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Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The Republican army of this period, like its earlier forebear, did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season and disbanded thereafter (although formations could be kept in being over winter during major wars). Service in the legions was limited to property-owning Roman citizens, normally those known as "iuniores" (age 16-46).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The army's senior officers, including its commanders-in-chief, the Roman consuls, were all elected annually at the People's Assembly. Only members of the Roman Order of Knights were eligible to serve as senior officers. " Iuniores" of the highest social classes ("equites" and the First Class of commoners) provided the legion's cavalry, the other classes the legionary infantry. The "proletarii" (the lowest and most numerous social class, assessed at under 400 "drachmae" wealth in ca.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] 216 BC) were until ca. 200 BC ineligible for legionary service and were assigned to the fleets as oarsmen. Elders, vagrants, freedmen, slaves and convicts were excluded from the military levy, save in emergencies. During a prolonged such emergency, the Second Punic War, severe manpower shortages necessitated that the property requirement be ignored and large numbers of "proletarii" conscripted into the legions.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] After the end of this war, it appears that "proletarii" were admitted to the legions as volunteers (as opposed to conscripts) and at the same time the property requirement was reduced to a nominal level by 150 BC, and finally scrapped in the consulship of Gaius Marius (107 BC). The legionary cavalry also changed, probably around 300 BC onwards from the light, unarmoured horse of the early army to a heavy force with metal armour (bronze cuirasses, and later, chain-mail shirts).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Contrary to a long-held view, the cavalry of the mid-Republic was a highly effective force that generally prevailed against strong enemy cavalry forces (both Gallic and Greek) until it was decisively beaten by the Carthaginian general Hannibal's horsemen during the second Punic War. This was due to Hannibal's greater operational flexibility owing to his Numidian light cavalry. For the vast majority of the period of its existence, the Polybian levy was at war.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This led to great strains on Roman and Italian manpower, but forged a superb fighting machine. During the Second Punic War, fully two-thirds of Roman "iuniores" were under arms continuously. In the period after the defeat of Carthage in 201 BC, the army was campaigning exclusively outside Italy, resulting in its men being away from their home plots of land for many years at a stretch. They were assuaged by the large amounts of booty that they shared after victories in the rich eastern theatre.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] But in Italy, the ever-increasing concentration of public lands in the hands of big landowners, and the consequent displacement of the soldiers' families, led to great unrest and demands for land redistribution. This was successfully achieved, but resulted in the disaffection of Rome's Italian allies, who as non-citizens were excluded from the redistribution. This led to the mass revolt of the "socii" and the Social War (91-88 BC).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The result was the grant of Roman citizenship to all Italians and the end of the Polybian army's dual structure: the "alae" were abolished and the "socii" recruited into the legions. The Roman army of the late Republic (88–30 BC) resulted, a transitional phase to the Imperial Roman army (30 BC – AD 284).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] As can be deduced from its "Polybian" epithet, the most important extant literary source on the Roman army of this period are "The Histories" of the Greek historian Polybius, published in c. 160 BC. The surviving chapters cover the First and Second Punic Wars. Chapter VI contains a detailed analysis of the organisation and basic practices of the army. Polybius is generally seen by modern historians as a reliable and balanced source, but there are some inconsistencies and unclear points of detail in his account.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] These partly derive from his use of Greek terms to describe Roman military units and other terms. Moreover, the chronology of his account is uncertain. It has been suggested, from features such as joint consular armies, that he describes the army as it was c. 218 BC, at the start of the Second Punic War, considerably earlier than his time of writing (c. 160 BC). It is also possible that his account contains details from various historical periods. Polybius' source for Chapter VI remains uncertain.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It has been suggested he was using an old army manual. The second most important literary source is "Ab Urbe condita", a massive history of Rome published in ca. AD 20, by the Augustan-era Roman historian Livy, whose surviving books XXI–XLV cover the years 218–168 BC. Although a narrative history lacking a specific analysis of the army as in Polybius, Livy's work contains much incidental information about the army and its tactics.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Also useful are the monograph on the Jugurthine War by Sallust (published c. 90 BC) and the much later biographies of Roman leaders of the Republican period by Plutarch. Unlike for the later Imperial Roman army, relatively little epigraphic evidence and pictorial evidence survives for army of this period. The most important bas-relief is that on the tomb of Ahenobarbus (c. 122 BC), which provides the clearest and most detailed depiction of the equipment of mid-Republican officers and soldiers.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The soldiers it depicts are: 1 senior officer, 4 infantrymen and 1 cavalryman. Otherwise, there is a lack of tombstones showing soldiers in military dress as are common from the Principate era. The earliest such, dating from 42 BC, is the Padova Centurion. Published evidence from archaeological excavation is also far less abundant than for the imperial era, although it is growing rapidly.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] A critical corpus is from Roman fortified camps built around Numantia during campaigns in Iberia, including the Numantine Wars in Spain (155–133 BC). The most important excavated sites are the camps at Renieblas, which range in date from 195 to 75 BC. Of these, camp III dates from the 153 BC campaign of consul Quintus Fulvius Nobilior. The Castillejo camp was occupied in 137 by Gaius Hostilius Mancinus and again by Scipio Aemilianus in 134–133 BC. A further site at Peña Redonda is notable.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] These sites, and others, have yielded both information of camp layout and finds of military and other equipment. This large sequence of sites was excavated in 1905–12 by Adolf Schulten, who interpreted the results as being consistent with Polybius' detailed account of the design of Roman camps. However, a reassessment (2008) of the data (including the results of later excavation of the sites) by Michael Dobson has concluded that the Numantia data only partially supports Polybius and suggests that troops were already partially organised in cohorts.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Of major importance in our understanding of mid-Republican military equipment is the hoard of some 160 Roman weapons at Šmihel in Slovenia (known to the Romans as western Pannonia), dating from the period 200–150 BC. This site was along the major Roman route from Aquileia to Emona (Ljubliana). Originally unearthed in 1890, these finds were not fully published until around AD 2000.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] They include 1 helmet, 4 swords (2 of them "gladii"), 2 spears, 106 "pila" of various types, 37 javelins, arrowheads and other miscellaneous items. The Roman/Italian military alliance had fully evolved by 264 BC and remained for 200 years the basis of Roman military organisation.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] From 338 BC to 88 BC, Roman legions were invariably accompanied on campaign by an equal number of somewhat larger allied units called "alae" (literally: "wings", as allied troops would always be posted on the flanks of the Roman battle-line, with the Roman legions holding the centre). 75% of a normal consular army's cavalry was supplied by the Italian "socii".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The alliance was distantly descended the "foedus Cassianum" ("Treaty of Cassius", 493 BC) signed by the fledgling Roman republic with its neighbouring Latin city-states shortly after the overthrow of the Roman monarchy in 510 BC. This was an indefinite military alliance with the other city-states of Old Latium, the home of the Latin tribe, to which the Romans themselves belonged.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Although extant details are fragmentary, the treaty's basic features were a mutual non-aggression and defense pact, requiring all signatories to assist any of their number who was attacked with all their forces. It also appears to have provided for joint operations in the field, if such were decided upon at an annual conference.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Judging by the provision that the Romans and Latins were to share booty on an equal basis, it is likely that the treaty required the Latins to contribute roughly the same number of troops to joint operations as Rome. It appears that command of any joint forces may have alternated between Romans and allies. The motive factor behind the alliance was the threat posed to the cities of Old Latium by the surrounding Italic hill-tribes, notably the Volsci and Aequi, whose incursions intensified in this period.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] By 358 BC, however, the hill-tribe menace had receded and the Romans repudiated the "foedus". The succeeding period saw a steady increase in Roman encroachment in Old Latium. In 341 BC, the Latin League, a confederation of the other city-states of Old Latium, went to war against Rome in an attempt to save what remained of their independence—the Latin War (341–338 BC).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] But the Romans won a decisive victory and annexed most of Old Latium, unifying the Latin nation under their hegemony for the first time since the Tarquin era two centuries earlier. Using the resources of their expanded territory, the Romans proceeded to establish control of much of the Italian peninsula by 264 BC. The defunct "foedus Cassianum" with the Latins was replaced by a new type of military alliance with the Italian city-states and tribes.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] As each was progressively subdued, a part of its territory would be annexed by Rome to provide land for Roman/Latin colonists. The defeated state would be allowed to keep the rest of its territory in return for binding itself to Rome with a perpetual treaty of military alliance.. Unlike the Latin alliance, which was founded on a basis of equality between Rome and the other Latin city-states, the new system reflected Roman hegemony.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Strategy was determined by the Roman Senate alone, joint forces were always levied and these were always under Roman command. The system was based on a series of bilateral treaties between Rome and, by 218 BC, about 150 Italian city-states and tribal cantons (known collectively as Rome's "socii" ("allies"). These would require the ally to "have the same friends and enemies as Rome", effectively prohibiting war against other "socii" and surrendering foreign policy to Rome.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Beyond this, the sole obligation on the ally was to contribute to the federate army, on demand, a number of fully equipped troops up to a specified maximum each year, to serve under Roman command. The obligation on the ally was thus purely military, and not tributary. Little is known about the size of contingent each "socius" was required to provide, and whether it was proportional to population and/or wealth.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The vast majority of "socii" were required to supply land troops (both infantry and cavalry), although most of the coastal cities were "socii navales" ("naval allies"), whose obligation was to provide either partly or fully crewed warships to the Roman fleet. Despite the loss of territory, independence and heavy military obligations, the system provided substantial benefits for the "socii".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Most importantly, they were freed from the constant threat of aggression from their neighbours that had persisted in the anarchic centuries prior to the imposition of the "pax Romana". In addition, the Roman alliance protected the Italian peninsula from external invasion, such as the periodic and devastating incursions of Gauls from the Po Valley. Although no longer in control of war and foreign policy, each "socius" remained otherwise fully autonomous, with its own laws, system of government, coinage and language.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Moreover, the military burden was only half that shouldered by Roman citizens, as the latter numbered only about half the population of the "socii", but provided around half the total levies. Despite this, allied troops were allowed to share war booty on a 50-50 basis with Romans. Despite these benefits, some "socii" rebelled against the alliance whenever the opportunity arose.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The best opportunities were provided by the invasions of Italy by the Greek king Pyrrhus in 281–275 BC and by the Carthaginian general Hannibal in 218–203 BC, during the Second Punic War. During these, many "socii" deserted Rome and joined the invaders, mostly Oscan-speakers of southern Italy, notably the Samnite tribes, who were Rome's most implacable enemy. On the other hand, many "socii" remained loyal, motivated primarily by antagonisms with neighbouring rebels.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Even after Rome's disaster at the Battle of Cannae (216 BC), over 80% of the "socii" (by population) did not defect and Rome's military alliance was ultimately victorious. The Polybian army's operations during its existence can be divided into 3 broad phases. (

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] 1) The struggle for hegemony over Italy, especially against the Samnite League (338–264 BC); (2) the struggle with Carthage for hegemony in the western Mediterranean Sea (264–201 BC); and the struggle against the Hellenistic monarchies for control of the eastern Mediterranean (200–91 BC). The first phase saw operations confined to the Italian peninsula.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The second phase featured operations both in Italy (during Hannibal's invasion 218–203 BC) and other regions of the western Mediterranean: Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and North Africa. During final phase, operations were exclusively conducted overseas, both in the western and eastern Mediterranean. The Early Roman army, from c. 550 to c. 300 BC, is widely believed to have been equipped Greek-style, as hoplite heavy infantry, complemented by light (unarmoured) infantry and light cavalry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The hoplites would fight in set-piece battles as a phalanx, or single, deep line of spearmen. The army was levied from landholding farmers for a single campaigning-season each year. It is believed that in the late regal period (550–500 BC), the standard levy was a single legion numbering 9,000 men (6,000 hoplites, 2,400 light infantry and 600 cavalry). In the early Republican period (to c. 300 BC), the levy was split equally into two legions of 5,000 men each.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The legion's sub-division, for both recruitment and tactical purposes, was the "centuria", or company, of about 100 men each. Since most fighting in the early period was in the form of small-scale raids and skirmishes, rather than large set-piece battles, it is likely that most encounters were fought by single "centuriae" acting independently.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In the late 3rd century, at the time of the series of wars fought against the Samnite League, Rome's army went from 2 legions to 4. This may have also been the time of the army's transformation from a Greek-style phalanx to the Italian-style manipular structure described by Polybius. It appears that the manipular structure was in place during the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] From this time onwards, instead of fielding a single line in battle, the Romans appear to normally have drawn up in three lines ("triplex acies") of heavy infantry, called (front to rear) "hastati" (literally: "spear-bearers"), "principes" ("main-liners") and "triarii" ("third-rankers").

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It is presumed that originally all three lines were equipped with the thrusting-spear ("hastae", i.e. all three lines were once "hastati"), but with the introduction of the "pilum" (a heavy javelin) around 250 BC, only the rear rank retained "hastae". It is also from this time that the normal annual levy was doubled to 4 legions (2 per Consul).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In addition, every Roman army which took the field was henceforth regularly accompanied by at least as many troops supplied by the "socii". Thus, each consular army fielded was now quadruple the size of the earlier army. Closely following the changes in organisation came the introduction of new, more effective weaponry and armour. During the First Punic War (264–241 BC), in Sicily, the Romans encountered Spanish warriors for the first time, serving as mercenaries for Carthage.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The Iberians of the time were renowned for the design and manufacture of high-quality weapons, most notably the "gladius Hispaniensis", the "Spanish sword", which remained the standard close-combat weapon of Roman infantrymen until the 3rd century AD. Although Polybius states that the "gladius" was adopted by the Romans during the Second Punic War, it is clear from elsewhere in his own narrative that it was already in use during the Gallic invasion of 225 BC.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The "gladius" replaced the generally shorter stabbing-swords of Italic design used until then. The Romans were able to marry, from the time for the 2nd Punic War, the superb design of the "gladius" with the finest-quality steel then available in western Europe, the "ferrum Noricum", from the Alpine kingdom of Noricum (roughly modern Austria).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The "pilum", a heavy javelin that eventually all Roman foot-soldiers were equipped with, was probably also of Spanish design and also adopted during the First Punic War. ( Alternatively, it has been suggested that the "pilum" was of Samnite origin, but there is no evidence that the Samnites possessed any such weapon). For the front two ranks, the "pilum" replaced the heavy thrusting-spear called the "hasta", with which all infantrymen were until then equipped.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] A somewhat later innovation was the introduction of the "lorica hamata", or chain-mail cuirass, replacing the bronze cuirass worn previously. Probably invented by the Celts of central Europe, mail was probably not adopted by the Romans before c. 200 BC, most likely after it was encountered during the Roman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul in the period 220-180 BC. By c. 122 BC, the date of the Ahenobarbus monument, it appears from the friezes that mail was standard for all infantrymen.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The next milestone in the development of the army was the Second Punic War. Hannibal's victories highlighted the deficiencies of the Roman army, which had evolved to fight wars against similarly equipped forces of competing Italian states. The infantry lacked specialist missile troops such as archers ("sagittarii") and slingers ("funditores").

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] From c. 218 BC onwards, Roman armies regularly hired mercenary units of archers from Crete and slingers from the Balearic Islands (the inhabitants of these islands became synonymous with slingers: "Baleares" was an alternative name for "slingers" in classical Latin). At the same time, Roman cavalry had become a heavy armoured force specialising in the shock charge.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] While formidable, it lacked the operational flexibility afforded by the light Numidian cavalry ("equites Numidae") so effectively employed by Hannibal in conjunction with his own heavy cavalry (Iberians and Gauls). From 206 BC, when the Numidian king Massinissa switched sides from Carthage to Rome, until the 3rd century AD, Roman armies were almost always accompanied by troops of Numidian light horse.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] From the end of the Second Punic War (201 BC) onwards, the Republic's army fought exclusively outside Italy as it conquered a Mediterranean empire. This required men to remain under arms abroad for much longer periods, which was unpopular with farmer-conscripts concerned with the neglect of their plots. Their political pressure resulted in the passage of a law that conscripts could not be required to serve for more than 6 years consecutively.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] To circumvent this, there is evidence that the army in this period recruited ever higher numbers of volunteers for long-term service. The most suitable such recruits were from the ranks of the "proletarii", the landless lowest social class, as they had no farms to tend and would be most attracted by the prospect of substantial gain in the form of booty.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] But the "proletarii", despite being the largest social class, were excluded from service in the legions because they did not meet the minimum property-threshold. It appears that the property rule was waived for volunteers from this time onwards. This is shown by the career of Spurius Ligustinus, as related by Livy. This quasi-professional soldier volunteered in 200 BC and served a total of 22 years, reaching the rank of a senior centurion.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] But he owned a tiny plot of just 1 "iugum" (0.25 hectare) of land, only half the 2 "iugera" regarded as the equivalent of the minimum property-qualification. The consulship of Gaius Marius (107 BC) saw the supposed launch of the so-called "Marian reforms" of the army.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] More dated scholars have ascribed to this general many of the changes that had transformed the Republican army by the time of its next extant detailed description in the pages of Julius Caesar's "De Bello Gallico" (composed in 51 BC), namely: In reality, the sole documented reform by Marius was the establishment (in 104 BC) of the eagle ("aquila") as the sole animal-symbol to be used on the legion's standard (previously there had been a choice of 5 different animals, including the eagle).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The attribution to Marius of the other changes is purely speculative, and probably erroneous also. (1 and 2): Marius is credited with recruiting to his legions large numbers of "proletarii" in violation of the minimum property-requirement.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] As the career of Ligustinus shows, "proletarii" volunteers were admitted as early as 200 BC, while for conscripts the property threshold had been progressively reduced to a nominal level: according to Livy, the original threshold had been 11,000 "asses" (1,100 "drachmae"); Polybius reports that it stood at 400 "drachmae" (4,000 "asses") in c. 216 BC; in 140 BC, it was reduced to 1,500 "asses", by then worth just under 100 "drachmae".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Marius simply acknowledged the reality that the property requirement had by his time effectively lapsed.br (3) Livy mentions cohorts of Italian allies in Spain during the 2nd Punic War, and it has been argued that the 2nd Punic War-era Roman general Scipio Africanus first introduced this unit in the legions almost a century before Marius' consulship.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The most recent analysis of archaeological data on the layout of successive army camps at Numantia in Spain suggests that cohorts were introduced gradually in the period from c. 140 BC and the process was probably complete by the time Marius was elected Consul.br (4) Roman cavalry is attested under Marius himself at the Battle of Vercellae (101 BC). McCall argues that legionary cavalry was probably abolished during the Social War (91–88 BC). But even this is uncertain.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It is widely believed that Julius Caesar's legions in the Gallic war had no attached cavalry. This is based on an incident in 58 BC when Caesar, who needed a large cavalry escort to meet the German king Ariovistus, ordered his Gallic allied cavalry, whom he did not yet fully trust, to hand their horses to soldiers of the 10th Legion, which was from that time jokingly nicknamed "equestris" ("the mounted legion").

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] However, according to Plutarch, 7,000 cavalry "from the flower of Rome and Italy" served in Pompey's army at the Battle of Pharsalus (48 BC). Far more significant for the Republican army's development than Marius' career was the Social War, in the aftermath of which all the inhabitants of peninsular Italy were granted Roman citizenship. This spelled the end of the old dual Romans/"socii" structure of the army. The "alae" were abolished, and all Italians recruited into the legions.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Until 200 BC, the Republican army, like its earlier forebear, did not maintain standing or professional military forces, but levied them, by compulsory conscription, as required for each campaigning season and disbanded them thereafter (although formations could be kept in being over winter, and for several years consecutively, during major wars). After Rome acquired an overseas empire following the Punic Wars, armies stationed in key provinces became in effect standing forces, although no conscript could legally be required to serve more than 6 years consecutively.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The forces levied (or kept under arms) each year were normally divided equally between the two Consuls, but the Senate could place additional forces under the command of the Praetors, as well as extend the single-year command of both types of Roman magistrate, in which case they assumed the title of proconsul and propraetor respectively.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Following the Punic Wars, proconsuls and propraetors served as the governors of the provinces of the overseas empire, in command of the military forces deployed there for a set term (normally 3 years). While Roman citizens were recruited to the legions, the Latin and Italian allies were organised into "alae" (literally: "wings", because they were always posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] From the time of the Samnite Wars, when the number of legions levied each year was doubled to four, a normal consular army would contain two legions and two "alae", or about 20,000 men (17,500 infantry and 2,400 cavalry).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In times of emergency, a Consul might be authorised to raise a double-strength army of 4 legions, but the allied "alae" would always number two, as they represented the two wings of the battle-line, but be double-strength e.g. at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC, where each Consul commanded an army of about 40,000 men.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In battle, it was the custom to draw up the Roman legions in the centre of the infantry line, with the Latin "alae" on the flanks. Hence, the 2 "alae" in a normal consular army were named "dextra" ("right" "ala") and "sinistra" or "laeva" ("left" "ala"). The Roman cavalry was posted on the right wing, the allied Italian cavalry held the left.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The left wing thus outnumbered the right by 3 to 1, a practice exploited by Hannibal at Cannae, who drew up his best cavalry to face the much smaller Roman cavalry and quickly routed it. The order of battle of a normal consular army could be summarised thus: The Republican army contained no professional officers. Each of the two army corps (of two legions and two "alae" each) normally levied every year was commanded by one of the two Roman Consuls, the highest of the annually elected magistrates.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Roman knights ("equites") were exclusively eligible to serve as senior officers of the army. Each legion was officered by 6 "tribuni militum" ("tribunes of the soldiers"), totalling 24 tribunes for the normal levy of 4 legions. These were elected by the people's assembly from the ranks of those knights who had completed at least 5 years' military service, presumably in the cavalry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In those years in which more than 4 legions were deployed, the tribunes needed to command the extra legions were appointed by the Consuls. Pairs of tribunes would take turns to command their legion for two-month terms. In addition, knights provided the 3 decurions ("decuriones", literally "leaders of ten men") who commanded each "turma" of cavalry, and the "praefecti sociorum", the commanders of the Italian confederate "alae", who were appointed by the Consuls.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The duplication and rotation of command was a characteristic feature of the Roman Republic, which from the time of the expulsion of the kings, had always aimed for collegiate offices, to avoid excessive concentration of power (e.g. 2 Consuls, 2 Praetors etc.).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Knights (and anyone else) who aspired to public office were required to perform at least 10 years' military service, which implies that the minimum age for public office was 27 years (16+10) A military tribune wore a bronze cuirass (often engraved), "pteruges", a mantle, and an Attic-style helmet with horsehair plume. Unlike lower ranks, officers never adopted chain-mail armour.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Conscription of recruits would take place in the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) on the outskirts of Rome under the supervision of the Consuls. Service in the legions was limited to property-owning Roman citizens, normally those known as "iuniores" (age 16-46). Elders, paupers, debtors, convicts, freedmen and slaves were excluded, save in emergencies. The service that each recruit was assigned to depended on his property-assessed social class.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Each soldier was originally expected to pay for his own equipment, so persons of the lowest class (below assessed wealth of 150 "drachmae") were not eligible for service in the legions. According to the Greek author Polybius, these were assigned to naval service as oarsmen, which required no equipment.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Of the other classes, the poorest troops would join the "velites" (singular form: "veles" = light infantry), who did not bear body-armour and whose equipment was thus less expensive than a heavy infantryman's. Those with the highest property rating, and thus able to afford their own horse, joined the cavalry. The majority of Roman foot-soldiers came from the families of small farmer-freeholders (i.e. peasants who owned small plots of land).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] At an early stage, however, the state assumed the cost of armour and weapons, probably when pay was introduced for both infantry and cavalry around 400 BC. However, it is unclear whether the cost of armour and weapons was deducted from pay: food, clothing and other equipment certainly were. Armour and weapons were certainly provided by the state by the time of the Second Punic War, during which the minimum property-qualification was largely ignored because of manpower shortages.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This position probably continued after the war, at least as regards volunteers. "Iuniores" infantrymen (aged 16–46) were liable to call-up for a maximum of 16 campaigns (but no more than 6 years in succession) until age 46, although this could be extend to 20 years in emergencies (men over 46 years of age, known as "seniores", were not liable to call-up save in emergencies).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] At the time of Polybius, pay was set at 2 "obols", or a third of a "drachma" ("denarius" after 211 BC) per day, for the period that they were held under arms. ( For comparison, an imperial-era legionary of the 1st century AD was paid around twice as much per day until around AD 85, and nearly 1 "denarius" per day thereafter, year-round, as they were professionals).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In addition, the foot-soldier was entitled to a share in the spoils of war (captives sold as slaves, animals, treasure, weapons and other goods) which were sold at auction and the proceeds distributed to officers and men according to established criteria. The normal size of a legion in this period was 4,200 infantry, of which 3,000 were heavily armed and 1,200 "velites" (plus 200–300 cavalry).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In times of emergency, a legion of 5,000 infantry could be levied, of which 3,800 would be heavy infantry. However, Polybius and Livy also mention legions of 6,000 infantry. This has led Roth to conclude that Republican legions were variable in size, depending on circumstances when they were raised. The heavy infantry of the earlier legion was organised into 30 "centuriae" units of 100 men each.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The subdivisions in the mid-republican period were called maniples ("manipuli", from "manus" = "hand"). There were 10 maniples in each of the three lines that a legion was drawn up in for battle: "hastati", "principes" and "triarii", for a total of 30 maniples in each legion. The maniples of the front two lines contained twice as many men (120) as those in the rear line (60).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] If the legion numbered 5,000 men, the maniples in the front lines were increased to 160 men each. Membership of each line was determined by age-group: the "hastati" contained the younger men (up to 25 years old); the "principes" those in the 26–35 group; and the "triarii" the older men (36–46).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Each maniple was commanded by 2 centurions ("centuriones", literally "leaders of 100 men"), one senior ("prior"), one junior ("posterior"), who were elected by the unit's members. Centurions were paid double the rate of their men (i.e. 4 "obols", or two-thirds of a "drachma" per day).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Each centurion would then appoint a deputy ("optio"), whose role was to supervise the rear of the unit in action, while the centurions led from the front. In addition, each maniple included 2 "signiferi" (standard-bearers), appointed by the centurions, and at least one "tubicen" (trumpeter).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The presence of two centurions and two standard-bearers in each maniple has led many historians to assume that a maniple contained two "centuriae", the basic unit of the earlier Roman army. In this scenario, the "centuriae" of the front two ranks would contain 60 men each. But Polybius makes clear that the maniple was the smallest tactical unit in the army.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It was in some cases, smaller than the later cohort Furthermore, the sources are clear that a maniple possessed only one "signum", or standard. Indeed, "signum" was used as an alternative name for "manipulus". Thus, the role of the maniple's second "signifer" was presumably to act as a substitute for the first if the latter fell in combat.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This is how Polybius explains the presence of two centurions in each maniple, emphasizing that the senior one was in command of the maniple. Furthermore, if each maniple contained two "centuriae", the "centuriae" of the "triarii" would contain only 30 men each, improbably few for a unit that was nominally 100-strong. Thus, it is possible that "centuriae" did not exist in this period and were wholly replaced by maniples.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Chain-mail cuirasses (known then simply as the "lorica") were worn by the Principes and offered superior protection to the small square chest-piece used by the Hastati. Mail was, however, heavier and more expensive to manufacture. The mail cuirasses worn seem to have had a double thickness on the shoulders for extra protection against downward cuts.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Polybius states that only those soldiers rated over 10,000 "drachmae" (i.e. the First Class of commoners) wore a mail-shirt, while the rest wore a "pectorale", or small, square breastplate designed to protect the heart. The First Class at this time served mainly in the cavalry, so this would imply that only a tiny minority of heavy infantrymen wore mail. This would also result in different armour within the same ranks.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] As the Ahenobarbus monument shows all foot soldiers in mail armour, it would appear that by c. 120 BC at the latest, mail was standard issue. Polybius does not describe in detail the helmets of heavy infantry. However, the Ahenobarbus friezes and archaeological discoveries show that the "Montefortino" type was prevalent. This was made of bronze, and only protected the face with cheek-guards, so as not to obstruct soldiers' vision, hearing, breathing and shouting-range.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] According to Polybius, the foot-soldier adorned his helmet with three tall black or purple plumes to look taller and more awesome to the enemy. Other helmet types used was an Italian version of the Corinthian helmet. The latter had a face-guard with two eye-holes which could be lifted off the face when out of combat. But the Romans did not like face-guards, because they obstructed soldiers' senses.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In the Italo-Corinthian helmet, the face-guard was worn off the face at all times, although the eye-holes were retained for decoration. Also used were Attic-type helmets, which were popular in Italy because they left the face unobstructed. The heavy infantry shield ("scutum") was a long oval in shape and convex, made of two layers of wood glued together, with canvas and calf-skin covers and an iron boss at the centre.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This provided very good overall protection and the boss could be used as a weapon, to be smashed in the face of the enemy. Polybius states that the three lines of heavy infantry were equipped with similar weapons and shields, save that the "triarii" were armed with a heavy thrusting-spear ("hasta"), while the "hastati" and "principes" held two "pila" (throwing-javelins, singular form: "pilum"), one heavy, the other light.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The "pilum" was a type of heavy javelin designed for launch at short range (15m or less). It consisted of a wooden shaft with a long shank with barbed point affixed to one end, either attached by rivets or socketed into the shaft itself. The weapon thus had great penetrative power, as its weight, unusually high for a javelin, was channeled into a tiny point. It was designed to punch through an enemy's shield and penetrate the shield-bearer's body behind it.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] If successful, the enemy would be pinned to his shield and placed "hors de combat". Even if the bearer was not struck, the barb on the "pilum" point would prevent him from removing it from his shield, rendering it useless. Modern reconstruction of the heavy "pilum" according to Polybius' specifications has shown that it would have weighed some 8.5 kg, far too heavy to be of any practical use as a throwing-weapon.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The light "pilum" would have weighed a more serviceable 2.2 kg. The "pilum" used during the earlier period was not as sophisticated as the fully developed weapon used in the later Republic: it did not feature lead counterweights or a buckling shank until around 150 BC. The key weapon of the Mid-Republican soldier was the "gladius Hispaniensis" or "Spanish sword", so-called because the basic design originated in Iberia.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The few exemplars of Republican "gladii" found show that these were significantly longer (and heavier) than those of the imperial period. Typical blade-length was 60–68 cm, compared to 45–55 cm in the 1st century AD. This made the early "gladius" suitable for use by cavalry as well as infantry. The characteristic shape of the "gladius" blade, narrowing in the middle to provide greater balance and stabbing-force, was more pronounced in the Republican than imperial types.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Although stabbing remained the preferred method of combat for the Romans, as it was far more likely to result in fatal wounds than slashing, the advantage of the "gladius" over the Italic sword-types previously used by the Romans were that it could be used for slashing (with both edges) as well as more effective stabbing. The "gladius" was made of the best-quality steel then available, the "chalybs Noricus", celebrated in Roman times, from the region of Noricum (Austria).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The strength of iron is determined by its carbon content (the higher the content, the stronger the metal). The wrought iron produced in the Greco-Roman world generally contained only minimal traces of carbon and was too soft for tools and weapons. It thus needed to be carburised to at least 1.5% carbon content.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The main Roman method of achieving this was to repeatedly heat the wrought iron to a temperature of over 800 C (i.e. to "white heat") and hammer it in a charcoal fire, causing the iron to absorb carbon from the charcoal. This technique had been developed empirically, as there is no evidence that ancient iron producers understood the chemistry involved. The rudimentary methods of carburisation used rendered the quality of the iron ore critical to the production of good steel.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The ore needed to be rich in manganese (an element which remains essential in modern steelmaking processes), but also to contain very little, or preferably zero, phosphorus, whose presence would compromise the steel's hardness. The ore mined in Carinthia (S. Noricum) fulfills both criteria to an unusual degree. The Celtic peoples of Noricum (predominantly the Taurisci tribe) empirically discovered that their ore made superior steel around 500 BC and established a major steel-making industry around it.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] At Magdalensberg, a major production and trading centre was established, where a large number of specialised blacksmiths crafted a range of metal products, especially weapons. The finished products were mostly exported southwards, to Aquileia, a Roman colony founded in 180 BC. From 200 BC onwards, it appears that the tribes of Noricum were gradually united in a native Celtic kingdom, known to the Romans as the "regnum Noricum", with its capital at an uncertain location called Noreia.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Noricum became a key ally of the Roman Republic, providing a reliable supply of high-quality weapons and tools in return for Roman military protection. Although there was no formal treaty of military alliance, the Norici could count on Roman military support, as demonstrated in 113 BC, when a vast host of Teutones invaded Noricum.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In response to a desperate appeal by the Norici, the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo rushed an army over the Alps and attacked the Germans near Noreia (although, in the event, he was heavily defeated). The "gladius" was structurally robust, very light for its size and superbly balanced, possessed razor-sharp blades and strong triangular point.