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[ { "answer": "I believe it started in the 70s with the import of the cartoons Battle of the Planets (G Force!) and Star Blazers. Followed by Robotech and Akira in the 80s. Then with the proliferation of the internet in the 90s, more anime became readily accessible and evolved from their.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The answer is very multifaceted. Back when anime started to trickle into american television for the first time, one of the things it did was fulfill the rather common need for youth to find media that is (generally) outside the realm of their parent's enjoyments/understanding. In short, kids were attracted to it. Combine that with the fact that many anime shows were relatively cheap to produce. Think Pokemon; most of it is one drawn frame with mouths moving. You suddenly get a marketplace where an entire generation is fascinated with an inexpensive to produce cartoon that is geared towards toy sales and boom. You've suddenly given a ton of networks a multi-million dollar excuse to start offering anime more regularly.\n\nThere's way more of course. Some of it is culture shock. Anime was more often risking things that American cartoons were not. (Akira.) This created an attraction to more provocative animes as well that capture an entirely different audience than kids, which is a big factor in why you see such a range of people enjoying it. \n\nAmerica also made the mistake of not regularly developing cartoons for adults (because how could adults like cartoons?) A lot of anime with mature themes was featured in college \"Anime Clubs\" which sparked a whole new subset of anime fans. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the US, cartoons were mostly for children, and tended to be sanitized and dumbed down to cater to children. But in Japan, it was a more general medium, and often told more complex, adult stories. \n\nFor people who like animation, but want something more than Bugs Bunny, anime is pretty appealing.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "30007108", "title": "Japanese pop culture in the United States", "section": "Section::::Anime in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 704, "text": "Anime culture in the United States began as a niche community that had a grassroots foundation built by groups of fans on the local level. Some of the earliest televised anime to air in the United States were \"Astro Boy\", \"Speed Racer\", and \"Gigantor\", which gained popularity with many American audiences during the late 1960s. Anime shows that aired in the United States up until the 1980s were usually heavily altered and localized, such as \"Science Ninja Team Gatchaman\" becoming \"Battle of the Planets\" in the 1970s, and the mecha show \"Macross\" becoming \"Robotech\" in the 1980s. Takara's \"Diaclone\" and \"Microman\" mecha toylines also became the basis for the \"Transformers\" franchise in the 1980s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30007108", "title": "Japanese pop culture in the United States", "section": "Section::::Anime in the United States.:Anime influence and sales.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 1231, "text": "Through the last two decades the introduction of anime into American mainstream culture has furthered its popularity. Such famous titles as \"Sailor Moon\", \"Dragon Ball Z\", and most importantly \"Pokémon\" have influenced anime's appeal to young Americans. \"Anime already makes up an estimated 60% of all broadcast animation across the world.\" \"ICv2 estimates the size of the North American anime market at $275-300 million\" (in retail dollars).\" To compete with its Japanese competitors, many production companies in the US have adjusted their style to one inspired by anime to hold onto their viewers. An important example that has sparked much controversy in the animation world would be \"\". A popular show on Nickelodeon, the characters have a distinct anime style, even the expressions and mannerism drawn evoke that of anime style. \"Teen Titans\" on Cartoon Network is yet another example of anime's influence on cartoons, as well as a popular comic strip turned cartoon called \"The Boondocks\". In recent years there has also been development of Anime developed in the United States in collaboration with Japan, examples would be the Netflix original series Neo Yokio and Castlevania (TV series) based off the video game series.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "319589", "title": "History of anime", "section": "Section::::2000s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 514, "text": "Following the launch of Toonami on Cartoon Network and later Adult Swim, anime saw a giant rise in the North American market. Kid-friendly anime such as \"Pokémon\", \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\", \"Digimon\", \"Doraemon\", \"Bakugan\", \"Beyblade\", and the 4Kids Entertainment adaptation of \"One Piece\" have all received varying levels of success. This era also saw the rise of anime-influenced animation, most notably \"\" and its sequel \"The Legend of Korra\", \"Ben 10\", \"Chaotic\", \"Samurai Jack\", \"The Boondocks\", \"RWBY\" and \"Teen Titans\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "800", "title": "Anime", "section": "Section::::Globalization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 739, "text": "The beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of Japanese anime series into the American culture. In the 1990s, Japanese animation slowly gained popularity in America. Media companies such as Viz and Mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the American market. The 1988 film \"Akira\" is largely credited with popularizing anime in the Western world during the early 1990s, before anime was further popularized by television shows such \"Pokémon\" and \"Dragon Ball\" in the late 1990s. The growth of the Internet later provided Western audiences an easy way to access Japanese content. This is especially the case with net services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll. As a direct result, various interests surrounding Japan has increased.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22330602", "title": "Anime and manga fandom", "section": "Section::::Otaku.:English-language fan communities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 767, "text": "According to Mike Tatsugawa, the founder and CEO of the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation, the first milestone for anime in the U.S. was in the 1980s with the advent of the Internet. With the Internet, fans were able to more easily communicate with each other and thus better able to exchange fan-subtitled tapes and higher quality versions of anime. Some experts, such as Susan Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, say that \"Akira\" marked the first milestone. However, most experts agree that the next milestone was in 1992 when U.S. Renditions, a film importer, released the first English-subtitled anime videotape that year, entitled \"Gunbuster\". According to Tatsugawa, the success of \"Gunbuster\" triggered a flurry of releases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27396814", "title": "2000s in Japan", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 373, "text": "Anime of the 2000s would include \"Bleach\", \"One Piece\", \"\", \"Sonic X\", \"Tokyo Mew Mew\", \"Ojamajo Doremi\", \"Gurren Lagann\", and \"Kodai Ōja Kyōryū Kingu\". Most of these anime shows mentioned here would also go on to relative success in North America and Europe in the 2000s. For example, \"Tokyo Mew Mew\" became \"Mew Mew Power\" while \"Ojamajo Doremi\" became \"Magical Doremi\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279609", "title": "List of anime distributed in the United States", "section": "Section::::1990s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 100, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 100, "end_character": 443, "text": "The 1990s, was the period in which anime reached mainstream popularity in the U.S. market and the terms \"anime\" and \"manga\" became commonly well known (ultimately replacing the former majorly known term \"Japanimation\"). Companies such as FUNimation Productions, Bandai Entertainment, 4Kids Entertainment, Central Park Media, Media Blasters, Saban Entertainment, Viz Video, Pioneer LDC and ADV Films began licensing anime in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Misidentification wasn't uncommon, especially during the early days of the war when many units had different-colored uniforms. Notably, during the First Battle of Bull Run (July 1861), one of the turning points came when the 33rd Virginia (Confederate) regiment was mistaken for a Union unit. They were able to get close enough to decimate an infantry regiment and capture several artillery pieces, which (along with a charge by Stonewall Jackson and the arrival of some Confederate reserves) started the general Union retreat.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6019117", "title": "John Clem", "section": "Section::::Career.:American Civil War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 686, "text": "In October 1863, Clem was captured in Georgia by Confederate cavalrymen while detailed as a train guard. The Confederates confiscated his U.S. uniform which reportedly upset him terribly—including his cap which had three bullet holes in it. He was included in a prisoner exchange a short time later, but the Confederate newspapers used his age and celebrity status for propaganda purposes, to show \"what sore straits the Yankees are driven, when they have to send their babies out to fight us.\" After participating with the Army of the Cumberland in many other battles, serving as a mounted orderly, he was discharged in September 1864. Clem was wounded in combat twice during the war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19723740", "title": "Uniforms of the Confederate States Armed Forces", "section": "Section::::Service dress uniforms overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 521, "text": "As the war progressed, the image began to shift from the \"ragged rebel\" look to a well-uniformed Army in the Eastern and Western theaters. In the last 12 months of fighting, these Confederate forces were well-uniformed, the best they had ever appeared in terms of consistency, wearing clothing made of imported blue-gray cloth, either manufactured locally or bought ready-made under contract from British manufacturers, such as Peter Tait of Limerick, Ireland who became a major supplier of uniforms for the Confederacy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1106987", "title": "Henry Wirz", "section": "Section::::Wirz controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 823, "text": "The Grand Army of the Republic, the United Confederate Veterans, Sons of Confederate Veterans (SCV), and the United Daughters of the Confederacy (UDC), among others, evoked sad memories of Civil War prisoners portraying Wirz either a villain, or a martyr-hero, thus further contributing to the disputation. From 1899 to 1916, sixteen states erected monuments dedicated to the Camp Sumter's prisoners. In response, the United Daughters of the Confederacy initiated a construction of a monument honoring Henry Wirz in Andersonville, Georgia. Every year the UDC and SCV hold a memorial service at the monument. Until recently, SCV annually marched to Wirz's memorial in Andersonville along with supporters of a congressional pardon for him. The SCV posthumously awarded Wirz their Confederate Medal of Honor, created in 1977.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42475128", "title": "Edward McGehee", "section": "Section::::Biography.:Career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 348, "text": "During the American Civil War of 1861–1865, McGehee supported the Union. However, he also sold clothes made in his textile factory to the Confederate States Army. The mansion at his Bowling Green Plantation was burned down by United States Colored Troops in 1864. His wife wrote about the incident in \"Army & Navy Herald,\" a Confederate newspaper.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49313348", "title": "Battle of Mount Elba", "section": "Section::::Battle.:Skirmish at Longview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 931, "text": "Apparently Confederate pickets failed to respond to the presence of the Union raiding party because they assumed that the Union soldiers were a party of Wright's Cavalry that recently passed through the area were returning for some reason. It was often difficult to distinguish Union soldiers from Confederates during this period of the war. Some Confederates in Arkansas were wearing clothing manufactured at Confederate depots made out of English army cloth. Confederates had received a supply of British cloth through the Union blockade to Confederate depots in Texas, and a supply of uniforms made from this cloth had been forwarded to Arkansas. Jackets made from this material were hard to distinguish from Federal infantry and mounted service jackets. To add to the confusion, some Confederate units, such as Confederate General Joe Shelby's Missouri Cavalry Brigade had become known for dressing in captured Union uniforms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11506973", "title": "36th Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment", "section": "Section::::Service.:Prisoners of war at Camp Ford.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1041, "text": "The Confederate victors of Marks Mills robbed the survivors of every valuable item they possessed, including hats, boots, watches, money and in some cases, the clothes on their backs. Overall, they were very roughly handled by their captors, according to Captain Swiggett. They were force-marched to the rebel prison at Camp Ford in Tyler, Texas, where dozens of them perished from disease over the next 12 months. Conditions at Camp Ford were primitive. Although a good spring provided cool clean water, and while the Confederate guards slaughtered cattle to supply the prisoners fresh beef regularly, the prisoners had no shelter from the sun or rain except improvised huts or blankets, and as the numbers of prisoners rose, the sanitary conditions declined precipitously, leading to many deaths from exposure, chronic diarrhea and disease. A number of the 36th Iowa's officers escaped. Captain Swiggett twice escaped but was recaptured on both occasions and was rewarded for his bad behavior by being one of the last prisoners exchanged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28929485", "title": "Roswell Mill", "section": "Section::::Civil War Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 474, "text": "The Roswell Mills are best known for their role in producing supplies for the Confederacy during the Civil War. They made \"Roswell Gray\" fabric to be sewed into Confederate military uniforms. Because it was of great importance to the South’s military supply chain, General Gerrard, a Union official working under the purview of General Sherman, seized the mill on July 5, 1864. Confederate forces burned down the bridge that spanned Vickery Creek before he could get to it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It could easily be the ingestion of large amounts of salt and/or sugar (which are often heavily used in rich foods) causing dehydration. It could also be elevated levels of insulin being released into the body as the food is processed, or your body rejecting an ingredient in some way. Lots of intolerances can be very mild and go easily unnoticed. \n\nThe simple answer is, if you're going to eat rich foods, drink a good amount of plain water with, or after eating, your food. It's a good remedy for most of the side effects I mentioned. Any large meal can make you feel a bit rough, so taking your time eating can be a big help as well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19592340", "title": "Management of chronic headaches", "section": "Section::::Non-medicinal.:Changes in diet.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 1292, "text": "Many physicians also recommend changes in diet to treat chronic headaches. Many chronic headache sufferers fail to recognize foods or beverages as headache factors, because the consumption may not consistently cause headaches or the headaches may be delayed. Many of the chemicals in certain foods can cause chronic headaches, including caffeine, nitrites, nitrates, tyramine, and alcohols. Some of the foods and beverages that chronic headache sufferers are advised to avoid include caffeinated beverages, chocolate, processed meats, cheese and fermented dairy products, fresh yeast-risen baked goods, nuts, and alcohol as well as certain fruits and vegetables. Additionally, people may have differing dietary triggers on an individualized basis, because not all foods affect people the same way. Different medical professionals suggest different ways of testing or changing diets. Some may suggest eliminating a few of the potentially headache-causing foods at a time for a short period of time, while others suggest removing all the threatening foods from a person's diet and slowly adding a couple back at a time. Yet, others may not suggest diet modification at all. The treatment of chronic headaches through changes in diet is based on personal opinion, and, therefore, controversial.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "69893", "title": "Headache", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Secondary.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 335, "text": "Gastrointestinal disorders may cause headaches, including Helicobacter pylori infection, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, gastroparesis, and hepatobiliary disorders. The treatment of the gastrointestinal disorders may lead to a remission or improvement of headaches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1696444", "title": "Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 354, "text": "Headaches can be attributed to many different substances. Some of these include alcohol, NO, carbon monoxide poisoning, cocaine, caffeine and monosodium glutamate. Chronic use of certain medications used to treat headaches can also start causing headaches, known as medication overuse headaches. Headaches may also be a symptom of medication withdrawal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21381229", "title": "NIH classification of headaches", "section": "Section::::Traction/inflammatory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 281, "text": "Like other types of pain, headaches can serve as warning signals of more serious disorders. This is particularly true for headaches caused by inflammation, including those related to meningitis as well as those resulting from diseases of the sinuses, spine, neck, ears, and teeth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1696444", "title": "Headache attributed to a substance or its withdrawal", "section": "Section::::Causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 549, "text": "A number of different causes contribute to this class of headache. Several common chemicals may be the culprit. Nitrite compounds dilate blood vessels, causing dull and pounding headaches with repeat exposure. Nitrite is found in dynamite, heart medicine and it is a chemical used to preserve meat (ergo these being known as \"nitrite\" or \"hot dog\" headaches). Eating foods prepared with monosodium glutamate (MSG) may thus result in headache. Acetaldehyde from alcohol may also cause a headache either acutely or after a number of hours (hangover).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40748148", "title": "Genetics of migraine headaches", "section": "Section::::Evolution.:Conflicts with other organisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 579, "text": "A headache-prone CNS may have resulted from interactions with other organisms in two ways. The first possibility is that migraine offers an advantage to the organism in fighting infection by increasing blood flow to the brain. The second possibility is that certain pathogens evolved to cause headache as a way of speeding their transmission to other organisms. Finally, migraine may benefit neither the host nor the pathogen, but may simply be the result of certain infections. This last explanation is concordant with the apparent negative impact of migraine on human fitness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322210", "title": "Medication overuse headache", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 508, "text": "Medication overuse headache (MOH), also known as rebound headache usually occurs when analgesics are taken frequently to relieve headaches. Rebound headaches frequently occur daily, can be very painful and are a common cause of chronic daily headache. They typically occur in patients with an underlying headache disorder such as migraine or tension-type headache that \"transforms\" over time from an episodic condition to chronic daily headache due to excessive intake of acute headache relief medications. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Fortunately for post-war Germany they didn't have to pay any reparations from the First World War as the payment had ceased in 1932. Reparations had always been a thorny political issue in Germany, even from the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. In the Treaty itself, Germany was not given a definite figure to repay; rather it simply agreed to pay an indefinite amount that would be decided by a yet-to-be established Reparations Committee. In the meantime, Germany had to pay for the upkeep of the occupying armies with raw materials and food. This is referred to as payment in kind. Eventually the figure was settled as 132bn Marks, or £6.6bn. \n\nGiven the state of the German economy after the war, and the loss of significant coal deposits in Silesia and Alsace-Lorraine, Germany was unable to keep up with her payments either in raw materials or in money. The result of this was that Belgium and France occupied the Ruhr region of Germany and confiscated all production in payment. German workers laid down their tools in a scheme of passive resistance. However, it was during this time that hyperinflation brought on by war debts, a failing economy and decreased production reached its high point. Germany needed serious help, and passive resistance in the Ruhr wasn't really winning them any friends. The practice was ended and the so-called Dawes Plan was drawn up, whereby Germany would recieve foreign investment and loans, the French and Belgians would withdraw from the Ruhr, the schedule of repayments would be redrawn and a new currency, the *Rentenmark*, would be issued to replace the hyperinflated Goldmark. \n\nHowever, many viewed the Dawes Plan as only a stopgap measure and pressured for a new deal, which was drawn up in 1929. The Young Plan, as it was called, set a new schedule and reduced figure for reparations. Crucially, it set a fixed end date for payments (1988), which was the first time that such a thing had happened. It also required the French and British to withdraw from the Rheinland ahead of schedule, and provided additional loans to Germany. While economically sound, the plan drew criticism from the right wing who viewed it as selling out to international financiers and making Germany dependent on foreign aid.\n\nLast but not least, following the deepening financial crisis, a moratorium had been placed on reparation repayments in 1931. In 1932, a conference was held in Lausanne which agreed that Germany should no longer have to make payments given their dire financial situation. By this point Germany had only paid roughly one sixth of what they were originally required to do so.\n\nTherefore, German ended and indeed began the Second World War without any obligation to pay reparations. However, following the end of the Second World War, various debts and repayments mostly fell on West Germany. West Germany voluntarily signed agreements with Israel, Greece and Yugoslavia amongst others to voluntarily pay reparations for the damage done to their citizens and economies. Additionally, West Germany agreed to pay the reparations which had not been previously paid from WWI, in addition to other debts accrued. It was agreed that West Germany should not bear the entire weight of debt, and a portion was only to be repaid upon reunification, which did not occur until 1990. However, reunified Germany continued to pay this debt, with the last payment being made in 2010.\n\nIn summary, Germany ceased to make WWI reparations payments in 1932 but the West German government voluntarily agreed to continue payments in 1953, with the condition that part of the debt only be paid upon reunification. \n\nFor further reading:\n\nLeonard Gomes, *German Reparations, 1919-1932: A Historical Survey* (2010)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1080461", "title": "German gold mark", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 617, "text": "World War I reparations owed by Germany were stated in gold marks in 1921, 1929 and 1931; this was the victorious Allies' response to their fear that vanquished Germany might try to pay off the obligation in paper marks. The actual amount of reparations that Germany was obliged to pay out was not the 132 billion marks cited in the London Schedule of 1921 but rather the 50 billion marks stipulated in the A and B Bonds. The actual total payout from 1920 to 1931 (when payments were suspended indefinitely) was 20 billion German gold marks, worth about or . Most of that money came from loans from New York bankers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1080461", "title": "German gold mark", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 451, "text": "Following the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, payments of reparations were officially abandoned. West Germany after World War II did not resume payment of reparations as such, but did resume the payment of debt that Germany had acquired in the inter-war period to finance its reparation payments, paying off the principal on those debts by 1980. The interest on those debts was paid off on 3 October 2010, the 20th anniversary of German reunification.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "524119", "title": "Dawes Plan", "section": "Section::::Background: World War I Europe.:The initial German debt default.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1070, "text": "At the conclusion of World War I, the Allied and Associate Powers included in the Treaty of Versailles a plan for reparations to be paid by Germany; 20 billion gold marks was to be paid while the final figure was decided. In 1921, the London Schedule of Payments established the German reparation figure at 132 billion gold marks (separated into various classes, of which only 50 billion gold marks was required to be paid). German industrialists in the Ruhr Valley, who had lost factories in Lorraine which went back to France after the war, demanded hundreds of millions of marks compensation from the German government. Despite its obligations under the Versailles Treaty, the German government paid the Ruhr Valley industrialists, which contributed significantly to the hyperinflation that followed. For the first five years after the war, coal was scarce in Europe and France sought coal exports from Germany for its steel industry. The Germans needed coal for home heating and for domestic steel production, having lost the steel plants of Lorraine to the French.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33112", "title": "World War I reparations", "section": "Section::::Evolution of reparations.:Loan payments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 645, "text": "To help make reparations payments, Germany took out various loans during the 1920s. In 1933, following the cancellation of reparations, the new German Chancellor Adolf Hitler cancelled all payments. In June 1953, an agreement was reached on this existing debt with West Germany. Germany agreed to repay 50 per cent of the loan amounts that had been defaulted on in the 1920s, but deferred some of the debt until West and East Germany were unified. In 1995, following reunification, Germany began making the final payments towards the loans. A final installment of was made on 3 October 2010, settling German loan debts in regard to reparations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33112", "title": "World War I reparations", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 821, "text": "World War I reparations were war reparations imposed during the Paris Peace Conference upon the Central Powers following their defeat in the First World War by the Allied and Associate Powers. Each of the defeated powers was required to make payments in either cash or kind. Because of the financial situation Austria, Hungary, and Turkey found themselves in after the war, few to no reparations were paid and the requirements for reparations were cancelled. Bulgaria, having paid only a fraction of what was required, saw its reparation figure reduced and then cancelled. Historians have recognized the German requirement to pay reparations as the \"chief battleground of the post-war era\" and \"the focus of the power struggle between France and Germany over whether the Versailles Treaty was to be enforced or revised\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5487302", "title": "Great Depression in France", "section": "Section::::Economic crisis of the 1920s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 701, "text": "The German reparations decided by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 brought in large amounts of money which served principally to repay war loans to the United States. Reparations payments ended in 1923. In January of that year, Germany defaulted on its payments and the French president, Raymond Poincaré, invoked a clause of the Versailles Treaty and sent troops to occupy the Ruhr valley in the hope of enforcing payment. Germany responded by flooding the area with inflated money, ruining its currency and denying France any hope of full reparations. Poincaré accepted an agreement mediated by the United States in which it received smaller payments, but Poincaré's government fell soon afterward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38072844", "title": "June 1919", "section": "Section::::June 28, 1919 (Saturday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 213, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 213, "end_character": 246, "text": "BULLET::::- Germany accepted responsibility for the damages and losses caused by the war and would make reparation payments to the Allies; the Reparations Committee in 1921 would set total reparation payments to gold marks or $5 billion in gold.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Gravity constantly pulls on your body and your bones have to be strong enough to hold your weight, so your body streghthens them to withstand that weight. In space, you have no weight, so your body redirects your resources elsewhere. Your bones don't need to be dense, because of that, so the body weakens them so it can use its energy and materials for other things that are more important.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5607447", "title": "Space medicine", "section": "Section::::Effects of space-travel.:Loss of bone density.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 326, "text": "Spaceflight osteopenia is the bone loss associated with human spaceflight. After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density. New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover faster. Research in the following areas holds the potential to aid the process of growing new bone:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2234210", "title": "Electrospray", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Singularity development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 475, "text": "The apex of the conical meniscus cannot become infinitely small. A singularity develops when the hydrodynamic relaxation time formula_16 becomes larger than the charge relaxation time formula_17. The undefined symbols stand for characteristic length formula_18 and vacuum permittivity formula_19. Due to intrinsic varicose instability, the charged liquid jet ejected through the cone apex breaks into small charged droplets, which are radially dispersed by the space-charge.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2426653", "title": "Spaceflight osteopenia", "section": "Section::::Cause.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 410, "text": "Bone remodels in response to stress in order to maintain constant strain energy per bone mass throughout. To do this, it grows more dense in areas experiencing high stress, while resorbing density in areas experiencing low stress. On Mars, where gravity is about one-third that of earth, the gravitational forces acting on astronauts' bodies would be much lower, causing bones to decrease in mass and density.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50506253", "title": "Locomotion in space", "section": "Section::::Challenges of locomotion in reduced gravity.:Effects on the human body.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 683, "text": "The muscle volume can decrease up to 20% over a six-month mission, and the bone density can decrease at a rate of approximately 1.4% at the hip in a month's time. A study done by Fitts and Trappe examined the effects of prolonged space flight (defined as approximately 180 days) on human skeletal muscle using muscle biopsies. Prolonged weightlessness was shown to cause significant loss in the mass, force, and power production in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. Many countermeasures to these effects exist, but thus far they are not sufficient to compensate for the detrimental effects of space travel and astronauts need extensive rehabilitation upon their return to Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2426653", "title": "Spaceflight osteopenia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 392, "text": "Spaceflight osteopenia refers to the characteristic bone loss that occurs during spaceflight. Astronauts lose an average of more than 1% bone mass per month spent in space. There is concern that during long duration flights, excessive bone loss and the associated increase in serum calcium ion levels will interfere with execution of mission tasks and result in irreversible skeletal damage.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "977221", "title": "Trabecula", "section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 754, "text": "Studies have shown that once a human reaches adulthood, bone density steadily decreases with age, to which loss of trabecular bone mass is a partial contributor. Loss of bone mass is defined by the World Health Organization as osteopenia if bone mineral density (BMD) is one standard deviation below mean BMD in young adults, and is defined as osteoporosis if it is more than 2.5 standard deviations below the mean. A low bone density greatly increases risk for stress fracture, which can occur without warning in those at risk. The resulting low-impact fractures from osteoporosis most commonly occur in the upper femur, which consists of 25-50% trabecular bone depending on the region, in the vertebrae which are about 90% trabecular, or in the wrist.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168848", "title": "Human skeleton", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Movement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 222, "text": "It is believed that the reduction of human bone density in prehistoric times reduced the agility and dexterity of human movement. Shifting from hunting to agriculture has caused human bone density to reduce significantly.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes, if Andromeda merged with Earth it would get crowded.\n\nIf Andromeda were to merge with the Milky Way, no, as long as you stayed away from news, internet and large telescopes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2589714", "title": "Milky Way", "section": "Section::::Environment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 75, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 75, "end_character": 477, "text": "Current measurements suggest the Andromeda Galaxy is approaching us at . In 3 to 4 billion years, there may be an Andromeda–Milky Way collision, depending on the importance of unknown lateral components to the galaxies' relative motion. If they collide, the chance of individual stars colliding with each other is extremely low, but instead the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disk galaxy over the course of about a billion years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "153353", "title": "Andromeda (constellation)", "section": "Section::::Features.:Deep-sky objects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 212, "text": "The future of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies may be interlinked: in about five billion years, the two could potentially begin an Andromeda–Milky Way collision that would spark extensive new star formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74331", "title": "Andromeda Galaxy", "section": "Section::::General.:Formation and history.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 591, "text": "Over the past 2 billion years, star formation throughout Andromeda's disk is thought to have decreased to the point of near-inactivity. There have been interactions with satellite galaxies like M32, M110, or others that have already been absorbed by Andromeda Galaxy. These interactions have formed structures like Andromeda's Giant Stellar Stream. A galactic merger roughly 100 million years ago is believed to be responsible for a counter-rotating disk of gas found in the center of Andromeda as well as the presence there of a relatively young (100 million years old) stellar population.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18478320", "title": "Future of an expanding universe", "section": "Section::::Timeline.:Stelliferous Era.:Milky Way Galaxy and the Andromeda Galaxy merge into one.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 778, "text": "The Andromeda Galaxy is currently approximately 2.5 million light years away from our galaxy, the Milky Way Galaxy, and they are moving towards each other at approximately 300 kilometers (186 miles) per second. Approximately five billion years from now, or 19 billion years after the Big Bang, the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy will collide with one another and merge into one large galaxy based on current evidence. Up until 2012, there was no way to know whether the possible collision was definitely going to happen or not. In 2012, researchers came to the conclusion that the collision is definite after using the Hubble Space Telescope between 2002 and 2010 to track the motion of Andromeda. This results in the formation of \"Milkomeda\" (also known as \"Milkdromeda\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "74331", "title": "Andromeda Galaxy", "section": "Section::::General.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 322, "text": "The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy from our own was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another, dimmer type of Cepheid. In the 1990s, measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the \"Hipparcos\" satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3088959", "title": "List of Andromeda's satellite galaxies", "section": "Section::::Interactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 535, "text": "New images from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope shed light on the Andromeda Galaxy's violent past. The images show that one of the latter's satellite galaxies, M32, blasted through one of the Andromeda Galaxy's spiral arms a few million years ago. Infrared pictures of the galaxy's two spiral arms demonstrate that they and the prominent star-forming ring are separate structures. The images also show a hole where the rings seem to split into arcs. This hole is where astronomers believe M32 punched through Andromeda's galactic disk.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "600721", "title": "The City and the Stars", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Discoveries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 320, "text": "After this, most of the Galactic Empire had left our galaxy, leaving only a scattered few. This departure from the galaxy, leaving it to Vanamonde, was because contact had been made with a \"very strange and very great\" intelligent, extraterrestrial species, which called them urgently to the other side of the universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So the rapid expansion happens because, during those times, those retail chains are filling a market demand.\n\nThe demand is high, business is good, the business expands.\n\nAt some point, the demand begins to fall. Bad business decisions that previously weren't noticed are now being noticed. Poor decisions might be made, or changes made too late to avert damage. The business continues to be able to operate for a period of time.\n\nThe losses increase over time. Executives are getting nervous. Competition is making their business obsolete. They are trying to compensate, but are hoping demand picks up again in the long term.\n\nIt doesn't. Demand continues to drop. They lose market share. Stores that were once wildly profitable are now massive losses. Meetings are held, shareholders are spoken to, and a decision is made.\n\nStores start closing. Loss leaders first, followed by the ones that are just making by, leaving only the leanest operating ones that can still make a profit. Last-minute deals to bring in new branding, services, or deals to somehow remain competitive might help keep the remaining stores afloat, but at this point their competition owns the market and is changing to keep ahead of it, while they are running out of steam.\n\nIn the end they mostly close down, leaving only a few stores behind, and using whatever is left to convert businesses to an alternative that still makes money, or look for acquisition (Blockbuster (Netflix + Redbox) - > Blockbuster Express, CircuitCity (Best Buy, poor management/lawsuits) - > _URL_2_ - > _URL_0_, Borders Books (low demand, Amazon, - > _URL_1_, etc.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because the very nature of the business they provide becomes obsolete and scaling back does not provide a way toward regaining profitability. For example, let's take a retail chain that is hugely successful and everywhere today - Starbucks. They provide coffee to order ready to consume to the public. Let's now take a new business - hypothetically, let's call it eCoffeeMax - finds a new way to deliver coffee to consumers in a better, cheaper way (more selection, higher quality, faster). They find a way to deliver your coffee wherever you are using quadcopter drones - at home, at the office, at school, even on your commute - for half the price and their coffee is better in every way. They'll even accept your junk mail as currency to buy coffee.\nNow all of the sudden, Starbucks has lost all of its competitive advantage when it comes to capturing customers. It tries to cut prices as much as it can but any further and it will lose money. It shuts down the least profitable stores but now every story is unprofitable because of the new competition. That's what happened to every bookstore in America after Amazon showed up. There was no way to compete. Amazon was the place that got you more books than independent or chain brick and mortar bookstores, at better prices, and at the convenience of shopping without having to go to the store.\n\nBlockbusters was tied to physical media as a business model when streaming became widely used. Circuit City relied on brick and mortar stores rather than online stores (Best Buy adapted to this better and shifted business to online sales to balance their sales load). \n\nScaling back wasn't an option - it was just hitting an evolutionary dead end in the business world after the nature of the business changed beyond the ability of the company to adapt to it. \n\nThere are many businesses today that are at risk. For example, Hollywood movies rely a lot on digital visual effects - used to be mostly for flashy space battles and monsters, but now even present-time dramas rely heavily on digital \"set extensions\" (adding digital extras walking around a busy city street instead of hiring 100 actual people as extras, adding buildings to customize a skyline, cleaning up an environment or modifying an environment). This work used to be performed by somewhat well paid digital artists in the USA in VFX studios in the US. Now, this work is moving further and further away, just like with manufacturing. At first, it was being farmed out to cheap small operations in the US, then cheap small studios in Canada and Europe. Then, India. Now, China is getting in the game. \n\nOur manufacturing base disappeared that way. A lot of it has to do with our government's political priorities. Is it more important to keep jobs and a business here or do you call it \"Free market\" and let corporations pay for your campaign and make sure you vote against labor union laws and laws that help give tax incentives to keep jobs here? We're competing against nations that fund their businesses using their tax moneys - South Korean corporations got big because the governments subsidized them heavily protected them vigorously. It's not a free market economy out there. We don't order our soldiers to go fight using their own privately purchased equipment while other armies are funded by their government. But in business, that's what we do and worse.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "5706816", "title": "Supplier convergence", "section": "Section::::Drawbacks of Supplier Convergence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 607, "text": "A key drawback to supplier convergence is that one of the main concepts of it is to force smaller companies into mergers or out of business by replacing or threatening to replace them with one large company offering different products or services. Wal-Mart and Borders, two of the superstores cited above, have received criticism for forcing local, independent stores out of business by offering convenience and prices that smaller retail stores would not be able to match. For many, this is a concerning trend, as it means local retail outlets will continue to be replaced with large, multinational firms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "276495", "title": "Small business", "section": "Section::::Advantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 501, "text": "One study showed that small, local businesses are better for a local economy than the introduction of new chain stores. By opening up new national level chain stores, the profits of locally owned businesses greatly decrease and many businesses end up failing and having to close. This creates an exponential effect. When one store closes, people lose their jobs, other businesses lose business from the failed business, and so on. In many cases, large firms displace just as many jobs as they create.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30863574", "title": "Stop & Shop/Giant-Landover", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 588, "text": "Stop & Shop operates a total of 416 stores in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, upstate and metropolitan New York, and New Jersey. Giant boasts 169 stores in Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the District of Columbia. The combined chain competed with regional chains such as Shaw's, Hannaford, Tops, Big Y, Wegmans, Price Chopper, ShopRite, Pathmark, Waldbaum's, King Kullen, Weis Markets, Acme, and Food Lion as well as national chains such as Aldi, big box stores such as Walmart Supercenters and Super Targets, and warehouse chains such as Sam's Club and Costco.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "183515", "title": "Retail", "section": "Section::::History.:Retailing in the modern era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 484, "text": "As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident. Under such competition and other issues such as business debt, there has been a noted business disruption called the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1891589", "title": "Big-box store", "section": "Section::::Big-box stores in various countries.:India.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 548, "text": "Similarly, conglomerates, such as Raheja's , Future Group, Bharti, Godrej, Reliance, and TATA, have over the last decade ventured into large-format retail chains. However, most of the stores opened in large malls and not as independent big box format stores, even though small and medium enterprises (SMEs) still account for the majority of the daily consumer transaction needs. However,the most successful consumer retail chain that took the market and penetrated also to tier 2 and tier 3 cities was D Mart, owned by Avenue Supermarkets Limited.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1960683", "title": "Clone town", "section": "Section::::Controversy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 596, "text": "The converse argument is that large chain stores have grown so big because their products are desirable to large numbers of people and so their arrival in towns provides convenient access to the products that the population might want. It is argued that providing locals with easy access to popular products that they want should be a higher priority than ensuring that people travelling between multiple towns experience variety. Furthermore, because they are wealthy, businesses they are more likely to consume much local services and to employ local people, thus energising the local economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "45538011", "title": "Unicorn (finance)", "section": "Section::::Trends.:E-commerce.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 730, "text": "E-commerce and the innovation of the online marketplace have been slowly taking over the needs for physical locations of store brands. A prime example of this includes the decline of malls within the United States. The sales of malls within the United States have declined from $87.46 billion in 2005 to $60.65 billion in 2015. The emergence of e-commerce companies like Amazon and Alibaba (both unicorns before they went public) have decreased the need for physical locations to buy consumer goods. Many large corporations have seen this trend for a while and have tried to adapt to the e-commerce trend. Walmart recently bought Jet.com, an American e-commerce company, for $3.3 billion to try and adapt to consumer preferences.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "/u/LBo87 gave a good answer in an [old thread](_URL_0_).\n\nThere is /u/Astrogator's [answer](_URL_1_) as well, which adds one more term. See the last bullet point.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20036823", "title": "Digger slang", "section": "Section::::Second World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 567, "text": "One significant source of slang were the prisoner of war camps run by the Japanese, where Diggers sometimes ended up. These were the sources of many particularly strong expressions, such as \"white nip\" for a prisoner who collaborated with the Japanese, and \"japs\", \"nips\", \"jeeps\", \"little yellow men\", and \"little yellow bastards\" for the Japanese themselves. In the camps, \"kippers\" were the British POWs, and \"cheese-eaters\" the Dutch. The urinals were \"pissaphones\" and the stew served to prisoners was \"Danube\", a contraction of the rhyming slang \"Blue Danube\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6968643", "title": "Language of Nazi concentration camps", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 288, "text": "One part of the Nazi camp slang was German language terminology for people, things and events in the camps, where many ordinary German words acquired specific meanings and associations. Another was \"ad hoc\" slang based on the various native languages of inmates from different countries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "341107", "title": "Ersatz good", "section": "Section::::Historical context.:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 427, "text": "In Britain, this was additionally popularised as an adjective from the experiences of thousands of U.S., British, and other English-speaking combat personnel, primarily airmen, who were captured in the European Theater of Operations during World War II. These Allied prisoners of war were given ersatz goods such as \"Ersatzkaffee\", an inferior \"Getreidekaffee\" or \"grain coffee\" as a coffee substitute by their German captors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6296064", "title": "List of terms used for Germans", "section": "Section::::English.:Fritz.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 252, "text": "British soldiers employed a variety of epithets for the Germans. \"Fritz\", a German pet form of Friedrich, was popular in both World War I and World War II, with \"Jerry\", short for \"German\", but also modeled on the English name, favoured in the latter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8308199", "title": "List of ethnic slurs by ethnicity", "section": "Section::::Individual ethnicities.:Germans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 162, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 162, "end_character": 263, "text": "BULLET::::- Jerry, Gerry: Rhyming slang (Jerry the German), primarily used in the first and second World Wars by the British, but also other English speakers. Based on the common given nickname Jerry, short for Jeremiah, Gerald, and other similar-sounding names.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20036823", "title": "Digger slang", "section": "Section::::Second World War.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 445, "text": "There were many other Digger slang words and phrases coined during the Second World War. Two of the most notable are \"wheelbarrow\" for a conscript (because he had to be pushed) and \"doover\", a general name for just about anything at all. Others include \"snarlers\", who were soldiers from the Middle East who were \"SNLR\" (\"Services No Longer Required\") and sent home on \"three P boats\" (troopships that contained \"pox, prisoners, and provosts\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59222454", "title": "Prominenten", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 827, "text": "The German term Prominenten was used in World War II to describe high-profile prisoners from various countries that were imprisoned in for example the POW camp for officers Colditz (Oflag IV-C) or the Nazi concentration camps Sachsenhausen and Dachau for possible use as hostages. These prisoners had among them former statesmen, politicians, political dissidents and priests as well as prisoners of war related, or believed to be related, to allied politicians and royalties. The Colditz POW's were liberated On 14April 1945 by the U.S. Army whereas the prisoners from Sachsenhausen and Dachau where liberated from their SS-guards by in turn by troops from the Wehrmacht and shortly thereafter by units from the 42nd Infantry Division and the 45th Infantry Division after the Transport of concentration camp inmates to Tyrol.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Phone batteries use an chemical reaction something like \nLi - > Li+ + e- \nMg+ + e- - > Mg \n\nThis means the the electron travels from the lithium electrode to the magnesium electrode creating electron flow and therefore energy. \n\nIn all chemical reactions u can push/reverse the reaction by adding energy to the aystem. If u add electricity to the system the lithium solid will become lithium aqueous (in solution) this allows it to react again and produce power. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25908079", "title": "FastPort", "section": "Section::::Functions.:Charging the battery/powering the phone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 516, "text": "The port can charge the battery and power the phone while it is connected to, for example, a hands-free solution in a car. The FastPort became the only way to get external power to the phones. Chargers comes in several varieties, from 12/24 volt DC to use in cars, to 100-250 volt AC to use elsewhere. Some charger-models can only charge the phone (the cable is attached at the middle), in others all the connector pins through to the plug end, thus supporting data/signal transfer while the phone is being charged.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39669790", "title": "Conductive wireless charging", "section": "Section::::Conductive charging system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 640, "text": "Conductive charging requires a physical connection between the electronic device's battery and the power supply. The need for a metal-to-metal connection between the charger and the device requiring charging is one of the main drawbacks of this method. To accomplish this without the use of physical cords connected to wall outlets, special attachments are made from electronic devices which are fitted with technology that can detect when the device makes connection with the power source, often a charging base. Conduction based wireless accessories may include changeable backs for cellular phones, special sleeves and attachable clips.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6349042", "title": "Inductive charging", "section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 452, "text": "BULLET::::- Inconvenience – When a mobile device is connected to a cable, it can be moved around (albeit in a limited range) and operated while charging. In most implementations of inductive charging, the mobile device must be left on a pad to charge, and thus can't be moved around or easily operated while charging. With some standards, charging can be maintained at a distance, but only with nothing present in between the transmitter and receiver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20126231", "title": "Quartz fiber dosimeter", "section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 418, "text": "The charger is a small box, usually powered by a battery. It contains an electronic circuit that steps the battery voltage up to the high voltage needed for charging. The box has a fixture that requires one to press the end of the dosimeter on the charging electrode. Some chargers include a light to illuminate the measurement electrode, so that measurement, logging and recharging can occur with one routine motion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8197284", "title": "Enhanced mini-USB", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 607, "text": "Some mobile phone companies have used the extra pin \"X\" to enforce the use of their own battery chargers. Verizon Wireless is the first company to require first-party battery chargers, having colluded with Motorola to put an arbitrary 1.4 volts on pin X. This voltage violates the USB-IF standards, as pin X should either be tied to ground or not connected at all. Without this connection, the phone will refuse to charge, displaying \"unauthorized charger\" despite receiving the proper current. The phone will charge while connected to a personal computer only if the PC is running a special device driver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39669790", "title": "Conductive wireless charging", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 382, "text": "Conductive power transfer uses a conductor to connect two electronic devices in order to transfer energy. It is therefore not a form of wireless power transfer, which explicitly does not use conductors. In the area of cellular phone chargers, phones are equipped with an attachment such as a sleeve which, when placed on the charging board, transfers energy to the phone's battery.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11464105", "title": "In-cell charge control", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 264, "text": "The charge control consists of a pressure switch built into the cell, which disconnects the charging current when the internal cell pressure rises above a certain limit (usually 200 to 300 psi or 1.4 to 2.1 MPa). This prevents overcharging and damage to the cell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Yes. Freshly sliced meat that you get at the grocery store is, well, fresh. Prepackaged meat has to go to through the middle man, who slices and packages it before it's sent to the store. Getting the meat sliced at the deli means it skips the middle man and gets to you, more fresh than the prepackaged stuff.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "19614085", "title": "Meat slicer", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 390, "text": "A meat slicer, also called a slicing machine, deli slicer or simply a slicer, is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats, sausages, cheeses and other deli products. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor. While the slicer is traditionally a commercial apparatus, domestic use versions are also marketed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15553662", "title": "Steak sandwich", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 338, "text": "A steak sandwich is a sandwich prepared with steak that has been broiled, fried, grilled, barbecued or seared using steel grates or gridirons, then served on bread or a roll. Steak sandwiches are sometimes served with toppings of cheese, onions, mushrooms, peppers, tomatoes, and in some instances fried eggs, coleslaw, and french fries.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59732521", "title": "List of Dutch inventions and innovations", "section": "Section::::Inventions and innovations.:Technology and engineering.:Meat slicer (1898).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 453, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 453, "end_character": 379, "text": "A \"meat slicer\", also called a \"slicing machine\", \"deli slicer\" or simply a \"slicer\", is a tool used in butcher shops and delicatessens to slice meats and cheeses. The first meat slicer was invented by Wilhelm van Berkel (Wilhelmus Adrianus van Berkel) in Rotterdam in 1898. Older models of meat slicer may be operated by crank, while newer ones generally use an electric motor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1104388", "title": "Salisbury steak", "section": "Section::::Around the world.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 719, "text": "Minced cutlet (котлета рубленая, \"kotleta rublenaya\"), or, since the late 19th century, simply \"cutlet\", is a staple of Russian cuisine. It is similar to a Salisbury steak, with the main difference being pure beef is rarely employed, usually pork or a beef-pork mixture is used. The meat is seasoned with salt and pepper, mixed with finely chopped onion (optionally fried), garlic, and a binder (eggs and breadcrumbs soaked in milk), divided into oval-shaped patties, lightly breaded and shallow-fried in a half-inch of vegetable oil. The transliterated Japanese dish, \"menchi katsu\", is always deep-fried and heavily breaded, being essentially a mincemeat croquette, while the Russian version is always shallow-fried.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2976671", "title": "North American Meat Processors Association", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 266, "text": "NAMP was best known, however, for \"The Meat Buyer's Guide\", intended for butchers and commercial meat purchasers, which was a recognized reference for cutting and grading meat. It was published annually. NAMP maintains a standard numbering system for cuts of meat. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "239874", "title": "Sales promotion", "section": "Section::::Consumer sales promotion types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 820, "text": "BULLET::::- Price-pack/Bonus packs deal: The packaging offers a consumer a certain percentage more of the product for the same price (for example, 25 percent extra). This is another type of deal “in which customers are offered more of the product for the same price”. For example, a sales company may offer their consumers a bonus pack in which they can receive two products for the price of one. In these scenarios, this bonus pack is framed as a gain because buyers believe that they are obtaining a free product. The purchase of a bonus pack, however, is not always beneficial for the consumer. Sometimes consumers will end up spending money on an item they would not normally buy had it not been in a bonus pack. As a result, items bought in a bonus pack are often wasted and is viewed as a “loss” for the consumer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2514849", "title": "Cutlet", "section": "Section::::Indian cuisine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 535, "text": "In Indian cuisine, a cutlet specifically refers to mashed vegetables (potato, carrot, beans) or cooked meat (mutton, beef, fish or chicken) stuffing that is fried with a batter/covering. The meat itself is cooked with spices - onion, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, coriander (cilantro), green chillies, lemon and salt. This is then dipped in an egg mix or Corn starch and then in Bread crumbs (also see breaded cutlet), and fried in ghee or vegetable oil. Mostly chicken and mutton cutlets are very popular snacks in the city of Kolkata.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Quite simply, the Catholic Church happened to gain a foothold in the most powerful countries in the world. Spain, Portugal, France, etc. Those countries then spread their faith through their conquests. This of course came from the apostles of Christ spreading the gospel throughout Europe starting in Greece and Turkey. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "One word. Rome.\n\nRome basically ruled the known world. But the fighting between the pagans and Christians was likely to tear the empire apart. An emperor on his deathbed was baptized and converted to Christianity. The empire then adopted Christianity. To ease the transition many Christian holidays adopted the same time frame as pagan ones.\n\nSince Rome was the world the world was Christian.\n\nI doubt without Rome it would be as prevalent as it is tpday.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everything changed once Constantine made it the official religion of the Roman Empire. Instead of apostles evangelising new lands and spreading Christianity the Roman’s just plundered new lands, basically killing two birds with one stone. The new land coming under Christendom and Roman rule. Fast forward to the Middle Ages where 90 percent of Europe was evangelised by either Christianity or the Roman Catholic Church. \nSpain, Portugal had vast navy fleets (and significant Financial backing )that blew the other emerging European nations out of the water. The superior navy fleet and backing from the Catholic Church helped explore the ‘New world’. I guess through colonising the new world they had a foot hold on resources taxes and land $$$ and free labour. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9081924", "title": "Christianity in Europe", "section": "Section::::Cultural influences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 684, "text": "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature and family life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14117", "title": "History of Christianity", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 219, "text": "Since the Renaissance era, with western colonialism, Christianity has expanded throughout the world. Today there are more than two billion Christians worldwide, and Christianity has become the world's largest religion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6704", "title": "Christendom", "section": "Section::::Classical culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 915, "text": "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32516987", "title": "Christian culture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 916, "text": "Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life. Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15587087", "title": "Role of Christianity in civilization", "section": "Section::::Politics and law.:From persecuted minority to state religion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 669, "text": "The early followers of Jesus, including Saints Paul and Peter carried this new theology concerning Jesus throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, sowing the seeds for the development of the Catholic Church, of which Saint Peter is remembered as the first Pope. Catholicism, as we know it, emerged slowly. Christians often faced persecution during these early centuries, particularly for their refusal to join in worshiping the emperors. Nevertheless, carried through the synagogues, merchants and missionaries across the known world, the new internationalist religion quickly grew in size and influence. Its unique appeal was partly the result of its values and ethics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5935", "title": "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", "section": "Section::::History.:Modern times.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 920, "text": "During the 20th century, the church grew substantially and became an international organization, due in part to the spread of missionaries around the globe. In 2000, the church reported 60,784 missionaries and global church membership stood at just over 11 million. Worldwide membership surpassed 13 million in 2007 and reached 14 million in July 2010, with about six million of those within the United States. However, it is estimated based on demographic studies that only one-third of the total worldwide membership (about 4.5 million people as of 2014) are regularly attending churchgoers. The church cautions against overemphasis of growth statistics for comparison with other churches because relevant factors—including activity rates and death rates, methodology used in registering or counting members, what factors constitute membership, and geographical variations—are rarely accounted for in the comparisons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5211", "title": "Christianity", "section": "Section::::Influence on western culture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 191, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 191, "end_character": 1078, "text": "Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world; as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine. It has been prolific in the foundation of schools, universities, and hospitals, and many Catholic clergy; Jesuits in particular, have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science. Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene, and family life.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "During that time The Netherlands was fighting a war of independence, the 80 year war. While it basically stared as a revolt against the Spanish because of infringements of privileges like protection against unreasonable taxes etc.. It soon became also a religious based war between Protestants (Netherlands) and Catholics (Spanish). Since most Dutchmen were still Catholics themselves but against the Spaniards and their inquisition the common idea was that people should not be prosecuted because of their religion. This was specifically mentioned in the [act of abjuration](_URL_0_) (incomplete dutch english translation) send to the spanish king and publicly published in 1581. Besides a certain level of religious freedom several other privileges and rights were mentioned or implied. Like that the prince is there to protect his citizens as like father does his children or a shepherd his flock and not rule them like they are slaves. Also that there should be a justice system that is impartial en equal to all citizens and that there should be a freedom to trade. \n\nAll this created at situation that you could hardly be prosecuted for expressing yourself if you stayed within certain limits. Also, the merchant class had become the prominent force at the time which means there are a lot of potential supporters for any kind of art and philosophy instead of a singular/limited source of patronage. All the freedoms created in this situation was the main source that Amsterdam specifically and the Netherlands as a whole entered an Golden Age with wealth and creativity. While not a classical history source an easy to read description on how this came about is [Russell Shorto's Amsterdam: A History of the World's Most Liberal City]( _URL_1_) \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "63278", "title": "Haarlem", "section": "Section::::History.:18th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 1071, "text": "As the centre of trade gravitated towards Amsterdam, Haarlem declined in the 18th century. The Golden age had created a large upper middle class of merchants and well-to-do small business owners. Taking advantage of the reliability of the trekschuit connection between Amsterdam and Haarlem, many people had a business address in Amsterdam and a weekend or summer home in Haarlem. Haarlem became more and more a bedroom community as the increasingly dense population of Amsterdam caused the canals to smell in the summer. Many well-to-do gentlemen moved their families to summer homes in the Spring and commuted between addresses. Popular places for summer homes were along the Spaarne in southern Haarlem. Pieter Teyler van der Hulst and Henry Hope built summer homes there, as well as many Amsterdam merchants and councilmen. Today, it is still possible to travel by boat along the Spaarne and this has turned into a popular form of tourism in the summer months. In the 18th century Haarlem became the seat of a suffragan diocese of the Old Catholic Church of Utrecht.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "844", "title": "Amsterdam", "section": "Section::::History.:Centre of the Dutch Golden Age.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 505, "text": "The 17th century is considered Amsterdam's \"Golden Age\", during which it became the wealthiest city in the western world. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to the Baltic Sea, North America, and Africa, as well as present-day Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Brazil, forming the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the largest share in both the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company. These companies acquired overseas possessions that later became Dutch colonies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1692218", "title": "History of Amsterdam", "section": "Section::::The \"Golden Age\" (1585-1672).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1060, "text": "The 17th century was Amsterdam's Golden Age. Ships from the city sailed to North America, Indonesia, Brazil, and Africa and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants financed expeditions to the four corners of the world and they acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later Dutch colonies. The most influential of these merchant groups was the Dutch East India Company, founded 1602, which became the first multi-national corporation to issue stocks to finance its business. By allowing for sailors to invest in the cargo that they transported, it created an incentive for individual laborers to be vested in the goods they carried and tightened allegiances to corporations outcomes where before they sailor was a migratory agent. Rembrandt painted in this century, and the city expanded greatly around its canals during this time. Amsterdam was the most important point for the transshipment of goods in Europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world (a position later taken over by London).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3408", "title": "Baruch Spinoza", "section": "Section::::Biography.:17th-century Netherlands.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 934, "text": "Amsterdam and Rotterdam operated as important cosmopolitan centres where merchant ships from many parts of the world brought people of various customs and beliefs. This flourishing commercial activity encouraged a culture relatively tolerant of the play of new ideas, to a considerable degree sheltered from the censorious hand of ecclesiastical authority (though those considered to have gone \"too far\" might have gotten persecuted even in the Netherlands). Not by chance were the philosophical works of both Descartes and Spinoza developed in the cultural and intellectual background of the Dutch Republic in the 17th century. Spinoza may have had access to a circle of friends who were unconventional in terms of social tradition, including members of the Collegiants. One of the people he knew was Niels Stensen, a brilliant Danish student in Leiden; others included Albert Burgh, with whom Spinoza is known to have corresponded.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1692218", "title": "History of Amsterdam", "section": "Section::::Decline and modernization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 468, "text": "The 18th and early 19th centuries saw a decline in Amsterdam's prosperity. The wars of the Dutch Republic with the United Kingdom and France took their toll on Amsterdam. During the Napoleonic wars, Amsterdam's fortunes reached their lowest point; however, with the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, things slowly began to improve. In Amsterdam, new developments were started by people like Samuel Sarphati who found their inspiration in Paris.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "690842", "title": "Age of Discovery", "section": "Section::::Global impact.:Economic impact in Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 190, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 190, "end_character": 1225, "text": "The European economic centre shifted from the Mediterranean to Western Europe. The city of Antwerp, part of the Duchy of Brabant, became \"the centre of the \"entire\" international economy\", and the richest city in Europe at this time. Centred in Antwerp first and then in Amsterdam, \"Dutch Golden Age\" was tightly linked to the Age of Discovery. Francesco Guicciardini, a Venetian envoy, stated that hundreds of ships would pass Antwerp in a day, and 2,000 carts entered the city each week. Portuguese ships laden with pepper and cinnamon would unload their cargo. With many foreign merchants resident in the city and governed by an oligarchy of banker-aristocrats forbidden to engage in trade, the economy of Antwerp was foreigner-controlled, which made the city very international, with merchants and traders from Venice, Ragusa, Spain and Portugal and a policy of toleration, which attracted a large Orthodox Jewish community. The city experienced three booms during its golden age, the first based on the pepper market, a second launched by New World silver coming from Seville (ending with the bankruptcy of Spain in 1557), and a third boom, after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, in 1559, based on the textiles industry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22271777", "title": "Amsterdam Entrepôt", "section": "Section::::Historical evolution of the system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 236, "text": "In the 17th century, the economic elite of Amsterdam moved with William of Orange to England, where they helped to restart the English international trade, leaving behind in Amsterdam the more religious, and less competitive, burghers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "NiMH chemistry is much more forgiving to overcharging than other types of battery chemistry, but it's really not good for the cell. Get some extra cells, and only charge ones that have been (mostly) used.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Edit: I just reread your question, and what I wrote isn't that relevant. But I'm going to post it anyway:\n\nNiMH batteries have two awesome traits that alkaline batteries don't have:\n\n- NiMH batteries' voltage does not drop a lot when they are under load (I think it usually stays at 1.2v). This means it can supply more current. Note that the alkaline voltage when under load is *not* the advertised 1.5v.\n- NiMH batteries' voltage does not decrease as much when they are less charged. Alkaline batteries become much weaker after they've been used a little bit, and you can expect NiMH batteries to outperform them.\n\nEdit: corrected incorrect voltage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "NiMH chemistry is much more forgiving to overcharging than other types of battery chemistry, but it's really not good for the cell. Get some extra cells, and only charge ones that have been (mostly) used.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Edit: I just reread your question, and what I wrote isn't that relevant. But I'm going to post it anyway:\n\nNiMH batteries have two awesome traits that alkaline batteries don't have:\n\n- NiMH batteries' voltage does not drop a lot when they are under load (I think it usually stays at 1.2v). This means it can supply more current. Note that the alkaline voltage when under load is *not* the advertised 1.5v.\n- NiMH batteries' voltage does not decrease as much when they are less charged. Alkaline batteries become much weaker after they've been used a little bit, and you can expect NiMH batteries to outperform them.\n\nEdit: corrected incorrect voltage.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4316371", "title": "Rechargeable alkaline battery", "section": "Section::::Recharging of disposable alkalines.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 344, "text": "Manufacturers do not support recharging of disposable alkaline batteries, and warn that it may be dangerous. Despite this advice, alkaline batteries have been recharged, and chargers have been available. The capacity of a recharged alkaline battery declines with number of recharges, until it becomes unusable after typically about ten cycles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4316371", "title": "Rechargeable alkaline battery", "section": "Section::::Comparison to other rechargeable batteries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 524, "text": "Unlike rechargeable alkaline batteries, NiMH batteries can endure anywhere from a few hundred to a thousand (or more) deep discharge cycles, resulting in a long useful life; their limitation is now more usually by age rather than cycles. Capacity of NiMH batteries is close to that of alkaline batteries. Unlike all alkaline batteries (rechargeable or otherwise), internal resistance is low. This makes them well suited for high current capacity applications. Self-discharge rates are comparable, at least up to six months.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "186614", "title": "Nickel–cadmium battery", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Charging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 572, "text": "When not under load or charge, a Ni–Cd battery will self-discharge approximately 10% per month at 20 °C, ranging up to 20% per month at higher temperatures. It is possible to perform a trickle charge at current levels just high enough to offset this discharge rate; to keep a battery fully charged. However, if the battery is going to be stored unused for a long period of time, it should be discharged down to at most 40% of capacity (some manufacturers recommend fully discharging and even short-circuiting once fully discharged), and stored in a cool, dry environment.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "186614", "title": "Nickel–cadmium battery", "section": "Section::::Memory effect.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 796, "text": "Ni–Cd batteries may suffer from a \"memory effect\" if they are discharged and recharged to the same state of charge hundreds of times. The apparent symptom is that the battery \"remembers\" the point in its charge cycle where recharging began and during subsequent use suffers a sudden drop in voltage at that point, as if the battery had been discharged. The capacity of the battery is not actually reduced substantially. Some electronics designed to be powered by Ni–Cd batteries are able to withstand this reduced voltage long enough for the voltage to return to normal. However, if the device is unable to operate through this period of decreased voltage, it will be unable to get enough energy out of the battery, and for all practical purposes, the battery appears \"dead\" earlier than normal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "201487", "title": "Rechargeable battery", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 260, "text": "Older rechargeable batteries self-discharge relatively rapidly, and require charging before first use; some newer low self-discharge NiMH batteries hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2415493", "title": "Vanadium redox battery", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 784, "text": "The limited self-discharge characteristics of vanadium redox batteries make them useful in applications where the batteries must be stored for long periods of time with little maintenance while maintaining a ready state. This has led to their adoption in some military electronics, such as the sensor components of the GATOR mine system. Their ability to fully cycle and stay at 0% state of charge makes them suitable for solar + storage applications where the battery must start each day empty and fill up depending upon the load and weather. Lithium ion batteries, for example, are typically damaged when they are allowed to discharge below 20% state of charge, so they typically only operate between about 20% and 100%, meaning they are only using 80% of their nameplate capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19174720", "title": "Electric battery", "section": "Section::::Lifetime.:Physical component changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 441, "text": "The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume, further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15% discharge in a year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "To start an ISP you need to invest in a lot of infrastructure. Most ISPs is therefore limited to a small geographical area. And if there are two providers who need the infrastructure to every house then the service will be twice as expensive for everyone. Just imagine if there were two main water lines running to each house and you could chose between them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "55865407", "title": "Net Neutrality (Last Week Tonight)", "section": "Section::::\"Net Neutrality II\".:Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1286, "text": "The comedian says that Pai has also proposed \"laughably lacking\" alternatives to net neutrality. One alternative stipulated that ISPs simply include a voluntary statement in their terms of service indicating that they would not throttle or block content, which Oliver says would \"make net neutrality as binding as a proposal on \"The Bachelor\"\". Pai's other rationales for reclassifying ISPs was that the new rules already resulted in decreased investment in broadband networks. Brian Schatz, a Democratic U.S. Senator representing Hawaii and the ranking member of the Senate Commerce Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, Innovation, and the Internet, said that Pai's claim of decreased investment was untrue. Oliver then quotes a 2014 phone call from Francis J. Shammo, the chief financial officer of Verizon, in which the latter says that the new net-neutrality rules did not affect Verizon's business. Oliver says, \"that doesn't really sound like net neutrality was jeopardizing investment at all\". He states that Pai's actions to eliminate Title II are like \"pouring [a gallon of coffee] into your hands and trusting that you don't get burnt\". At this point, Oliver holds up a Reese's mug that is even larger than Pai's mug and says, \"I'm drinking the blood of smaller mugs\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1398166", "title": "Net neutrality", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Inability to make Internet accessible to the poor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 115, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 115, "end_character": 303, "text": "Opponents argue that net neutrality regulations prevent service providers from providing more affordable Internet access to those who can't afford it. A concept known as \"zero-rating\", ISPs would be unable to provide Internet access for free or at a reduced cost to the poor under net neutrality rules.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18599789", "title": "Net neutrality in Canada", "section": "Section::::Opinion on legislation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 256, "text": "Yahoo! and Microsoft argue that net neutrality law is necessary because without such a law, ISPs will destroy the free and open nature of the Internet and also create a tiered, dollar-driven net that favours the wealthiest corporations over everyone else.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1398166", "title": "Net neutrality", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 303, "text": "With net neutrality, ISPs may not intentionally block, slow down, or charge money for specific online content. Without net neutrality, ISPs may prioritize certain types of traffic, meter others, or potentially block traffic from specific services, while charging consumers for various tiers of service.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56459958", "title": "Zettabyte Era", "section": "Section::::Internet service providers in the Zettabyte Era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 407, "text": "In the United States, however, during the Obama-era administration, under the Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) 15-24 policy, there were three bright-line rules in place to protect net neutrality: no blocking, no throttling, no paid prioritization. On 14 December 2017, the FCC voted 3-2 to remove these rules, allowing ISPs to block, throttle and give fast-lane access to content on their network.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44677927", "title": "Net neutrality law", "section": "Section::::Degrees of enforcement.:Individual prioritization without throttling or blocking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 323, "text": "Some ISPs, such as Comcast, oppose blocking or throttling, but have argued that they are allowed to charge websites for faster data delivery. AT&T has made a broad commitment to net neutrality, but has also argued for their right to offer websites paid prioritization and in favor of its current sponsored data agreements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44677927", "title": "Net neutrality law", "section": "Section::::Degrees of enforcement.:Individual prioritization without throttling or blocking.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 394, "text": "Some opponents of net neutrality argue that under the ISP market competition, paid-prioritization of bandwidth can induce optimal user welfare. Although net neutrality might protect user welfare when the market lacks competition, they argue that a better alternative could be to introduce a neutral \"public option\" to incentivize competition, rather than enforcing existing ISPs to be neutral.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "No, the main aim of the Zimmerman telegram wasn't to bring the US into WW1. It was intended as insurance against the likelihood that the US would join WW1 anyway over Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare.\n\nThis is the full text of the Zimmerman telegram, sent from the German foreign ministry to the German ambassador to Mexico. English translation, obviously, and the emphasis is mine.\n\n > We intend to begin on the first of February unrestricted submarine warfare. **We shall endeavor in spite of this to keep the United States of America neutral. In the event of this not succeeding**, we make Mexico a proposal of alliance on the following basis: make war together, make peace together, generous financial support and an understanding on our part that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The settlement in detail is left to you. **You will inform the President of the above most secretly as soon as the outbreak of war with the United States of America is certain**, and add the suggestion that he should, on his own initiative, invite Japan to immediate adherence and at the same time mediate between Japan and ourselves. Please call the President's attention to the fact that the ruthless employment of our submarines now offers the prospect of compelling England in a few months to make peace. \nSigned, ZIMMERMANN\n\nGermany had decided to resume Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (USW) in 1917 for two reasons, one military and one domestic political. USW means that submarines may sink any merchant ships in the declared exclusion area, regardless of national flag, and without warning. As opposed to the \"Prize Rules\" or \"Cruiser Rules\" traditional international law had applied to commerce raiding, where only enemy-flagged merchant ships were legitimate targets. Ships belonging to neutral countries could be stopped and searched, and seized or sunk if they were found to be carrying contraband to blockaded ports or if they tried to resist the search, but could not be summarily attacked. Any ships to be sunk under cruiser rules must first be given reasonable warning for the passengers crew to abandon ship. These rules were developed with surface warships (particularly frigates and cruisers) in mind, not submarines, and submarines of the era didn't have anywhere near enough crew to search and seize a merchant ship, and submarines relied on stealth to be effective combatants so surfacing and summoning a merchant ship to submit to search or ordering the crew to abandon ship was risky, especially after the British started disguising armed merchantmen as ordinary merchant vessels in order to sink German subs when they surfaced (this was legal under international law as long as the disguised ship revealed its true nature by raising a Navy flag before opening fire).\n\nGermany had previously attempted USW briefly in 1915, only to call it off after the US responded to the sinking of the Lusitania (a British ship sailing from New York and carrying many American and British passengers as well as a cargo that included war materiel being imported by Britain). The sinking was done without warning by a submerged U-Boat, the British denied the presence of war materiel on the ship (and the Germans had no hard evidence to the contrary), and 128 Americans (along with over a thousand British and other nationalities of passengers and crew) died. The US responded with vigorous diplomatic protests, stopping about half a step short of threatening war if USW continued. Germany acquiesced at the time and resumed cruiser rules.\n\nThe military reason was that the German navy had overestimated the effectiveness of USW and underestimated the British and American ability to build new merchant ships to replace those sunk. Based on their mistaken assessments, the Germans believed that they could sink enough merchant ships to prevent Britain from importing the food and raw materials they needed to continue the war, and that this would happen before Americans could mobilize enough to have a significant effect on the war.\n\nThe domestic political reason was as a response to the British blockade of Germany. Britain had been blockading Germany (with surface ships, operating under cruiser rules) since the outbreak of war, and Britain had been taking a very broad basis for what constituted war materiel. Specifically, food and fertilizer were counted as contraband, since food could be sent to the front to feed soldiers, and since fertilizer could be remanufactured into explosives. Germany had imported a large portion of its food pre-war, and German civilians had been on short rations for much of the war. The Winter of 1916-1917 (called the \"Turnip Winter\") was a period of particular hardship for German civilians, as the 1916 potato crop had failed, compounding the food shortage. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare was seen as a way for the German Navy to demonstrate to German civilians that they were Doing Something about the blockade and inflicting the same kinds of hardship on British civilians that the British Navy was inflicting on German civilians.\n\nOnce the decision to resume USW had been made, war with the US was considered inevitable. The idea of the Zimmerman Telegram was to exploit Mexican grievances against the US (not just the lost territory from the 1846-48 US/Mexican War, but also the much more recent US punitive expedition expedition in pursuit of Pancho Villa) to bring another country into the war on the German side as counterweight to the US joining the Entente. Every division the US Army used to fight Mexico was a division that couldn't be sent to France to reinforce the British and French armies, so forcing the US to divide attention between two fronts would further delay substantive American involvement with the war effort in Europe.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "228275", "title": "Zimmermann Telegram", "section": "Section::::Background.:German motivation for the telegram.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 978, "text": "The Zimmermann Telegram was part of an effort carried out by the Germans to postpone the transportation of supplies and other war materials from the United States to the Allied Powers that were at war with Germany. The main purpose of the telegram was to make the Mexican government declare war on the United States in hopes of tying down American forces and slowing the export of American arms. The German High Command believed they would be able to defeat the British and French on the Western Front and strangle Britain with unrestricted submarine warfare before American forces could be trained and shipped to Europe in sufficient numbers to aid the Allied Powers. The Germans were encouraged by their successes on the Eastern Front into believing that they would be able to divert large numbers of troops to the Western Front in support of their goals. The Mexicans were willing to consider the alliance but declined the deal after Americans were informed of the Telegram.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228275", "title": "Zimmermann Telegram", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 870, "text": "The Zimmermann Telegram (or Zimmermann Note or Zimmerman Cable) was a secret diplomatic communication issued from the German Foreign Office in January 1917 that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico. In the event that the United States entered World War I against Germany, Mexico would recover Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. The telegram was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. Revelation of the contents enraged Americans, especially after German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann publicly admitted on March 3 that the telegram was genuine, helping to generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April. The decryption was described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, and one of the earliest occasions on which a piece of signal intelligence influenced world events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18524", "title": "Latin America", "section": "Section::::From the United States of America interventions to the \"Good Neighbor\" policy.:World wars (1914–1945).:World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 66, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 66, "end_character": 608, "text": "The Zimmermann Telegram was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire for Mexico to join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany. The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. President Woodrow Wilson moved to arm American merchant ships in order to defend themselves against German submarines, which had started to attack them. The news helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on Germany in April of that year.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228275", "title": "Zimmermann Telegram", "section": "Section::::Autograph discovery.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 837, "text": "In October 2005, it was reported that an original typescript of the decoded Zimmermann Telegram had recently been discovered by an unnamed historian who was researching and preparing an official history of the United Kingdom's Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ). The document is believed to be the actual telegram shown to the American ambassador in London in 1917. Marked in Admiral Hall's handwriting at the top of the document are the words: \"This is the one handed to Dr Page and exposed by the President.\" Since many of the secret documents in this incident had been destroyed, it had previously been assumed that the original typed \"decrypt\" was gone forever. However, after the discovery of this document, the GCHQ official historian said: \"I believe that this is indeed the same document that Balfour handed to Page.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "228275", "title": "Zimmermann Telegram", "section": "Section::::Effect in the United States of America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 493, "text": "Any doubts as to the authenticity of the telegram were removed by Arthur Zimmermann himself. First, at a press conference on 3 March 1917, he told an American journalist, \"I cannot deny it. It is true.\" Then, on 29 March 1917, Zimmermann gave a speech in the Reichstag in which he admitted the telegram was genuine. Zimmermann hoped Americans would understand the idea was that Germany would only fund Mexico's war with the United States in the prior event of American entry into World War I.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46188299", "title": "History of propaganda", "section": "Section::::First World War.:United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 1341, "text": "Before the United States declared war in 1917, the Woodrow Wilson administration established a propaganda department along similar lines. Propaganda experts Walter Lippmann and Edward Bernays participated in the Committee on Public Information (CPI), which was tasked with swaying popular opinion to encourage enlistment and war bond sales. The CPI deployed posters, films, and provided themes for speeches by \"four-minute men\" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the American press. The American press played an unwitting role too by relying on daily war news cables controlled by the British government and by spreading false stories of German atrocities in Belgium and German-occupied eastern France supplied by the British as well. Starting after World War I, propaganda had a growing negative connotation. This was due in part to the 1920 book \"How We Advertised America: the First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information that Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe\" in which the impact of the CPI, and the power of propaganda, was over-emphasised. Also, exposure of fact that the atrocity stories were false created public distrust. The CPI was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organise and archive its papers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5447404", "title": "Milyukov note", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 435, "text": "Foreign Minister Pavel Milyukov sent the Allied Powers a telegram, one which would prove to be a turning point of 1917. The telegram contained the statement that the Provisional Government would continue the war with the Tsarist war aims. The telegram was leaked to the Bolsheviks by an insider, and they began protests against the Provisional Government, which had previously promised the people that the terror of Tsardom had ended.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "That's the shape of the camera's aperture, and the effect is called [bokeh](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "That's the shape of the camera's aperture, and the effect is called [bokeh](_URL_0_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22240072", "title": "Dark slope streak", "section": "Section::::Nature of streaks on Mars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 856, "text": "Dark slope streaks are albedo features. They appear to the eye as a brightness difference between the streak and the lighter-toned background slope. Usually no topographic relief is visible to distinguish the streak from its surroundings, except in the very highest resolution (<1 m/pixel) images. In many cases, the original surface texture of the slope is preserved and continuous across the streak, as though unaffected by events involved in dark streak formation (pictured left). The overall effect is equivalent in appearance to a partial shadow cast down the sloping surface. These observations indicate that whatever process forms the streaks, it affects only the very thinnest layer at the surface. Slope streaks are only about 10% darker than their surroundings but often appear black in images because the contrast has been enhanced (stretched).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33278282", "title": "Intentional camera movement", "section": "Section::::Relation to motion blur.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 348, "text": "Another special case is that of forward (or backwards) camera movement, typically with the camera focused on the distance. The streaks in the resulting image converge on the central point, giving a suggestion as if it is at the end of a long tunnel. A similar effect can be achieved by changing the focal length of a zoom lens during the exposure.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "234653", "title": "Schlieren photography", "section": "Section::::Focusing schlieren optical system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1647, "text": "The basic idea is that the illumination pattern is imaged onto a geometrically congruent cutoff pattern (essentially a multiplicity of knife edges) with focusing optics, while density gradients lying between the illumination pattern and the cutoff pattern are imaged, typically by a camera system. As in classical schlieren, the distortions produce regions of brightening or darkening corresponding to the position and direction of the distortion, because they redirect rays either away from or onto the opaque part of the cutoff pattern. While in classical schlieren, distortions over the whole beam path are visualized equally, in focusing schlieren, only distortions in the object field of the camera are clearly imaged. Distortions away from the object field become blurred, so this technique allows some degree of depth selection. It also has the advantage that a wide variety of illuminated backgrounds can be used, since collimation is not required. This allows construction of projection-based focusing schlieren systems, which are much easier to build and align than classical schlieren systems. The requirement of collimated light in classical schlieren is often a substantial practical barrier for constructing large systems due to the need for the collimating optic to be the same size as the field of view. Focusing schlieren systems can use compact optics with a large background illumination pattern, which is particularly easy to produce with a projection system. For systems with large demagnification, the illumination pattern needs to be around twice larger than the field of view to allow defocusing of the background pattern.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7246532", "title": "Rectilinear lens", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 512, "text": "In photography, a rectilinear lens is a photographic lens that yields images where straight features, such as the walls of buildings, appear with straight lines, as opposed to being curved. In other words, it is a lens with little or no barrel or pincushion distortion. At particularly wide angles, however, the rectilinear perspective will cause objects to appear increasingly stretched and enlarged as they near the edge of the frame. These types of lenses are often used to create forced perspective effects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22200477", "title": "Ringing artifacts", "section": "Section::::Similar phenomena.:Lens flare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 87, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 87, "end_character": 211, "text": "In photography, lens flare is a defect where various circles can appear around highlights, and with ghosts throughout a photo, due to undesired light, such as reflection and scattering off elements in the lens.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3582572", "title": "High-speed photography", "section": "Section::::High-speed film cameras.:Streak photography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 1122, "text": "Motion compensation photography (also known as ballistic synchro photography or smear photography when used to image high-speed projectiles) is a form of streak photography. When the motion of the film is opposite to that of the subject with an inverting (positive) lens, and synchronized appropriately, the images show events as a function of time. Objects remaining motionless show up as streaks. This is the technique used for finish line photographs. At no time is it possible to take a still photograph that duplicates the results of a finish line photograph taken with this method. A still is a photograph \"in\" time, a streak/smear photograph is a photograph \"of\" time. When used to image high-speed projectiles the use of a slit (as in streak photography) produce very short exposure times ensuring higher image resolution. The use for high-speed projectiles means that one still image is normally produced on one roll of cine film. From this image information such as yaw or pitch can be determined. Because of its measurement of time variations in velocity will also be shown by lateral distortions of the image.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6974497", "title": "Ring flash", "section": "Section::::Applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 435, "text": "Ring flashes are commonly used in macro (close-up) photography. When the subject is very close to the camera, the distance of the flash from the optical axis becomes significant. For objects close to the camera, the size of the ring flash is significant and so the light encounters the subject from many angles in the same way that it does with a conventional flash with soft box. This has the effect of further softening any shadows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Red dwarfs are main sequence stars just like the Sun, except they only contain about 8-50% as much mass. As a consequence, the fusion in their cores proceeds slower, their surface temps are cooler, and their life spans are much longer. \n\nDuring its Red Giant phase, the Sun will gradually lose much of its upper atmosphere to space, enriching its general neighborhood with up to 0.5 solar mass of mostly Hydrogen. \n\nWould this be enough raw material to form a Red dwarf star? Sure, if something corralled it together until it began coalescing under its own gravity. \n\nBut with the Sun still coughing and wheezing in the center of it all, that Hydrogen will instead just disperse into the blackness, until sometime, somewhere, some of it finds some like-minded hydrogen to get all gravitational with.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "11215402", "title": "Z Andromedae", "section": "Section::::Binary system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 308, "text": "The evolved red giant star is losing mass, since radiation pressure overcomes the low gravity on the surface. The outflow of matter is captured by the gravitational field of the white dwarf and falls on its surface in the end. At least during the active phase an accretion disk forms around the white dwarf.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38007267", "title": "Frozen star (hypothetical star)", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 681, "text": "Due to opacity effects, as metallicity of the interstellar gas increases both the maximum and minimum masses a star can have will decrease. For the latter case, it's expected that an object with a mass of 0.04 solar masses (40 times the mass of Jupiter), that currently would become a brown dwarf unable to fuse hydrogen, could do so ending in the main sequence with a surface temperature of 0 °C (273 K, thus \"frozen\"), much cooler than the dimmest red dwarfs of today, and ice clouds forming in its atmosphere. The luminosity of these objects would be more than a thousand times lower than the faintest stars currently existing and their lifetimes would also be sensibly longer.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86061", "title": "Cygnus X-1", "section": "Section::::Binary system.:Compact object.:Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 712, "text": "The largest star in the Cygnus OB3 association has a mass 40 times that of the Sun. As more massive stars evolve more rapidly, this implies that the progenitor star for Cygnus X-1 had more than 40 solar masses. Given the current estimated mass of the black hole, the progenitor star must have lost over 30 solar masses of material. Part of this mass may have been lost to HDE 226868, while the remainder was most likely expelled by a strong stellar wind. The helium enrichment of HDE 226868's outer atmosphere may be evidence for this mass transfer. Possibly the progenitor may have evolved into a Wolf–Rayet star, which ejects a substantial proportion of its atmosphere using just such a powerful stellar wind.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1043487", "title": "EF Eridani", "section": "Section::::EF Eridani B.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 340, "text": "The substellar mass in orbit around the white dwarf is a star that lost all of its gas to the white dwarf. What remains is an object with a mass of 0.05 solar masses (), which is too small to continue fusion, and does not have the composition of a super-planet, brown dwarf, or white dwarf. There is no category for such a stellar remnant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "207820", "title": "Compact star", "section": "Section::::White dwarfs.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 496, "text": "The equation of state for degenerate matter is \"soft\", meaning that adding more mass will result in a smaller object. Continuing to add mass to what is now a white dwarf, the object shrinks and the central density becomes even larger, with higher degenerate-electron energies. The star's radius has now shrunk to only a few thousand kilometers, and the mass is approaching the theoretical upper limit of the mass of a white dwarf, the Chandrasekhar limit, about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun ().\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26401258", "title": "V445 Puppis", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 343, "text": "The white dwarf in the V445 Puppis system has an estimated mass of more than 1.3 times the mass of the Sun, and this mass is increasing because of recurring helium shell flashes from accreted material. As the mass of the white dwarf approaches the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.38 solar masses, it will likely explode as a Type Ia supernova.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24179592", "title": "Future of Earth", "section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 292, "text": "After fusing helium in its core to carbon, the Sun will begin to collapse again, evolving into a compact white dwarf star after ejecting its outer atmosphere as a planetary nebula. The predicted final mass is 54.1% of the present value, most likely consisting primarily of carbon and oxygen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Functionally they are almost identical to US State or Canadian Province. They do not have their own militaries, do not have their own passports, do not have their own treaties and trade agreements, but they do have some of their own laws and self governance. \n\nPuerto Rico is a territory. They are partially subject to the US, but are not full members of the US as they have so far chosen to not become a State. They pay some taxes, have their own laws and government, but rely on the US for military support and all trade has to come through the US first. \n\nQuebec is a Province of Canada, and Bavaria is a State in Germany. They are a somewhat culturally distinct grouping but are not separate countries, nor are they different from their other provinces or states of their nation as you imply by calling them \"sub-national entities\". ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "You note Scotland, but *England* also holds this status (along with Wales and Northern Ireland). The UK may have its government seated in England, but England does not directly represent, nor is it under any tighter control of “the UK” moreso than the other 3. \n\nWhether each has a head of state depends on their particular government’s structure, but they do have their own governments which handle regional affairs.\n\nThe concept is similar to states in the USA with each being a full and “equal” part of the union (though the way the government operates and benefits/restricts each one varies on an individual case). \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1394511", "title": "Constituent state", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 773, "text": "A constituent state is a state entity that constitutes a part of a sovereign state. A constituent state holds regional jurisdiction over a defined administrative territory, within a sovereign state. Government of a constituent state is a form of regional government. Throughout history, and also in modern political practice, most constituents states are parts of complex states, like federations or confederations. Constituent state can have republican or monarchical form of government. Those of republican form are usually called \"states\" or autonomous states, \"republics\" or autonomous republics, and also cantons. Those that have monarchical form of government are often defined by traditional hierarchical rank of their ruler (usually a principality, or an emirate).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28151", "title": "State (polity)", "section": "Section::::Definition.:Types of states.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 605, "text": "States may be classified by political philosophers as sovereign if they are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Other states are subject to external sovereignty or hegemony where ultimate sovereignty lies in another state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union. A federated state is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation. (Compare confederacies or confederations such as Switzerland.) Such states differ from sovereign states in that they have transferred a portion of their sovereign powers to a federal government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15489197", "title": "Province", "section": "Section::::Current provinces.:Modern provinces.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 466, "text": "In some nations, a province (or its equivalent) is a first-level administrative unit of sub-national government—as in the Netherlands—and a large constituent autonomous area, as in Argentina, Canada, South Africa, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It can also be a constituent element of a federation, confederation, or republic. For example, in the United States, no state may secede from the federal Union without the permission of the federal government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15489197", "title": "Province", "section": "Section::::Legal aspects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 646, "text": "In many federations and confederations, the province or state is not clearly subordinate to the national or central government. Rather, it is considered to be sovereign in regard to its particular set of constitutional functions. The central- and provincial-government functions, or areas of jurisdiction, are identified in a constitution. Those that are not specifically identified are called \"residual powers.\" In a decentralized federal system (such as the United States and Australia) these residual powers lie at the provincial or state level, whereas in a centralized federal system (such as Canada) they are retained at the federal level.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1394511", "title": "Constituent state", "section": "Section::::Other forms of constituent states.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 330, "text": "Administrative units that are not federated or confederated but enjoy a greater degree of autonomy or self-government than other territories within the same country can be considered constituent states of that country. This relationship is by some authors called a federacy. Autonomous republics like Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1394511", "title": "Constituent state", "section": "Section::::Federated state.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 337, "text": "Constituent states united in a federal union under a federal government are more specifically known as federated states. There are numerous historical examples for constituent states within various federations. In modern political practice, among most notable examples are U.S. states and constituent entities of the Russian Federation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5253", "title": "Constitution", "section": "Section::::Governmental constitutions.:Key features.:Distribution of sovereignty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 110, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 110, "end_character": 553, "text": "A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called \"states\", \"provinces\", etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "So limiting this to the 20 year rule, and thus 1997 first off with only brief references to events and trends past it. We can actually though talk a good deal about Soviet carrier efforts, which obviously play a huge part in how Russian and PLAN Naval Aviation evolved. \n\nSimply put, from their origins to today an aircraft carrier is a tool of power projection. It allows you to take a piece of ocean that couldn't be used as an airbase and suddenly you have a fully functional one with up to +75 aircraft ready to go and which can be somewhere 100's of miles away tomorrow. It is a tool to enable expeditionary warfare and a sustained presence beyond the limits of land based aircraft for the power that has one. From Imperial Japan, to the United States and Great Britain, to the French, to other minor carrier nations, it has always been about building the ability to go someplace else and attack there using your big moving runway. \n\nTo avoid too deep an overview we can then suffice to say that they were crucial to Allied victory in WW2, very important in US efforts in SE Asia in the Cold War and elsewhere, and factored heavily into plans for a NATO/Warsaw Pact confrontation. And carriers through the years have done numerous different missions, often all at the same time. They can first and foremost attack other naval assets(ships, planes, subs), can attack ground targets and support landings, and can protect sea lanes of communication from enemy forces. All 3 have been key over the years from the drive across the Pacific and Battle of the Atlantic, to supporting fighting in Korea, Vietnam, and in the Middle East, to patrolling the North Atlantic and vital NATO sea lanes. \n\nThis variety of missions, and embracing of robust air power and naval forward presence helped drive the US to embrace the super carrier in the 50's, after temporarily successful efforts by the Air Force in the late 40's to kill earlier designs. While the British were faced with a shrinking empire, up and down economy, and loss of great power status, their navy including carriers slowly transitioned from a broad spectrum force to by the end of the Cold War on focused heavily on leveraging their position to focus on anti submarine warfare on the Greenland-Iceland-UK line. Though the importance of carriers as forward airfields was ably stated in the Falklands when Argentinian aircraft had only a few minutes of fuel to attack while the Brits could maintain a present CAP with their Harriers(though they had short legs too), the Argentines carrier was kept in safe water for fear of attack by RN subs after they bagged the General Belgrano cruiser. Many older US Essex class carriers experienced the same transition, as their usage in operating heavier modern jets waned their usage as anti sub carriers extended their lives by decades sometimes. While the newer super carriers could serve as the attack platforms and the centerpiece of offensive patrols or ground strikes. In a hot Cold War all in the name of ensuring that reinforcements could cross the Atlantic unmolested and fight it out on the plains of Germany.\n\nThe USSR though was in a very different place, they were for the most part already where they expected to fight and didn't need to take a plane or boat to get there. Thus they didn't have long sea lanes to protect or lack of airfields to support expected hot zones, though like all airfields they were stationary and fixed unlike a carrier. And their naval strategy was markedly different. They had 2 main goals, 1 was to protect undersea \"Bastions\" essentially heavily defended safezones where their ballistic missile subs could head to and be safe if the order came to launch. The other being to strike at NATO Sea Lanes. This was then achieved by using numerous fast attack subs, of nuclear and diesel varieties, surface ships firing big heavy and fast anti ship cruise missiles, and crucially long ranged shore based naval bombers and patrol aircraft. By the late Cold War a theoretical attack on a US Carrier Group might involve several soviet attack subs say Victor class nuke boat or a conventional Kilo, maybe a surface group of a Kirov battlecruiser a Kresta cruiser, and a gaggle of destroyers, and most importantly several dozen long ranged bombers. This would be split between the fast jet Backfires and the big ubiquitous turboprop Bears, all with the goal of saturating and overwhelming a battlegroups ability to meat all threats thanks to huge for their job missiles like the P-270, Kh-22, P-500 and P-700. \n\nSo what role for a carrier then? We see it in the limited USSR carrier projects, that aside from the ridiculous Stalin era plans that carriers were meant to simply augment this existing dynamic. To provide additional cover for the Bastions, and to protect surface task forces during the run in to missile launch. We can see this in the few classes of carriers the Soviets actually got completed, ignoring the Moskva's which are really just glorified DDH's and truly dedicated ASW platforms. That leaves us with the Kiev's and Kuznetsov's, both of which have very similar roles and the Kuznetsov's are really just enlarged improved variations on the same theme capable of operating non VSTOL aircraft from the get go. They were meant to simply defend their immediate vicinity to boil it down, and were even equipped with their own anti ship cruise missiles just like the surface combatants(if the trip is likely to be one way why not augment the striking power! this also had the benefit of allowing them to do the legal gymnastics of not calling them carriers and avoiding issues with them passing through the straits into the Black Sea). The Russians did flirt with larger designs over the years but it is a big step, and even the follow on to the Kuznetsov the Ulyanovsk would still have been a ski jump design and carry a large battery of anti surface missiles, though it was scrapped with the end of the Cold War only partly begun. \n\nChina faces many of the same issues, their primary concern is first ensuring the ability to defend their territory, then to meet enemies in the South China Sea and 11 Dash line of the first island chain. While for much of its existence the ability of the PLAN to project power any further towards the second chain of islands like Guam into the Pacific was simply not possible from a numbers or capability standpoint. Thus a reliance on Anti-Access/Area Denial strategy to protect the mainland and again usage of lots of shore based aviation since the foe mostly had to come to them and they were already mostly in range of what they wanted to hit to start a war (SK, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, etc.). This has changed though as China has sought to assert itself as a rising power.\n\nSo fast forward a few years the post Soviet slump meant no new ships and the Russians were left with what they had, hence the 1 Kuznetsov that was ready, and 4 Kiev's all of which were quickly withdrawn from service (2 sold as museums to China, 1 scrapped, and 1 heavily reconstructed and sold to India and in operation today). While the Kuznetsov has lunged from breakdown to breakdown never getting the care she really needs, her unfinished sister was taken by The Ukraine and eventually sold to China who finished her as the current Liaoning, and a near sister was just launched this week. \n\nAnd in the end we should not dismiss the importance of prestige when it comes to having a carrier. Its just something \"Great Powers\" have and do. If Brazil can operate a carrier so can Russia. If France can make a nuclear carrier work why can't China? If Britain is building a modern 2 carrier fleet why shouldn't the world's largest democracy in India do so?\n\nThat said the future of carriers has often been a hot debate. No more so at any other time than today with rising costs, advancing A2/AD assets, and evolving faces of warfare. Even in the US questions about what shape the force should take remain in the open and sometimes contentious. \n\nFor a better understanding of the shape of the debate I would suggest checking out professional sites and sources, one of which is the US Naval Institute, their magazine is pay for view, but their blog regularly publishes excellent work on relevant topics. For instance this was a selected essay by a Midshipman from Annapolis on the PLAN's carrier outlook nd ambitions, perfect as an introduction: _URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "24151166", "title": "Carrier-based aircraft", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 495, "text": "The significance of air power grew between the wars, driven by the increased range, carrying power, and effectiveness of carrier-launched aircraft, until it became impossible to disregard its importance during World War II, following the loss of many warships to aircraft, including the sinking of \"Prince of Wales\" and \"Repulse\", the Battle of Taranto, the Attack on Pearl Harbor and numerous other incidents. Following the war, carrier operations continued to increase in size and importance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "403875", "title": "Capital ship", "section": "Section::::Aircraft carrier.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 521, "text": "In the 21st century, the aircraft carrier is the last remaining capital ship, with capability defined in decks available and aircraft per deck, rather than in guns and calibers. The United States possesses supremacy, in both categories of aircraft carriers, possessing not only 11 active duty supercarriers each capable of carrying and launching nearly 100 tactical aircraft, but an additional 12 amphibious assault ships as capable (in the \"Sea Control Ship\" configuration) as the light VSTOL carriers of other nations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "608296", "title": "Arms industry", "section": "Section::::Sectors.:Naval systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 440, "text": "Some of the world's great powers maintain substantial naval forces to provide a global presence, with the largest nations possessing aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines and advanced anti-air defense systems. The vast majority of military ships are conventionally powered, but some are nuclear-powered. There is also a large global market in second-hand naval vessels, generally purchased by developing countries from Western governments.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "243020", "title": "Louis A. Johnson", "section": "Section::::Secretary of Defense.:Revolt of the Admirals.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 584, "text": "In the long run, Navy arguments for the supercarrier prevailed, though not for the reasons originally cited. A relative failure as a strategic nuclear deterrent, the large aircraft carrier would prove invaluable as an element of conventional rapid deployment tactical air forces, requiring neither overflight permissions or overseas basing rights with host nations. Ironically, a successor to the canceled supercarrier, the radical new USS \"Forrestal\", and later designs, continue in service with the U.S. Navy into the 21st century, forming the core of its offensive striking power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "336257", "title": "Fast Carrier Task Force", "section": "Section::::Carrier-based naval warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 570, "text": "With the arrival of the fleet carriers the primary striking power of the navy was no longer in its battleship force, but with the aircraft that could be brought to battle by the carriers. The means by which the US Navy operated these carriers was developed principally by Admiral Marc Mitscher. Mitscher determined that the best defense for a carrier was its own air groups, and that carriers were more easily defended if they operated together in groups, with supporting ships along with them to aid in air defense, anti-submarine defense, and rescue of downed airmen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "192551", "title": "USS Illinois (BB-65)", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 520, "text": "After the successes of carrier combat achieving air supremacy in both 1942's Battle of the Coral Sea, and, to a greater extent, Battle of Midway, the Navy was forced to shift its building focus from battleships to aircraft carriers. As a result, construction of the fleet of s had been given highest priority. In the process, the United States found the high speed of 33 knots of the \"Iowa\"s valuable; this allowed them to steam with the \"Essex\"-class while providing the carriers with maximum anti-aircraft protection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "537478", "title": "Air supremacy", "section": "Section::::World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 336, "text": "The element of air superiority has been the driving force behind the development of aircraft carriers, which allow aircraft to operate in the absence of designated air bases. For example, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was carried out by aircraft operating from carriers thousands of miles away from the nearest Japanese air base.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In 1941 the British troops retreating from Greece to Crete were forced to leave their heavy artillery behind. In an attempt to prevent the Germans from making use of those guns, the British artillerymen took the gun sights with them to Crete. When the Germans invaded Crete those artillerymen were left with sights for non-existant guns \n\nIn the famous Doolittle Raid, the tailguns from the US bombers were removed (in order to keep weight down) and replaced with broomsticks painted black.\n\nDespite both of those, your history teacher is unlikely to tell you the British sent their men into battle with artillery sights but no guns, or that the US sent bombers on missions without giving them weapons to defend themselves. \n\nIn war, there can be times when soldiers have to fight with less than ideal equipment. Just like the British artillerymen, there were times when Soviet infantry were forced - due to circumstances on the ground - to fight without sufficient arms or ammo. But it wasn't standard practice.\n\nThe point is that it's easy (and unfortunately common) to point to examples where the Soviets were forced to fight (or in this case train) without sufficient equipment and act as though that was the norm, while almost certainly not doing the same for the Western Allies.\n\nSo I'm not saying your history teacher was right or wrong (I don't know a reliable source that would confirm their story, and don't know how you could show it never happened) but it's important to remember that context is always important.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "[I answered a similar question here, and this reply is a slightly modified version of it](_URL_0_).\n\nFirst of all, training and doing drill with wooden guns or broomsticks (or other sticks) have been common in many armies throughout history. Frederick the Great's Prussian soldiers drilled with sticks before being issued muskets. Parts of the US army conscripted in 1917 initially drilled with wooden mock-ups of Springfield M1903 rifles and so on. When learning how to handle a rifle and drilling to commit movements with the weapon to your muscle memory, it does not matter that much if it is a stick or a gun - and guns were often expensive or in shortage.\n\nDid troops train with sticks? Did they go to battle unarmed?\n\nIt is true for the Russian Imperial Army during ww1 and some for the Narodnoe Opolcheniye (people's militia) units of the Soviet army during ww2.\n\nThe Russian Imperial Army was unable to equip all its drafted men with rifles early 1915 - and purchases and deliveries of British and Japanese rifles were made (remaining British and Japanese rifles in Soviet stock were later sold at high prices to the desperate Spanish Republic 1936-38). By December 1914, the Russian Imperial Army had roughly 6,5 million men in uniform, but only 4,5 million rifles to equip them with. At the end of 1915, they had 2 million men at the front, but only about 1,2 million rifles to equip them with. However, by that time the Russian production had picked up, reaching about 1,3 million rifles per year, and there were 2 million rifles in Russian ports or on their way from Britain and Japan.\n\nAll countries fighting in ww1 suffered huge problems trying to supply their forces and equip men raised to replace the extreme casualties suffered by the pre-war armies during the first year of the war. It took time for industry to change to war production, and the lack of nitrates (in the Central Powers due to the blockade, in the Entente due to difficulties in increasing shipment of guano) hampered production of ammunition. The British had to purchase Canadian and US rifles and took rifles from the Indian army as a stop-gap measure. However, the Russian Imperial Army was the only army to send uniformed but unarmed men into combat, expecting them to arm themselves on the battlefield late 1914 to late 1915.\n\nDuring ww2, the Soviets attempted several times to use Narodnoe Opolcheniye, or people's militia units as a desperate stopgap measure when the Germans advanced deep into their territory. These were civilians organised in a sort of a home guard and at times trained decently well and equipped almost like regular troops and at other times thrown into combat barely equipped at all when there was little or no time for training and little equipment available. This was especially problematic during Autumn 1941, when much of the Soviet war industry was being moved from territory that had been or would be over-run to beyond the Ural mountains, causing a temporary slump in supply and new equipment available to the Soviets. For example, the German 6. Panzer-division, when advancing on Stalingrad as part of Fall Blau in summer 1942, encountered a Soviet unit of AA guns and attacked it, noting that the enemy was firing badly, and after running over the unit, discovered that the guns had been manned by female factory workers still in civilian clothing. On the other hand, the Narodnoe Opolcheniye units part of the 62. and 64. Army that defended Stalingrad seem to have performed well during the fighting. \n\nIt is quite possible that Narodnoe Opolcheniye units were at times equipped with a lower number of rifles than it had men and went into battle like that - they often lacked heavier support arms such as artillery, AT guns and mortars. However, I have not seen any records of systematic under-equipment of Soviet units during ww2, neither regular forces or Narodnoe Opolcheniye.\n\nThe bottom line is that many armies throughout the history of gunpowder warfare have used wooden mockups, broomsticks or sticks to drill troops before issuing them weapons, including the US army in 1917. However, the Imperial Russian Army is, as far as I know, the only regular army to send trained and uniformed, but unarmed regular units into battle, expecting them to arm themselves on the battlefield.\n\nHowever\n\nSources:\n\nBrusilov Offensive, by Timothy Dowling.\n\nRace to the Front, by Kevin D Stubbs.\n\nStalingrad, by Anthony Beevor.\n\n2194 days of war, by Cesare Salmaggi and Alfredo Pallavisini.\n\n_URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "177451", "title": "Spetsnaz", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 629, "text": "The Imperial Russian Army had hunter-commando units, formed by a decree of Emperor Alexander III in 1886, which saw action in World War I prior to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Also during World War I, General Aleksei Brusilov became one of the first senior commanders to utilize the tactics of fast-action shock troops for assaults following concentrated accurate artillery fire in what would be later be known as the Brusilov Offensive of 1916. Such tactics, considered revolutionary at the time, would later inspire people like Prussian Captain Willy Rohr in the development of the Prussian Stormtroopers (founded in 1915).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "210760", "title": "Tachanka", "section": "Section::::Armament.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 538, "text": "Despite a certain degree of standardisation, the tachanka's armament was, in most cases, improvised. In Russia, the PM M1910 heavy machine gun was often used. The Polish cavalry of the Polish-Soviet War often used all kinds of machine guns available, including the Maxim, Schwarzlose MG M.07/12, Hotchkiss machine gun and Browning machine gun. The late models of standardised tachankas of the Polish Army were all equipped with Ckm wz.30, a Polish modification of the M1917 Browning machine gun which was also suitable for anti-air fire.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19098007", "title": "7.62 cm Infanteriegeschütz L/16.5", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 891, "text": "German field guns had proven too heavy to accompany the infantry in the assault and the Germans resorted to a variety of solutions in an effort to find something that could help the infantry deal with bunkers and other obstacles. Enormous numbers of Russian 7.62 cm Model 1910 Putilov fortress guns had been captured early in the war and Krupp was told to adapt them for use as infantry guns. They mounted the barrel and breech of the Russian guns on a new solid box-trail carriage with two narrow seats behind the gunshield, facing to the rear. The gun retained its extraordinary depression of -18.6°, which was a legacy of its original purpose to fire down into fortress ditches, although its limited elevation prevented it from ranging past without digging in the trail. It used captured Russian canister ammunition for short-range engagements, but Rheinmetall manufactured its HE shell.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6563997", "title": "Mortier de 280 modèle 1914 Schneider", "section": "Section::::Operational use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 285, "text": "In Russian service they saw action on the Eastern Front, during the Russian Civil War and the subsequent Polish-Bolshevik War. Some were captured by Poland during that conflict, although nothing is known of any use by them. In June, 1941 the Red Army still possessed 25 of these guns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3115408", "title": "Tank desant", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 667, "text": "The tactic was used as an expedient by the Red Army during World War II. Tank desant troops () were infantry trained in the tactic in order to offer small-arms support in suppression of enemy anti-tank weapons or enemy infantry using anti-tank grenades. After the war, T-55 and T-62 tanks were built with hand-holds for this purpose. In northern areas during winter, similar tactics were used by Soviet infantry riding the skids of aerosani or towed behind them on skis. Nowadays, this tactic is very rare (outside of dire emergencies) in well-equipped armed forces, with front-line troops usually riding in armoured personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1412058", "title": "Shock troops", "section": "Section::::World War I.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 685, "text": "During the First World War, many combatants faced the deadlock of trench warfare. On the Western Front in 1915, the Germans formed a specialized unit called the Rohr Battalion to develop assault tactics. During the Brusilov Offensive of 1916, the Russian general Aleksei Brusilov developed and implemented the idea of shock troops to attack weak points along the Austrian lines to effect a breakthrough, which the main Russian Army could then exploit. The Russian Army also deployed hunter commando units who are specially trained forces of Russian army formed in 1886 and were used to protect against ambushes, to perform reconnaissance and for low-intensity fights in no-man's-land.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1897800", "title": "Type 11 light machine gun", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 765, "text": "Combat experience in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 had convinced the Japanese of the utility of machine guns to provide covering fire for advancing infantry. This was reinforced by the first-hand observations of European combat tactics by Japanese military attachés during the First World War, and the Army Technical Bureau was tasked with the development of a lightweight machine gun, which could be easily transportable by an infantry squad. The resultant “Type 11 light machine gun” (named after the 11th year of the reign of Emperor Taishō, or 1922) was the first light machine gun to be mass-produced in Japan and the oldest Japanese light machine gun design to see service in the Pacific War. It was superseded by the Type 96 light machine gun in 1936.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Technically, modern domesticated chickens can still fly. Sort of. Not well. But... for short distances and not terribly gracefully^1. They are not flightless.\n\nHowever, their poor flying abilities are the result of domestication, and selective breeding by farmers and the commercial poultry industry (1950s-now)^2 to be larger, faster growing, and meatier while keeping the birds sheltered from any sort of predators.\n\nThe large breast is actually the flight muscle, but their wings are now too short, and those muscles too heavy to support effective wing loading and flight.\n\nWhile chickens have been domesticated for ~6000-8000 years, [it's pretty clear](_URL_2_)^3 that many of the significant changes occurred in the very recent past (since 1950s). The authors in this study raised a set of lines representative of 1957 (experimental/archival), 1978 (experimental/archival) and 2005 (commercial/meat selected) birds on the same diet, and under the same conditions to study growth and development. While they didn't look at flight abilities of the respective chicken lines, the breast size and conversion rate of grams of food- > grams of breast meat is about tripled. They also measured a significant shift from the 1957 and 1978 lines to the 2005 line in terms of the grams of breast meat/total body weight. So, the 2005 meat-selected line is almost certainly a worse flyer than the 1957 experimental unselected chicken line.\n\n^1\n [Forget About the Road. Why Are Chickens So Bad at Flying?](_URL_4_) by Live Science\n\n^2\n[U.S. Chicken Industry History](_URL_1_) by the National Chicken Council\n\n^3\nM. J. Zuidhof et al., (2014) [Growth, efficiency, and yield of commercial broilers from 1957, 1978, and 2005](_URL_3_) *Poultry Science* \n- if paywalled, see [Huffington Post article instead](_URL_0_)\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "927476", "title": "Flightless bird", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 486, "text": "Many domesticated birds, such as the domestic chicken and domestic duck, have lost the ability to fly for extended periods, although their ancestral species, the red junglefowl and mallard, respectively, are capable of extended flight. A few particularly bred birds, such as the Broad Breasted White turkey, have become totally flightless as a result of selective breeding; the birds were bred to grow massive breast meat that weighs too much for the bird's wings to support in flight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38085428", "title": "Xenointoxication", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 242, "text": "This method was unsuccessful in a 1969 study attempting to control \"Triatoma infestans\" in chicken houses because even though some bugs that fed on the treated birds did die, so did the birds, and the birds that survived produced fewer eggs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37402", "title": "Chicken", "section": "Section::::General biology and habitat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 211, "text": "The average chicken may live for five to ten years, depending on the breed. The world's oldest known chicken was a hen which died of heart failure at the age of 16 years according to the Guinness World Records.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2118736", "title": "Domestication of animals", "section": "Section::::Pathways.:Commensal pathway.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 540, "text": "The chicken is one of the most widespread domesticated species and one of the human world's largest sources of protein. Although the chicken was domesticated in South-East Asia, archaeological evidence suggests that it was not kept as a livestock species until 400 BCE in the Levant. Prior to this, chickens had been associated with humans for thousands of years and kept for cock-fighting, rituals, and royal zoos, so they were not originally a prey species. The chicken was not a popular food in Europe until only one thousand years ago.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "169696", "title": "Falconry", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 311, "text": "Throughout the 20th century, modern veterinary practices and the advent of radio telemetry (transmitters attached to free-flying birds) increased the average lifespan of falconry birds and allowed falconers to pursue quarry and styles of flight that had previously resulted in the loss of their hawk or falcon.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23924", "title": "Passenger pigeon", "section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Potential re-creation of the species.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 97, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 97, "end_character": 1379, "text": "Today, more than 1,532 passenger pigeon skins (along with 16 skeletons) are in existence, spread across many institutions all over the world. It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it (a concept which has been termed \"de-extinction\"), using genetic material from such specimens. In 2003, the Pyrenean ibex (\"Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica\", a subspecies of the Spanish ibex) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects. A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented, due to exposure to heat and oxygen. American geneticist George M. Church has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens. The next step would be to splice these genes into the stem cells of rock pigeons (or band-tailed pigeons), which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells, and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons, resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs. The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits, and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species. Reviving the passenger pigeon may help conserve woodland biodiversity in the eastern US.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "36280948", "title": "Chicken as biological research model", "section": "Section::::History.:Adult chicken as a research model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 413, "text": "The adult chicken has also made significant contributions to the advancement of science. By inoculating chickens with cholera bacteria (Pasteurella multocida) from an overgrown, and thereby attenuated, culture Louis Pasteur produced the first lab-derived attenuated vaccine (1860s). Great advances in immunology and oncology continued to characterize the 20th century, for which we indebted to the chicken model.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Are you asking how the mechanics of city states works in the context of Civ 5? Or are you asking what city states in real life are? Two really different questions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A City State is a city that has claimed it's own sovereignty - it's not part of any other country or empire.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In the world there are City-States, Nation-States, and Empires.\n\nA real life city-state is an independent government, like a kingdom, able to feed, defend, and provide for its people. What makes it a city-state is that it is centered around only ONE city - along with the surrounding farmland and villages that sustain it. \n\nMany of the cities of Classical Greece were city-states, such as Thebes, Athens, Sparta, etc. Especially the island cities. In a city-state you might be friends with other cities, but you can act alone without a higher government than yours. \n\nYou can also share a culture with other cities, and consider yourself part of a \"nation\" of people without being a part of a nation-state, like say France or like Greece is today.\n\nIn the case of America, the 50 States are actually operating as Nation-States which have agreed to answer to a higher government, based in Washington D.C. Because of this, America (as \"united states\") is more of an Empire than a Nation-State.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A City State is much like any other country, just very small and with mostly only a city and maybe some suburb ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "52911", "title": "Town", "section": "Section::::By country.:United States.:California.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 189, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 189, "end_character": 746, "text": "In California, the words \"town\" and \"city\" are synonymous by law (see Cal. Govt. Code Secs. 34500–34504). There are two types of cities in California: charter and general law. Cities organized as charter cities derive their authority from a charter that they draft and file with the state, and which, among other things, states the municipality's name as \"City of (Name)\" or \"Town of (Name).\" Government Code Sections 34500–34504 applies to cities organized as general law cities, which differ from charter cities in that they do not have charters but instead operate with the powers conferred them by the pertinent sections of the Government Code. Like charter cities, general law cities may incorporate as \"City of (Name)\" or \"Town of (Name).\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56667531", "title": "General-law municipality", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 349, "text": "In the systems of local government in some U.S. states, a general-law municipality, general-law city, or statutory city is a municipality whose government structure and powers are defined by the general law of its state. This is contrast to a charter city or home-rule city, whose government structure and powers are defined by a municipal charter.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "429081", "title": "Administrative divisions of New York (state)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 634, "text": "The state is divided into counties, cities, towns, and villages. Cities, towns and villages are municipal corporations with their own governments that provide most local government services. Whether a municipality is defined as a city, town, or village is dependent not on population or land area, but rather on the form of government selected by the residents and approved by the state legislature. Each such government is granted varying home rule powers as provided by the New York Constitution. New York has various corporate entities that serve single purposes that are also local governments, such as school and fire districts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "139176", "title": "City-state", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 656, "text": "A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance. , only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies currently to Monaco, Singapore, and Vatican City. City states are also sometimes called microstates which however also includes other configurations of very small countries, not to be confused with micronations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2216522", "title": "Administrative divisions of Massachusetts", "section": "Section::::Municipalities.:Form of government: city vs. town.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 39, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 39, "end_character": 431, "text": "Out of 53 cities in the Commonwealth, there are now eleven that are legally cities and have city councils, but retained \"Town of\" in their names. This distinction derives from provisions of state law that reference the town meeting form of government and that provide for greater self-governance authority for the class of communities governed by a form of chief executive and council which are referred to as cities in state law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32024", "title": "Transportation in the United States", "section": "Section::::Funding.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 684, "text": "State governments are sovereign entities which use their powers of taxation both to match federal grants, and provide for local transportation needs. Different states have different systems for dividing responsibility for funding and maintaining road and transit networks between the state department of transportation, counties, municipalities, and other entities. Typically cities or counties are responsible for local roads, financed with block grants and local property taxes, and the state is responsible for major roads that receive state and federal designations. Many mass transit agencies are quasi-independent and subsidized branches of a state, county, or city government.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10389034", "title": "Place (United States Census Bureau)", "section": "Section::::Incorporated place.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 624, "text": "Different states use a variety of terms for their incorporated places. The designations \"city\", \"town\", \"village\", and \"borough\" are most frequent, but one or more places in Kentucky, Montana, Nevada, and Tennessee have place-type governments (usually consolidated ones) that do not have any of these designations. New Jersey is the only state that has all four kinds of incorporated places. Only two other states (Connecticut and Pennsylvania) include \"boroughs\" as incorporated places. Eleven U.S. states have only \"cities\", and the remainder of the states have various combinations of \"cities\", \"towns\", and \"villages\". \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There are actually several. The thing is, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all emphasize a \"closed canon\". Buddhism, for example, has a canon (though its often more of a library than a single book). But then again, Jews don't have a single book (\"Torah is only understandable with Talmud\") and Islam emphasizes generally emphasizes the importance of Hadiths in addition to the Quran. Several offshoots of these (like Mormonism and Druzism, and to a degree Bahaiism) use the core texts of the parent religion, plus additional texts so there's not just \"one\".\n\n * The Zoroastriansn have not only the Avesta, but several other core texts beyond that like the Gathas and the Yasna. \n * Hindus have the Vedas, and a variety of other holy books of wide acceptance and considerable antiquity (the Vedas are surprisingly unifying--in fact, when discussing India religion it's common to say what became Hinduism was Vedic, and what became Jainism, Buddhism, etc was non-Vedic)\n * Sikhism has the Guru Granth Sahib\n * If you want to count Confucianism as a religion, you have the Analects. \n * If you want to count Daoism as a religion, there's the Dao De Ching of Lao Tse (please pardon my mixing and matching romanizations; I'm on a phone that's cutting in and out of service so I can't look anything up)\n * Buddhism is complicated. Therevada had the Pali Canon, but Mahayana schools continued producing texts for a much much longer time. \n * I believe Jainism has a central set of texts as well. \n\nI'm going to assume you're in the west and from a Christian, likely Protestant, milieu. While these groups all have a canon of holy books agreed on (to various degrees), it should not be mistaken that , should say Zoroastrians disappear, we could recreate Zoroastrianism only from the texts before us in the holy books. Whether or not you could actually \"rederive\" Protestantism (or Salafi Islam) from a given set of holy books is beside the point--the religions think they are performing the authentic textual religion (if its not in the text, it's not in the religion--this is Martin Luther's *sola scriptura*). In almost every other religious tradition, recieved tradition is openly given a much more central role (like Catholicism). These books give one part of the religion and they are understood within a particular tradition. It should not be assumed that they explain all of the religion. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "186861", "title": "Comparative religion", "section": "Section::::Geographical classification.:Middle Eastern religions.:Abrahamic or Western Asian religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 375, "text": "In the study of comparative religion, the category of Abrahamic religions consists of the three monotheistic religions, Christianity, Islam and Judaism, which claim Abraham (Hebrew \"Avraham\" אַבְרָהָם; Arabic \"Ibrahim\" إبراهيم ) as a part of their sacred history. Smaller religions such as Bahá'í Faith that fit this description are sometimes included but are often omitted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265452", "title": "List of religious sites", "section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 345, "text": "The three major Abrahamic faiths (in chronological order of revelation) are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some strict definitions of what constitutes an Abrahamic religion include only these three faiths. However, there are many other religions incorporating Abrahamic doctrine, theology, genealogy and history into their own belief systems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13906453", "title": "Abrahamic religions", "section": "Section::::Religions.:Other Abrahamic religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 313, "text": "Historically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to be Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some of this is due to the age and larger size of these three. The other, similar religions were seen as either too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small to be of significance to the category.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16395", "title": "Judeo-Christian", "section": "Section::::Islam.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 444, "text": "Advocates of the term \"Abrahamic religion\" since the second half of the 20th century have proposed a hyper-ecumenicism that emphasizes not only Judeo-Christian commonalities but that would include Islam as well (the rationale for the term \"Abrahamic\" being that while only Christianity and Judaism give the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) the status of scripture, Islam does also trace its origins to the figure of Abraham as the \"first Muslim\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5362648", "title": "God in Abrahamic religions", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 437, "text": "Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes called Abrahamic religions because they all accept the tradition of the God (known as Yahweh in Hebrew and Allah in Arabic) that revealed himself to the prophet Abraham. The theological traditions of all Abrahamic religions are thus to some extent influenced by the depiction of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, and the historical development of monotheism in the history of Judaism.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53132", "title": "Humanities", "section": "Section::::Fields.:Religion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 503, "text": "Abrahamic religions are those religions deriving from a common ancient tradition and traced by their adherents to Abraham (circa 1900 BCE), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, where he is described as a prophet (Genesis 20:7), and in the Quran, where he also appears as a prophet. This forms a large group of related largely monotheistic religions, generally held to include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and comprises over half of the world's religious adherents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265452", "title": "List of religious sites", "section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 305, "text": "Abrahamic religions are those monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him. They constitute one of three major divisions in comparative religion, along with Indian religions (Dharmic) and East Asian religions (Taoic).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Only sort of. After a transplant, the heart is generally not connected to the nerves that regulate rate. But cardiac muscle is not like skeletal muscle, in that the nerves do not directly initiate contraction, they just speed it up or slow it down. The heart itself has autorhythmicity. Not connected to those nerves, the heart will beat at its intrinsic rate, which is usually around 100 bpm.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7015", "title": "Christiaan Barnard", "section": "Section::::Additional heart transplants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 679, "text": "Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or \"piggy back\" transplant) in which the patient's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a \"double heart\". Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3310752", "title": "Lung transplantation", "section": "Section::::Types of lung transplant.:Heart–lung.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 231, "text": "Some respiratory patients may also have severe cardiac disease which would necessitate a heart transplant. These patients can be treated by a surgery in which both lungs and the heart are replaced by organs from a donor or donors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "57804081", "title": "Jack Copeland (surgeon)", "section": "Section::::Later career.:Heterotopic heart transplant at California.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 482, "text": "On 13 February 2011, Copeland and his team at the UC San Diego Center for Transplantation, performed the rare \"piggyback\" heart operation again, resulting in a man having two beating hearts in his chest. Termed a heterotopic heart transplantation, recipient Smith received a donor heart while still keeping his own diseased heart. The alternative option, which would have required two operations, was to offer a Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) as a bridge-to-transplantation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "795923", "title": "Heart–lung transplant", "section": "Section::::Statistics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 217, "text": "The success rate of heart–lung transplants has improved significantly in recent years. The British National Health Service states that the survival rate is now around 85%, one year after the transplant was performed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44289410", "title": "Kyu Ha Kim", "section": "Section::::Cardiac illness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 478, "text": "Of the twelve hundred procedures performed at University of Pittsburgh Medical Center since 1980, only fifteen to twenty fell into this category. Although many heart transplant recipients must wait several months, even years for a donor heart, after only two weeks on the heart transplant waiting list, a donor heart became available. Although the donor heart was less than perfect as it exhibited signs of a cardiovascular disease, Kim chose, in his words, ”to take a chance”.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30876400", "title": "Heart transplantation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 476, "text": "Approximately 3,500 heart transplants are performed every year in the world, more than half of which occur in the US. Post-operation survival periods average 15 years. Heart transplantation is not considered to be a cure for heart disease; with that being said, it still is a life-saving treatment intended to improve the quality, and hopefully also both the overall total duration of time and the extent of time afterwards in a more active state, of life for the recipients.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2705327", "title": "March 1981", "section": "Section::::March 9, 1981 (Monday).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 432, "text": "BULLET::::- The first successful human heart-lung transplant was performed. A team at the Stanford University Medical Center, led by Dr. Bruce Reitz, used a new technique that retained a portion of the recipient's right atrium. The recipient was Mary Gohlke, a 45-year-old woman from Mesa, Arizona, with end-stage primary pulmonary hypertension. The donor was a 15-year-old boy who had died from severe head trauma two days earlier\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There might be some kind of baby boom afterwards, like after ww2. Which would then create an elderly population 60 years later, who depend on healthcare and other social services a lot more than the rest of the population. \n\nThe school system would be weird. Teachers and anyone working at schools would probably work part time while there's only 1/2-2/3 of the kids there that normally would be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Anyone working in childcare or childbirth would need to find new jobs for a while. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "the great fappening part 6 - the two year war.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends. If nobody knew it was only going to last two years, there would probably be mass panic because everyone would think we were entering into some sort of Children of Men scenario where we could never reproduce again.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Christmas would suck for those two years when there are no toddlers and small kids to entertain with Santa outfits and presents and wrapping paper a hundred times more exiting than the gift inside :(", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "634139", "title": "Voluntary childlessness", "section": "Section::::Social attitudes to remaining childfree.:The \"selfish\" issue.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 506, "text": "There is also the question as to whether having children really is such a positive contribution to the world in an age when there are many concerns about overpopulation, pollution and depletion of non-renewable resources. Some critics counter that such analyses of having children may understate its potential benefits to society (e.g. a greater labor force, which may provide greater opportunity to solve social problems) and overstate the costs. That is, there is often a need for a non-zero birth rate.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3488015", "title": "Stunted growth", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Brazil.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 720, "text": "Brazil displayed a remarkable reduction in the rates of child stunting under age 5, from 37% in 1974, to 7.1% in 2007. This happened in association with impressive social and economic development that reduced the numbers of Brazilians living in extreme poverty (less than $1.25 per day) from 25.6% in 1990 to 4.8% in 2008. The successful reduction in child malnutrition in Brazil can be attributed to strong political commitment that led to improvements in the water and sanitation system, increased female schooling, scale-up of quality maternal and child health services, increased economic power at family level (including successful cash transfer programs), and improvements in food security throughout the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4992942", "title": "Intrusive thought", "section": "Section::::Associated conditions.:Postpartum depression and OCD.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 472, "text": "Intrusive fears of harming immediate children can last longer than the postpartum period. A study of 100 clinically depressed women found that 41% had obsessive fears that they might harm their child, and some were afraid to care for their children. Among non-depressed mothers, the study found 7% had thoughts of harming their child—a rate that yields an additional 280,000 non-depressed mothers in the United States with intrusive thoughts about harming their children.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2602102", "title": "The Foundation for Young Australians", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 202, "text": "A 2014 report by the FYA found that people under the age of 24 were likely to be worse off than their parents, with a 30% unemployment rate and more university debt and spending most income on housing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3410660", "title": "Reserve army of labour", "section": "Section::::Controversies and criticism.:Overpopulation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 342, "text": "The counter-argument is that in many poor countries people get far more children than they can reasonably feed, support and provide with a decent life under the circumstances. If people had fewer children with the aid of contraception, then it would put much less pressure on already scarce resources and enable a better life for the living.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2435914", "title": "Child poverty", "section": "Section::::Measuring child poverty.:Capability approach and the Child Development Index.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 487, "text": "However, in 2013, child poverty reached record high levels in the United States, with 16.7 million children, more than 20%, living in food insecure households. 47 million Americans depend on food banks, more than 30% above 2007 levels. Households headed by single mothers are most likely to be affected. Worst affected are the District of Columbia, Oregon, Arizona, New Mexico and Florida, while North Dakota, New Hampshire, Virginia, Minnesota and Massachusetts are the least affected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "231085", "title": "Family planning", "section": "Section::::Purposes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 301, "text": "There is no clear social impact case for or against conceiving a child. Individually, for most people, bearing a child or not has no measurable impact on person well-being. A review of the economic literature on life satisfaction shows that certain groups of people are much happier without children:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The dot in a red or green dot sight is not actually a coloured point that's hovering in a fix spot in the air like an iron sight does.\n\nInstead, the red dot you see is a reflection of a little red lamp that falls onto a spherical mirror which filters out only the red (or green) spectrum. This mirror is installed in a way that no matter what angle *you* look on it, the Red dot will always point towards the spot the bullet will hit. \n\nEDIT: That way the Red dot itself is virtual and basically only exists in your eyes, two people looking through the same sight at the same time from different angles would see the spots in different 3-dimensional places, but still pointed towards the target.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "a red dot sight (also known as a reflex sight or a reflector sight) bounces a laser off of a reflector that is curved so that the angle the dot reflects off of it changes where it appears to reflect off of the reflector. The reflector itself is actually transparent, and that's what you are looking through when you look through the sight. The curve of the reflector is tuned so that the image of the laser that is reflected appears to stay in one position relative to the target that you might be looking at through the sight, with it ideally being kept in the center of the reflector.\n\nyou could think of it as sort of the opposite effect of using a curved mirror to focus light to a point, where the image of the reticule is at the point, and your eye being able to see it from anywhere within a certain cone of vision.\n\nif you;re curious about the specific internal workings, there are some good diagrams on the [Wikipedia article](_URL_0_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The other posters are correct in how the device functions. However, I think you are asking, \"Why is it an effective way to aim something even if it only has one point?\" The simple answer is it is built to have the dot lie on a parallel line to the gun barrel. It is worth noting that reflex sights are not for long range or precision shooting. They are more for close-medium range combat situation, i.e. getting all shots in a bad guy shaped target. To get the best accuracy out of a reflex sight, you should mount it as close to the barrel as possible so that the point of aim and point of impact are as close together as possible. This principal also applies to scopes as a perfect scope(mounted perfectly on a perfect gun) at 0 windage and yardage should only be off by the same distance it is away from the center line of the barrel.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25416290", "title": "Red dot sight", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 945, "text": "A red dot sight is a common classification for a type of non-magnifying reflector (or reflex) sight for firearms, and other devices that require aiming, that gives the user an aimpoint in the form of an illuminated red dot. A standard design uses a red light-emitting diode (LED) at the focus of collimating optics which generates a dot style illuminated reticle that stays in alignment with the weapon the sight is attached to regardless of eye position (nearly parallax free). They are considered to be fast acquisition and easy to use gun sights for target shooting, hunting, and in police and military applications. Aside from firearm applications, they are also used on cameras and telescopes. On cameras they are used to photograph flying aircraft, birds in flight, and other distant, quickly moving subjects. Telescopes have a narrow field of view and therefore are often equipped with a secondary \"finder scope\" such as a red dot sight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25416290", "title": "Red dot sight", "section": "Section::::Uses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 455, "text": "Red dot sights place the target and the reticle on nearly the same optical plane, allowing a single point of focus. This makes them fast acquisition and easy to use sights, allowing the user to keep their attention on the field of view in front of them. They are common in speed shooting sports such as IPSC. Military units and police forces have also adopted them. Red dot sights are also popular among paintball and airsoft players for similar reasons.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25416290", "title": "Red dot sight", "section": "Section::::Reticle sizes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 1055, "text": "The most common reticles used today in red dot sights both for handguns and rifles are small dots covering between 0.6 to 1.6 mil (2 to 5 moa ). The choice of red dot reticle size depends on the user needs. A larger and brighter red dot makes for faster target acquisition, but may obscure the target and thereby inhibit precise aiming, while a smaller and dim dot allows for more precise but slower aiming. The 1.6 mil (5 moa) dot is small enough not to obscure most handgun targets, and large enough for most competition shooters to quickly acquire a proper sight picture. Red dots for rifles typically have a smaller dot, often 0.6 to 0.8 mil (2 to 3 moa). When red dot sights started to appear at the practical shooting competition circuit in the 1990s, reticle sizes of up to 3, 4.5 or even 6 mil (10, 15 or 20 moa) were common in order to compensate for the lack of bright illumination. However, as red dot technology and production quality has advanced, the market trend in all types of sport shooting has gone towards the smaller dots used today.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25416290", "title": "Red dot sight", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 725, "text": "Like other reflector sights, the collimated image of the red dot is truly parallax free only at infinity, with an error circle equal to the diameter of the collimating optics for any target at a finite distance. This is compensated for by keeping the dot in the middle of the optical window (sighting down the sight's optical axis). Some manufacturers modify the focus of the LED/optical collimator combination, making models with the optical collimator set to focus the dot at a finite distance. These have a maximum amount of parallax due to eye movement, equal to the size of the optical window, at close range, diminishing to a minimal amount at the set distance (somewhere around a desired target range of 25–50 yards).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1041421", "title": "Iron sights", "section": "Section::::Enhancements.:Contrast enhancements.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 446, "text": "BULLET::::- Three-dot: On semi-automatic handguns, the most common type of enhancement is a bright white dot painted on the front sight near the top of the blade, and a dot on each side of the rear sight notch. In low lighting conditions the front sight dot is centered horizontally between the rear sight dots, with the target placed above the middle (front) dot. Some sight vendors offer differently colored dots for the front and rear sights.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25859047", "title": "Reflector sight", "section": "Section::::Weapon sights.:Firearms.:Reticle types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 672, "text": "Sights that use dot reticles are almost invariably measured in minutes of arc, sometimes called \"minutes of angle\" or \"moa\". Moa is a convenient measure for shooters using English units, since 1 moa subtends approximately at a distance of , which makes moa a handy unit to use in ballistics. The 5 moa (1.5 milliradian) dot is small enough not to obscure most targets, and large enough to quickly acquire a proper \"sight picture\". For many types of action shooting, a larger dot has traditionally been preferred; 7, 10, 15 or even 20 moa (2, 3, 4.5 or 6 mil) have been used; often these will be combined with horizontal and/or vertical lines to provide a level reference.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1870055", "title": "Predicted impact point", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 345, "text": "Another example of devices that show the PIP are red dot sights like the M68 Aimpoint. Such sights, like on a HUD's, are collimated reflector sights, so the dot always appears over the weapon's impact point, regardless of the shooter's eye position. Red dot sights do not use internal computers and must be manually zeroed for maximum accuracy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Are you referring to somebody such as, say, a steward? Somebody who would manage the daily affairs of the estate while the lord was away?\n\nI'm going to base this on the holdings of a knight such a sub fief beneath a baron. A lord with one castle/stronghouse, and some moderate to small land holdings.\n\nThere would have been two different sorts of people to fill this role. In the direct lands controlled by the lord, there would have been the field master, or a title similar. There may have been several depending on the size of the lands. This person would have been in charge of the other field hands, ensuring that they were doing the work that they were supposed to, doing it well, and not slacking.\n\nThe second person would have been the steward. This person was in charge of \"the books\" as it were. Ensuring that the finances were in order. They were the medieval version of an accountant.\n\nOf course, this all assumes that the Lord had the money to pay for these people. Much like later farmers of the Antebellum South period, smaller landowners didn't always have the means to pay these individuals, who were skilled in their own right. If the Lord could read and write, he might well keep his own books, to save money.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a related question, would the Life in Medieval Times by Frances and Joseph Gies be considered reliable works for this subject? They're very popular, but do they get it right, or close to right?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Much of the book 1215 The Year of the Magna Carta by Danny Danziger and John Gillingham has knowledge of the lives of an average peaseant to a lord during that time period.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would depend greatly on the time of year. Part of what they would do depened also on how big a place we are dealing with and what you define as a castle (just the main building or manor house? the lands or town with it and so on) a few tasks they might do or get information from workers. The main tasks would be food and maintenance related. Check on what food was needed for that day/week. figure out how much wheat needed to be milled and bolted, How much beer and wine were needed be it brought upstairs, bought, or made, how much of all types of food need to be provided from stores or harvested or slaughtered.\n\nDo the buildings need work, chimney repointed, wall white washed, fences mended, Thatch replaced, rushes for the floor brought in, is the well safe? are any of the horses or dairy cattle sick who and how are they being taken care of. Oversee linnons mended, wash done, candles, soap and medicine made. Is there enough wood, are the tables scrubbed, how is the sewing being done. Horse tack in good shape, anyone caught trying to poach? There are 100s of tasks to be done or seen to, and thats not even dealing with colleting rent, or anything political or religious you have asked a huge question. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "49557", "title": "Castle", "section": "Section::::Warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 109, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 109, "end_character": 549, "text": "Early on, manning a castle was a feudal duty of vassals to their magnates, and magnates to their kings, however this was later replaced with paid forces. A garrison was usually commanded by a constable whose peacetime role would have been looking after the castle in the owner's absence. Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. Below them were archers and bowmen, whose role was to prevent the enemy reaching the walls as can be seen by the positioning of arrowslits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4848897", "title": "Camelot (The Goodies)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 353, "text": "To regain the castle, the Goodies fight the Town Planner and his clerks by archery, swordsmanship and jousting (with the Goodies riding their trandem, instead of a horse). The Goodies and their also fight other medieval contests and, surprisingly, the Goodies end up winning the 'battle' — so they are able to hold on to the castle for Tim's relatives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48161380", "title": "Besiege (video game)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 393, "text": "The game allows players to build outlandish medieval siege engines to pit against castles or armies. Players select from a collection of mechanical parts that can be connected together to build a machine. Each level has a goal, such as \"destroy the windmill\" or \"kill 100 soldiers\". Although the goals are relatively simple, the wide variety of possible approaches allows for experimentation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43595322", "title": "Castle folk (Kingdom of Hungary)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 320, "text": "The castle folk (, or \"civis\") formed a class of freemen who were obliged to provide well-specified services to a royal castle and its \"ispán\", or count, in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. They were peasants living in villages formed in the lands pertaining to the royal castle. They tilled their estates collectively.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5173675", "title": "Stronghold 2", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 991, "text": "In the game, the player takes on the role of a lord who rules over a medieval castle. With his available resources, the player places buildings or features, including many different kinds of food production, industry, civil, or military buildings and defences. Available peasants automatically choose jobs whenever a building requires one, so player micromanagement is minimal, he mostly needs to set up the various buildings in an efficient way while providing safety for his peasants. Military units are directly controlled individually or in groups, sometimes quite large with sieges or battles involving many hundreds on each side. One new addition to the original stronghold is the inclusion of estates, that a player can \"buy\" with his accumulated honor (gained by popularity, holding feasts, dances, jousting, etc.). Estates are semi-independent villages (without castle fortifications) that produce their own goods that the owner can send through carts to his castle or his allies. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4455446", "title": "Exvania", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1200, "text": "The players must take up control of four medieval lords who are fighting for control of the land; they have to battle through eight different castles, and try to gain control of each one. When one of the lords wins a battle, he shall receive a medal - and once he has won three medals, he will gain control of the current castle (which means that they can be up to six rooms long) and the game will proceed to the next castle. The gameplay is also similar to that of Hudson Soft's \"Bomberman\" series, the initial title of which was adapted by Irem for the arcade in 1991; the lords start out in the four corners of the screen and can only be killed by bombs, but a strike from the whips will temporarily stun them. The objective is to trap the other lords with bombs and kill them or otherwise force them to walk into the path of an exploding bomb - and treasure chests are numerous in each room, and can be broken with the whip. Each treasure chest contains a powerup (such as speed shoes, boomerangs, extra bombs, larger bombs, and more); the game's name is also a reference to the fact that it is a parody of Konami's \"Castlevania\" series or \"Akumajō Dracula\" as it was originally known in Japan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3918713", "title": "Castle-guard", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 622, "text": "Castle-guard was an arrangement under the feudal system, by which the duty of finding knights to guard royal castles was imposed on certain manors, knight's fees or baronies. The greater barons provided for the guard of their castles by exacting a similar duty from their sub-enfeoffed knights. The obligation was commuted very early for a fixed money payment, a form of scutage known as \"castle-guard rent\", which lasted into modern times. Castle-guard was a common form of feudal tenure, almost ubiquitous, on the Isle of Wight where all manors were held from the Lord of the Isle of Wight, seated at Carisbrook Castle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'd love to answer your question if you could be more specific as to what it is you're asking.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "539902", "title": "National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases", "section": "Section::::Programs.:Intramural Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 266, "text": "Laboratory of Stem Cell Biology—studies cell fate and tissue development. It examines various types of stem cells to generate neurological disease models, to discover and test drugs, and to develop replacement therapies for neurodegenerative diseases and disorders.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "703002", "title": "Neuroethics", "section": "Section::::Key issues.:Stem cell therapy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 590, "text": "More specifically the way that stem cell research has been involved in neuroscience is through the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. In these cases scientists are using neural stem cells to regenerate tissue and to be used as carriers for gene therapy. In general, neuroethics revolves around a cost benefit approach to find techniques and technologies that are most beneficial to patients. There has been progress in certain fields that have been shown to be beneficial when using stem cells to treat certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18401364", "title": "Natural scientific research in Canada", "section": "Section::::Integrationism.:Cutbacks and recovery (1985–present).:Disciplines (1985–present).:Medical research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 236, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 236, "end_character": 1601, "text": "There have been significant developments in stem cell research activity during this period. In 1997, Dr. John Dick, a molecular biologist at the University of Toronto, was the first to discover the existence of cancer stem cells. The Stem Cell Network was established in 2001 with headquarters at the University of Ottawa, and brings together more than 80 leading scientists, clinicians and engineers from Canadian universities and hospitals. Researchers study cellular therapeutics and their pharmacological applications as well as related technologies, public policy, ethical, legal and social issues with the goal of effectively treating cancer, heart and lung disease, macular degeneration, stroke, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, Parkinson's disease, muscle degeneration, hemophilia and type 1 diabetes. It is hoped that research will lead to clinical applications for these afflictions by 2015. Stem cell research is also undertaken at the McEwen Centre for Regenerative Medicine established in 2003 in Toronto as part of the University Health Network in 2003. In 2010, the McMaster University Stem Cell and Cancer Research Institute announced that it had developed a technique for transforming skin cells into multiple blood cell types. This discovery may have applications for the treatment of leukemia, for it is anticipated that a patient with the disease may be able to receive therapeutic blood transfusions derived from his or her own skin cells, thus eliminating problems related to compatibility that are associated with treatment that involves biological material from others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31525679", "title": "Stem cell lineage database", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 474, "text": "Stem cells are cells in the body that can divide indefinitely in a culture and can be formulated into specialized cells. In biological research, these cells have become a subject of extensive research. With these cells, scientists will be able to better understand how these cells are differentiated by the process of turning on and off genes. Through this research, scientists will be able to better understand certain diseases such as cancer and how these diseases arise.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23615662", "title": "Canadian Stem Cell Foundation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 432, "text": "The Canadian Stem Cell Foundation is an independent, non-profit organization established in 2008 and situated in Ottawa, Ontario. Stem Cell science is a Canadian innovation through the discovery of stem cells by Drs. James Till and Ernest McCulloch. It is globally known as the leading organization for stem cell research and support in the study of treatments and cures for diseases such as cancer, diabetes, blindness and stroke.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58779114", "title": "Stem Cell Research (journal)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 268, "text": "Stem Cell Research is a peer-reviewed open access scientific journals of cell biology. The journal was established in 2007, and is currently published 8 times per year by Elsevier. The current editor-in-chief is Thomas Zwaka (Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31525679", "title": "Stem cell lineage database", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 394, "text": "As stem cell research continues, scientists will need a database to store and share their information and research. Three key components are necessary for this database to be effective: cell type-specific gene expression profiles, anatomical and developmental relationships between cells and tissues and signals important for development and differentiation of stem cells to mature cell types.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Queen Liliʻuokalani continued to resist the overthrow with political, PR and judiciary actions for many years. \nThe royalist rebellion of 1895 had participants from the Hawaiian Royal Family, most notably Prince Kuhio. \nAs an interesting side note, Kuhio defeated the leader of the rebellion, Wilcox in an election for the House of Representatives in 1902.\n\n\"The Rights of My People: Liliuokalani's Enduring Battle with the United States 1893-1917\", Neil Thomas Proto\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "469613", "title": "ʻIolani Palace", "section": "Section::::Kalākaua's ʻIolani Palace.:Design and construction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 239, "text": "It served as the official residence of the Hawaiian monarch until the 1893 overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Therein not only Liliuokalani, but, Queen Kapiolani and other royal retainers were evicted from the palace after the overthrow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "789499", "title": "Curtis P. Iaukea", "section": "Section::::Following the overthrow.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 526, "text": "After Kalākaua's death and the accession of Queen Liliʻuokalani, Iaukea was reappointed colonel of the queen's personal military staff, and as agent of the Crown Lands. The monarchy was overthrown on January 17, 1893, by the Committee of Safety, with the support of United States Minister John L. Stevens, and the landing of American forces from the USS \"Boston\". After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35511211", "title": "Albert Kūnuiākea", "section": "Section::::Adulthood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 769, "text": "On January 17, 1893, the monarchy was overthrown and Queen Liliʻuokalani was deposed by the Committee of Safety with the covert support of United States Minister John L. Stevens and the landing of American forces from the USS \"Boston\". After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894, with Sanford B. Dole as president. During this period, the defacto government was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, although a few Native Hawaiians including Kūnuiākea served in political roles. He became a member of the Constitutional Convention charged with drafting a new constitution for the Republic and was one of the five Native Hawaiian signatories of the document.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "789709", "title": "House of Kamehameha", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 370, "text": "The House of Kamehameha \"(Hale O Kamehameha)\", or the Kamehameha dynasty, was the reigning Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii, beginning with its founding by Kamehameha I in 1795 and ending with the death of Kamehameha V in 1872 and Lunalilo in 1874. The kingdom would continue for another 21 years until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52666932", "title": "Samuel K. Pua", "section": "Section::::Political career.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 584, "text": "Following the proroguing of the legislature and the unsuccessful attempts of the queen to promulgate a new constitution, the monarchy was overthrow on January 17, 1893. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wish of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation and for the monarchy to continue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52667857", "title": "David William Pua", "section": "Section::::Life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 586, "text": "Following the proroguing of the legislature and the unsuccessful attempts of the queen to promulgate a new constitution, the monarchy was overthrown on January 17, 1893. After a brief transition under the Provisional Government, the oligarchical Republic of Hawaii was established on July 4, 1894. During this period, the de facto government, which was composed largely of residents of American and European ancestry, sought to annex the islands to the United States against the wish of the Native Hawaiians who wanted to remain an independent nation and for the monarchy to continue. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13270", "title": "Hawaii", "section": "Section::::History.:Overthrow of 1893 – Republic of Hawaii (1894–1898).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 779, "text": "On January 17, 1893, Queen Liliuokalani was overthrown and replaced by a provisional government composed of members of the Committee of Safety. The United States Minister to the Kingdom of Hawaii (John L. Stevens) conspired with U.S. citizens to overthrow the monarchy. After the overthrow, Lawyer Sanford B. Dole, a citizen of Hawaii, became President of the Republic when the Provisional Government of Hawaii ended on July 4, 1894. Controversy ensued in the following years as the Queen tried to regain her throne. The administration of President Grover Cleveland commissioned the Blount Report, which concluded that the removal of Liliuokalani had been illegal. The U.S. government first demanded that Queen Liliuokalani be reinstated, but the Provisional Government refused.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Pike phalanxes were not standard infantry, but were adopted numerous times, often when fighting cavalry-heavy armies from the east.\n\nIn preparation for his Parthian campaign Caracalla ordered 16,000 men to be trained in Macedonian drill and fight in a phalanx. Severus Alexander also had elements of six legions formed into phalangiarii, who fought in a phalanx.\n\nArrian of Nicomedia, during his campaign against the Alani, used pike phalanxes to ward off the Alani cavalry. \n\nFrom Arrian's \"Extaxis contra Alanos\" \n\n(Section 15) The infantry should be drawn up eight ranks deep, in a closely packed formation. (Section 16) The first four ranks shall consist of pike-bearers, whose pikes will end in long, slender iron points. The men in the first rank should hold their pikes at the ready, so that if the enemy comes near, they can thrust the iron tip of their pike especially at the breasts of the horses. (Section 17) The men of the second (?), third, and fourth ranks should hold their pikes forward to jab and wound the horses where they can, and kill the riders.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::Design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 939, "text": "The pike was a long weapon, varying considerably in size, from long. It was approximately in weight, with sixteenth-century military writer Sir John Smythe recommending lighter rather than heavier pikes. It had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel spearhead affixed. The shaft near the head was often reinforced with metal strips called \"cheeks\" or langets. When the troops of opposing armies both carried the pike, it often grew in a sort of arms race, getting longer in both shaft and head length to give one side's pikemen an edge in combat. The extreme length of such weapons required a strong wood such as well-seasoned ash for the pole, which was tapered towards the point to prevent the pike from sagging on the ends, although drooping or slight flection of the shaft was always a problem in pike handling. It is a common mistake to refer to a bladed polearm as a pike; such weapons are more generally halberds, glaives or voulges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::End of the pike era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 327, "text": "Pikes live on today only in ceremonial roles, being used to carry the colours of an infantry regiment and with the Company of Pikemen and Musketeers of the Honourable Artillery Company, or by some of the infantry units on duty during their rotation as guard for the President of the Italian Republic at the Quirinale, in Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 653, "text": "A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear formerly used extensively by infantry. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the Late Middle Ages to the early 18th century, and were wielded by foot soldiers deployed in close quarters, until their replacement by the bayonet. The pike found extensive use with Landsknecht armies and Swiss mercenaries, who employed it as their main weapon and used it in pike square formations. A similar weapon, the sarissa, was also used by Alexander the Great's Macedonian phalanx infantry to great effect. Generally, a spear becomes a pike when it is too long to be wielded with one hand in combat.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::Tactics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 395, "text": "The pike, being unwieldy, was typically used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often alongside other missile and melee weapons. However, better-trained troops were capable of using the pike in an aggressive attack with each rank of pikemen being trained to hold their pikes so that they presented enemy infantry with four or five layers of spearheads bristling from the front of the formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::End of the pike era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 581, "text": "A common end date for the use of the pike in infantry formations is 1700, although such armies as the Prussian and Austrian had already abandoned the pike by that date. Other armies, such as the Swedish and the Russian, continued to use it for several decades afterward (the Swedes of King Charles XII in particular using it to great effect until the 1720s and 1730s). During the American Revolution, pikes called \"trench spears\" made by local blacksmiths saw limited use until enough bayonets could be procured for general use by both Continental Army and attached militia units.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1001476", "title": "Tercio", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 612, "text": "The use of massed pikes by Spanish armies began in the Granada War (1482–92). During the Italian Wars, under the direction of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, called \"the great captain\", the system of combined groups of pikemen, arquebusiers and swordsmen developed. The conflicts at the end of the 15th century and early 16th century evolved into a tactically unique combination of combined arms centered around armored infantry. To counter the French heavy cavalry, a colonelcy could theoretically have up to 6,000 men, but by 1534 this had been reduced to the tercio with a maximum of 3,000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "86778", "title": "Pike (weapon)", "section": "Section::::End of the pike era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 285, "text": "Civilian pikeman played a similar role, though outnumbered and outgunned, in the 1798 Rising in Ireland four years later. Here, especially in the Wexford Rebellion and in Dublin, the pike was useful mainly as a weapon by men and women fighting on foot against cavalry armed with guns.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The 3 refers to Transmission Gear 3 of the car. On a manual, which you probably remember from your childhood, you'd shift from 1 to 2... to 3........ to 4 when getting up to highway speeds. Now it's done automatically, but you have the option of limiting your car to gear 3, 2 or even 1.\n\nLower gears can be useful in a situation where you need more traction, or just want to go slower. If driving in a city, you're probably better off using gear 3 since you don't need to go that fast (4 is best for mileage at higher speeds). Going downhill/towing with a heavy vehicle is another situation where 3 would be better. But don't switch gears too much, as it wears the transmission - plus, you could actually encounter a glitch due to the fact that the car automatically changes gears for you.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's for driving in the mountains. D will allow your car to go into the highest gear... your car may not have enough power to maintain a consistent speed in this gear, so it will drop into a lower gear to get back up to speed. This cycle can be annoying. D3 prevents you from going to the highest gear. Additionally, when going down a hill, shifting into D3 will use a lower gear for more effective engine breaking. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As has been explained, it means 3rd gear. On your vehicle, 4th gear is an overdrive gear, meaning it has a final drive that is less than a 1:1 ratio for better gas mileage.\n\nNow, the *reason* your shifter is probably marked 1-2-D3-OD is that D3 is used when you are driving in hills to keep the transmission from \"hunting\" between 3rd and 4th. But, it is considered a final drive gear, hence the reason it is distinguished with the \"D\" as oppsed to 1st and 2nd which are rarely used in an automatic...meaning the driver rarely shifts down to those gears. Most of the time it's best to just keep it in OD and let the computer take care of shifting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Everyone's explanation, except for the guy at the bottom, has given a correct explanation. From your questions, maybe an analogy will help. For example, a ten speed bike. The gears by the pedals is the transmission, and the gears at the rear tire is the differential. In cars, the gears in the differential don't change. Just like a ten-speed, when you hit the last gear, you are traveling very fast, but pedaling slowly. When you hit a hill, you must go down in gear in order to maintain speed, but this increases how much you have to pedal. In a car, placing the shifter in D3 is forcing the transmission to remain at that gear and not shifting up. Higher gears in automatic transmissions are only meant to maintain vehicle speed with as little power as possible. Not suitable for hills or mountainous terrain. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2632709", "title": "Carver (automotive company)", "section": "Section::::Dynamic Vehicle Control system.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 427, "text": "With the DVC system, the car’s bodywork moves independently from the wheels and engine. The DVC system automatically adjusts the tilt angle of the vehicle to the speed and acceleration of the vehicle in such a way that it always is in balance. It was designed as a proactive instead of a reactive system, meaning a Carver tilts before cornering, much like when an airplane tilts to one side in order to turn in that direction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "334940", "title": "Automatic transmission", "section": "Section::::Automatic transmission modes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 2039, "text": "BULLET::::- Reverse (R): This engages reverse gear within the transmission, permitting the vehicle to be driven backward, and operates a switch to turn on the white backup lights for improved visibility (the switch may also activate a beeper on delivery trucks or other large vehicles to audibly warn other drivers and nearby pedestrians of the driver's reverse movement). To select reverse in most transmissions, the driver must come to a complete stop, depress the shift-lock button (or move the shift lever toward the driver in a column shifter, or move the shifter sideways along a notched channel in a console shifter) and select reverse. The driver should avoid engaging reverse while the vehicle is moving forwards, and likewise avoid engaging any forward gear while travelling backwards. On transmissions with a torque converter, doing so at very low speed (walking pace) is not harmful, but causes unnecessary wear on clutches and bands, and a sudden deceleration that not only is uncomfortable, but also uncontrollable since the brakes and the throttle contribute in the same direction. This sudden acceleration, or jerk, can still be felt when engaging the gear at standstill, but the driver normally suppresses this by holding the brakes. Travelling slowly in the right direction while engaging the gear minimizes the jerk further, which is actually beneficial to the wearing parts of the transmission. Electronically controlled transmissions may behave differently, as engaging a gear at speed is essentially undefined behaviour. Some modern transmissions have a safety mechanism that will resist putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving forward; such a mechanism may consist of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the reverse position, electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal, so that the brake pedal needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29419796", "title": "Multimode manual transmission", "section": "Section::::Operation under M mode.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 588, "text": "Under M mode, sequential gear shifts can be made by changing the gear to M+ and M-. Under M mode, the gear selected will be displayed as one of M1/M2/M3/M4/M5/M6 on the dashboard. Under M mode, the gear will not change even if the engine RPM reaches redline, which will probably lead to engine damage. However, the user is prevented from excessively up-shifting to a gear that exceeds the maximum revolution possible for the engine, or excessively downshifting to a gear that may lead the engine to stall. When the car is braked to a complete stop, the M1 gear is automatically selected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1700068", "title": "Three-point turn", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 275, "text": "The three-point turn (sometimes called a Y-turn, K-turn, or broken U-turn) is the standard method of turning a vehicle around to face the opposite direction in a limited space, using forward and reverse gears. This is typically done when the road is too narrow for a U-turn.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11542517", "title": "Reversing (vehicle maneuver)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 309, "text": "More commonly, reversing is used as an intermediate step, to complete a three point turn, J-turn, parallel park, or similar maneuver. These moves are used with the goal of positioning the vehicle in a specific way under certain space restrictions, that would not be possible to achieve whilst moving forward.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40103676", "title": "Park-to-reverse", "section": "Section::::Risks.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 388, "text": "From this false park position, slight movements in the vehicle, vibration, or the build up of hydraulic pressure in the transmission can then cause the vehicle to reengage powered reverse after a delay from a few seconds to longer periods of time (what is called a \"self shift\"). This will cause the vehicle to suddenly and without warning move backwards unexpectedly under engine power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1509250", "title": "Intelligent Parking Assist System", "section": "Section::::How it works.:Functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 645, "text": "Newer versions of the system allow parallel or reverse parking. When parallel parking with the system, drivers first pull up alongside the parking space. They move forward until the vehicle's rear bumper passes the rear wheel of the car parked in front of the open space. Then, shifting to reverse automatically activates the backup camera system, and the car's rear view appears on dash navigation/camera display. The driver's selection of the parallel park guidance button on the navigation/camera touchscreen causes a grid to appear (with green or red lines, a flag symbol representing the corner of the parking spot, and adjustment arrows).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you're naturally athletic, you will more than likely take up sports early. \n\nIt is mainly genetics that determine your build. \n\nYour body shape is pretty much set from day one, although with hard work and discipline, most people can still improve themselves. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The different sports will cause different things to happen in your body while you're growing up. Yea you're genetics make you predisposed to doing well in sports or not but the type of sport will definitely effect you. \n\nThe more heavy lifting and explosive workouts you do the more testosterone you will develop and the more manly you get. If you are a endurance athlete cortisol levels spike and you get more feminine traits.\n\nI used to be a very good swimmer in highschool and college and the exercise plus my diet gave me moobs. I knew a gymnast girl who has just as broad shoulders and a square jaw like me. You train hard enough your can change your body while you're an adolescent.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Here's a real ELI5 answer for you: Both of these play a role, and it depends on the individual as to which one plays more of a role.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14673086", "title": "Transgender hormone therapy (female-to-male)", "section": "Section::::Effects.:Psychological changes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 142, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 142, "end_character": 607, "text": "While a high level of testosterone is often associated with an increase in aggression, this is not a noticeable effect in most trans men. HRT doses of testosterone are much lower than the typical doses taken by steroid-using athletes, and create testosterone levels comparable to those of most cisgender men. These levels of testosterone have not been proven to cause more aggression than comparable levels of estrogen. It is assumed that the effect of the start of physical treatment is such a relief, and decreases pre-existing aggression so much, that the overall level of aggression actually decreases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58687", "title": "Aggression", "section": "Section::::Physiology.:Testosterone.:General associations with behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 555, "text": "Studies of testosterone levels of male athletes before and after a competition revealed that testosterone levels rise shortly before their matches, as if in anticipation of the competition, and are dependent on the outcome of the event: testosterone levels of winners are high relative to those of losers. No specific response of testosterone levels to competition was observed in female athletes, although a mood difference was noted. In addition, some experiments have failed to find a relationship between testosterone levels and aggression in humans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25688228", "title": "Sport psychology", "section": "Section::::Common areas of study.:Evolutionary perspectives.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 1027, "text": "Recently some studies have been influenced by an evolutionary psychology perspective. This includes studies on testosterone changes in sports which at least for males are similar to those in status conflicts in non-human primates with testosterone levels increasing and decreasing as an individual's status changes. A decreased testosterone level may decrease dominant and competitive behaviors which when the status conflicts involved fighting may have been important for preventing physical injury to the loser as further competition is avoided. Testosterone levels also increase before sports competitions, in particular if the event is perceived as real challenge as compared to not being important. Testosterone may also be involved in the home advantage effect which has similarities to animal defense of their home territory. In some sports there is a marked overrepresentation of left-handedness which has similarities to left-handed likely having an advantage in close combat which may have evolutionary explanations.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1242028", "title": "Hyperandrogenism", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Men.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 571, "text": "Even though hyperandrogenism is not common in men, there have been studies done to look at the effects of high levels of testosterone in males. A study has shown that even though many of the male participants did not have behavior changes due to the increased levels of testosterone, there were cases where the participants had instances of uncharacteristic aggression. High levels of testosterone in males have not been seen to have a direct impact on their personality, but within those studies, there have been cases of sudden aggression within the male participants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "321956", "title": "List of common misconceptions", "section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.:Human sexuality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 199, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 199, "end_character": 306, "text": "BULLET::::- There is no physiological basis for the belief that having sex in the days leading up to a sporting event or contest is detrimental to performance. In fact it has been suggested that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male testosterone level, which could potentially enhance performance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "83859", "title": "Adolescence", "section": "Section::::Biological development.:Growth spurt.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 531, "text": "Pubertal development also affects circulatory and respiratory systems as an adolescents' heart and lungs increase in both size and capacity. These changes lead to increased strength and tolerance for exercise. Sex differences are apparent as males tend to develop \"larger hearts and lungs, higher systolic blood pressure, a lower resting heart rate, a greater capacity for carrying oxygen to the blood, a greater power for neutralizing the chemical products of muscular exercise, higher blood hemoglobin and more red blood cells\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9064442", "title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Physical effects.:Pregnancy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 754, "text": "According to a study, girls who participate in girls-only activities are far less likely to experience a teenage pregnancy and less likely to be sexually active in general. Participating in competitive sports has also shown to have an effect for girls. A study published in 1999 found that female adolescents who participated in sports were less likely than their non-athletic peers to engage in sexual activity and/or report a pregnancy. Males interested in arts are also less likely to be involved in a pregnancy situation. It is unclear whether these correlations are causal or the reflection of the underlying bias of the considered population. The study that reported these findings did not take into account the sexual orientation of the subjects.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Heroin overdose is similar to any opiate overdose. Opiates depress the central nervous system causing a relaxed, \"euphoric\" sensation. After the initial rush, breathing becomes more shallow, decreasing oxygen to the brain and rest of the body. Without oxygen, the brain will start shutting down systems, including the nervous system. The individual will feel extremely drowsy and slip into a coma state. At this point, the nervous system is so relaxed that it fails to function. The individual goes into respiratory arrest (completely stop breathing). Once this occurs, no oxygen is being brought into the body and systems shut down and death occurs shortly after.\n\nTLDR: Opiates relax the nervous system. Heroin overdose would be the same sensation as being so drowsy that you fall asleep.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Opiates (heroin) depress the innate respiratory drive with the respiratory rate slowing or even stopping. This cuts off the body's oxygen supply leading to hypoxia or hypoxemia (low oxygen saturation of the hemoglobin in the blood). The brain isn't getting oxygen and this leads to brain damage. \n\nHypoxia can also cause cardiac arrest in which the muscles of the heart are getting sent an electrical signal to pump but the muscles are unable to contract (pulseless electrical activity). This can be due to lack of oxygen leading to electrolyte abnormalities, respiratory acidosis and likely hyperkalemia (too much potassium in the blood serum). Proper muscle contraction is dependent upon proper electrolyte balance. \n\nTLDR: essentially the person doesn't breathe and dies (in most cases)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Hi, welcome to AskScience, your home for science questions and answers.\n\nIf you make a top-level response, be sure that you have enough expertise to answer follow-up questions.\n\nAlso, please help us keep the quality of AskScience high by downvoting and reporting speculative, off-topic and inaccurate and anecdotal answers. The mods appreciate your help.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We change our breathing (both depth and speed) based upon the amount of carbon dixoide, oxygen, and our blood acidity/alkalinity in our system. \n\nOpiates and other sedatives will depress the respiratory center of the brain that give us the drive to breath. It can be similar to when a patient has a stroke that affects their respiratory center. \n\nToo much supression, and your brain first does not react to the increased carbon dioxide in the brain (as well as the resultant acidosis caused by increased carbon dixoide). Normally, your brain would tell you to breath deeper and faster with an increase in carbon dioxide levels, however it has been supressed and does not in this case. Your Co2 levels will build up, causing your blood to become more acididc. \n\nThe depressents also decrease your drive to breath based upon low oxygen levels, although this is depressed later on and in larger doses. \n\nTherefore, in an overdose (either opiates alone, or in combination with opiates, alcohol, and other sedatives), you first build up carbon dioxide, get more acidic, however your brain does not respond to this, because it is suppressed by the drugs. Then your oxygen level decreases, if your heart has not already stopped beating from the acidosis. However, since your total brain is suppressed, you would likely fall asleep and would not be \"consciously\" aware. \n\nYour brain suffers from the lack of oxygen, while the acidosis and elevated CO2 can cause your heart to go into a fatal arrhythmia and stop beating. \n\nSometimes patient's develop only hypoxic brain injury, so they are \"brain dead\" or in a \"persistent vegetative state\", while their heart and other organs survive. \n\nTLDR: Your brain does not tell your body to breath more when it needs to, and you suffer from elevated CO2 levels and low oxygen levels. This leads to hypoxia for the brain, and organ dysfunction from the acidosis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I wanted to add a third scenario to the \"you die\" or \"you wake up and are fine\" options. Sometimes medical help is given in time to save your life, but your brain has been without oxygen long enough for permanent damage to occur. I've seen several people in the hospital survive an overdose - but no longer functional and independent. Sometimes kidneys die because of lack of oxygen, or other organs as well.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on the drug. I'll mention a few of the more common overdose syndromes:\n\nCocaine and other stimulants like amphetamines lead to your body being ramped up and highly stimulated. Your heart pumps harder and faster and your blood pressure rises. The risks of stroke and heart attack rise tremendously.\n\nHeroine and other narcotics slow your body down. This can cause depressed breathing and eventually you stop altogether. Sometimes people breathe in their own vomit and are too out of it to cough. Hypoxia injury to the brain is what eventually kills you. Alcohol and benzos(like Xanax) do the same thing.\n\nTylenol depletes your body of the substances that fight free radicals. It results in destruction of your liver and kills you brutally over several days.\n\nAntidepressants can kill you several ways. Some cause irregular heart rhythms which can be fatal. Others cause large amounts of serotonin to be released which ramps your body up and causes some of the same sorts of effects cocaine would.\n\nAspirin causes changes in your blood's acid levels and induces chemical changes which can be fatal.\n\nThere's other overdose syndromes but those are some of the common ones.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For context, I'm a research scientist, not a medical doctor.\n\nAs others have said, what happens during an overdose is related to the type of drug being used/abused. In general, and setting aside things like liver failure, the negative outcomes of taking psychoactive drugs are related to the desired effects of taking the drug taken to an extreme level that becomes dangerous and life-threatening.\n\nTo give a few examples from common drugs of abuse:\n\n**Heroin** is an opiate that works in the brain in the same manner as many prescription painkillers (e.g. Vicodin [hydrocodone] and oxycodone, both of which are common recreational drugs themselves). At recreational doses, this narcotic leads to a feeling of relaxed euphoria and sleepiness.\n\nAt overdose levels, the depressant effects of heroin suppress the part of the central nervous system that regulates breathing and heart rate, leading to hypoxia, in which a part or all of the body is deprived of oxygen, which can lead to organ failure (especially to the brain, as the brain is very sensitive to disturbances in blood availability) and eventual death.\n\nMany depressants, such as alcohol, have similar overdose symptoms. One thing that makes this sort of poisoning quite dangerous is that the sufferer is often rendered unconscious by the drug before any negative symptom can be recognized, which obviously prevents them from seeking treatment.\n\n**Cocaine** is a stimulant that acts in the brain in a manner similar to many antidepressants, albeit at a very different strength. At recreational doses, it causes a feeling of energetic euphoria. \n\nHigh doses of stimulants lead to tachycardia - excessively high heart rate, and many of the risks of stimulants are tied to tachycardia. Since the heart is pumping excessively hard, blood pressure is increased which can lead to hemorrhage or heart failure.\n\nCocaine is particularly likely to cause heart failure (more specifically, ventricular fibrulation) due to an interaction with a protein that is associated with heart function.\n\n**MDMA / Ecstacy / Molly** is also a stimulant carrying many of the same overdose risks as cocaine. However, it is particularly pyrogenic - increasing body temperature, which increases the risk of muscle cell death, renal failure, and seizure.\n\n**Three important things to keep in mind about overdose**\n\n1) In the case of these psychoactive drugs, 'overdose' symptoms are simply the desired effects of the drugs taken to the extreme. Note that the term \"intoxication\" contains the word \"toxic.\" \n\n2) For some drugs (e.g. those that are usually considered safe, such as cannabis), there tends to be a very wide gap between the smallest recreational dose and the smallest poisonous dose. To put it another way, for some drugs, the amount you need to get you high is much less than the amount that will kill you. For others, it is much closer, making overdose much more common. \n\n3) Tolerance to a drug is a complicated phenomenon *and is not a stable trait, but can be influenced by a number of physical and even mental factors.* It is not uncommon for overdose to occur at a dose that a drug user had used without incident many times in the past.\n\nIf you use or abuse drugs, please be safe.\n\n*e: removed a line, fixed a typo*\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Drugs such as heroin cause a depressed breathing rate when taken in overdose amounts. This leads to acidosis as less carbon dioxide is expired than required. Acidosis can lead to hyperkalemia (high blood potassium) which can in turn cause decreased excitability of cardiac muscle. When the heart can't pump blood effectively less oxygen is delivered to tissues. The decrease in breathing itself is not necessarily what kills but rather the hypoxia due to the lack of oxygen delivery. Mixed venous blood contains a relatively large amount of oxygen compared to the \"deoxygenated\" blood many people think of in veins. This is why chest compressions are by far more important than mouth-to-mouth breathing during CPR (blood circulation is more important than ventilation). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It depends on the drug.\n\nPropofol, made famous by Michael Jackson, is meant to put you to sleep and make you stop breathing for surgical purposes. When Michael Jackson \"overdosed\" on it, the drug was doing what it was supposed to be doing. \n\nOpiates, like heroin, morphine, etc. just make you stop breathing.\n\nBoth of these can be reveresed by stimulation. Narcotics can also be reversed by Narcan. Proper endotrachael tube placement or bagging a patient and breathing for them until the affects wear off but that's not probably not the best option.\n\nKetamine isn't very dangerous when you are given too much. The patient gets uncomfortable and experiences what they describe as an out-of-body experience. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For those of you curious about opioids being used in lethal injection, here is an article describing just that:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBasically, a lethal injection cocktail of high dose midazolam (a.k.a., Versed, a benzodiazepine) and hydromorphone (a.k.a, Dilaudid, an opioid), was given.\n\nThere was concern over how long it took the person to die, and the jerking movements the person seem to make as he died.\n\nSince we use these medications on a daily basis in anesthesia, my colleagues and I have morbidly discussed how effective this cocktail is.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1232575", "title": "Suicide methods", "section": "Section::::Poison.:Drug overdose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 60, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 60, "end_character": 239, "text": "Overdose is a method of suicide which involves taking medication in doses greater than the indicated levels, or in a combination that will interact either to cause harmful effects or increase the potency of one or other of the substances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313009", "title": "Drug overdose", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 276, "text": "A drug overdose (or simply overdose or OD) is the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended. Typically it is used for cases when a risk to health will potentially result. An overdose may result in a toxic state or death.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "313009", "title": "Drug overdose", "section": "Section::::Classification.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 474, "text": "The word \"overdose\" implies that there is a common safe dosage and usage for the drug; therefore, the term is commonly only applied to drugs, not poisons, even though some poisons are harmless at a low enough dosage. Drug overdose is caused to commit suicide, the result of intentional or unintentional misuse of medication. Intentional misuse leading to overdose can include using prescribed or unprescribed drugs in excessive quantities in an attempt to produce euphoria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17507722", "title": "Tert-Amyl alcohol", "section": "Section::::Overdose and toxicity.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 270, "text": "An overdose produces symptoms similar to alcohol poisoning and is a medical emergency due to the sedative/depressant properties which manifest in overdose as potentially lethal respiratory depression. The oral in rats is 1 g/kg. The subcutaneous LD in mice is 2.1 g/kg.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20613", "title": "Morphine", "section": "Section::::Overdose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 352, "text": "A large overdose can cause asphyxia and death by respiratory depression if the person does not receive medical attention immediately. Overdose treatment includes the administration of naloxone. The latter completely reverses morphine's effects, but may result in immediate onset of withdrawal in opiate-addicted subjects. Multiple doses may be needed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3428100", "title": "Sodium oxybate", "section": "Section::::Overdose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 501, "text": "Reports of overdose in medical literature are generally from abuse, and often involve other drugs as well. Symptoms include vomiting, excessive sweating, coma, periods of stopped breathing, seizures, agitation, loss of psychomotor skills, and coma. Overdose can lead to death due to respiratory depression. People who overdose may die from asphyxiation from their own vomit. People that have overdosed or suspected of overdosing may need to be made to vomit, be intubated, or/and put on a respirator.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "929902", "title": "Cyclobenzaprine", "section": "Section::::Side effects.:Overdose.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 532, "text": "The most common effects of overdose are drowsiness and tachycardia. Rare but potentially critical complications are cardiac arrest, abnormal heart rhythms, severe low blood pressure, seizures, and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Life-threatening overdose is rare, however, as the median lethal dose is about 338 milligrams/kilogram in mice and 425 mg/kg in rats. The potential harm is increased when central nervous system depressants and antidepressants are also used; deliberate overdose often includes alcohol among other drugs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I can't answer your question, but the Klan had several waves. can you be more specific for those that can? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're referring to the Second Klan (1915-1930's), it was certainly both. William Joseph Simmons *Invisible Empire of the Ku Klux Klan* was a religious, political, business and fraternal organization. Created during the Golden Age of Fraternal Orders, it was modeled on the multitude of existing fraternal orders like the Freemasons and the Elks, Simmons would often recruit members into the new Klan wearing the badges signifying he was a member of other organizations and Klansmen who recruited new members (Kleagles) specifically sought new members through Fraternal Orders they were already a part of. In addition to this, the Klan meeting was highly ceremonial and even had [assigned room placements](_URL_2_) for each member.\n\nEven in the KKK rule manual, the Kloran, (no, I have no clue why they would have modeled it on the Qur'an) it states firstly, \"We avow the disctinction between the races of mankind...and we shall ever be true in the faithful maintenance of White Supremacy\" followed almost immediately by \"We appreciate the intrinsic value of a real practical fraternal relationship.\" Politically speaking, the Second Klan was Nativist, [anti-Catholic](_URL_1_), anti-black, [anti-communist](_URL_0_), anti-Jewish and Prohibitionist. It absolutely was more dedicated to keeping White American hegemony. The Second Klan was almost certainly more a brotherhood and social organization than the First Klan (1868-1871) who were dedicated to restoring white supremacy to the Reconstruction South, and the Third Klan (1950s-1970s) who were dedicated to preventing black progress during the Civil Rights Era.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I can only really speak confidently on the 'First Klan', which was prominent in the US from 1866 to around 1871, but I still found this question really interesting. When the Klan was first founded in Pulaski, Tennesse in 1866, it was by a number of former Confederate soldiers that were frustrated and outraged by the Republican's government hold over the South, and particularly the implications this had for African-American agency post-emancipation. So originally, Klan members were enraged racists that sought to take what they saw as natural law into their own hands, by reinstating the paternalistic system of dominance of white over black. Having lost faith in the US government (which most had fought to resist in the Civil War anyway) these people were attempting to enforce their own vision of justice by intimidating, assaulting and killing those that were insulting to their vision of white supremacy. \nYou can read the Klan's original 'Organization and Principles' here, where they describe themselves as defenders of American values: _URL_0_\n(Not the most reliable looking site I know, but it is an exact copy of a version I found when reading Henry Steele Commager's 'Documents of American History')\nSo to answer your question directly, original Klan members were indeed acting in what they saw as the interests of good, honest (i.e., white) American citizens by reinstating the subjugation of black people. \nBut, the opportunity for networking and socialising was absolutely a contributing factor to the Klan's popularity and widespread prominence; Elaine Parsons' excellent article 'Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan' explains how the more expressive and performance based aspects of the Klan's terroristic acts lent their members an exclusive identity and a certain level of prestige, particularly in Southern communities that had not yet reconciled themselves to the idea of independent black agency, and certainly not to the idea of racial equality.\nTo conclude, there's no doubt that a significant number of Klan members enjoyed having a social outlet for the anger that had been created by Northern 'Yankee' government - but the fact also remains that they were vociferous racists hell bent on holding on to the system that had been the norm in the South for generations, and that this drove the Klan's growth with far more momentum than the idea that they enjoyed being part of a club.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1688046", "title": "Civil rights movement (1896–1954)", "section": "Section::::Criminal law and lynching.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 634, "text": "Initially the KKK presented itself as another fraternal organization devoted to betterment of its members. The KKK's revival was inspired in part by the movie \"Birth of a Nation\", which glorified the earlier Klan and dramatized the racist stereotypes concerning blacks of that era. The Klan focused on political mobilization, which allowed it to gain power in states such as Indiana, on a platform that combined racism with anti-immigrant, anti-Semitic, anti-Catholic and anti-union rhetoric, but also supported lynching. It reached its peak of membership and influence about 1925, declining rapidly afterward as opponents mobilized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "137381", "title": "Orleans, Vermont", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 651, "text": "In the late 1910s, the Ku Klux Klan was first revived in Atlanta. It gradually expanded into northern and midwestern cities, where anxieties about migration, immigration, and social changes had heightened because of rapid industrialization and movement of peoples. The KKK promoted itself as a fraternal organization, among many that had been started since the late 19th century. In this period, it was primarily opposed to Catholic and Jewish immigrants, but kept some of its racist background. A chapter was started in Orleans. A 1918 photograph shows children at the old Opera House, a number of them dressed in KKK hoods, and others in blackface.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39473", "title": "History of Alabama", "section": "Section::::New South, 1914-1945.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 79, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 79, "end_character": 1064, "text": "A rapid pace of change across the country, especially in growing cities, combined with new waves of immigration and migration of rural whites and blacks to cities, all contributed to a volatile social environment and the rise of a second Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in the South and Midwest after 1915. In many areas it represented itself as a fraternal group to give aid to a community. Feldman (1999) has shown that the second KKK was not a mere hate group; it showed a genuine desire for political and social reform on behalf of poor whites. For example, Alabama Klansmen such as Hugo Black were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective Prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other \"progressive\" measures to benefit poor whites. By 1925, the Klan was a powerful political force in the state, as urban politicians such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership against the power of the \"Big Mule\" industrialists and especially the Black Belt planters who had long dominated the state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "265082", "title": "History of the United States (1918–1945)", "section": "Section::::Roaring Twenties.:Ku Klux Klan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 1544, "text": "Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is the name of three entirely different organizations (1860s, 1920s, post 1960) that used the same nomenclature and costumes but had no direct connection. The KKK of the 1920s was a purification movement that rallied against crime, especially violation of prohibition, and decried the growing \"influence\" of \"big-city\" Catholics and Jews, many of them immigrants and their descendants from Ireland as well as Southern and Eastern Europe. Its membership was often exaggerated but possibly reached as many as 4 million men, but no prominent national figure claimed membership; no daily newspaper endorsed it, and indeed most actively opposed the Klan. Membership was verily evenly spread across the nation's white Protestants, North, West, and South, urban and rural. Historians in recent years have explored the Klan in depth. The KKK of the 1860s and the current KKK were indeed violent. However, historians discount lurid tales of a murderous group in the 1920s. Some crimes were probably committed in Deep South states but were quite uncommon elsewhere. The local Klans seem to have been poorly organized and were exploited as money-making devices by organizers more than anything else. (Organizers charged a $10 application fee and up to $50 for costumes.) Nonetheless, the KKK had become prominent enough that it staged a huge rally in Washington DC in 1925. Soon afterward, the national headlines reported rape and murder by the KKK leader in Indiana, and the group quickly lost its mystique and nearly all its members.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "111773", "title": "Pekin, Illinois", "section": "Section::::Chronological history.:20th century to present.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 539, "text": "In an early 20th-century revival, the Ku Klux Klan recruited new members as a fraternal organization, opposing new immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and becoming influential in rapidly industrializing urban areas in the Midwest and West, as well as in the South. It had numerous members in Pekin and other Illinois cities. It was during this period that leading Klansmen took over ownership of the city newspaper, the \"Pekin Daily Times\"; they used it as an organ of Klan propaganda. They sold off the paper within a few years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48094733", "title": "Ethnocultural politics in the United States", "section": "Section::::Progressive era: 1890–1932.:1920s.:Ku Klux Klan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 1819, "text": "The KKK was a nationwide organization that grew rapidly from 1921 to 1925, then collapsed just as fast. It had millions of members, but the organizational structure was in oriented entirely toward recruiting new members, collecting their initiation fees and selling costumes, so that the actual organizations seldom achieved very much. The Klan signed up millions of white Protestant men on the basis that American society needed a moral purification against the immoral power of the Catholic Church, Jews, organized crime, speakeasies, and local adulterers. Liberal and Catholic elements fought against the Klan primarily inside the Democratic Party, where a motion to repudiated it by name was defeated by one vote at the national convention of 1924. Though members of the KKK swore to uphold American values and Christian morality, and at the local level some Protestant ministers became involved, no Protestant denomination officially endorsed the KKK. Across the country, the Klan had strength in cities, towns and rural areas. Its high visibility made its intended targets of Catholics, Jews and blacks highly uncomfortable, and many local and state elections were bitterly fought around the role of the Klan. Historians in recent decades have totally revised the traditional interpretation of the second KKK as a terrorist group, or based on frustrated marginal elements. Using newly discovered minutes of local chapters they now portray the Klansmen as ordinary Americans, primarily middle class. They were local activists and joiners who thought the nation was seriously threatened by an evil conspiracy. Scholars found the Klan was \"composed of average citizens drawn from the broader middle-class.\" It \"had been not a form of racial and religious terror but rather a means of mainstream political activism.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "592039", "title": "Rosewood massacre", "section": "Section::::Background.:Racial tensions in Florida.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 793, "text": "In the mid-1920s, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) reached its peak membership in the South and Midwest after a revival beginning around 1915. Its growth was due in part to tensions from rapid industrialization and social change in many growing cities; in the Midwest and West, its growth was related to the competition of waves of new immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. The KKK was strong in the Florida cities of Jacksonville and Tampa; Miami's chapter was influential enough to hold initiations at the Miami Country Club. The Klan also flourished in smaller towns of the South where racial violence had a long tradition dating back to the Reconstruction era. An editor of \"The Gainesville Daily Sun\" admitted that he was a member of the Klan in 1922, and praised the organization in print.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It has nothing to do with the websites, but rather, the service that the website provides. Netflix can't just take people movies and make them available for everybody to watch, that's illegal copyright infringement. They need to purchase the rights to distribute them, and most distribution agreements come with a particular region. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are databases that match IP addresses to locations. This website is explicitly blocking access from your country for some reason - the web server looks up the location of your IP, and serves a different page. You can bypass this by routing through a proxy server in another country.\n\nAnother possible reason why some websites may not be available in some countries is that that countries government censors internet access, and has decided to block the website you're trying to access. Again a proxy can circumvent it, provided the proxy hasn't also been blocked.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "14539", "title": "Internet", "section": "Section::::Security.:Censorship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 108, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 108, "end_character": 277, "text": "Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, the Mainland China, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "393295", "title": "CBeebies", "section": "Section::::Other ventures.:CBeebies website.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 298, "text": "The international channels and associated websites are run by BBC Studios. As a result, not all of them are the same and some channels have less extensive websites than other services. CBeebies channels in Asia, Australia, Poland, South Africa and the USA all have their own international variant.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17669599", "title": "Sociology of the Internet", "section": "Section::::Social impact.:Political organization and censorship.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 668, "text": "Governments are also getting online. Some countries, such as those of Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Myanmar, the People's Republic of China, and Saudi Arabia use filtering and censoring software to restrict what people in their countries can access on the Internet. In the United Kingdom, they also use software to locate and arrest various individuals they perceive as a threat. Other countries including the United States, have enacted laws making the possession or distribution of certain material such as child pornography illegal but do not use filtering software. In some countries Internet service providers have agreed to restrict access to sites listed by police.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33898", "title": "Website", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 526, "text": "Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically part of an intranet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33139", "title": "World Wide Web", "section": "Section::::Function.:Website.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 528, "text": "Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a personal website, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and social networking to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically a part of an intranet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13996412", "title": "Who Controls the Internet?", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Part Two: Government Strikes Back.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 365, "text": "No longer an international phenomenon, the Internet has become quite different for its users in different countries. One reason for differentiation across nations is that users want information presented in their local language and context. Advertisers likewise want to present information to interested audiences, which tend to be geographically specific (58–63).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "387397", "title": ".gov", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 403, "text": "The U.S. is the only country that has a government-specific top-level domain in addition to its country-code top-level domain. This is a result of the origins of the Internet as a U.S. federal government-sponsored research network. Other countries typically delegate a second-level domain for this purpose; for example, .gc.ca is the second-level domain for the Government of Canada and all subdomains.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "All general purpose machine guns (GPMGs) that I am aware of retain the interchangeable barrel function - a GPMG being a roughly 7.62mm belt-fed platoon- or company-level machine gun capable of laying down large volumes of fire. The M240 and MG3, the most common GPMGs in the western world, certainly have changeable barrels, and soldiers are taught to do so when laying down large volumes of suppressing fire. Even the intermediate-caliber M249 Squad Automatic Weapon has a quick change barrel.\n\nNow, there are some lighter automatic weapons that do not have a changeable barrel. But that's nothing new. The Browning Automatic Rifle, Chauchat, and Lewis Gun did not have changeable barrels. It generally doesn't become necessary to change a barrel until you've fired several hundred rounds through the gun, or less if you're firing very rapidly. Weapons that don't have quick-change barrels just aren't intended to produce the same volume of fire as a proper heavy/medium/GP machine gun.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Interchangable barrels are still very much in use.\n\nThe M2A1 Machine gun in use by the US Army has an interchangable barrel that is considered an improvement over the older screw in barrel changing mechanism as noted by the Army itself. [The barrel extension also makes possible rapid barrel change-outs on the M2A1. With the older M2s, the barrels had to be screwed on. To change the barrel of an M2A1, a Soldier simply needs to slightly retract the charging handle, rotate the barrel by its carrying handle and slide the barrel off the receiver.](_URL_1_)\nThe M249 light machine gun also requires a barrel change after a period of use. [When used as a machine gun, the M249 requires a tripod, a T & E mechanism, and a spare barrel.](_URL_0_)\n\nI have used both of these weapons, it is incredible how quickly they heat up when used even under ideal circumstances on the range. The barrels themselves can and do melt, and can become jammed very easily. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "531184", "title": "Water cooling", "section": "Section::::Other applications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 238, "text": "Machineguns used in fixed defensive positions sometimes use water cooling to extend barrel life through periods of rapid fire, but the weight of the water and pumping system significantly reduces the portability of water-cooled firearms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35324125", "title": "Sidney Alford", "section": "Section::::Early Inventions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 978, "text": "The use of guns using blank cartridges to eject water from the barrel at high velocity was well known as a means of disrupting relatively small and thin-skinned targets with a relatively low probability of causing detonation or ignition. They were, however, easily defeated by the use of more robust cases, such as those made from structural steel tubes. The replacement of the copper liner of conventional shaped charges first by gelled water, then by low melting point salts with high proportions of water of crystallisation and finally with thin-walled plastic containers of water, provided a simple means of generating jets of water of much higher velocity and with correspondingly enhanced penetrating power and disruptive capability than was possible using gun barrel technology. Concomitant experiments demonstrated that, in contrast to metal-lined charges, shaped charges projecting liquids still functioned with their cavities filled rather than just lined with water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1862461", "title": "Heavy machine gun", "section": "Section::::Designs.:Medium models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 712, "text": "This type of multipurpose machine gun would be further developed, and later given names such as \"universal machine gun\", and later \"general-purpose machine gun\", and would eventually supplant the water-cooled designs. These later designs used quick-change barrel replacement to reduce overheating, which further reduced the weapon's weight, but at the cost of increasing the soldier's load due to the extra barrels. Some earlier designs like the Vickers had this feature, but it was mainly for barrel wear, as they normally used water cooling. It was in the 1920s and 1930s that quick barrel replacement for cooling purposes became more popular in weapons such as the ZB vz. 30, the Bren, the MG34 and the MG42.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10382", "title": "Electrothermal-chemical technology", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 981, "text": "Most proposed advances in gun technology are based on the assumption that the solid propellant as a stand-alone propulsion system is no longer capable of delivering the required muzzle energy. This requirement has been underscored by the appearance of the Russian T-90 main battle tank. Even the elongation of current gun tubes, such as the new German 120 mm L/55, which was introduced by Rheinmetall is considered only an interim solution as it does not offer the required increase in muzzle velocity. Even advanced kinetic energy ammunition such as the United States' M-829A3 is considered only an interim solution against future threats. To that extent the solid propellant is considered to have reached the end of its usefulness, although it will remain the principal propulsion method for at least the next decade until newer technologies mature. To improve on the capabilities of a solid propellant weapon the electrothermal-chemical gun may see production as early as 2016.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "367490", "title": "Water gun", "section": "Section::::Types.:Motorized small piston.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 967, "text": "During the 1980s, the motorized water gun was perhaps at its most prolific. Companies such as Entertech and Larami created water guns modeled after guns popularized in movies such as \"Rambo\". At the heart of these devices was a small motor and crank shaft that converted a rotary motion into a forward-backwards pumping motion to drive a small pump akin to those found in the small spray bottle-type squirt pistols. Stream performance was often not improved, but the motor removed the need to pump, which made the toys popular. The greatest fallbacks was that they wore out batteries quickly and that many trigger action blasters could outdo them, making motorized blasters the lowest class. However, their main strength—and consequent reason for dismissal—was their realistic styling. After some of these realistic-shaped water guns caused accidental shootings by police, stricter rules regarding shapes and coloring of water guns were drafted in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25456", "title": "Rifle", "section": "Section::::Technical aspects.:Barrel wear.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 1119, "text": "As the bullet enters the barrel, it inserts itself into the rifling, a process that gradually wears down the barrel, and also causes the barrel to heat up more rapidly. Therefore, some machine guns are equipped with quick-change barrels that can be swapped every few thousand rounds, or in earlier designs, were water-cooled. Unlike older carbon steel barrels, which were limited to around 1,000 shots before the extreme heat caused accuracy to fade, modern stainless steel barrels for target rifles are much more resistant to wear, allowing many thousands of rounds to be fired before accuracy drops. (Many shotguns and small arms have chrome-lined barrels to reduce wear and enhance corrosion resistance. This is rare on rifles designed for extreme accuracy, as the plating process is difficult and liable to reduce the effect of the rifling.) Modern ammunition has a hardened lead core with a softer outer cladding or jacket, typically of an alloy of copper and nickel – cupro-nickel. Some ammunition is even coated with molybdenum disulfide to further reduce internal friction – the so-called 'moly-coated' bullet.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "302393", "title": "Maxim gun", "section": "Section::::Functionality.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 926, "text": "The mechanism of the Maxim gun employed one of the earliest recoil-operated firing systems in history. The idea is that the energy from recoil acting on the breech block is used to eject each spent cartridge and insert the next one, instead of a hand-operated mechanism. Maxim's earliest designs used a 360-degree rotating cam to reverse the movement of the block, but this was later simplified to a toggle lock. This made it vastly more efficient and less labor-intensive than previous rapid-firing guns, such as the Mitrailleuse, Gatling, Gardner, or Nordenfelt, that relied on actual mechanical cranking. The Maxim gun design was provided with water cooling, giving it the ability to maintain its rate of fire for far longer than air-cooled guns. The disadvantage of this was that it made the gun less flexible in attack than the lighter air-cooled weapons, being heavier and more complex, and requiring a supply of water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "At the quantum level that quarks exist on shape stops really being a thing. In diagrams they are commonly represented as spheres, though in truth they have no shape, and cannot in fact exist unless part of another particle.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As far as we know, they are all pointlike. This could understanding could one day be improved upon.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Quarks are points in space - so no, they are all shaped the same. To be precise, they are all shapeless (the concept of shape does not really apply to them). It's their interaction what makes a bigger particle - it is like a standing wave (in a way), and because this wave goes in all directions from the center, basically the protons or neutrons etc. are in some sense spherical :)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "67227", "title": "A Brief History of Time", "section": "Section::::Summary.:Chapter 5: Elementary Particles and Forces of Nature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 515, "text": "Quarks are very small things that make up everything we see (matter). There are six different \"flavors\" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Quarks also have three \"colors\": red, green, and blue. There are also antiquarks, which are the opposite of the regular quarks. In total, there are 18 different types of regular quarks, and 18 different types of antiquarks. Quarks are known as the \"building blocks of matter\" because they are the smallest thing that make up all the matter in the Universe.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4584", "title": "Baryon", "section": "Section::::Properties.:Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 786, "text": "Quarks are fermionic particles of spin (\"S\" = ). Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 ħ), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (\"S\" = + and \"S\" = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length \"S\" = 1 and three spin projections (\"S\" = +1, \"S\" = 0, and \"S\" = −1). If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length \"S\" = 0 and has only one spin projection (\"S\" = 0), etc. Since baryons are made of three quarks, their spin vectors can add to make a vector of length \"S\" = , which has four spin projections (\"S\" = +, \"S\" = +, \"S\" = −, and \"S\" = −), or a vector of length \"S\" =  with two spin projections (\"S\" = +, and \"S\" = −).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1185756", "title": "Eightfold way (physics)", "section": "Section::::Flavor symmetry.:SU(3).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 371, "text": "is a transformation that simultaneously turns all the up quarks in the universe into down quarks and vice versa. More specifically, these flavour rotations are exact symmetries if \"only\" strong force interactions are looked at, but they are not truly exact symmetries of the universe because the three quarks have different masses and different electroweak interactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19870", "title": "Meson", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Spin, orbital angular momentum, and total angular momentum.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 716, "text": "Quarks are fermions—specifically in this case, particles having spin (\"S\" = ). Because spin projections vary in increments of 1 (that is 1 \"ħ\"), a single quark has a spin vector of length , and has two spin projections (\"S\" = + and \"S\" = −). Two quarks can have their spins aligned, in which case the two spin vectors add to make a vector of length \"S\" = 1 and three spin projections (\"S\" = +1, \"S\" = 0, and \"S\" = −1), called the spin-1 triplet. If two quarks have unaligned spins, the spin vectors add up to make a vector of length S = 0 and only one spin projection (\"S\" = 0), called the spin-0 singlet. Because mesons are made of one quark and one antiquark, they can be found in triplet and singlet spin states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1723801", "title": "List of Doctor Who robots", "section": "Section::::Q.:Quark.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 582, "text": "The Quarks were rectangular, with four arms: one pair which folded into the body, the other pair being retractable. On the end of each arm was a solitary claw. The spherical head was divided into octants; the upper four octants formed the \"sensory hemisphere\", which detected changes in light, heat and motion. At five of the corners of the octants were directional crystal beam transmitters (the sixth corner joined with the robot's extremely short neck). Quarks communicated by means of high-pitched sounds. Their tendency to run out of energy quickly was their primary weakness.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25179", "title": "Quark", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 797, "text": "There are six types, known as \"flavors\", of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle, known as an antiquark, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have equal magnitude but opposite sign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "257243", "title": "Pentaquark", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 780, "text": "A quark is a type of elementary particle that has mass, electric charge, and colour charge, as well as an additional property called flavour, which describes what type of quark it is (up, down, strange, charm, top, or bottom). Due to an effect known as colour confinement, quarks are never seen on their own. Instead, they form composite particles known as hadrons so that their colour charges cancel out. Hadrons made of one quark and one antiquark are known as mesons, while those made of three quarks are known as baryons. These 'regular' hadrons are well documented and characterized; however, there is nothing in theory to prevent quarks from forming 'exotic' hadrons such as tetraquarks with two quarks and two antiquarks, or pentaquarks with four quarks and one antiquark.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many people are still religious and support such laws, so they remain. It is legal to make a religiously motivated law, just not to establish mandatory religion.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Because people are used to them and no one is chomping at the bit to get them repealed. They are a minor inconvenience that a small minority supports strongly, and everyone else opposes weakly. Politicians who want to repeal blue laws will only lose votes by doing so.\n\nOn top of that, the businesses affected by blue laws typically oppose them and lobby against them. They like having that day off, and a car isn't an impulse buy, they'll get your business even if you have to wait until Monday.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3359", "title": "Blue law", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 758, "text": "In the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court has held blue laws as constitutional numerous times, citing secular bases such as securing a day of rest for mail carriers, as well as protecting workers and families, in turn contributing to societal stability and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion. The origin of the blue laws also partially stems from religion, particularly the prohibition of Sabbath desecration in Christian Churches following the first-day Sabbatarian tradition. Both labour unions and trade associations have historically supported the legislation of blue laws. Most blue laws have been repealed in the United States, although some states ban the sale of alcoholic beverages on Sundays and many states ban selling cars on Sundays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37303855", "title": "Blue laws in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 806, "text": "In the United States, the U.S. Supreme Court has held blue laws as constitutional numerous times, citing secular bases such as securing a day of rest for mail carriers, as well as protecting workers and families, in turn contributing to societal stability and guaranteeing the free exercise of religion. The origin of the blue laws also partially stems from religion, particularly the prohibition of Sabbath desecration in Christian Churches following the first-day Sabbatarian tradition. Both labour unions and trade associations have historically supported the legislation of blue laws. Most blue laws have been repealed in the United States, although Indiana banned the sale of alcoholic beverages on Sundays until the law was repealed on February 28, 2018, and many states ban selling cars on Sundays.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3359", "title": "Blue law", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 742, "text": "Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence that blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word \"blue\" was used in the 17th century as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them, particularly in \"blue-stocking\", a reference to Oliver Cromwell's supporters in the parliament of 1653. Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term \"blue law\" was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable. In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of false etymology, another version of which is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4543", "title": "Blue", "section": "Section::::In world culture.:Politics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 151, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 151, "end_character": 236, "text": "BULLET::::- A blue law is a type of law, typically found in the United States and Canada, designed to enforce religious standards, particularly the observance of Sunday as a day of worship or rest, and a restriction on Sunday shopping.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3359", "title": "Blue law", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 339, "text": "Another feature of blue laws in the United States restricts the purchase of particular items on Sundays. Some of these laws restrict the ability to buy cars, groceries, office supplies, and housewares among other things. Though most of these laws have been relaxed or repealed in most states, they are still enforced in some other states.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3359", "title": "Blue law", "section": "Section::::United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 240, "text": "In the United States, judges have defended blue laws \"in terms of their secular benefit to workers\", holding that \"the laws were essential to social well-being\". Chief Justice Stephen Johnson Field, with regard to Sunday blue laws, stated:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19142657", "title": "Gallagher v. Crown Kosher Super Market of Massachusetts, Inc.", "section": "Section::::Subsequent developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 216, "text": "This was one of the four cases decided in 1961 that declared blue laws to be constitutional. The other three were \"Braunfeld v. Brown\", \"Two Guys from Harrison-Allentown, Inc., v. McGinley\" and \"McGowan v. Maryland\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A common cold has not much to do with actual temperature. It is an infection, mostly by viruses. There are dozens if not more viruses known that can lead to the symptoms commonly associated with a cold. \n\nNow, how does a virus infect us? Normally your skin is pretty tight and prevents any pathogen (something that will make you sick) from entering. So, skin drops out. Theses viruses get mostly transmitted by flying in little airborne water droplets. Therefore they can enter your body when you inhale the droplets while breating. In your mouth and and airways there is also a protection layer, the mucosa. This is a thin layer that produces mucus (who would have thought?). This slime hopefully prevents the pathogens from entering and catches them. Your airways have little hairs that sweep the mucus towards your throat and into the stomach were the acid deals with them. Sometimes this doesnt work. It is suspected that cold, dry air strains your mucosa and therefore makes it easier for the virus to enter your body and infect it. It spreads from the point of entrance, aka your airways. \n\nHowever, since it's not much of a threat it will not get very far. This is where your symptoms stem from. Your body sents defensive cells that prevent the virus from spreading and that fight it. This leads to an inflammation of the tissue. Some simply eat viruses or bacteria (*phagocytes*), others release enzyms that damage invaders or molecules that manage the inflammation. Acute inflammation has several effects on the body, fever and loss of appetite being some of them. They are caused on a molecular level by the proteins that are released by the defensive cells. The 5 classical signs of inflammation are pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. We can definetly find some of that in a swollen, sore throat, cant we?\n\n\n\nNow, one by one:\n\n* swelling\n\n\n fighting needs a lot of ressources and they come from the blood. In order to get them into the tissue blood vessels dilate and get permeable. This is nice but also leads to fluid accumulating in the tissue.\n\n* heat and redness\n\nIncreased and prioritised blood flow into the area (dilated blood vessels, remember?) naturally leads to higher temperature and redness\n\n* pain\n\nThat's of course the one you mostly feel. The defensive cells also release chemicals that stimulate the nerve endings in the area. Stimulated nerve endings mean you feel pain. Inflammation of organs may not always be combined with pain because there might be no sensible nerves.\n\n* loss of function\n\nThis can have multiple causes and doesnt matter that much in the case of the common cold. \n\n\n\n\nOkay, but how does all that lead to my symptoms?\n\nInflammated mucosa produces lots of mucus. Not a good combination together with swelling. If the mucus is thin you might just get a runny nose, otherwise a stuffed-up nose. The sinuses may fill with mucus if the nose is swollen and lead to a feeling of pressure below your eyes. A feeling of pressure within your ears can also occur. This is cause by swelling of the [Eustachian tube](_URL_0_) that connects the middle ear and throat to balance pressure differences. \n\nCoughing gets caused, who would have thought, by increased production of mucus in your airways. It gets called phlegm then. It contains dead cells, different proteins and much more. The composition determines what colour it has. Fluid and lungs dont work together very well and your body tries to get the phlegm out of your lungs by coughing.\n\nThe \"normal yucky felling\" is just a response of your body to the inflammation.\n\nHoly shit, this got longer than I expected. I hope I got everything and that I got it all right. Had to look up a lot of things (1 year medstudent) but I think overall it's more or less okay. Ask if you got any more questions and somebody with more knowledge might chip in and correct me if necessary.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 516, "text": "The common cold, also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose. The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected. Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus. These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever. People usually recover in seven to ten days, but some symptoms may last up to three weeks. Occasionally those with other health problems may develop pneumonia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 694, "text": "The typical symptoms of a cold include cough, runny nose, sneezing, nasal congestion, and a sore throat, sometimes accompanied by muscle ache, fatigue, headache, and loss of appetite. A sore throat is present in about 40% of cases and a cough in about 50%, while muscle ache occurs in about half. In adults, a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children. The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza. While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults, a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions. A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19572217", "title": "Influenza", "section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Symptoms of influenza.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 462, "text": "It can be difficult to distinguish between the common cold and influenza in the early stages of these infections. Influenza symptoms are a mixture of symptoms of common cold and pneumonia, body ache, headache, and fatigue. Diarrhea is not usually a symptom of influenza in adults, although it has been seen in some human cases of the H5N1 \"bird flu\" and can be a symptom in children. The symptoms most reliably seen in influenza are shown in the adjacent table.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39603827", "title": "Human coronavirus OC43", "section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 337, "text": "Along with HCoV-229E, a species in the Alphacoronavirus genus, HCoV-OC43 are among the known viruses that cause the common cold. Both viruses can cause severe lower respiratory tract infections, including pneumonia in infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals such as those undergoing chemotherapy and those with HIV-AIDS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Viruses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 518, "text": "The common cold is a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract. The most commonly implicated virus is a rhinovirus (30–80%), a type of picornavirus with 99 known serotypes. Other commonly implicated viruses include human coronavirus (≈ 15%), influenza viruses (10–15%), adenoviruses (5%), human respiratory syncytial virus, enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses, human parainfluenza viruses, and metapneumovirus. Frequently more than one virus is present. In total over 200 viral types are associated with colds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "223208", "title": "Pharyngitis", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Viral.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 205, "text": "BULLET::::- Common cold: rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and parainfluenza virus can cause infection of the throat, ear, and lungs causing standard cold-like symptoms and often pain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19980133", "title": "Influenza-like illness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 298, "text": "Symptoms commonly include fever, shivering, chills, malaise, dry cough, loss of appetite, body aches, and nausea, typically in connection with a sudden onset of illness. In most cases, the symptoms are caused by cytokines released by immune system activation, and are thus relatively non-specific.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They are stock indexes. Basically they are each used as a measure of a certain \"basket\" of stocks. There are thousands of different indexes used to track different market sectors. The Dow, Nasdaq and S & P 500 are the three most well know in US ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47361", "title": "Dow Jones Industrial Average", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 255, "text": "The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), or simply the Dow (), is a stock market index that indicates the value of 30 large, publicly owned companies based in the United States, and how they have traded in the stock market during various periods of time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52328", "title": "Stock market", "section": "Section::::Trade.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 282, "text": "The NASDAQ is an electronic exchange, where all of the trading is done over a computer network. The process is similar to the New York Stock Exchange. One or more NASDAQ market makers will always provide a bid and ask price at which they will always purchase or sell 'their' stock.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1786630", "title": "Nasdaq, Inc.", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 572, "text": "Nasdaq, Inc. is an American multinational financial services corporation that owns and operates (and is listed on) the NASDAQ stock market and eight European Stock Exchanges, including the Armenian Stock Exchange, Copenhagen Stock Exchange, Helsinki Stock Exchange, Iceland Stock Exchange, Riga Stock Exchange, Stockholm Stock Exchange, Tallinn Stock Exchange, and NASDAQ OMX Vilnius. It is headquartered in New York City, and its president and chief executive officer is Adena Friedman. The Swedish investment company Investor AB has been a major shareholder since 2011.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "479587", "title": "NASDAQ-100", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 658, "text": "The NASDAQ-100 (^NDX) is a stock market index made up of 103 equity securities issued by 100 of the largest non-financial companies listed on the NASDAQ. It is a modified capitalization-weighted index. The stocks' weights in the index are based on their market capitalizations, with certain rules capping the influence of the largest components. It is based on exchange, and it is not an index of U.S.-based companies. It does not have any financial companies, since these were put in a separate index. Both of those criteria differentiate it from the Dow Jones Industrial Average, and the exclusion of financial companies distinguishes it from the S&P 500.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47872195", "title": "NASDAQ Financial-100", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 406, "text": "The NASDAQ Financial-100 is a specialty index operated by NASDAQ that follows stocks in the Financial services index. It was created in 1985 as the sister index to the more widely followed NASDAQ-100. As designed by NASDAQ, this index follows companies that engage in banking, insurance, mortgages, securities trading and real estate. It also has, among its components, exchanges, including NASDAQ itself.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21559", "title": "NASDAQ", "section": "Section::::History.:1971–1995.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 501, "text": "Over the years, the Nasdaq Stock Market became more of a stock market by adding trade and volume reporting and automated trading systems. It was also the first stock market in the United States to trade online, highlighting Nasdaq-traded companies and closing with the declaration that the Nasdaq Stock Market is \"the stock market for the next hundred years\". The Nasdaq Stock Market attracted new growth companies, including Microsoft, Apple, Cisco, Oracle and Dell, and it helped modernize the IPO.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21559", "title": "NASDAQ", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 416, "text": "The Nasdaq Stock Market (, also known as Nasdaq) is an American stock exchange. It is the second-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, behind only the New York Stock Exchange located in the same city. The exchange platform is owned by Nasdaq, Inc., which also owns the Nasdaq Nordic (formerly known as OMX) and Nasdaq Baltic stock market network and several U.S. stock and options exchanges.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Diagnosing mental illness retrospectively is a minefield. With respect to soldiers in history and their relationship with PTSD, I would refer you to the FAQ or past threads like [this](_URL_0_).\n\nPaging /u/Iphikrates to comply with the rules on linking past threads. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22290028", "title": "Shell shock", "section": "Section::::Management.:Chronic.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 328, "text": "There were so many officers and men suffering from shell shock that 19 British military hospitals were wholly devoted to the treatment of cases. Ten years after the war, 65,000 veterans of the war were still receiving treatment for it in Britain. In France it was possible to visit aged shell shock victims in hospital in 1960.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22290028", "title": "Shell shock", "section": "Section::::Management.:Acute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 538, "text": "At first, shell-shock casualties were rapidly evacuated from the front line – in part because of fear of their unpredictable behaviour. As the size of the British Expeditionary Force increased, and manpower became in shorter supply, the number of shell shock cases became a growing problem for the military authorities. At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, as many as 40% of casualties were shell-shocked, resulting in concern about an epidemic of psychiatric casualties, which could not be afforded in either military or financial terms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1019091", "title": "Combat stress reaction", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1158, "text": "In World War I, shell shock was considered a psychiatric illness resulting from injury to the nerves during combat. The horrors of trench warfare meant that about 10% of the fighting soldiers were killed (compared to 4.5% during World War II) and the total proportion of troops who became casualties (killed or wounded) was 56%. Whether a shell-shock sufferer was considered \"wounded\" or \"sick\" depended on the circumstances. When faced with the phenomenon of a minority of soldiers mentally breaking down, there was an expectation that the root of this problem lay in character of the individual soldier, not because of what they experienced on the front lines during the war. These sorts of attitudes helped fuel the main argument that was accepted after the war and going forward that there was a social root to shell shock that consisted of soldiers finding the only way allowed by the military to show weakness and get out of the front, claiming that their mental anguish constituted a legitimate medical diagnosis as a disease. The large proportion of World War I veterans in the European population meant that the symptoms were common to the culture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22290028", "title": "Shell shock", "section": "Section::::Management.:Acute.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 283, "text": "By the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917, the British Army had developed methods to reduce shell shock. A man who began to show shell-shock symptoms was best given a few days' rest by his local medical officer. Col. Rogers, Regimental Medical Officer, 4th Battalion Black Watch wrote:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14124925", "title": "Disaster medicine", "section": "Section::::Timeline.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 473, "text": "1812 – Napoleonic wars give rise to the military medical practice of triage in an effort to sort wounded soldiers in those to receive medical treatment and return to battle and those whose injuries are non-survivable. Dominique-Jean Larrey, a surgeon in the French emperor’s army, not only conceives of taking care of the wounded on the battlefield, but creates the concept of ambulances, collecting the wounded in horse-drawn wagons and taking them to military hospitals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20324068", "title": "Medical treatment during the Second Boer War", "section": "Section::::Surgical developments and treatment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 1266, "text": "Casualties during the Boer War were generally recovered in stages. Battalion doctors located on the battlefields would take the wounded by stretcher to a dressing station for initial treatment. This included the widespread use of field dressings consisting of a sterile gauze pad stitched to the bandage and covered with waterproofing. Each pack contained two dressings and numerous safety pins. Later they would be taken to ambulances or stationary hospitals where the complex recovery by the surgeons could be carried out. However, given the number of casualties in relation to staff, it was often days before a wounded soldier could see a doctor for full treatment, increasing the extent of the infection of the wounds. As a result, primary surgical care was often conducted in ambulances. Many wounds were open fractures and often involved damage to bones. In such cases, the wounds were treated by debridement and the wound packed. The limb would then be immobilised with a splint made of canvas with strips of bamboo sewn in to support it.Plaster of Paris was also used during the Boer War after the bone had been set. The treatment of wounds was greatly enhanced by the invention of X-rays and some 9 machines were taken to South Africa during the campaign. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22290028", "title": "Shell shock", "section": "Section::::Physical causes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 531, "text": "There is also evidence to suggest that the type of warfare faced by soldiers would affect the probability of shell shock symptoms developing. First hand reports from medical doctors at the time note that rates of such afflictions decreased once the war was mobilized again during the 1918 German offences, following the 1916-1917 period where the highest rates of shell shock can be found. This could suggest that it was trench warfare, and the experience of siege warfare specifically, that led to the development these symptoms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There wasn't a formal hierarchy, but the KGB loomed large over all of the Warsaw Pact intelligence services, and its primacy was undisputed. Soviet intelligence personnel had a hand in creating all of the Eastern Bloc secret services, and KGB liaison officers were a constant and powerful presence in those agencies' affairs.\n\nThe Warsaw Pact intelligence agencies provided a constant stream of intelligence to the Lubyanka, along with extensive operational and logistical support. The KGB maintained a shared database of contacts and intelligence called SOUD, enabling them to receive and index intelligence from the Warsaw Pact services (and to share intelligence with them in turn — something they generally did only in the most circumspect manner.)\n\nThe KGB frequently used those services as their proxies, especially when it came to handling sensitive or potentially compromising relationships or operations — particularly those with terrorist and revolutionary groups. The Czechoslovak StB, for example, was a longstanding liaison between Moscow Centre and the Italian Red Brigades; the Bulgarian DS was a favourite weapon for 'special tasks'.\n\nThe relationship with the Stasi (in particular the foreign intelligence department, HVA), however, was by far the closest and most important to Moscow. Many of the senior figures in the Stasi had longstanding ties to the USSR, as agents or operatives of Soviet intelligence or the Comintern: Wilhelm Zaisser, Ernst Wollweber and Erich Mielke, three of the GDR's four Ministers of State Security; Markus Wolf, the longtime chief of the HVA. \n\nAs with many of the institutions of East Germany, the Soviets were heavily involved in the creation of the Stasi (which was closely patterned on the KGB.) The KGB maintained [a number of facilities](_URL_1_) in the GDR, including highly important *rezidentura* (the largest KGB installation outside the USSR) at Karlshorst. KGB officers regarded East Germany as a safe, even dull posting; as a First Chief Directorate officer in the late 1980s, Vladimir Putin was reportedly disappointed to be assigned to the *rezidentura* at Dresden, rather than a more interesting and adventurous station in the West.\n\nPart of the reason the Stasi were so important to Moscow was their proximity and access to West Germany and the rest of Western Europe, but it was also thanks to a general reputation for competence and ideological reliability, and a willingness to subordinate their foreign policy/intelligence objectives to those of Moscow. They were thus also entrusted with operations further afield. The Stasi worked alongside the KGB in Cuba, training Castro's intelligence service, DGI — which, in turn, was the preferred Soviet proxy for operations in Latin America. In 1972, when Egyptian strongman Anwar Sadat expelled Soviet (read: KGB/GRU) advisors, the Stasi acted as Soviet surrogates in that crucial Arab state.\n\nThere's a reasonably large body of writing on the history of the Stasi now — largely thanks to the concerted effort by the post-unification German government to preserve and open up the Stasi archives. There's a lot of interesting information on the website of the [Federal Commissioner for the Stasi Records](_URL_0_). In terms of published work: John Schmeidel's monograph *[Stasi: The Sword and the Shield of the Party](_URL_7_)* is a good place to start. Gary Bruce's *[The Firm: The Inside Story of the Stasi](_URL_2_)* is a good grassroots history. Kristie Macrakis' *[Seduced by Secrets: Inside the Stasi's Spy-Tech World](_URL_4_)* is an interesting specialist history of the Stasi's technical methods and surveillance prowess.\n\nOn Soviet intelligence, I always suggest starting with Christopher Andrew's work on the KGB: *[The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB](_URL_5_)* and *[The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World](_URL_6_)*. Jonathan Haslam's more recent *[Near and Distant Neighbours](_URL_3_)* is a good history of the Soviet intelligence community as a whole.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27931251", "title": "Russian espionage in the United States", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Russian Intelligence.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 290, "text": "The KGB was not the only intelligence agency that Russia used to gain information around the globe. The Soviet Union formed two other well known agencies: GRU (The Main Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation) and SVR (Foreign Intelligence Service). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1452225", "title": "Foreign relations of the Soviet Union", "section": "Section::::Cold War (1947–1991).:Espionage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 333, "text": "All sides in the Cold War engaged in espionage. The Soviet KGB (\"Committee for State Security\"), the bureau responsible for foreign espionage and internal surveillance, was famous for its effectiveness. A massive network of informants throughout the Soviet Union was used to monitor dissent from official Soviet politics and morals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4756231", "title": "Five Eyes", "section": "Section::::History.:Cold War (1950s–1990s).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 356, "text": "During the Cold War, GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and several eastern European countries (known as Exotics). Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "261749", "title": "GRU (G.U.)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 762, "text": "The military intelligence was known in the Soviet government for its fierce independence from the rival \"internal intelligence organizations\", such as the NKVD, later the KGB. The military intelligence headquarters were located at Prechistenka street, west of the Kremlin, whereas the NKVD was in the very centre of Moscow, next to the building that housed People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs at the bottom of Kuznetsky Most. Due to this fact, the Soviet military intelligence came to be known in Soviet diplomats′ cant as \"distant neighbours\" () as opposed to \"near neighbours\", i.e. the NKVD/KGB intelligence officers. According to public statements of Soviet military intelligence veterans, the GRU had always been operationally subordinate to the KGB.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "456058", "title": "Director of Central Intelligence", "section": "Section::::Directors' management styles and effect on operations.:Walter Bedell Smith, 1950–1953.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 516, "text": "During the first years of its existence, other branches of the U.S. Federal government did not exercise very much supervision over the Central Intelligence Agency. Supposedly justified by the desire to match and defeat Soviet actions throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, it undertook a task that many believed could be accomplished only through an approach similar to the Soviet intelligence agencies, under names including NKVD, MVD, NKGB, MGB, and KGB. Those Soviet organizations also had domestic responsibilities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23454335", "title": "KGB", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 604, "text": "The KGB (), translated in English as Committee for State Security, was the main security agency for the Soviet Union from 1954 until its break-up in 1991. As a direct successor of preceding agencies such as the Cheka, NKGB, NKVD and MGB, the committee was attached to the Council of Ministers. It was the chief government agency of \"union-republican jurisdiction\", acting as internal security, intelligence and secret police. Similar agencies were constituted in each of the republics of the Soviet Union aside from Russian SFSR, and consisted of many ministries, state committees and state commissions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "168224", "title": "Cold War espionage", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 261, "text": "While several organizations such as the CIA and KGB became synonymous with Cold War espionage, many others played key roles in the collection and protection of the section concerning detection of spying, and analysis of a wide host of intelligence disciplines.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A person with a genetic disease has a particular gene that differs from the normal, unaffected population. When a genetic disease is identified that can be tested for, the discoverers known what and where the gene is and what makes it different from the normal population. That difference is called a mutation. Mutations come in different forms (insertions, deletions, frame shifts, repeats, substitutions....) but basically all you need to know is that it's a difference from the normal.\n\nNow to test for anything genetic you need DNA. Every cell in your body, minus just a few (red blood cells, gametes...) have the full genetic code of an individual inside them. Usualy a cheek swab is done to collect a few cells from the inside of a person's mouth or a few hairs plucked to get the cells at the root. Whole blood can also be used. Once the cells are collected the genetic information can be chemically extracted, amplified, then read.\n\nThe amplification process is known as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and is one of the most important discoveries in the history of biology. It works by synthetically copying the information in DNA over and over. Since DNA is double-stranded and complementary, the information from one strand can be used to re-create the other. So taking a double-stranded DNA, unwinding it, then copying each of the two halves gives you a pair of double-stranded DNA's. Do this a bunch and you get lots of DNA to work with from a very, very small amount.\n\nOnce you have the DNA you have to actually read it. You can do this the old, hard way where you actually sequence part of someone's genome to figure out exactly what their genetic code is. If there's a mutation it'll show up as a change in the DNA sequence you read out from the normal sequence.\n\nOr you can do it the new, fancy way where you have a DNA microarray, which is a chip that has lots of little strands of DNA, each coding a slightly different copy of the gene in question. Which slightly different copy is in which spot on the chip is known going in. To the chip you add the DNA from the individual, but with one extra modification - you add a fluorescent marker on the end so it lights up. The complementary nature of DNA means that the individual's labeled DNA will bind to the spots on the chip that has DNA that most closely matches. A mutation in the individual's gene means that the DNA will bind less to the normal gene on the chip and more strongly to the corresponding mutant (there can be more than 1 mutant to cause one disease, too). Using a chip reader you can find where that is on the chip (thanks to the fluorescent label) and back-check to see what gene sequence (normal, mutant) that corresponds to. The microarrays can do hundreds or thousands of genes at once so this is a much more efficient way to screen someone for a genetic disease.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A person with a genetic disease has a particular gene that differs from the normal, unaffected population. When a genetic disease is identified that can be tested for, the discoverers known what and where the gene is and what makes it different from the normal population. That difference is called a mutation. Mutations come in different forms (insertions, deletions, frame shifts, repeats, substitutions....) but basically all you need to know is that it's a difference from the normal.\n\nNow to test for anything genetic you need DNA. Every cell in your body, minus just a few (red blood cells, gametes...) have the full genetic code of an individual inside them. Usualy a cheek swab is done to collect a few cells from the inside of a person's mouth or a few hairs plucked to get the cells at the root. Whole blood can also be used. Once the cells are collected the genetic information can be chemically extracted, amplified, then read.\n\nThe amplification process is known as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and is one of the most important discoveries in the history of biology. It works by synthetically copying the information in DNA over and over. Since DNA is double-stranded and complementary, the information from one strand can be used to re-create the other. So taking a double-stranded DNA, unwinding it, then copying each of the two halves gives you a pair of double-stranded DNA's. Do this a bunch and you get lots of DNA to work with from a very, very small amount.\n\nOnce you have the DNA you have to actually read it. You can do this the old, hard way where you actually sequence part of someone's genome to figure out exactly what their genetic code is. If there's a mutation it'll show up as a change in the DNA sequence you read out from the normal sequence.\n\nOr you can do it the new, fancy way where you have a DNA microarray, which is a chip that has lots of little strands of DNA, each coding a slightly different copy of the gene in question. Which slightly different copy is in which spot on the chip is known going in. To the chip you add the DNA from the individual, but with one extra modification - you add a fluorescent marker on the end so it lights up. The complementary nature of DNA means that the individual's labeled DNA will bind to the spots on the chip that has DNA that most closely matches. A mutation in the individual's gene means that the DNA will bind less to the normal gene on the chip and more strongly to the corresponding mutant (there can be more than 1 mutant to cause one disease, too). Using a chip reader you can find where that is on the chip (thanks to the fluorescent label) and back-check to see what gene sequence (normal, mutant) that corresponds to. The microarrays can do hundreds or thousands of genes at once so this is a much more efficient way to screen someone for a genetic disease.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "331535", "title": "Nucleic acid sequence", "section": "Section::::Sequence analysis.:Genetic testing.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 408, "text": "Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53653356", "title": "Elective genetic and genomic testing", "section": "Section::::Testing categories.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 207, "text": "Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins; some are associated with human disease. There are many different clinical and non-clinical situations in which genetic testing is used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310782", "title": "Genetic testing", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 290, "text": "Genetic testing is \"the analysis of chromosomes (DNA), proteins, and certain metabolites in order to detect heritable disease-related genotypes, mutations, phenotypes, or karyotypes for clinical purposes.\" It can provide information about a person's genes and chromosomes throughout life. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4502", "title": "Biotechnology", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Medicine.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 990, "text": "Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's parentage (genetic mother and father) or in general a person's ancestry. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310782", "title": "Genetic testing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 717, "text": "Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. The variety of genetic tests has expanded throughout the years. In the months and years , the main genetic tests searched for abnormal chromosome numbers and mutations that lead to rare, inherited disorders. Today, tests involve analyzing multiple genes to determine the risk of developing specific diseases or disorders, with the more common diseases consisting of heart disease and cancer. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are not being developed.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35473783", "title": "Point-of-care genetic testing", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 334, "text": "Traditional genetic testing involves the analysis of DNA in order to detect genotypes related to a heritable disease or phenotype of interest for clinical purposes. However, current testing methods require days to weeks before results are available limiting the clinical applicability of genetic testing in a number of circumstances.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310782", "title": "Genetic testing", "section": "Section::::Medical procedure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 676, "text": "Genetic tests are performed on a sample of blood, hair, skin, amniotic fluid (the fluid that surrounds a fetus during pregnancy), or other tissue. For example, a medical procedure called a buccal smear uses a small brush or cotton swab to collect a sample of cells from the inside surface of the cheek. Alternatively, a small amount of saline mouthwash may be swished in the mouth to collect the cells. The sample is sent to a laboratory where technicians look for specific changes in chromosomes, DNA, or proteins, depending on the suspected disorders, often using DNA sequencing. The laboratory reports the test results in writing to a person's doctor or genetic counselor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Very detailed question, but i'll take a stab at it. I majored in Neuroscience and am now a first year medical student so I know a fair bit about this but I'm no expert.\n\n1. The cerebellum helps to coordinate movement and accounts for one type of memory. This structure has an extraordinarily repetitive/simple neuronal structure and almost everything that makes your cerebellum different from mine is learned. This type of memory would be active if, for instance, you're a baseball catcher and someone hits a foul ball. You would see the ball coming down and *know* where to move your glove to get in front of it. This type of memory is going to be important in actions such as throwing a football or texting without looking.\n\n2. The hippocampus is the site of additional memory functions. There are cells in your hippocampus that form a grid, and fire whenever you are in one area of the grid. The hippocampal grid cells are always helping you to localize yourself in 3D. Other hippocampal cells deal with other aspects of spacial mapping. This type memory is very important in knowing where your favorite restaurant is and enables you to walk around your house in the dark without bumping into things.\n\n3. Everything else:\nHere is where it gets complicated. Almost everything else you *know* is encoded as a representation of the internal state it evokes and in relationship to other things you know. This type of memory is diffusely located throughout the temporal cortex and is processed in the oribitofrontal prefrontal cortex.\n\nTo illustrate, imagine someone says to me, \"Kim Jong Il.\" Here's what happens in my brain:\n\nThe words Kim Jong Il are processed by my auditory cortex and converted into meaning. Now this is a *person* and not a string of words. This gets loaded into my working memory (localized in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.) It calls up everything I know about Kim Jong Il. I think to myself, \"he is a bad man.\" This is because my ventromedial prefrontal cortex has already associated KJI with negative affect and this visceral emotion (processed in my amygdala) is bound to the *idea* in working memory. Things like North Korea, famine, Kim Il Sung, all get called up secondarily, not directly from my working memory but almost bittorent-like, from the cells that were already activated.\n\nThis doesn't cover all types of memory, but is as good of a introduction as I can muster. This is as accurate as I can be, but there are still no absolutes in neuroscience. Every day we learn more about the brain!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "10974486", "title": "Storage (memory)", "section": "Section::::Models.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 624, "text": "Several memory models have been proposed to account for different types of recall processes, including cued recall, free recall, and serial recall. However, to explain the recall process, the memory model must identify how an encoded memory can reside in the memory storage for a prolonged period until the memory is accessed again, during the recall process; but not all models use the terminology of short-term and long-term memory to explain memory storage; the dual-store theory and a modified version of Atkinson–Shiffrin model of memory (Atkinson 1968) uses both short-and long-term memory storage, but others do not.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "236809", "title": "Recall (memory)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 356, "text": "Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "381937", "title": "Tabu search", "section": "Section::::Types of memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 1130, "text": "Short-term, intermediate-term and long-term memories can overlap in practice. Within these categories, memory can further be differentiated by measures such as frequency and impact of changes made. One example of an intermediate-term memory structure is one that prohibits or encourages solutions that contain certain attributes (e.g., solutions which include undesirable or desirable values for certain variables) or a memory structure that prevents or induces certain moves (e.g. based on frequency memory applied to solutions sharing features in common with unattractive or attractive solutions found in the past). In short-term memory, selected attributes in solutions recently visited are labeled \"tabu-active.\" Solutions that contain tabu-active elements are banned. Aspiration criteria are employed that override a solution's tabu state, thereby including the otherwise-excluded solution in the allowed set (provided the solution is “good enough” according to a measure of quality or diversity). A simple and commonly used aspiration criterion is to allow solutions which are better than the currently-known best solution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52053172", "title": "Memory studies", "section": "Section::::Collective and Individual Memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 499, "text": "Memory operates on the individual as well as the collective level. \"Memory nonetheless captures simultaneously the individual, embodied, and lived side and the collective, social, and constructed side of our relations to the past”. It allows for individuals, groups and societies to be creative as its “anachronistic quality—its bringing together of now and then, here and there—is actually the source of its powerful creativity, its ability to build new worlds out of the materials of older ones”.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2060821", "title": "Flashback (psychology)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 782, "text": "Memory is divided into voluntary (conscious) and involuntary (unconscious) processes that function independently of each other. Theories and research on memory dates back to Hermann Ebbinghaus, who began studying nonsense syllables. Ebbinghaus classified three distinct classes of memory: sensory, short term, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is made up of a brief storage of information within a specific medium (the line you see after waving a sparkler in your field of vision is created by sensory memory). Short term memory is made up of the information currently in use to complete the task at hand. Long term memory is composed of the systems used to store memory over long periods. It enables one to remember what happened two days ago at noon, or who called last night.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58342915", "title": "Semantic amnesia", "section": "Section::::Background on semantic memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 355, "text": "Memory has two classifications—short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory can store information for a long duration and is subdivided into non-declarative (implicit) memory for learned skills and habits, and declarative (explicit) memory for knowledge of facts and events. Declarative memory consists of semantic memory and episodic memory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "387283", "title": "Neuropsychological test", "section": "Section::::Categories.:Memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 940, "text": "Memory is a very broad function which includes several distinct abilities, all of which can be selectively impaired and require individual testing. There is disagreement as to the number of memory systems, depending on the psychological perspective taken. From a clinical perspective, a view of five distinct types of memory, is in most cases sufficient. Semantic memory and episodic memory (collectively called declarative memory or explicit memory); procedural memory and priming or perceptual learning (collectively called non-declarative memory or implicit memory) all four of which are long term memory systems; and working memory or short term memory. Semantic memory is memory for facts, episodic memory is autobiographical memory, procedural memory is memory for the performance of skills, priming is memory facilitated by prior exposure to a stimulus and working memory is a form of short term memory for information manipulation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Birds actually urinate and defecate at the same time - their urine is viscous and highly concentrated (I believe it has a lot of ammonia in it, which is the characteristic smell). The white liquid/paste is the concentrated urine and the black pellets are the feces. Hope this enlightens you!\n\nClassic example: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "313610", "title": "Common snipe", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 401, "text": "It is a well camouflaged bird, it is usually shy and conceals itself close to ground vegetation and flushes only when approached closely. When flushed, they utter a sharp note that sounds like \"scape, scape\" and fly off in a series of aerial zig-zags to confuse predators. They forage in soft mud, probing or picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects and earthworms, also some plant material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "170635", "title": "Northern lapwing", "section": "Section::::Etymology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 461, "text": "The name \"lapwing\" has been variously attributed to the \"lapping\" sound its wings make in flight, from the irregular progress in flight due to its large wings (the Oxford English Dictionary derives this from an Old English word meaning \"to totter\"), or from its habit of drawing potential predators away from its nest by trailing a wing as if broken. The names \"peewit\", \"pewit\", \"tuit\" or \"tew-it\" are onomatopaeic and refer to the bird's characteristic call.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1089625", "title": "Caique", "section": "Section::::Natural history.:Aviculture.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 501, "text": "Caiques also exhibit a unique behavior known as \"surfing\", where the bird will vigorously rub its face, wings and chest against any nearby soft item (e.g. carpets, towels, cushions, crumpled paper, curtains or human hair) while using its beak to pull itself along. During this, the bird will display jerky movements and may roll over several times. This behavior is thought to be a cleaning or bathing motion and occurs regardless of age or sex. In the wild, caiques use wet leaves for this behavior.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2625248", "title": "Puna snipe", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 226, "text": "Little is known of its behaviour, but it has an aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a dive during which the bird makes a drumming sound, caused by vibrations of its modified outer tail feathers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11550175", "title": "Solitary snipe", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 203, "text": "This bird has an aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a powerful stoop during which the bird makes a \"drumming\" sound, caused by vibrations of modified outer tail feathers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "276313", "title": "Black-fronted dotterel", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 368, "text": "Unlike many other wading birds, black-fronted dotterels retain the same plumage all year round, which makes identification easier. They forage in a series of short running motions, holding the body horizontal, stopping to peck from time to time with a rapid bobbing motion. Their diet consists of mostly insects and other small creatures, supplemented by a few seeds.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11481322", "title": "African snipe", "section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 212, "text": "This bird has a spectacular aerial display, which involves flying high in circles, followed by a powerful stoop during which the bird makes a drumming sound, caused by vibrations of modified outer tail feathers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The radius of the event horizon can be calculated from analyzing the orbits of nearby stars or planets. From the way it interacts gravitationally with its surroundings you can find mass, and thus the radius of its event horizon. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Due to the extreme warping of spacetime, measuring the radius as in using a ruler is non-significant. \n\nFor a non-rotating non-charged black hole, the radius, called the *Schwarzschild radius*, is equal to 2GM/c^2. From its mass, the Schwarzschild radius can be determined. By looking at nearby orbits of stars, for instance, one can determine this mass. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As other posters mention, the shape of the event horizon is well-understood, and depends on the mass, rotation, and charge. Everything that happens within the volume of the event horizon is not well understood by modern science. There are a few contradictory theories, but nobody really knows. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "206115", "title": "Schwarzschild radius", "section": "Section::::Black hole classification by Schwarzschild radius.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 345, "text": "Any object whose radius is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius is called a black hole. The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body (a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). Neither light nor particles can escape through this surface from the region inside, hence the name \"black hole\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1987207", "title": "Black hole electron", "section": "Section::::Details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 322, "text": "If one ignores the electron's angular momentum and charge, as well as the effects of quantum mechanics, one can treat the electron as a black hole and attempt to compute its radius. The Schwarzschild radius of a mass is the radius of the event horizon for a non-rotating, uncharged black hole of that mass. It is given by\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "264606", "title": "Schwarzschild metric", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 835, "text": "The Schwarzschild black hole is characterized by a surrounding spherical boundary, called the event horizon, which is situated at the Schwarzschild radius, often called the radius of a black hole. The boundary is not a physical surface, and if a person fell through the event horizon (before being torn apart by tidal forces), they would not notice any physical surface at that position; it is a mathematical surface which is significant in determining the black hole's properties. Any non-rotating and non-charged mass that is smaller than its Schwarzschild radius forms a black hole. The solution of the Einstein field equations is valid for any mass , so in principle (according to general relativity theory) a Schwarzschild black hole of any mass could exist if conditions became sufficiently favorable to allow for its formation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "206115", "title": "Schwarzschild radius", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 511, "text": "The Schwarzschild radius (sometimes historically referred to as the gravitational radius) is a physical parameter that shows up in the Schwarzschild solution to Einstein's field equations, corresponding to the radius defining the event horizon of a Schwarzschild black hole. It is a characteristic radius associated with every quantity of mass. The \"Schwarzschild radius\" was named after the German astronomer Karl Schwarzschild, who calculated this exact solution for the theory of general relativity in 1916.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "456715", "title": "Kerr metric", "section": "Section::::Ergosphere and the Penrose process.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 375, "text": "A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4650", "title": "Black hole", "section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Physical properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 218, "text": "where \"r\" is the Schwarzschild radius and \"M\" is the mass of the Sun. For a black hole with nonzero spin and/or electric charge, the radius is smaller, until an extremal black hole could have an event horizon close to\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29320146", "title": "Event horizon", "section": "Section::::Event horizon of a black hole.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 849, "text": "The surface at the Schwarzschild radius acts as an event horizon in a non-rotating body that fits inside this radius (although a rotating black hole operates slightly differently). The Schwarzschild radius of an object is proportional to its mass. Theoretically, any amount of matter will become a black hole if compressed into a space that fits within its corresponding Schwarzschild radius. For the mass of the Sun this radius is approximately 3 kilometers and for the Earth it is about 9 millimeters. In practice, however, neither the Earth nor the Sun has the necessary mass and therefore the necessary gravitational force, to overcome electron and neutron degeneracy pressure. The minimal mass required for a star to be able to collapse beyond these pressures is the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, which is approximately three solar masses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Viruses can survive for limited times on various surfaces which would allow reinfection.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 326, "text": "The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe. Adults typically have two to three infections annually, and children may have six to ten colds a year (and up to twelve colds a year for school children). Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 716, "text": "Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in causing the common cold, with rhinoviruses being the most common. They spread through the air during close contact with infected people or indirectly through contact with objects in the environment, followed by transfer to the mouth or nose. Risk factors include going to child care facilities, not sleeping well, and psychological stress. The symptoms are mostly due to the body's immune response to the infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves. In contrast, those affected by influenza can show similar symptoms as people with a cold, but symptoms are usually more severe. Additionally, influenza is less likely to result in a runny nose.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14006", "title": "Haemophilia", "section": "Section::::History.:Blood contamination.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 76, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 76, "end_character": 215, "text": "Tens of thousands worldwide were infected as a result of contaminated factor products including more than 10,000 people in the United States, 3,500 British, 1,400 Japanese, 700 Canadians, 250 Irish, and 115 Iraqis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60398340", "title": "Air China Flight 112", "section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 292, "text": "WHO officials had acknowledged that air travellers \"within two rows of an infected person could be in danger\". However, the virus had also been found to survive for days in the environment, giving rise to the possibility of spread by contact with surfaces including armrests and tray tables.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 269, "text": "The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average adult gets two to three colds a year, while the average child may get six to eight. Infections occur more commonly during the winter. These infections have existed throughout human history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47393255", "title": "Ring vaccination", "section": "Section::::Medical use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 328, "text": "When someone falls ill, people they might have infected are vaccinated. Depending on how easily the disease spreads, contacts who could have been infected might include family, neighbours, and friends. Several layers of contacts may be vaccinated (the contacts, the contacts' contacts, the contact's contacts' contacts, etc.). \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "92693", "title": "Common cold", "section": "Section::::Cause.:Transmission.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 824, "text": "The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets (aerosols), direct contact with infected nasal secretions, or fomites (contaminated objects). Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined. The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment (over 18 hours for rhinoviruses) and can be picked up by people's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or nose where infection occurs. Transmission is common in daycare and at school due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene. These infections are then brought home to other members of the family. There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission. People sitting in close proximity appear to be at greater risk of infection.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "If you cut a cylindrical log in two, you increase the surface area significantly. This means more of the log can burn at once, and so it is consumed faster.\n\nThis is not the only effect. If you put logs in close proximity, part of the radiant heat given off by one can be caught by the other, and structuring the wood may create air currents that replenish the oxygen in the mix.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37280343", "title": "Hügelkultur", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 1038, "text": "Decomposition speed of organic material depends on the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the material, among other factors. Wood breaks down relatively slowly because it has one of the highest carbon to nitrogen ratios of all organic matter that is used in composting. If the wood is not processed into smaller pieces with larger surface area to speed up chemical reactions, breakdown is even slower. The decomposition process may in the short term take more nitrogen from the soil through microbial activity (nitrogen immobilization), if not enough nitrogen is available. Thus in the short term the fertility of the soil may be decreased before eventually, perhaps after 1-2 years, the nitrogen level is increased past the original level. Traditionally therefore, it is said to be advantageous to balance \"browns\" (e.g. woodchippings) with \"greens\" (e.g. leaves) for efficient composting, and to allow compost to become well-rotted before applying it a bed to prevent competition between soil bacteria and plants for nitrogen, reducing yield.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "580277", "title": "Wood fuel", "section": "Section::::Environmental impacts.:Harvesting operations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 723, "text": "Some firewood is harvested in \"woodlots\" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more often harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, as it is both seasoned, and has less rot. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires. Harvesting timber for firewood is normally carried out by hand with chainsaws. Thus, longer pieces - requiring less manual labor, and less chainsaw fuel - are less expensive and only limited by the size of their firebox. Prices also vary considerably with the distance from wood lots, and quality of the wood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4396843", "title": "Wood drying", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 678, "text": "BULLET::::- Wood burning: When wood is burned, it is usually best to dry it first. Damage from shrinkage is not a problem here, as it may be in the case of drying for woodworking purposes. Moisture affects the burning process, with unburnt hydrocarbons going up the chimney. If a 50% wet log is burnt at high temperature, with good heat extraction from the exhaust gas leading to a 100 °C exhaust temperature, about 5% of the energy of the log is wasted through evaporating and heating the water vapour. With condensers, the efficiency can be further increased; but, for the normal stove, the key to burning wet wood is to burn it very hot, perhaps starting fire with dry wood.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "10569248", "title": "Parapiptadenia rigida", "section": "Section::::Uses.:Wood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 235, "text": "Its dense, wood is resistant to the elements and is used for construction, carpentry, beams for bridges, poles and firewood. The wood is said to be unaffected by insects including termites and it can last more than 20 years unpainted.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18387734", "title": "Wood-burning stove", "section": "Section::::Fuel.:Hardwood or softwood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 615, "text": "When purchasing, cutting, or collecting firewood, it is good to be aware of the difference between hardwood and softwood. Both hardwood and softwood have similar energy contents by mass, but not by volume. In other words, a piece of hardwood would usually be heavier and have more available energy than the same sized piece of softwood. Hardwoods, derived from trees such as oak and ash, may burn at a slower rate, resulting in sustained output. Many softwoods are derived from conifers, which are fast growing and may burn at a faster rate. This is one reason why softwood pellets (for pellet stoves) are popular.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "481098", "title": "Firewood", "section": "Section::::Harvesting.:North America.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 597, "text": "Some firewood is harvested in \"woodlots\" managed for that purpose, but in heavily wooded areas it is more usually harvested as a byproduct of natural forests. Deadfall that has not started to rot is preferred, since it is already partly seasoned. Standing dead timber is considered better still, for it has less humid organic material on the trunk, allowing tools to stay sharper longer, as well as being both seasoned and less rotten. Harvesting this form of timber reduces the speed and intensity of bushfires, but it also reduces habitat for snag-nesting animals such as owls and some rodents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18387734", "title": "Wood-burning stove", "section": "Section::::Fuel.:Hardwood or softwood.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 249, "text": "Many softwoods will season (dry) much more quickly than many hardwoods. For example, pine that has been cut, split, stacked and topcovered will usually be ready to burn in one year; oak may be expected to take three years under the same conditions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is consumed and carried away by amoeba-like leukocytes in your body called *macrophages*. Here's a video of macrophages doing their thing: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How long does it take to disapper? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Okay I actually just read an article where a man claimed to have not popped a zit for twenty years. He literally claims that the exact same zit has been in that spot for 20 years, and then he squeezed it. It's pretty gross. If you want to look, here is the article _URL_0_ ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It gets engulfed by white blood cells called macrophages and drains into the lymph nodes, then into the blood where it can eventually be excreted in the urine. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So what happens when you get a cyst and the shizzle is not carried away by the marcophizzles?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The white pus is a mixture of white blood cells, dead white blood cells, and proteins. The white blood cells arrive to fight any infections in the area, and signal more white blood cells to come to the site, hence the build up. Interestingly, those areas are also made acidic by the lymphocytes (white blood cells) so the bacteria can't replicate properly. \n \nOnce they're done, as /r/zerotan mentioned, the waste products are reabsorbed by the lymphatic system. That's the body's waste disposal system, and it's a bit of our anatomy that a lot of lay people don't seem to know about. Your body creates a staggering amount of waste all of the time, and almost every part of your body needs a constant highway to transport that stuff out of there. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Does popping zits have any negative effects besides scarring/cross infection? Does the inflamation/bleeding cause more macrophages to come and clean up the remains faster?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "am I the only one who feels like leaving a zit makes it go away slower than popping them? If I let them go they just get bigger and bigger. Where if I pop them they bleed a little bit scab up and go away in a day or 2 after that.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My question is, after popping & removal of the puss, there is sometimes a fairly large hole, did the puss just push the skin aside as it grew? I know it closes back up, but sometimes they seem pretty deep, how deep can those holes go?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I thought it just naturally broke down and we absorbed by the body.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Get some apple cider vinegar, the real kind, and swab your face after cleansing your face.\nThank Johnny Appleseed later. \n(I see so many young people with rambunctious acne, and I am always like, \"you DON'T have to live like this, get yourself a bottle of apple cider vinegar,\" but I can never say anything in person because I'm afraid it would hurt their feelings.)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same question, but for farts. Where does the gas go?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This must be a rhetorical question. NOBODY doesn't not pop the zit... ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/r/popping doesn't approve of just \"leaving a zit\". Everything must go!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "i've seen whiteheads spontaneously erupt, it's a sight to behold. you're talking to someone, this glaring whitehead, you can't stop staring at it. then suddenly, it starts oozing out and depleting itself.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "They are chunks of your bodies defense system (neutrophils mostly) , you absorb them and recycle them.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I hardly ever open the ELI5 posts.\nOut of all the great and intelligent questions posed in the subreddit this is the one that I'm interested in.\nFuck, what does that say about me?!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Same place as the jizz goes if you don't ejaculate", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "it seems your question has been answered but I thought I should share some knowledge about popping zits since the discussion has brought it up, popping is dangerous. Even though you see that pus has come out and you got that satisfied feeling of victory you don't realize by squeezing your also sending some further down which can cause more problems. I know its tough but best course of action is to let it be, your body can take care of it, there is a safe way to handle it early however, like someone said, wait till it's \"ripe\" then apply warm wet towel or take a hot steamy shower. then instead of squeezing towards the zit, use your thumbs and position them onto the side of the zit and press down and pull away from it. this will safely open the zit and remove pus without the risk of squeezing pus further into the affected pore", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "\"Eww gross...\"\n\n\"...\"\n\n\"I still wanna know.\"\n\nClick", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I always thought your body eventually pushes out the pus, and heals behind it. If you leave pimples alone they eventually push out/heal up. I might be wrong though.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I really shouldn't have even clicked on this thread\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "HA!... as if you don't pop a zit... that's impossible!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I guess I'm the only person in America that has never popped a zit. I had them like anyone else in high school/college, and still from time to time now, but they only last for a day or two, and then they just go away.\n\nOr they rub off when I wash my face.\n\nIs this not normal?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "i feel like they usually just dry themselves up and eventually slowly pushes out the dried pus ball", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Eventually it ends up in your brain and kills you: _URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Gremlins come out at night and feed off of it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "as it gets closer and closer to your outermost layer of skin it scuffs of with the rest of your skin cells. A zit only ocurs when the opening at the top of the pore gets stopped up and your dermal layer keeps adding white blood cells(puss) to envelope the bacteria and render it be nine. If left alone the whole bacterial pathogen and blood cells with it become a tiny scab. Eventually it falls off. If you take a hot towel and cover your face it will heat up the oil in you pores and decrease the level of viscosity making it flow easier to the outer layers of your skin.\n.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I just thought I'd pop in to see what the answer was. After reading some comments, I've come to the conclusion that I have pore judgement.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "238724", "title": "Sputum", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 335, "text": "Purulent sputum contains pus, composed of white blood cells, cellular debris, dead tissue, serous fluid, and viscous liquid (mucus). Purulent sputum is typically yellow or green. It is seen in cases of bronchiectasis, lung abscess, an advanced stage of bronchitis, or acute upper respiratory tract infection (common cold, laryngitis).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1637863", "title": "Islamic sexual jurisprudence", "section": "Section::::Legal sexualities.:Purification and hygiene.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 86, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 86, "end_character": 216, "text": "When there is discharge of thick, cloudy white fluid (wady) (that exits before or after urinating) or unlustful discharge of thin, sticky, white fluid (madhy) caused by play or kissing, it requires ghusl. And wudu. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7155421", "title": "Islamic hygienical jurisprudence", "section": "Section::::Islamic sexual hygiene.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 216, "text": "When there is discharge of thick, cloudy white fluid (wady) (that exits before or after urinating) or unlustful discharge of thin, sticky, white fluid (madhy) caused by play or kissing, it requires ghusl. And wudu. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19719185", "title": "Pus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 326, "text": "Pus is an exudate, typically white-yellow, yellow, or yellow-brown, formed at the site of inflammation during bacterial or fungal infection. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is known as an abscess, whereas a visible collection of pus within or beneath the epidermis is known as a pustule, pimple, or \"spot\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26508615", "title": "Tasty Planet", "section": "Section::::\"Tasty Planet\" (2006).:Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 845, "text": "The Grey Goo is then washed down the drain and lands outside, where it moves to a park and grows in size. It then moves on to a picnic table where the scientist and assistant are having lunch. When they discover it, the pair throw the Grey Goo into the ocean. The Grey Goo then eats through the ocean and is launched by a whale into another park and then to a city. There, the Grey Goo faces its first war from humans, who attempt to use guns, tanks, etc. to stop it. It eventually launches itself into the sky and then into orbit around the Earth. After eating the moon, Earth, and the rest of the solar system (including Pluto), it moves on to nearby stars like Alpha Centauri and beyond the Milky Way. However, its mass becomes too great after devouring the fabric of space and time, and it implodes thus causing the universe to begin again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19719185", "title": "Pus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 606, "text": "Although pus is normally of a whitish-yellow hue, changes in the color can be observed under certain circumstances. Pus is sometimes green because of the presence of myeloperoxidase, an intensely green antibacterial protein produced by some types of white blood cells. Green, foul-smelling pus is found in certain infections of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". The greenish color is a result of the bacterial pigment pyocyanin that it produces. Amoebic abscesses of the liver produce brownish pus, which is described as looking like \"anchovy paste\". Pus from anaerobic infections can more often have a foul odor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1982124", "title": "Domestic rabbit", "section": "Section::::Health.:Gastrointestinal stasis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 327, "text": "GI stasis is the condition of food not moving through the gut as quickly as normal. The gut contents may dehydrate and compact into a hard, immobile mass (impacted gut), blocking the digestive tract of the rabbit. Food in an immobile gut may also ferment, causing significant gas buildup and resultant gas pain for the rabbit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > The thing is, Islam emerged in literate times. Historians were writing journals. Scholars were writing diaries and letters. Jurists were writing bureaucratic articles. So from the 7th century onward there was a rich record of documents, and that's why we know so many historical details.\n\n\nNoooooooooooooooooo...\n\nNoooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo!\n\nOk I'm done having a minor aneurysm. But yeah this is a wildly inaccurate statement. It massively overstates the reliability of the documents he's apparently working from (I.e. Ibn Ishaq via Tabari and Ibn Hisham), is apparently ignorant of how that information got passed down (I.e orally, not written down) and fails to mention how poorly documented the 7th-8th centuries are.\n\n/u/Shlin28 gives a great description of just how poorly documented the rise of Islam is on the Christian side here: _URL_0_\n\nI've written quite a bit on the historiographical controversy over the use of these \"traditional\" sources, for instance here: _URL_1_\n\nI only listened to the first ten minutes or so of this YouTube video, but even accounting for the fact that he's uncritically relying on this dubious traditional sources I heard a good bit of bad history. A shura council is not \"like a democracy\", for instance.\n\nSome effects of the unreliability of those sources as it pertains to the video:\n\nWe cannot reliably quite Muhammad.\n\nWe cannot reliably say who was or was not present at battles.\n\nWe cannot reliably say how many people attended a speech.\n\nAnd so on. There are people who defend the use of traditional sources, and they are of course a matter of faith to Muslims. Its an incredibly contentious issue. Personally I'm not willing to reject their content entirely but find any specific details to be incredibly dubious.\n\nAs I mentioned in the other post Robert Hoyland's *Writing the Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Problems and Solutions* is a great essay-length overview of these issues and available as a free PDF if you do a search for it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "58748410", "title": "The Imam (TV series)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 545, "text": "The series tells the full biography of the four imams of the Muslims from the Sunnis and the community Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the events that took place from the beginning of his family and social life and even began his scientific life in the request of forensic science from Muhammad and the Quran until his death, and also reviews the period of the rule of the Abbasid state, Islamic events and conquests , the emergence of the Mu'tazili and the emergence of the plight of the creation of the Koran , and Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal confronted them.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44117434", "title": "An Educational Encyclopedia of Islam", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 580, "text": "This two volume encyclopedia which consists of 1300 pages is covering all the aspects of Islam in dept with graphical illustrations. This encyclopedia has significant notes, four dozen full-scale and unique multi-color maps. Encyclopedia of Islam happens to be the first of its kind written by a Muslim scholar himself. Apart from the prophet Muhammad and the earliest Muslims, the encyclopedia also explores the lives of prominent figures from modern Islamic history like Jamaluddin Al-Afghani, Muhammad Iqbal, Syed Abul A’la Mawdudi, Maulana Muhammad Ilyas and Hassan Al-Banna.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "58748410", "title": "The Imam (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Story and Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 981, "text": "The series revolves around a historical drama where the series discusses the biography of the life of Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal, the fourth of the four imams in the Sunnis and the group where the series reviews many of the events that took place in his life during the era of Abbasid state in the era of Caliph Harun al-Rashid The light on the city of Baghdad, the nature of social life and also monitor the poor class in which he lived Ahmed bin Hanbal , as well as the middle class, in addition to the focus on some of the Islamic conquests in the era of Harun al-Rashid and the emergence of Mu'tazila and the struggle of the Secretary and the safe to power, In the way of narration of events and facts, which highlights the first : the personal life of the Imam and the social environment in Baghdad and the second : the system of political governance that prevailed at that time and the third : some stories and novels and historical facts that were modern in the era of the Imam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4038926", "title": "Hagarism", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Wider context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 207, "text": "The remainder of the book, Parts II and III, discuss later developments and the larger context in which Islam originated: the Late Antique Near East, and relate it to theoretical themes of cultural history.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5221901", "title": "Teaching of Jacob", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 657, "text": "The text provides one of the earliest external accounts of Islam, presenting a significantly different Islamic historiography than found in traditional Islamic texts. It also shows Jacob comparing the Byzantine Empire to the fourth beast of the prophecy of Daniel from Judeo-Christian eschatology. Although not unfamiliar imagery, it is part of a series of Byzantine literature, from the early stages of the Islamic religion, of trying to reconcile Islam with the apocalyptic vision. Further examples of this are contained in the pseudo-Athanasian's \"Quaestiones ad Antiochum ducem\", and the \"Quaestiones et responsiones\" attributed to Anastasius of Sinai.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "586106", "title": "John Wansbrough", "section": "Section::::Research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 589, "text": "These observations did not fit to the Islamic narratives on Islam's beginnings which depicted Islam to come into being within a polytheistic society. Wansbrough analyzed the classical Islamic narratives which had been written 150 to 200 years after Muhammad with the historical-critical method, especially literary criticism. Thus, he claimed countless proofs that these texts are not historical accounts but later literary constructions in the sense of the concept of a \"salvation history\" (\"Heilsgeschichte\") of the Old Testament. Their historical core is meager and cannot be detected.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37203850", "title": "Caravan of Dreams (book)", "section": "Section::::Summary / content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 620, "text": "The book contains sections on the Traditions (Hadiths) of the Prophet Muhammad (primarily from the Mishkat of Al-Baghawi of Herat), the adventures of the Mulla Nasrudin, thoughts from Omar Khayyam, meditations of Rumi, and the definitions of Mulla Do-Piaza, as well as sayings from many classical Sufi Masters like Saadi, Bahaudin Naqshband and Khwaja Ahrar. Also included are some excerpts about Islamic culture and history from Edward Gibbon's \"Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\" and from Shah's earlier book of travels, \"Destination Mecca\". Two anecdotes are about Shah's great-great grandfather, Jan-Fishan Khan.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In the air, the Cactus Air Force was tying out new tactics to combat the agile Japanese Zero. \"Cactus Air Force\" is a nickname for the pilots of Henderson Field on Guadalcanal--codenamed Cactus. These pilots used a mix of aircraft, most notably the Grumman F4F Wildcats (there were some P-39's as well, and some dive bombers too). The Wildcat was heavily armed, heavily armored, and heavy overall compared to the Zero. If a Wildcat pilot tried to turn with a Zero in a dogfight, he would quickly end up with the agile Zero behind him. So, a naval aviator named Thatch came up with a defensive maneuvering scheme that came to be known as the [Thatch Weave](_URL_0_). This allowed pairs of Wildcats to keep their wingman covered from attack from behind. The linked wikipedia page has a good illustration of the tactic. Offensive tactics revolved around diving attacks or head-on passes, where the armament and armor of the Wildcat would make it the victor in most slugging matches.\n\nAt sea, there was a curious occurrence in warfare. Control of the area around Guadalcanal generally changed hands every twelve hours. During the day, the US Navy was able to largely command the waves--especially as Henderson Field became more established. At night, the Japanese expertise and experience at night fighting meant that they could exert control over the area. There were so many ships of both sides sunk in the area that it gained the nickname \"Ironbottom Sound.\" The clashes gave US naval forces valuable but costly lessons that were applied in the later island hopping campaigns. \n\nOn land, the Japanese committed troops piecemeal to various assaults on the Marines. Again, the campaign was costly for the Americans and there were several times where the enemy nearly broke through. However, the Marines gained valuable tactical, logistical, and other lessons that applied to warfare in the theater. I don't know of any tactical breakthroughs that were made, instead there were refinements to existing ideas. Coordination between infantry and mortars/artillery was improved. Close air support was practiced (especially with the aforementioned P-39's and dive bombers). Officers and men gained experience in how the Japanese liked to fight as well as what was effective against them. \n\n*Guadalcanal: The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle* by Richard B. Frank is an outstanding account of the battle. Robert Leckie's *Challenge for the Pacific: Guadalcanal: The Turning Point of the War* is also good if a bit shorter. However, Leckie was an infantryman in the actual battle, so his insights are incredible. They are more intimately described in his memior: *Helmet for my Pillow*. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Not directly related to your question OP, but an excellent book that describes the changes made in the British Army's tactics/strategy etc etc in Burma against the Japanese is: \n\nSlim, Master of War: Burma and the Birth of Modern Warfare.\n\n(General Bill Slim, IMHO one of the most overlooked commanders of all Military Commanders of WWII)\n\n(replying as this might have, at least some, relevance to your inquiries)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I wrote my undergrad thesis on a directly related topic. It is more about learning how to fight in the pacific in general, but deals with Guadalcanal.\n\n\n[Here's a link to a sanitized version of it on google docs](_URL_0_), or you can contact me directly for a pdf link to the submitted version.\n\nWhat it boiled down to was reworking significant portions of combat doctrine. Combined arms warfare, which was born in the later stages of WW1 and was on full display by 1939, didn't really work in the dense jungles of the Pacific. Small unit tactics were of increased importance, as large unit maneuvers were difficult to execute. \n\nYou know how you always hear about how armies are constantly training for the last war? That is relatively accurate, but it's not as bad as it would seem because usually there will be a great deal of similarity from war to war. Sure, the technology changed between the Napoleonic Wars and WW1, but they were still fighting over familiar land, and were simply adapting existing tactics to emergent technology.\n\nIn the Pacific, American (and to a far lesser extent British and ANZAC) had to rethink the way they would fight the war. It wasn't simply fighting the same war with new weapons as it was in Europe, it was fighting an entirely different kind of war, fighting it with new weapons, and developing new weapons and tools throughout the war when it became apparent that they didn't have all the tools they needed to win the war.\n\nPlease feel free to ask any questions regarding my work on the topic that you might have.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2070801", "title": "Operation Ke", "section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 67, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 67, "end_character": 738, "text": "In hindsight, historians have faulted the Americans, especially Patch and Halsey, for not taking advantage of their ground, aerial, and naval superiority to prevent the successful Japanese evacuation of most of their surviving forces from Guadalcanal. Said Chester Nimitz, commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, of the success of Operation Ke, \"Until the last moment it appeared that the Japanese were attempting a major reinforcement effort. Only the skill in keeping their plans disguised and bold celerity in carrying them out enabled the Japanese to withdraw the remnants of the Guadalcanal garrison. Not until all organized forces had been evacuated on 8 February did we realize the purpose of their air and naval dispositions.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "274942", "title": "History of the United States Navy", "section": "Section::::Worldwide expansion.:World War II (1941–1945).:Carrier warfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 553, "text": "Both sides were overextended in the exhaustive sea, air and land battles for Guadalcanal. The Japanese were better at night combat (because the American destroyers had only trained for attacks on battleships). However, the Japanese could not feed its soldiers so the Americans eventually won because of superior logistics. The Navy built up its forces in 1942-43, and developed a strategy of \"island-hopping, that is to skip over most of the heavily defended Japanese islands and instead go further on and select islands to seize for forward air bases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4653534", "title": "Military history of the United States during World War II", "section": "Section::::Pacific Theater.:Island hopping.:Tarawa.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 139, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 139, "end_character": 673, "text": "Guadalcanal made it clear to the Americans that the Japanese would fight to the bitter end. After brutal fighting in which few prisoners were taken on either side, the United States and the Allies pressed on the offensive. The landings at Tarawa on November 20, 1943, by the Americans became bogged down as armor attempting to break through the Japanese lines of defense either sank, were disabled or took on too much water to be of use. The Americans were eventually able to land a limited number of tanks and drive inland. After days of fighting they took control of Tarawa on November 23. Of the original 2,600 Japanese soldiers on the island, only 17 were still alive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "403899", "title": "USS Atlanta (CL-51)", "section": "Section::::Service history.:Battle of the Eastern Solomons.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 525, "text": "As the Americans consolidated their gains on Guadalcanal, the critical need for reinforcements prompted Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto to send the Combined Fleet south to cover a large troop convoy. American scout planes spotted the Japanese forces on the morning of 23 August. With the enemy reported to the northwest, \"Enterprise\" and launched search and attack planes, but they failed to make contact because of deteriorating weather and the fact that the Japanese, knowing that they had been spotted, reversed course.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17071240", "title": "Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 748, "text": "Both sides experienced extreme difficulties in fighting in the thick jungles and tropical environment that existed in the battle area. Many of the American troops were also involved in their first combat operations. The Japanese were mostly cut off from resupply and suffered greatly from malnourishment and lack of medical care. After some difficulty, the U.S. succeeded in taking Mount Austen, in the process reducing a strongly defended position called the Gifu, as well as the Galloping Horse and the Sea Horse. In the meantime, the Japanese decided to abandon Guadalcanal and withdrew to the west coast of the island. From that location most of the surviving Japanese troops were successfully evacuated during the first week of February 1943.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "795034", "title": "Amphibious warfare", "section": "Section::::Modern amphibious operations.:Interwar developments.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 556, "text": "In 1938, Japanese forces attacked Chinese defenders over the Yangtze River at the Battle of Wuhan. Soon, the Japanese would later further improve its techniques upon seaborne assaults by the Second Sino-Japanese War. By World War II, marines such as the Special Naval Landing Force, used amphibious landings to attack and sweep across territories in South East Asia. Their technique of surprise landings in continuous success and the support from the Navy, inspired the British and American landings in World War II such as D-Day and the Pacific Campaign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22634730", "title": "History of guerrilla warfare", "section": "Section::::World Wars (1914–1945).:World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 83, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 83, "end_character": 497, "text": "The Japanese military themselves also used guerrilla warfare during the later part of the Pacific War, when Japan's resource was already dwindling and the Allies have started invading. Tadamichi Kuribayashi famously used guerrilla warfare during the Battle of Iwo Jima, where the general used network of tunnels and caves to attack American forces. His tactic was somewhat successful, delaying the Americans from taking Iwo Jima for 36 days. The same tactic was used during the Battle of Okinawa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " At a guess I would say that new games are bigger then a disc can hold, my battlefield 1 digital game was 43 GB (rip my data cap :( ). Im willing to bet that if everything has to be read off the discs the load screens would be all over the place and, with all the massive open worlds lately, that would be a game killer.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The 360 has a ridiculously high reading speed to read the massive amount of data DVDs hold. I think a DVD spins around 300 times a minute? Which is crazy and one of the reasons the console is really loud. Yet, this gives the 360 the ability to read a lot of data off discs, avoiding long install times.\n\nThe PS3, on the other hand, had the issues that they used a new format and also way lower reading speeds, which ended up in the need to install games, at least partly. The BD drive used in the PS3 was really slow and to compensate for that I read that some companies put their game data more than once on the disc, so it can be reached in time without long loading times inbetween. Thanks to the pretty huge size of blu ray this wasn't really an issue. Or they simply offloaded a lot of reading work to the ps3s HDD, which can read data a lot faster than the disc drive.\n\nWhen the new consoles arrived the whole install thing became quite the usual thing, also HDDs weren't as expensive anymore as they used to be. So you can throw in a reasonable big size with okay-ish reading speed, copy the entire game on it and let it handle the reading speed issue because BD drives still aren't fast enough to access data off discs. So you pretty much pre-install a game on PS4/X1 up until a point where it becomes playable and the rest background installs while you can start playing.\n\nSome games, like Final Fantasy XV or Battlefront just give you a small demo level to run around in, others give you the whole prolog to play (I think Uncharted 4 does this?) and the worst ones, like Fallout 4, let you start the game but have you watch an ingame install screen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "392690", "title": "Console game", "section": "Section::::Development.:Remakes and re-releases.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 72, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 72, "end_character": 477, "text": "Some consoles lack the ability to play games from previous generations which allow a developer to release older games again but on the new consoles. The re-released game may be unchanged and simply be the same game but run on the new technology or it can be changed by the developer to have improved graphics, sound or gameplay. Some re-releases can have added features such as Final Fantasy VII which added functions to speed the game up and turn off random enemy encounters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "700265", "title": "Video game development", "section": "Section::::Development process.:Post-production.:Maintenance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 148, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 148, "end_character": 472, "text": "Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was common for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware; making incompatibility, the cause of many bugs, a non-issue. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2242229", "title": "MotorStorm", "section": "Section::::Development.:Downloadable content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 387, "text": "Despite the closure of the multiplayer servers in 2012, it is still possible to download the game updates as of today, as they're required for DLC compatibility. While most PS3 games search for updates from the XMB or after starting them, this games requires the user to enter the now-defunct online modes in order to trigger the updating process. The most recent update is version 3.1.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3282205", "title": "Free60", "section": "Section::::Limitations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 451, "text": "BULLET::::- An older Kernel revision is required on the Xbox 360 itself, which may prove to be hard to find, since connecting to the Xbox Live service applies updates to the console, and many games include updates that must be applied before the game will run. This limitation is not as important as it once was, as it is now known to be possible to downgrade a Kernel greater than the last of the two exploitable Kernels by means of a timing attack.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13503628", "title": "Wii system software", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 574, "text": "Several game discs, both first-party and third-party games, have included system software updates so that players who are not connected to the Internet can still update their system. Additionally this can force an upgrade by requiring the player to perform the update, without which the new game cannot be played. Some online games (such as Super Smash Bros. Brawl and Mario Kart Wii) have come with specific extra updates, such as being able to receive posts from game-specific addresses, so, regardless of the version of the installed software, it will install an update.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4705441", "title": "Mac gaming", "section": "Section::::Windows games.:Third-party porting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 415, "text": "Due to the time involved in licensing and porting the product, Macintosh versions of games ported by third-party companies are usually released anywhere from three months to more than a year after their Windows-based counterparts. For example, the Windows version of \"Civilization IV\" was released on October 25, 2005, but Mac gamers had to wait eight months until June 30, 2006 for the release of the Mac version.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18934755", "title": "Video game console emulator", "section": "Section::::Other uses.:Bypassing regional lockouts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 479, "text": "Although it is usually possible to modify the consoles themselves to bypass regional lockouts, console modifications can cause problems with screens not being displayed correctly and games running too fast or slow, due to the fact that the console itself may not be designed to output to the correct format for the game. These problems can be overcome on emulators, as they are usually designed with their own output modules, which can run both NTSC and PAL games without issue.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The use of mnemonics such at those you describe are likely to work at a number of different levels. Firstly, when thinking about memory and learning, it is important to emphasise the role of attention. That is, when you *personally* create a mnemonic, you are assigning more attention to it which makes it more likely that it will be encoded. Using mnemonics also helps to link the new knowledge, to existing knowledge networks, or unique (and therefore memorable) identifiers. So instead of having to recall the new information from scratch, you can be prompted by its link with the existing knowledge structures, or those unique/memorable things that you will \"never forget\" (like the silly words). \n\nThere is a copious body of evidence that demonstrates that using mnemonics such as those you describe can assist in the recollection of new learning. Much of these principles are outlined in the [levels of processing](_URL_0_) model of memory encoding (although I am not up to date on the current consensus on this model). In this model your use of mnemonics is an example of deep level processing.\n\nedit: spelling, emphasis", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2367207", "title": "Cue-dependent forgetting", "section": "Section::::Cues.:Semantic cues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 351, "text": "An experiment from 1966 showed that people remember a group of words better if they are within the same theme category. Such words that generate recall by association are known as \"semantic cues\". If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding process, a cue that could be used could also put emphasis on the phonetic quality of the word.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1850719", "title": "Controlled vocabulary", "section": "Section::::Indexing languages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 231, "text": "In some cases controlled vocabulary can enhance recall as well, because unlike natural language schemes, once the correct authorized term is searched, there is no need to search for other terms that might be synonyms of that term.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19218437", "title": "Eureka effect", "section": "Section::::Research.:Memory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 841, "text": "It had been determined that recall is greater for items that were generated by the subject versus if the subject was presented with the stimuli. There seems to be a memory advantage for instances where people are able to produce an answer themselves, recall was higher when Aha! reactions occurred. They tested sentences that were initially hard to understand, but when presented with a cued word, the comprehension became more apparent. Other evidence was found indicating that effort in processing visual stimuli was recalled more frequently than the stimuli that were simply presented. This study was done using connect-the-dots or verbal instruction to produce either a nonsense or real image. It is believed that effort made to comprehend something when encoding induces activation of alternative cues that later participate in recall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1764639", "title": "Levels-of-processing effect", "section": "Section::::Sensory modes.:Vision.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 872, "text": "Visual input creates the strongest recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of levels-of-processing modifiers. It is also one of the most widely studied. Within visual studies, pictures have been shown to have a greater recall value than words – the picture superiority effect. However, semantic associations have the reverse effect in picture memories appear to be reversed to those in other memories. When logical details are stressed, rather than physical details, an image's recall value becomes lower. When comparing orthographic (capitalization, letter and word shape), phonological (word sound) and semantic (word meaning) encoding cues, the highest levels of recall were found with the meanings of the words, followed by their sounds and finally the written and shape-based cues were found to generate the least ability to stimulate recall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1717129", "title": "Explicit memory", "section": "Section::::Encoding and retrieval.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 1062, "text": "Retrieval: Because a person has played an active role in processing explicit information, the internal cues that were used in processing it can also be used to initiate spontaneous recall. When someone talks about an experience, the words they use will help when they try to remember this experience at a later date. The conditions in which information is memorized can affect recall. If a person has the same surroundings or cues when the original information is presented, they are more likely to remember it. This is referred to as encoding specificity and it also applies to explicit memory. In a study where subjects were asked to perform a cued recall task participants with a high working memory did better than participants with a low working memory when the conditions were maintained. When the conditions were changed for recall both groups dropped. The subjects with higher working memory declined more. This is thought to happen because matching environments activates areas of the brain known as the left inferior frontal gyrus and the hippocampus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5008639", "title": "Teaching reading: whole language and phonics", "section": "Section::::Phonics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 456, "text": "Some very common words do not fully follow common phonic patterns, so those words have to be memorized. Some books refer to these words as \"sight words\", but it is probably better to refer to them as \"memory words\" because some books refer to sight words as those words which are so common they do not have to be analyzed or \"sounded-out\". It does not seem like a good idea to have \"sight-words\" mean two different things when \"memory-words\" is available.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14615780", "title": "Ironic process theory", "section": "Section::::Examples.:Memorization and mnemonics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 227, "text": "Although in certain domains, such as memorization, it appears that ironic effects of attempting to remember vary with the level of mental control over mnemonic processing and may simply be due to ineffective mental strategies.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Hiragana ひらがな　is like the standard Japanese alphabet.\n\nKatakana カタカナ is used for words of foreign origin.\n\nKanji 漢字 is that impossible to read shit that was imported from China. \n\nNow, why don't they just get rid of Kanji, since they are such a pain in the ass? They had this debate after WW2, and felt that kanji was part of their culture, so they didn't want to dispose of it. Also, Japanese has an insane number of homonyms, so without kanji it would be a bit tough to know what a written word is. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "940177", "title": "Japantown", "section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Japanese language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 477, "text": "Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts: hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also common.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "167104", "title": "Culture of Japan", "section": "Section::::Language.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 482, "text": "Japanese is written with a combination of three scripts: hiragana, derived from the Chinese cursive script, katakana, derived as a shorthand from Chinese characters, and kanji, imported from China. The Latin alphabet, rōmaji, is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when inputting Japanese into a computer. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also very common.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15606", "title": "Japanese language", "section": "Section::::Writing system.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 654, "text": "Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese loanwords into Japanese and a number of native Japanese morphemes; and two syllabaries: hiragana and katakana. The Latin script (or romaji in Japanese) is used to a certain extent, such as for imported acronyms and to transcribe Japanese names and in other instances where non-Japanese speakers need to know how to pronounce a word (such as \"ramen\" at a restaurant). Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as \"tōitsu\" (\"unification\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1234482", "title": "Japanese writing system", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 678, "text": "The modern Japanese writing system uses a combination of logographic kanji, which are adopted Chinese characters, and syllabic kana. Kana itself consists of a pair of syllabaries: hiragana, used primarily for native or naturalised Japanese words and grammatical elements, and katakana, used primarily for foreign words and names, loanwords, onomatopoeia, scientific names, and sometimes for emphasis. Almost all written Japanese sentences contain a mixture of kanji and kana. Because of this mixture of scripts, in addition to a large inventory of kanji characters, the Japanese writing system is often considered to be one of the most complicated in use anywhere in the world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "60709", "title": "Penmanship", "section": "Section::::History.:Handwriting based on Chinese script.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 395, "text": "Japanese writing evolved from Chinese script and Chinese characters, called kanji, or ideograms, were adopted to represent Japanese words and grammar. Kanji were simplified to create two other scripts, called hiragana and katakana. Hiragana is the more widely used script in Japan today, while katakana, meant for formal documents originally, is used similarly to italics in alphabetic scripts.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26263954", "title": "Romanization of Japanese", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 827, "text": "Japanese is normally written in a combination of logographic characters borrowed from Chinese (kanji) and syllabic scripts (kana) that also ultimately derive from Chinese characters. \"Rōmaji\" may be used in any context where Japanese text is targeted at non-Japanese speakers who cannot read kanji or kana, such as for names on street signs and passports, and in dictionaries and textbooks for foreign learners of the language. It is also used to transliterate Japanese terms in text written in English (or other languages that use the Latin script) on topics related to Japan, such as linguistics, literature, history, and culture. \"Rōmaji\" is the most common way to input Japanese into word processors and computers, and may also be used to display Japanese on devices that do not support the display of Japanese characters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "48047", "title": "Engrish", "section": "Section::::Other suggested roots.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 573, "text": "English is taught in Japanese schools with an emphasis on writing and grammar over speaking. The written word is taught using Romaji (Latin script); however, the correct pronunciation of the Romaji letters is not taught. The spoken word is taught using Katakana script. Katakana is a syllabary like Hiragana, but among other uses it is used to write foreign words (not just English, but also French, German, Korean etc. In some ways it is analogous to italics in Latin script. Katakana script is used in daily life for many foreign words loaned into Japanese (\"Gairaigo\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "In really simple terms, it's when you do something the program has no idea how to respond to. In a perfect program this would never happen, but no program is perfect. So for example if you glitch through the wall in a game, the game doesn't really know that you shouldn't be able to do that because maybe you did it in a way the game developer didn't think of. I hope that kinda explains it.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Implementing something like \"gravity\" is actually a very difficult concept in a video game. It's very hard to tell if two objects are touching - harder still when you are checking against thousands of objects. To simplify this, programmers implement shortcuts. \n\nUnfortunately, whenever you take a shortcut, there are going to be situations you don't think of where that shortcut doesn't work. If you happen to create the exact situation where that shortcut fails, you end up with strange results - like no gravity. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "310005", "title": "Glitch", "section": "Section::::Computer glitch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 598, "text": "It frequently refers to an error which is not detected at the time it occurs but shows up later in data errors or incorrect human decisions. Situations which are frequently called computer glitches are incorrectly written software (software bugs), incorrect instructions given by the operator (operator errors, and a failure to account for this possibility might also be considered a software bug), undetected invalid input data (this might also be considered a software bug), undetected communications errors, computer viruses, Trojan attacks and computer exploiting (sometimes called \"hacking\").\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310005", "title": "Glitch", "section": "Section::::Video game glitches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 365, "text": "Glitches/bugs are software errors that can cause drastic problems within the code, and typically go unnoticed or unsolved during the production of said software. These errors can be game caused or otherwise exploited until a developer/development team repairs them with patches. Complex software is rarely bug-free or otherwise free from errors upon first release.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5363", "title": "Video game", "section": "Section::::Development.:Glitches.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 646, "text": "Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases publishers will release updates (referred to as \"patches\") to repair glitches. Sometimes a glitch may be beneficial to the player; these are often referred to as exploits.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310005", "title": "Glitch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 367, "text": "A glitch is a short-lived fault in a system, such as a transient fault that corrects itself, making it difficult to troubleshoot. The term is particularly common in the computing and electronics industries, in circuit bending, as well as among players of video games. More generally, all types of systems including human organizations and nature experience glitches.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310005", "title": "Glitch", "section": "Section::::Computer glitch.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 209, "text": "Such glitches could produce problems such as keyboard malfunction, number key failures, screen abnormalities (turned left, right or upside-down), random program malfunctions, and abnormal program registering.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "310005", "title": "Glitch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 391, "text": "A glitch, which is slight and often temporary, differs from a more serious software bug which is a genuine functionality-breaking problem. Alex Pieschel, writing for \"Arcade Review\", said: \"“bug” is often cast as the weightier and more blameworthy pejorative, while “glitch” suggests something more mysterious and unknowable inflicted by surprise inputs or stuff outside the realm of code.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "279631", "title": "Crash (computing)", "section": "Section::::Application crashes.:Crash to desktop.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 575, "text": "Crash to desktop bugs are considered particularly problematic for users. Since they frequently display no error message, it can be very difficult to track down the source of the problem, especially if the times they occur and the actions taking place right before the crash do not appear to have any pattern or common ground. One way to track down the source of the problem for games is to run them in windowed-mode. Windows Vista has a feature that can help track down the cause of a CTD problem when it occurs on any program. Windows XP included a similar feature as well.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Essentially, they guess. It's an educated guess based on past experiences, but a guess none the less. \n\nThey know the size of their current market, and what portion of that they own. They make an educated guess on how much incremental revenue they will gain from being sponsored by whomever and then offer a deal that shares some of the anticipated revenue increase with whomever is speaking on their behalf. There is no guarantee that they will make more money, but that is a risk they are willing to take, and the deals are full of clauses that allow early termination of the contract for a myriad of reasons. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9621656", "title": "Financial sponsor", "section": "Section::::Sponsors and other investors.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 346, "text": "Various investor classes look to the financial sponsor to generate value in a company as much as the management or operations of the company. In particular, debt providers are willing to extend credit in the form of bank loans, high-yield debt and mezzanine capital based in part on the reputation of and relationship with the financial sponsor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "545607", "title": "Sponsor (commercial)", "section": "Section::::Principles.:Selling.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 468, "text": "The sales cycle for selling sponsors is often a lengthy process that consists of researching prospects, creating tailored proposals based on a company's business objectives, finding the right contacts at a company, getting buy-in from multiple constituencies and finally negotiating benefits/price. Some sales can take up to a year and sellers report spending anywhere between 1–5 hours researching each company that is viewed as a potential prospect for sponsorship.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53481736", "title": "Everipedia", "section": "Section::::Company.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 351, "text": "The company claimed in 2016 that they were worth $10 million. In 2016, the site generated most of its income from advertisements. Also in 2017, there was a message at the bottom of every article stating, \"Advertise\" that directed to information for potential sponsors. The company aims to generate income through ways apart from donations or banners.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21531549", "title": "Return on investment", "section": "Section::::Calculation.:Marketing investment.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 383, "text": "Marketing not only influences net profits but also can affect investment levels too. New plants and equipment, inventories, and accounts receivable are three of the main categories of investments that can be affected by marketing decisions. According to a recent study, business partnerships with \"micro-influencers\" can bring a greater ROI than collaborations with big celebrities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40358956", "title": "ValueAct Capital", "section": "Section::::Investor Actions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 341, "text": "ValueAct Capital is a very active investor that identifies companies that appear to be out of favor, or may be undergoing a significant transition. ValueAct makes a significant investment into the company and then works with the company to make changes with goal of increasing long-term stock value and thus creating a profit for ValueAct. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2970278", "title": "Added value", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 345, "text": "The difference is profit for the firm and its shareholders after all the costs and taxes owed by the business have been paid for that financial year. Value added or any related measure may help investors decide if this is a business that is worthwhile investing on, or that there are other and better opportunities (fixed deposits, debentures).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7697770", "title": "Open data", "section": "Section::::Arguments for and against.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 53, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 53, "end_character": 217, "text": "BULLET::::- Sponsors do not get full value unless their data is used appropriately – sometimes this requires quality management, dissemination and branding efforts that can best be achieved by charging fees to users.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It is called machine learning and is quite complex.\n\nWhat it boils down to is that you break a problem into discreet parts, or steps.\n\nYou show the machine all the different steps it can do. Then you tell the machine what the desired \"win\" condition is.\n\nIt goes and compares all the different steps and series of steps to figure out the best way of getting to the win condition. \n\nAs these models get better and more generic, we can let the win condition be more vague and it has more freedom to learn how to get there. \n\nIt is entirely dependent upon structures called neural networks, which have an input layer, a hidden layer, and an output layer. The hidden layer is trained to give outputs to certain inputs. \n\nFor a board game training data might be all the moves of a bunch of games, and which player won. We don't actually know what the algorithm inside came up with, because we didn't tell it what to do. \n\nIt learned how to get to the \"win\" state by analyzing a bunch of data and coming up with its own pattern recognition to apply to new games.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "How would you guys feel if the AI bragged after it won a game against a human? ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Twist, you are part of the AI and are trying to confirm how you think you were programmed.\n\nBonus: this is close to an explanation to how Google AI works, just feed data and the machine will try to understand the data given some rules to work.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "On a very very high level, machine learning and AI essentially work off of two things: data and statistics. \n\nWhen given a input data, it looks for what is the best output/decision based on statistical analysis. For example, if I show you a chess board that is in mid game and say, \"If I'm white, what move should I do?\". I AI analogy, the board is the input and the output is what piece you decide to move. \n\nHumans play board games and win by essentially two things: Foresight(being able to look X steps ahead of your opponent) and experience. Experience - in this sense - often allows you quicker knowledge of your game state without having to analyze it too far. For example, suppose you're playing chess and you've seen the current board setting thousands of times (because you play chess all the time). At this point, you have experience telling you that \"this is the next best possible move\" without having to look X steps into the future; in essence, it provides a form of \"shortcut\".\n\nMachine learning software, more or less, try to imitate these two things. Machine learning softwares will have a simple way to measure, given a board, whether it is winning or its opponent is winning. Obviously the software will try to maximize this value. A very very simple example for Go is \"If I am black, I have more black pieces on board than white pieces.\" (In reality, is not as simple as count- & -compare; it has more things it takes into account).\n\nNow going back to foresight and experience. \n\nForesight: Computers will do the same thing. It will use calculations to check what are all possible moves that the computer can make and what are the possible moves the player can make after, and so on. A very simplistic solution would be to \"Make one big ass tree of possible outcomes and then decide\" - but this NEVER works due to limited memory and computation speeds. Games like Go have so many possible moves that it is physically impossible to map all of it at once. \n\nExperience: Computers will statistically keep track of records/patterns/patterns of gameplay and place statistical value on them. For example: in chess, opener X has the highest winrate - so I'll go with that. This is similar to how an experienced chess player or Go player will simply see the board - and know what the right move is simply based on experience. Experience also gives you knowledge that standard \"logical\" thinking cannot. For example, in chess, you would sometimes purposely place one of your pieces into a bad position to set up a bigger, game-winning play. Logically speaking - moving that sacrificial piece is absurd and insane; but experienced players will know that is the best move despite logic defying that move. (There was a couple instances of this in the AlphaGo vs player showcases - the AlphaGo would make moves that would be seen as \"unfavorable\", but turns out to be a smart and beneficial move).\n\nNow both of these things are all implemented in various ways using multiple machine learning techniques at once. This is where it gets complicated, technical, and mathematical that really can't be explain in ELI5.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "37431577", "title": "Dialogflow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 230, "text": "Google bought the company in September 2016 and was initially known as API.AI; it provides tools to developers building apps (\"Actions\") for the Google Assistant virtual assistant. It was renamed on 10 October 2017 as Dialogflow.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23347", "title": "Paul Allen", "section": "Section::::Philanthropy.:Science and research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 438, "text": "Founded in 2014, the Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence (AI2)'s main focus is to research and engineer artificial intelligence. The Institute is modeled after the Allen Institute for Brain Science and led by researcher and professor, Dr. Oren Etzioni. AI2 has undertaken four main projects, Aristo, Semantic Scholar, Euclid and Plato. Project Aristo is working to build an AI system capable of passing an 8th grade science exam.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3548574", "title": "AI winter", "section": "Section::::Developments post-AI winter.:AI integration.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 257, "text": "Technologies developed by AI researchers have achieved commercial success in a number of domains, such as machine translation, data mining, industrial robotics, logistics, speech recognition, banking software, medical diagnosis, and Google's search engine.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18717529", "title": "StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty", "section": "Section::::DeepMind.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 226, "text": "In January 2019, developers from Google's DeepMind tested their latest AI software by pitting a computer against a professional Starcraft II player. The AI won ten games in a row, with the human player winning the last match.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46583121", "title": "Existential risk from artificial general intelligence", "section": "Section::::General argument.:Possible scenarios.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 1828, "text": "In Max Tegmark's 2017 book \"Life 3.0\", a corporation's \"Omega team\" creates an extremely powerful AI able to moderately improve its own source code in a number of areas, but after a certain point the team chooses to publicly downplay the AI's ability, in order to avoid regulation or confiscation of the project. For safety, the team keeps the AI in a box where it is mostly unable to communicate with the outside world, and tasks it to flood the market through shell companies, first with Amazon Turk tasks and then with producing animated films and TV shows. While the public is aware that the lifelike animation is computer-generated, the team keeps secret that the high-quality direction and voice-acting are also mostly computer-generated, apart from a few third-world contractors unknowingly employed as decoys; the team's low overhead and high output effectively make it the world's largest media empire. Faced with a cloud computing bottleneck, the team also tasks the AI with designing (among other engineering tasks) a more efficient datacenter and other custom hardware, which they mainly keep for themselves to avoid competition. Other shell companies make blockbuster biotech drugs and other inventions, investing profits back into the AI. The team next tasks the AI with astroturfing an army of pseudonymous citizen journalists and commentators, in order to gain political influence to use \"for the greater good\" to prevent wars. The team faces risks that the AI could try to escape via inserting \"backdoors\" in the systems it designs, via hidden messages in its produced content, or via using its growing understanding of human behavior to persuade someone into letting it free. The team also faces risks that its decision to box the project will delay the project long enough for another project to overtake it.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35782731", "title": "Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 374, "text": "The Allen Institute for Artificial Intelligence (abbreviated AI2) is a research institute founded by late Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen. The institute seeks to achieve scientific breakthroughs by constructing AI systems with reasoning, learning, and reading capabilities. Oren Etzioni was appointed by Paul Allen in September 2013 to direct the research at the institute.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15842171", "title": "Magic: The Gathering – Duels of the Planeswalkers", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 1605, "text": "The game's artificial intelligence (AI) is based on creating a multistep \"lookahead\" decision tree from the current state of the board, evaluating possible known moves by its opponents, scoring the current and resulting situations both positively and negatively, and then selecting the option with the highest score. The artificial intelligence utilizes threading to run the main intelligence algorithm alongside three \"sub-contractors\" that evaluate the possible future states and report back to the main algorithm. Each of these instances of the AI uses a special engine that both implements the rules of \"Magic\", while also providing \"undo\" actions so that they may explore up and down the decision tree. The game's intelligence algorithm runs on a separate CPU core than the main game to avoid creating framerate issues with its display while the player is considering their actions. When the player makes an action, the AI threads are interrupted and brought to the same state as the game, then continue processing, in some cases, reusing existing branches on the decision tree that match with the player's selection. The AI itself does not employ any strategy in terms of strong card combinations, but instead, when such combinations improve the computer's situation, the chances of playing these combinations will \"ripple\" back through the decision tree. In this manner, the computer AI will play one card of such a combination should it be the best choice at that time, and follow up with the second card of the combination should that option still remain the best after any other player actions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Newspapers were the major way information was spread before radio. Political candidates also did a lot more public speaking. They did \"whistle-stop tours\" where they basically road trains and stopped in every town and gave a speech. Local politicians would also speak in favor of their party in more remote areas.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9954", "title": "Eurovision Song Contest", "section": "Section::::Rules.:Voting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 68, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 68, "end_character": 692, "text": "Historically, a country's votes were decided by an internal jury, but in 1997 five countries (Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Sweden and the United Kingdom) experimented with televoting, giving members of the public in those countries the opportunity to vote \"en masse\" for their favourite songs. The experiment was a success, and from 1998 onwards all countries were encouraged to use televoting wherever possible. Back-up juries are still used by each country, in the event of a televoting failure. Nowadays members of the public may also vote by SMS, in addition to televoting. In every case, every country cannot vote for its own song From 2013, the public may also vote via a mobile app.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "763947", "title": "Polling place", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 669, "text": "Before there were paper ballots, people would simply call out their selection at the polling place. This polling place was typically the county courthouse or town hall. Sometimes these polls were taken outside of the venue in a more informal fashion. When the voters came to the town hall to announce their choice, they would get in line to see the judge and swear in. Once the voter put his or her hand on the Bible and swore to the judge, they would be allowed to cast one ballot per election. The judge acted as the only form of voter identification and it was up to them to be able to identify individuals that had already voted and exclude them from voting again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39069849", "title": "Lista Przebojów Programu Trzeciego", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 319, "text": "Every person is allowed to vote for up to ten songs. Initially (until April 1996) the votes had to be mailed to the radio station for compiling or the audience had to call the station and dictate the names of the songs. Since then voting by Internet (initially a BBS site, then a www site) is the main means of voting.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40138549", "title": "Marek Niedźwiecki", "section": "Section::::Polish Radio Three Charts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 47, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 47, "end_character": 444, "text": "First the votes were sent on postcards or dictated on the phone by the listeners, since April 1996 voting has been done by the Internet. The number of votes per person changed from two in the beginning to ten nowadays. The Charts used to include 20 songs, then 30, 40, now it is 50 divided into two parts: the so-called \"waiting room\" (only a small part of each song is presented) and the basic list (the songs going up are presented in full).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1455707", "title": "Cicely Hamilton", "section": "Section::::Biography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 885, "text": "In the days before radio, one effective way to get a message out into society and to have it discussed was to produce short plays that could be performed around the country, and so suffrage drama was born. Elizabeth Robins's \"Votes for Women\" and Cicely Hamilton and Christopher St. John's \"How the Vote Was Won\" are two predominant examples of the genre. Hamilton also wrote \"A Pageant of Great Women\", a highly successful women's suffrage play based on the ideas of her friend, the theatre director Edith Craig. Hamilton played Woman while Craig played the painter Rosa Bonheur, one of the 50 or so great women in the play. It was produced all over the UK from 1909 until the First World War. Hamilton was a member of Craig's theatre society, the Pioneer Players. Her play \"Jack and Jill and a Friend\" was one of the three plays in the Pioneer Players' first production in May 1911.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "150139", "title": "Eurovision Song Contest 1960", "section": "Section::::International broadcasts and voting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 446, "text": "The table below shows the order in which votes were cast during the 1960 contest along with the spokesperson who was responsible for announcing the votes for their respective country. Each national broadcaster also sent a commentator to the contest, in order to provide coverage of the contest in their own native language. Details of the commentators and the broadcasting station for which they represented are also included in the table below.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35323900", "title": "Section 329 of the Canada Elections Act", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 362, "text": "The idea of an election in which no one knew the results until voting was over was not present in the 19th century. In 1855, in every province but New Brunswick, voters cast their ballots orally. This led to a system where information on who voted for who could be used for nefarious reasons. Intimidation and blackmail to force people to vote in a certain way.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is not my area of expertise. But just in case you don't get a more detailed answer. \n\nI'm faily certain what you are looking for is the [Vestibular System](_URL_0_) of the inner ear. It contains a fluid which moves with your head/body and helps your brain understand/maintain your balance. When you spin very rapidly you do something with the fluid in this system that your brain doesn't quite understand. \nSomeone else will need to come in to explain how exactly that fluid is disturbed as I am not qualified. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Elaborating on the response by Bored2001:\n\nImagine your vestibular system as two circular tubes. One in the horizantal plane, one in the vertical plane. Now, these tubes are filled with a certain fluid. When you turn your head, inertia causes the fluid to stay where it is, while the tube around it rotates. That way the fluid will push little hairs, which are found on the inside of these tubes. This way your body knows that you've just turned your head and can act accordingly.\n\nNow, when you've been turning around for some time, the fluid within your inner ear will start spinning as well. Your body is at that point no longer noticing that it's spinning. When you then suddenly stop, inertia will once again keep things the way they are, except this time, that will mean that the fluid in the tube will keep on spinning. Though you are standing still, the fluid is still pushing the little hairs and that's why your body will still try to 'correct' for the perceived changes in position, throwing of your balance.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "481856", "title": "Rigid body dynamics", "section": "Section::::Rigid body in three dimensions.:Rotation in three dimensions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 431, "text": "where \"θ\" is the angle between the vectors Ω and L. Thus, if the top's spin slows down (for example, due to friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession increases. This continues until the device is unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15207557", "title": "Gyroscopic exercise tool", "section": "Section::::Mechanics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 428, "text": "Since the spinning mass is balanced, the only possibility to speed up the rotation is for the sides of the groove to exert forces on the ends of the axle. Furthermore, the normal and axial forces will have no effect, so tangential force must be provided by friction. If the axle is stationary, the friction will only act to slow down the rotation, but the situation is very different if the axle is turned by applying a torque.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5326179", "title": "Polhode", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 283, "text": "If energy is dissipated while an object is rotating, this will cause the polhode motion about the axis of maximum inertia (also called the major principal axis) to damp out or stabilize, with the polhode path becoming a smaller and smaller ellipse or circle, closing in on the axis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24714", "title": "Precession", "section": "Section::::Torque-induced.:Classical (Newtonian).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 2408, "text": "Gyro precession causes another phenomenon for spinning objects such as the bicycle wheel in this scenario. If the subject holding the wheel removes a hand from one end of its axle, the wheel will not topple over, but will remain upright, supported at just the other end. However, it will immediately take on an additional motion; it will begin to rotate about a vertical axis, pivoting at the point of support as it continues spinning. If you allowed the wheel to continue rotating, you would have to turn your body in the same direction as the wheel rotated. If the wheel was not spinning, it would obviously topple over and fall when one hand is removed. The initial action of the wheel beginning to topple over is equivalent to applying a force to it at 12 o'clock in the direction toward the unsupported side (or a force at 6 o’clock toward the supported side). When the wheel is spinning, the sudden lack of support at one end of its axle is equivalent to this same force. So, instead of toppling over, the wheel behaves as if a continuous force is being applied to it at 3 or 9 o’clock, depending on the direction of spin and which hand was removed. This causes the wheel to begin pivoting at the one supported end of its axle while remaining upright. Although it pivots at that point, it does so only because of the fact that it is supported there; the actual axis of precessional rotation is located vertically through the wheel, passing through its center of mass. Also, this explanation does not account for the effect of variation in the speed of the spinning object; it only illustrates how the spin axis behaves due to precession. More correctly, the object behaves according to the balance of all forces based on the magnitude of the applied force, mass and rotational speed of the object. Once it is visualized why the wheel remains upright and rotates, it can easily be seen why the axis of a spinning top slowly rotates while the top spins as shown in the illustration on this page. A top behaves exactly like the bicycle wheel due to the force of gravity pulling downward. The point of contact with the surface it spins on is equivalent to the end of the axle the wheel is supported at. As the top's spin slows, the reactive force that keeps it upright due to inertia is overcome by gravity. Once the reason for gyro precession is visualized, the mathematical formulas start to make sense.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1799177", "title": "Tilt (poker)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 526, "text": "One possible origin of the word \"tilt\" is as a reference to tilting a pinball machine. The frustration from seeing the ball follow a path towards the gap between the flippers can lead to the player physically tilting the machine in an attempt to guide the ball towards the flippers. However, in doing so, some games will flash the word \"TILT\" and freeze the flippers, causing the ball to be lost for certain; as in poker, this suggests that over-aggression due to frustration leads to severely detrimental playing techniques.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34187558", "title": "Rotating unbalance", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 363, "text": "Rotating unbalance is the uneven distribution of mass around an axis of rotation. A rotating mass, or rotor, is said to be out of balance when its center of mass (inertia axis) is out of alignment with the center of rotation (geometric axis). Unbalance causes a moment which gives the rotor a wobbling movement characteristic of vibration of rotating structures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5326179", "title": "Polhode", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 543, "text": "It is important to note that these changes in the orientation of the body as it spins may not be due to external torques, but rather result from energy dissipated internally as the body is spinning. Even if angular momentum is conserved (no external torques), internal energy can be dissipated during rotation if the body is not perfectly rigid, and any rotating body will continue to change its orientation until it has stabilized around its axis of maximum inertia, where the amount of energy corresponding to its angular momentum is least.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "My dad's an accountant. Short answer is, you have to have a business or at least individual income to deduct business expenses. If you're an employee somewhere that doesn't count. \n\nIf you don't file schedule C there are not many deductions you can take like what you're taking about. If you do, but the deductions are all or most of the income, you're asking for audit. If there's plenty of income and the business requires attracting clients, there's little oversight for deductions. \n\nBut remember, it's deducted from taxable income, not taxes i.e. you only avoid taxes on the spent amount. Unless you spend a lot, your reduction in tax bill is not very large. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "15323155", "title": "Imputed income", "section": "Section::::Taxation of imputed income.:Legal application in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 293, "text": "Similarly, the U.S. federal income tax law does not tax the imputed income consisting of the benefit one obtains from leisure. Professor Andrews wrote: \"It would undoubtedly be impractical to try to reflect either the value of leisure or the cost of its sacrifice directly in taxable income.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15532928", "title": "Carbon emission trading", "section": "Section::::Economics.:Incentives and allocation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 342, "text": "William Nordhaus argues that allocations cost the economy as they cause the under utilisation an efficient form of taxation. Nordhaus argues that normal income, goods or service taxes distort efficient investment and consumption, so by using pollution taxes to generate revenue an emissions scheme can increase the efficiency of the economy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "294508", "title": "Regressive tax", "section": "Section::::Examples.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 440, "text": "BULLET::::- Payroll taxes, such as FICA and Unemployment Insurance in the United States, and consumption taxes such as Value Added Tax and sales taxes are regressive in that they both raise prices of purchased goods. Lower-income earners save and invest less money, so pay a larger proportion of their income toward these taxes, directly for sales tax and as the price increase required to make revenue covering payrolls for payroll taxes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30297", "title": "Tax", "section": "Section::::Economic effects.:Reduced economic welfare.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 156, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 156, "end_character": 222, "text": "Most taxes (see below) have side effects that reduce economic welfare, either by mandating unproductive labor (compliance costs) or by creating distortions to economic incentives (deadweight loss and perverse incentives).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11932504", "title": "Income inequality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Policy responses.:Reduce tax expenditures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 210, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 210, "end_character": 553, "text": "Tax expenditures (i.e., exclusions, deductions, preferential tax rates, and tax credits) cause revenues to be much lower than they would otherwise be for any given tax rate structure. The benefits from tax expenditures, such as income exclusions for healthcare insurance premiums paid for by employers and tax deductions for mortgage interest, are distributed unevenly across the income spectrum. They are often what the Congress offers to special interests in exchange for their support. According to a report from the CBO that analyzed the 2013 data:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44409804", "title": "Causes of income inequality in the United States", "section": "Section::::Tax and transfer policies.:Tax expenditures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 103, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 103, "end_character": 553, "text": "Tax expenditures (i.e., exclusions, deductions, preferential tax rates, and tax credits) cause revenues to be much lower than they would otherwise be for any given tax rate structure. The benefits from tax expenditures, such as income exclusions for healthcare insurance premiums paid for by employers and tax deductions for mortgage interest, are distributed unevenly across the income spectrum. They are often what the Congress offers to special interests in exchange for their support. According to a report from the CBO that analyzed the 2013 data:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33992380", "title": "Political debates about the United States federal budget", "section": "Section::::Debates about tax policy.:Can the U.S. outgrow the problem?:Can tax rate cuts be paid for by reducing deductions and exemptions?\n", "start_paragraph_id": 162, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 162, "end_character": 553, "text": "Tax expenditures (i.e., exclusions, deductions, preferential tax rates, and tax credits) cause revenues to be much lower than they would otherwise be for any given tax rate structure. The benefits from tax expenditures, such as income exclusions for healthcare insurance premiums paid for by employers and tax deductions for mortgage interest, are distributed unevenly across the income spectrum. They are often what the Congress offers to special interests in exchange for their support. According to a report from the CBO that analyzed the 2013 data:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is kind of an impossible question to answer from an archaeological perspective. Anything early humans/hominids would have used as a pillow would have been made from perishable materials that do not survive in archaeological contexts. Anything from furs to piles of leaves could have been used by early hominids as pillows. Other great apes make nests out of leaves, it's possible we did too. There's no way to know.\n\nAs for natural sleeping positions, you're probably better off asking a medical doctor or a biological anthropologist. Sorry I can't be of more help.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a side-question, are there any animals that use \"pillows\"?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Correct me if I'm wrong, but is there any reason to believe that a \"natural sleeping position\" exists? Mammals of today certainly don't have any issue changing from position to position to maximize comfort. It would be dubious to try and pinpoint a \"natural sleeping position\" for, for example, [a lion](_URL_0_). There may be positions that involve the least muscle tension, etc, but when numerous sleeping positions are often used, does that even have any significance?\n\nJust a thought. Think of sleeping on an airplane for the first time, you just kind of do what works and everyone seems to have their own comfort spot.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "on a semi related note i have found the \"natural\" sleep/relaxed position in micro gravity to be interesting... kind of the default human posture \nESA study with pictures\n_URL_0_\na web page from the deep 1997 design language _URL_1_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There was a thread about ancient pillows on /r/AskHistorians last week. It turns out that pillows and headrests have been with us for as long as we have recorded history.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Based on what I know about sleeping positions now, it's probably easier to say what is important in a natural sleeping position, past that I think it's probably personal prefence combined with working with what you've got.\nA natural sleeping position is one that would allow easy expansion of the lungs, and good perfusion to the brain (if you put your head lower than your heart you'll notice the sensation of pressure, from pooling of blood in your veins). We change positions during the night, because if we stayed still, we'd develop pressure sores. This is particularly pronounced in the parts of the population with mobility problems. Talk to any hospital physio or nurse, they'd tell you how much time and effort is spent in this aspect of care", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Bioanthropologist here. Although our primate cousins make nests, there isn't a pillow per se and exact sleep position varies based on individuals and what's most comfortable for that particular spot. Some hunter-gathers use pillows, but many don't. Breastfeeding mothers typically rest on their back or side. \n\nAs a recent mother who read a lot of sleep literature on babies, I know that many young babies do not sleep well when flat on their backs alone. They tend to prefer sleeping chest to chest or snuggled in arms. A family bed is common in many cultures, and many primates prefer to snuggle as well. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "What on earth happened in this thread?!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mods - Don't you think it is a bit ridiculous to remove the OP's question but leave the \"relevant\" answers? What is the point? Why not just remove the thread entirely. It is a bit silly to have to piece together the question based off the answers. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "706020", "title": "Pillow", "section": "Section::::Types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 254, "text": "The choice of bed pillow depends to some extent upon sleeping positions: one manufacturer recommends a thinner and softer pillow for sleeping face down, medium support for sleeping on one's back, and a thicker and firmer pillow for sleeping on the side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "706020", "title": "Pillow", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 544, "text": "A pillow is a support of the body at rest for comfort, therapy, or decoration. Pillows are used by many species, including humans. Some types of pillows include throw pillows and decorative pillows. Pillows that aid sleeping are a form of bedding that supports the head and neck. Other types of pillows are designed to support the body when lying down or sitting. There are also pillows that consider human body shape for increased comfort during sleep. Decorative pillows used on beds, couches or chairs are sometimes referred to as cushions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "706020", "title": "Pillow", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Activities.:Pillow fighting.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 471, "text": "Pillow fights are known to occur during children's sleepovers. Since pillows are usually soft, injuries rarely occur. The heft of a pillow can still knock a young person off balance, especially on a soft surface such as a bed, which is a common venue. In earlier eras, pillows would often break, shedding feathers throughout a room. Modern pillows tend to be stronger and are often filled with a solid block of artificial filling, so breakage occurs far less frequently.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "951407", "title": "Bed", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 580, "text": "Beds may have a headboard for resting against, and may have side rails and footboards (or \"footers\"). \"Headboard only\" beds may incorporate a \"dust ruffle\", \"bed skirt\", or \"valance sheet\" to hide the bed frame. To support the head, a pillow made of a soft, padded material is usually placed on the top of the mattress. Some form of covering blanket is often used to insulate the sleeper, often bed sheets, a quilt, or a duvet, collectively referred to as bedding. Bedding is the removable non-furniture portion of a bed, which enables these components to be washed or aired out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "706020", "title": "Pillow", "section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Europe.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 720, "text": "The Romans and Greeks of ancient Europe mastered the creation of the softer type pillow. These pillows were stuffed with reeds, feathers, and straw in order to make them softer and more comfortable. Only upper-class people typically owned these softer pillows; however, all classes of people were allowed to use some type of pillow while sleeping, lying down or sitting in order to give them support. People in ancient Europe started to use pillows when going to church in order to kneel on while praying and to place holy books on. This is a tradition that still lives on today. In addition, the Romans and Greeks used their pillows by placing them under the head of those deceased just like the ancient Egyptians did.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "706020", "title": "Pillow", "section": "Section::::Types.:Decorative.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 533, "text": "Decorative pillows are also found on furnishings in more public parts of the home, such as sofas, chairs and window seats. Here, their common use may overlap both orthopedic and bed pillows. For example, unless a person has some particular medical condition, they will likely use a handy decorative pillow for lumbar support, as needed, while seated on a sofa. Likewise, for the occasional nap, decorative pillows are handy for supporting the head or neck, even though they may not be covered with a pillow case, as are bed pillows.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11581752", "title": "Lying-in", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 355, "text": "Lying-in is the term given to the European forms of postpartum confinement, the traditional practice involving long bed rest after giving birth. The term and the practice it describes are old-fashioned or archaic, but it used to be considered an essential component of the postpartum period, even if there were no medical complications during childbirth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Cornwallis had one of the armies in the South with Alexander Stewart commanding another in South Carolina around Charleston. The lack of a foothold in the states and resilience of the American army helped push the British surrender and evacuation. British forces held New York City, Charleston, Georgia, and other places but could not fully control full regions. Even though the British army held Charleston, they did not have control of the rest of South Carolina. Slowly, the British forces in SC trickled back to the Charleston area after evacuating other posts such as Camden and Ninety-Six, and losing forts such as Fort Motte. The Battle of Eutaw Springs put an end with British forces trying to gain more control of South Carolina as the army would remain there until total evacuation. Even the great victories of Camden and Charleston did not seem to quell the continuing operations of the American armies. In addition, while Henry Clinton commanded the entire British army, he had distanced himself from Cornwallis after May 1780. Clinton had a disagreement with Cornwallis and for a time he would correspond with Cornwallis for updates they became sporadic by mid-1781. Clinton remained the commander in chief until 1782 when Guy Carleton took over, but the war had just about ended by then. \n\nThe British army after Saratoga had diminished substantially. Burgoyne's army became part of the Convention army. Not really prisoners of war but could not fight anymore in the war. That surrender took away 6,000 soldiers from the British army - a huge blow. Cornwallis' army numbered to almost 8,000. Clinton had a small force in New York and Stewart's army in Charleston had about 2,500. None of these armies had the capability to go against the larger American force. The British army had spread itself thin with the various theatres that popped up in 1778 including Anglo-French, Anglo-Spanish wars that made them fight not only in the Caribbean but the west including Louisiana and Kentucky (at least, what would become them). The surrender of Cornwallis' army spelled the end of the war effort in America. At that point, the American army had become a well disciplined force that showed no sign of shrinking. With the addition of Spanish and French forces, the British army had a lot to contend with and could not with the decreased amount of soldiers. \n\nOften times, army leaders plan on crushing enemy forces and occupy the capital cities to win the war. The colonies remained decentralized and if one city fell, the rest would remain in resistance. The British army also failed to fully crush enemy combatants after a battle. Most militia units in the South had horses for retreating purposes and could swiftly escape the field. American forces also tended to regroup after battles and gain reinforcements, as well as relying on more guerilla tactics. \n\nThe 1781 campaign started with the battle of Cowpens where the British forces lost and began the Race to the Dan. This would in turn force Cornwallis' hand with the need to chase Nathaniel Greene or beat him to the Dan river. The lose of the battle also spelled disaster for the rest of the campaign as the British army had to leave supply wagons behind in order to march at a quick pace through North Carolina. It also halted his plans for controlling the rest of South Carolina. The long chase ended at Guilford Courthouse with Cornwallis battling a renewed American army. After suffering a Pyrrhic victory, Cornwallis decided to head to the coast in order to get reinforcements and supplies at Yorktown. Cornwallis also had some of the most experienced and seasoned regiments with him at the surrender including the 33rd, 71st, 23rd, the Guard infantry, the British Legion, and German battalions. \n\nWith morale crushed, Lord North proclaimed the war to be over and the administration switched from war to peace negotiations (and prisoner exchange). Ironically, the naval campaigns in the Caribbean had been quite successful but not enough to continue the war. \n\nMatthew Spring, With Zeal and Bayonets Only.\n\nJohn Buchanan, The Road to Guilford Courthouse.\n\nCharles Ross (ed.), Correspondence of Charles, First Marquis of Cornwallis.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "/u/GeneralLeeBlount has covered the tactical military reasons that continued fighting would have been problematic for the British, but you are right, it was conceivable that the British *could* have kept going. In fact, there actually were some smaller engagements after Yorktown, including the Battle of the Saintes, and the Siege of Fort Henry. But even in the best case scenario if the British had kept on fighting, it was not going to be over soon, and the British had their armed forces engaged in more than just the Revolutionary War at the time. \n\nFrom a governmental standpoint, though, the British forces stopped fighting because there was no longer any political will to fight it. The warhawks in Parliament lost support, the majority was being threatened with losing control of the government, so instead of sending orders to engage in further conflicts with the Americans, the government began looking for a way to end the conflict.\n\nNews of the surrender reached London on November 25, 1781. When Prime Minister Lord North received the news of the defeat at Yorktown, he is reported to have responded with, \"O God, it is all over!\"\n\nThe evening the news was delivered, Lord George Germain, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, who was in charge of the government's war effort, hosted a dinner party attended by Lord North and King George III to discuss what to do next. Germain and King George wanted to continue the fight, and Lord North \"initially gave no public indication that the government had any intention of withdrawing from America.\" But he privately confided to friends and allies that he no longer saw a way to win it, given the tenuous hold he had in Parliament.\n\nThe King's Speech was delivered to the House of Commons two days later, which admitted to the defeat at Yorktown, but apart from that, was designed to rouse the public to continue the fight. But the opposition smelled blood. Opposition leader Charles James Fox countered that Lord North's government had conducted a disastrous war, the British public were against them, and it was time to end it if they wanted to avoid the public's wrath:\n\n > \"...[T]he representatives of the people must recall to the ears of his Majesty's Ministers the disgraceful and ruinous measures that had brought us to this state. They must hear of them not only here, but...by the aroused indignation and vengeance of an injured and undone people, the ministers would hear of their ruinous measures at the tribunal of justice, and expiate them at the public scaffold.\"\n\nA Tory ally of Lord North's, Sir Nathaniel William Wraxall, would later recollect that Lord North conceded this was true. The war had started with popular support among the British public, but repeated battlefront defeats had changed public opinion:\n\n > \"True it is that ill success rendering [the war] at length unpopular, the people began to cry out for peace.\"\n\nHistorian Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy gives a pretty concise rundown of what happened next in *The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire*. \"It was a testament to his popularity and his political skills,\" writes O'Shaughnessy, \"that [Lord North] managed to sustain his government for over three more months.\"\n\nLord North attempted to negotiate with American diplomats Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams for a peace that would keep the colonies under British control, but the Americans would accept no deal that did not recognize them as an independent country. Nor would Lord North commit to ending further military action until a deal was agreed to. According to O'Shaughnessy, North \"was ultimately driven from power by his refusal to make a clear commitment to military withdrawal from America.\" North already had a slim majority, by barely a dozen votes, and by the early months of 1782, independent members of Parliament began to defect. \n\nAt the end of February 1782, General Henry Seymour Conway proposed a resolution that the war \"no longer be pursued for the impracticable purpose of reducing the inhabitants of that country to obedience by force\" and the resolution only failed by a single vote.\n\nTwo weeks later, on March 15, an independent MP proposed to censure the government for having \"reduced the country from a state of glory and prosperity to calamity and disgrace.\" It only failed by nine votes.\n\nOn March 25, Charles James Fox called for peace with America and motioned for a vote of no confidence against Lord North because \"our affairs were so circumstanced, that ministers must lose their places, or the country must be undone.\" The vote nearly passed.\n\nWith the prospect of another vote of no confidence that was sure to pass, two days later, on March 27, Lord North resigned. The Whig leader, the Marquess of Rockingham, then formed a government, and sent Richard Oswald to Paris in April 1782 to begin negotiating with the American diplomats. \n\nRockingham actually died a few months later, which sent Parliament into further turmoil, ultimately leading to North returning to power in an uneasy, and short-lived, coalition government in 1783 with his rival and chief war opponent Charles James Fox. But by then, the Treaty of Paris had already been drafted, and the coalition was formed with Fox as Secretary of Foreign Affairs, with North the head of domestic affairs, so peace negotiations continued unabated. \n\n**SOURCES**:\n\n*The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire* by Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy\n\n*A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution* by Jonathan R. Dull\n\n*The Speeches of the Right Honourable Charles James Fox in the House of Commons*, ed. by \"A Barrister\"\n\n*The Historical and the Posthumous Memoirs of Sir Nathaniel William Wraxall, 1772-1784* ed. by Henry Benjamin Wheatley", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I only had the opportunity to briefly skim through some of these responses; however, a major point that I think needs clarifying is that while the British *could* have held major American ports, the largest among them being New York, for years, if not decades, after Yorktown, popularity for the war at home in Britain dropped dramatically in the late 1770s. Furthermore, in the eyes of the Empire, maintaining control of the Caribbean Islands, especially the sugar producing islands, was of the utmost concern due to both the tremendous profits generated and the power of \"absentee planters\" in British Parliament.\n\nAs Richard Buel Jr. argues in his book *In Irons: Britain's Naval Superiority and the American Revolutionary Economy,* the sheer size of His Majesty's Navy meant the British would be able to at least hold New York, if not capture a number of other American ports in the Mid-Atlantic and Southern colonies, even after Yorktown and probably hold these for decades. While possible, this avenue made little economic sense as the navy had a more important and lucrative role in protecting the plantation empire of the Caribbean. When you couple this with the idea the war in the colonies had been a disaster for the North administration (see both Mary Beth Norton's, *The British-Americans: The Loyalist Exiles in England, 1774-1789* and Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy's, *The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire*) continuing to fight in mainland North America made little sense. Finally, it's important to note that while the British sugar producing islands had remained loyal, their loyalty was tenuous at best. If the British transferred forces from the Caribbean, who were not only fending of the French and Spanish but also suppressing potential slave insurrections where enslaved Africans greatly outnumbered white British colonists, they may have lost the the allegiance of island planters, many of whom held positions in Parliament. For more on this, see Andrew Jackson O'Shaughnessy's, *An Empire Divided: The American Revolution and the British Caribbean*.\n\nTL;DR: While the British could have kept fighting in North America and perhaps held important ports on the eastern seaboard, it made little economic sense to do so and they risked losing even more Atlantic possessions if they did so.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2144772", "title": "King's Royal Regiment of New York", "section": "Section::::Postwar.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 574, "text": "New York City remained in British hands until the end of the war, behind the protection of its large garrison and the Royal Navy. However, the inability of British commanders to defeat the Revolution led the war to drag on for eight years, resulting in the Continental Army's capture of two major British armies (\"Battle of Saratoga\", \"Battle of Yorktown\") and eroding the British political will to attempt a military solution. As a result, the government of Lord North collapsed and the new British government was formed from parliamentary advocates of a negotiated peace.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4325483", "title": "Thomas Hickey (soldier)", "section": "Section::::Conspiracy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 456, "text": "In April 1776, after the conclusion of the Boston campaign, General Washington and the Continental Army marched to New York City and prepared for an anticipated attempt by the British Army to occupy the city. The Royal Governor of New York, William Tryon, had been driven out of the city by revolutionary forces and was compelled to seek refuge on a ship in New York Harbor. Nevertheless, the city had many Loyalist residents who favored the British side.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "220583", "title": "History of the United States (1776–1789)", "section": "Section::::American Revolution.:Campaigns of 1776 and 1777.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 558, "text": "The British returned in force in August 1776, landing in New York and defeating the fledgling Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island in one of the largest engagements of the war. They quickly seized New York City and nearly captured General Washington and his army. The British made the city their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until late 1783. Patriot evacuation and British military occupation made the city the destination for Loyalist refugees, and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "331847", "title": "History of New York (state)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 1089, "text": "New York played a pivotal role during the American Revolution and subsequent war. The Stamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. The Sons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at the Battle of Long Island, the Continental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1785 and 1790, where the Bill of Rights was drafted. Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "230337", "title": "Robert Morris (financier)", "section": "Section::::American Revolution.:Superintendent of Finance.:First months.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 918, "text": "By 1781, the Revolutionary War had become a stalemate between Britain and the United States. The British had concentrated their military operations in the Southern theater of the war, while leaving a large force garrisoned at New York City. In August 1781, Morris met with General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau, who were planning a joint Franco-American operation against the British forces. Morris redirected government funds to purchase supplies for Washington's march against British forces in Virginia, and he pleaded with state governments and the French government for further funding. At the October 1781 Battle of Yorktown, Washington forced the surrender of the British army under the command of General Cornwallis. After the Battle of Yorktown, Britain essentially abandoned its campaign on land, but the naval war continued as Britain sought to cut the United States off from its sources of trade.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3554008", "title": "New Jersey in the American Revolution", "section": "Section::::Battles.:Battle of Monmouth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 41, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 41, "end_character": 203, "text": "In 1777, the British retreated to New York City to protect it from an expected French attack. Washington quickly ordered his soldiers to march towards the British and met them at the Battle of Monmouth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8813495", "title": "Meigs Raid", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 498, "text": "The American Revolutionary War was a qualified success for the British in 1776. After being forced to abandon Boston, they captured New York City, but were unable to hold New Jersey when General George Washington surprised them at Trenton and Princeton. The British consolidated their hold on New York City and Long Island during the winter months of early 1777, while the Continental Army established a land blockade around the city in New Jersey, southern New York, and southwestern Connecticut.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The elements that are generally considered fissile materials are only formed during supernovae. Any fusion we perform on earth or that occurs in main sequence stars will not produce fissile materials. \nBesides, fusion should be able to provide more than enough energy alone.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It would be an unlimited source of energy the same way having a water turbine run on water that we can then pump back up. Law no.1: If it gave out energy, you need to provide energy in order to reverse it and vice versa.\n\nIron is the bottom of nucleus potential energy. Fusion of lighter than iron nuclei with a lighter than iron result is going to release energy. Fission of heavier than iron nuclei into heavier than iron products will release energy. For vice versa you need to put energy in.\n\nImagine all elements lined up in a valley shaped curve with the iron at the bottom. Energy is released only when going downhill.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2915617", "title": "Pure fusion weapon", "section": "Section::::Explanation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1211, "text": "All current thermonuclear weapons use a fission bomb as a first stage to create the high temperatures and pressures necessary to start a fusion reaction between deuterium and tritium in a second stage. For many years, nuclear weapon designers have researched whether it is possible to create high enough temperatures and pressures inside a confined space to ignite a fusion reaction, without using fission. Pure fusion weapons offer the possibility of generating arbitrarily small nuclear yields because no critical mass of fissile fuel need be assembled for detonation, as with a conventional fission primary needed to spark a fusion explosion. Also there is an advantage of reduced collateral damage stemming from fallout because these weapons would not create the highly radioactive byproducts associated with fission-type weapons. These weapons would be lethal not only because of their explosive force, which could be large compared to bombs based on chemical explosives, but also because of the neutrons they generate. A potentially useful feature of a fissionless weapon would be that no electromagnetic pulse would be produced, because this originates from the gamma rays released by fissioning nuclei.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15111", "title": "Interplanetary spaceflight", "section": "Section::::Improved technologies and methodologies.:Improved rocket concepts.:Fusion rockets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 512, "text": "Fusion rockets, powered by nuclear fusion reactions, would \"burn\" such light element fuels as deuterium, tritium, or He. Because fusion yields about 1% of the mass of the nuclear fuel as released energy, it is energetically more favorable than fission, which releases only about 0.1% of the fuel's mass-energy. However, either fission or fusion technologies can in principle achieve velocities far higher than needed for Solar System exploration, and fusion energy still awaits practical demonstration on Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20766780", "title": "Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid", "section": "Section::::Hybrid concepts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 517, "text": "Fusion–fission designs essentially replace the lithium blanket with a blanket of fission fuel, either natural uranium ore or even nuclear waste. The fusion neutrons have more than enough energy to cause fission in the U-238, as well as many of the other elements in the fuel, including some of the transuranic waste elements. The reaction can continue even when all of the U-235 is burned off; the rate is controlled not by the neutrons from the fission events, but the neutrons being supplied by the fusion reactor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2269463", "title": "Thermonuclear weapon", "section": "Section::::Compression of the secondary.:Foam plasma pressure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 673, "text": "This would complete the fission-fusion-fission sequence. Fusion, unlike fission, is relatively \"clean\"—it releases energy but no harmful radioactive products or large amounts of nuclear fallout. The fission reactions though, especially the last fission reactions, release a tremendous amount of fission products and fallout. If the last fission stage is omitted, by replacing the uranium tamper with one made of lead, for example, the overall explosive force is reduced by approximately half but the amount of fallout is relatively low. The neutron bomb is a hydrogen bomb with an intentionally thin tamper, allowing most of the fast fusion neutrons as possible to escape.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53559165", "title": "Robert W. Conn", "section": "Section::::Career.:University of Wisconsin-Madison.:Fusion-fission hybrid reactor studies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 869, "text": "In fusion-fission hybrid reactors, high-energy fast neutrons generated by nuclear fusion can be used to convert fertile materials such as Thorium-232 or Uranium-238 into fissionable fuels for fission reactors such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239. The high-energy fusion-generated neutrons can also be used to trigger nuclear fission in traditional nuclear fuels such as Uranium-235. The hybrid reactor concept has a fusion reactor at the core and a surrounding “blanket” of fertile material, either Thorium-232 or Uranium-238. In a hybrid reactor, high-energy neutrons from fusion reactions are used to produce fissionable materials such as Uranium-233 or Plutonium-239 which would need then to be reprocessed and used as fuel in a fission nuclear power plant. One fusion hybrid plant can provide enough fuel for as many as five nuclear power plants of the same power.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322533", "title": "Project Orion (nuclear propulsion)", "section": "Section::::Potential problems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 584, "text": "With special designs of the nuclear explosive Ted Taylor estimated that fission product fallout could be reduced tenfold, or even to zero, if a pure fusion explosive could be constructed instead. A 100% pure fusion explosive has yet to be successfully developed, according to declassified US government documents, although relatively clean PNEs (Peaceful nuclear explosions) were tested for canal excavation by the Soviet Union in the 1970s with 98% fusion yield in the \"Taiga\" test's 15 kiloton devices, 0.3 kilotons fission, which excavated part of the proposed Pechora–Kama Canal.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21785", "title": "Nuclear weapon", "section": "Section::::Types.:Other types.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 24, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 24, "end_character": 784, "text": "Research has been done into the possibility of pure fusion bombs: nuclear weapons that consist of fusion reactions without requiring a fission bomb to initiate them. Such a device might provide a simpler path to thermonuclear weapons than one that required development of fission weapons first, and pure fusion weapons would create significantly less nuclear fallout than other thermonuclear weapons, because they would not disperse fission products. In 1998, the United States Department of Energy divulged that the United States had, \"...made a substantial investment\" in the past to develop pure fusion weapons, but that, \"The U.S. does not have and is not developing a pure fusion weapon\", and that, \"No credible design for a pure fusion weapon resulted from the DOE investment\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Why not? It is a side effect of having a form to survive harsh conditions on Earth, such as drought.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2005044", "title": "Negative Zone", "section": "Section::::Unique features.:Life.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 328, "text": "Curiously, for as little life as there \"exists\" in the Negative Zone, it is very \"capable\" of supporting life. There, outer space itself is permeated with an oxygen-rich atmosphere, closely approximating Earth's. Consequently, humans can exist peacefully in space without the need for cumbersome pressure suits or oxygen masks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15043", "title": "International Space Station", "section": "Section::::Purpose.:Scientific research.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 470, "text": "The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity. Some simple forms of life called extremophiles, as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16953152", "title": "Extreme environment", "section": "Section::::Beyond Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 435, "text": "Most of the moons and planets in the Solar System are also extreme environments. Astrobiologists have not yet found life in any environments beyond Earth, though experiments have shown that tardigrades can survive the harsh vacuum and intense radiation of outer space. The conceptual modification of conditions in locations beyond Earth, to make them more habitable by humans and other terrestrial organisms, is known as terraforming.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2787", "title": "Astrobiology", "section": "Section::::Research.:Extremophiles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 219, "text": "By understanding how extremophilic organisms can survive the Earth's extreme environments, we can also understand how microorganisms could have survived space travel and how the panspermia hypothesis could be possible.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1596317", "title": "Habitat", "section": "Section::::Extreme habitats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 759, "text": "Although the vast majority of life on Earth lives in mesophyllic (moderate) environments, a few organisms, most of them microbes, have managed to colonise extreme environments that are unsuitable for most higher life forms. There are bacteria, for example, living in Lake Whillans, half a mile below the ice of Antarctica; in the absence of sunlight, they must rely on organic material from elsewhere, perhaps decaying matter from glacier melt water or minerals from the underlying rock. Other bacteria can be found in abundance in the Mariana Trench, the deepest place in the ocean and on Earth; marine snow drifts down from the surface layers of the sea and accumulates in this undersea valley, providing nourishment for an extensive community of bacteria.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9284004", "title": "Ocean planet", "section": "Section::::Astrobiology.:Oxygen.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 561, "text": "Molecular oxygen () can be produced by geophysical processes, as well as a byproduct of photosynthesis by life forms, so although encouraging, is not a reliable biosignature. In fact, planets with high concentration of in their atmosphere may be uninhabitable. Abiogenesis in the presence of massive amounts of atmospheric oxygen could be difficult because early organisms relied on the free energy available in redox reactions involving a variety of hydrogen compounds; on an -rich planet, organisms would have to compete with the oxygen for this free energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25395805", "title": "Monsteca Corral", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 294, "text": "Lifeforms do not live just anywhere on the surface of a planet randomly. Each species occupies a definite set of surroundings, or environment, to which it is adapted. It cannot survive for long outside the limits of that environment because it can no longer obtain what it requires to survive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": " > Did the Greeks and Romans read the \"classics\"?\n\nAbsolutely. I'm much more familiar with the Romans than the Greeks, so I can only speak as to them - though I can't think of any reason that the Greeks would be different - but today's great Latin literature was definitely important back then as well.\n\nFor example, *The Aeneid* was, by the 2nd century A.D., mandatory if one wanted to claim a \"good\" education. In fact, it'd often be memorized.[^(Source, missing one page)](_URL_2_)\n\n*The Aeneid*, like *The Illiad*, was and is regarded as the epitome of literature in its language, and was, consequently, hugely popular. Plus, it certainly didn't hurt its popularity that it painted the ruling Julio-Claudian dynasty in the best of lights.\n\n > Do we have the same Greek and Roman canon as the actual Greeks and Romans?\n\nNope, and it's a real tragedy. Regrettably, \"we've lost more of Latin literature than we posses.\"[^Source ^\\(Abstract\\)](_URL_0_)^|[Source2](_URL_1_) Entire authors have disappeared from history, and we lack an enormous amount of what the Romans and Greeks wrote. It's the bane of every classicist the world over, but there's not much to be done about it.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "22290735", "title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire", "section": "Section::::Language.:Latin literature.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 641, "text": "Through the Roman Empire, Greek literature also continued to make an impact in Europe long after the Empire's fall, especially after the recovery of Greek texts from the East during the high Middle Ages and the resurgence of Greek literacy during the Renaissance. Plutarch's \"Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans\", for instance, originally written in Greek, was widely read by educated Westerners from the Renaissance up to the 20th century. Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar takes most of its material from Plutarch's biographies of Caesar, Cato, and Brutus, whose exploits were frequently discussed and debated by the literati of the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59232614", "title": "Ancient Classics for English Readers", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 421, "text": "The Ancient Classics for English Readers series was a collection of volumes of classics of ancient Greek and Latin literature, translated into English with paraphrases and commentaries by leading classical scholars. The series was published from 1870 in Edinburgh and London by William Blackwood and Sons. From 1870 J. B. Lippincott & Co. republished the series in Philadelphia. The founding editor was W. Lucas Collins.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "590768", "title": "Classic", "section": "Section::::The Classics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 380, "text": "The classics are the literature of ancient Greece and Rome, known as classical antiquity, and once the principal subject studied in the humanities. Classics (without the definite article) can refer to the study of philosophy, literature, history and the arts of the ancient world, as in \"reading classics at Cambridge\". From that usage came the more general concept of 'classic'.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9819006", "title": "Outline of classical studies", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 595, "text": "Classical studies (Classics for short) – earliest branch of the humanities, which covers the languages, literature, history, art, and other cultural aspects of the ancient Mediterranean world. The field focuses primarily on, but is not limited to, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome during classical antiquity, the era spanning from the late Bronze Age of Ancient Greece during the Minoan and Mycenaean periods (c. 1600-1100 BCE) through the period known as Late Antiquity to the fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 500 CE. The word classics is also used to refer to the literature of the period.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "322915", "title": "Italian Renaissance", "section": "Section::::Culture.:Literature and poetry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 49, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 49, "end_character": 544, "text": "In the early Italian Renaissance, much of the focus was on translating and studying classic works from Latin and Greek. Renaissance authors were not content to rest on the laurels of ancient authors, however. Many authors attempted to integrate the methods and styles of the ancient Greeks into their own works. Among the most emulated Romans are Cicero, Horace, Sallust, and Virgil. Among the Greeks, Aristotle, Homer, and Plato were now being read in the original for the first time since the 4th century, though Greek compositions were few.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "35036752", "title": "Outline of the humanities", "section": "Section::::The various humanities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 279, "text": "BULLET::::- Classics   (outline) – study of the languages, literature, philosophy, history, art, archaeology and all other cultural elements of the ancient Mediterranean world (Bronze Age ca. BC 3000 to Late Antiquity ca. AD 300–600); especially Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "926219", "title": "Ancient Greek literature", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 74, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 74, "end_character": 831, "text": "During the Middle Ages, ancient Greek literature was largely forgotten in Western Europe. The medieval writer Roger Bacon wrote that \"there are not four men in Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic grammars.\" It was not until the Renaissance that Greek writings were rediscovered by western European scholars. During the Renaissance, Greek began to be taught in western European colleges and universities for the first time, which resulted in western European scholars rediscovering the literature of ancient Greece. The \"Textus Receptus\", the first New Testament printed in the original Greek, was published in 1512 by the Italian humanist scholar Desiderius Erasmus. Erasmus also published Latin translations of classical Greek texts, including a Latin translation of Hesiod's \"Works and Days\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The wheel is something that would need to be invented in order to be used, wheras stairs and steps can form naturally, so this question would be incredibly hard to answer whilst sticking to the AskHistorians top answer guidelines. The wheel was an invention. Somebody wanted to find a way to reduce the amount of force necessary to move large objects and invented the wheel and axel design to do so. its much more complicated then it sounds.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1254304", "title": "Gemonian stairs", "section": "Section::::Location.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 283, "text": "It is believed the stairs were built some time before the rule of Tiberius (14–37), as they were not mentioned by name in any ancient texts that predate this period. Their first use as a place of execution is primarily associated with the paranoid excesses of Tiberius' later reign.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1716863", "title": "Oikos", "section": "Section::::Layout.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 404, "text": "Only a minority of the houses had evidence of staircases survive, demonstrating that they definitely had upper storeys, while for the remainder of Olynthian houses the evidence is inconclusive. \"On the Murder of Eratosthenes\" demonstrates that at least some Athenian houses also had an upper storey. Entranceways at Olynthos were designed for privacy, preventing passers-by from seeing inside the house.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21780971", "title": "List of ancient spiral stairs", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 477, "text": "The list of ancient spiral stairs contains a selection of Greco-Roman spiral stairs constructed during classical antiquity. The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its complex helical structure, has been introduced relatively late into architecture. Although the oldest example dates back to the 5th century BC, it was only in the wake of the influential design of the Trajan's Column that this space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Roman architecture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "61104989", "title": "Palazzo Ruspoli, Rome", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 415, "text": "A description of the staircase in the 18th century noted that the staircase was singular among palaces in Rome for it size and being constructed entirely of marble steps, costing 80 scudi each, arrayed in four flights of 30 steps, ten feet long and two feet wide. Along the stairs were antique busts of emperors Hadrian and Claudius; Bacchus and Silen; Apollo; Mercury; a woman dressed as Hercules; and Aesclepius.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30551696", "title": "Château de Pompignan", "section": "Section::::The park and its follies.:The park as it was - the \"carnet de 1802\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 480, "text": "This folly draws on architectural themes from ancient Egypt, although the form is not pyramidal. There is an obelisk nearby, carved with hieroglyphs and borne on the back of four tortoises. It was possible to access the building through an underground passage. The path to this monument was cut out of the hillside and several bridges were used to overcome differences in level. The Egyptian tomb is the only folly to survive to the present with its structure essentially intact.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15455499", "title": "Hatnub", "section": "Section::::Ramp.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 368, "text": "Project co-director Yannis Gourdon from the IFAO says that \"the system is composed of a central ramp flanked by two staircases with numerous post holes. Using a sled which carried a stone block and was attached with ropes to these wooden posts, ancient Egyptians were able to pull up the alabaster blocks out of the quarry on very steep slopes of 20 percent or more.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25455559", "title": "Rural Khmer house", "section": "Section::::Access.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 35, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 35, "end_character": 336, "text": "Access to the upper floor is a special feature of Khmer houses and very varied. The simplest form may be a wooden ramp or ladder, whilst staircases can be of wooden filigree, spiral, or partially built in masonry. Whereas this means of access would formerly have been handmade, nowadays prefabricated concrete elements are widely used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "well, London did after 1666, but mainly because they were **Mostly** destroyed, people still knew where their houses used to be, what land they used to own and how everything used to look, they wanted that back so just rebuilt on the existing land and made it how it was before. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Some of it has to do with the internal geography (or metageography) that the residents carried. After a war where the familiar has been smashed, people very often wanted to hold on to some of that familiarity, and spatial arrangements were an important part of social interaction. Besides, what was *below* the ground wasn't necessarily destroyed, so the infrastructure for rebuilding in the same configurations existed already even if the streets were cratered. Minor changes were probably rife: slight widening of streets and roads, tearing up of brick pavements and streetcar rails, expansion of certain facilities, the burying of power cables, et cetera. But I suspect the spatial order was persistent because people *wanted* it to be as much as because it was easier to do.\n\nIf any city would have been prone to a total reconstruction, it would have been Rotterdam after the Blitz. Although its skyline certainly changed, and the oud-centrum was vastly modified, I am not aware of whether the basic layout shifted (streets, etc). There's a certain psychologically restorative quality to that continuity in the face of an undeniably external, human-created disaster (as opposed to London 1666 or Chicago 1871, which came \"from within\" and highlighted distinct problems with the prior order), although I'm not sure if anyone's written on it specifically off the top of my head. It would not surprise me if one or another of the spatial theorists has done so. *Environment and Planning D: Society and Space* is a great journal to farm for that, if you're so inclined, as is *Progress in Human Geography*. I'm not in my office so I don't have access to my indexes.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Actually a lot of provincial towns and cities in Britain were completely overhauled after the war, not because they were damaged by bombing, but as Victorian slums were cleared and massive new social housing estates were planned as part of the postwar settlement. Sometimes you see essentially the same street layout, sometimes there are alterations, but grids are still rare. I think the issue here is that Europeans (or maybe it's just me) do not share the automatic assumption that grid layouts are an 'improvement'. Like the people tasked with rebuilding postwar cities and the people who were going to move back into them, I grew up with windy streets and so don't have any particularly navigating them. And while I get the rational appeal of a grid layout, it seems to have some significant drawbacks of its own: ignoring the terrain (where I live is all hills; a grid would mean a nightmarish up-down-up-down to get from A to B) and making everything look similar (so I can't orientate myself by that distinctive double bend or the peculiar three-and-a-half-way intersection). Plus, you have to admit there's both an aesthetic appeal and a comforting sense of continuity in retaining old streets with \"character\". People planning new cities in America were essentially dealing with *terra nullius*; I happen to know that at least a half dozen streets in my town follow trackways older than the US itself.\n\nSo my (admittedly largely anecdotal/parochial) answer is that there's a difference in cultural ideals of what a city ought to look like on either side of the Atlantic. Even if you look at [Wren's ambitious plan to rebuild London after the Great Fire](_URL_0_) it isn't completely rational: the underlying grid is contorted to fit Baroque avenues and plazas which were first and foremost meant to impress aesthetically. Modern housing developments in Britain are the same: they're not exactly as chaotic as old medieval streetplans, but they do show a preference for aesthetically pleasing curves and circles over a strictly pragmatic grid.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "354977", "title": "Urban planning in communist countries", "section": "Section::::Beginnings of urban planning in communist countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 559, "text": "Many eastern European countries had suffered physical damage during World War II and their economies were in a very poor state. There was a need to reconstruct cities which had been severely damaged due to the war. For example, Warsaw, Poland had been practically razed to the ground under the planned destruction of Warsaw by German forces after the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. The centre of Dresden, Germany had been totally destroyed by the 1945 Allied bombardment. Stalingrad had been largely destroyed and only a small number of structures were left standing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5754502", "title": "Prefabricated building", "section": "Section::::In communist countries.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 560, "text": "Many eastern European countries had suffered physical damage during World War Two and their economies were in a very poor state. There was a need to reconstruct cities which had been severely damaged due to the war. For example, Warsaw, Poland had been practically razed to the ground under the planned destruction of Warsaw by German forces after the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. The centre of Dresden, Germany had been totally destroyed by the 1945 Allied bombardment. Stalingrad had been largely destroyed and only a small number of structures were left standing.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "46957595", "title": "Architecture of Albania", "section": "Section::::Periods.:Modern.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 274, "text": "From 1944 to 1991, cities experienced an ordered development with a decline in architectural quality. Massive socialist-styled apartment complexes, wide roads, and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and a number of historic buildings demolished.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "193450", "title": "Chemnitz", "section": "Section::::History.:East Germany.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 689, "text": "After the city centre was destroyed in World War II, the East German authorities attempted to rebuild it to symbolise the conceptions of urban development of a socialist city. The layout of the city centre at that time was rejected in favour of a new road network. However, the original plans were not completed. In addition, the rapid development of housing took priority over the preservation of old buildings. So in the 1960s and 1970s, both in the centre as well as the periphery, large areas were built in apartment-block style, for example . The old buildings of the period, which still existed in the Kassberg, and especially, were neglected and fell increasingly into dereliction.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "153231", "title": "Hildesheim", "section": "Section::::History.:Early 20th century and World War II.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 859, "text": "The city was heavily damaged by air raids in 1945, especially on 22 March. Although it had little military significance, two months before the end of the war in Europe the historic city was bombed as part of the Area Bombing Directive in order to undermine the morale of the German people. 28.5% of the houses were completely destroyed and 44.7% damaged. 26.8% of the houses remained undamaged. The centre, which had retained its medieval character until then, was almost levelled. As in many cities, priority was given to rapid building of badly needed housing, and concrete structures took the place of the destroyed buildings. Most of the major churches, two of them now UNESCO World Heritage Sites, were rebuilt in the original style soon after the war. During the war, valuable world heritage materials had been hidden in the basement of the city wall. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9309264", "title": "Architecture of Germany", "section": "Section::::Post-War Reconstruction.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 206, "text": "During the Allied strategic bombing campaign of World War II, the historic city centres of most cities suffered severe losses to architectural heritage, with significant cases of almost total annihilation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "800948", "title": "Ruins", "section": "Section::::Cities.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 573, "text": "Ancient cities were often highly militarized and fortified defensive settlements. In times of war they were the central focus of armed conflict and would be sacked and ruined in defeat. Although less central to modern conflict, vast areas of 20th-century cities such as Warsaw, Dresden, Coventry, Stalingrad, Königsberg, and Berlin were left in ruins following World War II, and a number of major cities around the world – such as Beirut, Kabul, Sarajevo, Grozny and Baghdad – have been partially or completely ruined in recent years as a result of more localised warfare.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Aperture is one of the things that determines how much light reaches the sensor on your camera. \n\nThink of it as a hole in a box. Inside the box is a kid drawing with crayons. (Don't worry, he's being fed.) The bigger the hole (the larger the aperture), the more light that gets in, the more the kid can see his paper to draw what he sees through the hole. The size of the aperture is measured in f-stops. The smaller the f-stop, the larger the aperture, or the larger the hole in the box, or the more light that gets in.\n\nShutter speed is also important: how long does that hole in the box stay open to let the light in? The longer the shutter speed, the longer the hole stays open, the more light that gets in. That's one reason why some pictures are blurry: the subject moves while the hole in the box is still open. \n\nSports photographers use very quick shutter speeds (which requires smaller f-stops to let more light in) so they can capture motion without blur. If the aperture was not large enough, and the shutter speed too fast, the photo would be too dark because the settings did not let enough light in to accurately capture the image to the sensor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're interested, there's [a nice, easy to understand analogy](_URL_0_) in the reddit photo class (courtesy of nattfodd)!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm bad at this whole \"like I'm five\" thing but here goes.\n\nAperture is to f-stop as \"speed\" is to \"miles per hour\" in that they are basically the same idea, but f-stop is just a unit of measurement for aperture.\n\nBut yes, aperture describes the amount of light getting through your lens into your camera. Inside your camera lens, there is an \"aperture ring\" that will be more open or closed for each shot. Different lenses have support for different ranges of apertures—and you (or your camera if you're in automatic) pick one best suited for each photo you take.\n\nAperture is useful for two reasons: \n\n* It controls \"depth of field.\" Try closing one eye, then focusing your open one on something close to you—hold it up to you if you have to. Notice how everything in the background gets blurred? That's a \"shallow\" depth of field, and the same effect can be gotten in a camera if you're using an aperture like f/1.4. But while you're still looking at that object, try squinting your open eye. The background should become clearer because you're getting light from fewer angles into your eyes—the same thing happens with a camera when we move from f/1.4 to something like f/8.\n* It can offset your shutter speed. The \"brightness\" of a photo is determined by two per-photo settings: shutter speed and aperture (there is also a third, ISO, but that makes things harder to explain and is usually constant). I'm going to use a hose analogy: imagine that to take a photo, we need to spray water on film instead of light. Shutter speed, then, is the length of time the hose is on, whereas aperture is a nozzle that controls the amount of water coming out. To get a photo at the right brightness, we need to spray one gallon of water on the film (we would need to spray more if our subject was darker, or less if our subject was brighter, but that's beside the point). Now then, you could either just dump a gallon all-at-once (very wide opening, very little time) or we could trickle it in (very small aperture, longer exposure time)...but if you miss that one gallon mark, your photo's brightness is going to be off.\n\nAutomatic cameras try to find the best \"average\" of shutter speed / aperture combinations every time, but if you are serious about photography, you can manually set one (or both) to achieve stylistic effects, like motion blur (long shutter speeds) or shallow depth-of-field (wide aperture)—as long as you \"offset\" that choice using the other variable, you'll get a good photo.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Camera lenses work the same way your eye works. It has a glass end and there is something like an iris inside that can change from big to small. The name of the hole in your eye is called a pupil and the same hole in a camera is called an aperture.\n\nYou know when there is a very bright light and your pupil becomes very small? Why does that happen? Because there is too much light! Well you can do the same thing with a camera lens. For very bright light, you can use a very big f-number (f/22 is pretty big) to make the hole small so that you don't have too much light going inside your camera.\n\nHave you ever noticed when it's dark and your pupil becomes very large? Well that's because your eye is trying to let in more light so you can see. In a camera, when there are lower light levels you can use a lower f-number (f/2 is pretty small) to make the hole big to allow more light to go inside your camera.\n\nIn photography, one of the main things you are doing is controlling how much light goes into the camera. Controlling the size of the hole is just one of the ways to do it. Another way is to control how long the hole is open but that's a story for a different day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I know it's not really an exact search, but [this thread](_URL_0_) has a few comments worth reading (including an entire [thread by me and a few others](_URL_0_c2dwt0k)).\n\nThe teal deer is that aperture is just the hole that lets light into the camera where it hits either the sensor or film. The numbers are the denominator of a fraction, and the numerator is the focal length of the lens. The result is the diameter of the aperture. The numbers are weird because they are powers of the square root of two, and each full stop represents half as much (or twice as much) light hitting the sensor or film.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I totally thought this was related to Valve/Portal. I feel stupid now. :(\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "And here I was, thinking you were asking about *Portal*'s background story, and what the *F-stop* game mechanic might be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Aperture is one of the things that determines how much light reaches the sensor on your camera. \n\nThink of it as a hole in a box. Inside the box is a kid drawing with crayons. (Don't worry, he's being fed.) The bigger the hole (the larger the aperture), the more light that gets in, the more the kid can see his paper to draw what he sees through the hole. The size of the aperture is measured in f-stops. The smaller the f-stop, the larger the aperture, or the larger the hole in the box, or the more light that gets in.\n\nShutter speed is also important: how long does that hole in the box stay open to let the light in? The longer the shutter speed, the longer the hole stays open, the more light that gets in. That's one reason why some pictures are blurry: the subject moves while the hole in the box is still open. \n\nSports photographers use very quick shutter speeds (which requires smaller f-stops to let more light in) so they can capture motion without blur. If the aperture was not large enough, and the shutter speed too fast, the photo would be too dark because the settings did not let enough light in to accurately capture the image to the sensor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If you're interested, there's [a nice, easy to understand analogy](_URL_0_) in the reddit photo class (courtesy of nattfodd)!", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm bad at this whole \"like I'm five\" thing but here goes.\n\nAperture is to f-stop as \"speed\" is to \"miles per hour\" in that they are basically the same idea, but f-stop is just a unit of measurement for aperture.\n\nBut yes, aperture describes the amount of light getting through your lens into your camera. Inside your camera lens, there is an \"aperture ring\" that will be more open or closed for each shot. Different lenses have support for different ranges of apertures—and you (or your camera if you're in automatic) pick one best suited for each photo you take.\n\nAperture is useful for two reasons: \n\n* It controls \"depth of field.\" Try closing one eye, then focusing your open one on something close to you—hold it up to you if you have to. Notice how everything in the background gets blurred? That's a \"shallow\" depth of field, and the same effect can be gotten in a camera if you're using an aperture like f/1.4. But while you're still looking at that object, try squinting your open eye. The background should become clearer because you're getting light from fewer angles into your eyes—the same thing happens with a camera when we move from f/1.4 to something like f/8.\n* It can offset your shutter speed. The \"brightness\" of a photo is determined by two per-photo settings: shutter speed and aperture (there is also a third, ISO, but that makes things harder to explain and is usually constant). I'm going to use a hose analogy: imagine that to take a photo, we need to spray water on film instead of light. Shutter speed, then, is the length of time the hose is on, whereas aperture is a nozzle that controls the amount of water coming out. To get a photo at the right brightness, we need to spray one gallon of water on the film (we would need to spray more if our subject was darker, or less if our subject was brighter, but that's beside the point). Now then, you could either just dump a gallon all-at-once (very wide opening, very little time) or we could trickle it in (very small aperture, longer exposure time)...but if you miss that one gallon mark, your photo's brightness is going to be off.\n\nAutomatic cameras try to find the best \"average\" of shutter speed / aperture combinations every time, but if you are serious about photography, you can manually set one (or both) to achieve stylistic effects, like motion blur (long shutter speeds) or shallow depth-of-field (wide aperture)—as long as you \"offset\" that choice using the other variable, you'll get a good photo.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Camera lenses work the same way your eye works. It has a glass end and there is something like an iris inside that can change from big to small. The name of the hole in your eye is called a pupil and the same hole in a camera is called an aperture.\n\nYou know when there is a very bright light and your pupil becomes very small? Why does that happen? Because there is too much light! Well you can do the same thing with a camera lens. For very bright light, you can use a very big f-number (f/22 is pretty big) to make the hole small so that you don't have too much light going inside your camera.\n\nHave you ever noticed when it's dark and your pupil becomes very large? Well that's because your eye is trying to let in more light so you can see. In a camera, when there are lower light levels you can use a lower f-number (f/2 is pretty small) to make the hole big to allow more light to go inside your camera.\n\nIn photography, one of the main things you are doing is controlling how much light goes into the camera. Controlling the size of the hole is just one of the ways to do it. Another way is to control how long the hole is open but that's a story for a different day.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I know it's not really an exact search, but [this thread](_URL_0_) has a few comments worth reading (including an entire [thread by me and a few others](_URL_0_c2dwt0k)).\n\nThe teal deer is that aperture is just the hole that lets light into the camera where it hits either the sensor or film. The numbers are the denominator of a fraction, and the numerator is the focal length of the lens. The result is the diameter of the aperture. The numbers are weird because they are powers of the square root of two, and each full stop represents half as much (or twice as much) light hitting the sensor or film.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I totally thought this was related to Valve/Portal. I feel stupid now. :(\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "And here I was, thinking you were asking about *Portal*'s background story, and what the *F-stop* game mechanic might be.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "47474", "title": "Aperture", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 829, "text": "In some contexts, especially in photography and astronomy, \"aperture\" refers to the \"diameter\" of the aperture stop rather than the physical stop or the opening itself. For example, in a telescope, the aperture stop is typically the edges of the objective lens or mirror (or of the mount that holds it). One then speaks of a telescope as having, for example, a 100-centimeter \"aperture\". Note that the aperture stop is not necessarily the smallest stop in the system. Magnification and demagnification by lenses and other elements can cause a relatively large stop to be the aperture stop for the system. In astrophotography, the aperture may be given as a linear measure (for example in inches or mm) or as the dimensionless ratio between that measure and the focal length. In other photography, it is usually given as a ratio.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33870490", "title": "Image formation", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 610, "text": "The aperture stop of a lens is a mechanical aperture which limits the light collection for each field point. The entrance pupil is the image of the aperture stop created by the optical elements on the object side of the lens. The light scattered by an object is collected by the entrance pupil and focused onto the image plane via a series of refractive elements. The cone of the focused light at the image plane is set by the size of the entrance pupil and the focal length of the lens. This is often referred to as the f-stop or f-number of the lens. f/# = f/D where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4163064", "title": "Glossary of machine vision", "section": "Section::::A.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 244, "text": "BULLET::::- Aperture. In context of photography or machine vision, aperture refers to the diameter of the aperture stop of a photographic lens. The aperture stop can be adjusted to control the amount of light reaching the film or image sensor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3315726", "title": "Axis Communications", "section": "Section::::Technology.:Network cameras.:P-Iris.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 521, "text": "P-Iris (Precise Iris Control) is a type of network camera lens that together with specialized software installed in the camera itself regulates the iris opening through the use of a stepper motor for contrast, clarity, resolution and depth of field. P-Iris maintains image quality by continuously adjusting the iris position. This position, also referred to as a specific f-number, is where the lens works best and optical errors are reduced. P-Iris was developed by Axis Communications and the Japanese lens maker Kowa.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47474", "title": "Aperture", "section": "Section::::In photography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 465, "text": "The lens aperture is usually specified as an f-number, the ratio of focal length to effective aperture diameter. A lens typically has a set of marked \"f-stops\" that the f-number can be set to. A lower f-number denotes a greater aperture opening which allows more light to reach the film or image sensor. The photography term \"one f-stop\" refers to a factor of (approx. 1.41) change in f-number, which in turn corresponds to a factor of 2 change in light intensity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47474", "title": "Aperture", "section": "Section::::In photography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 567, "text": "A device called a diaphragm usually serves as the aperture stop, and controls the aperture. The diaphragm functions much like the iris of the eye – it controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field, which describes the extent to which subject matter lying closer than or farther from the actual plane of focus appears to be in focus. In general, the smaller the aperture (the larger the f-number), the greater the distance from the plane of focus the subject matter may be while still appearing in focus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1118119", "title": "Exit pupil", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 734, "text": "In optics, the exit pupil is a virtual aperture in an optical system. Only rays which pass through this virtual aperture can exit the system. The exit pupil is the image of the aperture stop in the optics that follow it. In a telescope or compound microscope, this image is the image of the objective element(s) as produced by the eyepiece. The size and shape of this disc is crucial to the instrument's performance, because the observer's eye can see light only if it passes through this tiny aperture. The term \"exit pupil\" is also sometimes used to refer to the diameter of the virtual aperture. Older literature on optics sometimes refers to the exit pupil as the Ramsden disc, named after English instrument-maker Jesse Ramsden.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "A lot of the stuff that makes us dirty and smelly is accumulated on our body because of oil. Oil traps in dirt and odors. And if you know anything about oil, you should know that it doesn't mix or dissolve in water. So while rubbing with just water might get rid of some surface oils, we use soap, which breaks down the oil (along with the dirt and odors in it) into smaller pieces that can be dissolved into the water and washed away.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Body odour is caused by overgrowth of bacteria on the skin which break down certain proteins in sweat. These bacteria reside in oily secretions of glands like the sebaceous gland. Soap removes body odour in mainly 3 ways.\n\n1. Soap washes away the oily protection for the bacteria. Soap particles contain a hydrophillic end and a hydrophobic end. The hydrophobic end binds to these 'oils' to form micelles. This process helps in the removal of this oily layer, and thereby washing away the bacteria.\n\n2. Most soaps have some amount of bactericidal activity. (Meaning they kill bacteria)\n\n3. Most soaps are scented which provides a masking effect.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53333538", "title": "List of cleaning products", "section": "Section::::Cleaning products.:Soaps.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 251, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 251, "end_character": 225, "text": "In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, where soaps act as surfactants, emulsifying oils to enable them to be carried away by water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "338192", "title": "Common-ion effect", "section": "Section::::Solubility effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 297, "text": "The salting-out process used in the manufacture of soaps benefits from the common-ion effect. Soaps are sodium salts of fatty acids. Addition of sodium chloride reduces the solubility of the soap salts. The soaps precipitate due to a combination of common-ion effect and increased ionic strength.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47258007", "title": "Saltwater soap", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 792, "text": "Ordinary soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are made by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term \"lye soap\" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the triglyceride fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to form crude soap: a combination of various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (glycerin).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "407299", "title": "Hard water", "section": "Section::::Effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 327, "text": "With hard water, soap solutions form a white precipitate (soap scum) instead of producing lather, because the 2+ ions destroy the surfactant properties of the soap by forming a solid precipitate (the soap scum). A major component of such scum is calcium stearate, which arises from sodium stearate, the main component of soap:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "268796", "title": "Tripoli, Lebanon", "section": "Section::::Business.:The Soap Khan.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 160, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 160, "end_character": 603, "text": "The raw material used for these kinds of soap is olive oil. The Tripoli soap is also composed of: honey, essential oils, and natural aromatic raw materials like flowers, petals, and herbs. The soaps are dried in the sun, in a dry atmosphere, allowing the evaporation of the water that served to mix the different ingredients. The drying operation lasts for almost three months. As the water evaporates, a thin white layer appears on the soap surface, from the soda that comes from the sea salts. The craftsman brushes the soap very carefully with his hand until the powder trace is entirely eliminated.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23902228", "title": "Soap dish", "section": "Section::::Design elements.:Ventilation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 300, "text": "A bar of wet soap relies on ventilation to dry. A number of design elements may be used to increase ambient airflow around the soap, including vented surfaces or surfaces interspersed with bumps, ridges, or slats. Mechanical ventilation has not yet become a widespread design element in soap dishes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "286158", "title": "Glyceride", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 235, "text": "Soaps are formed from the reaction of glycerides with sodium hydroxide. The product of the reaction is glycerol and salts of fatty acids. Fatty acids in the soap emulsify the oils in dirt, enabling the removal of oily dirt with water.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The most definite way is by old astronomical records. We know down to the minute when all the eclipses, periodic comets, etc of history took place, so if there was an eclipse on a certain day of the reign of the emperor Claudius, we know what year that was. Thus we know that there are some years we don't know much about, but there are no missing years. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Vaguely related to this question, when did the Western world come to use the current year system? Like, when was it decided that 'this is the year x' that our current date is a continuation of?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The other way is because historians can correlate between different places. So for example if a English monarch wanted to 'fake' years of his reign then documents in would have different dates for specific mutual events than counterparts in France, Spain, Italy etc. \n\nTwo other issues, while I can see some motivation to lie about ruling longer than one actually has, as a historian I can't imagine a king actually trying to put that into practice. The scale of the lie is just too big even in the medieval period there are still enough scribes-notaries around that you would have to get everyone on board and then the problem of neighboring kingdoms not matching your faked timeline is easily apparent - for example in a treaty or marriage contract.\n\n > I imagine a scenario where a King/Queens wants to be remembered in a certain way, so pure fiction is produced, which would be indistinguishable from fact.\n\nAs a historian this is actually one of the most interesting parts of studying history. First, there is no objective historical document, not one. Every document is produced by a particular author with a particular subjective view and intended for a particular audience. Historians must always consider the bias that exists. The flip side is that when in the past people thought to 'fake' a document, or to lie in a document, they had to do so in a way that retained the verisimilitude of the account. For example, I read a lot of inquisition cases, people lie there all the time, but it is not complete fabrication because that is too easy to spot or check. So, instead, people have to bend the truth and tell an alternative story that is plausible for their circumstances. Yet, the beauty of history is that because they have made the account plausible within their own cultural-historical moment it is a true statement in the sense that it could have happened and that they expected/hoped that it would be construed as fact. Thus, even a forged or fudged document tells us something about the past because the person who produced that document intended that it would appear real.\n\nThat type of analysis is more suited for studying socio-cultural phenomenon. In the case of political or economic history it is usually easy enough to determine if an account is faked/overly-biased by comparing it to many other documents. Again, historical conspiracies are unlikely, largely impossible to achieve, so a preponderance of correlating evidence usually indicates historical reality.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In addition to the other well reasoned replies in this thread, you can also bet for sure that the Arabs, Chinese, Indians, Greeks, Persians, etc were all keeping track of time too! If someone wanted to fudge the date, historical analysis using multiple regional calendars would show who's lying.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "My old archaeology professor used the pace of evolution of Mesopotamian pottery to prove that the established calender of events in the ancient Middle East was a bit too spaciously timed, and a century or two were pruned as a result. So the calendar remains a hypothesis - albeit one with very little wriggle room in times with a lot of sources.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This would be more a philosophical/epistemological question than a historical one.\n\nHistory, like science, has a certain corpus of agreed upon assumptions that can and are disputed philosophically. For example, the sciences make an assumption that there is a \"real world\" that exists outside of observation and thought and can be alluded to. It makes the assumption that induction (the observation of repeatability of phenomena) is a valid means by which to theorize about laws of action. These can and are disputed philosophically.\n\nBecause if we're being honest here, it's quite easy to take your argument, philosophically, to its logical conclusion toward cartesian solipsism (do any of you or any phenomena exist, or you're just really fancy meat robots or illusions created by demons?)\n\nIt doesn't mean your argument is logically invalid, it's more that your argument isn't socially privileged by the scientific community (because it would paralyze the inductive scientific process).\n\nYou might want to consider trying /r/askphilosophy", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "We can also date artifacts radiologically. Carbon isn't the only thing we can use for this and, as a result, we can get a good macroscopic view of things. \n\nOne of the handier techniques in this regard is the ability to date construction materials. For example, we can date the concrete used to construct the Colosseum . Not surprisingly, the construction of a 50,000 seat mega-stadium in the middle of the capital of Iron Age Europe did not go unnoticed and so we have documents that discuss the Colosseum and other things as well. \n\nAs we know the age of the Colosseum we can extrapolate the dates of the other events as well. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's best to look at several different methods of measuring time. Astronomical records (as mentioned in another comment) are one, and tend to be the most precise.\n\nRadiocarbon dating is another. It can tell you when a particular dead thing was alive, e.g. when a tree was chopped down. If we were missing years in our chronology, then we'd end up with artifacts that were found to be younger than history records them to be.\n\nBut, how do we know that radiocarbon dating is correct? We calibrate it using my favorite method of determining age: dendrochronology (i.e. counting tree rings). We have records of tree rings spanning [8000 years](_URL_1_). Carbon dating these types of samples ensures the accuracy of the method, independent from historical records.\n\nThere are [other methods](_URL_0_) as well. For areas with recorded history, you can correlate reports of regional or global events to establish dates as well. Generally, multiple methods will converge on a specific year or at least a range of years. If one method disagrees, say wood in a monument is determined to be much older or younger than the otherwise established date for the monument, there's some explaining to do (was the wood recycled from an older structure or was the monument repaired at some point?). If we were missing years, dating methods would end up consistently disagreeing with each other.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm sure this has been said before but the study of history is EXACTLY dealing with the problems you've put forth. Considering ancient letters, documents, ledgers, etc., can be exciting in itself (minus ledgers) it's the real job of the historian to put them into context. \n\n\nAn example of the big questions a historian must consider; who wrote this? Is there any reason for bias or to manipulate information (for instance does it mention a tyrannical king/queen)? Is a first or second source? Why was it written? Is the author pushing an agenda or collecting taxes? \n\n\nTo be clear I'm an extreme amateur and do it more for fun, my opinion on first hand sources could be compared to pure guesswork. Regardless, the process is very engaging. Information has to be taken in the context of the period it was written in. Even subtleties like handwriting (I'm not a student nor am I interested in becoming one) are considered when dissecting a historical document. History could largely be compared to a mystery, where each clue may not be what it seems and large finds might change the entire school of thought on any subject.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is a frequently asked question here. You may want to refer to these similar questions linked from the [FAQ](_URL_4_):\n\n\n* [How certain are we that the year 1 AD was 2012 years ago?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [How do humans really know what year it is? What historical events started us from BCE to CE?](_URL_1_)\n\nSee [this fascinating answer how dendrochronology can date things to the year](_URL_0_c84u1iw).\n\nAnd a related question that may interest you:\n\n* [How did civilizations determine what \"year\" it was before an \"international\" year was established?](_URL_2_)", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2087784", "title": "Buck Rogers XXVC", "section": "Section::::Setting.:History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 212, "text": "The setting of XXVC is a possible future of the real universe that we live in. In the year 1999, the Soviet Union and the United States are involved in the \"Last Gasp War.\" This is the world's first nuclear war.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "845179", "title": "American Flagg!", "section": "Section::::Plot synopsis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 518, "text": "The story takes place in the year 2031, after a series of worldwide crises called the Year of the Domino (1996) has forced the U.S. government and the heads of major corporations to relocate to Hammarskjold Center, on Mars (\"temporarily, of course\"). In the wake of the American government leaving the planet and the Soviet Union collapsing from Islamic insurrections, there was a power shift throughout the world, with Brazilian Union of the Americas and the Pan-African League becoming the new superpowers on Earth.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34153182", "title": "St&rs", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 513, "text": "On August 10, 2019, Earth received a signal, which was confirmed by hundreds of different scientists to be from an alien life form. The message: \"Let us meet on Mars on July 7, 2035\". With this, a space agency representing all of Earth was formed, named ST&RS. From there on, many different events occurred quite quickly, such as the re-landing of people on the moon in 2022 and the construction of many new space stations. Later on, the Space Academy was founded as a way to train upcoming generations of ST&RS.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "75152", "title": "Jeremiah (TV series)", "section": "Section::::Plot.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 396, "text": "The year is 2021, 15 years after a plague has killed nearly everyone over the age of thirteen (both the event and the virus itself are referred to as \"The Big Death\" and \"The Big D\"). Two young men, Jeremiah and Kurdy, meet up and join forces with those inside \"Thunder Mountain\" and help rebuild civilization. Jeremiah is searching for the \"Valhalla Sector\" where his father may still be alive.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "38722958", "title": "21st century in fiction", "section": "Section::::2050s.:2052.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 545, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 545, "end_character": 256, "text": "BULLET::::- On the HBO show 'Westworld', the \"'present day\"' timeline takes place in 2052. Video footage from the official website, which has since been removed, stated that the security data is from Jun 15, 2052. It has now been replaced with xx/xx/xxxx.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33613210", "title": "11.22.63", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 371, "text": "11.22.63 is an American science fiction thriller miniseries based on the book \"11/22/63\" by Stephen King, and consisting of eight episodes. The series is executive-produced by J. J. Abrams, King, Bridget Carpenter and Bryan Burk, and produced by James Franco, who also has the main role. It premiered on Hulu on February 15, 2016, and was received positively by critics.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49477056", "title": "The Next :15", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 270, "text": "The Next :15 is an American reality television series that premiered on February 10, 2016, on the TV One cable network. The show chronicles the lives of six former reality television personalities whose celebrity status has faded as they are no longer in the spotlight.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The wheeled vehicle is not as intuitive an invention as most people seem to think. In fact, as /u/Daeres explains in [this submission](_URL_0_), it was only ever invented twice and possibly even only once, in the entire history of mankind. The reason the wheeled vehicle did not reach the Americas before Columbus is that they were cut off from the rest of the world where this technology had spread from its original point of origin in the 4th millennium BCE.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "437585", "title": "Epigraphy", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 240, "text": "The interpretation of Maya hieroglyphs was lost as a result of the Spanish Conquest of Central America. However, recent work by Maya epigraphers and linguists has yielded a considerable amount of information on this complex writing system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "419509", "title": "Archaeology and the Book of Mormon", "section": "Section::::Anachronisms and archaeological findings.:Old World artifacts and products.:Chariots or wheeled vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 448, "text": "Critics argue that there is no archaeological evidence to support the use of wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, especially since many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled transport. Clark Wissler, the Curator of Ethnography at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, noted: \"we see that the prevailing mode of land transport in the New World was by human carrier. The wheel was unknown in pre-Columbian times.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19995454", "title": "Rotating locomotion in living systems", "section": "Section::::In fiction and legend.:Wheeled creatures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 237, "text": "Toy animals with wheels dating from the Pre-Columbian era were uncovered by archaeologists in Veracruz, Mexico, in the 1940s. The indigenous peoples of this region did not use wheels for transportation prior to the arrival of Europeans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19099507", "title": "Anachronisms in the Book of Mormon", "section": "Section::::Technology anachronisms.:Chariots or wheeled vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 722, "text": "One Mormon researcher responds to the lack of evidence with a comparison to biblical archaeology, suggesting that though there are no archaeological evidences that any of the numerous ancient American civilizations used wheeled transportation, few chariot fragments have been found in the Middle East dating to biblical times (apart from the disassembled chariots found in Tutankhamun's tomb). Although few fragments of chariots have been found in the Middle East, there are many images of ancient chariots on pottery and frescoes and in many sculptures of Mediterranean origin, thus confirming their existence in those societies. Chariots are absent in pre-Columbian frescoes, pottery and artwork found in the New World.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54799459", "title": "Rolling and wheeled creatures in fiction and legend", "section": "Section::::Wheeled creatures.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 236, "text": "Toy animals with wheels dating from the Pre-Columbian era were uncovered by archaeologists in Veracruz, Mexico in the 1940s. The indigenous peoples of this region did not use wheels for transportation prior to the arrival of Europeans.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "33555", "title": "Wheel", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 936, "text": "Although large-scale use of wheels did not occur in the Americas prior to European contact, numerous small wheeled artifacts, identified as children's toys, have been found in Mexican archeological sites, some dating to about 1500 BCE. It is thought that the primary obstacle to large-scale development of the wheel in the Americas was the absence of domesticated large animals which could be used to pull wheeled carriages. The closest relative of cattle present in Americas in pre-Columbian times, the American Bison, is difficult to domesticate and was never domesticated by Native Americans; several horse species existed until about 12,000 years ago, but ultimately became extinct. The only large animal that was domesticated in the Western hemisphere, the llama, a pack animal but not physically suited to use as a draft animal to pull wheeled vehicles, did not spread far beyond the Andes by the time of the arrival of Columbus.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19099507", "title": "Anachronisms in the Book of Mormon", "section": "Section::::Technology anachronisms.:Chariots or wheeled vehicles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 52, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 52, "end_character": 755, "text": "A comparison of the South American Inca civilization to Mesoamerican civilizations shows the same lack of wheeled vehicles. Although the Incas used a vast network of paved roads, these roads are so rough, steep, and narrow that they were likely unsuitable for wheeled use. Bridges that the Inca people built, and even continue to use and maintain today in some remote areas, are straw-rope bridges so narrow (about 2–3 feet wide) that no wheeled vehicle can fit. Inca roads were used mainly by chaski message runners and llama caravans. Mayan paved roads at Yucatan had characteristics which could allow the use of wheeled vehicles, but there is no evidence that those highways were used by other than people on foot and nobles who were borne on litters.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Very briefly: those who benefit from a significant portion of voters to believe in economic conservatism (and hence vote ostensibly against their own economic interests) realised that a significant portion of voters already share social conservative values, and through effective marketing (what some may call propaganda) lasting several decades were successful in creating the association between the two. That was accomplished in no small part by also demonizing the other side; this is why U.S. is unique among developed nations in having majority of its population treat *socialism* as a swear word.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's funny because free trade and fiscal austerity is usually referred to as \"economic liberalism\" outside of the U.S.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So there is this thing called [Duverger's Law](_URL_0_) which basically states that our electoral system will cause USA to have two dominant political parties which will effectively shut out all but the remote possibility of a third party candidate being elected. Because politicians want to be successful, they will be forced to align themselves with one of the two major parties. This causes a dialectic relationship between the parties where they must be polar opposites of each-other to remain one of the two successful parties. [Around the time of the New Deal](_URL_1_) the political parties made a shift. Prior to this time, Republicans were a party for the fiscally libertarian, which can be seen in the economic policies of the 1920s. Democrats, on the other hand, included much of the 'socially conservative' south. However, with the great depression and the new Democratic President Roosevelt promoting both [Keynesian economic policy](_URL_2_) and policy reform which promoted helping the economically disenfranchised minorities in the south, the Republican party split over whether to support it or not while the old democratic base in the South all suddenly didn't want to be Democrats anymore. In an attempt to gain votes, the Republican Party started promoting the socially conservative message the southern democrats wanted. The cycle of elections during the 1930s saw many of the old urban republicans become new deal democrats and many old southern democrats become new republicans. Other than slight shifts during the early 1980s and early 1990s, we have held the same party alignment ever since. \n\nedit: tl;dr: two parties means they must be opposites of each-other or a third party will take one of their spots. In the 1930s, the Democrats changed, so Republicans followed suit to appeal to the voters Democrats had left behind. \n\nalso, freereflection is right about the rise of christian fundamentalism being a factor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Economic conservatives don't give a shit about anything unless it's about them and their money.\n\nKnowing that nothing will sway mouth-breathers like angry populist bullshit, they deliberately began appealing to them on \"red meat\" issues to broaden their coalition. This is the origin of all the Archie Bunker bullshit like \"the lib'ruls are comin' to take yer guns,\" \"abortion is killin' teh babies,\" \"we need a Constitutional Amendment to prevent flag-burnin',\" \"drug dealers should be executed,\" \"the lib'ruls are declarin' 'War on Christmas,'\" et cetera, ad nausea.\n\nThe economic master class, behind closed doors, absolutely *laughs their asses off* at these simple-minded clowns they've managed to trick into voting in complete opposition to their own interests.\n\nIn the modern era this started with the John Birchers, became the Goldwater crowd, and has reached its pinnacle in the last 30 years with the Reaganites/Gingrich crowd. Fools and their money are soon parted, and that's just the way the economic master class likes it.\n\nSadly, it looks like the social conservatives still have no clue how they're being played, even after decades of this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In political science terms we don't call it economic conservatism - it's actually a form of liberalism.\n\nRonald Regan for instance was a pioneer in liberal economics - to the point that it was right up with anarchy. \n\nI don't know why, but I would guess the reason it's called economic conservatism in the american media etc - is because of it's links with social conservatism. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Very briefly: those who benefit from a significant portion of voters to believe in economic conservatism (and hence vote ostensibly against their own economic interests) realised that a significant portion of voters already share social conservative values, and through effective marketing (what some may call propaganda) lasting several decades were successful in creating the association between the two. That was accomplished in no small part by also demonizing the other side; this is why U.S. is unique among developed nations in having majority of its population treat *socialism* as a swear word.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "It's funny because free trade and fiscal austerity is usually referred to as \"economic liberalism\" outside of the U.S.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "So there is this thing called [Duverger's Law](_URL_0_) which basically states that our electoral system will cause USA to have two dominant political parties which will effectively shut out all but the remote possibility of a third party candidate being elected. Because politicians want to be successful, they will be forced to align themselves with one of the two major parties. This causes a dialectic relationship between the parties where they must be polar opposites of each-other to remain one of the two successful parties. [Around the time of the New Deal](_URL_1_) the political parties made a shift. Prior to this time, Republicans were a party for the fiscally libertarian, which can be seen in the economic policies of the 1920s. Democrats, on the other hand, included much of the 'socially conservative' south. However, with the great depression and the new Democratic President Roosevelt promoting both [Keynesian economic policy](_URL_2_) and policy reform which promoted helping the economically disenfranchised minorities in the south, the Republican party split over whether to support it or not while the old democratic base in the South all suddenly didn't want to be Democrats anymore. In an attempt to gain votes, the Republican Party started promoting the socially conservative message the southern democrats wanted. The cycle of elections during the 1930s saw many of the old urban republicans become new deal democrats and many old southern democrats become new republicans. Other than slight shifts during the early 1980s and early 1990s, we have held the same party alignment ever since. \n\nedit: tl;dr: two parties means they must be opposites of each-other or a third party will take one of their spots. In the 1930s, the Democrats changed, so Republicans followed suit to appeal to the voters Democrats had left behind. \n\nalso, freereflection is right about the rise of christian fundamentalism being a factor.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Economic conservatives don't give a shit about anything unless it's about them and their money.\n\nKnowing that nothing will sway mouth-breathers like angry populist bullshit, they deliberately began appealing to them on \"red meat\" issues to broaden their coalition. This is the origin of all the Archie Bunker bullshit like \"the lib'ruls are comin' to take yer guns,\" \"abortion is killin' teh babies,\" \"we need a Constitutional Amendment to prevent flag-burnin',\" \"drug dealers should be executed,\" \"the lib'ruls are declarin' 'War on Christmas,'\" et cetera, ad nausea.\n\nThe economic master class, behind closed doors, absolutely *laughs their asses off* at these simple-minded clowns they've managed to trick into voting in complete opposition to their own interests.\n\nIn the modern era this started with the John Birchers, became the Goldwater crowd, and has reached its pinnacle in the last 30 years with the Reaganites/Gingrich crowd. Fools and their money are soon parted, and that's just the way the economic master class likes it.\n\nSadly, it looks like the social conservatives still have no clue how they're being played, even after decades of this.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In political science terms we don't call it economic conservatism - it's actually a form of liberalism.\n\nRonald Regan for instance was a pioneer in liberal economics - to the point that it was right up with anarchy. \n\nI don't know why, but I would guess the reason it's called economic conservatism in the american media etc - is because of it's links with social conservatism. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "1440373", "title": "Social conservatism in Canada", "section": "Section::::Background.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 611, "text": "The extent to which conservative ideology was embedded in 19th and 20th century Canadian society is evidenced by the power and influence of Tory factions in pre-Confederation Canada, such as the Family Compact and the Chateau Clique, the prominence of the Conservative Party of Canada after Confederation and the pronounced stifling of extreme left-leaning or progressive views until after the Second World War due to widespread public aversion to Marxist ideologies. Even to this day, social conservatism in Canada has a wide base of support outside the major urban centers of Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2840300", "title": "Conservatism in North America", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 644, "text": "Conservatism in North America is a political philosophy that varies in form, depending on the country and the region, but that has similar themes and goals. Academic study into the differences and similarities between conservatism in North American countries has been undertaken on numerous occasions. Reginald Bibby has asserted that the primary reason that conservatism has been so strong and enduring throughout North America is because of the propagation of religious values from generation to generation. This connection is strongest in mainstream Protestantism in the United States and both Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in Canada.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2123148", "title": "Civic virtue", "section": "Section::::In republics.:19th to mid-20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 654, "text": "Conservatism emphasized family values and obedience to the father and the state. Nationalism carried by masses of people made patriotism an important civic virtue. Liberalism combined republicanism with a belief in progress and liberalization based on capitalism. Civic virtues focused on individual behavior and responsibility were very important. Many liberals turned into socialists or conservatives in the end of the 19th century and early 20th century. Others became social liberals, valuing capitalism with a strong government to protect the poor. A focus on agriculture and landed nobility was supplanted by a focus on industry and civil society.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "126192", "title": "One-nation conservatism", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 736, "text": "Until the mid-1970s, the Conservative Party was mostly controlled by one-nation conservatives. The rise of the New Right in conservative politics led to a critique of one-nation conservatism. The New Right thinkers contended that Keynesian economics and the welfare state had damaged the economy and society. The Winter of Discontent of 1978–1979 in which trades unions took industrial action with a wide impact on daily life was portrayed by the New Right as illustrative of the over-extension of the state. Figures such as Margaret Thatcher believed that to reverse the national decline it was necessary to revive old values of individualism and challenge the dependency culture which they felt had been created by the welfare state.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6675", "title": "Conservatism", "section": "Section::::Forms.:Paternalistic conservatism.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 33, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 33, "end_character": 584, "text": "It stresses the importance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, support of limited redistribution of wealth along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's \"One Nation\" Toryism. There have been a variety of one nation conservative governments. In the United Kingdom, the Prime Ministers Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill and Harold Macmillan were one nation conservatives.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31858887", "title": "Social conservatism in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 997, "text": "Social conservatism in the United States is a political ideology focused on the preservation of traditional values and beliefs, hearkening back to values believed to be present at the American founding. It focuses on a concern with moral and social values which proponents of the ideology see as degraded in modern society by social democracy and liberalism. Many religious conservatives push for a focus on Judeo-Christian traditions as a guiding force for the country on social issues, leading them to be considered social conservatives. Social conservatives are concerned with many social issues such as abortion, sex education, the Equal Rights Amendment, school prayer, same-sex marriage, and many others. They oppose many of the cultural changes brought on by the culture wars and the sexual revolution. Summarily, this branch of conservatism is concerned with moral and social issues within the United States and uses tradition, strict morals, and religion as solutions for these problems.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "219177", "title": "Social conservatism", "section": "Section::::Social conservatism in different countries.:Canada.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 591, "text": "Compared to social conservatism in the United States, social conservatism has not been as influential in Canada. The main reason is that the neoliberal or neoconservative style of politics as promoted by leaders such as former Liberal Party of Canada Prime Minister Paul Martin and Former Conservative Party of Canada Prime Minister Stephen Harper have focused on economic conservatism, with little or no emphasis on moral or social conservatism. Without a specific, large political party behind them, social conservatives have divided their votes and can be found in all political parties.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The same way that determine that the high level employees won't do it -- very, very thorough background checks.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Background checks, more background checks, and then even more background checks.\n\nMost of the time, they're not going to be anywhere near the actual president. Even then, there's always security, so if they do something weird, people will notice before they have a chance to go from \"weird\" to \"assassin\". Between the two, they're reasonably sure none of the staff *want* to kill the president nor have the opportunity to if they did.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Background checks, lots and lots of background checks. Not just on you, but on your family and close friends. \n\nPlus lots of security. Searched going into White House, searched leaving White House. Only allowed in certain areas, you won't see the cook hanging out in the Sit-room. Then at the last line of defense you have the actual SS agent guarding the President. Anyone runs at/tries to attack the President will get taking down very fast. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Simple, they have to pass a Yankee-White security check. This is the equivalent (if not stronger) than passing a top security check, though the clearance itself does not grant you the access to any classified material. Everyone who works within the White House must pass this check. It's extremely detailed and extremely difficult to pass.\n\nI had an SH buddy (Ship's Serviceman) in the Navy who operates a store within the White House. The entire vetting process took about 18 months and he was flown from Guam to DC for interviews a handful of times. All of that for just the guy that operates the register and stocks items at the convenience/gift shop in the White House.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2435631", "title": "Presidential Council for Minority Rights", "section": "Section::::Composition, appointment and term of office of members.:Issues.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 36, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 36, "end_character": 609, "text": "While the President may block certain appointments to the Council, he cannot remove a permanent member from his seat. In fact, it does not appear that any person has the power to do so. The door may be open for potential abuse with appointments based on some political agenda rather than merit. The counterpoint is that it is precisely those in power who are best placed to scrutinize bills for illegitimate differentiating measures, because \"it is often those with political affiliations who can make the biggest contribution to the discussion; if nothing else, from the folly and error of their past ways\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52386772", "title": "Political appointments by Donald Trump", "section": "Section::::Executive Office of the President.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 395, "text": "The core White House staff appointments, and most EOP officials generally, are not required to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate, with a handful of exceptions (e.g., the director of the Office of Management and Budget, the chair and members of the Council of Economic Advisers, and the United States trade representative). There are about 4,000 positions in the Executive Office of the President.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44029", "title": "Executive Office of the President of the United States", "section": "Section::::Organization.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 335, "text": "The core White House staff appointments, and most EOP officials generally, are not required to be confirmed by the U.S. Senate, although there are a handful of exceptions (e.g., the Director of the Office of Management and Budget, the Chair and members of the Council of Economic Advisers, and the United States Trade Representative).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1795376", "title": "Impeachment in the United States", "section": "Section::::Federal impeachment.:Officers subject to impeachment: \"civil officers of the United States\".\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 601, "text": "Within the executive branch, any Presidentially-appointed \"principal officer,\" including a head of an agency such as a Secretary, Administrator, or Commissioner, is a \"civil officer of the United States\" subject to impeachment. At the opposite end of the spectrum, lesser functionaries, such as federal civil service employees, do not exercise “significant authority,” and are not appointed by the President or an agency head. These employees do not appear to be subject to impeachment, though that may be a matter of allocation of House floor debate time by the Speaker, rather than a matter of law.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52231773", "title": "Cabinet of Donald Trump", "section": "Section::::Cabinet-level officials.:White House Chief of Staff.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 126, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 126, "end_character": 340, "text": "The White House Chief of Staff has traditionally been the highest-ranking employee of the White House. The responsibilities of the chief of staff are both managerial and advisory over the president's official business. The chief of staff is appointed by and serves at the pleasure of the president; it does not require Senate confirmation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1898990", "title": "National Assembly (Nigeria)", "section": "Section::::Functions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 427, "text": "The Senate has the unique power to impeach judges and other high officials of the executive including the Federal Auditor-General and the members of the electoral and revenue commissions. This power is, however, subject to prior request by the President. The Senate also confirms the President's nomination of senior diplomats, members of the federal cabinet, federal judicial appointments and independent federal commissions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "212934", "title": "White House Chief of Staff", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 513, "text": "The duties of the White House chief of staff vary greatly from one administration to another and, in fact, there is no legal requirement that the president even fill the position. However, since at least 1979, all presidents have found the need for a chief of staff, who typically oversees the actions of the White House staff, manages the president's schedule, and decides who is allowed to meet with the president. Because of these duties, the chief of staff has at various times been labeled \"The Gatekeeper.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Penguins were once introduced into the Arctic to fill the space left by the now extinct 'Great Auk'.\n\nThey were released with tags attached. One just disappeared and another was shot by a native who believed it was a 'demon'. A few were killed and eaten.\n\nWill try to find source..", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Unfortunately not open access, but [this article](_URL_0_) is about those exact questions.\n\nTwo answers to your questions, from that article:\n\n > If polar bears were transferred to Antarctica could they survive? And would penguins survive in the Arctic?\n\n > Polar bears would probably survive in the Antarctic, and the Southern Ocean around it, but they could devastate the native wildlife. In the Arctic polar bears feed mainly on seals, especially young pups born on ice floes or beaches. Many of the differences in breeding habits between Arctic and Antarctic seals can be interpreted as adaptations to evading predation by bears.\n\n > Polar bears would find plenty of fish-eating mammals and birds around Antarctica. Penguins would tie particularly vulnerable because they are flightless and breed on open ground, with larger species taking months to raise a single chick. Bears can only run in short bursts, but they could catch a fat, sassy penguin chick or grab an egg from an incubating parent.\n\n > In the Arctic polar bears hunt mainly on the edge of the sea ice, where it is thick enough to support their weight but thin enough for seals to make breathing holes. The numerous islands off the north coast of Canada, Alaska and north-west Europe provide plenty of suitable habitats. The Antarctic continent is colder, with only a few offshore islands, so bears would probably thrive at lower latitudes in the Southern Ocean than in the Arctic.\n\n > We can only hope that nobody ever tries what the questioner suggests. Artificially introduced predators often devastate indigenous wildlife, as it is not accustomed to dealing with them. This occurred with stoats in New Zealand, foxes and cats in Australia, and rats on many isolated islands.\nLarge, heavy animals would also trample the slow-growing, mechanically weak plants and lichens of the Antarctic. For instance, Norwegian reindeer have decimated many native plants in South Georgia, an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, since they were introduced 80 years ago.\n\n > C. M. Pond\nDepartment of Biological Sciences,\nThe Open University,\nMilton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, UK\n\nAnd\n\n > While, as far as I know, no one has ever been stupid enough to introduce polar bears into the Antarctic, there have been at least two practical attempts to transplant penguins to the Arctic.\nThe original \"penguin\" was in fact the late great auk (Pinguinus impennis), once found in vast numbers around northern shores of the Atlantic. Although no relation to southern hemisphere penguins, it was very similar in appearance, and filled much the same ecological niche as penguins, particularly the king penguins of the subantarctic region.\n\n > With any attempt to introduce an alien species, there must actually exist an appropriate ecological niche for it to fill, and it must be vacant. For the most part, the ecological niches occupied by penguins in the south are filled by the auk family to the north. But the demise of the great auk in the mid-19th century at the hands of hungry whalers created not only a vacancy that one of the larger penguins might neatly slot into, but also a potential economic demand for the penguin's fatty meat and protein-rich eggs.\n\n > It was perhaps the possible economic opportunities that prompted two separate bids to introduce penguins into Norwegian waters in the late 1930s. The first, by Carl Schoyen of the Norwegian Nature Protection Society, released groups of nine king penguins at Røst, Lofoten, Gjesvaer and Finnmark in October 1936. Two years later, the National Federation for the Protection of Nature, in an equally bizarre operation, released several macaroni and jackass penguins in the same areas, even though these smaller birds would clearly find themselves competing directly with auks or other native seabirds.\n\n > The outcome was unhappy for the experimenters and, most particularly, for the penguins. Among those whose fate is known, one king was quickly despatched by a local woman who thought it was some kind of demon, while a macaroni died on a fishing line in 1944, although from its condition it had apparently thrived during its six years in alien waters.\n\n > And it soon became obvious that the real reason why any attempt to fill the ecological gap left by the great auk was destined to fail was the very reason that the niche was vacant in the first place — such large seabirds could not happily coexist with a large and predatory human population. Of course, it is the steadily increasing human presence in the far south that is now threatening penguins in their native habitat.\n\n > Hadrian Jeffs\nNorwich, Norfolk, UK", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm an ecologist. \n\nI will confirm IowaRedditor's excerpts.\n\nPolar bears would destroy the ecosystem in the Antarctic, starting with eradicating the relatively slow reproducing penguins. Complete extirpation in less than 30 years. Easily.\n\nPenguins might be able to survive up north, it would depend on their ability to share food sources with other species, because fish populations are already shrinking in the ocean overall. You likely wouldn't see in increased recruitment rate (% of young that make it to sexual maturity) as a response to higher predation in this situation. They might not need polar bears to be absent in this case because there is other, more prime food source available (seals). They offer more fat, which is predominately what the bears actually eat when they kill them. A lot of seal \"meat\" is left back and arctic (and unfortunately, the ever-expanding red fox) foxes and gulls usually scavenge it up. Unfortunately, the polar bears might find it a trade off to eat more penguin meat because they might be easier to get than seals, even though seals offer more as far as necessary nutrients go.\n\nFYI, OP, there was a north american penguin once upon a time- the Great Auk (_URL_0_). It went extinct in the mid 1800's due to hunting and demand for its down in Europe. It had great insulating properties.\n\nIt's kind of sad, the Great Auk was a super interesting bird that mated for life and only laid one egg at a time. Not very common (except in extreme climates). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "ahh, experimental zoology, my favorite subject.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23878", "title": "Penguin", "section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 104, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 104, "end_character": 557, "text": "Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the temperate zone; one, the Galápagos penguin, lives as far north as the Galápagos Islands, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic Humboldt Current that flows around these islands. Also, though the climate of North Pole and South Pole is similar, there are no penguins found in the North Pole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "567478", "title": "Humboldt penguin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 524, "text": "The Humboldt penguin (\"Spheniscus humboldti\") is a South American penguin living mainly in the Pinguino de Humbold National Reserve in the North of Chile, although its habitat comprises most of coastal Chile and Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin and the Galápagos penguin. The Humboldt penguin and the cold water current it swims in both are named after the explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The species is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN with no population recovery plan in place.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2780321", "title": "Beaufort Island", "section": "Section::::Ecology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 294, "text": "There is a small colony of breeding emperor penguins on nearshore sea ice at the north end of the island. There is a large Adélie penguin colony on a raised beach called Cadwalader Beach at the south-western end of the island. The island also has several breeding colonies of south polar skua.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22145800", "title": "Galapagos penguin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 395, "text": "The Galápagos penguin (\"Spheniscus mendiculus\") is a penguin endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It is the only penguin found north of the equator. The cool waters of the Humboldt and Cromwell Currents allow it to survive despite the tropical latitude. The Galápagos penguin is one of the banded penguins, the other species of which live mostly on the coasts of Africa and mainland South America.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "567478", "title": "Humboldt penguin", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 339, "text": "Humboldt penguins nest on islands and rocky coasts, burrowing holes in guano and sometimes using scrapes or caves. In South America the Humboldt penguin is found only along the Pacific coast, and the range of the Humboldt penguin overlaps that of the Magellanic penguin on the central Chilean coast. It is vagrant in Ecuador and Colombia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22145800", "title": "Galapagos penguin", "section": "Section::::Distribution.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 380, "text": "Ninety percent of Galápagos penguins live on Fernandina Island and the west coast of Isabela Island, in the western part of the archipelago, but small populations also occur on Santiago, Bartolomé, northern Santa Cruz, and Floreana. The northern tip of Isabela crosses the equator, meaning that some Galápagos penguins live in the northern hemisphere, the only penguins to do so.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22145800", "title": "Galapagos penguin", "section": "Section::::Ecology and behavior.:Predators and threats.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 334, "text": "Because of the Galápagos penguin's small size, it has many predators. On land, the penguins may fall prey to crabs, snakes, rice rats, cats, Galapagos hawks, and short-eared owls. While in the water they are preyed on by sharks, fur seals, and sea lions. They also face the hazards of unreliable food resources and volcanic activity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "random primers are generally used for sequencing unknown DNA. You take a solution containing completely random oligos and they will bind to and amplify everything. Then once you assemble the sequence you can design specific primers for your region of interest.\n\nAlternatively, since we have already sequenced quite a few genomes, we know that certain sequences (like 16s/18s ribosomal DNA in bacteria/eukaryotes) are almost definitely present and just use primers for these very conserved regions.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "If the genome of the species you are trying to make primers for is well-characterised then the job of designing primers is not hard. \n\nIn humans, while there is a lot of variation between people, the vast majority of a person's DNA is identical to the known human consensus sequence. So if you design a primer to be complementary to a region of DNA, based on the consensus sequence, odds are that any given individual will not have a mutation at that site.\n\nYou can increase your likelihood of success by placing your primer in regions of the gene that are highly conserved (show low levels of variation between people or even across species).\n\nSometimes if you know that a variation exists frequently at a given site, you can even design your primers to only amplify DNA if it is present, so variation/mutation/polymorphism at that site becomes a feature not a bug.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "9007251", "title": "SNP genotyping", "section": "Section::::Enzyme-based methods.:PCR-based methods.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 1230, "text": "Tetra-primer amplification refractory mutation system PCR, or ARMS-PCR, employs two pairs of primers to amplify two alleles in one PCR reaction. The primers are designed such that the two primer pairs overlap at a SNP location but each match perfectly to only one of the possible SNPs. The basis of the invention is that unexpectedly, oligonucleotides with a mismatched 3'-residue will not function as primers in the PCR under appropriate conditions. As a result, if a given allele is present in the PCR reaction, the primer pair specific to that allele will produce product but not to the alternative allele with a different SNP. The two primer pairs are also designed such that their PCR products are of a significantly different length allowing for easily distinguishable bands by gel electrophoresis or melt temperature analysis. In examining the results, if a genomic sample is homozygous, then the PCR products that result will be from the primer that matches the SNP location and the outer opposite-strand primer, as well from the two outer primers. If the genomic sample is heterozygous, then products will result from the primer of each allele and their respective outer primer counterparts as well as the outer primers.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17010869", "title": "Variants of PCR", "section": "Section::::Primer modifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 527, "text": "Normally PCR primers are chosen from an invariant part of the genome, and might be used to amplify a polymorphic area between them. In \"allele-specific PCR\" the opposite is done. At least one of the primers is chosen from a polymorphic area, with the mutations located at (or near) its 3'-end. Under stringent conditions, a mismatched primer will not initiate replication, whereas a matched primer will. The appearance of an amplification product therefore indicates the genotype. \"(For more information, see SNP genotyping.)\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23650", "title": "Primer (molecular biology)", "section": "Section::::Uses of synthetic primers.:PCR primer design.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 361, "text": "When designing primers, additional nucleotide bases can be added to the back ends of each primer, resulting in a customized cap sequence on each end of the amplified region. One application for this practice is for use in TA cloning, a special subcloning technique similar to PCR, where efficiency can be increased by adding AG tails to the 5′ and the 3′ ends.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17010869", "title": "Variants of PCR", "section": "Section::::Primer modifications.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 736, "text": "Primers can also be designed to be 'degenerate' – able to initiate replication from a large number of target locations. \"Whole genome amplification\" (or \"WGA\") is a group of procedures that allow amplification to occur at many locations in an unknown genome, and which may only be available in small quantities. Other techniques use \"degenerate primers\" that are synthesized using multiple nucleotides at particular positions (the polymerase 'chooses' the correctly matched primers). Also, the primers can be synthesized with the nucleoside analog inosine, which hybridizes to three of the four normal bases. A similar technique can force PCR to perform Site-directed mutagenesis. (also see Overlap extension polymerase chain reaction)\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11810505", "title": "Polymerase cycling assembly", "section": "Section::::PCA principles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 388, "text": "Much like how primers are designed such that there is a forward primer and a reverse primer capable of allowing DNA polymerase to fill the entire template sequence, PCA uses the same technology but with multiple oligonucleotides. While in PCR the customary size of oligonuleotides used is 18 base pairs, in PCA lengths of up to 50 are used to ensure uniqueness and correct hybridization.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "17902971", "title": "Primer Premier", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 294, "text": "Primer Premier software combines design of primers for various PCR applications under one common platform. The software supports design of degenerate primers on alignments for amplifying related set of nucleotide sequences for detecting common traits among organisms and to determine heredity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34964561", "title": "In silico PCR", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 622, "text": "These tools are used to optimize the design of primers for target DNA or cDNA sequences. Primer optimization has two goals: efficiency and selectivity. Efficiency involves taking into account such factors as GC-content, efficiency of binding, complementarity, secondary structure, and annealing and melting point (Tm). Primer selectivity requires that the primer pairs not fortuitously bind to random sites other than the target of interest, nor should the primer pairs bind to conserved regions of a gene family. If the selectivity is poor, a set of primers will amplify multiple products besides the target of interest.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "He won't become public domain. In 2022 they'll extend how long copyright lasts after the creator's death, just like the last two times.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is an ongoing open question in intellectual property law. A lot of people seem to think Disney (and other companies in similar situations) will find a way to continue to extend their rights past whatever dates are established by current laws. They have the money, means, and desire to do so, the thought that it should become public when its clearly still in use is a bit questionable\n\ntl;dr: It probably won't become public domain like other stuff has, Disney is a monster in the legal world and ain't letting that happen.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Mickey doesn't become public domain. He'll still be trademarked by Disney. Steamboat Willie will become public domain.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "IF I know what I'm talking about:\n\n- Mickey Mouse the character will forever be **trademarked** for as long as the Walt Disney Company exists i.e. you still can't use MM in anything you make.\n\n- But the **copyright** for Steamboat Willie will run out in 2023 i.e. you can do whatever you want with that short and Disney can't do anything about it.\n\n- In conclusion, you trademark intellectual property but you copyright products that uses IP?\n\nCorrect me if I'm wrong.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Under current US copyright law, Steamboat Willy will enter the public domain in the year 2033 (all of the other answers seemed to get caught up on these points).\n\nAssuming the law isn't amended, when this happens the exclusive rights that the copyright gives to Disney Co will end. Those rights are listed in a part of the law called Title 17 section 106 (usually written as 17 USC 106), and they are: the right to make copies of it, to make sequels/spin offs/etc, and to perform the work.\n\nWhen the first one expires anybody will be able to torrent/burn DVDs of the original short, the third one will make it so theaters and tv stations will be able to play the short without paying royalties. The important thing is the second right, when it expires people will be able to make new things based on the short in the same way that the classic Disney movies were based on fairy tales. This includes the probably includes the characters from the short (Mickey, Minney, and Pete).\n\nGiven how much Mickey had become an emblem of Disney, it'll be a little difficult to tell where the copyright on the character ends and the trademark on the cultural icon begins. That issue will end up being dealt with in the courts. Most likely some people will make Mickey mouse cartoons, Disney will sue on trademark laws, and the courts will issue the largest IP decision since Atari v Activision.\n\nOn mobile sorry for formatting\n\nEdit: On PC fixed cleaned up formatting", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Disney might try to extend the copyright term like they did the past two times as the end of this decade nears. But I don't think it will happen again, for several reasons.\n\nFirst, the rise of the internet and resources like Wikipedia, Google Books, and the Internet Archive have led to greater public exposure to the idea of copyright and the public domain.\n\nSecond, the current copyright extension is already the longest in the world and is patently insane. There is no reason, except greed, for extending it even more.\n\nTech companies like Google are generally in favor of public domain. They have increased their legislative clout in recent years (see SOPA).\n\nI think companies like Disney may go for a compromise this time around. Let Steamboat Willie lapse into PD (they still have trademark on the mouse) and other basic reforms like PDing orphaned works, in exchange for increased enforcement on existing copyright.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "20859", "title": "Mickey Mouse", "section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Copyright status.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 111, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 111, "end_character": 699, "text": "There have been multiple attempts to argue that certain versions of Mickey Mouse are in fact in the public domain. In the 1980s, archivist George S. Brown attempted to recreate and sell cels from the 1933 short \"The Mad Doctor\", on the theory that they were in the public domain because Disney had failed to renew the copyright as required by current law. However, Disney successfully sued Brown to prevent such sale, arguing that the lapse in copyright for \"The Mad Doctor\" did not put Mickey Mouse in the public domain because of the copyright in the earlier films. Brown attempted to appeal, noting imperfections in the earlier copyright claims, but the court dismissed his argument as untimely.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "171690", "title": "1966 in film", "section": "Section::::Events.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 399, "text": "BULLET::::- December 15 - Entertainment pioneer Walt Disney, best known for his creation of Mickey Mouse, breakthroughs in the field of animation, filmmaking, theme park design and other achievements, dies at the age of 65. He died while he was producing \"The Jungle Book\", \"The Happiest Millionaire\", and \"Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day\"; the last three films under his personal supervision.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42464008", "title": "List of The Kingdom Keepers characters", "section": "Section::::Characters.:Additional characters.:Disney characters.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 156, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 156, "end_character": 634, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Mickey Mouse:\" Leader of the good Disney characters. Mickey had his original sketch torn apart and scattered to keep the Overtakers from finding it, leading to him vanishing. 40 years later, he is restored, but lacks the knowledge the other characters have; he would have just behaved like a character unless the Keepers were there to guide him. With his wand in hand, Mickey can restore any Disney park to normal and summon characters when needed. He doesn't speak, but instead uses some kind of telepathy only the characters can hear. Violet translates for him to the Keepers. Until he does speak in the Return series.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8081", "title": "Douglas Engelbart", "section": "Section::::Career and accomplishments.:SRI and the Augmentation Research Center.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 384, "text": "He never received any royalties for the invention of the mouse. During an interview, he said \"SRI patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later it was learned that they had licensed it to Apple Computer for something like $40,000.\" Engelbart showcased the chorded keyboard and many more of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at The Mother of All Demos.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "37398", "title": "The Walt Disney Company", "section": "Section::::Corporate history.:2005–present: Bob Iger's leadership and company expansion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 1214, "text": "Director Emeritus Roy E. Disney died of stomach cancer on December 16, 2009. At the time of his death, he owned roughly 1% of all of Disney which amounted to 16 million shares. He was the last member of the Disney family to be actively involved in the company. In October 2009, Disney Channel president Rich Ross, hired by Iger, replaced Dick Cook as chairman of the company and, in November, began restructuring the company to focus more on family friendly products. Later in January 2010, Disney decided to shut down Miramax after downsizing Touchstone, but one month later, they instead began selling the Miramax brand and its 700-title film library to Filmyard Holdings. In March, ImageMovers Digital, which Disney had established as a joint venture studio with Robert Zemeckis in 2007, was shut down. In April 2010, Lyric Street, Disney's country music label in Nashville, was shut down. The following month, Haim Saban reacquired the \"Power Rangers\" franchise, including its 700-episode library. In September 2012, Saban reacquired the \"Digimon\" franchise, which, like \"Power Rangers\", was part of the Fox Kids library that Disney acquired in 2001. In January 2011, Disney Interactive Studios was downsized.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2445129", "title": "Characters of Kingdom Hearts", "section": "Section::::Disney and Square Enix characters.:Mickey Mouse.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 84, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 84, "end_character": 1030, "text": "Mickey Mouse is depicted in the \"Kingdom Hearts\" series as the king of Disney Castle, frequently referred to in-game as \"King Mickey\" or simply . He is also an experienced Keyblade Master, alternatively wielding a golden version of Sora's \"Kingdom Key\" retrieved from the realm of darkness, and the \"Star Seeker\" he is seen using during his apprenticeship to Yen Sid in \"Birth by Sleep\". Mickey is absent for most of the original game, which sees him departing his world to discover a solution to the Heartless' invasion, leaving instructions for Donald and Goofy telling to find and protect the Keyblade wielder. He has a more active role fighting alongside Sora and his allies in later installments, which first required the approval of Disney. He is a playable character in \"Kingdom Hearts II\", stepping in to replace Sora whenever the player is defeated during certain boss battles until he is able to revive Sora. He is also available for play in the \"Mission Mode\" of \"Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days\" as an unlockable character.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23796306", "title": "Epic Mickey", "section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Story.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 971, "text": "After many decades of fame following the accident, Mickey had forgotten it all until the Shadow Blot enters his home through the mirror and abducts him into the ruined forgotten world, now named by this time as the Wasteland. Oswald all the while had his will and his mind twisted from years of hiding and his jealousy of Mickey's rise to fame, unaware the enigmatic Mad Doctor (who was formerly loyal to Oswald before siding with the Blot) and the Blot formulate a plan to steal Mickey's heart away, which they plan to use to escape the ruined world, as all Wasteland Toons living there are forgotten and can't leave Wasteland since they no longer have hearts of their own. However, Mickey frees himself before they can succeed and scares off the Blot with Yen Sid's brush, forcing the Mad Doctor to flee. Oswald, who was spying on them, also flees after tampering with the Mad Doctor's machines, leaving Mickey to deal with the Mad Doctor's now-hostile mechanical arm.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "\"ancestor\" in the first sentence refers to a species, \"ancestor\" in the 2nd sentence refers to an individual. Also human ancestry has nothing to do with complexity.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm not sure I fully understand your question. I think you're getting the two uses of ancestor confused here. When we say that all species have a common ancestor we're referring to millions of years back, not their direct ancestors.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": " > while human beings are considered to be too complex \n\nThat has been debunked and is only believed by people who either don't understand evolution or refuse to accept that evolution is a fact. \n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For the first part, we don't really know that for sure, and I don't think they theorize that all life is descended from only one individual. Life could be descended from a species. \n\nFor humans, we also have common ancestors, but our population was never down to just two humans, even if every human alive today is known to be descended from two specific humans: Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve. But Y-chromosome Adam and Mitochondrial Eve didn't even live at the same time, and there were many other people living with them at the same time. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think you might be misinterpreting the common ancestor theory.\n\nThe concept as I remember it from science class is that all existing life on earth should be able to be traced back to a single cell organism that eventually mutated in different ways to form modern animals.\n\nFor example:_URL_0_\n\nYou wouldnt think it, but its believed that modern chickens, and birds in general, are descended from dinosaurs. But evolution can do some pretty amazing things if prompted to.\n\nAs for human beings, we have gone through several iterations until you get to a modern day human. Even then we are still very diverse as a species, with the most genetic diversity still existing in Africa.\n\nConsidering common ancestors for humans...if we travel back in time we will see several iterations of that will become a modern human. Some branches of our ancestors split off and became species that dies out, some eventually became modern chimps, and so on. The belief is that our species has been through countless iterations where something minor or major has changed due to mutation (evolution), or natural selection.\n\nThe theory still works, but you have to travel through an insane amount of ancestors until you reach that single cell organism.\n\nMy credentials: I paid attention in biology class, and read alot of science related articles.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "12305127", "title": "Evolutionary history of life", "section": "Section::::Origins of life on Earth.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 281, "text": "Biologists reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single last universal ancestor, because it would be virtually impossible that two or more separate lineages could have independently developed the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "524568", "title": "Ancestor", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 698, "text": "Assuming that all of an individual's ancestors are otherwise unrelated to each other, that individual has 2 ancestors in the \"n\"th generation before him and a total of 2 − 2 ancestors in the \"g\" generations before him. In practice, however, it is clear that most ancestors of humans (and any other species) are multiply related (see pedigree collapse). Consider \"n\" = 40: the human species is mors, both living and dead; in contrast, some more youth-oriented cultural contexts display less veneration of elders. In other cultural contexts, some people seek providence from their deceased ancestors; this practice is sometimes known as \"ancestor worship\" or, more accurately, \"ancestor veneration\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3133330", "title": "Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia", "section": "Section::::Reconstructing South Asian population history.:Autosomal DNA variation.:Genetic distance between caste groups and tribes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 89, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 89, "end_character": 701, "text": "A 2011 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics indicates that Indian ancestral components are the result of a more complex demographic history than was previously thought. According to the researchers, South Asia harbours two major ancestral components, one of which is spread at comparable frequency and genetic diversity in populations of Central Asia, West Asia and Europe; the other component is more restricted to South Asia. However, if one were to rule out the possibility of a large-scale Indo-Aryan migration, these findings suggest that the genetic affinities of both Indian ancestral components are the result of multiple gene flows over the course of thousands of years.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4816754", "title": "Human genetic variation", "section": "Section::::Categorization of the world population.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 314, "text": "Furthermore, because human genetic variation is clinal, many individuals affiliate with two or more continental groups. Thus, the genetically based \"biogeographical ancestry\" assigned to any given person generally will be broadly distributed and will be accompanied by sizable uncertainties (Pfaff \"et al.\" 2004).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2452832", "title": "Evolution of human intelligence", "section": "Section::::Models.:Group selection.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 584, "text": "However, this explanation cannot be applied to humans (and other species, predominantly other mammals) that live in stable, established social groupings. This is because of the social intelligence that functioning within these groups requires from the individual. Humans, while they are not the only ones, possess the cognitive and mental capacity to form systems of personal relationships and ties that extend well beyond those of the nucleus of family. The continuous process of creating, interacting, and adjusting to other individuals is a key component of many species' ecology.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4816754", "title": "Human genetic variation", "section": "Section::::Categorization of the world population.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 71, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 71, "end_character": 776, "text": "In many parts of the world, groups have mixed in such a way that many individuals have relatively recent ancestors from widely separated regions. Although genetic analyses of large numbers of loci can produce estimates of the percentage of a person's ancestors coming from various continental populations (Shriver \"et al.\" 2003; Bamshad \"et al.\" 2004), these estimates may assume a false distinctiveness of the parental populations, since human groups have exchanged mates from local to continental scales throughout history (Cavalli-Sforza \"et al.\" 1994; Hoerder 2002). Even with large numbers of markers, information for estimating admixture proportions of individuals or groups is limited, and estimates typically will have wide confidence intervals (Pfaff \"et al.\" 2004).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4816754", "title": "Human genetic variation", "section": "Section::::History and geographic distribution.:Population genetics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 46, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 46, "end_character": 261, "text": "Because of the common ancestry of all humans, only a small number of variants have large differences in frequency between populations. However, some rare variants in the world's human population are much more frequent in at least one population (more than 5%).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "SDK stands for Software Development Kit.Which means a platform where you can develop a software within a software/workspace.\nand API is Application program interface which is a set of routines, protocols, and tools for building software applications. An API specifies how software components should interact.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As u/s0cket_err0r said, SDK is software development kit (the things you use to create your program)\n\nAPI is application program interface (the things you use in your program).\n\nLet's consider simple hello world program.\n\n using System;\n \n namespace helloWorld\n {\n class Program\n {\n static void Main(string[] args)\n {\n Console.WriteLine(\"Hello World!\");\n }\n }\n }\n\nin this program the function WriteLine() is part of API libraries. It is a function you use in program to do a thing.\n\nTo make this into a real program, open text editor paste in this short example and save it as lets say _URL_0_ Then open command prompt in the directory where you saved the _URL_0_ file and write\n\n csc _URL_0_\n\ncsc is part of the SDK. You would have to have it correctly set up, which I won't explain here, but basically this tells the computer to take your _URL_0_ file and give it to this csc program to do its thing. csc will create helloWorld.exe which you can run.\n\nhelloWorld.exe internally uses the API libraries (it needs those to be present on the computer) and it no longer needs the SDK to run.\n\nIn reality SDK consists of much more than just the compiler, i. e. debugger or IDE or profiling tools.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "SDK is Software development kit. If you're making something fancy like an Android app, besides general programming tools, you're gonna need some particular tools that help you upload your programs to Android, test these programs on your computer, and all sorts of auxiliary functions that you kinda need to effectively do the developing job. SDK is a collection of these sorta tools for some particular platform(Platform could be Android phones, it could be Playstation consoles, it could be mods of some games, so that you're having SDK to help in creating mods for some game, including things like level editor for said game, model viewer, etc).\n\nAPI is Application Program Interface. Basically, a program can offer an API that allows other programs to talk to it and request stuff from it. How this API works can differ greatly, stuff you can request from a program depends on the program that offers the API, but for example, Reddit offers API where programs can make web request info about posts and comments on Reddit. Another example I know somewhat well is that Chess AIs usually offer API that allows other programs(like programs that show Chess board and allow user to play against themselves) to ask this Chess AI what move Chess AI would make next, thus allowing Chess board showing program to sorta pass messages between player and chess AI and facilitating match between the two. This requires chess AI to offer API, otherwise chess viewing program couldn't talk to chess AI.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "An SDK is a *software development kit* and API stands for application *application programming interface*.\n\nYou can think of an SDK of a box of tools to help you work with a particular product. One of the tools in that box may or may not involve some pre-built stuff for the API pf the product.\n\nAn API is just way for programs to talk with each other, it is a predefined list of commands or queries that can be sent to the program in some way and an explanation of what the answers mean.\n\nIf you want to built your own product to interact with someone elses software you either need to know exactly how the software works on the inside and hope they never ever change anything (this does not really work in real life) or you need access to the API.\n\nMany software makers release the full documentation on the API on their products to the public or select parts of the public to give them the ability to make programs that work with their software.\n\nSometimes they go a bit father and release some pre-written libraries of commands to use that API, so that every developer who wants to work with it doesn't have to rewrite everything from scratch.\n\nThose libraries may be part of a software development kit. The SDK may also include other tools to help you write software for their product.\n\n\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When you walk into McDonalds, you can order a happy meal & get a nice pre-packaged meal (Burger, fries, toy, etc). But say you wanted to walk into the kitchen and make your own meal - you'd still have to use the ingredients the store has. You can't walk into McD & make a Taco Supreme as part of your meal - it doesn't make sense in their context, they don't know what to do with it. \n\nThe SDK & API is like the menu at mcdonalds. The SDK is the collection of tools & resources you need to build a meal. The API is the list of things you can ask the SDK to do for you - if you ask the McDonalds API for 'slivered onions' it knows how to deliver - whereas the Taco Bell API would have no idea what the hell that means. \n\nIf you don't like what the McDonalds SDK has to offer. You want waffle fries. You can go closer to basics & use the bare Grocery Store SDK. It's a lot more flexible & you can build more, but you're gonna have to do a lot of the basic development yourself that the SDK had pre-packaged for you, like cutting up the potatoes for fries, not to mention the tomatoes and onions etc. \n\nAnd if you wanted to go really crazy you could ditch the Grocery Store SDK & go all the way back to the Subsistence Farming - the Assembly Language of making meals. But now you're talking about growing your own vegetables & slaughtering your own cow - you got a LOT of work ahead of you before you get to that burger. \n\nIt's an imperfect analogy, but hopefully gives you an idea", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "166087", "title": "Software development kit", "section": "Section::::Details.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 598, "text": "An SDK can take the form of a simple implementation of one or more application programming interfaces (APIs) in the form of on-device libraries to interface to a particular programming language, or it may be as complex as hardware-specific tools that can communicate with a particular embedded system. Common tools include debugging facilities and other utilities, often presented in an integrated development environment (IDE). SDKs may also include sample code and technical notes or other supporting documentation such as tutorials to help clarify points made by the primary reference material.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16161443", "title": "IOS", "section": "Section::::Development.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 70, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 70, "end_character": 579, "text": "The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16176847", "title": "IOS SDK", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 579, "text": "The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16179920", "title": "App Store (iOS)", "section": "Section::::Development and monetization.:iOS SDK.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 579, "text": "The SDK is a free download for users of Mac personal computers. It is not available for Microsoft Windows PCs. The SDK contains sets giving developers access to various functions and services of iOS devices, such as hardware and software attributes. It also contains an iPhone simulator to mimic the look and feel of the device on the computer while developing. New versions of the SDK accompany new versions of iOS. In order to test applications, get technical support, and distribute apps through App Store, developers are required to subscribe to the Apple Developer Program.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9385454", "title": "Spatial data infrastructure", "section": "Section::::Software components.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 302, "text": "An SDI should enable the discovery and delivery of spatial data from a data repository, via a spatial service provider, to a user. As mentioned earlier it is often wished that the data provider is able to update spatial data stored in a repository. Hence, the basic software components of an SDI are: \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26654120", "title": "Single-dealer platform", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 273, "text": "A key aspect of an SDP is that it merges information and services both within and across asset classes. An SDP will typically combine elements such as pricing, trading, research and technical analysis within each asset class, and then draw together multiple asset classes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1829286", "title": "Percent-encoding", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 519, "text": "Percent-encoding, also known as URL encoding, is a mechanism for encoding information in a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) under certain circumstances. Although it is known as \"URL encoding\" it is, in fact, used more generally within the main Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) set, which includes both Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and Uniform Resource Name (URN). As such, it is also used in the preparation of data of the codice_1 media type, as is often used in the submission of HTML form data in HTTP requests.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "We lack the enzyme (chemical) needed to break down cellulose. Our body doesn't produce it.\n\n1. [ELI5:Why does the body not fully digest things like corn and tomato rinds? ](_URL_2_)\n1. [ELI5: Why doesn't the human body digest corn? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5:What is fiber and what do our bodies do with it? ](_URL_0_)\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "There are actually almost no animals that can digest fibers! Almost all animals who live off stuff like leaves and grass break them down with the help of symbiotic bacteria that live in their intestines. Humans only have a tiny number of bacteria than can break down cellulose, and they only break down enough of it to feed themselves. As for *why* we don't have these bacteria: probably because digesting that kind of food is not very efficient and you don't get a lot of energy out of it (for instance, I happen to have in my head that guinea pigs get about 40 kcal out of 100 g of hay). With a big energy-hungry brain like ours, it's better to have a digestive tract optimised for energy-dense foods like meat, fruit and starchy things, rather than one that'll be welcoming to cellulose-eating bacteria.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "93827", "title": "Human nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 790, "text": "Whole grains, beans and other legumes, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. Fiber is important to digestive health and is thought to reduce the risk of colon cancer. For mechanical reasons, fiber can help in alleviating both constipation and diarrhea. Fiber provides bulk to the intestinal contents, and insoluble fiber especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines which move digesta along the digestive tract. Some soluble fibers produce a solution of high viscosity; this is essentially a gel, which slows the movement of food through the intestines. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, may help lessen insulin spikes and reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66554", "title": "Dietary fiber", "section": "Section::::Activity in the gut.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 45, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 45, "end_character": 276, "text": "Many molecules that are considered to be \"dietary fiber\" are so because humans lack the necessary enzymes to split the glycosidic bond and they reach the large intestine. Many foods contain varying types of dietary fibers, all of which contribute to health in different ways.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21525", "title": "Nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Macronutrients.:Carbohydrates.:Fiber.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 40, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 40, "end_character": 1593, "text": "Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digest along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "210596", "title": "Irritable bowel syndrome", "section": "Section::::Management.:Diet.:Fiber.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 77, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 77, "end_character": 311, "text": "Fiber might be beneficial in those who have a predominance of constipation. In people who have IBS-C, soluble fiber can reduce overall symptoms, but will not reduce pain. The research supporting dietary fiber contains conflicting small studies complicated by the heterogeneity of types of fiber and doses used.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23978", "title": "Polysaccharide", "section": "Section::::Function.:Structure.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 901, "text": "Even though these complex polysaccharides are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits. The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood. Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Although insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "93827", "title": "Human nutrition", "section": "Section::::Nutrients.:Fiber.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 1051, "text": "Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized, it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so. Soluble dietary fiber comprises a variety of oligosaccharides, waxes, esters, resistant starches, and other carbohydrates that dissolve or gelatinize in water. Many of these soluble fibers can be fermented or partially fermented by microbes in the human digestive system to produce short-chain fatty acids which are absorbed and therefore introduce some caloric content.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66554", "title": "Dietary fiber", "section": "Section::::Definition.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 315, "text": "Dietary fiber is defined to be plant components that are not broken down by human digestive enzymes. In the late 20th century, only lignin and some polysaccharides were known to satisfy this definition, but in the early 21st century, resistant starch and oligosaccharides were included as dietary fiber components.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Language like this is usually used for disambiguation. It *can* lead to confusion in the process, but mostly it's to try and *avoid* it. \n\nThere's often some overlap between behaviour. In fact, *most* carnivores will scavenge when given the chance. There just wasn't much hard evidence of this specifically existing for T-Rex, and it's easier to classify animals in 'either / or' groups, than catering to blurry, movable lines. \n\nBear in mind, this find **doesn't** constitute proof, either (and the blogspot article seems a bit biased). There could be numerous explanations for it, not all of which imply active hunting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "482629", "title": "Scavenger", "section": "Section::::Types of scavengers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 294, "text": "Obligate scavenging is rare among vertebrates, due to the difficulty of finding enough carrion without expending too much energy. In vertebrates, only vultures and possibly some pterosaurs are obligate scavengers, as terrestrial soaring flyers are the only animals able to find enough carrion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "482629", "title": "Scavenger", "section": "Section::::Types of scavengers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 703, "text": "Most scavenging animals are facultative scavengers that gain most of their food through other methods, especially predation. Many large carnivores that hunt regularly, such as hyenas and jackals, but also animals rarely thought of as scavengers, such as African lions, leopards, and wolves will scavenge if given the chance. They may also use their size and ferocity to intimidate the original hunters (the cheetah is a notable exception). Almost all scavengers above insect size are predators and will hunt if not enough carrion is available, as few ecosystems provide enough dead animals year-round to keep its scavengers fed on that alone. Scavenging wild dogs and crows frequently exploit roadkill.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24106558", "title": "Endurance running hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Endurance running and scavenging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 345, "text": "All of the aforementioned adaptations enabled Homo to scavenge for food more effectively. Endurance running could have been used as a means of gaining access to distant carcasses or food stores faster than other scavengers and/or carnivores. Scavenging may have taken one or both of two forms: opportunistic scavenging and strategic scavenging.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "31256461", "title": "Dinosaur behavior", "section": "Section::::Theropod behavior.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 20, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 20, "end_character": 648, "text": "Research based on energetic modelling has also backed up the role of active predatory behaviors in theropods and has effectively ruled out obligate scavenging as a likely strategy. However scavenging was still likely to have been an important resource for many theropod with body size playing a key role in its importance. In general, the researchers found that small species, such as coelurosaurs, and species larger than 1000 kg, such as an adult \"Tyrannosaurs rex\", would have been poor scavengers. In contrast intermediate sized species, such as \"Dilophosaurus\", were found to have been capable of gaining significant energy though scavenging.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24106558", "title": "Endurance running hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Criticisms.:Against scavenging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 63, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 63, "end_character": 381, "text": "The proposed benefit of endurance running in scavenging is the ability of early hominins to outcompete other scavengers in reaching food sources. However paleoanthropological studies suggest that the savanna-woodland habitat caused a very low competition environment. Due to low visibility, carcasses were not easily located by mammalian carnivores, resulting in less competition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24106558", "title": "Endurance running hypothesis", "section": "Section::::Endurance running and scavenging.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 34, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 34, "end_character": 890, "text": "Strategic scavenging involves a planned search for carcasses. This style of scavenging would have benefitted from endurance running much more than opportunistic scavenging. Strategic scavenging would have involved the use of long range cues, such as birds circling overhead. Endurance running would have been advantageous in this setting because it allowed hominins to reach the carcass more quickly. Selection pressures would have been very high for strategic scavenging, because hominins were diurnal, while their major competitors (hyenas, lions, etc.) were not. Thus, they would have had to make sure to capitalize on daytime carcasses. Selection pressure also came from the weakness of Homo. Because they were very weak, they were unlikely to drive off any large competition at the carcass. This fact led to an even higher need for a way to reach the carcass before these competitors.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30467", "title": "Tyrannosaurus", "section": "Section::::Paleobiology.:Feeding strategies.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 81, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 81, "end_character": 562, "text": "A debate exists, however, about whether \"Tyrannosaurus\" was primarily a predator or a pure scavenger; the debate was assessed in a 1917 study by Lambe which argued \"Tyrannosaurus\" was a pure scavenger because the \"Gorgosaurus\" teeth showed hardly any wear. This argument may not be valid because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly. Ever since the first discovery of \"Tyrannosaurus\" most scientists have speculated that it was a predator; like modern large predators it would readily scavenge or steal another predator's kill if it had the opportunity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The reason for the time dilation that happens isn't directly due to the black hole itself, it is more to do with how fast the planet needs to orbit the black hole to maintain a stable orbit. If the planet is moving too slow it would just get sucked into the black hole. So for a stable orbit near a black hole that would result in the time dilation as shown in interstellar the planet would need to be moving at a significant portion of the speed of light. (Maybe someone who understands how to calculate time dilation can calculate how fast it was going for 1 hour local to equal 7 years on earth)\n\nAs for the time dilation difference across the planet it would be quite insignificant i.e 1 hour on close side of planet = 6.9999999999999999999 years 1 hour on far side of planet = 7.00000000000001 years\n\nRegarding the rotation of the planet, the gravity shear is pretty high on a black hole, and high gravity sheer can more easily result in an orbital body becoming tidally locked like the earths moon. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "27086745", "title": "Frame-dragging", "section": "Section::::Experimental tests.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 306, "text": "In the case of stars orbiting close to a spinning, supermassive black hole, frame dragging should cause the star's orbital plane to precess about the black hole spin axis. This effect should be detectable within the next few years via astrometric monitoring of stars at the center of the Milky Way galaxy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "8579903", "title": "Black holes in fiction", "section": "Section::::Film.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 449, "text": "BULLET::::- In \"Interstellar\" (2014), a wormhole leads to a supermassive black hole called Gargantua, located 10 billion light-years from Earth and is orbited by several planets. Its mass is 100 million times that of Earth's sun, and it is spinning with 99.8 percent of the speed of light. For one of the planets, named Miller's planet, one hour equals seven years on Earth due to dramatic time dilation induced by the close proximity to Gargantua.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1508445", "title": "Ergosphere", "section": "Section::::Rotation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 669, "text": "As a black hole rotates, it twists spacetime in the direction of the rotation at a speed that decreases with distance from the event horizon. This process is known as the Lense–Thirring effect or frame-dragging. Because of this dragging effect, an object within the ergosphere cannot appear stationary with respect to an outside observer at a great distance unless that object were to move at faster than the speed of light (an impossibility) with respect to the local spacetime. The speed necessary for such an object to appear stationary decreases at points further out from the event horizon, until at some distance the required speed is that of the speed of light.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19063921", "title": "Sphere of influence (black hole)", "section": "Section::::Rotational influence sphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 10, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 10, "end_character": 632, "text": "If the black hole is rotating, there is a second radius of influence associated with the rotation. This is the radius inside of which the Lense-Thirring torques from the black hole are larger than the Newtonian torques between stars. Inside the rotational influence sphere, stellar orbits precess at approximately the Lense-Thirring rate; while outside this sphere, orbits evolve predominantly in response to perturbations from stars on other orbits. Assuming that the Milky Way black hole is maximally rotating, its rotational influence radius is about 0.001 parsec, while its radius of gravitational influence is about 3 parsecs.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "155758", "title": "Gravity assist", "section": "Section::::Limits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 1033, "text": "A rotating black hole might provide additional assistance, if its spin axis is aligned the right way. General relativity predicts that a large spinning frame-dragging—close to the object, space itself is dragged around in the direction of the spin. Any ordinary rotating object produces this effect. Although attempts to measure frame dragging about the Sun have produced no clear evidence, experiments performed by Gravity Probe B have detected frame-dragging effects caused by Earth. General relativity predicts that a spinning black hole is surrounded by a region of space, called the ergosphere, within which standing still (with respect to the black hole's spin) is impossible, because space itself is dragged at the speed of light in the same direction as the black hole's spin. The Penrose process may offer a way to gain energy from the ergosphere, although it would require the spaceship to dump some \"ballast\" into the black hole, and the spaceship would have had to expend energy to carry the \"ballast\" to the black hole.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "4650", "title": "Black hole", "section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Ergosphere.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 51, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 51, "end_character": 588, "text": "Rotating black holes are surrounded by a region of spacetime in which it is impossible to stand still, called the ergosphere. This is the result of a process known as frame-dragging; general relativity predicts that any rotating mass will tend to slightly \"drag\" along the spacetime immediately surrounding it. Any object near the rotating mass will tend to start moving in the direction of rotation. For a rotating black hole, this effect is so strong near the event horizon that an object would have to move faster than the speed of light in the opposite direction to just stand still.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "701158", "title": "Rotating black hole", "section": "Section::::Formation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 507, "text": "Rotating black holes are formed in the gravitational collapse of a massive spinning star or from the collapse or collision of a collection of compact objects, stars, or gas with a total non-zero angular momentum. As all known stars rotate and realistic collisions have non-zero angular momentum, it is expected that all black holes in nature are rotating black holes. Since observed astronomical objects do not possess an appreciable net electric charge, only the Kerr solution has astrophysical relevance.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "What?\n\nIf I’m interpreting your question right, the two gasses will collect at the positive and negative poles in the circuit. Putting a test tube or some other container in the water over each pole will collect the gases as they bubble up. \n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "33306", "title": "Water", "section": "Section::::Chemical and physical properties.:Electrical conductivity and electrolysis.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 259, "text": "Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9601", "title": "Electrochemistry", "section": "Section::::Electrolysis.:Electrolysis of water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 147, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 147, "end_character": 722, "text": "Water can be converted to its component elemental gasses, H and O through the application of an external voltage. Water doesn't decompose into hydrogen and oxygen spontaneously as the Gibbs free energy for the process at standard conditions is about 474.4 kJ. The decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen can be performed in an electrolytic cell. In it, a pair of inert electrodes usually made of platinum immersed in water act as anode and cathode in the electrolytic process. The electrolysis starts with the application of an external voltage between the electrodes. This process will not occur except at extremely high voltages without an electrolyte such as sodium chloride or sulfuric acid (most used 0.1 M).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13255", "title": "Hydrogen", "section": "Section::::Production.:Electrolysis of water.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 656, "text": "The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 88–94%.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20305069", "title": "Graphite oxide", "section": "Section::::Applications.:Energy Conversion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 57, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 57, "end_character": 1233, "text": "Photocatalytic Water Splitting is an artificial photosynthesis process in which water is dissociated into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), using artificial or natural light. Methods such as photocatalytic water splitting are currently being investigated to produce hydrogen as a clean source of energy. The superior electron mobility and high surface area of graphene oxide sheets suggest it may be implemented as a catalyst that meets the requirements for this process. Specifically, graphene oxide’s compositional functional groups of epoxide (-O-) and hydroxide (-OH) allow for more flexible control in the water splitting process. This flexibility can be used to tailor the band gap and band positions that are targeted in photocatalytic water splitting. Recent research experiments have demonstrated that photocatalytic activity of graphene oxide containing a band gap within the required limits has produced effective splitting results, particularly when used with 40-50% coverage at a 2:1 hydroxide:epoxide ratio. When used in composite materials with CdS (a typical catalyst used in photocatalytic water splitting), graphene oxide nanocomposites have been shown to exhibit increased hydrogen production and quantum efficiency.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27636080", "title": "Thermochemical cycle", "section": "Section::::Principles.:Water-splitting with multiple reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 374, "text": "On the contrary, as shown by Funk and Reinstrom, multiple reactions (e.g. \"k\" steps) provide additional means to allow spontaneous water-splitting without work thanks to different entropy changes ΔS° for each reaction i. An extra benefit compared with water thermolysis is that oxygen and hydrogen are separately produced, avoiding complex separations at high temperatures.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22242751", "title": "Photocatalytic water splitting", "section": "Section::::Concepts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 486, "text": "The process of water-splitting is a highly endothermic process (Δ\"H\" 0). Water splitting occurs naturally in photosynthesis when photon energy is absorbed and converted into the chemical energy through a complex biological pathway (Dolai's S-state diagrams). However, production of hydrogen from water requires large amounts of input energy, making it incompatible with existing energy generation. For this reason, most commercially produced hydrogen gas is produced from natural gas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13255", "title": "Hydrogen", "section": "Section::::Biological reactions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 118, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 118, "end_character": 626, "text": "Water splitting, in which water is decomposed into its component protons, electrons, and oxygen, occurs in the light reactions in all photosynthetic organisms. Some such organisms, including the alga \"Chlamydomonas reinhardtii\" and cyanobacteria, have evolved a second step in the dark reactions in which protons and electrons are reduced to form H gas by specialized hydrogenases in the chloroplast. Efforts have been undertaken to genetically modify cyanobacterial hydrogenases to efficiently synthesize H gas even in the presence of oxygen. Efforts have also been undertaken with genetically modified alga in a bioreactor.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "While I'd prefer to wait for a much more qualified person than I am to chime in, I believe it all started with the first Gutenberg Bibles, which had indeed forty-two lines of text over two columns; these, in turn, reflected the way prayer books were written before the adoption of the printing press.\n\nSources:\n\nWell... this is going to be a bit awkward, as I'm currently helping out as an apprentice book-binder; but both Pio Colombo's and Piero Trevisani's *Storia della Stampa* ^1 - as well as my employer - agree with the theory. :-)\n\n^1 in *Enciclopedia Poligrafica*, vol. I (Editrice Raggio, Roma 1953).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "According to the Bible publisher Crossway (publishers of the English Standard Version), the reasons are threefold:\n\nPrinting in a single column increases the page count by 10 to 25%, which increases how expensive it it to produce.\n\nFor the typical font size, the two columns increases readability (9-12 words per line is considered optimal)\n\nTraditionally, the first printed Bibles were printed with two columns, as were ancient manuscripts handwritten by medieval monks.\n\nHowever, there are some Bible editions written in a single column on the page. I have used several of them, it just depends on how the publisher is sizing the font and how thick they want to make it, and how big the book will be.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "When the text was translated the two or multiple columns model was an ideal for having the original text side by side with a translation. \n\nIn 235 CE, Origen (a Christian scholar in Alexandria) completed the [Hexapla](_URL_0_), a comprehensive comparison of the ancient versions and Hebrew text side by side in six columns. In the first column was the Hebrew, in the second column was a Greek transliteration of it, then the newer Greek versions each in their own columns. \n\nThe translation of the Septuagint (Greek version of the Bible), by Sir Brenton, published in 1851, based primarily upon the Codex Vaticanus, (the Codex Vaticanus is itself one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible (Old and New Testament) and was written in *three* columns per page, with 40–44 lines per page, and 16–18 letters per line,) Brenton's model contains the Greek and English texts in two parallel columns. \n\nHence, the two columns model was extremely useful in preserving the original text side by side with the translated text and was done for the most part for the sake of translations, the tradition continued.\n\n*He Palaia Diatheke kata tous Ebdomekonta: the Greek Septuagint Version of the Old Testament according to the Vatican edition, together with the real Septuagint version of Daniel and the Apocrypha including the fourth book of Maccabees and an historical introduction. London: Samuel Bagster and Sons, 1851*.\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "2347994", "title": "Stichometry", "section": "Section::::Evidence for stichometry.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 305, "text": "Since the list of line totals [of the books in the Bible available] in the city of Rome is not reliable, and elsewhere because of greed is not complete, I have gone through each individual book, counting 16 syllables to the line (as used in Virgil), and recorded the number for each book in all of them. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11660222", "title": "Bible of St Louis", "section": "Section::::Iconography.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 480, "text": "The Bible’s layout is similar to the layout of the other three early Bibles Moralisées. On each page there are two columns, each with four miniatures set in medallions, which work as pairs. The upper miniature of each pair illustrates the text of the Old Testament, the lower shows a typologically equivalent scene from the New Testament or an allegorical or mystical meaning of the Old Testament story. Besides the miniatures, there are two narrow columns with explanatory text.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11412884", "title": "Mocedades de Rodrigo", "section": "Section::::Meter.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 257, "text": "The number of verses per series oscillates between the 264 of the number XVII and the two verses from various others (II, V, V, etc.). It is possible that many of these cases are regarding remains of incomplete series, because the text contains many holes.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34407638", "title": "Fundamentalism (sculpture)", "section": "Section::::Overview.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 483, "text": "The books are stacked on each other to form individual letters, but separately so that one character is built of Korans, another of Bibles, and another of the Torah. Each book is a model of an original religious book, made in wax by hand. The books, of all sizes and forms, are stacked irregularly, so the sculpture appears with a slightly shaky expression. As there are only 14 letters and 3 religions, one religion will have only 4 letters but they will be bigger than the others.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23805275", "title": "The Books of the Bible", "section": "Section::::Features.:Natural literary structure in place of chapters and verses.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1309, "text": "Biblical and literary scholars have noted that chapter and verse numbering disguises the actual form of the biblical writings and interferes with the act of reading. Ernest Sutherland Bates wrote, \"Certainly, no literary format was ever less conducive to pleasure or understanding than is the curious and complicated panoply in which the Scriptures have come down to us. None but a work of transcendent literary genius could have survived such a handicap at all.\" Richard Moulton noted, \"We are all agreed to speak of the Bible as a supremely great literature. Yet, when we open our ordinary editions, we look in vain for the lyrics, epics, dramas, essays, sonnets, treatises, which make the other great literatures of the world; instead of these the eye catches nothing but a monotonous uniformity of numbered sentences.\" New Testament scholar Hermann von Soden urged publishers, \"It is high time, in any editions that wish to facilitate rather than impede readers' understanding of the New Testament writings, for not only the verse divisions… but also the conventional chapter divisions to disappear completely from the text. Without giving any consideration to these divisions, the text must be printed in a way that will illustrate visually what units the authors themselves created within their works.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1047161", "title": "Chapters and verses of the Bible", "section": "Section::::Christian versions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 393, "text": "The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "26886844", "title": "Minuscule 671", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 447, "text": "The tables of the are placed before every Gospel. The text is divided according to the (\"chapters\"), which numbers are given at the left margin, and their (\"titles\") at the top of the pages. There is also a division with a references to the Eusebian Canons (partially). There is no heading to the Gospel of Luke, but a blank space is left, so that perhaps the manuscript was never finished. The manuscript has a large number of unfoliated leaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I think you need to define what you mean by \"mentally ill\" more clearly. It is a very broad label. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Well you probably don't consider Syria to be western Europe, but I happen to have a source that suggests this was the case in medieval Muslim Syria. The book is a discussion of Medieval Syrian Saints:\n\n\"Certain men outwardly defied the ideals of Muslim piety by living in a state of ritual impurity, wearing filthy garments, and not praying. Yet, the 'marginal holy man' did not represent a distinct class of saints as such. [...] The *muwallah* may be regarded as variously a cross between a borderline mystic, saint, vagabond, charlatan, and healer.\"\n\nMeri translates *muwallah* as 'one who is mad with devotion to God'. It's unclear whether this refers to a person that we would today consider to be mentally ill. Meri quotes from Ibn Taymiyya:\n\n\"It is not possible for anybody to say that this is a friend of God. If this [person] is not insane (*majnun*), then he is a *mutawallih* without possessing insanity, or sometimes he would lose his sense of reasoning while at others regain it, and he does not undertake the religious obligations.\"\n\nMeri relates a few sources regarding one particular *muwallah* called Yusuf al-Qamini, who was apparently a popular healer and miracle worker in Damascus the early 1200s. It seems this was a person who had lost touch with reality but that people saw a power or religious devotion in his ramblings. Meri quotes from a late medieval writer, Ibn al-Hawrani:\n\n\"Yusuf al-Qamini, the *muwallah* whom the common people regard as a *wali* [Saint] Their proof is that he possessed illuminations and spoke words based on intuitions. This is what happens with the soothsayer, the monk, and the madman who has and the madman who has a companion of the *jinn*. This sort of occurrence has increased in our time. God is asked for support. Yusuf used to wallow in his urine, walk barefoot, and repair to the furnace of Nur al-Din's bath. He did not pray.\"\n\nMeri cites a few other examples and goes on to theorize that *muwallah* existed as kind of marginal-charismatic figures. They were on the border between madness and holiness. On the one hand they are recorded as often performing no religious duties (like praying) and doing things that proper religious leader would never do like going outside in soiled or insufficient clothing. Yet on the other hand they associated themselves with religious places and common people thought they might perform miracles and healings. They were beyond the boundaries of normal society, but also involved in it, and in that they possessed a kind of religious charisma. Meri writes:\n\n\"Men and women did not flock to them because they challenged established norms of learning, but rather for their conventional wisdom and because they regarded them as sacred persons who dispensed miracles and possessed a charismatic personality.\"\n\nBut, were these people mentally ill? If somebody today behaved the way these Damascenes did, we would probably regard them as such. However, our modern society doesn't have a category of person that is expected to act in that manner, but the late medieval society of Damascus did, which may have in turn elicited that behavior. So it becomes completely unclear whether a *muwallah* was a person suffering from a medical or psychological condition (schizophrenia, epilepsy?) or rather a highly devoted religious person who felt compelled to act in this manner. Perhaps a combination of both?\n\nYou might find this to be off topic but a relationship between \"marginal\" behavior and holiness is definitely documented in folk variations of Islam, both in the middle ages and into the modern era. \n\nMeri, Josef W. *The Cult of Saints Among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria* Oxford University Press, 2003. The discussion of the *muwallah* can be found in chapter 2, pages 91-100. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I'm also really interested in historian's interpretation/ verification of Foucault's claims. Hopefully direct quote from his book would make the question more specific:\n\n > the Fool, or the Simpleton assumes more and more importance. He is no longer simply a ridiculous and familiar silhouette in the wings: he stands center stage as the guardian of truth-playing here a role which is the complement and converse of that taken by madness in the tales and the satires. If folly leads each man into a blindness where he is lost, the madman, on the contrary, reminds each man of his truth; in a comedy where each man deceives the other and dupes himself, the madman is comedy to the second degree: the deception of deception; he utters, in his simpleton’s language which makes no show of reason, the words of reason that release, in the comic, the comedy: he speaks love to lovers, the truth of life to the young, the middling reality of things to the proud, to the insolent, and to liars. Even the old feasts of fools, so popular in Flanders and northern Europe, were theatrical events, and organized into social and moral criticism, whatever they may have contained of spontaneous religious parody.\n\n > In learned literature, too, Madness or Folly was at work, at the very heart of reason and truth. It is Folly which embarks all men without distinction on its insane ship and binds them to the vocation of a common odyssey (Van Oestvoren’s Blauwe Schute, Brant’s Narrenschiff); it is Folly whose baleful reign Thomas Murner conjures up in his Narrenbeschwörung; it is Folly which gets the best of Love in Corroz’s satire Contre fol amour, or argues with Love as to which of the two comes first, which of the two makes the other possible, and triumphs in Louise Labé’s dialogue, Débat de folie et d’amour. Folly also has its academic pastimes; it is the object of argument, it contends against itself; it is denounced, and defends itself by claiming that it is closer to happiness and truth than reason, that it is closer to reason than reason itself; Jakob Wimpfeling edits the Monopolium philosophorum, and Judocus Gallus the Monopolium et societas, vulgo des lichtschiffs. Finally, at the center of all these serious games, the great humanist texts: the Moria rediviva of Flayder and Erasmus’s Praise of Folly. And confronting all these discussions, with their tireless dialectic, confronting these discourses constantly reworded and reworked, a long dynasty of images, from Hieronymus Bosch with The Cure of Madness and The Ship of Fools, down to Brueghel and his Dulle Griet; woodcuts and engravings transcribe what the theater, what literature and art have already taken up: the intermingled themes of the Feast and of the Dance of Fools. Indeed, from the fifteenth century on, the face of madness has haunted the imagination of Western man.\n\n > A sequence of dates speaks for itself: the Dance of Death in the Cimetière des Innocents doubtless dates from the first years of the fifteenth century, the one in the Chaise-Dieu was probably composed around 1460; and it was in 1485 that Guyot Marchant published his Danse macabre. These sixty years, certainly, were dominated by all this grinning imagery of Death. And it was in 1494 that Brant wrote the Narrenschiff; in 1497 it was translated into Latin. In the very last years of the century Hieronymus Bosch painted his Ship of Fools. The Praise of Folly dates from 1509. The order of succession is clear.\n\n > In its various forms—plastic or literary—this experience of madness seems extremely coherent. Painting and text constantly refer to one another—commentary here and illustration there. We find the same theme of the Narrentanz over and over in popular festivals, in theatrical performances, in engravings and woodcuts, and the entire last part of the Praise of Folly is constructed on the model of a long dance of madmen in which each profession and each estate parades in turn to form the great round of unreason. It is likely that in Bosch’s Temptation of Saint Anthony in Lisbon, many figures of the fantastic fauna which invade the canvas are borrowed from traditional masks; some perhaps are transferred from the Malleus maleficarum. As for the famous Ship of Fools, is it not a direct translation of Brant’s Narrenschiff, whose title it bears, and of which it seems to illustrate quite precisely canto XXVII, also consecrated to stigmatizing “drunkards and gluttons”? It has even been suggested that Bosch’s painting was part of a series of pictures illustrating the principal cantos of Brant’s poem.\n\nquote from **Foucault, M., Madness and Civilization**\n\nAre you familiar with these artifacts? Do you agree with Foucault's interpretation that they indicate a general social attitude which treated madness with inclusion, and in fact, as a significant source of meaning/ truth?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "460466", "title": "Dymphna", "section": "Section::::Medieval traditions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 12, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 12, "end_character": 940, "text": "In 1349 a church honouring Dymphna was built in Geel. By 1480, so many pilgrims were coming from all over Europe, seeking treatment for the mentally ill, that the church housing for them was expanded. Soon the sanctuary for the mad was again full to overflowing, and the townspeople began taking them into their own homes. Thus began a tradition for the ongoing care of the mentally ill that has endured for over 500 years and is still studied and admired today. Patients were, and still are, taken into the inhabitants of Geel's homes. Never called patients, they are called boarders, and are treated as ordinary and useful members of the town. They are treated as members of the host family. They work, most often in menial labour, and in return, they become part of the community. Some stay a few months, some decades, some for their entire lives. At its peak in the 1930s, over 4,000 'boarders' were housed with the town's inhabitants.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "20335920", "title": "St. George's Leper Hospital", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 623, "text": "The most feared disease of the Middle Ages was leprosy. The terrible effects of the disease on the body were so catastrophic that those with the disease were most often expelled from human society. As a result, St. George's Hospital was located outside the city. The earliest of such foundations was in 1109 which were often dedicated to Saint George (), the patron saint of knights and protector of the weak and helpless. The first mention of Copenhagen's leper hospital was in 1261 as an existing institution. In 1275, one Olof Blok willed the contents of a house in Copenhagen for the maintenance of the leper hospital.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "44318934", "title": "Clinical mental health counseling", "section": "Section::::Historical perspectives.:Early views of mental health and illness.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 1079, "text": "There were both cruel and humane treatments developed in the Middle Ages for the mentally ill. Most behaviors that could not be explained were attributed to supernatural causes and that humans innately had a battle between good and evil happening inside of them all the time. People were tested to see if they were evil or with the devil using “water tests”. In Baghdad and Damascus, however, in the ninth and tenth centuries, humane treatments were being developed in which centers of care for the mentally ill were based in love and kindness. Humanity regressed again in the 16th century when hospitals known as asylums were developed to provide a place for people who were unable to care for themselves. These institutions were terrible and people were often kept in restraints and left there in their own waste. In the late 1700s, there were people who began to reform the system and developed something known as moral treatment at the time. Moral treatment included organized schedules of productive behavior, socializing, entertainment, education, exercise, and nutrition.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25242181", "title": "Lunatic asylum", "section": "Section::::Medieval era.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 609, "text": "In the Islamic world, the \"Bimaristans\" were described by European travellers, who wrote about their wonder at the care and kindness shown to lunatics. In 872, Ahmad ibn Tulun built a hospital in Cairo that provided care to the insane, which included music therapy. Nonetheless, medical historian Roy Porter cautions against idealising the role of hospitals generally in medieval Islam, stating that \"They were a drop in the ocean for the vast population that they had to serve, and their true function lay in highlighting ideals of compassion and bringing together the activities of the medical profession.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2312819", "title": "Psychiatric and mental health nursing", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 636, "text": "In 13th century medieval Europe, psychiatric hospitals were built to house the mentally ill, but there were not any nurses to care for them and treatment was rarely provided. These facilities functioned more as a housing unit for the insane. Throughout the high point of Christianity in Europe, hospitals for the mentally ill believed in using religious intervention. The insane were partnered with “soul friends” to help them reconnect with society. Their primary concern was befriending the melancholy and disturbed, forming intimate spiritual relationships. Today, these soul friends are seen as the first modern psychiatric nurses.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "32383001", "title": "Joan Gilabert Jofré", "section": "Section::::Mission to the troubled and abandoned.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 836, "text": "The contemporary Christian view tended to view the psychologically troubled as possessed by the devil. Pare Jofré's missions to rescue captives in Muslim Spain and North Africa are thought to have given him an insight into the different way the mentally ill were treated in Islamic communities. On 24 February 1409, as he was on his way to the Cathedral in Valencia to preach the homily for the first Sunday of Lent, he saw two young men brutally attacking a madman. After rescuing the injured victim and taking him back to his convent, he returned towards the cathedral and preached a memorable sermon that urged the establishment of a charitable institution to care for and treat the mentally ill and other outcasts. At the end of the sermon a group of 11 Valencians, headed by Lorenzo Salom, joined together to fund this initiative.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "53546082", "title": "Hospital General of Grenoble", "section": "Section::::Beggars and paupers.:About the beggars.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 603, "text": "These impaired were not able to work to support themselves, and young children found themselves in the same situation. Very few had skills, the Hospital had seen weavers, merchants, a surgeon, and even priests, but the largest section had no skills. This showed that some of the beggars, were not truly beggars, they were poor that had fallen victims to economic issues such as unemployment. The line of distinction between the poor and the wandering beggar became unclear and the directors did not know who they should treat with the compassion which they previously reserved for the \"deserving poor\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Gluons are massless.\n\nProtons and neutrons get a percent or so of their mass from the Higgs effect (which gives a small mass to the up and down quarks), and the rest of their mass from the strong force fields (primarily) that bind those quarks together (and the strong force field is made of gluons).\n\nFinally: the Higgs boson does not give any particles mass. The Higgs effect causes certain particles to get a mass by their interaction with the Higgs field that fills space. The Higgs boson itself and the Higgs field that fills space are both consequences of the fact that there is a fundamental Higgs field.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "The Higgs field is responsible for the masses of fundamental particles that couple to it (which happens to account for the masses of all massive particles of the standard model). These include the quarks and leptons (electrons and neutrinos) as well as the W and Z bosons that mediate the weak nuclear force. Gluons do not couple to the Higgs boson and are actually massless.\n\nThe key to understanding the mass of the proton lies with the fact that it is not a fundamental particle but rather a bound state. This means that the proton is basically a complicated mess of quarks and gluons. Most of the mass comes from the fact that these quarks and gluons interact with each other and these interactions have energy associated with them in the same way that chemical bonds have energy associated with them. When looking at a proton from far away this binding energy is expressed as mass.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23317", "title": "Proton", "section": "Section::::Quarks and the mass of a proton.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 26, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 26, "end_character": 716, "text": "In quantum chromodynamics, the modern theory of the nuclear force, most of the mass of protons and neutrons is explained by special relativity. The mass of a proton is about 80–100 times greater than the sum of the rest masses of the quarks that make it up, while the gluons have zero rest mass. The extra energy of the quarks and gluons in a region within a proton, as compared to the rest energy of the quarks alone in the QCD vacuum, accounts for almost 99% of the mass. The rest mass of a proton is, thus, the invariant mass of the system of moving quarks and gluons that make up the particle, and, in such systems, even the energy of massless particles is still measured as part of the rest mass of the system.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23317", "title": "Proton", "section": "Section::::Quarks and the mass of a proton.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 884, "text": "Two terms are used in referring to the mass of the quarks that make up protons: \"current quark mass\" refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while \"constituent quark mass\" refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the gluon particle field surrounding the quark. These masses typically have very different values. As noted, most of a proton's mass comes from the gluons that bind the current quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energy—to be more specific, quantum chromodynamics binding energy (QCBE)—and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of protons (see mass in special relativity). A proton has a mass of approximately 938 MeV/c, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks contributes only about 9.4 MeV/c; much of the remainder can be attributed to the gluons' QCBE. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12666", "title": "Gluon", "section": "Section::::Experimental observations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 29, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 29, "end_character": 522, "text": "The gluons play an important role in the elementary strong interactions between quarks and gluons, described by QCD and studied particularly at the electron-proton collider HERA at DESY. The number and momentum distribution of the gluons in the proton (gluon density) have been measured by two experiments, H1 and ZEUS, in the years 1996-2007. The gluon contribution to the proton spin has been studied by the HERMES experiment at HERA. The gluon density in the proton (when behaving hadronically) also has been measured.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "22472780", "title": "Quantum chromodynamics binding energy", "section": "Section::::Source of mass.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1009, "text": "Most of the mass of hadrons is actually QCD binding energy, through mass-energy equivalence. This phenomenon is related to chiral symmetry breaking. In the case of nucleons – protons and neutrons – QCD binding energy forms about 99% of the nucleon's mass. That is if assuming that the kinetic energy of the hadron's constituents, moving at near the speed of light, which contributes greatly to the hadron mass, is part of QCD binding energy. For protons, the sum of the rest masses of the three valence quarks (two up quarks and one down quark) is approximately 9.4 MeV/c, while the proton's total mass is about 938.3 MeV/c. For neutrons, the sum of the rest masses of the three valence quarks (two down quarks and one up quark) is approximately 11.9 MeV/c, while the neutron's total mass is about 939.6 MeV/c. Considering that nearly all of the atom's mass is concentrated in the nucleons, this means that about 99% of the mass of everyday matter (baryonic matter) is, in fact, chromodynamic binding energy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12666", "title": "Gluon", "section": "Section::::Properties.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 473, "text": "The gluon is a vector boson; like the photon, it has a spin of 1. While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the polarization to be transverse. In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass (experiments limit the gluon's rest mass to less than a few meV/\"c\"). The gluon has negative intrinsic parity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18521875", "title": "Proton-to-electron mass ratio", "section": "Section::::Discussion.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 413, "text": "BULLET::::- The proton mass \"m\" is composed primarily of gluons, and of the quarks (the up quark and down quark) making up the proton. Hence \"m\", and therefore the ratio \"μ\", are easily measurable consequences of the strong force. In fact, in the chiral limit, \"m\" is proportional to the QCD energy scale, Λ. At a given energy scale, the strong coupling constant \"α\" is related to the QCD scale (and thus \"μ\") as\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "12666", "title": "Gluon", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 462, "text": "In technical terms, gluons are vector gauge bosons that mediate strong interactions of quarks in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Gluons themselves carry the color charge of the strong interaction. This is unlike the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic interaction but lacks an electric charge. Gluons therefore participate in the strong interaction in addition to mediating it, making QCD significantly harder to analyze than QED (quantum electrodynamics).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "It's a misconception that stars are in the center of a stellar system. \n\nIn such systems, all objects are orbiting around a common center of mass, the so called barycenter. Is the system a planetary system like ours, the barycenter is inside or close to the mother star, not because \"it has to be like that\", but because basically all the mass of our solar sytem (99,9%) is inside the sun. Because of that, ti's usually enough to say, that the sun is the center of our solar system, although in fact it isn't (jupiters mass is enough to let the barycenter be outside of the sun).\n\nHowever most stellar systems aren't quite like our own one, with a single star and some planets revolving around it. Most stars are in a binary or even multiple star system and as a stars mass is far higher than a planets mass, the barycenter is much further away from each star than it is in our system from the sun. So the answer to your question is: In our own galaxy it is rather unlikely, that a star is in or close the the center of it's stellar system. It is believed that about 70% of all stars in the milky way are in a binary or multiple star system. \n\nAsking if a star could orbit a planet becomes needless, because as already said, both objects revolve around the barycenter and not one rotates around the other. A planet however can never have a mass higher than a star, because if it would, it would start fusion and therefore become a star aswell. The size doesn't matter either. It is thinkable that a gaseous planet can be bigger in size than a very small star, however the star would still contain more mass. \n\nI hope, that cleared out the topic.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Planets and stars orbit their mutual center of mass. Stars are usually so much more massive than planets that they are pretty much the center of the system. But they do wobble, in fact that is one way to detect planets orbiting stars - you look at the star's light to see if it is wobbling.\n\nPerhaps though you are asking if planets HAVE to orbit stars. The galaxy is pretty big, the answer is probably no. Even if planets have to form around stars (not really known), they could sometimes be ejected from their star system. So, there are probably planets that are alone, or maybe planets orbiting each other. They would be obviously hard to find, because they would be very dim (planets don't really emit much light, duh). But we've found a couple known rogue planets. It was once briefly wondered if rogue planets, rocks, dust, etc was a portion of the dark matter, but we now know that can't be.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "As a practical matter, stars (or black holes) are generally going to gravitationally dominate when they are present. It's a simple matter of abundance. There's much more Hydrogen and Helium in the Universe than heavier elements. So if you have a situation where a star forms then you're going to have a much smaller mass of material to make rocky planets. If you had a gas giant planet like Jupiter (which has basically the same composition as a star) but was heavier than an actual star then it would just be a star itself.\n\nRocky planets more massive than stars are hard to imagine forming naturally, by any means.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Fun fact: It's entirely possible to have a planetary only system in which there was never enough mass to form a star. \n\nThen you could have a big Jupiter of some kind at the middle being orbited by some rocky planets...all of it very cold and dark flying through the void.\n\nThese would be called \"sub-brown dwarf stars\" or \"Rogue planetary systems\"", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46526912", "title": "WR 20a", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 254, "text": "Each star in the system has about eighty times the mass of the Sun. It is not clear why this system is located away from the center of the cluster. It is possible that the system was formed in the core, but that it was ejected by dynamical interactions.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "602678", "title": "Extraterrestrial skies", "section": "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from nearby stars (0 – 10 ly).\n", "start_paragraph_id": 132, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 132, "end_character": 629, "text": "If the Sun were to be observed from the Alpha Centauri system, the nearest star system to ours, it would appear to be a 0.46 magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, and would create a \"/W\" shape instead of the \"W\" as seen from Earth. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example, Sirius would appear about one degree from the star Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion. Also, Procyon would appear in the constellation Gemini, about 13 degrees below Pollux.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "252372", "title": "Planetary system", "section": "Section::::System architectures.:Orbital configurations.:Orbital dynamics.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 331, "text": "In hierarchical systems the planets are arranged so that the system can be gravitationally considered as a nested system of two-bodies, e.g. in a star with a close-in hot jupiter with another gas giant much further out, the star and hot jupiter form a pair that appears as a single object to another planet that is far enough out.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6692887", "title": "AB Doradus", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 394, "text": "The primary star in this system spins at a rate 50 times that of the Sun, and consequently has a strong magnetic field. It has a greater number of star spots than the Sun. These can cause the luminosity of the star to appear to vary over each orbital cycle. Measurements of the spin rate of this star at its equator have shown that it varies over time due to the effect of this magnetic field.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9264", "title": "Ecliptic", "section": "Section::::Plane of the Solar System.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 582, "text": "Most of the major bodies of the Solar System orbit the Sun in nearly the same plane. This is likely due to the way in which the Solar System formed from a protoplanetary disk. Probably the closest current representation of the disk is known as the \"invariable plane of the Solar System\". Earth's orbit, and hence, the ecliptic, is inclined a little more than 1° to the invariable plane, Jupiter's orbit is within a little more than ° of it, and the other major planets are all within about 6°. Because of this, most Solar System bodies appear very close to the ecliptic in the sky.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2484254", "title": "HD 69830", "section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Planets.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 255, "text": "The star rotates at an inclination of 13 degrees relative to Earth. It has been assumed that the planets share that inclination. However b and c are \"hot Neptunes\", and outside this system several are now known to be oblique relative to the stellar axis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "240963", "title": "Star system", "section": "Section::::Hierarchical systems.:Triple star systems.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 651, "text": "In a \"physical\" triple star system, each star orbits the center of mass of the system. Usually, two of the stars form a close binary system, and the third orbits this pair at a distance much larger than that of the binary orbit. This arrangement is called \"hierarchical\". The reason for this is that if the inner and outer orbits are comparable in size, the system may become dynamically unstable, leading to a star being ejected from the system. Triple stars that are \"not\" all gravitationally bound might comprise a physical binary and an \"optical\" companion, such as Beta Cephei, or rarely, a purely \"optical\" triple star, such as Gamma Serpentis.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "There was a time when Jazz was not fancy, there was a time when it was considered a corrupting influence. It was linked to crime, drugs, insanity, promiscuity... \n\nCheck [this article](_URL_0_) published in Ladies Home Journal, August 1921.\n\nRacism was obviously a component in the prejudice against that music (and some others that were put in the same category).\n\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Basic popularity eras:\n\n1896-1912 Ragtime Era\n\nThis is when rag was at its peak. They were using it even in London (*The Nightside of London*), though not where High Society gathered.\n\n1912-1919 Tango Era\n\nThis is the time when tango was the new thing (1912 in America debuted the fame of the *Titanic*, Tarzan & tango). It was racy and radical. It continued to be danced into the 1920s, but it wasn't rebellious then.\n\n1919-1934 Hot Jazz Era\n\nJazz went from the underground to the inescapable, especially it was promulgated by radio. That eventually sent it into every corner of the land, much to the horror of conservative parents. There were many levels and flavours of jazz. It was majorly popularized by Paul Whiteman and his orchestra. Interestingly, in his first autobio Rudy Vallée says Whiteman didn't play real jazz, just \"syncopated orchestral music.\" He didn't claim to do real jazz himself, but most of us use \"jazz\" more inclusively. \n\n1934-1944 Swing Era\n\nI date this from when Benny Goodman broke big as a national phenomenon. Musical styles are always in existence before they get out of very small circles of listeners. In swing there was sweet swing and hot swing. Your parents wouldn't object to a sweet swing band like Guy Lombardo.\n\n1944-1954 Cool Jazz Era\n\nIts like WW2 broke down and tired out bands. That and anyone gets bored doing the same thing. Still, Goodman did say later that be-bop was a mistake.\n\n1954-1964 Rock'n'roll Era\n\nI don't have to tell you about this.\n\nNotice that except the Argentine tango, all this sound originated in American black music. Rock'n'roll came out of country swing, but that came out of country , blues & swing. But we also need to note that they break big after they begin being taken up by white or mixed bands. It took Elvis to take rock out of \"race music.\" Same thing with forms of jazz, to move it out of small markets.\n\nIn Europe, this is in spades. The jazz is uncultured American, as well as black. This makes it even racier and more rebellious.\n\nIn fascist Europe, kids who took up swing usually did so via its British forms and recordings. It became very serious rebellion, actual resistance, in Nazi Germany and occupied France. Savage' *Teenage: The Prehistory of Youth Culture: 1875-1945* has chapters on this.\n", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "953401", "title": "Rock music in Germany", "section": "Section::::1960s and 1970s: Krautrock.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 573, "text": "By the end of the 1960s, the American and British counterculture and hippie movement had moved rock towards psychedelic rock, heavy metal, progressive rock and other styles (from which Scorpions rose to prominence), incorporating, for the first time in popular music, socially and politically incisive lyrics. The 1968 student riots in Germany, France and Italy had created a class of young, intellectual continental listeners, while nuclear weapons, pollution and war inspired protests and activism. Music had taken a turn towards electronic avant-garde in the mid-1950s.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "149100", "title": "Garage rock", "section": "Section::::1958–1964: Origins.:Regional rock & roll, instrumental, and surf.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 628, "text": "Other regional scenes of teenage bands playing R&B-oriented rock were well-established in the early 1960s, several years before the British Invasion, in places such as Texas and the Midwest. At the same time, in southern California surf bands formed, playing raucous guitar- and saxophone-driven instrumentals. Writer Neil Campbell commented: \"There were literally thousands of rough-and-ready groups performing in local bars and dance halls throughout the US \"prior\" to the arrival of the Beatles ... [T]he indigenous popular music which functioned in this way ... was the protopunk more commonly identified as \"garage rock\"\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1616933", "title": "Music history of the United States", "section": "Section::::1960s and 70s.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 48, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 48, "end_character": 705, "text": "In the 1960s, music became heavily involved in the burgeoning youth counter culture, as well as various social and political causes. The beginning of the decade saw the peak of doo wop's popularity, in about 1961, as well as the rise of surf, girl groups and the first soul singers. Psychedelic and progressive rock arose during this period, along with the roots of what would later become funk, hip hop, salsa, electronic music, punk rock and heavy metal. An American roots revival occurred simultaneously as a period of sexual liberation and racial conflict, leading to growth in the lyrical maturity and complexity of popular music as songwriters wrote about the changes the country was going through.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25423", "title": "Rock music", "section": "Section::::Early 1960s.:Pop rock and instrumental rock.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 21, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 21, "end_character": 660, "text": "The period of the later 1950s and early 1960s has traditionally been seen as an era of hiatus for rock and roll. More recently some authors have emphasised important innovations and trends in this period without which future developments would not have been possible. While early rock and roll, particularly through the advent of rockabilly, saw the greatest commercial success for male and white performers, in this era the genre was dominated by black and female artists. Rock and roll had not disappeared at the end of the 1950s and some of its energy can be seen in the Twist dance craze of the early 1960s, mainly benefiting the career of Chubby Checker.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25412", "title": "Rock and roll", "section": "Section::::Cultural impact.:Dance styles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 44, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 44, "end_character": 576, "text": "From its early 1950s beginnings through the early 1960s, rock and roll spawned new dance crazes including the twist. Teenagers found the syncopated backbeat rhythm especially suited to reviving Big Band-era jitterbug dancing. Sock hops, school and church gym dances, and home basement dance parties became the rage, and American teens watched Dick Clark's \"American Bandstand\" to keep up on the latest dance and fashion styles. From the mid-1960s on, as \"rock and roll\" was rebranded as \"rock,\" later dance genres followed, leading to funk, disco, house, techno, and hip hop.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "54136097", "title": "La balsa", "section": "Section::::Background.:Previous developments in Argentine rock.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 6, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 6, "end_character": 1690, "text": "Between 1955 and 1957, the \"porteño\" youth was introduced to rock 'n' roll music through films like \"Blackboard Jungle\", \"Rock Around the Clock\", \"Don't Knock the Rock\" and \"Rock, Rock Rock\"; becoming acquainted with American artists such as Bill Haley & His Comets, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley. Mr. Roll y sus Rockers, a band led by Eddie Pequenino, recorded the first rock 'n' roll music of the country, covering various songs by Bill Haley and also writing original compositions in English. Like Billy Cafaro, another of the first Argentine rock 'n' roll musicians, Pequenino limited himself to imitating foreign artists. As it grew in popularity, rock 'n' roll music began to be embraced by young people, who began to veer away from tango, jazz, and the dance halls that until then they shared with their parents. According to Yanko González, \"this initial rock represents, basically, a space of youthful fun that expresses itself through a dance with very provocative corporal movements for the time. There its transgression is established: in the audacity of its movements, in the expressive use of the body\". In the early 1960s, Mexican band Los Teen Tops, originally led by singer Enrique Guzmán, gained popularity in Argentina and were influential in the development of an Argentine scene by introducing rock 'n' roll songs with Spanish lyrics. Other popular Mexican acts were Los Locos del Ritmo, Los Loud Jets, and the solo work of Enrique Guzmán. Until the release of \"La balsa\", singing rock music with Spanish lyrics was generally frowned upon, being considered \"tacky\" and \"uncool\", as the style was strongly associated with the English-speaking world.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3839023", "title": "Music of Philadelphia", "section": "Section::::Recent music scene.:Rock/indie music.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 106, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 106, "end_character": 403, "text": "Rock and Roll was arguably birthed by Bill Haley and the Comets during their regular gigs at the Twin Bar in Gloucester City NJ just across the river from Philadelphia during the early 1950s. The city and its suburbs have since been the home of a couple of influential rock artists like Joan Jett. Many bands call Philadelphia home, and the area is constantly highly regarded by rock bands and artists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "I'll take your more specific question. \n\nThe sources I've read about the creation of parks in cities (specifically Central Park, which I'll look through my house to find) shows that during the 19th Century there was some municipally centered demands to create jobs, but this was not to create jobs in and of itself, but for the purpose of creating, as stated, public parks.\n\nThe New Deal was really the time when the idea of \"job creation\" came into its own. Before this time the dominant school of economic thought was the Classical School (Smith, Ricardo, etc) which denied the existence of involuntary unemployment. Basically most people believed that unemployment could only result from people refusing to work below certain wages, not that in economic crises people could be out of work and unable to find it again. \n\nHowever, by 1933, that was proving to be untrue, John Maynard Keynes also helped by basically disproving it completely in \"The General Theory.\" At this point the Roosevelt Administration were looking for some way to alleviate the crisis, and eventually started the programs composing the New Deal in 1933. A whole portion of the basic program was Relief: meaning job creation through public works to decrease unemployment. After that Keynesian thought dominated economic thought, especially the idea of job creation. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Could you specify where? Like, Europe? The United States? In Spain, I know of documents as far back as the eighteenth century that use liberal rationalization for governments directly intervening in the economy, and many of those documents also considered a sort of social contract of labor, calling for the government to ensure that people are able to find work and demanding that those who can work be forced to (essentially the type of logic that was the root of subsequent anti-vagrancy laws throughout the nineteenth century in the British and Spanish Americas). ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "I think your question could be better phrased by reversing it: when did it become expected that governments *should not attempt* to intervene in economics? I'd argue that it's only been in the recent liberal era that governments were not expected to intervene.\n\nAs far as I know, as far back as ancient Athens there was some system of welfare. Citizens who attended the assemblies for a full day were remunerated, to ensure that even poor citizens could participate in the democratic process. Additionally, (many) public offices were doled out by lottery to the citizen body. While it did not give everyone a stable or long-term job, it at least provided some citizens with a livelihood.\n\nLet's also not forget that in Feudal times, lords were expected to provide care and residence for their serfs. Of course, it was not the \"state\" per se that took care of the serfs, but certainly the manor system in Europe can be seen as a micro-governmental system, especially given the frailty of feudal states. While serfdom was by no means an ideal labour system, it of course offered a stability that disappeared with the rise of the global capitalist system.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "3083999", "title": "United States Employment Service", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 986, "text": "In around 1890, both the United States and European governments created government-funded employment offices to provide work for unemployed unskilled laborers. These services proved to be unsuccessful. In 1933 during the Great Depression, with the Wagner-Peyser Act, the USES was reinstated “to set minimum standards, develop uniform administrative and statistical procedures, publish employment information, and promote a system of \"clearing labor\" between states.” Then President Franklin D. Roosevelt had created many government-funded work projects to help boost the economy and the USES was responsible for hiring the workers on those projects. The USES operated originally in only a few states but by World War II, it was operating in all states and played a major role in providing jobs during the war. In the United States home front during World War II, the service coordinated employment of prisoners of war (e.g., using German POWs at Gettysburg for local pulpwood cutting).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14661928", "title": "Birch index", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 229, "text": "It was devised by economist David L. Birch at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1980 Birch published an influential study that showed 70% of job growth in the U.S. came from enterprises with fewer than 100 employees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1149896", "title": "Square Deal", "section": "Section::::Labor.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 204, "text": "BULLET::::- The first Federal employment service (forerunner of the United States Employment Service) was created in the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Department of Commerce and Labor (1907).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "52899419", "title": "David L. Birch", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 615, "text": "Birch was working as a director at MIT in 1979 when he published his report \"The Job Creation Process\", in which he showed that, contrary to the prevailing conventional wisdom, most new jobs in the US are created by small companies. This study caught the attention of politicians at home and abroad. Birch followed in 1987 with the book \"Job creation in America : how our smallest companies put the most people to work\". Birch's work has been heavily criticized but is nevertheless considered groundbreaking as it opened the field for the study of small businesses, which had been so far disregarded by economists.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "24854552", "title": "Post–World War II economic expansion", "section": "Section::::Causes.:International cooperation.:Institutional arrangements.:US Council of Economic Advisers.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 56, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 56, "end_character": 412, "text": "In the United States, the Employment Act of 1946 set the goals of achieving full employment, full production, and stable prices. It also created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues. In its first 7 years the CEA made five technical advances in policy making:\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "902849", "title": "Florida Panhandle", "section": "Section::::Economy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 50, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 50, "end_character": 209, "text": "Major employers in the second half of the twentieth century included Monsanto and Westinghouse plants at Pensacola, the St. Joe Paper Company in Port St. Joe, and Gulf Power, a major electric utility company.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3189365", "title": "Fiscal policy of the United States", "section": "Section::::History.:World War II and effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 11, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 11, "end_character": 651, "text": "The Employment Act of 1946 was enacted by the government to keep the economy from plunging back into a post-war depression. The act declared the continuing policy and responsibility of the federal government to use all reasonable means to promote maximum (not full) employment, production, and purchasing power. In addition to focusing on keeping unemployment rates low, the act called for the creation of the Council of Economic Advisors. This council had the task of assisting the president in appointing members to the Joint Economic Committee in the United States Congress and continuing to develop the role of fiscal policy in the United States.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Child marriage was never really \"appropriate\" in Western culture; it barely happened. According to parish records, the average age for marriage was between 17 and 25 across much of Europe in the middle ages. The average age for women was 20 to 26 in Elizabethan England, and many writers of the time condemned child marriages.\n\nChild betrothals were performed between aristocratic families to cement dynasties but it was never a common practice, and they usually waited until at least early adulthood before marriages took place (since children often died). There are of course exceptions among the nobility, as with Henry VII's mother [giving birth to him when she was just 13] (_URL_0_).\n\nYou'll find pedophilia apologists trying to argue that marriage and sex between adults and children was \"normal\" in the middle ages, but this doesn't hold up to fact. It didn't make sense for an adult to marry a child, neither socially nor economically, and marrying children to one another before they've had a chance to establish themselves and their skills didn't make much sense either.\n\nThe stuff about average marriage ages in 16th- and 17th- c. England comes from *Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Life-Cyle in Tudor and Stuart England*, by David Cressy. *Medieval Households* by David Herlihy has something similar to say about the High Middle Ages.\n\nI'll defer to a good friend of mine who has this to say about early modern Jewish marriages, which sometimes took place between 12-14 year olds for several very important reasons:\n\n > First, unlike Christians, most Jews didn't own land. Their property was more often in the form of businesses and the goods involved in them. That means some of the most important things parents could bequeath their children also took the form of the experience, knowledge, and connections (quite) young couples would need to make their own livings. When couples married young, parents could take an active part in the early years of their marriages, show them how to manage their money and their business affairs, and set them up with houses and in their professions. Perhaps unsurprisingly when you consider how young they were, a lot of young couples spent the first years of their marriage living under the roof of the bride or groom's parents. The short answer is that for many well-off-ish Jewish couples looking to the future of their children, their inheritance required a lot more direct involvement than, say, the inheritance of a farm.\n\nI have limited knowledge and I may be wrong, but I hope this was helpful.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A bit of a c/p I did last month, but I'm going to go one step further than Wolfalice and say it never happened, but that will depend on what is meant by 'marriage'. From the middle ages to the Early Modern period, the Catholic church tended to leave the age of consent to the area in which it operated. The majority places put the age of consent at a minimum of 12 to the mid teens, and some 'barbarian' tribes had that in the early 20's.\n\nAround 1150, a jurist named Gratian put together what is known as the [Decretum Gratiani](_URL_0_), which laid down a [couple of rules for marriage](_URL_3_), namely that both parties to the marriage had to be able to consent verbally to what was going on. Previously the mere existence of your presence was enough, but Gratian forced the verbal aspect. So you could be betrothed at the earliest age of 7, but this was only part of the process, as you then have to be at the age of consent (aetus nubilis) which was 12 for girls and 14 for boys. To be 'properly' married meant consummation, and that was fixed at the age of puberty which coincidentally was about 12 for girls, 14 for boys. So to wit:\n\n1. Get arranged with some girl (minimum 7, but often much older)\n2. Consent to the marriage (12 for girls, 14 for boys)\n3. Disregard currency, acquire females (puberty) \n\nGratian was really interested in the 'consent' part of the process which is why you had to be old enough to understand what was happening to get married. The other question is 'what does puberty mean?' \n\nPope Gregory IX decided that there were too many [decretals](_URL_1_) (pontifical letters) floating about and that they needed to be collated - so in the easiest historical date to remember, around 2000 decretals were published in 1234 in what was known as the *Decretales Gregorii IX* or as most people understand know it, *Liber extra*. This is where puberty is discussed in lots of excruciating detail. 14 letters from various popes discussed what puberty meant. Archbishop Isodore [said](_URL_3_) (you'll have to search for his name) that:\n > Pubescents are called from \"pubis\" that is, they are named from the pudenda of the body when these places first bring forth soft hair. Some think puberty depends on age, that is, when a boy has completed fourteen years he is pubescent, even when he becomes pubescent very late. But he certainly is pubescent when he shows puberty from the appearance of his body and is able to procreate. Girls are pubescent who can bear during the years of puberty.\n\nSo there you have one of the many descriptions of what counts as puberty.\n\nCuriously, simply because you were able to have sex and procreate didn't necessarily mean that you should. Hilderburg of Bingen and Albertus Magnus stated that having children too early would result in weak offspring, so it was often suggested that while you could have children/sex, don't, as your 'seed' would be too weak.\n\n\nTL:DR: You could be married as a child, but no hanky-panky took place until you hit puberty.\n\nFor more mediaeval marriage mayhem, check out [Medieval Maidens: Young Women and Gender in England, c.1270-c.1540 by Kim M. Philips](_URL_2_) although there are a number of other books floating around.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "23698422", "title": "Marriage in modern China", "section": "Section::::Parental involvement.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 32, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 32, "end_character": 655, "text": "The marriage decisions in pre-modern China traditionally were made by parents with the help of matchmakers, and the fate of the children were determined at an early age. Since the reforms in the twentieth century, and the implementation of the marriage law, such practices have been outlawed. Legally the decision to marry lies in the freedom of choice of a man or woman to choose their partners. Before the Mao Era, and during the period of late imperial China, young people had almost no choice about their own marriage. Parents or older generations decided everything for them, on who should be their mate and the amount of money spent on the wedding.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19728", "title": "Marriage", "section": "Section::::Types.:Child marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 61, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 61, "end_character": 709, "text": "Child marriage was common throughout history, even up until the 1900s in the United States, where in 1880 CE, in the state of Delaware, the age of consent for marriage was 7 years old. Still, in 2017, over half of the 50 United States have no explicit minimum age to marry and several states set the age as low as 14. Today it is condemned by international human rights organizations. Child marriages are often arranged between the families of the future bride and groom, sometimes as soon as the girl is born. However, in the late 1800s in England and the United States, feminist activists began calling for raised age of consent laws, which was eventually handled in the 1920s, having been raised to 16-18.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1516511", "title": "Women in India", "section": "Section::::Crimes against women.:Child marriage.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 156, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 156, "end_character": 487, "text": "Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India but is not so continued in Modern India to this day. Historically, child brides would live with their parents until they reached puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society. Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 is the relevant legislation in the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "40888274", "title": "Child marriage in Pakistan", "section": "Section::::Causes for Child Marriages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 868, "text": "The problem of child marriage is at times justified on the basis of religious foundations. Historically, it can be explained as a reaction to invasions by foreigners; desire to perpetuate the cult of the family by marrying the son early; by marrying the daughter early to escape the discredit caused to the family by the presence of grown-up maiden; or by desire of the mother to marry her son early so that she may sooner obtain the possession of a daughter-in-law in whom the mother could inculcate her habits of obedience and who could share the domestic chores with the mother. In the case of parents, sometimes it is due to their keenness to relieve themselves of the responsibility of marrying their daughter. They are also considered socially acceptable for reasons of responsibility and economically desirable for saving marriage expenses, bride price/ dowry.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43047687", "title": "Fornication", "section": "Section::::Across history, cultures, and laws.:Roman Empire.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 141, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 141, "end_character": 411, "text": "During the sixth century, Emperor Justinian formulated legislation that was to become the basis of Western marriage law for the next millennia. Under his laws, cohabiting couples were no longer recognised as married and their children were regarded as illegitimate, with the same status as the children of prostitutes. However, the status of illegitimate children could be updated if the parents later married.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2277678", "title": "Forced marriage", "section": "Section::::Historical context.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 773, "text": "In Europe, during the late 18th century and early 19th century, the literary and intellectual movement of romanticism presented new and progressive ideas about love marriage, which started to gain acceptance in society. In the 19th century, marriage practices varied across Europe, but in general, arranged marriages were more common among the upper class. Arranged marriages were the norm in Russia before early 20th century, most of which were endogamous. Child marriages were common historically, but began to be questioned in the 19th and 20th century. Child marriages are often considered to be forced marriages, because children (especially young ones) are not able to make a fully informed choice whether or not to marry, and are often influenced by their families.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1653", "title": "Age of consent", "section": "Section::::History and social attitudes.:Traditional attitudes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 27, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 27, "end_character": 541, "text": "In Christian societies, sex outside marriage was forbidden. Older children were themselves often punished for being complicit in sexual interaction with an adult. Western Christianity also deemed that children were born into the original sin, and, as such, were perceived as inherently immoral. Children had very few rights and were considered the chattel of the father. From the late 18th century, and especially in the 19th century, attitudes started to change. By the mid-19th century there was increased concern over child sexual abuse.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "From an economic standpoint, there is a theory that this will actually increase album sales. It is based on the idea that psychologically, you want to do something for someone who gives you something. So, naturally, the thing to do in this situation is to buy the album, even if you can listen to it for free.\n\nAdditionally, singers traditionally don't make that much from album sales as opposed to what they make from concert tickets. By giving away songs, the singer hopes it will make you more likely to come see him/her in concert.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Have you ever heard of YouTube monetization system? They can get money from the ad that plays before the music starts, at next to no cost.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "4102558", "title": "Parikrama (band)", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 413, "text": "They are yet to release a full-length album, because they prefer giving out their music for free. They have had millions of downloads from their site and other related pages. They did release a free multimedia CD of their singles and videos in 2001. The band does not have any policies against their music being copied and distributed. They have made their music available for download on their official website.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23305132", "title": "Libre.fm", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 365, "text": "A goal of the project is to encourage artists to release tracks under a free license, and allow users to download or purchase these tracks. Only artists releasing music under free content licenses are promoted by the site. The website will also allow users to communicate among themselves, create groups of common interests and share information on musical events.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "29378641", "title": "Bandcamp", "section": "Section::::Model.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 390, "text": "Fans can download their purchases or stream their music on the Bandcamp app. They can also send purchased music as a gift, view lyrics, and save individual songs or albums to a wish list. Uploading music to Bandcamp is free, and the company takes a 15% cut of sales made from their website (in addition to payment processing fees), which drops to 10% after an artist's sales surpass $5000.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14872779", "title": "Daytrotter", "section": "Section::::Content.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 486, "text": "The site typically hosts around 60 songs by 17 bands per week, almost all available as downloads. The site used to not be free, with a forced membership with a monthly fee to listen to the songs or download them since 2011, but as of March 1, 2018 it has returned to having free streaming. There is an archives section of past performers, each illustrated by a staff of illustrators. In addition to music, there are sections of reviews and commentaries of musicians and their releases.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "18938226", "title": "Digital rights management", "section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Digital content as promotion for traditional products.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 151, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 151, "end_character": 516, "text": "Many artists are using the Internet to give away music to create awareness and liking to a new upcoming album. The artists release a new song on the internet for free download, which consumers can download. The hope is to have the listeners buy the new album because of the free download. A common practice used today is releasing a song or two on the internet for consumers to indulge. In 2007, Radiohead released an album named \"In Rainbows\", in which fans could pay any amount they want, or download it for free.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "9815218", "title": "Imeem", "section": "Section::::Products.:imeem.com.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 225, "text": "Registered users of the site could stream and share millions of songs and tens of thousands of music videos free of charge, with the costs for licensing and streaming supported by advertising on the site and on imeem Mobile.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "34480424", "title": "Lost Gravity", "section": "Section::::History.:Power trio.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 22, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 22, "end_character": 203, "text": "During 2011 the band also made all their music available for free download or pay as you like to adapt their model to the mp3 age where most fans choose to download the music rather than buy the albums.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "This is a vague question and has many different points that can and should be considered. But in all, I will do my best to provide an answer to a general battle during the early Medieval period. First and foremost, open battles happened quite infrequently. I mean, very rarely did to opposing forces march to an open field, size each other up and then proceed to give them the business. With that being said...\n\n\nAny armed force that moves about is going to comprise a long chain of soldiers, wagons, tents and various supporters and retainers. Squires and horses for nobility. Each noble or knight could have a couple horses. Blacksmiths. Fletchers. Cooks and pages to prepare food. Some form of surgeon would be present for those of the upper echelon. And the best part is that almost none of these people would see a battle. They would be at a camp that was nearby. Also, we have to remember that a majority of the forces would be levies from the feudal estates of various lords, barons, knights, aka the landed gentry. The levies typically are only there fighting after the planting season and before the harvest (between spring and fall). They are more often conscripted to fight for their lord or face punishment. They don't have retainers or squires to help carry stuff or their equipment. They carry it themselves. They end up feeding themselves. They also typically walked everywhere without the chance to ride a horse.\n\n\nAs for a battle, it depends in large part to location, weather and position. Battles do and don't last very long. Some battles are very fast and over quickly due to a complete breakdown in morale if heavy cavalry is involved or if an ambush is sprung. Battles could last days if there were an open field siege (Hussite Wars where the Bohemians created wagon forts to defend from with spears, crossbows and early gun powder weapons).\n\n\nI digress, so I will list some assumptions - this battle is part of a larger conflict between two European crowns; the armies are comprised of the typical feudal arrangement of relatively few nobles and knights in comparison to the levies that make up a large portion of spear troops that are lightly armed; the armies themselves are being led by a semi-important to important general with some relation to the royal family (blood or political); last, we will assume this was a straightforward battle without much in regard to trickery, flanking or betrayal - good ole fashioned battle between two armies and only a few nearby villages or towns.\n\n\nIn medieval battle, the goal was not to destroy the enemy completely, although that would have been a bonus if you were invading or defending lands. It was much more important to route or break an enemy army and then take prisoners of worth for ransom. A member of the royal family or someone important in the aristocracy could be ransomed and pay for an entire campaign or fighting season. Lesser lords and nobles would obviously bring less in terms of ransom, but their household or the crown would actually pay the ransom. The peasant levies would still be captured as they pose a potential threat if left behind enemy lines. The levies carried no real worth for ransom except to their feudal lord - the lord would still need to have people available for harvest after the fighting season. As a battle ends, one army is broken and retreats. There will be a time during the evening that people are sent forward to locate anyone important that might have fallen (see articles regarding Charles of Burgundy being located after his last battle and identified because of his scars). Both sides of the conflict would send out these people, also comprised of monks or priests to provide last rights to the dying. Each army would have returned to their respective camps after the battle to assess damage, losses, gains, prisoners, potential ransoms, etc. This would then play into the next parlay between the forces - basically a way to say...\"I have this person and these lords, what will you trade me for them?\"\n\nQuick and dirty version - the armies will withdraw from the field to their own camps, prisoners have been captured and their ransom value assessed. People will check for others on the battlefield that have fallen but have not yet died. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "46857968", "title": "Battle of Rednitz", "section": "Section::::Strategic consequences.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 2227, "text": "After 4 years (907-910) of heavy defeats (Pressburg, Eisenach, Augsburg, Rednitz) from the hands of the Hungarian mounted archers, every of which resulting with the annihilation of the armies (this causing a \"shortage\" in soldiers to the Germans), and the deaths of the German commanders (among them princes, dukes, counts, margraves, bishops, archbishops), the German kings (Conrad I of Germany, Henry the Fowler) and other political leaders, decided not to fight again in an open field with the obviously tactically superior Magyars, fearing to have the same fate of their predecessors, but they retreated in their castles and walled towns (knowing that the Hungarians are not very skilled in sieges, because they have no siege equipments), waiting until they left their countries filled with spoils. It is interesting to know that not only the Germans who shared borders with the Hungarians chose not to fight with them (for example in 924 the German king Henry the Fowler retreated in his castle of Werla, instead of defending his duchy with fight, when hearing that the Hungarians crossed Saxony's borders, and started to plunder his realm), but also the French too, for example in 919, when the Hungarians invaded Lotharingia and France, the king Charles the Simple wanted to gather the forces of his kingdom against them, only the archbishop of Reims appeared from the nobles of the whole kingdom, who obviously hearing about the risks of a battle with the archers from the Carpathian Basin from the news which came from Germany, decided not to participate in a war against them, so the king withdrawed together with his 1500 soldiers, letting the Magyars to pillage his country. Because the fear of the European political and military leaders of the encounter with the Hungarians, after the years until 910, when in only four years (907-910) occurred four major battles (Battle of Pressburg in 907, Battle of Eisenach in 908, Battle of Augsburg in 910 and Battle of Rednitz), between 910 and 933 just two major battles took place between the Hungarians and their enemies: in 913 the Battle of Inn (a Bavarian-Swabian victory), and in 919 the Battle of Püchen (the Hungarians defeated the German king Henry the Fowler).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1972708", "title": "Battle of annihilation", "section": "Section::::Alternatives to the battle of annihilation.:Risk and cost.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 554, "text": "This was an especially important consideration during the pre-Napoleonic era, when armies were relatively small forces composed of professional career soldiers and losses were difficult to replace. Besides, weakening one's own army might expose it to other enemies, or political struggles, and even internal enemies: a pretender to the throne or a coalition of nobles might challenge the king, a province might rebel to the central government or a third nation could exploit the situation, while the main army suffered heavy casualties after the battle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "42586", "title": "Władysław II Jagiełło", "section": "Section::::King of Poland.:Last conflicts.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 425, "text": "In 1414, a sporadic new war broke out, known as the \"Hunger War\" from the Knights' scorched-earth tactics of burning fields and mills; but both the Knights and the Lithuanians were too exhausted from the previous war to risk a major battle, and the fighting petered out in the autumn. Hostilities did not flare up again until 1419, during the Council of Constance, when they were called off at the papal legate's insistence.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1290068", "title": "Unstrut", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 528, "text": "In 531, according to the \"Decem Libri\" of Gregory of Tours, the decisive battle between the Franconians and Thuringians took place along the Unstrut, which resulted in the destruction and annexation of the early medieval Thuringian kingdom by the Frankish empire. In 933 the German king Henry I fought, after a ten-year truce, against a Hungarian army in the Battle of Riade, a place near the Unstrut, but which is now unknown. His victory led to a period of peace, until the Hungarians returned in 955 and were defeated again.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "879716", "title": "Kingdom of Hungary", "section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:High Middle Ages.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 467, "text": "After his death, a period of revolts and conflict for supremacy ensued between the royalty and the nobles. In 1051 armies of the Holy Roman Empire tried to conquer Hungary, but they were defeated at Vértes Mountain. The armies of the Holy Roman Empire continued to suffer defeats; the second greatest battle was at the town now called Bratislava, in 1052. Before 1052 Peter Orseolo, a supporter of the Holy Roman Empire, was overthrown by king Samuel Aba of Hungary.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "25862167", "title": "Korbeek-Lo", "section": "Section::::History.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 357, "text": "The end of the medieval period was a time of suffering, notably at the hands of Emperor Maximillian (1488-1489) and during the Siege of Louvain by Maarten van Rossum in 1542, and again during the religious wars of the late sixteenth century, the campaigning following the creation of the Franco-Dutch alliance of 1635 and again the French invasion of 1695.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "27598309", "title": "History of Hungary", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 532, "text": "After the extinction of the Árpád dynasty in 1301, the late medieval kingdom persisted, albeit no longer under Hungarian monarchs, and gradually reduced due to the increasing pressure by the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. Hungary bore the brunt of the Ottoman wars in Europe during the 15th century. The peak of this struggle took place during the reign of Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490). The Ottoman–Hungarian wars concluded in significant loss of territory and the partition of the kingdom after the Battle of Mohács of 1526.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Did you dye it brown? When you lighten hair with a bleach, it does damage it and makes it more vulnerable to harsh chemicals (shampoos) radiation (the sun), wind and any other stress. Also if you dyed it brown, the dye would likely fade off revealing the bleached hair underneath.\n\nMost dark hair has some red/gold/coppery undertones. A lot of the girls in Asia lighten their hair and so their hair all has the same reddish tint. Ditto Latinas.\n\nFYI, Once when I lightened my normally dark hair to a medium brown color and while I was standing in line to pay for lunch at a cafeteria, I looked up and saw myself on the surveillance camera monitor screen, and my hair looked perfectly blond!\n\nI asked someone about this and was told it probably had something to do with the \"infra red\" camera.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Did you dye it brown? When you lighten hair with a bleach, it does damage it and makes it more vulnerable to harsh chemicals (shampoos) radiation (the sun), wind and any other stress. Also if you dyed it brown, the dye would likely fade off revealing the bleached hair underneath.\n\nMost dark hair has some red/gold/coppery undertones. A lot of the girls in Asia lighten their hair and so their hair all has the same reddish tint. Ditto Latinas.\n\nFYI, Once when I lightened my normally dark hair to a medium brown color and while I was standing in line to pay for lunch at a cafeteria, I looked up and saw myself on the surveillance camera monitor screen, and my hair looked perfectly blond!\n\nI asked someone about this and was told it probably had something to do with the \"infra red\" camera.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "25832512", "title": "Lightfastness", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 421, "text": "Light encountering a painted surface can either alter or break the chemical bonds of the pigment, causing the colors to bleach or change in a process known as photodegradation. Materials that resist this effect are said to be lightfast. The electromagnetic spectrum of the sun contains wavelengths from gamma waves to radio waves. The high energy of ultraviolet radiation in particular accelerates the fading of the dye.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "417422", "title": "Flag of Argentina", "section": "Section::::Design.:Sun of May.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 347, "text": "In 1978 the sun color was specified to be golden yellow (), to have an inner diameter of 10 cm, and an outer diameter of 25 cm (the diameter of the sun equals the height of the white stripe. The sun's face is of its height). It features 32 rays, alternately wavy and straight, and from 1978 it must be embroidered in the \"Official Flag Ceremony\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13480073", "title": "Hot roots", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 795, "text": "After the hair is lightened (the natural hues are destroyed) to a sufficient level, the pigment within the artificial color will, ideally, in perfect blue-red-yellow balance, replace the recently destroyed natural pigment. Often, hair that has been lightened will exhibit a redder or more orange tone than it did previously. This is because there is not enough blue pigment present to visually balance the red and yellow pigmentation (both natural and artificial) that remains. Understandably, hair color manufacturers elect to err on the side of turning hair a little too red, in the absence of enough blue, instead of possibly giving the hair a purple or blue tint, in the absence of enough yellow and/or red pigmentation (as might be the case when applied to grey or very light blonde hair).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "591280", "title": "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation", "section": "Section::::Theory.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 17, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 17, "end_character": 605, "text": "Where formula_13 is the emission spectrum of the sun, and formula_7 is the emission spectrum of the paint. Although, by Kirchhoff's law, formula_15 in the above equations, the above \"averages\" formula_16 and formula_17 are not generally equal to each other. The white paint will serve as a very good insulator against solar radiation, because it is very reflective of the solar radiation, and although it therefore emits poorly in the solar band, its temperature will be around room temperature, and it will emit whatever radiation it has absorbed in the infrared, where its emission coefficient is high.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "439075", "title": "Hair coloring", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 319, "text": "Hair coloring, or hair dyeing, is the practice of changing the hair color. The main reasons for this are cosmetic: to cover gray or white hair, to change to a color regarded as more fashionable or desirable, or to restore the original hair color after it has been discolored by hairdressing processes or sun bleaching.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "365150", "title": "Impression, Sunrise", "section": "Section::::Style.:Luminance.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 349, "text": "Although it may seem that the Sun is the brightest spot on the canvas, it is in fact, when measured with a photometer, the same brightness (or luminance) as the sky. Dr. Margaret Livingstone, a professor of neurobiology at Harvard University, said \"If you make a black and white copy of \"Impression: Sunrise\", the Sun disappears [almost] entirely.\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "13480073", "title": "Hot roots", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 441, "text": "It is helpful to understand the general nature of the lightening, or \"lifting\", of natural hair color. The color of natural hair is determined by the melanin present. Generally, the more melanin, the darker the hair. In order for the color of hair to be lightened, a chemical must penetrate the cuticle of the hair, enter the cortex and destroy the melanin. Permanent hair color, bleach and other decolorants can do this to varying degrees.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Many of the customs survived. If you go by John Thornton's Africans and the Making of the Atlantic World, many of the Slaves, though coming from different kingdoms had many language and religious similarities. So when new Africans arrived in the United States there was little trouble in recreating a society they knew. The biggest change is that it was in the context under English masters. The result is something of a creole culture that combines many elements of AFrica and Anglo culture. Gullah is an example of a language that survives to this day and is a creation of this cultural mix. To hear it go here _URL_0_ . Gullah is still spoken today in parts of Charleston South Carolina.\n\nIra Berlin gives a little different view in \"Many Thousands Gone\". He states that the Middle Passage, the carrying of slaves from Africa to America, was such a harrowing experience that it more or less shattered the slave psyche. This combined with large language differences made the reconstruction of African culture very difficult, instead entirely new cultures were developed.\n\nOut of the two of them, I would say Thornton was more correct, as he is an African historian and would be more knowledgeable about African cultural differences.\n\nElements of African culture still pervade African American society today, I would doubt that any of it has been truly \"lost\".", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "53870916", "title": "Native American slave ownership", "section": "Section::::African chattel slavery by Native Americans in the American Southeast.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 23, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 23, "end_character": 779, "text": "While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "39118667", "title": "Native American cultures in the United States", "section": "Section::::Interracial relations.:Relation with African Americans.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 121, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 121, "end_character": 779, "text": "While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21217", "title": "Native Americans in the United States", "section": "Section::::Interracial relations.:Native American and African relations.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 323, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 323, "end_character": 778, "text": "While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men who had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "11237993", "title": "Cherokee freedmen controversy", "section": "Section::::History.:Slavery among the Cherokee.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 636, "text": "From the late 1700s to the 1860s, the Five Civilized Tribes in the American Southeast began to adopt some colonial and American customs. Some men acquired separate land and became planters, buying African-American slaves for laborers in field work, domestic service, and various trades. The 1809 census taken by Cherokee agent Colonel Return J. Meigs, Sr. counted 583 \"Negro slaves\" held by Cherokee slaveowners. By 1835, that number increased to 1,592 slaves, with more than seven percent (7.4%) of Cherokee families owning slaves. This was a higher percentage than generally across the South, where about 5% of families owned slaves.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2832176", "title": "Black Indians in the United States", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 1176, "text": "Historically, certain Native American tribes have had close relations with African Americans, especially in regions where slavery was prevalent, or where free people of color have historically resided. Members of the Five Civilized Tribes participated in holding enslaved African Americans in the Southeast, and some enslaved or formerly enslaved people migrated with them to the West on the Trail of Tears in 1830 and later during the period of Indian Removal. In peace treaties with the US after the American Civil War, the slaveholding tribes, which had sided with the Confederacy, were required to emancipate slaves and give them full citizenship rights in their nations. In controversial actions, since the late 20th century, the Cherokee, Creek, and Seminole nations tightened their rules for membership and at times excluded Freedmen who did not have at least one ancestor listed as Native American on the early 20th-century Dawes Rolls. This exclusion was later appealed in the courts, both because of the treaty conditions and in some cases because of possible inaccuracies in some of the Rolls. The Chickasaw Nation never extended citizenship to Chickasaw Freedmen.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "253264", "title": "Slavery in the United States", "section": "Section::::Native Americans.:Native Americans as slaves.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 264, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 264, "end_character": 592, "text": "Slavery of Native Americans was organized in colonial and Mexican California through Franciscan missions, theoretically entitled to ten years of Native labor, but in practice maintaining them in perpetual servitude, until their charge was revoked in the mid-1830s. Following the 1847–48 invasion by U.S. troops, the \"loitering or orphaned Indians\" were de facto enslaved in the new state from statehood in 1850 to 1867. Slavery required the posting of a bond by the slave holder and enslavement occurred through raids and a four-month servitude imposed as a punishment for Indian \"vagrancy\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2832176", "title": "Black Indians in the United States", "section": "Section::::History.:Native American slave ownership.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 37, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 37, "end_character": 626, "text": "As the United States Constitution and the laws of several states permitted slavery after the American Revolution (while northern states prohibited it), Native Americans were legally allowed to own slaves, including those brought from Africa by Europeans. In the 1790s, Benjamin Hawkins was the federal agent assigned to the southeastern tribes. Promoting assimilation to European-American mores, he advised the tribes to take up slaveholding so that they could undertake farming and plantations as did other Americans. The Cherokee tribe had the most members who held black slaves, more than any other Native American nation.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Some people drive faster than others. Passing on the driver's side is usually safer, which usually means passing on the left.\n\nAll the people merging in and out tend to slow down the outside lanes a bit, too.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In many states, traffic laws are in place requiring slow moving traffic to keep to the right most lane. This makes the slow lane slower than the speed limit and the fast lane move at or above the speed limit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Legally, in theory the idea is that not everyone is going to go *exactly* the speed limit. It's the limit-- you can't go over it, but you can go varying degrees under it. So some people will go 65, some will go 60, and the people going 65 need to pass the ones going 60 to avoid congestion.\n\nPractically, everyone understands not everyone's really going to abide by the speed limit and it'll clear traffic to let the people going 75 have a lane to pass. This also helps alleviate aggressive drivers who want to go 75 tailgating those who want to obey the speed limit.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "For a start, some vehicles are restricted to speeds lower than the speed limit and some people are just more comfortable cruising at a slightly lower speed. Remember, it is a limit not a minimum target.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "In GA the speed limit on the interstate is most often 70, the minimum speed limit is 40. This means there is 30 mph rate options for a driver without breaking the law. So you need to establish rules so that slower drivers are not causing congestion or dangerous conditions. And yes, you can get a ticket for going too slow in the fast lane, it's a form of reckless driving IIRC. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "43554599", "title": "Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction", "section": "Section::::New Mexico.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 286, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 286, "end_character": 534, "text": "A 65 mph left lane minimum speed limit is sometimes indicated on 75 mph roads with steep grades, \"slower traffic keep right\" is also in effect. On one-way roadways state law reserves the left and center lanes of two or more lanes for passing. There are reduced advisory speed limits for some roads during poor weather. Speeding fines are doubled in construction zones and designated safety corridors, with signs often stating this. There are no longer night speed limits, nor are there any differential speed limits for heavy trucks.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "3649713", "title": "2+1 road", "section": "Section::::By country.:Sweden.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 449, "text": "Until around 2005, the roads had the original speed limit in use on most highways. As a result of this, many people drove at 90 km/h at 1-lane parts but at 2-lane parts, this being the speed limit on motorways. The speed limit has now been changed to with a notably smoother traffic flow. There is a problem that some people want to overtake as many slow cars as possible in two-lane section, sometimes with small margins at the end of the section.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1148773", "title": "Passing lane", "section": "Section::::Misuse and common practice in the United States.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 18, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 18, "end_character": 286, "text": "In some areas, such as the U.S. states of Colorado and Kentucky, vehicles in the left lane are required to yield to faster traffic only if the speed limit is above 65 miles per hour. In other areas, like Alaska, there is no law requiring slower traffic to move over for faster traffic.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "43554599", "title": "Speed limits in the United States by jurisdiction", "section": "Section::::West Virginia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 461, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 461, "end_character": 519, "text": "Speed limits on 4-lane divided highways are normally 65 mph although some stretches within cities are posted as low as 50 mph. Open country highways have a statutory limit of 55 mph, which includes most rural two-lane highways and even includes some one lane back country roads or any road without a posted speed limit. Cities and towns set their own speed limits, which are usually between 25 and 55 mph. School zones have a statutory speed limit of 20 mph. Speed limits are commonly reduced by 15 mph in work zones. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "28572201", "title": "Speed limits in Croatia", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 8, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 8, "end_character": 396, "text": "Due to legal requirements for speed measuring, the speed limits for expressways and freeways are de facto and , respectively. The limits shown above apply only if there are no other signs present, as the signs may prescribe a lower or a higher speed limit (limits of 100 km/h or higher can also be found within inhabited places). The lowest legal speed limit under normal traffic conditions is .\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14741278", "title": "Driving in the United States", "section": "Section::::The rules of the road.:Speed limits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 7, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 7, "end_character": 523, "text": "Speed limits are set by each state or territory, as well as counties or municipalities, on the roads within their jurisdiction. The maximum speed limit on rural two-lane roads ranges from 50 mph (80 km/h) in parts of the northeast to 75 mph (120 km/h) in parts of Texas. On rural Interstate Highways and other freeways, the speed limit ranges from 60 mph (96 km/h) in Hawaii to 85 mph (136 km/h) in parts of Texas. All roads in the United States have a speed limit, but it is not always posted (especially in rural areas).\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "78809", "title": "Speed limit", "section": "Section::::Regulations.:Minimum speed limits.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 38, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 38, "end_character": 432, "text": "Some roads also have minimum speed limits, usually where slow speeds can impede traffic flow or be dangerous. The use of minimum speed limits is not as common as maximum speed limits, since the risks of speed are less common at lower speeds. In some jurisdictions, laws requiring a minimum speed are primarily centered around red-light districts or similar areas, where they may colloquially be referred to as \"kerb crawling laws\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Subconscious mind solves it for you with all of the acquired knowledge and experience. This won't happen if you've no knowledge. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "954571", "title": "Speedcubing", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 98, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 98, "end_character": 218, "text": "BULLET::::- Pop : When, during a solve, one or more cubies come out of contact with the puzzle, usually causing the puzzle to be unstable, in which, upon turning, more pieces may become loose and possibly pop out too.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "30445334", "title": "Fixes that fail", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 287, "text": "In a \"fixes that fail\" scenario the encounter of a problem is faced by a corrective action or fix that seems to solve the issue. However, this action leads to some unforeseen consequences. They form then a feedback loop that either worsens the original problem or creates a related one.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "125297", "title": "Dynamic programming", "section": "Section::::Overview.:Computer programming.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 30, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 30, "end_character": 563, "text": "BULLET::::- \"Top-down approach\": This is the direct fall-out of the recursive formulation of any problem. If the solution to any problem can be formulated recursively using the solution to its sub-problems, and if its sub-problems are overlapping, then one can easily memoize or store the solutions to the sub-problems in a table. Whenever we attempt to solve a new sub-problem, we first check the table to see if it is already solved. If a solution has been recorded, we can use it directly, otherwise we solve the sub-problem and add its solution to the table.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7823769", "title": "Ross–Littlewood paradox", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 289, "text": "The problem starts with an empty vase and an infinite supply of balls. An infinite number of steps are then performed, such that at each step 10 balls are added to the vase and 1 ball removed from it. The question is then posed: \"How many balls are in the vase when the task is finished?\"\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "50937281", "title": "Society Game", "section": "Section::::Team Challenges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 80, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 80, "end_character": 453, "text": "If answered incorrectly or not answered within the time limit, the answer is marked incorrect. If one player answers correctly twice in one round, the round will end. When a round ends, a block will be removed for each society's incorrect answers. The quizzes and floor removal will continue until a team is no longer able to stand on the shrinking floor. If a part of a someone's body touches the ground, their society will lose and the game will end.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21917772", "title": "Professor Layton and the Last Specter", "section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Puzzles.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 1350, "text": "In order to solve a puzzle, the player must input an answer on the bottom screen. Sometimes, this will involve tapping a button labelled \"Input Answer\" and writing a word or number that solves the given puzzle. Other times, they might be asked to circle an answer or tap an area on the touch screen, and then hit \"Submit\". Still others are solved automatically once the player finds the solution by interacting with objects on the bottom screen. If the player has made a mistake in solving a puzzle, they can hit the button labelled \"Restart\" to reset the puzzle. Deducted Picarats and purchased hints are not reset if a puzzle is restarted. If the player submits an incorrect answer, they will be asked to repeat the puzzle, and a varying amount of Picarats will be deducted from the maximum possible for that puzzle. If the player submits a correct answer, they are rewarded with the amount of Picarats the puzzle is worth, and the plot will progress. After completing a puzzle, it can be played again at any time from the Puzzle Index, a section in the game's interface that lists the puzzles a player has completed. Occasionally, after completing a puzzle, the player will receive small items that can be used in minigames. Fulfilling certain criteria, such as clearing all levels in a minigame, unlock additional puzzles in the Bonuses section.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1467948", "title": "Problem solving", "section": "Section::::Common barriers.:Unnecessary constraints.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 64, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 64, "end_character": 977, "text": "This problem can be quickly solved with a dawning of realization, or \"insight\". A few minutes of struggling over a problem can bring these sudden insights, where the solver quickly sees the solution clearly. Problems such as this are most typically solved via insight and can be very difficult for the subject depending on either how they have structured the problem in their minds, how they draw on their past experiences, and how much they juggle this information in their working memories In the case of the nine-dot example, the solver has already been structured incorrectly in their minds because of the constraint that they have placed upon the solution. In addition to this, people experience struggles when they try to compare the problem to their prior knowledge, and they think they must keep their lines within the dots and not go beyond. They do this because trying to envision the dots connected outside of the basic square puts a strain on their working memory.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Are you thinking of a specific case or are wondering if this has ever happened?", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "A slightly different scene. The Ottoman emperor Murad II abdicated his throne in favour of his son Mehmed II (aged 12). Murad wanted to pursue the beauty of the life, poetry and was fed up with government work. But when his son Mehmed II took over, there was an imminent danger of a crusade (christian coalition) to take over the Balkans. \n\nNow after this point there are two different view points as to what exactly happened. \n\n1. Some scientists claim that Mehmed II wrote a letter to his father stating \"If you are the Sultan, come and lead your armies. If I am the Sultan I hereby order you to come and lead my armies.\"\n\n2. Some write that the prime minister (vezir) at the time convinced Murad to come back and take over the throne because of the imminent danger. And so Murad just came back to capital and continued his rule until his death. The same prime minister (vezir) was executed shortly after Mehmed conquered Constantinople because it is claimed that Mehmed always held a grudge against him. \n\nIn case of Ottomans they just continued their rule. ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "This is also a slightly different scenario, but something like this did take place in Ming Dynasty China. The Zhengtong Emperor (ruled 1435-49 initially) was a young and impressionable ruler who was convinced by his chief eunuch/crony Wang Zhen to launch an expedition against the Oirat Mongols, who had formed a confederation under a leader named Esen. Esen was seen as dangerous because the Mongols were considered the primary threat to the Ming, having ruled all of China until 1368. Although they had been kicked out, the threat of their regaining strength and retaking China loomed greatly Thus the expedition against Esen was seen as a good way to neutralize a growing threat and to enhance Zhengtong's (and Wang Zhen's) personal prestige.\n\nThe campaign, personally led by Zhengtong, was ill-conceived. Many officials begged the emperor not to undertake it, but Wang Zhen overruled them. When it set out in August 1449, it was disorganized and chaotic, and it wasn't long before even Wang Zhen realized that they would be no match for Esen's well-trained forces. The army withdrew, but Esen's pursuing forces ambushed them at Tumu Pass on 1st September.\n\nIt was an unprecedented catastrophe. The entire army was destroyed, Wang Zhen was killed and Zhengtong taken prisoner. \n\nThis was unprecedented. In China's entire history, no ruler of a united China had ever been taken prisoner before. There was panic in Beijing, but the Minister of War, Yu Qian, convinced the court to put Zhengtong's younger brother on the throne to continue the functioning of government. They agreed and the young man became the Jingtai Emperor.\n\nThis was a difficult issue indeed. Chinese ideological orthodoxy maintained that could only be one \"true\" emperor at a time, and this dilemma only increased after Esen rather sheepishly released Zhengtong in 1450, realizing that Jingtai's continuing rule meant his captive was not a strong bargaining chip. Zhengtong returned to Beijing, but was not reinstated, being given a small stipend to live on, assigned a few rooms in the palace and then ignored by everyone.\n\nHowever, as Jingtai lay dying in 1457, a coup by disgruntled officials restored Zhengtong to the throne and Jingtai died soon after, possibly suffocated on someone other than the emperor's orders. Zhengtong became the Tianshun Emperor in his second reign and lived on until 1465.\n\nA final, fairly amusing point: Zhengtong/Tianshun's posthumous title was Yingzong, or \"the Heroic Ancestor\". Given the total failure of his military exploits, I'd like to think it was meant ironically. \n\nSource: F.W. Mote's *Imperial China: 900 -1800* ", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Sorry, we don't allow [throughout history questions](_URL_0_). These tend to produce threads which are collections of trivia, not the in-depth discussions about a particular topic we're looking for. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again. Alternatively, you may PM /u/caffarelli to have your question considered for an upcoming [Tuesday Trivia](_URL_1_) thread.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "6970425", "title": "Order of succession", "section": "Section::::Monarchies and nobility.:Succession crises.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 55, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 55, "end_character": 477, "text": "When a monarch dies without a clear successor, a succession crisis often results. For example, when King Charles IV of France died, the Hundred Years War erupted between Charles' cousin, Philip VI of France, and Charles' nephew, Edward III of England, to determine who would succeed Charles as the King of France. Where the line of succession is clear, it has sometimes happened that a pretender with a weak or spurious claim but military or political power usurps the throne.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "16661353", "title": "Monarchy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines", "section": "Section::::International and domestic aspects.:Succession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 593, "text": "Upon a \"demise of the Crown\" (the death or abdication of a sovereign), the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremonyhence arises the phrase \"The King is dead. Long live the King!.\" Following an appropriate period of mourning, the monarch is also crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual, but one not necessary for a sovereign to reign. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she typically continues to reign until death, being unable to unilaterally abdicate per the tenets of constitutional monarchy.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "59473804", "title": "List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 21st century", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 249, "text": "The following monarchs either lost their thrones through deposition by a coup d'état, by a referendum which abolished their throne, or chose to abdicate during the 21st century. A list of surviving former monarchs appears at the end of the article.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "209125", "title": "List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 20th century", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 249, "text": "The following monarchs either lost their thrones through deposition by a coup d'état, by a referendum which abolished their throne, or chose to abdicate during the 20th century. A list of surviving former monarchs appears at the end of the article.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6989022", "title": "Line of succession to the former Albanian throne", "section": "Section::::House of Zogu.:Zogu law of succession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 42, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 42, "end_character": 238, "text": "BULLET::::- Article 52. Should the Heir die or lose his rights to the Throne, his eldest son shall succeed. Should the Heir to the Throne die or lose his rights and leave no son, the succession shall pass to the brother coming after him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "15430", "title": "Inheritance", "section": "Section::::Terminology.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 487, "text": "A person does not become an heir before the death of the deceased, since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit is determined only then. Members of ruling noble or royal houses who are expected to become heirs are called heirs apparent if first in line and incapable of being displaced from inheriting by another claim; otherwise, they are heirs presumptive. There is a further concept of joint inheritance, pending renunciation by all but one, which is called coparceny.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1870163", "title": "Cyfraith Hywel", "section": "Section::::Laws of the country.:Succession.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 62, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 62, "end_character": 664, "text": "The eldest son of a king who died before that was barred from direct inheritance but possessed the right to retake the throne himself on the attainment of majority. The number of princes rebelling just prior to their 30th year may even indicate that they were \"required\" to assert their rights at that point or lose them. If the eldest son were ineligible for whatever reason, his brothers, uncles, and first and second cousins were all considered legitimate substitutes. Likewise, even when the eldest son did inherit, other descendants of his great-grandfather were considered legitimate rulers and not usurpers if they were able to wrest control away from him.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "Sleep involves increased secretion of growth hormone, which does stimulate increased protein synthesis in skeletal muscle.\n\n_URL_0_", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "18597893", "title": "Sleep deprivation", "section": "Section::::Physiological effects.:Other effects.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 340, "text": "In addition, as a result of continuous muscular activity without proper rest time, effects such as cramping are much more frequent in sleep-deprived individuals. Extreme cases of sleep deprivation have been reported to be associated with hernias, muscle fascia tears, and other such problems commonly associated with physical overexertion.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1697643", "title": "Muscle tone", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 279, "text": "In physiology, medicine, and anatomy, muscle tone (residual muscle tension or tonus) is the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles, or the muscle's resistance to passive stretch during resting state. It helps to maintain posture and declines during REM sleep.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "841074", "title": "Muscle fatigue", "section": "Section::::Molecular mechanisms.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 389, "text": "Muscle fatigue may be due to precise molecular changes that occur \"in vivo\" with sustained exercise. It has been found that the ryanodine receptor present in skeletal muscle undergoes a conformational change during exercise, resulting in \"leaky\" channels that are deficient in calcium release. These \"leaky\" channels may be a contributor to muscle fatigue and decreased exercise capacity.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "260578", "title": "Muscle relaxant", "section": "Section::::Spasmolytics.:Clinical use.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 19, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 19, "end_character": 329, "text": "In general, muscle relaxants are not approved by FDA for long-term use. However, rheumatologists often prescribe cyclobenzaprine nightly on a daily basis to increase stage 4 sleep. By increasing this sleep stage, patients feel more refreshed in the morning. Improving sleep is also beneficial for patients who have fibromyalgia.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2465588", "title": "Cataplexy", "section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Theories for episodes.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 9, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 9, "end_character": 360, "text": "A phenomenon of REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "659325", "title": "Anesthetic", "section": "Section::::Muscle relaxants.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 54, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 54, "end_character": 235, "text": "Muscle relaxants do not render patients unconscious or relieve pain. Instead, they are sometimes used after a patient is rendered unconscious (induction of anesthesia) to facilitate intubation or surgery by paralyzing skeletal muscle.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "7466120", "title": "Sleep and breathing", "section": "Section::::Normal.:Steady REM Sleep.:Rib cage and abdominal muscle contributions.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 25, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 25, "end_character": 597, "text": "Intercostal muscle activity decreases in REM sleep and contribution of rib cage to respiration decreases during REM sleep. This is due to REM related supraspinal inhibition of alpha motoneuron drive and specific depression of fusimotor function. Diaphraghmatic activity correspondingly increases during REM sleep. Although paradoxical thoracoabdominal movements are not observed, the thoracic and abdominal displacements are not exactly in phase. This decrease in intercostal muscle activity is primarily responsible for hypoventilation that occurs in patients with borderline pulmonary function.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "The bottom line is, yes, there was definitely a racist root to much of it. One of the concerns of the Supreme Court in the infamous Dredd Scott case was that if blacks were citizens, then it would give, horror of horrors, \"to persons of the negro race ... the full liberty of speech ...; to hold public meetings upon political affairs, and to keep and carry arms wherever they went.\" You can imagine how well the concept of armed blacks went over down South.\n\nFortunately, there were plenty of laws on the books prohibiting certain people from being armed, such as one to \"prohibit any negro or mulatto from having fire-arms.\", as addressed by the deliberation for the Civil Rights Act 1866. For more details on the problems occasioned by the 14th Amendment and the fact that the white government could no longer blatantly say that blacks couldn't have guns, check here. _URL_0_\n\nAs a result, modern gun laws came to be crafted a little more creatively. If it was unconstitutional to blatantly say \"Whites can carry guns, blacks can't\", then they had to find more ethereal ways around it. For example, laws on the carriage of concealed weapons could be...discretionary. California's current one is a case in point. The San Francisco Chronicle article on the matter back in 1923 (available about half-way down this PDF _URL_1_ ) is quite open about how the law was carefully crafted to try to avoid unConstitutionality issues. The target in this case was not blacks, but Asians and Latinos. The still-extant law requires that the Sheriff decide that the applicant for a firearm show 'good cause' and 'be of good moral character', a very subjective assessment which, back in the days, effectively meant 'you're white', but today the application of the law has gone more to a race-neutral position based on whether or not the Sheriff likes the idea of an armed private citizenry.\n\nOf course, not all gun control laws were racist. For example, back in the day, it was considered that carrying a firearm concealed was the act of a scourge and scoundrel, and that honest gentlemen carried them openly, this applied to all regardless of race.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "7574447", "title": "A. P. Tureaud", "section": "Section::::Legacy.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 622, "text": "Jim Crow laws arose directly from a Supreme Court ruling which validated a \"states' rights\" notion that blacks and whites could be equally well served using separate but equal public facilities. With \"Plessy v. Ferguson\" (USSC 1896) the United States Supreme Court confirmed the right of state legislatures to enact discriminatory legislation. With this authority, civic organizations throughout the American South moved to restrict citizen access and limit citizens from exercising their civil rights based on the basis of their social and economic status, and on their personal history as descended from a former slave.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "70101", "title": "National Rifle Association", "section": "Section::::Criticism.:Lack of advocacy for black gun owners.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 146, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 146, "end_character": 317, "text": "Adam Winkler, professor of constitutional law at the UCLA School of Law, has argued that there is historical precedence to the NRA's lack of advocacy for black gun owners, noting that the NRA promoted gun control legislation in the 1920s, 1930s and 1960s with the intent to reduce gun ownership by racial minorities.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19481110", "title": "Jim Crow laws", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 626, "text": "These Jim Crow laws revived principles of the 1865 and 1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. Segregation of public (state-sponsored) schools was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in \"Brown v. Board of Education\". In some states it took many years to implement this decision. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but years of action and court challenges have been needed to unravel the many means of institutional discrimination.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2248779", "title": "Constitution of Mississippi", "section": "Section::::History.:1890 constitution.:Provisions.:Gun control.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 95, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 95, "end_character": 1047, "text": "During the late 19th century and well into the early 20th century, there was a growing trend among the governments of southern U.S. states, controlled by Democrats, in implementing stricter and more stringent regulations restrictions on the right of firearms ownership. This was done in order to prevent African Americans from being able to bear arms for the purpose of defending themselves against the ever-growing threat of lynchings, terrorism, and extrajudicial paramilitary violence at the hands of Democrats and white supremacists, designed to prevent black voters from electing Republicans. Mississippi was no stranger to such restrictive laws; an 1817 law even forbade an African American person from being in possession of a canine. As with the sections of the 1890 constitution that disenfranchised black voters, the laws regarding weapons ownership used ostensibly non-discriminatory wording, but were enforced by the state government in an arbitrarily and subjective discriminatory manner, as in many southern U.S. states at the time.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "49001", "title": "Civil rights movement", "section": "Section::::History.:Robert F. Williams and the debate on nonviolence, 1959–1964.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 59, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 59, "end_character": 1211, "text": "The Jim Crow system employed \"terror as a means of social control,\" with the most organized manifestations being the Ku Klux Klan and their collaborators in local police departments. This violence played a key role in blocking the progress of the civil rights movement in the late 1950s. Some black organizations in the South began practicing armed self-defense. The first to do so openly was the Monroe, North Carolina, chapter of the NAACP led by Robert F. Williams. Williams had rebuilt the chapter after its membership was terrorized out of public life by the Klan. He did so by encouraging a new, more working-class membership to arm itself thoroughly and defend against attack. When Klan nightriders attacked the home of NAACP member Dr. Albert Perry in October 1957, Williams' militia exchanged gunfire with the stunned Klansmen, who quickly retreated. The following day, the city council held an emergency session and passed an ordinance banning KKK motorcades. One year later, Lumbee Indians in North Carolina would have a similarly successful armed stand-off with the Klan (known as the Battle of Hayes Pond) which resulted in KKK leader James W. \"Catfish\" Cole being convicted of incitement to riot.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "21015545", "title": "GeorgiaCarry.org", "section": "Section::::Court Briefs and Actions.:United States Federal Court.:District of Columbia v. Heller.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 31, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 31, "end_character": 380, "text": "Dick Heller, the plaintiff in District of Columbia v. Heller, in an interview with radio talk show host Mark Walters, said that the GCO brief really opened his mind that the nascence of Jim Crow laws as gun control in the South. He said that when talking with the press or testifying before the city council, he will be sure to bring up that Jim Crow is alive in Washington, D.C.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "1142431", "title": "African-American history", "section": "Section::::Jim Crow, disenfranchisement and challenges.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 85, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 85, "end_character": 416, "text": "The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly \"separate but equal\" status for black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "They use the same character, 元. That's it. It's a common character, meaning \"round\" or \"round coin\".\n\nTo elaborate, the Yuan dynasty was a period of Mongol rule over China, from c. 1260 (de facto, 1271 officially) to 1368 (1380 if you count the Northern Yuan dynasty when the Mongols retreated to Mongolia after Kublai Khan's death and subsequently being driven out of China.\n\n***\n\nThe Chinese Yuan, referring to the currency, 圆 formally but commonly the above character, is the basic unit of Chinese currency, much like the dollar is to many other currencies of the world. It was first minted during the Qing dynasty between 1888 and 1898 in various provinces.\n\nWhile the modern rendering is officially rénmínbì (人民币) or People's Currency, in daily use 元 is far more common, or kuài (块) or \"piece\" in certain parts of China.\n\nReferences: \n_URL_0_ \n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_3_ \n_URL_2_\n\nEdited for formatting.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "309769", "title": "Spanish dollar", "section": "Section::::History.:Asia.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 43, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 43, "end_character": 320, "text": "The first Chinese yuan coins had the same specification as a Spanish dollar, leading to a continuing equivalence in some respects between the names \"yuan\" and \"dollar\" in the Chinese language. Other currencies also derived from the dollar include the Japanese yen, Korean won, Philippine peso and the Malaysian ringgit.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "248943", "title": "Yen sign", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 2, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 2, "end_character": 421, "text": "or yuan sign (¥) is a currency sign used by the Japanese yen and the Chinese yuan currencies. This monetary symbol resembles a Latin letter Y with a single or double horizontal stroke. The symbol is usually placed before the value it represents, for example \"￥50\", unlike the kanji/Chinese character, which is more commonly used in Japanese and Chinese and is written following the amount: 50円 in Japan and 50元 in China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "23600088", "title": "History of the Yuan dynasty", "section": "Section::::History.:Founding of the dynasty.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 13, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 13, "end_character": 816, "text": "The official title of the dynasty, Da Yuan (, \"Great Yuan\"), originates from a Chinese classic text called the \"Commentaries on the Classic of Changes (I Ching)\" whose section regarding Qián () reads \"\" (dà zai Qián Yuán), literally translating to 'Great is Qián, the Primal', with \"Qián\" being the symbol of the Heaven, and the Emperor. Therefore, Yuan was the first dynasty in China to use Da (, \"Great\") in its official title, as well as being the first dynasty to use a title that did not correspond to an ancient region in China. In 1271, Khanbaliq officially became the capital of the Yuan dynasty. In the proclamation of the dynastic name, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to Tang dynasty.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "2279472", "title": "Yuan (currency)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 4, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 4, "end_character": 497, "text": "The symbol for the yuan (元) is also used in Chinese to refer to the currency units of Japan \"(yen)\" and Korea \"(won)\", and is used to translate the currency unit \"dollar\" as well as some other currencies; for example, the United States dollar is called \"Meiyuan\" () in Chinese, and the euro is called \"Ouyuan\" (). When used in English in the context of the modern foreign exchange market, the Chinese yuan (CNY) refers to the renminbi (RMB), which is the official currency used in mainland China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "761108", "title": "Yuan (surname)", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 505, "text": "Historically, the name has been fast growing amongst Han Chinese, and has also been taken up by various non-Chinese ethnic groups. The surname is now held by more than 6.5 million people worldwide, and makes up 0.54% of the population of mainland China. Although growth has tapered off in the past six centuries, the Yuan name is still relatively widespread throughout China, as well as among overseas Chinese, with heaviest per capita concentrations in the Yangtze Delta region of central coastal China.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "66958", "title": "Renminbi", "section": "Section::::History.:Early 20th century.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 14, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 14, "end_character": 289, "text": "A variety of currencies circulated in China during the Republic of China (ROC) era, most of which were denominated in the unit \"yuán\" (Mandarin pronunciation in IPA: ). Each was distinguished by a currency name, such as the \"fabi\" (\"legal tender\"), the \"gold yuan\", and the \"silver yuan\".\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "5905258", "title": "Sycee", "section": "Section::::Name.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 354, "text": "The name \"yuanbao\" is the pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the characters for \"inaugural treasures\". Under China's Tang dynasty, coins were inscribed \"Kai tong\" (, \"Circulating Treasure of the Beginning of an Era\"), later abbreviated to yuanbao. The name was also applied to other non-coin forms of currency. Yuanbao was spelt yamboo\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]

[ { "answer": "More sunlight is a good thing for the tree, as long as it can get enough water. Other trees don't spread out so much because the competition makes it a wasted effort, but in the Savannah the chance of two trees thriving right next to each other is lower. It's easier for a single tree to reach deep enough with its roots to hit water, and then take advantage of the clear sky above.", "provenance": null }, { "answer": "Trees tend to maximize their sun exposure, and they also tend to grow outwards if they are not constrained by their neighbors.\n\nIn the tropics maximum sun exposure is more-or-less top-down and trees make broad crowns when they can.\n\nAll else being equal tall narrow trees tend to be found far to the north or the south were maximum sun exposure means collecting sunshine from a low angle rather than top-down.\n\nCompare [this tropical conifer, a Parana Pine,](_URL_6_) with these [conifers growing in a far northern taiga forest](_URL_2_). The latter photo also highlights another issue, tropical trees, by and large, don't have to deal with snow and ice load breaking them.\n\nAs u/HardlightCereal mentioned, water is a limiting resource and may help to keep the trees you are thinking of ([I'm assuming you're imagining something like one of the Acacia trees](_URL_3_)) spread out widely enough that they don't get in each other's way and inhibit growth. You see something very similar in California with [oaks growing in the California grasslands](_URL_0_). \n\nOne big difference between those examples is that the Acacia trees in the part of Africa you're thinking of are grazed by large animals with a good reach (elephants and giraffes, to name two of the biggest ones). They trim off the lower branches, forcing the tree to grow upward to survive. Once it reaches a height safe from grazing it can spread out to capture maximal sun. California doesn't have any large grazers with a reach like that anymore and the trees no-longer are shaped as much by grazing. Cattle and deer will crop the what they can reach though, leaving trees flat bottomed, [as can be seen on this oak in Florida](_URL_5_).\n\nEDIT: as a side note, you probably mean the [Sahel](_URL_4_) rather than the [Sahara](_URL_1_).", "provenance": null }, { "answer": null, "provenance": [ { "wikipedia_id": "48139", "title": "Amazon rainforest", "section": "Section::::History.:Natural.:Sahara Desert dust windblown to the Amazon.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 15, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 15, "end_character": 301, "text": "A possibility causing the variation is the Sahel, a strip of semi-arid land on the southern border of the Sahara. When rain amounts in the Sahel are higher, the volume of dust is lower. The higher rainfall could make more vegetation grow in the Sahel, leaving less sand exposed to winds to blow away.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14980902", "title": "Mediterranean Acacia-Argania dry woodlands", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 1, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 1, "end_character": 254, "text": "The Mediterranean \"Acacia-Argania\" dry woodlands and succulent thickets is a Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregion in North Africa centered mainly on Morocco but also including northwestern Western Sahara and the eastern Canary Islands. \n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "6140540", "title": "Picconia", "section": "Section::::Description.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 5, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 5, "end_character": 409, "text": "cloud belt. Tree species with laurel-shaped leaves are predominant, forming a dense canopy up to 40 m high that can be hardly trespassed by light, which results in scant vegetation in the understory. Most of these tree species in Africa are ancient paleoendemic species of the genera Laurus, Ocotea, Persea, and Picconia, which in ancient times were widely distributed on the African and European continents.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "19291", "title": "Morocco", "section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.:Precipitation.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 73, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 73, "end_character": 343, "text": "Botanically speaking, Morocco enjoys a great variety of vegetation, from lush large forests of conifer and oak trees typical of the western Mediterranean countries (Morocco, Algeria, Italy, Spain, France and Portugal), to shrubs and acacias further south. This is due to the diversity of climate and the precipitation patterns in the country.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "56698", "title": "Geography of Mauritania", "section": "Section::::Climate.:Major geographic and climate zones.:Sahelian zone.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 16, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 16, "end_character": 653, "text": "In the northern Sahel, dunes are covered with scrub grasses and spiny acacia trees. Farther south, greater rainfall permits denser vegetation. Sands begin to give way to clay. Large date palm plantations are found on the Tagant Plateau, and savanna grasses, brushwood, balsam, and spurge cover fixed dunes. Occasional baobab trees dot the flat savanna grasslands of the southern Sahel. Forest areas contain palm trees and baobabs. Vast forests of gum-bearing acacia grow in Trarza and Brakna regions. Farther south, particularly in Assâba and the northern portion of Guidimaka regions, rainfall is high enough to support forms of sedentary agriculture.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "14124037", "title": "Altitudinal zonation", "section": "Section::::Elevation levels.\n", "start_paragraph_id": 28, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 28, "end_character": 285, "text": "BULLET::::- Desert grassland: Characterized by varying densities of low lying vegetation, grasslands zones cannot support trees due to extreme aridity. Some desert regions may support trees at base of mountains however, and thus distinct grasslands zones will not form in these areas.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null }, { "wikipedia_id": "47189209", "title": "Flora of Qatar", "section": "", "start_paragraph_id": 3, "start_character": 0, "end_paragraph_id": 3, "end_character": 339, "text": "Vegetation is extremely sparse in the hamada landscape due to the heavily weathered soil. A native species of tree, \"Vachellia tortilis\" (known locally as \"samr\") is well adapted to the desert environment and one of the most common forms of vegetation in the country. \"Tetraena qatarensis\" and \"Lycium shawii\" also grow in this landscape.\n", "bleu_score": null, "meta": null } ] } ]