69, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 69, "end_character": 353, "text": "BULLET::::- Heat is lost more rapidly if the temperature difference between a hot object and its environment is larger. Heat loss is predominantly governed by the thermal gradient between the collector surface and the ambient temperatures. Conduction, convection and radiation all occur more rapidly over large thermal gradients (the delta-\"t\" effect).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1711063", "title": "Aerodynamic heating", "section": "Section::::Physics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 810, "text": "At high speeds through the air, the object's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction. At lower speed, the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing, if the air is cooler. The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature. These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process. Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air. The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow. The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20580", "title": "Motion", "section": "Section::::List of \"imperceptible\" human motions.:Particles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 605, "text": "According to the laws of thermodynamics, all particles of matter are in constant random motion as long as the temperature is above absolute zero. Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving. This motion can be detected as temperature; higher temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans who sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when lower temperature objects are touched, the senses perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as feeling cold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "621008", "title": "Air cooling", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 277, "text": "In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "533423", "title": "Solar water heating", "section": "Section::::Components.:Collector.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 501, "text": "BULLET::::- Any hot object ultimately returns to thermal equilibrium with its environment, due to heat loss from conduction, convection and radiation. Efficiency (the proportion of heat energy retained for a predefined time period) is directly related to heat loss from the collector surface. Convection and radiation are the most important sources of heat loss. Thermal insulation is used to slow heat loss from a hot object. This follows the Second law of thermodynamics (the 'equilibrium effect').\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "you are missing the concepts of speed of light.\n\nNo matter on the point of view - you can run away from the speed of light of towards. The speed of light stays the same", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "No. Just like light is always measured as travelling at c in all rest frames, massive objects (such as planets) are always measured as travelling at less than c in all rest frames. This is because no rest frame is the 'correct' rest frame, therefore motion has to obey physical laws in all rest frames.\n\nIf, in your example, an outside observer observed two planets each moving towards each other at speed v, which is very close to the speed of light, an observer on one of the planets (i.e. the rest frame of the planet) would observe the other planet moving towards them at a speed greater than v but less than c.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "1. Outside of a thought experiment, neither planet could travel *at* the speed of light.\n\n2. If the planets were to be traveling at the speed of light, two interesting phenomena would occur.\n\n First, observers on either planet would only be able to see light from objects in front of them relative to the planets' direction of motion. Light from objects \"behind\" them or lateral to their trajectory would not be able to overtake them.\n \n Second, since the \"oncoming\" planet is traveling at *c* as well as any light it may reflect (if it reflects any at all; see above), observers on the other planet would only receive said light at the same moment the implied collision takes place. The planets would be utterly invisible to each other until it was too late...\n\n It might be possible to detect their presence due to gravitational effects of their passage on other objects, but then relativity comes into play: since the planet the observer is on is also traveling at *c*, time dilation (the slowing down of time itself as one approaches light speed) might make any attempt at long term observation useless. Hundreds of thousands of years for a sub-luminal planet may pass in a single day for a planet at light speed. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > Both planets move with speed of light, but opposite direction\n\nAccording to relativity, things don't just have a speed. They have a speed *relative to something else*.\n\nSo if you're on a planet, you might chose to measure the speed of another planet relative to your planet. It will never exceed the speed of light.\n\nOr you might be on a spaceship, observing two planets moving towards each other. Neither of them will exceeding the speed of light relative to you. However, you might observe them approaching each other at a speed that doesn't exceed twice the speed of light.\n\nWhy does this work the way it is? Well, if you were on the spaceship, but I was on one of the planets, then time for me would be running at a different speed to the speed time is running for you. That means that you would see my planet approaching the other planet at something close to twice the speed of light, whereas I would see the other planet approach me at only something close to the speed of light.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You have put your finger *exactly* on the difference between relativity and older Newtonian physics. If one object is approaching you from the left at nearly *c*, and something else is approaching you from the right at nearly *c*, *to someone on the left object* you seem to be approaching them at nearly *c*... and the object to your right seems to be approaching them at only an ever so slightly faster rate, but still less than *c*.\n\nIt's that observational difference that leads to all the rest of relativity - time moving at different speeds for different observes, distances being contracted depending on velocity, and so forth.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Yes, there is a relative speed maximum. It's, paradoxically, *c*.\n\nThere exists a [velocity-addition formula](_URL_0_) that is a consequence of the special theory of relativity. You can calculate for yourself how fast the planets would measure each other. For example, if both went at half the speed of light, the other planet would seem to approach at four fifths the speed of light (or 0.8*c*).\n\nAs an aside, objects with mass cannot reach the speed of light, since they'd get so dense the energy needed to push them to *c* approaches infinity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually, if something was coming at you at the speed of light, you wouldn't be able to see it at all. In order for you to see an object, light from that object would have to reach you before the object itself does.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11701033", "title": "Scale relativity", "section": "Section::::Basic concepts.:Minimum and maximum invariant scales.:Minimum invariant scale.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 309, "text": "In special relativity, there is an unreachable speed, the speed of light. We can add speeds without end, but they will always be less than the speed of light. The sums of all speeds are limited by the speed of light. Additionally, the composition of two velocities is inferior to the sum of those two speeds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33710707", "title": "Planck units", "section": "Section::::Derived units.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 209, "text": "BULLET::::- A speed of 1 Planck length per Planck time is the speed of light in a vacuum, the maximum possible physical speed in special relativity; 1 nano-(Planck length per Planck time) is about 1.079 km/h.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "491022", "title": "Mass in special relativity", "section": "Section::::The relativistic mass concept.:Relativistic mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 328, "text": "When the relative velocity is zero, formula_33 is simply equal to 1, and the relativistic mass is reduced to the rest mass as one can see in the next two equations below. As the velocity increases toward the speed of light \"c\", the denominator of the right side approaches zero, and consequently formula_33 approaches infinity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34755", "title": "1983", "section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 150, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 150, "end_character": 205, "text": "BULLET::::- October 21 – At the 17th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the metre is defined in terms of the speed of light as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1608886", "title": "Tests of special relativity", "section": "Section::::Special relativity.:Constancy of the speed of light.:One-way speed of light.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 1163, "text": "A series of one-way measurements were undertaken, all of them confirming the isotropy of the speed of light. However, only the two-way speed of light (from A to B back to A) can unambiguously be measured, since the one-way speed depends on the definition of simultaneity and therefore on the method of synchronization. The Poincaré-Einstein synchronization convention makes the one-way speed equal to the two-way speed. However, there are many models having isotropic two-way speed of light, in which the one-way speed is anisotropic by choosing different synchronization schemes. They are experimentally equivalent to special relativity because all of these models include effects like time dilation of moving clocks, that compensate any measurable anisotropy. However, of all models having isotropic two-way speed, only special relativity is acceptable for the overwhelming majority of physicists since all other synchronizations are much more complicated, and those other models (such as Lorentz ether theory) are based on extreme and implausible assumptions concerning some dynamical effects, which are aimed at hiding the \"preferred frame\" from observation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1437696", "title": "Velocity-addition formula", "section": "Section::::Hyperbolic geometry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 107, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 107, "end_character": 520, "text": "where the speed of light is set to unity so that formula_69 and formula_70 agree. It this expression, formula_71 and formula_72 are velocities of two objects in any one given frame. The quantity formula_73 is the speed of one or the other object \"relative\" to the other object as seen \"in the given frame\". The expression is Lorentz invariant, i.e. independent of which frame is the given frame, but the quantity it calculates is \"not\". For instance, if the given frame is the rest frame of object one, then formula_74.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "65914", "title": "Kinematics", "section": "Section::::Kinematics of a particle trajectory in a non-rotating frame of reference.:Relative velocity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 211, "text": "In the case where the velocity is close to the speed of light \"c\" (generally within 95%), another scheme of relative velocity called rapidity, that depends on the ratio of V to c, is used in special relativity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They didn't \"decide\". That's a conscious motive that you're applying to the simplest organisms. \n\nThe simple answer is that you need more stuff to make more cells. Just like building a house, you need to get more lumber, bricks, drywall...etc to build more houses. The easiest way to get the biological molecules an organism needs to make more of itself is to consume them from another organism that already has them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "381434", "title": "Budding", "section": "Section::::Cellular reproduction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 291, "text": "Some cells divide asymmetrically by budding, for example \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\", the yeast species used in baking and brewing. This process results in a 'mother' cell and a smaller 'daughter' cell. Cryo-electron tomography recently revealed that mitochondria in cells divide by budding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12240016", "title": "Cell fusion", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 325, "text": "In 1847 Theodore Schwann expanded upon the theory that all living organisms are composed of cells when he added to it that discrete cells are the basis of life. Schwann observed that in certain cells the walls and cavities of the cells coalesce together. It was this observation that provided the first hint that cells fuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4230", "title": "Cell (biology)", "section": "Section::::Origins.:Origin of the first cell.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 474, "text": "Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago. The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs. The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid. Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2068726", "title": "History of Earth", "section": "Section::::Proterozoic Eon.:Emergence of eukaryotes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 1161, "text": "Around this time, the first proto-mitochondrion was formed. A bacterial cell related to today's \"Rickettsia\", which had evolved to metabolize oxygen, entered a larger prokaryotic cell, which lacked that capability. Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses). The smaller cell may have tried to parasitize the larger one. In any case, the smaller cell survived inside the larger cell. Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy. Part of this excess energy was returned to the host. The smaller cell replicated inside the larger one. Soon, a stable symbiosis developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it. Over time, the host cell acquired some genes from the smaller cells, and the two kinds became dependent on each other: the larger cell could not survive without the energy produced by the smaller ones, and these, in turn, could not survive without the raw materials provided by the larger cell. The whole cell is now considered a single organism, and the smaller cells are classified as organelles called mitochondria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25229064", "title": "Evolution of cells", "section": "Section::::Quotes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 698, "text": " \"The First Cell arose in the previously pre-biotic world with the coming together of several entities that gave a single vesicle the unique chance to carry out three essential and quite different life processes. These were: (a) to copy informational macromolecules, (b) to carry out specific catalytic functions, and (c) to couple energy from the environment into usable chemical forms. These would foster subsequent cellular evolution and metabolism. Each of these three essential processes probably originated and was lost many times prior to The First Cell, but only when these three occurred together was life jump-started and Darwinian evolution of organisms began.\" (Koch and Silver, 2005) \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "996341", "title": "Spindle checkpoint", "section": "Section::::Chromosome segregation.:Cell division: duplication of material and distribution to daughter cells.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1506, "text": "When cells are ready to divide, because cell size is big enough or because they receive the appropriate stimulus, they activate the mechanism to enter into the cell cycle, and they duplicate most organelles during S (synthesis) phase, including their centrosome. Therefore, when the cell division process will end, each daughter cell will receive a complete set of organelles. At the same time, during S phase all cells must duplicate their DNA very precisely, a process termed DNA replication. Once DNA replication has finished, in eukaryotes the DNA molecule is compacted and condensed, to form the mitotic chromosomes, each one constituted by two sister chromatids, which stay held together by the establishment of cohesion between them; each chromatid is a complete DNA molecule, attached via microtubules to one of the two centrosomes of the dividing cell, located at opposed poles of the cell. The structure formed by the centrosomes and the microtubules is named mitotic spindle, due to its characteristic shape, holding the chromosomes between the two centrosomes. Both sister chromatids stay together until anaphase; at this moment they separate from each other and they travel towards the centrosome to which they are attached. In this way, when the two daughter cells separate at the end of the division process, each one will receive a complete set of chromatids. The mechanism responsible for the correct distribution of sister chromatids during cell division is named chromosome segregation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "102858", "title": "Cell theory", "section": "Section::::Cell theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 519, "text": "However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit. Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They lean. \n\nWhen you lean on a bike your center of mass isn't over the wheels anymore. That puts a torque on you and the bike. If your bike weren't moving that would mean you would just fall over. Since the bike is moving and you have a lot of angular momentum, it turns the direction that you are moving. \n\nNOTE BECAUSE THERE IS A LOT OF MISS INFORMATION ABOUT THIS: my answer didn't have anything to do with the wheels rotating. it would work just as well if you were sliding on an ice skate machine as with wheels. \n\nIt anyone would like the math worked out as proof I can do that. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It takes a little practice. There is some mechanical self-balancing in a bike, but a lot of it also comes from the rider shifting their body weight. You can lean into a turn to make the bike tilt enough to turn, but not fall over. First thing you should do, get used to riding straight with no hands. Then, make gradual turns, and as you get better at it you can make tighter turns. As you're learning, I wouldn't keep your hands in your pockets, but close to the handlebars in case you start losing control.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "856557", "title": "Utility bicycle", "section": "Section::::Typical features.:Stable geometry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 511, "text": "A curved fork and angled vertical tubing provides stable, non-twitchy steering, enabling the rider to ride with one hand, while freeing the other hand for signalling or to secure a load on the rear rack. Europeans commonly use the free hand to hold an umbrella or cell phone, or to hold the shoulder of a child riding their own bike, to train the child for positioning on the road. A coaster brake further enables such one-handed riding, because the one hand on the handlebar only has to steer, not also brake.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42213230", "title": "Adapted automobile", "section": "Section::::Hand controls.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1179, "text": "Foot pedals can be raised, relocated (for instance swapped to be used by the opposite leg) or replaced with hand-controlled devices. The common form of hand controls consists of a push-pull handle mounted below and projecting to the side of the steering wheel housing. The bar connects by levers to the accelerator and brake pedals, and is typically pivoted so that pushing applies the accelerator while pulling applies the brake. As there is no facility to work a clutch pedal, hand controls must generally be used in cars with automatic transmissions. With one hand continuously engaged working the hand controls, the steering wheel will generally also be fitted with a steering knob to allow one-handed use. More complex fittings may also connect into the electronic circuitry of the vehicle to place indicator and other switches in easy reach of the driver without requiring them to release the hand controls or steering knob. A guard plate may be fitted to prevent inadvertent contact between the driver's feet and the pedals. Extension levers or adapted grips may also be fitted to the parking brake to allow it to be applied by a driver with limited hand or arm strength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8255169", "title": "Riding aids", "section": "Section::::Natural aids.:The hands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 641, "text": "Both hands, pulling backwards and used together, act as a restraining aid. Depending on the amount of restraint the rider uses, this may ask the horse to halt, perform a downward transition, reinback, or bring his hind legs further under his body, increasing impulsion or collection. As a restraining aid, the hands should be used in conjunction with the legs. If the rider slows \"all in the hands\" (without any use of leg) he creates an unbalanced transition, with the horse on the forehand. This balance of leg and hand is something that must be learned by the rider, and most beginners will halt simply by pulling backwards on the reins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4671779", "title": "Turn on the forehand", "section": "Section::::How to perform the turn on the forehand.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 326, "text": "To ride a turn on the forehand, the rider should encourage a square halt by moving the horse leg-to-hand with proper riding aids, creating energy with the legs and containing the energy with the hands. When asking for the turn on the forehand, the inside and outside aids switch in relation to the new direction of the bend. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9151212", "title": "Turn on the haunches", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 226, "text": "For the rider, the turn on the haunches can teach coordination of aids, as the rider must balance both the driving and restraining aids, as well as maintain the correct bend using the inside leg pushing into the outside aids.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19876", "title": "Motorcycle", "section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Dynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 328, "text": "Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. This practice is counterintuitive and therefore often confusing to novices and even many experienced motorcyclists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5343488", "title": "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics", "section": "Section::::Lateral dynamics.:Turning.:Two-wheel steering.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 101, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 101, "end_character": 755, "text": "Because of theoretical benefits, such as a tighter turning radius at low speed, attempts have been made to construct motorcycles with two-wheel steering. One working prototype by Ian Drysdale in Australia is reported to \"work very well.\" Issues in the design include whether to provide active control of the rear wheel or let it swing freely. In the case of active control, the control algorithm needs to decide between steering with or in the opposite direction of the front wheel, when, and how much. One implementation of two-wheel steering, the Sideways bike, lets the rider control the steering of both wheels directly. Another, the Swing Bike, had the second steering axis in front of the seat so that it could also be controlled by the handlebars.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "because sometimes its the fact that someone is showing you that they care makes it easier for you to let it out", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I cry because it shows that someone actually cares. Most times I feel hopeless is because I feel I'm all alone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is such a good question i hope you get a good, scientific answer. Its gotta be something about us being incapable of communicating our emotions without simultaneously expresisng them or something.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It is psychological in nature. Crying is a natural sign of weakness, a sign of vulnerablility. Because, think about it. When you cry, can you think of doing anything else? Can you focus on a task? No, right? This is why people try not to cry in public. It 'distracts' them from the important things.\n\nBut when someone asks if you are OK, it is a shoulder to lean on. A crutch to hold. That's why people give up holding tears when they are offered help. As it makes them feel better, while having 'something to fidget with', to better focus, for lack of a better term.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1470031", "title": "John 20:15", "section": "Section::::Analysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 552, "text": "According to John, \"Woman, why are you crying? Who is it you are looking for?\" is the first thing Jesus says upon his resurrection. The first part \"Why are you crying?\" repeats the statement made by the angels in . Jesus adds \"Who is it you are looking for?\" This question, which Jesus has asked others previously in the Gospel, is often read as a wider question of what people are seeking in their lives. That Jesus quickly understands why Mary is weeping is also said to show his greater understanding of humanity and human feelings than the angels.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7733908", "title": "Cry No More (Shareefa song)", "section": "Section::::Song information.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 278, "text": "\"Cry No More\" is about a woman in an unhealthy relationship. Her man cheats on her and she always cries. In the song, she sings that she can't cry anymore because she is over and through with her ex-boyfriend. Because she has a lot on her mind, she has no time to cry over him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17389946", "title": "Crying", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 672, "text": "Crying is the shedding of tears (or welling of tears in the eyes) in response to an emotional state, pain or a physical irritation of the eye. Emotions that can lead to crying include anger, happiness, or sadness. The act of crying has been defined as \"a complex secretomotor phenomenon characterized by the shedding of tears from the lacrimal apparatus, without any irritation of the ocular structures\", instead, giving a relief which protects from conjunctivitis. A related medical term is lacrimation, which also refers to non-emotional shedding of tears. Various forms of crying are known as \"sobbing\", \"weeping\", \"wailing\", \"whimpering\", \"bawling\", and \"blubbering\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20151988", "title": "Everyday Demons", "section": "Section::::Style and composition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 551, "text": "Neeson explained that \"Cry Out\" is an attempt to \"capture the spirit of youth, that kinda feeling when you're young\". The song's lyrics reference \"Troublegum\" and \"Take the Power Back\", by Therapy? and Rage Against the Machine, respectively, two bands favoured by Neeson in his youth. \"Why'd You Change Your Mind\" relates to Neeson's efforts to comprehend why a friend of his chose to commit suicide. Neeson explains: \"In the chorus of the song I'm just trying to understand what goes through a person's mind and why they should take their own life.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "73165", "title": "Infant", "section": "Section::::Care and feeding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 211, "text": "Infants cry as a form of basic instinctive communication. A crying infant may be trying to express a variety of feelings including hunger, discomfort, overstimulation, boredom, wanting something, or loneliness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17389946", "title": "Crying", "section": "Section::::Function.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 381, "text": "Recent psychological theories of crying emphasize the relationship of crying to the experience of perceived helplessness. From this perspective, an underlying experience of helplessness can usually explain why people cry. For example, a person may cry after receiving surprisingly happy news, ostensibly because the person feels powerless or unable to influence what is happening.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "234798", "title": "Grief", "section": "Section::::Reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 782, "text": "Crying is a normal and natural part of grieving. It has also been found, however, that crying and talking about the loss is not the only healthy response and, if forced or excessive, can be harmful. Responses or actions in the affected person, called \"coping ugly\" by researcher George Bonanno, may seem counter-intuitive or even appear dysfunctional, e.g., celebratory responses, laughter, or self-serving bias in interpreting events. Lack of crying is also a natural, healthy reaction, potentially protective of the individual, and may also be seen as a sign of resilience. Science has found that some healthy people who are grieving do not spontaneously talk about the loss. Pressing people to cry or retell the experience of a loss can be damaging. Genuine laughter is healthy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There was a time, like in the 70's, when the distinction actually meant something. The radio stations were mainly playing \"pop\" (am stations) and \"rock\" or \"disco\" and \"r & b\" (fm stations)\n\nThe stuff people were listening to that didn't get play on the radio (outside of college stations) was more \"artsy.\" Think The Velvet Underground or Big Star or Captian Beefheart.\n\nToday, this term means very little as most of the new ideas and \"artistic\" approaches to music have been absorbed into mainstream pop culture.\n\nI suppose one could argue that things that are today called \"art-pop\" are *more* descendant from the art-pop of old, and less descendant of traditional western pop music. However, this is no longer a real separate category, it's a spectrum to be used in a descriptive manner (ie this music it more \"arty\" than that music)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27930618", "title": "Art pop", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 621, "text": "Art pop (also typeset as art-pop or artpop) is a loosely defined style of pop music influenced by pop art's integration of high and low culture, and which emphasizes the manipulation of signs, style, and gesture over personal expression. Art pop artists may be inspired by postmodern approaches or art theories as well as other forms of art, such as fashion, fine art, cinema, and avant-garde literature. They may deviate from traditional pop audiences and rock music conventions, instead exploring ideas such as pop's status as commercial art, notions of artifice and the self, and questions of historical authenticity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27930618", "title": "Art pop", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1054, "text": "Art pop draws on postmodernism's breakdown of the high/low cultural boundary, with art pop artists trouble issues of sociological interpretation and historical authenticity, and instead exploring concepts of artifice and commerce. The style emphasizes the manipulation of signs over personal expression, drawing on an aesthetic of the everyday and the disposable, in distinction to the Romantic and autonomous tradition embodied by art rock or progressive rock. Sociomusicologist Simon Frith has distinguished the appropriation of art into pop music as having a particular concern with style, gesture, and the ironic use of historical eras and genres. Central to particular purveyors of the style were notions of the self as a work of construction and artifice, as well as a preoccupation with the invention of terms, imagery, process, and affect. \"The Independent\"s Nick Coleman wrote: \"Art-pop is partly about attitude and style; but it's essentially about art. It is, if you like, a way of making pure formalism socially acceptable in a pop context. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27930618", "title": "Art pop", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 796, "text": "Cultural theorist Mark Fisher wrote that the development of art pop evolved out of the triangulation of pop, art, and fashion. Frith states that it was \"more or less\" directly inspired by Pop art. According to critic Stephen Holden, art pop often refers to any pop style which deliberately aspires to the formal values of classical music and poetry, though these works are often marketed by commercial interests rather than respected cultural institutions. Writers for \"The Independent\" and the \"Financial Times\" have noted the attempts of art pop music to distance its audiences from the public at large. Robert Christgau wrote in \"The Village Voice\" in 1987 that \"art-pop is like the dB's and XTC, when a fascination with craft spirals up and in until it turns into an aestheticist obsession.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53921040", "title": "Eisen Bernardo", "section": "Section::::Works.:Mag+Art.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 464, "text": "\"Pop culture is an ever growing organism. Artwork after artwork and mash up after mash up, it is being transformed from one medium to another. Bernardo’s work proves that pop culture can be placed alongside classical art without incident. The artist’s attention to detail is also one of the factors that make his ‘Mag + Art’ series a big hit. The palette and brush strokes make the magazine covers feel at home in the canvas and paint-ridden classical art world.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103895", "title": "Pop art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 699, "text": "Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the United Kingdom and the United States during the mid- to late-1950s. The movement presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular and mass culture, such as advertising, comic books and mundane cultural objects. One of its aims is to use images of \"popular\" (as opposed to elitist) culture in art, emphasizing the banal or kitschy elements of any culture, most often through the use of irony. It is also associated with the artists' use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. In pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, or combined with unrelated material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "255791", "title": "Art music", "section": "Section::::Popular music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 839, "text": "There have been continual attempts throughout the history of popular music to make a claim for itself as art rather than as popular culture, and a number of music styles that were previously understood as \"popular music\" have since been categorized in the art or classical category. According to the academic Tim Wall, the most significant example of the struggle between Tin Pan Alley, African-American, vernacular, and art discourses was in jazz. As early as the 1930s, artists attempted to cultivate ideas of \"symphonic jazz\", taking it away from its perceived vernacular and black American roots. Following these developments, histories of popular music tend to marginalize jazz, partly because the reformulation of jazz in the art discourse has been so successful that many (as of 2013) would not consider it a form of popular music.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "103895", "title": "Pop art", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 569, "text": "Among the early artists that shaped the pop art movement were Eduardo Paolozzi and Richard Hamilton in Britain, and Larry Rivers, Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns among others in the United States. Pop art is widely interpreted as a reaction to the then-dominant ideas of abstract expressionism, as well as an expansion of those ideas. Due to its utilization of found objects and images, it is similar to Dada. Pop art and minimalism are considered to be art movements that precede postmodern art, or are some of the earliest examples of postmodern art themselves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Juice contains water so you just boil it until that water is gone to make a more concentrated juice", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7984", "title": "Drink", "section": "Section::::Production.:Juicing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 333, "text": "The process of extracting juice from fruits and vegetables can take a number of forms. Simple crushing of most fruits will provide a significant amount of liquid, though a more intense pressure can be applied to get the maximum amount of juice from the fruit. Both crushing and pressing are processes used in the production of wine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25439732", "title": "Juice", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 897, "text": "Juice is prepared by mechanically squeezing or macerating (sometimes referred to as cold pressed) fruit or vegetable flesh without the application of heat or solvents. For example, orange juice is the liquid extract of the fruit of the orange tree, and tomato juice is the liquid that results from pressing the fruit of the tomato plant. Juice may be prepared in the home from fresh fruit and vegetables using a variety of hand or electric juicers. Many commercial juices are filtered to remove fiber or pulp, but high-pulp fresh orange juice is a popular beverage. Additives are put in some juices, such as sugar and artificial flavours (in some fruit juice-based beverages); savoury seasonings (e.g., in Clamato or Caesar tomato juice drinks). Common methods for preservation and processing of fruit juices include canning, pasteurization, concentrating, freezing, evaporation and spray drying.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20771118", "title": "Juice vesicles", "section": "Section::::Extraction and Preservation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 1073, "text": "Juice vesicles hold a lot of juice than can be recovered through various extraction processes. The pulp is usually removed from the juice by filtering it out. The juiciness of the pulp depends on the species, variety, season, and the tree on which it grew. Close to 90% of the citrus fruit juice solids are recovered with extractors. Pectic enzymes can sometimes be added to lessen the thickness of these solids. The juice along with these solids can be combined to increase primary juice yields or sold as bases for fruit beverages. The juice solids become opaque from the pulp washing process, resulting in a less expensive source of fruit solids for food labeling in comparison to regular juice. The juice solids can also be pasteurized, dried, and sold, but appear dark brown in color if they have not been washed properly before drying. The solids can also be stored frozen or sold to beverage manufacturers. They provide fruit beverages that are sold with a higher appeal to a consumer and improved texture in the juice. These opaque juice solids are known as cloud.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3172298", "title": "Siraitia grosvenorii", "section": "Section::::Sweetening agent.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 948, "text": "In this process, the peel and seeds are removed, and the pulped fruit is made into a fruit concentrate or puree. Additional juice may be extracted from the remaining pulp by hot water. The juice is homogenized, slightly acidified to prevent gelling and improve the flavor, then treated with pectinase or other enzymes to break down the pectin. Most of the off-flavor agents are then removed with ion-exchange resins, such as sulfonated polystyrene-divinylbenzene copolymer or polyacrylic acid. Alternatively, the off-flavors can be adsorbed by agents like charcoal or bentonite, which are removed by filtration; or precipitated with gelatin or other gelling agents. Most of the remaining sulfurous volatiles are then removed by low-pressure evaporation. The juice is then pasteurized to inactivate remaining natural enzymes and kill micro-organisms. The process is claimed to preserve a substantial fraction of the mogrosides present in the fruit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40788910", "title": "Climbing and falling film plate evaporator", "section": "Section::::Range of applications.:Fruit juice concentration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 483, "text": "Fruit juices are condensed by evaporation for storage, transport and commercial use. If fruit juices are exposed to heat, the nutrient content such as vitamin C may be affected. Furthermore, these nutrients are easily oxidized at high temperature. The evaporator can overcome this constraint as it operates at high feed flow rate and small temperature difference. In addition, the change in color and texture of the juices can be prevented via the operation of this evaporator type.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "454875", "title": "Apple juice", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 405, "text": "Apple juice is a fruit juice made by the maceration and pressing of an apple. The resulting expelled juice may be further treated by enzymatic and centrifugal clarification to remove the starch and pectin, which holds fine particulate in suspension, and then pasteurized for packaging in glass, metal or aseptic processing system containers, or further treated by dehydration processes to a concentrate. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25439732", "title": "Juice", "section": "Section::::Preparation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 555, "text": "After the fruits are picked and washed, the juice is extracted by one of two automated methods. In the first method, two metal cups with sharp metal tubes on the bottom cup come together, removing the peel and forcing the flesh of the fruit through the metal tube. The juice of the fruit, then escapes through small holes in the tube. The peels can then be used further, and are washed to remove oils, which are reclaimed later for usage. The second method requires the fruits to be cut in half before being subjected to reamers, which extract the juice.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]