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Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It could wreak fearsome carnage: Livy relates the reaction of the Macedonians to the results of an early cavalry skirmish in the 2nd Macedonian War (200-197 BC): " The Macedonians were used to the relatively limited wounds caused by arrows and spears, as their traditional enemies were Greeks and Illyrians.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] When they saw the horrendous injuries inflicted with the Spanish sword - arms hacked off at the shoulder, heads entirely severed, bellies ripped open and guts hanging out - they realised the kind of weapons and the sort of enemy that they were up against, and a wave of fear spread through their ranks." The light infantry ("velites") wore no armour over their tunics.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] They wore a light helmet, probably of leather, covered by an animal-skin such as a wolf-skin, according to Polybius, and a small round shield ("parma"). They carried light javelins and a sword. For set-piece battles, in contrast the single massed line of the Early Roman army phalanx, the heavy infantry were usually drawn up in three lines ("triplex acies").

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] However, the vast majority of the heavy infantry (2,400 out of 3,000) were stationed in the front two lines, the "hastati" and "principes". Contained in these lines were the younger recruits who were expected to do all the fighting. The rear line ("triarii"), was a reserve consisting of 600 older men who formed a line of last resort to provide cover for the front lines if they were put to flight (and also to prevent unauthorised retreat by the front ranks).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It is thus more accurate to describe the Roman battle-line as a double-line ("duplex acies") with a small third line of reserve. It is this double line that constituted the most significant change from the previous single-line phalanx. The three lines of maniples were drawn up in a chessboard pattern (dubbed "quincunx" by modern historians, after the Latin for the "5" on a dice-cube, whose dots are so arranged).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In front of the heavy infantry, would be stationed the legion's 1,200 "velites". It appears that the "velites" were not members of the maniples. But for the purposes of battle, they were divided into 10 companies of 120 men, each under the command of a senior centurion of "hastati". The replacement, for the two front lines, of the thrusting-spear with the thrown "pilum" implies a shift to a different tactic by the heavy infantry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The phalanx of spearmen was replaced by ranks of sword-fighters armed with javelins. In the mid-Republican army, the central tactic was a shock infantry-charge, designed to put the enemy to flight as quickly as possible. " Hastati" legionaries would advance at a measured pace towards the enemy line.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] When the gap was only around 15m, each successive line of "hastati" would fling their two "pila", draw their swords and break into a run, yelling their war-cry and charging into the enemy line. Smashing the enemy in the face with their shield-bosses, legionaries would use their "gladii" to stab the enemy in the groin, belly, or face, inflicting fatal wounds in the great majority of cases.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Where the enemy was tribal and unarmoured, the initial impact alone frequently resulted in the collapse of the enemy line. Against advanced enemies such as the Greeks, the initial impact would at least disrupt the enemy line and, in the ensuing melee, the Romans would benefit from their improved weaponry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The "socii" were summoned to arms by a message from the Consuls, ordering each ally to deliver a specified number of troops to a specified assembly-place (one location for each consular army) by a set deadline. At the assembly-point, where the legions would also muster, the allied troops would be allocated to an "ala" and placed under the command of Roman officers. Each Consul would then arrive from Rome to assume command of their army.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Compared to the manipular legion, Polybius gives little detail about the structure of an allied "ala". An "ala" contained the same number of infantry as a legion (i.e. 4,200 or 5,000). It was commanded by 3 Roman "praefecti sociorum", appointed by the Consuls, presumably with one acting as commander and the other two as deputies, as in the cavalry "turmae".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Reporting to the "praefecti" were the native commanders of each allied contingent, who were appointed by their own government. The allied infantry appears to have been divided into "cohortes". The first mention of such units, which were eventually adopted by the legions (after the Social War), is in Livy's account of the Second Punic War.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The size of the allied cohorts is uncertain, and may not originally have been standard units at all, but simply a generic term denoting the contingent from each "socius". However, Livy's account of Scipio Africanus' operations in Spain during the Second Punic War mentions Italian allied units of 460, 500 and 600 men which he terms "cohortes".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] A select group of the best Italian allied troops, denoted "milites extraordinarii" ("special troops"), would be detailed to act as an escort brigade for the Consul. They would normally number one-third of the "alae" cavalry and one-fifth of the infantry (i.e. in a normal consular army, 600 horse and about 1,800 foot).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The "extraordinarii" were at the immediate disposal of the Consul, and were allocated their own distinct position both in the line-of-march and in the marching-camp (next to the "praetorium"). However, in battle, there is no evidence that the "extraordinarii" occupied a special position. Presumably, they fought in their "alae", alongside the rest of the "socii" troops.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] There is no reason to believe that heavy infantry in the "alae" was equipped any differently from the legions, nor that they fought in a significantly different way. The legionary cavalry during this period was drawn exclusively from the two wealthiest classes, the Order of Knights and the First Property Class of commoners. The latter had started to be admitted to cavalry service when the knights were no longer sufficiently numerous to satisfy the needs of the cavalry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This may have occurred as early as 400 BC, and certainly by the time of the Samnite Wars, when the normal levy of Roman cavalry was doubled to 1,200 (4 legions' contingent). According to Mommsen, First Class "iuniores" were all eventually required to join the cavalry. As for infantry, pay was introduced for cavalrymen around 400 BC, set at a "drachma" per day, triple the infantry rate.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Cavalrymen were liable to call-up for a maximum of 10 campaigns up to age 46. The Second Punic War placed unprecedented strains on Roman manpower, not least on the Order of Knights and the First Class of commoners which provided the cavalry. During Hannibal's apocalyptic march through Italy (218–216 BC), thousands of Roman cavalrymen were killed in the field. The losses were especially serious for the equestrian order, which also provided the army's senior officers.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Livy relates how, after Cannae, gold rings (a badge of knightly rank), recovered from the corpses of Roman knights formed a pile one "modius" (about 9 litres) large. In the succeeding years 214–203 BC, the Romans kept at least 21 legions in the field at all times, in Italy and overseas, with a Roman cavalry requirement of 6,300.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This would have required the depleted ranks of knights to provide at least 252 senior officers (126 "tribuni militum", 63 "decuriones" and 63 "praefecti sociorum"), plus the army commanders (Consuls, Praetors, Quaestors, Proconsuls, etc.). It was probably from this time that knights became largely an officer-class, while legionary cavalry was henceforth provided mainly of commoners of the First Class.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Each Polybian legion contained a cavalry contingent of 300 horse, which does not appear to have been officered by an overall commander. The cavalry contingent was divided into 10 "turmae" (squadrons) of 30 men each. The squadron members would elect as their officers 3 decurions, of whom the first to be chosen would act as the squadron's commander and the other two as his deputies. In addition, each allied "ala" contained 900 horse, three times the size of the legionary contingent.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The allies would thus supply three-quarters of a consular army's cavalry. Legionary cavalry underwent a transformation during this period, from the light, unarmoured horsemen of the early period to the Greek-style armoured cuirassiers described by Polybius. It appears that until c. 200 BC, Roman cavalrymen wore bronze breastplates, but after that time, chain-mail became standard, with only officers retaining a breastplate.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Most cavalrymen carried a spear ("hasta") and the cavalry version of the small, round shield ("parma equestris"). However, it appears that in the late 2nd century BC, some cavalrymen carried long lances ("contus"), which would be held in both hands, precluding a shield. There is a persistent view among some historians that the Romans of this period were inept at horsemanship and that their cavalry was simply a token adjunct to their far superior infantry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Indeed, some authors have even claimed that Roman cavalry preferred to fight on foot whenever possible, on the basis of a few incidents in which cavalry dismounted to assist their hard-pressed infantry colleagues. Against this, Sidnell argues that this view is misguided and that the record shows that Roman cavalry were a formidable force which won a high reputation for skill and valour in numerous battles of the 3rd century BC. Roman cavalry of the Republican period specialised in the shock charge, followed by close melee combat.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Examples include the Battle of Sentinum (295 BC), in which the cavalry played a crucial role in the Romans' crushing victory over an enormous combined army of Samnites and Gauls. On the left wing, the Romans twice drove back the more numerous and highly rated Gallic cavalry with spirited frontal charges, but pursued too far and became entangled in a melee with the enemy infantry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This gave the Gauls the opportunity to unleash on the Roman cavalry their chariot forces, whose unfamiliar deep rumbling noise panicked the Roman horses and resulted in a chaotic Roman flight. However, on the right, the Roman cavalry routed the Samnite infantry with a devastating charge on their flank.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] At Heraclea (280 BC), the Roman cavalry dismayed the enemy leader king Pyrrhus by gaining the advantage in a bitterly contested melee against his Thessalian professional cavalry, then regarded as the finest in the world, and were only driven back when Pyrrhus deployed his elephants, which panicked the Roman horses. At Telamon (225 BC), the Roman cavalry hotly contested a strategic hill on the flank of the battlefield with more numerous Gallic cavalry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In what developed as a separate cavalry battle before the main infantry engagement began, the Gauls were eventually driven off the hill by repeated Roman charges, enabling the Roman horse to launch a decisive flank attack on the Gallic foot. At the Battle of Clastidium, the Roman cavalry under Marcellus achieved a unique victory in overwhelming a larger force of Gallic horse and foot, without any aid of their infantry. On the eve of the Second Punic War, therefore, Roman cavalry was a prestigious and much feared force.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] A key reason for some historians' disparagement of the Roman cavalry were the crushing defeats, at the Trebia and at Cannae, that it suffered at the hands of the Carthaginian general Hannibal during the latter's invasion of Italy (218-6 BC). But Sidnell points out these reverses were not due to poor performance by the Romans, who fought with their customary courage and tenacity, but to the Hannibalic cavalry's far superior numbers and the operational flexibility afforded by his Numidian light cavalry.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Hannibal's already powerful cavalry (6,000 men) that he brought over the Alps, consisting of Spanish cavalry and Numidian light, was swollen by the adherence of most of the Gallic tribes of northern Italy, who provided an additional 4,000, bringing his horse up to 20% of his total force. At Cannae, 6,000 Roman horse (including Italian confederates) faced 10,000 Carthaginians, and on the Roman right wing, the Roman cavalry of 2,400 was probably outnumbered by more than 2 to 1 by Hannibal's Spaniards and Gauls.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It is on this wing that the Roman disaster at Cannae was determined, as the Roman cavalry were overwhelmed and broken. In the words of Polybius: "As soon as the Spanish and Celtic horse on the (Carthaginian) left wing came into contact with the Roman cavalry... the fighting which developed was truly barbaric... Once the two forces had met they dismounted and fought on foot, man to man.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Here the Carthaginians finally prevailed, and although the Romans resisted with desperate courage, most of them were killed..." The fact that the Romans dismounted has been used to support the thesis of a Roman cavalry that lacked confidence in its horsemanship and was in reality just a mounted infantry. But since the Carthaginian cavalry also dismounted, Livy's explanation is more credible, that fighting on horseback was impractical in the confined space between the right flank of the Roman infantry and the river Aufidus.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] One reason for Hannibal's cavalry superiority was greater numbers. Whereas the Roman/Italian cavalry constituted about 12% of a confederate army, Carthaginian and Gallic cavalry were around 20% of their respective forces. It also became evident to the Romans that their exclusive reliance on heavy shock cavalry was insufficiently flexible. In addition to superior numbers, Hannibal's cavalry superiority was primarily based on his formidable light Numidian horse. Numidians rode their small but tough horses bareback, without bridles and unarmoured.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] They were armed simply with a few javelins and a light leather shield. They were exceptionally fast and manoeuvrable, ideal for scouting, skirmishing, harassment, ambushing and pursuit. Their standard tactic was to repeatedly approach the enemy, throw their javelins and then hastily scatter before the enemy could engage them. To this, the Romans, used to the charge followed by close melee combat, had no effective response.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Nevertheless, in the years following Cannae (216-203 BC), the record of Roman cavalry in operations against Hannibal in southern Italy was creditable, scoring a number of successes in cavalry encounters although never depriving the enemy of overall cavalry superiority. The Romans finally succeeded in closing the light cavalry gap with the Carthaginians by winning over the Numidian king Massinissa, previously an ally of Carthage.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This enabled the Romans to field at least an equal number of Numidians at the battle of Zama (202 BC), who, outnumbering the Roman/Italian cavalry by 2 to 1, played a vital role in neutralising their compatriots fighting for Hannibal. Even so, it was the Roman cavalry that decided the issue, charging and routing the Carthaginians facing them, then wheeling to attack the Punic infantry in the rear.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The cavalry of Roman armies before the 2nd Punic War had been exclusively Roman and confederate Italian, with each holding one wing of the battleline (the Romans usually holding the right wing). After that war, Roman/Italian cavalry was always complemented by allied native cavalry (especially Numidian), and was usually combined on just one wing.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Indeed, the allied cavalry often outnumbered the combined Roman/Italian force e.g. at Zama, where the 4,000 Numidians held the right, with just 1,500 Romans/Italians on the left. One reason was the lessons learnt in the war, namely the need to complement heavy cavalry with plenty of light, faster horse, as well as increasing the cavalry share when engaging with enemies with more powerful mounted forces.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It was also inevitable that, as the Roman Republic acquired an overseas empire and the Roman army now campaigned entirely outside Italy, the best of non-Italian cavalry would be enlisted in increasing numbers, including (in addition to Numidians) Gallic, Spanish and Thracian heavy cavalry. Nevertheless, Roman and Italian confederate cavalry continued to form an essential part of a Roman army's line-up for over a century.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] They were especially effective in wars in the East, where they encountered Hellenistic Macedonian and Seleucid cavalry which fought in set-piece battles using equipment and tactics similar to the Romans' own. For example, at Magnesia (190 BC), 3,000 Roman cavalry on the right wing routed 7,000 facing Syrian and Greek cavalry (including 3,000 cataphracts - Parthian-style heavily armoured cavalry) then wheeled and assisted the legions in breaking the Seleucid phalanx by attacking it in the flank and rear.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] As earlier in the war against Hannibal, Roman cavalry was far less effective against elusive tribal light cavalry such as the Lusitanians under Viriathus in their bitter resistance to Roman rule (151-140 BC) and the Numidians themselves under king Jugurtha during the latter's rebellion (112-105 BC) During these conflicts, the Romans were obliged to rely heavily on their own Numidian allied horse.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] It is during this period of the Republic that emerged a central feature of Roman military practice, which was adhered to until at least ca. AD 400 if not beyond: the fortified marching-camp ("castra"), whose earliest detailed description is in Polybius. One Roman author claims that the Romans copied the design of their camps from those of king Pyrrhus. But this seems unlikely, as Polybius himself criticises his fellow-Greeks for not constructing fortified camps.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Roman troops would construct a fortified camp, with a standardised size and layout, at the end of each day's march. Most of their adversaries would rely on camping on defensible features (such as hilltops) or in places of concealment (such as in forests or swamps).

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Although this practice spared troops the toil of constructing fortifications, it would frequently result in camps often being situated on unsuitable ground (i.e. uneven, waterlogged or rocky) and vulnerable to surprise attack, if the enemy succeeded in scouting its location. The advantages of fortified marching-camps were substantial. Camps could be situated on the most suitable ground: i.e. preferably level, dry, clear of trees and rocks, and close to sources of drinkable water, forageable crops and good grazing for horses and pack-animals.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Properly patrolled, fortified camps made surprise attacks impossible and successful attacks rare - in fact, no case is recorded in the ancient literature of a Roman marching-camp being successfully stormed. The security afforded by fortified camps permitted soldiers to sleep soundly, while animals, baggage and supplies were safely corraled within its precinct. If the army engaged an enemy near a marching-camp, a small garrison of a few hundred men would suffice to defend the camp and its contents.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In case of defeat, fleeing soldiers could take refuge in their marching-camp. After their disaster on the battlefield of Cannae (216 BC), some 17,000 Roman troops (out of a total deployment of over 80,000) escaped death or capture by fleeing to the two marching-camps that the army had established nearby, according to Livy. The process of establishing a marching-camp would start when the Consul in command of a consular army determined the general area where the day's march would terminate.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] A detail of officers (a military tribune and several centurions), known as the "mensores" ("measurers"), would be charged with surveying the area and determining the best location for the "praetorium" (the Consul's tent), planting a standard on the spot. Measured from this spot, a square perimeter would be marked out from the praetorium. According to Polybius, the marching-camp of a typical consular army of 20,000 men would measure 2150 Roman feet square (ca.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] 700m x 700m = ca. 50 hectares). Along the perimeter, a ditch ("fossa") would be excavated, and the spoil used to build an earthen rampart ("agger") on the inside of the ditch. On top of the rampart was erected a palisade ("vallum") of cross-hatched wooden stakes with sharpened points.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Within this precinct, a standard, elaborate plan was used to allocate space, in a pre-set pattern, for the tents of each of the various components of the army: officers, legionary infantry (split into "hastati", "principes" and "triarii") and legionary cavalry, Italian allied infantry and cavalry, "extraordinarii" and non-Italian allies. The idea was that the men of each maniple would know exactly in which section of the camp to pitch its tents and corral its animals.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The construction of a marching-camp would take a consular army just a couple of hours, since most soldiers would participate and were equipped with picks and shovels for the purpose. Where both consular armies were marching together, a twin-camp was established, back-to-back, so that the overall shape was rectangular. During the Samnite Wars, the military burden on the core social group was very onerous. The standard levy was raised from 2 to 4 legions and military operations took place every single year.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This implies that c. 16% of all Roman adult males spent every campaigning season under arms in this period, rising to 25% during emergencies. But even this pales into insignificance compared to the demands on Roman manpower of the Second Punic War. Polybius estimates Roman citizen "iuniores" (excluding the Italian allies) at about 231,000 in 225 BC, on the eve of the war. Of these, some 50,000 perished in the great defeats of 218–206 BC.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Of the remaining 180,000, the Romans kept at least 100,000 in the field, in Italy and overseas, continuously in the period 214–203 (and 120,000 in the peak year). In addition, about 15,000 were serving in the Roman fleets at the same time. Thus, if one assumes that fresh recruits reaching military age were cancelled out by campaign losses, fully "two-thirds" of Roman "iuniores" were under arms continuously during the war.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] This barely left enough to tend the fields and produce the food supply. Even then, emergency measures were often needed to find enough recruits. Livy implies that, after Cannae, the minimum property qualification for legionary service was largely ignored. In addition, the normal ban on criminals, debtors and slaves serving in the legions was lifted. Twice the wealthy class were forced to contribute their slaves to man the fleets and twice boys under military age were enlisted.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The century following the Second Punic War saw Rome's acquisition of an overseas empire, including major possessions in Africa, Spain, Illyricum and Greece. The republic's army, however, retained much the same structure as before, a citizen-levy alongside conscripts provided by the "socii". The "socii" appear to have played their role in the new paradigm uncomplainingly, despite the fact that the confederation, previously an alliance primarily designed for mutual defence, was now engaged mostly in aggressive expansion overseas. "

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] Socii" acquiescence was mainly bought by the generous share of booty that overseas campaigns brought to each "socius" soldier. In addition, the "socii" were becoming increasingly integrated with the Romans. Shared service in an army whose operational language was Latin resulted in the latter becoming the "lingua franca" of the peninsula, gradually eclipsing its other native languages. In the Roman provinces outside Italy, foreigners made no distinction between Romans and Italians and referred to both simply as "Romans".

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In Italy, ever more "socii" voluntarily adopted Roman systems of government, laws and coinage. But, underneath the surface, resentment was steadily building among the Italian allies about their second-class status in the Roman system. In particular, not holding Roman citizenship, they were unable to benefit from the large-scale redistribution of Roman common land ("ager publicus"), from large landowners to smallholders, carried out by the Gracchi brothers starting in 133 BC.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] The agrarian reforms sparked a massive movement among the "socii" to demand full citizenship. But it appears from the fragmentary evidence that the conservative majority in the Roman Senate succeeded, by both fair means and foul (such as assassinating reform leaders), in blocking any significant expansion of citizenship among the "socii" in the period following the agrarian law of 133 BC.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In 91 BC, the "socii" rebelled "en masse" against the Roman alliance system, sparking the so-called "Social War" (91–88 BC), probably the toughest challenge faced by Rome since the Second Punic War over a century earlier. The Romans ultimately prevailed, not only by military action but by conceding the very demands that had set off the revolt in the first place.

Roman army of the mid-Republic [SEP] In 89 BC, "socii" which had remained loyal were granted full Roman citizenship, and that privilege was extended to all inhabitants of the Italian peninsula shortly after the end of the war. This entailed the demise of the old allied "alae", as the former "socii", now citizens, were now recruited into the legions. The "Polybian" army gave way to the Roman army of the late Republic.

Threadneedle Street [SEP] Threadneedle Street is a street in the City of London, England between Bishopsgate at its northeast end and Bank junction in the southwest. It is one of nine streets that converge at Bank. It lies in the ward of Cornhill. The street is famous as the site of the Bank of England; the bank itself is sometimes known as 'the Old Lady of Threadneedle Street' and has been based at its current location since 1734.

Threadneedle Street [SEP] The London Stock Exchange was also situated on Threadneedle Street until 2004, when it relocated to nearby Paternoster Square. The Baltic Exchange was founded in the on Threadneedle Street in 1744; it is now located on St Mary Axe. Some believe that the name originated as Three Needle Street (first attested in 1598), perhaps from a signboard portraying three needles, or from the three needles on the arms of needle-makers who had premises on the street.

Threadneedle Street [SEP] The threads and needles used by the members of the Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors is another possibility, since the livery company's hall has been located on Threadneedle Street since 1347. Before 1598 the road was part of Broad Street (now Old Broad Street). In addition to the Bank of England, there are a number of shops, banks, restaurants and offices located on Threadneedle Street.

Threadneedle Street [SEP] The Merchant Taylors' Hall, home of the Worshipful Company of Merchant Taylors, has occupied a site off Threadneedle Street since 1347. It is said that it is here that the British national anthem was sung, in private, in 1607 for the first time, conducted by John Bull. The headquarters of the South Sea Company was located on the street from 1711 to the 1850s. The London office of the world's oldest merchant bank, Berenberg Bank, is located at No. 60.

Threadneedle Street [SEP] The nearest London Underground station is Bank. London's first bus service ran between Threadneedle Street and Paddington from 1829. Today, the street is served by bus routes 8, 11, 23, 26, 133, 242, and 388. Over 5000 tonnes of gold bars are held by the Bank of England (both official reserves of the UK Treasury, and others) in a system of 8 vaults over two floors under Threadneedle Street.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] Westfield World Trade Center is a shopping center at the World Trade Center complex in Manhattan, New York, that is operated and managed by Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield. The mall opened on August 16, 2016 as the largest shopping complex in Manhattan, with 125 retail spaces. It replaces the Mall at the World Trade Center, the underground shopping mall under the original World Trade Center, which was destroyed on September 11, 2001.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The Mall at the World Trade Center was an indoor underground shopping mall that was located in the concourse area of the original World Trade Center complex. Most of the mall was located underneath 4 and 5 World Trade Center, as well as under the Austin J. Tobin Plaza. Completed in 1975, it was the largest shopping mall in New York City, and was managed by the Westfield Group.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The main entrance was located on the south side of 4 World Trade Center facing Liberty Street with escalators going down into the concourse. The other entrance was located on the east side of 5 World Trade Center facing Church Street. The mall was also accessible from the lobbies of the Twin Towers, and it served as the point of access or transfer to the Chambers Street–World Trade Center subway station on the . PATH trains intersected in the basement levels, which were located under the mall.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The mall included eateries as well as approximately 80 stores, including Duane Reade, Gap, Sam Goody, Victoria's Secret, and the Warner Bros. Studio Store. Thousands of people traveled through the mall daily. In August 2001, the Port Authority of New York & New Jersey leased the mall to the Westfield Group. After the purchase, Westfield was planning a massive renovation and expansion of the mall, and was going to rename it Westfield Shoppingtown World Trade Center in 2002.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] A commonly reported story of eyewitnesses inside the mall at 8:46 a.m. EDT, when American Airlines Flight 11 struck the North Tower, is of fireballs fed by flaming jet fuel shooting down the elevator shafts and bursting out of the elevators inside the lobby, with many of the fireballs reaching as far as the mall itself.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] As stated in the 9/11 Commission Report: The Port Authority's on-site commanding police officer was standing in the concourse when a fireball exploded out of the North Tower lobby, causing him to dive for cover. Survivor Allison Summers described the conditions in the mall right after the terrorist attack: I had almost reached the [Cortlandt Street] Uptown 1 and 9 station when there was an enormous explosion. The building shook. I heard people say, 'Oh, no.'

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] Some, not many, were screaming. ... I looked ahead past Banana Republic, past Citibank to the plaza outside. At that moment, there was a terrifying tidal wave of smoke filling the doorway. It began to shoot forward. The smoke had this enormous momentum that started to come towards us, as if it had a will of its own. We ran. We ran together past the Coach store. We ran to get out of the path of this enormous wave of smoke.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] It was like we were being chased. All the people on the concourse ran. We turned right, heading toward the PATH trains. As we ran, shop assistants were calling in doorways, 'What happened? What happened?' But we were running so fast we couldn't answer them and they ran with us. Some people were crying; some people were screaming. We moved as one body. No one pushed and no one shoved. We all had the same intention: to get out of the building.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] Shortly after the first impact, water began spraying into the mall from broken pipes or activated sprinkler systems. As Erik Ronningen describes: I drag my body down through the decimated main lobby [of the North Tower], through a waterfall from the Mall ceiling, and wade the darkened Mall corridor through 75 yards [69 m] of ankle-deep water to Tower Two."

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The mall itself played an important role during the attacks because the people who were evacuating the Twin Towers could not exit outside onto the plaza because of falling debris, so they traveled through the mall, and exited through either 4 or 5 World Trade Center. Westfield World Trade Center has roughly of retail space.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] Although the new mall is only spread over roughly one-half of the original mall's footprint (due to the new space required for the below-grade National September 11 Memorial & Museum), the mall is double-level, whereas the original mall was a single level. Three additional levels will exist above-grade on the lower floors of 2 and 3 World Trade Center, while 4 World Trade Center currently houses four above-grade levels.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The World Trade Center station's headhouse, the Oculus, also houses a large amount of retail space. According to developer Larry Silverstein, whose firm Silverstein Properties was replaced by Westfield Corporation as the developer: Construction on the One World Trade Center portion of the mall began in 2007. In February 2012, Westfield Corporation entered an agreement with the Port Authority, which owns the rest of the World Trade Center site, to jointly own and manage the mall.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] At the same time, Westfield began marketing space in the mall and opened a leasing office in 7 World Trade Center. In December 2013, the Port Authority sold its remaining stake in the retail development to Westfield. This also brings retail at the World Trade Center to Westfield's complete control. The mall was 80% leased . The mall's 125 retail spaces were fully leased by October 2015.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] The mall opened on August 16, 2016, with a concert headlined by John Legend and Leslie Odom Jr., the opening of a food court and stores such as Pandora and Apple. In total, there were 60 stores in the mall when it opened. By 2017, there were 82 stores within the mall, although much of the mall's space had not been leased. Some tenants were also moving out, and the Port Authority was also rebuilding nine storefronts in front of the PATH station's entrance.

Westfield World Trade Center [SEP] These nine storefronts, which were considered prime retail space, were not available because that location had been the site of the former entrance to the temporary PATH station.

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] USS "Katahdin", a harbor-defense ram of innovative design, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for Mount Katahdin, a mountain peak in Maine. The inspiration behind "Katahdin" was Rear Admiral Daniel Ammen, an advocate of a coastal defense navy. Ammen was impressed by the British torpedo ram HMS "Polyphemus".

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] Unlike "Polyphemus", which was primarily a torpedo boat, with ramming a secondary function, the American design was for a pure ram, with no torpedoes carried. "Katahdin"s design was a new departure in naval architecture, built to ride extremely low in the water with her bow awash while under way. Her hull embodied several new features later used in early submarines.

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] A similar design was the whaleback freighters of the Great Lakes which went into production in 1887, An order was placed for construction of a prototype armored ram in 1889. Her keel was laid down by the Bath Iron Works of Bath, Maine in July 1891.

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] She was launched on 4 February, 1893, sponsored by Miss Una Soley, daughter of James R. Soley, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 20 February 1897 with Commander Richard P. Leary in command. Although "Katahdin"s engines were more powerful than specified, "Katahdin" failed to reach the contracted speed of , requiring the passing of special legislation to allow her to be accepted by the Navy.

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] Conditions aboard the ship were extremely uncomfortable, as it was cramped and had very poor ventilation, leading to almost intolerable temperatures being recorded. "Katahdin" departed New York Harbor 4 March 1897, the day of President William McKinley's first inauguration, and sailed to Norfolk, Virginia, before decommissioning at Philadelphia Naval Yard on 17 April. A year later, with the Navy preparing for an impending war with Spain, she recommissioned there 10 March 1898.

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] She was attached to the North Atlantic Squadron and operated along the Atlantic Coast from New England to Norfolk protecting the nation's seaboard cities from possible attack. After decisive American naval victories at Manila Bay and Santiago Harbor eliminated this threat, the ram decommissioned for the last time at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 8 October. "Katahdin" was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 July 1909 and designated "Ballistic Experimental Target 'A'. "

USS Katahdin (1893) [SEP] Katahdin" was sunk by gunfire at Rappahannock Spit, Virginia, that September.

Sopra Steria [SEP] Sopra Steria Group SA (commonly referred to as Sopra Steria) is a European information technology consultancy established in September 2014 upon the merger of "Sopra Group SA" and "Groupe Steria SCA" (commonly referred to as "Sopra" and "Steria", respectively). Technically, Sopra was the company to adopt the new name, retaining its legal personality.

Sopra Steria [SEP] The primary business areas of the company include consulting services, systems integration and solutions, integration of ERP solutions, implementation of application solutions, as well as subcontracting solutions for providing technical support to users and application maintenance and outsourcing services and operation of professional processes. Sopra was seated in Annecy, France, had a revenue of €1.349 billion and 16,290 (Dec. 2013) employees. Founded in January 1968 by Pierre Pasquier, François Odin and Léo Gantelet, Sopra is one of Europe's longest established IT service companies.

Sopra Steria [SEP] In March 2014, Sopra Group became Sopra. In April 2014, Sopra announced a merger with Steria in an attempt to create the European leader in computer services. Sopra is a consulting, IT services and software development company. Its subsidiary Sopra Banking Software develops and distributes software for the financial services market. Sopra employs more than 16,000 people and generated a turnover of 1.349 billion euro in 2013.

Sopra Steria [SEP] Three complimentary business lines: Sopra is focused on the following business sectors : Sopra's main acquisitions are : In 2001, Sopra creates its subsidiary Axway to access the EAI market (Enterprise Application Integration) : Axway Software splits from Sopra in June 2011 consequently to its stock market launch. Groupe Steria SCA was founded in 1969, was based in Issy-les-Moulineaux, France, had a revenue of €1.75 billion in 2013 and had more than 20 000 employees.

Sopra Steria [SEP] was a multinational information technology services company headquartered in Issy-les-Moulineaux, France. It delivers IT enabled business services, focusing on key vertical market sectors: public services, finance, telecommunications, utilities and transport. The company provides consulting services for its clients' core business processes, and also develops and operates their information systems. Steria has 20,000 employees across 16 countries. In 2013, Steria revenue amounted to €1.75 billion.

Sopra Steria [SEP] Steria is listed on the Euronext Paris market and over 20% of its capital is owned by its employees. Following the merger of Steria and Sopra, Groupe Steria SCA and its subsidiaries are now part of the Sopra Steria Group, a European "leader of digital transformation" established in September 2014. Steria was created by Jean Carteron in 1969. Francois Enaud took over as Group chairman and CEO in 1998 and Steria listed itself in the Paris Stock Exchange the next year.

Sopra Steria [SEP] In 2000, Steria acquired three service and telecom companies in France to become one of top five French service providers. In 2001, Steria started the Fondation Steria, a community support group. In July 2007, Steria acquired the United Kingdom-based IT outsourcing and technology company Xansa for £472 million in cash. At the time of the acquisition Xansa had a total of around 8,000 staff, of whom around 5,000 were based in India.

Sopra Steria [SEP] According to the terms of an agreement signed with AURELIUS on 20 October 2012, Steria completed the sale of its Spanish subsidiary on 28 November 2012. Steria has sites in the following locations: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Luxembourg, Morocco, Norway, Poland, Singapore, Switzerland, Sweden and United Kingdom.

Sopra Steria [SEP] The Steria Corporate Center for Real-Time and Embedded Software expertise, located in Aix-en-Provence, France, focuses on aeronautics (Eurocopter, Dassault), defence (DCNS, DGA) and transportaIt uses products including QC (TEST DIRECTOR), SCADE and VAPS.

Sopra Steria [SEP] Services offered by Steria included: Applications management, Infrastructure management, IT service management, Business process outsourcing, Testing and quality, Cloud - Workplace on command, infrastructure on command and Security - Right Security NHS Shared Business Services (NHS SBS) is a joint venture between Steria and the United Kingdom's Department of Health. It provides services in finance and accounting; payroll and human relations; family health services; and commercial procurement.

Sopra Steria [SEP] NHS SBS employs over 1,400 people, recovers more than £12 billion of debt, pays 200,000 NHS employees and processes £36 billion of payments per annum for its NHS clients. It works with over 40% of NHS organisations to deliver operational efficiencies, cost savings and improved service quality, and is on target to deliver £250 million of cost savings to NHS trusts and organisations. In May 2018, UK's Minister of State for Immigration, Caroline Nokes, announced significant changes to the visa application submission process.

Sopra Steria [SEP] In her statement, she announced the government would be outsourcing the immigration application process to Sopra Steria Group by October 2018., Controversy: In the UK The National Audit Office found that SBS first recognised in January 2014 that patients may have come to harm as a result of what was at the time a fast-rising backlog of undelivered paperwork but despite staff raising concerns, the firm did not alert the department or NHS England until March 2016 - a delay of 26 months.

Sopra Steria [SEP] The NAO concluded that SBS was then “obstructive and unhelpful” with regards to the subsequent inquiry launched by NHS England. In 2017 a UK Commons public accounts committee were told that at least 12,000 missing papers - which could include patient records and cancer tests had not been processed by SBS, The primary business areas of Sopra Steria are: consulting services: strategic consulting, implementing of restructuring projects and development towards new technologies, etc.;

Sopra Steria [SEP] systems integration and solutions: design and implementation of Internet technology solutions (portals, merchant sites, Intranet and Extranet networks, etc.), integration of ERP solutions, implementation of application solutions (customer relationship management, HR management, etc.). The group also offers subcontracting solutions for providing technical support to users and application maintenance; outsourcing services and operation of professional processes: supervision, administration and operation of IT infrastructures, operation of finance, administration, human resources functions, etc.